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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic%20structure%20doctrine
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Basic structure doctrine
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The basic structure doctrine is a common law legal doctrine that the constitution of a sovereign state has certain characteristics that cannot be erased by its legislature. The doctrine is recognised in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Uganda. It was developed by the Supreme Court of India in a series of constitutional law cases in the 1960s and 1970s that culminated in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, where the doctrine was formally adopted. Bangladesh is perhaps the only legal system in the world which recognizes this doctrine with an expressed, written and rigid constitutional manner through article 7B of its Constitution.
In Kesavananda, Justice Hans Raj Khanna propounded that the Constitution of India has certain basic features that cannot be altered or destroyed through amendments by the Parliament of India. Key among these "basic features", as expounded by Justice Khanna, are the fundamental rights guaranteed to individuals by the constitution. The doctrine thus forms the basis of the power of the Supreme Court of India to review and strike down constitutional amendments and acts enacted by the Parliament which conflict with or seek to alter this "basic structure" of the Constitution. The basic features of the Constitution have not been explicitly defined by the Judiciary, and the claim of any particular feature of the Constitution to be a "basic" feature is determined by the Court in each case that comes before it.
The Supreme Court's initial position on constitutional amendments had been that any part of the Constitution was amendable and that the Parliament might, by passing a Constitution Amendment Act in compliance with the requirements of article 368, amend any provision of the Constitution, including the Fundamental Rights and article 368.
In 1967, the Supreme Court reversed its earlier decisions in Golaknath v. State of Punjab. It held that Fundamental Rights included in Part III of the Constitution are given a "transcendental position" and are beyond the reach of Parliament. It also declared any amendment that "takes away or abridges" a Fundamental Right conferred by Part III as unconstitutional. In 1973, the basic structure doctrine was formally introduced with rigorous legal reasoning in Justice Hans Raj Khanna's decisive judgment in the landmark decision of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala. Previously, the Supreme Court had held that the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution was unfettered. However, in this landmark ruling, the Court adjudicated that while Parliament has "wide" powers, it did not have the power to destroy or emasculate the basic elements or fundamental features of the constitution.
Although Kesavananda was decided by a narrow margin of 7–6, the basic structure doctrine, as propounded in Justice Khanna's judgement, has since gained widespread legal and scholarly acceptance due to a number of subsequent cases and judgments relying heavily upon it to strike down Parliamentary amendments that were held to be violative of the basic structure and therefore unconstitutional. Primary among these was the imposition of a state of emergency by Indira Gandhi in 1975, and her subsequent attempt to suppress her prosecution through the 39th Amendment. When the Kesavananda case was decided, the underlying apprehension of the majority bench that elected representatives could not be trusted to act responsibly was perceived as unprecedented. However, the passage of the 39th Amendment by the Indian National Congress' majority in central and state legislatures, proved that in fact such apprehension was well-grounded. In Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain and Minerva Mills v. Union of India, Constitution Benches of the Supreme Court used the basic structure doctrine to strike down the 39th Amendment and parts of the 42nd Amendment respectively, and paved the way for restoration of Indian democracy.
The Supreme Court's position on constitutional amendments laid out in its judgements is that Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot destroy its "basic structure".
The basic structure doctrine was rejected by the High Court of Singapore. It was initially also rejected by the Federal Court of Malaysia, but was later accepted by it. Conversely, the doctrine was initially approved in Belize by the Supreme Court.
Definition
That the Constitution has "basic features" was first theorised in 1964, by Justice J.R. Mudholkar in his dissent, in the case of Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan. He wrote,
Supreme Court, through the decisive judgement of Justice H. R. Khanna in Keshavananda Bharti v. State of Kerala (1973) case, declared that the basic structure/features of the constitution is resting on the basic foundation of the constitution. The basic foundation of the constitution is the dignity and the freedom of its citizens which is of supreme importance and can not be destroyed by any legislation of the parliament. The basic features of the Constitution have not been explicitly defined by the Judiciary. At least, 20 features have been described as "basic" or "essential" by the Courts in numerous cases, and have been incorporated in the basic structure. Only Judiciary decides the basic features of the Constitution. In Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Naraian and also in the Minerva Mills case, it was observed that the claim of any particular feature of the Constitution to be a "basic" feature would be determined by the Court in each case that comes before it. Some of the features of the Constitution termed as "basic" are listed below:
Supremacy of the Constitution
Rule of law
The principle of separation of powers
The objectives specified in the preamble to the Constitution of India
Judicial review
Articles 32 and 226
Federalism (including financial liberty of states under Articles 282 and 293)
Secularism
The sovereign, democratic, republican structure
Freedom and dignity of the individual
Unity and integrity of the nation
The principle of equality, not every feature of equality, but the quintessence of equal justice;
The "essence" of other fundamental rights in Part III
The concept of social and economic justice — to build a welfare state: Part IV of the Constitution
The balance between fundamental rights and directive principles
The parliamentary system of government
The principle of free and fair elections
Limitations upon the amending power conferred by Article 368
Independence of the judiciary
Effective access to justice
Powers of the Supreme Court of India under Articles 32, 136, 141, 142
Background
The Supreme Court's initial position on constitutional amendments was that no part of the Constitution was unamendable and that the Parliament might, by passing a Constitution Amendment Act in compliance with the requirements of article 368, amend any provision of the Constitution, including the Fundamental Rights and article 368. In Shankari Prasad Singh Deo v. Union of India (AIR. 1951 SC 458), the Supreme Court unanimously held, "The terms of article 368 are perfectly general and empower Parliament to amend the Constitution without any exception whatever. In the context of article 13, "law" must be taken to mean rules or regulations made in exercise of ordinary legislative power and not amendments to the Constitution made in exercise of constituent power, with the result that article 13 (2) does not affect amendments made under article 368. In Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan (case citation: 1965 AIR 845, 1965 SCR (1) 933), by a majority of 3–2, the Supreme Court held, "When article 368 confers on Parliament the right to amend the Constitution, the power in question can be exercised over all the provisions of the Constitution. It would be unreasonable to hold that the word "Law" in article 13 (2) takes in Constitution Amendment Acts passed under article 368." In both cases, the power to amend the rights had been upheld on the basis of Article 368.
Golaknath case
In 1967, the Supreme Court reversed its earlier decisions in Golaknath v. State of Punjab. A bench of eleven judges (the largest ever at the time) of the Supreme Court deliberated as to whether any part of the Fundamental Rights provisions of the constitution could be revoked or limited by amendment of the constitution. The Supreme Court delivered its ruling, by a majority of 6-5 on 27 February 1967. The Court held that an amendment of the Constitution is a legislative process, and that an amendment under article 368 is "law" within the meaning of article 13 of the Constitution and therefore, if an amendment "takes away or abridges" a Fundamental Right conferred by Part III, it is void. Article 13(2) reads, "The State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the right conferred by this Part and any law made in contravention of this clause shall, to the extent of contravention, be void." The Court also ruled that Fundamental Rights included in Part III of the Constitution are given a "transcendental position" under the Constitution and are kept beyond the reach of Parliament. The Court also held that the scheme of the Constitution and the nature of the freedoms it granted incapacitated Parliament from modifying, restricting or impairing Fundamental Freedoms in Part III. Parliament passed the 24th Amendment in 1971 to abrogate the Supreme Court ruling in the Golaknath case. It amended the Constitution to provide expressly that Parliament has the power to amend any part of the Constitution including the provisions relating to Fundamental Rights. This was done by amending articles 13 and 368 to exclude amendments made under article 368, from article 13's prohibition of any law abridging or taking away any of the Fundamental Rights. Chief Justice Koka Subba Rao writing for the majority held that:
A law to amend the constitution is a law for the purposes of Article 13.
Article 13 prevents the passing of laws which "take away or abridge" the Fundamental Rights provisions.
Article 368 does not contain a power to amend the constitution but only a procedure.
The power to amend comes from the normal legislative power of Parliament.
Therefore, amendments which "take away or abridge" the Fundamental Rights provisions cannot be passed.
Kesavananda Bharati case (1973)
Six years later in 1973, the largest ever Constitution Bench of 13 Judges, heard arguments in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (case citation: AIR 1973 SC 1461). The Supreme Court reviewed the decision in Golaknath v. State of Punjab, and considered the validity of the 24th, 25th, 26th and 29th Amendments. The Court held, by a margin of 7–6, that although no part of the constitution, including fundamental rights, was beyond the amending power of Parliament (thus overruling the 1967 case), the "basic structure of the Constitution could not be abrogated even by a constitutional amendment". The decision of the Judges is complex, consisting of multiple opinions taking up one complete volume in the law reporter "Supreme Court Cases". The findings included the following:
All of the Judges held that the 24th, 25th and 29th Amendments Acts are valid.
Ten judges held that Golak Nath'''s case was wrongly decided and that an amendment to the Constitution was not a "law" for the purposes of Article 13.
Seven judges held that the power of amendment is plenary and can be used to amend all the articles of the constitution (including the Fundamental Rights).
Seven judges held (six judges dissenting on this point) that "the power to amend does not include the power to alter the basic structure of the Constitution so as to change its identity".
Seven judges held (two judges dissenting, one leaving this point open) that "there are no inherent or implied limitations on the power of amendment under Article 368".
Nine judges (including two dissenters) signed a statement of summary for the judgment that reads:
Golak Nath's case is over-ruled.
Article 368 does not enable Parliament to alter the basic structure or framework of the Constitution.
The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971 is valid.
Section 2(a) and 2(b) of the Constitution (Twenty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1971 is valid.
The first part of section 3 of the Constitution (Twenty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1971 is valid. The second part namely "and no law containing a declaration that it is for giving effect to such policy shall be called in question in any court on the ground that it does not give effect to such policy" is invalid.
The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1971 is valid.
The ruling thus established the principle that the basic structure cannot be amended on the grounds that a power to amend is not a power to destroy.
Defining the basic structure
The majority had differing opinions on what the "basic structure" of the Constitution comprised
Chief Justice Sarv Mittra Sikri, writing for the majority, indicated that the basic structure consists of the following:
The supremacy of the constitution.
A republican and democratic system.
The secular character of the Constitution.
Maintenance of the separation of powers.
The federal character of the Constitution.
Justices Shelat and Grover in their opinion added three features to the Chief Justice's list:
The mandate to build a welfare state contained in the Directive Principles of State Policy.
Maintenance of the unity and integrity of India.
The sovereignty of the country.
Justices Hegde and Mukherjea, in their opinion, provided a separate and shorter list:
The sovereignty of India.
The democratic character of the polity.
The unity of the country.
Essential features of individual freedoms.
The mandate to build a welfare state.
Justice Jaganmohan Reddy preferred to look at the preamble, stating that the basic features of the constitution were laid out by that part of the document, and thus could be represented by:
A sovereign democratic republic.
The provision of social, economic and political justice.
Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.
Equality of status and opportunity.
The Emergency (1975)
The Court reaffirmed and applied the basic structure doctrine in Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, popularly known as Election case. The constitutionality of Article 329A, which had been inserted by the 39th Amendment in 1975 was challenged in this case. Shortly after the imposition of the Emergency, a bench of thirteen judges was hastily assembled to hear the case. Presided over by Chief Justice Ajit Nath Ray, the court had to determine the degree to which amendments were restricted by the basic structure theory. Ray, who was among the dissenters in the Kesavananda Bharati case, had been promoted to Chief Justice of India on 26 April 1973, superseding three senior Judges, Shelat, Grover and Hegde (all in the majority in the same case), which was unprecedented in Indian legal history. On November 10 and 11, the team of civil libertarian barristers, led by Nanabhoy Palkhivala, argued against the Union government's application for reconsideration of the Kesavananda decision. Some of the judges accepted his argument on the very first day, the others on the next; by the end of the second day, the Chief Justice was reduced to a minority of one. On the morning of 12 November, Chief Justice Ray tersely pronounced that the bench was dissolved, and the judges rose.
The 39th Amendment attempted, among other provisions, to legitimize the election of Indira Gandhi in 1971. Article 329A put the elections of the Prime Minister and Lok Sabha Speaker outside the purview of the judiciary and provided for determination of disputes concerning their elections by an authority to be set up by a Parliamentary law. The Supreme Court struck down clauses (4) and (5) of the article 329A, which made the existing election law inapplicable to the Prime Minister's and Speaker's election, and declared the pending proceedings in respect of such elections null and void.
Development
Constitutional lawyer A. G. Noorani notes that the doctrine has "now spread far and wide beyond its frontiers.", but that the eventual attribution to Dietrich Conrad is absent, who propounded the arguments in a lecture to the law faculty in the Banaras Hindu University. The argument, Noorani narrates made way to M K Nambyar who read the excerpt out in Golaknath.
The note is that in Kesavananda Bharati the dissenting judge, Justice Khanna, approved as "substantially correct" the following observations by Prof. Conrad:
Evolution of the doctrine
The basic structure doctrine was further clarified in Minerva Mills v. Union of India. The 42nd Amendment had been enacted by the government of Indira Gandhi in response to the Kesavananda Bharati judgment in an effort to reduce the power of the judicial review of constitutional amendments by the Supreme Court. In the Minerva Mills case, Nanabhoy Palkhivala successfully moved the Supreme Court to declare sections 4 and 55 of the 42nd Amendment as unconstitutional. The constitutionality of sections 4 and 55 of the 42nd Amendment were challenged in this case, when Charan Singh was caretaker Prime Minister. Section 4 of the 42nd Amendment, had amended Article 31C of the Constitution to accord precedence to the Directive Principles of State Policy articulated in Part IV of the Constitution over the Fundamental Rights of individuals articulated in Part III. Section 55 prevented any constitutional amendment from being "called in question in any Court on any ground". It also declared that there would be no limitation whatever on the constituent power of Parliament to amend by way of definition, variation or repeal the provisions of the Constitution. On 31 July 1980, when Indira Gandhi was back in power, the Supreme Court declared sections 4 & 55 of the 42nd amendment as unconstitutional. It further endorsed and evolved the basic structure doctrine of the Constitution. As had been previously held through the basic structure doctrine in the Kesavananda case, the Court ruled that Parliament could not by amending the constitution convert limited power into an unlimited power (as it had purported to do by the 42nd amendment).
In the judgement on section 55, Chief Justice Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud wrote, The ruling was widely welcomed in India, and Gandhi did not challenge the verdict. In the judgement on Section 4, Chandrachud wrote:
This latter view of Article 31C was questioned, but not overturned, in Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing Co v Bharat Cooking Coal Ltd. (case citation: AIR 1983 SC 239). The concept of basic structure has since been developed by the Supreme Court in subsequent cases, such as Waman Rao v. Union of India (AIR 1981 SC 271), Bhim Singhji v. Union of India (AIR 1981 SC 234), S.P. Gupta v. President of India (AIR 1982 SC 149) (known as Transfer of Judges case), S.P. Sampath Kumar v. Union of India (AIR 1987 SC 386), P. Sambamurthy v. State of Andhra Pradesh (AIR 1987 SC 663), Kihota Hollohon v. Zachilhu and others (1992 1 SCC 309), L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India and others (AIR 1997 SC 1125), P. V. Narsimha Rao v. State (CBI/SPE) (AIR 1998 SC 2120), I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu and others (2007 2 SCC 1), and Raja Ram Pal v. The Hon'ble Speaker, Lok Sabha and others (JT 2007 (2) SC 1) (known as Cash for Query case).
The Supreme Court's position on constitutional amendments laid out in its judgements is that Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot destroy its "basic structure".
Recognition
Aside from India, the basic structure doctrine has been adopted in a number of jurisdictions, and rejected in some others.
Bangladesh
The basic structure doctrine was adopted by the Supreme Court of Bangladesh in 1989, by expressly relying on the reasoning in the Kesavananda case, in its ruling on Anwar Hossain Chowdhary v. Bangladesh (41 DLR 1989 App. Div. 165, 1989 BLD (Spl.) 1). However, Bangladesh is the only legal system to introduce this concept through constitutional provisions. Article 7B of the Constitution of Bangladesh introduced some parts of it as basic provisions of the constitution and referred to some others (which are not properly defined) as basic structure of the constitution and declares all of these as not amendable.
Belize
The basic structure doctrine was invoked by the Supreme Court of Judicature of Belize in Bowen v Attorney General BZ 2009 SC 2 in rejecting the Belize Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Bill 2008, which had sought to exclude certain deprivation of property rights from judicial review. The court recognised the fundamental rights granted by the constitution, respect for the rule of law and the right to the ownership of private property as basic features of the Belizean constitution, as well as the separation of powers, which Chief Justice Abdulai Conteh noted had been recognised by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Hinds v The Queen [1977] AC 195 (which was not a constitutional amendment case) as implicit in Westminster model constitutions in the Caribbean Commonwealth realm.
The Supreme Court affirmed the doctrine in British Caribbean Bank Ltd v AG Belize Claim No. 597 of 2011 and struck down parts of the Belize Telecommunications (Amendment) Act 2011 and Belize Constitution (Eighth) Amendment Act 2011. The amendments had sought to preclude the court from deciding on whether deprivation of property by the government was for a public purpose, and to remove any limits on the National Assembly's power to alter the constitution. This was found to impinge on the separation of powers, which had earlier been identified as part of the basic structure of the Belizean constitution.
Malaysia
In Malaysia, the basic features doctrine was initially found to be inapplicable by the Federal Court in Phang Chin Hock v. Public Prosecutor. The Court remarked that the Indian constitution was drafted by a constituent assembly representative of the Indian people in territorial, racial and community terms, and not "ordinary mortals", while the same could not be said for the Malaysian constitution, which was enacted by an ordinary legislature.
The basic structure doctrine was first cited with approval by the Federal Court in obiter dicta in Sivarasa Rasiah v. Badan Peguam Malaysia, before ultimately being applied by the same court in Semenyih Jaya Sdn Bhd v. Pentadbir Tanah Daerah Hulu Langat & Ano'r Case and Indira Gandhi a/p Mutho v. Pengarah Jabatan Agama Islam Perak & 2 O'rs & 2 Other Cases. In those cases, the Federal Court held that the vesting of the judicial power of the Federation in the civil courts formed part of the basic structure of the Constitution, and could not be removed even by constitutional amendment.
Pakistan
The basic structure doctrine was recognised in Constitution Petition No.12 of 2010, etc. by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in 2015. The case was heard by the full 17-member bench, of which a plurality of 8 accepted the basic structure doctrine as a basis for limiting the ability of the Parliament of Pakistan to amend the Constitution, 4 rejected the premise of such limitations, describing the basic structure doctrine as a "vehicle for judicial aggrandisement of power", and 5 accepted that some limitations exist but did not endorse the basic structure doctrine. The judgement identified democracy, federalism and independence of the judiciary as among the characteristics protected by the doctrine.
Before this decision, it was unclear whether the basic structure doctrine applied in Pakistan. The doctrine was considered and rejected shortly after the Kesavananda decision, revived in 1997, and rejected again in 1998. The 2015 decision addressed the issue directly and accepted the doctrine.
Singapore
The High Court of Singapore denied the application of the basic features doctrine in Singapore in Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs. Justice Frederick Arthur Chua held that the doctrine was not applicable to the Singapore Constitution: "Considering the differences in the making of the Indian and our Constitution, it cannot be said that our Parliament's power to amend our Constitution is limited in the same way as the Indian Parliament's power to amend the Indian Constitution."
Uganda
In December 2017, the Ugandan parliament passed a Constitutional Amendment which removed age limit of 75 years for the President and Chairpersons of the Local Council. The President Yoweri Museveni, who has been President of Uganda since 1986, signed the amendment into law in January 2018, aged '74 years' (Unsubstantiated evidence is available that the alleged dictator is in his late 80's). Several opposition leaders and the Uganda Law Society, challenged the constitutionality of the amendment before the Constitutional Court, which (majority) upheld the validity of the amendment. Taking note of the judgments in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, AIR 1973 SC and Minerva Mills v. Union of India, AIR 1980 SC 1789, the Supreme Court of Uganda in Mabirizi Kiwanuka & ors. v. Attorney General, [2019] UGSC 6, unanimously upheld the Constitutional Court (majority) finding.
See also
Judicial activism in India
Liberal democratic basic order
Entrenched clause
References
Bibliography
The Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution. Human Rights Initiative.
H M Seervai, 'Constitutional Law of India'
V.N. Shukla 'Constitution of India' 10th edition
Legitimacy of the basic structure. The Hindu.''
Anuranjan Sethi (October 25, 2005), 'Basic Structure Doctrine: Some Reflections".
Conrad, Dietrich, Law and Justice, United Lawyers Association, New Delhi (Vol. 3, Nos. 1–4; pages 99–114)
Conrad, Dietrich, Limitation of Amendment Procedures and the Constituent Power; Indian Year Book of International Affairs, 1966–1967, Madras, pp. 375–430
Constitution of India
Legal doctrines and principles
Judicial review
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4965890
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virendranath%20Chattopadhyaya
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Virendranath Chattopadhyaya
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Virendranath Chattopadhyaya (; 31 October 1880 – 2 September 1937), also known by his pseudonym Chatto, was a prominent Indian revolutionary who worked to overthrow the British Raj in India using armed force. He created alliances with the Germans during World War I, was part of the Berlin Committee organising Indian students in Europe against the British, and explored actions by the Japanese at the time.
He went to Moscow in 1920 to develop support by the Communists for the Indian movement, including among Asians in Moscow who were working on revolutionary movements. He joined the German Communist Party (KPD). He lived in Moscow for several years in the 1930s. Arrested in July 1937 in the Great Purge, Chatto was executed on 2 September 1937. He was the brother of prominent political activist and poet Sarojini Naidu.
Early life
His childhood nickname was Binnie or Biren. Virendranath was the eldest son (the second of eight children) of Dr. Aghorenath Chattopadhyaya (Chatterjee), a scientist-philosopher and educationist who was an ex-principal and professor of science at the Nizam College, and his wife Barada Sundari Devi, a poet and singer in a Bengali Brahmin family settled in Hyderabad. Their children Sarojini Naidu and Harindranath Chattopadhyay became well-known poets and parliamentarians. Their daughter Mrinalini (Gannu) became a Nationalist activist and introduced Virendranath to many of her circle in Kolkata (Calcutta). A younger son Marin became involved with Virendranath in political activism.
Chattopadhyaya received a secular and liberal education. He was a polyglot and was fluent in the Indian languages Telugu, Tamil, Bengali, Urdu, Persian, Hindi, as well as English; later he was to learn French, Italian, German, Dutch, Russian and the Scandinavian languages as well. He matriculated in the University of Madras and received an undergraduate degree in Arts from the University of Calcutta. In Kolkata, through his sister Gannu (Mrinalini), already known as an advanced Nationalist, Virendranath was introduced to Bejoy Chandra Chatterjee, a barrister and extremist. Chatto met Sri Aurobindo's family, especially his cousins, Kumudini and Sukumar Mitra; the former was editor of the seditious magazine Suprabhat. For years afterwards, Chattopadhyaya maintained contact with all of them.
In England
In 1902, Chattopadhyaya joined the University of Oxford, while preparing for the Indian Civil Service. Later, he became a law student of the Middle Temple. While frequenting Shyamji Krishna Varma's India House at 65 Cromwell Avenue in London, Chattopadhyaya became closely acquainted with V. D. Savarkar (since 1906). In 1907, Chattopadhyaya was on the editorial board of Shyamji's Indian Sociologist. In August, along with Madame Cama and S. R. Rana, he attended the Stuttgart Conference of the Second International where they met delegates including Henry Hyndman, Karl Liebknecht, Jean Jaurès, Rosa Luxemburg and Ramsay MacDonald, among others. Vladimir Lenin attended, but it is not certain if Chattopadhyaya met him on this occasion.
In 1908, at "India House" he came in contact with a number of important "agitators" from India: G. S. Khaparde, Lajpat Rai, Har Dayal, Rambhuj Dutt and Bipin Chandra Pal. In June 1909, at an India House meeting, V. D. Savarkar strongly advocated assassinations of the Englishmen in India. On 1 July, at the Imperial Institute in London, Sir William Curzon-Wyllie, political aide-de-camp at the India Office, was assassinated by Madan Lal Dhingra, who was deeply influenced by Savarkar. Chattopadhyaya published a letter in The Times on 6 July in support of Savarkar, and was promptly expelled from the Middle Temple by the Benchers. In November 1909, he edited the short-lived but virulent nationalist periodical Talvar (The Sword).
In May 1910, seizing the opportunity of tension between the United Kingdom and Japan over the Korean peninsula, Chattopadhyaya discussed the possibility of Japanese help to Indian revolutionary efforts. On 9 June 1910, along with D. S. Madhavrao, he followed V. V. S. Aiyar to Paris, to avoid a warrant issued for his arrest. Upon reaching France, he joined the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO).
In Paris
Aiyar returned to India and settled in Pondicherry where he published the Dharma newspaper and a number of political pamphlets in Tamil, while maintaining a regular contact with Madame Bhikaiji Cama in Paris. Chatto and some other revolutionaries stayed with her at 25 rue de Ponthieu and helped her to edit the Bande Mataram: its April 1911 issue "was one of the most violent that ever appeared," praising outrages in Nasik and Kolkata. It said: "With gentlemen we can be gentlemen, but not with rogues and scoundrels. (...) Our friends the Bengalis have also begun to understand. Blessed be their efforts. Long be their arms."
In connection with the Tirunelveli Conspiracy Case in February 1912, Madame Bhikaiji Cama published an article showing that these political assassinations were in accord with the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita.
Marriage and family
In 1912 Chattopadhyaya married Miss Reynolds, an Irish Catholic girl. Because he was pagan who rejected all effort to convert him, she brought a special dispensation from the pope to marry him. After the ceremony she informed him that a condition of the marriage was that any issue (child) was to be brought up Catholic. They quarreled and parted, she becoming a nun in some hidden English convent and he trying for years to have the marriage annulled. Chattopadhyaya went to Berlin in April 1914 to further revolutionary activities. There he entered a union with Agnes Smedley. Although it was not a legal marriage, she bore his name and was known as his wife. The relationship lasted eight years. Agnes wrote her famous novel Daughter of Earth in 1928, the year they got separated.
In Germany
In Germany to avoid suspicion, he enrolled in a university as a student. As a student in comparative linguistics at the University of Saxe-Anhalt in April 1914, Chattopadhyaya met Dr. Abhinash Bhattacharya (alias Bhatta) and some other nationalist Indian students. The former was well known to the influential members as belonging to the Kaiser's immediate circle. Early in September 1914, they formed a "German Friends of India" association, and were received by the brother of Wilhelm II. The Indians and Germans signed a treaty in favour of German help to oust the British from India. With the help of Baron Max von Oppenheim, who was an expert in Middle Eastern affairs in the German Foreign Office, Chattopadhyaya informed Indian students in thirty-one German universities about the association's future plans. He also helped in finding new members for the Berlin Committee.
Among its first members were Chattopadhyaya, Bhatta, Dr. Moreshwar Govindrao Prabhakar (Cologne), Dr Abdul Hafiz (Leipzig), C. Padmanabhan Pillai (Zürich), Dr. Jnanendra Dasgupta (Zürich), Dhiren Sarkar, Narain S. Marathé, Vishnu Suktankar, Gopal Paranjapé, Karandikar, Shrish Chandra Sen, Satish Chandra Ray, Sambhashiva Rao, Dadachanji Kersasp, Mansur Ahmad, Siddiq. Other prominent revolutionaries who soon found their way to Berlin were Har Dayal, Tarak Nath Das, Mohammad Barakatullah, Bhupendranath Datta, A. Raman Pilla (A. R. Pillai), Chandrakanta Chakravarti, M. P. Tirumal Acharya, Herambalal Gupta, Jodh Singh Mahajan, Jiten Lahiri, Satyen Sen, and Vishnu Ganesh Pingley
On 22 September 1914, Sarkar and Marathé left for Washington, D.C., with a message for the German ambassador, Von Bernstorf. He ordered Von Papen, his Military Attaché, to arrange for steamers, and purchase arms and ammunition, to be delivered on the eastern coast of India. On 20 November 1914, Chattopadhyaya sent Satyen Sen, V. G. Pingley and Kartâr Singh to Kolkata with a report for Jatindranath Mukherjee or Bagha Jatin. Bagha Jatin sent a note through Pingley and Kartar Singh to Rash Behari Bose, asking him to expedite preparations for the proposed armed uprising. In 1915, Chattopadhyaya went to meet Mahendra Pratap in Switzerland and tell him of the Kaiser's personal invitation to meet. He was dogged by the British agent, Donald Gullick, and an attempt was made to kill Chattopadhyaya.
Revolutionary vagabond
With the failure of the Indo-German Zimmermann Plan, in 1917 Chattopadhyaya opened a new Bureau of the Independence Committee in Stockholm, which acted under the name Indiska Nationalkommittéen. From this point on the Stockholm venture fought with the remaining parts of the Berlin Committee over the role of legitimate representative of Indian nationalism in Europe. In 1918, he contacted the Russian leaders Troinovski and Angelica Balabanova, the First General Secretary of the Communist International. In December, he dissolved the Berlin Committee. In May 1919, he arranged for a secret meeting of Indian revolutionaries in Berlin. In November 1920, in his search of financial and political support exclusively for the revolutionary nationalist movement in India, Chattopadhyaya was encouraged by M. N. Roy (with Mikhail Borodin's approval).
He went to Moscow with Agnes Smedley and they became companions, sharing their lives until 1928. Under her influence, Chattopadhyaya coveted the influential position M. N. Roy enjoyed in Moscow. The next year, he was received by Lenin, along with Bhupendra Nath Datta and Pandurang Khankoje. From May to September, he attended the Indian Committee of the Third Congress of Communist International in Moscow. In December 1921 in Berlin, Chattopadhyaya founded an Indian News and Information Bureau with his correspondent Rash Behari Bose in Japan.
According to Sibnarayan Ray, Roy and Chattopadhyaya were rivals for Agnes: "Roy would have liked to work with him since he admired the latter's intelligence and energy. (...) By early 1926 Chatto had got into good terms with Roy."
At Roy's instance, Willi Münzenberg "took Chatto under his wings" in organising an international conference in Europe to inaugurate the League against Imperialism. On the eve of Roy's mission to China, in January 1927, Chatto wrote to Roy asking "if there is anything further you wish me to do..." On 26 August 1927, he wrote to Roy, after the latter's return to Moscow from China, asking to help him "directly" to gain admission to the Communist parties of India and Germany. After being advised by Roy, Chatto joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD).
In 1927, while working as the head of the Indian Languages Section of the KPD, Chatto accompanied Jawaharlal Nehru to the Brussels Conference of the League against Imperialism. Chattopadhyaya served as its general secretary. His younger brother Harin went to Berlin that year to meet him and Agnes. On learning of Jawaharlal Nehru's becoming president of the Indian National Congress, Chattopadhyaya asked him – in vain – to split the party for a more revolutionary programme of full independence from British imperialism.
From 1930 to 1932, Chattopadhyaya published 28 articles in Inprecor, the Comintern organ, about an ultra-leftist sectarian turn of the Communist Party of India. Between 1931 and 1933, while living in Moscow, Chattopadhyaya continued to advocate anti-Hitler activities, Asian emancipation from Western powers, the independence of India, and Japanese intervention into the Chinese revolution. Among his Korean, Japanese and Chinese friends was Zhou Enlai, the future Prime Minister of the People's Republic of China after its successful Revolution.
Agnes saw him for the last time in 1933 and remembered later:
"He embodied the tragedy of a whole race. Had he been born in England or America, I thought, his ability would have placed him among the great leaders of his age... He was at last growing old, his body thin and frail, his hair rapidly turning white. The desire to return to India obsessed him, but the British would trust him only if he were dust on a funeral pyre."
Last years
In January–February 1934, Chatto exchanged letters with Krupskaya (Lenin's widow). On 18 March 1934 he gave a talk about his reminiscences of Vladimir Lenin. He wrote to Georgi Dimitrov, Comintern's Secretary-General, on 9 September 1935: "For three years I have been kept away from active work in the Comintern." Clemens Palme Dutt (the brother of Rajani Palme Dutt), mentioned having seen Chatto for the last time in 1936/37 at the department of ethnography of the Academy of Science in Leningrad.
Chattopadhyaya was arrested on 15 July 1937 during the Great Purge of Stalin. His name appeared on a death list among 184 other persons, which was signed on 31 August 1937 by Stalin, Molotov, Voroshilov, Zhdanov and Kaganovich. The death sentence was pronounced by Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR on 2 September 1937 and Chatto was executed the same day.
On 10 July 1938, A. C. N. Nambiar, Chattopadhyaya's brother-in-law, wrote to Nehru about the arrest. He replied on 21 July, agreeing to try to find out about Chattopadhyaya's fate.
Evaluation
James Campbell Ker's Political Trouble in India: 1907–1917 discusses Chattopadhyaya. He described some of the less appealing aspects of his character and actions.
He was deeply admired by colleagues such as M. N. Roy and Dr. Abhinash Bhattacharya for his able leadership, sharp intelligence and sincere emotion.
In his autobiography decades later, Jawaharlal Nehru wrote of Chatto:
An entirely different type of person was Virendranath Chattopadhyay, member of a famous family in India. Popularly known as Chatto he was a very able and a very delightful person. He was always hard up, his clothes were very much the worse for wear and often he found it difficult to raise the wherewithal for a meal. But his humour and light heartedness never left him. He had been some years senior to me during my educational days in England. He was at Oxford when I was at Harrow. Since those days he had not returned to India and sometimes a fit of homesickness came to him when he longed to be back. All his home-ties had long been severed and it is quite certain that if he came to India he would feel unhappy and out of joint. But in spite of the passage of time the home pull remains. No exile can escape the malady of his tribe, that consumption of the soul, as Mazzini called it ... Of the few I met, the only persons who impressed me intellectually were Virendranath Chattopadhyay and M.N. Roy. Chatto was not, I believe, a regular communist, but he was communistically inclined.
Chattopadhyaya's family line survives today in Kolkata.
Representation in other media
Chatto was well known in Great Britain and India as a revolutionary. He is believed to have inspired Somerset Maugham's character of "Chandralal" in his short story, "Giulia Lazzari;" (its character of Ashenden was based upon Maugham).. The American writer Agnes Smedley, who was involved with Chatto for eight years, used him as a model for the character Ananda in her novel Daughter of Earth.. The Indian revolutionary in Berlin, A C N Nambiar, had married Chatto's sister Suhasini.
See also
Hindu–German Conspiracy
Indian independence movement
References
Political Trouble in India: 1907–1917, A Confidential Report, by James Campbell Ker, 1917, repr. 1973
Europé bharatiya biplaber sadhana, by Dr Abinash Chandra Bhattacharya, 2nd ed., 1978
Bahirbharaté bharater muktiprayas, by Dr Abinash Chandra Bhattacharya, 1962
Dictionary of National Biography, ed. S.P. Sen, Vol. I, "Chatterjee Birendra Nath", 272–4
Chatto: the Life and Times of an Indian Anti-Imperialist in Europe, by Nirode K. Barooah, Oxford University Press, 2004
Aditya Sinha, "Review of Niroda K. Baroosh's Chatto", Hindustan Times, New Delhi, 14 August 2004
Les origines intellectuelles du movement d'indépendance de l'Inde (1893–1918), by Prithwindra Mukherjee (PhD thesis, Paris Sorbonne University), 1986
In Freedom's Quest: Life of M.N. Roy, Vol. II, III (Part 1), by Sibnarayan Ray
Indian Revolutionaries Abroad, by A.C. Bose, Patna, 1971
Agnes Smedley: The Life and Times of an American Radical, by Janice R. MacKinnon and Stephen R. MacKinnon, University of California Press, 1988
External links
Heike Liebau: Chattopadhyay, Virendranath, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Bengali Hindus
Indian revolutionaries
1880 births
1937 deaths
Brahmos
University of Madras alumni
University of Calcutta alumni
Hindu–German Conspiracy
Anti-imperialism in Asia
India House
Indian people executed by the Soviet Union
Great Purge victims
People from Hyderabad, India
Indian expatriates in France
Indian expatriates in Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samskara%20%28rite%20of%20passage%29
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Samskara (rite of passage)
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Samskara (IAST: , sometimes spelled samskara) are sacraments in Hinduism and other Indian religions, described in ancient Sanskrit texts, as well as a concept in the karma theory of Indian philosophies. The word literally means "putting together, making perfect, getting ready, to prepare", or "a sacred or sanctifying ceremony" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts of India.
In the context of karma theory, samskaras are dispositions, character or behavioural traits, that exist as default from birth or prepared and perfected by a person over one's lifetime, that exist as imprints on the subconscious according to various schools of Hindu philosophy such as the Yoga school. These perfected or default imprints of karma within a person, influences that person's nature, response and states of mind.
In another context, Samskara refers to the diverse sacraments in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. In Hinduism, the samskaras vary in number and details according to regional traditions. They range from the list of 40 samskaras in the Gautama Dharmasutra from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, to 16 samskaras in the Grhyasutra texts from centuries later. The list of samskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.
Etymology and meaning
Saṃskāra (Sanskrit: संस्कार) has various context-driven meanings, that broadly refer to "the putting together, accomplishing well, making perfect, a form of solemn recognition and getting ready, engaging in works and acknowledging the purification of body by cleansing or mind by education or an object by a process (such as polishing a gem or refining a metal)". The term appears in the Śrutis, and in the Smritis of diverse schools of Hinduism as well as the texts of Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. The etymological roots of the word samskara when it refers to rites of passage, is also "preparation, purifying, perfecting" from one's past state to one's future state.
The word samskara is rare in the oldest layer of Vedic literature, but its roots sam and kr occur often enough. The word appears in Rig Veda hymns 6.28.4 and 8.33.9, as well as other Vedic texts, where the context suggests it simply means "purify, prepare". It appears in Jaimini Purvamimamsa-sutra (500-200 BCE) many times, where it again means "prepare, perfect, polish" something, either through action, speech or mind. In sections 3.8.3, 9.3.25 and 10.2.49 of the Jaimini Purvamimamsa-sutra, the word samskara is used to describe actions of "washing the teeth, shaving the head, cutting nails, sprinkling water" as part of a ceremony. Samskara is defined by ancient Indian scholar Shabara as, "that which prepares a certain thing or person fit for a certain purpose". Another ancient text Viramitrodaya defines samskara, notes Kane, as "a peculiar excellence due to performance of certain actions which resides in the soul or the body of the actor".
samskara in Hindu traditions, states Kane, have been ceremonies, with the expression of outward symbols or signs of inner change, marking life events of significance. They served a spiritual, cultural and psychological purpose, welcoming an individual into a stage of life, conferring privileges to the individual(s), expecting duties from the individual, and impressing on the individual as well individual's social circle of his or her new role.
Sanskāra, in modern usage, is sometimes used to mean "cultural, social or religious heritage".
Samskara as a psychological concept
In the context of karma theory, Samskara are dispositions, character or behavioral traits either as default from birth (previous lives in some schools of Hinduism), or Samskara are behavioral traits perfected over time through Yoga, through conscious shaping of inner self, one's desire, sense of moral responsibility and through practice. In some schools of Hinduism, the psychological concept of samskara is also known as vāsanā.
These are viewed as traces or temperament that evolves through the refinement of an individual inner consciousness and expressed personality, and is a form of "being-preparedness" in Vedantic psychology. In Samkhya and Yoga schools, samskara – also spelled as Samksara – are impressions or residues that affect an individual's Gunas (behavior attributes). In Nyaya school of Hinduism, not all Samskara are psychological. Rites of passage, other actions, studies, diligent preparation and inner resolutions trigger impressions or dispositions in the psyche of an individual, in these schools of Hinduism, and these influence how the individual acts, perceives self and the manner in which the individual responds to or accepts the karmic circumstances and the future.
Samskara as sacraments
Samskaras in Hinduism are sacraments that begin with one's birth, celebrate certain early steps in a baby's growth and his or her welcome into the world in the presence of friends and family, then various stages of life such as first learning day, graduation from school, wedding and honeymoon, pregnancy, raising a family, as well as those related to final rites associated with cremation. These rites of passage are not uniform, and vary within the diverse traditions of Hinduism. Some may involve formal ceremonies, yajna (fire) ceremonies with the chanting of Vedic hymns. Others are simple, private affairs involving a couple, with or without friends, other families or a religious person such as a priest or a pandit.
Samskaras are not considered as an end in themselves, but are means of social recognition as well as the passage of a person from one significant stage of life to another. Various elements of samskaras and rituals of passage are mentioned in Vedas of Hinduism, one of the oldest known scriptures in the world. The most extensive, but divergent discussions of these rites of passage are found in the numerous Dharmasutras and Grhyasutras from the 1st millennium BCE. Many of these rites of passage include formal ceremonies, with ritual readings of hymns, chants and ethical promises, aiming to orient the individual(s) to that which is considered part of dharma (right, good, just, moral, true, spiritual, responsible, duties to family members or society in general), and essential actions such as those associated with last rites and cremation, charitable works, or out of sraddha or items of faith.
The purpose
Gautama Dharmasutra enumerates a large list of "forty outer karma samskaras" and "eight inner karma samskara (good qualities)", all of whom have the purpose of empowering a human being to discover, recognize and reach union with the Brahma-Atman (his or her Soul, Self, Highest Being). The ultimate purpose is to inculcate virtues, and samskaras are viewed in the Hindu tradition as means – not as ends – towards ripening and perfecting the human journey of life. The eight good qualities listed by Gautama Dharmasutra are emphasized as more important than the forty samskara rituals, in verses 8.21-8.25, as follows,
The 40 Samskaras
The Gautama Dharmasutra list the following forty rituals as outer samskaras:
Garbhadhana (conception), Pumsavana (rite celebrating the fetus), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair in 8th month), Jatakarman (rite celebrating the birth), Namakarana (naming the child), Annaprashana (baby's first feeding of solid food), Choulam (baby's first haircut, tonsure), and Upanayana (entry into school rite);
the four vows associated with Vedic study;
graduation ritual at the conclusion of school;
marriage sva-dharma rite;
five sacrifices to gods, ancestors, humans, spirits, and all knowledge;
seven remembrances and donations (sacrifices) using cooked food, in the form of ancestral offerings
seven remembrances and donations (sacrifices) in the presence of fire (yajna), to mark harvests, seasons and deities
seven kinds of Soma sacrifices: agnistoma, atyagnistoma, ukthya, sodasin, vajapeya, atiratra and aptoryama.
To obtain union with Brahman, one must also possess the eight virtues (compassion, patience, non-envy, purity of thought speech and body, inner calm and peace, positive attitude, generosity, and lack of possessiveness).
The 16 samskaras
There are diverse number of samskaras in Hinduism, varying by texts between 12 and 18 in the Grhyasutras (Kalpa sastras). Of these, 16 are referred to as "Shodasha Samskaras" ().
Intent to have a child ritual, Garbhadhana
Garbhadhana (IAST: Garbhādhāna, Sanskrit: गर्भाधान), also called Garbhalambhanam, literally means attaining the wealth of the womb. It is a private rite of passage, marking the intent of a couple to have a child. It is a ceremony performed before conception and impregnation. In some ancient texts, the word simply refers to the rite of passage where the couple have sex to have a child, and no ceremonies are mentioned. Scholars trace this rite to Vedic hymns, such as those in sections 8.35.10 through 8.35.12 of the Rigveda, where repeated prayers for progeny and prosperity are solemnized,
The Vedic texts have many passages, where the hymn solemnizes the desire for having a child, without specifying the gender of the child. For example, the Rigveda in section 10.184 states,
The desire for progeny, without mentioning gender, is in many other books of the Rigveda, such as the hymn 10.85.37. The Atharva Veda, similarly in verse 14.2.2, states a ritual invitation to the wife, by her husband to mount the bed for conception, "being happy in mind, here mount the bed; give birth to children for me, your husband". Later texts, such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in the last chapter detailing the education of a student, include lessons for his Grihastha stage of life. There, the student is taught, that as a husband, he should cook rice for the wife, and they together eat the food in certain way depending on whether they wish for the birth of a daughter or a son, as follows,
According to Shankaracharya, rather than meat the inner pulp of two fruits is cooked with rice.
The different Grhyasutras differ in their point of view, whether the garbhadhana is to be performed only once, before the first conception, or every time before the couple plan to have additional children. To answer this question, the medieval era texts of various schools discussed and offered diverse views on whether the ritual is a rite of passage for the baby's anticipation in the womb (garbha), or for the wife (kshetra). A rite of passage of the baby would imply that Garbhadhana samskara is necessary for each baby and therefore every time the couple intend to have a new baby, while a rite of passage of the wife would imply a one time ritual suffices.
Nurturing the fetus rite, Pumsavana
Pumsavana (IAST: puṃsavana, Sanskrit: पुंसवन) is a composite word of Pums + savana. Pums as a noun means "a man, a human being, a soul or spirit", while savana means "ceremony, rite, oblation, festival". Pumsavana literally means "rite for a strong or male baby", usually translated as "nurturing a male fetus, bringing forth a male baby". It is a ritual conducted when the pregnancy begins to show, typically in or after the third month of pregnancy and usually before the fetus starts moving in the womb. The ceremony celebrates the rite of passage of the developing fetus, marking the stage where the baby begins to kick as a milestone in a baby's development.
The roots of the pumsavana ritual are found in section 4.3.23 and 4.6.2 of the Atharva Veda, wherein charms are recited for a baby boy. The Atharva Veda also contains charms to be recited for the birth of a child of either gender and the prevention of miscarriages, such as in section 4.6.17.
The ritual is performed in diverse ways, but all involve the husband serving something to the expectant wife. In one version, she is fed a paste mixture of yoghurt, milk and ghee (clarified butter) by him. In another version, the pumsavana ritual is more elaborate, done in the presence of yajna fire and vedic chants, where the husband places a drop of Banyan leaf extract in the wife's right nostril for a son, and her left nostril for a daughter, followed by a feast for all present.
The time prescribed for the pumsavana differs in different Grhyasutras, and can be extended up to the eighth month of pregnancy, according to some.
Parting hair and baby shower, Simantonnayana
Simantonnayana (IAST: Sīmantonnayana, Sanskrit: सीमन्तोन्नयन), also called Simanta or Simantakarana, literally means "parting the hair upwards". The significance of the ritual is to wish a healthy development of the baby and safe delivery to the mother.
Simantonnayana ritual is described in many Gryhasutra texts, but Kane states that there is great divergence in details, which may be because the rite of passage emerged in more a recent era, before it receded into the background. The texts do not agree on whether this rite of passage was to be celebrated before or after pumsavana, early or late stage of pregnancy, or the nature of ritual celebrations. The texts also disagree whether Simantonnayana was a rite of passage of the baby or of the pregnant woman, the former implying it must be repeated for every baby while the latter implying it was to be observed once for the woman with her first pregnancy.
The common element was the husband and wife getting together, with friends and family, then he parts her hair upwards at least three times. In modern times, the "parting hair" rite of passage is rarely observed, and when observed it is called Atha-gulem and done in the 8th month, with flowers and fruits, to cheer the woman in the late stages of her pregnancy. The ritual has more commonly evolved into a ritual that shares characteristics of a baby shower, where the friends and relatives of the woman meet, acknowledge and satisfy the food cravings of the expectant woman, and give gifts to the mother and the baby in the seventh or eighth month of pregnancy. Yåjñavalkya Smriti verse 3.79 asserts that the desires of the pregnant woman should be satisfied for healthy development of the baby, to prevent miscarriage and her health. After the Simantonnayana ritual or in the last months of the pregnancy, the woman is expected to not overexert herself, her husband is expected to be by her and not to travel to distant lands. This rite of passage is regionally called by various names, such as Seemant, Godh bharai, Seemantham or Valaikaapu.
Childbirth ceremony, Jatakarman
Jātakarman literally means "rite of a new-born infant". It is a rite of passage that celebrates the birth of the baby. It is the first post-natal rite of passage of the new born baby. It signifies the baby's birth, as well as the bonding of the father with the baby. In Hindu traditions, a human being is born at least twice – one at physical birth through mother's womb, and second at intellectual birth through teacher's care, the first is marked through Jatakarman samskara ritual, the second is marked through Vidyarambha or Upanayana samskara ritual. During a traditional Jātakarman ritual, the father welcomes the baby by touching the baby's lips with honey and ghee (clarified butter), as Vedic hymns are recited. The first significance of the hymns is medhajanana (Sanskrit: मेधाजनन), or to initiate the baby's mind and intellect in the womb of the world, after the baby's body formation has completed in the womb of the mother. The second part of the hymns wish the baby a long life.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in the last chapter detailing lessons for Grihastha stage of life for a student, describes this rite of passage, in verses 6.4.24 to 6.4.27, as follows,
The Upanishad includes prayer to deity Saraswati during this rite of passage, the goddess of knowledge and wisdom in Hindu tradition. It also includes the threefold repetition of "Speech Speech" with the assertion to the baby, "You are the Vedas! so, live a hundred autumns", into the baby's ear by the father. At the end of the ritual pronouncements by the father, he gives the baby to the mother's breast for feeding.
While the earliest Dharmasutras list Jatakarma and Namakarama as two different samskara, they evolve into one in many Gryhasutra texts. By Pantanjali's time, these two rites of passage had merged into one, and completed within the first two weeks of the baby's birth, usually about the tenth day.
Naming the baby ritual, Namakarana
Namakarana (IAST: Nāmakaraṇa, Sanskrit: नामकरण) literally means "ceremony of naming a child". This rite of passage is usually done on the eleventh or twelfth day after birth, and sometimes the first new moon or full moon day after the tenth day of birth. On the day of this samskara, the infant is bathed and dressed in new garments. His or her formal name, selected by the parents, is announced. The naming ritual solemnizes the child as an individual, marking the process by which a child is accepted and socialized by people around him or her. The Satapatha Brahmana verse 6.1.3.9 asserts that the naming ceremony is a cleansing ceremony for the baby. The rite of passage also includes a gathering of friends and relatives of the new parents, where gifts are presented, and a feast follows.
The ancient Sanskrit texts provide numerous and divergent guidelines to the parents for choosing names. Most recommend that the boy's name be two or four syllables, starting with a sonant, a semivowel in the middle, and ending in a visarga. A girl's name is recommended to be an odd number of syllables, ending in a long ā or ī, resonant and easy to pronounce. Unpleasant, inauspicious, or words that easily transform into bad or evil words must be avoided, state the Gryhasutras, while the preferred names are those affiliated with a deity, virtues, good qualities, lucky stars, constellation, derivatives of the name of the father, or mother, or the place of birth, or beautiful elements of nature (trees, flowers, birds).
Baby's first outing, Nishkramana
Nishkramana (IAST: Niṣkrāmaṇa, Sanskrit: निष्क्रम) literally means "going out, coming forth", is the rite of passage where the parents take the baby outside the home and the baby formally meets the world for the first time. It is usually observed during the fourth month after birth. On this ritual occasion the newborn is taken out and shown the sun at sunrise or sunset, or the moon, or both. Alternatively, some families take the baby to a temple for the first time. The rite of passage involves bathing the baby and dressing him or her in new clothes. The baby's outing is accompanied by both the mother and the father, siblings if any, as well some nearby loved ones, such as grandparents and friends.
The significance of Niskramana and showing the baby heavenly bodies is derived from their significance of Sun, Moon and nature in the Vedic literature. At the time the baby is present before the sunrise or moon, it is the father who holds the baby and recites a hymn that means, "the brilliant sun has risen in the east, he is like the hamsa (swan) of the pure worlds, let us salute him, because he dispels darkness". When the baby is in presence of the moon, the father says, "O Moon, thou whose hair is well parted, let this child come to no harm, nor torn from the mother".
Baby's first solid food, Annaprashana
Annaprashana (IAST: Annaprāśana, Sanskrit: अन्नप्राशन) literally means "feeding of food", and the rite of passage marks the first time a baby eats solid food, typically containing cooked rice. Most Gryhasutras recommend this ritual in the sixth month, or when the child shows the first teeth, with slow weaning of the baby from breast feeding to other sources of food. Some texts recommend continued breast feeding of the child, as the child adapts to the various foods. The ritual is usually celebrated with cooked rice, in a paste of honey, ghee and curd. Sankhyayana Gryhasutra recommends that fish, goat or partridge meat gravy be added to the solid food that baby tastes for the first time, while Manava Gryhasutra is silent about the use of meat. The mother eats with the baby, the same food. The father sits with them and participates in the rite of passage. The rite of passage, in some texts, include charity and feeding of the poor, and ceremonial prayers by both parents.
Baby's first haircut, Chudakarana
Chudakarana (IAST: Cūḍākaraṇa, Sanskrit: चूडाकरण) (literally, rite of tonsure), also known as choulam, caula, chudakarma, mundana or "mundan sanskar" is the rite of passage that marks the child's first haircut, typically the shaving of the head. The mother dresses up, sometimes in her wedding sari, and with the father present, the baby's hair is cut and the nails are trimmed. Sometimes, a tuft of hair is left to cover the soft spot near the top of baby's head.
The significance of this rite of passage is the baby's cyclical step to hygiene and cleanliness. The ritual is seen as a passage of purity. It is typically done about the first birthday, but some texts recommend that it be completed before the third or the seventh year. Sometimes, this ritual is combined with the rite of passage of Upanayana, initiation to formal schooling. The ritual may include recitation of prayers for the child's long life and happiness.
Baby's earlobe piercing rite, Karnavedha
Karnavedha (IAST: Karṇavedha, Sanskrit: कर्णवेध) literally means "ear-piercing". This is a minor rite of passage that is not mentioned in most Gryha-sutras. Those that mention it state different schedules, with some suggesting the ritual within the first four weeks after birth, others suggesting within the first year. The purpose of this optional ritual is primarily an ornamentation of the body, and it is part of the baby's socialization process and culture emersion. The piercing is usually done with a clean gold thread, or silver needle.
For a baby boy, the right earlobe is pierced first. For a baby girl, the left earlobe is. In case of girls, the left nostril may also be pierced during this ritual. The piercing of the earlobes symbolically reminds the child, as he or she grows up, of beauty and social presence, of the importance of hearing and speech in the wisdom of the Vedas.
Child's commencement to knowledge, Vidyarambha
Vidyarambha (IAST: Vidyāraṃba, Sanskrit: विद्यारम्भ) literally means "beginning of study". It is also known as Akshararambha, Aksharaabhyaasa, or Aksharasvikara. It is a ritual that celebrates as a milestone, the child's formal attempt to learn means of knowledge. This includes steps where the child, helped by the parents and other family members, does one or more of the following: writes letters of the mother-tongue, draws mathematical numbers or shapes, and plays a musical instrument.
The oldest texts that describe rites of passage, such as the Dharmasutras, make no mention of Vidyarambha and go direct to Upanayana ritual at the eighth year. The later texts, such as the Samsakara Prakasha, from the first centuries of 1st millennium CE, mention Vidyarambha as a rite of passage in the fifth year of a child's life, suggesting that the process of learning started shifting to an earlier age of a child with time. The ceremony is observed on the same day for all children in their fifth year, on the day of Vijayadasami which is on the tenth of the Hindu month Ashvin (September–October). It includes a prayer to goddess Saraswati and deity Ganesh, a teacher is invited or the parents themselves work with the child to write Lipi (letters of the alphabet), draw Samkhya (numbers) or pictures, and sometimes play with an instrument. In modern times, parents mark this rite of passage in the third year of the child.
Child's entrance into school, Upanayana
Upanayana (IAST:Upanayana, Sanskrit: उपनयन) literally means "the act of leading to or near". It is an important and widely discussed samskara in ancient Sanskrit text. The rite of passage symbolizes the leading or drawing towards the self of a child, in a school, by a teacher. It is a ceremony in which a Guru (teacher) accepts and draws a child towards knowledge and initiates the second birth that is of the young mind and spirit.
Upanayana was an elaborate ceremony, that included rituals involving the family, the child and the teacher. During this ceremony, a boy receives a sacred thread called Yajñopaveetam, that he wears. Yajñopavita ceremony announced that the child had entered into formal education. In the modern era, the Upanayana rite of passage is open to anyone at any age.
Rajbali Pandey compares the Upanayana rite of passage to Baptism in Christianity where the person is born again unto spiritual knowledge, in addition to it being the ancient Indian rite of passage for the start of formal education of writing, numbers, reading, Vedangas, arts and other skills. The Upanayana rite of passage was also important to the teacher, as the student would therefrom begin to live in the Gurukul (school). Many medieval era texts discuss Upanayana in the context of three Varnas (caste, class) – Brahmins, Kshtreyas and Vaishyas. Several texts such as Sushruta Sutrasthana, however, also include Sudras entering schools and the formal education process, stating that the Upanayana samskara was open to everyone. The upanayana ceremony extended to women, in ancient Sanskrit texts, and the girls who underwent this rite of passage then pursued studies were called Brahmavadini. Those who did not performed upanayana ceremony at the time of their wedding. Instead of sacred thread, girls would wear their robe (now called sari or saree) in the manner of the sacred thread, that is over her left shoulder during this rite of passage.
The education of a student was not limited to ritual and philosophical speculations found in the Vedas and the Upanishads. They extended to many arts and crafts, which had their own but similar rites of passages. Aitareya Brahmana, Agamas and Puranas literature of Hinduism describe these as Shilpa Sastras, and they extend to all practical aspects of culture, such as the sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer, and the musician. Ancient Indian texts assert that the number of the arts is unlimited, but each deploy elements of 64 kala (कला, techniques) and 32 vidyas (विद्या, fields of knowledge). The training of these began from childhood, and included studies about dharma, culture, reading, writing, mathematics, geometry, colors, tools, as well as traditions (trade secrets). The rites of passage during apprentice education varied in the respective guilds.
Vedarambha
Praishartha (or Vedarambha) is the rite of passage that marked the start of learning the Vedas and Upanishads in Gurukulam or Pathashala (school). It was a fire ritual (yajna), where the teacher and the student sat together, with the teacher reciting initiation hymns and the student following. This ritual is missing in older texts, and Pandey suggests that the later tradition recognized the difference between getting accepted in a school, and the actual start of Veda studies when the student is ready to learn those texts. In ancient India, the student's preparation involved helping with school chores, living a simple life, going to villages and towns to seek donations of food (Bhiksha), collect and bring water, collect fuel sticks for cooking, general maintenance of the school and share the food he and others collect with his teacher and the student community. These were on-going rituals of living at living, and not considered as a distinct rite of passage. Prior to the initiation of the Veda study, the student learnt the vocabulary, grammar and other basic studies. The emphasis of the stage where the student started Veda study was both the memorization and know the meaning of each hymn, verse or mantra. Vedarambha marked the actual start of the Veda study.
Some texts describes two rituals each academic period (school year), one marking the start of Vedic studies each year, called Upakarma or Upakarana. The other ceremony was held at the end of each academic period, called Utasarjanam or Utsarga or Samapana, and marked the suspension of the Veda studies for a certain period of the year. The start of school ceremony, the Upakarma was observed in the month of Sravana (August) every year. It was held in the morning, and attended by the students, the teacher, people in the Grihastha stage (householders, parents) and Vanaprastha stage of life (retired, grandparents). The Utsarga, closing the study year, was held in the month of Magha (about February).
Keshanta and Ritusuddhi
Keshanta (IAST: Keśānta) (literally, getting rid of hairs) is the first shave of a youth's facial hair. This was typically observed about age sixteen, and the emerging beard and moustache were shaved. The ceremony included gift giving such as to the barber and the teacher at his school. The coming of age ceremony ended with the student reciting his vow of chastity and the code of Brahmacharya.
Ritusuddhi, also called as Ritu Kala Samskara, is the corresponding coming of age ceremony for girls, after menarche or first menstruation. This milestone in a girl's life is observed by her family and friends, with gifts and her wearing a sari for the ritual. The rite of passage is celebrated, in modern times, as a "half-saree party" where the female relatives and friends of the girl gather, and she receives and wears a half-saree and other gifts. Thereafter, at ceremonious events, she wears the half-sarees, until her marriage when she puts on a full Sari.
Graduation ceremony, Samavartana
Samavartana (IAST: Samāvartana), or Snana, is the ceremony associated with the end of formal education and the Brahmacharya asrama of life. This rite of passage includes a ceremonial bath. This ceremony marked the end of school, but did not imply immediate start of married life. Typically, significant time elapsed between exiting the Brahmacharya stage of life and the entering of Grihastha stage of life.
Anyone who had complete this rite of passage was considered a Vidyasnataka (literally, bathed in knowledge, or showered with learning), and symbolized as one who had crossed the ocean of learning. This ceremony was a gathering of students and teacher. The student asked the teacher for any gift (guru-dakshina) he desired, which if specified was the student's responsibility to deliver over his lifetime. Then, after a recitation of a graduate's dharma (snataka-dharma) and a fire ritual, the graduate took a bath. The ceremony occurred after completion of at least 12 years of school, that is either about age 21 or later.
Taittiriya Upanishad describes, in the eleventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli, the snataka-dharma recitation emphasized by the teacher to a graduate at this rite of passage. The verses ask the graduate to take care of themselves and pursue Dharma, Artha and Kama to the best of their abilities. Parts of the verses in section 1.11.1, for example, state
The eleventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli list behavioral guidelines for the graduating students from a gurukul,
The third section of the eleventh anuvaka lists charity and giving, with faith, sympathy, modesty and cheerfulness, as ethical precept for the graduating students at the Samavartana rite of passage.
The wedding rituals, Vivaha
Vivaha (IAST: Vivāha, Sanskrit: विवाह) is the rite of passage and rituals associated with marriage. While there are many rituals in Hinduism, vivaha (wedding) is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life.
The wedding rites and ceremonies begin with the engagement of a couple, and extend to rites of passage after the completion of wedding. They are typically very colorful, and celebrations may extend for several days. The detailed rituals and process in a Hindu wedding vary. Nevertheless, there are a few key rituals common in Hindu weddings - Kanyadaan, Panigrahana, and Saptapadi, which are respectively, giving away of daughter by the father, voluntarily holding hand near the fire to signify union, and taking seven steps with each step includes a vow/promise to each other before fire. The Vivaha samskara is essentially a Vedic yajna ritual, with recitation of Vedic hymns. The primary witness of a Hindu marriage is the Vedic fire-deity (or the Sacred Fire) Agni, in the presence of family and friends.
Post-wedding rites of passage include Grihapravesa – the welcoming of the bride to her new home by groom's mother, father, brother(s), or sister(s), and other relatives. Chaturthikarma – literally, "the rite performed on the fourth day after wedding", is the rite where the first domestic fire is lit marking the food-related householder life of the new couple.
Honeymoon, or the act of first sexual intercourse after the wedding, is known as Nishekam (Sanskrit: निषेक).
Vratas
Vrata literally means a vow or practice, any pious observance, act of devotion or austerity such as fasting. These were cyclical rites of passage of those in Grihastha (householder) stage of life, typically as reminder of some pious action, reflective, spiritual side of life. Most Gryhasutras and several Smritis include four Veda-vratas as samskara after graduation, as means of continuing self-education. The four Vratas includes Sukriya (study Rigveda), Sakvara, Vratika and Upanishad Vrata. The rite of passage ceremony for each of these marked the start of the self study by the householder, which lasted between 1, 3, 6 or 9 years each.
Cremation ritual, Antyeshti
Antyesti (IAST: Antayeṣṭi, Sanskrit: अन्त्येष्टि) (literally, last rites or last sacrifice), sometimes referred to as Antima Samskaram, Antya-kriya, Anvarohanyya, or Vahni samskara, are the rituals associated with funeral. This samskara is not mentioned in the lists of samskaras in most of the grhyasutras and other texts that discuss samskaras. The details and procedures of this rite are given in separate texts, dealing only with this topic.
A dead adult Hindu is mourned with a cremation, while a dead child is typically buried. The rite of passage is performed in harmony with the sacred premise that the microcosm of all living beings is a reflection of a macrocosm of the universe. The soul (Atman, Brahman) is the essence and immortal that is released at the Antyeshti ritual, but both the body and the universe are vehicles and transitory in various schools of Hinduism. They consist of five elements: air, water, fire, earth and space. The last rite of passage returns the body to the five elements and origins. The roots of this belief are found in the Vedas, for example in the hymns of Rigveda in section 10.16, as follows,
The final rites of a burial, in case of untimely death of a child, is rooted in Rig Veda's section 10.18, where the hymns mourn the death of the child, praying to deity Mrityu to "neither harm our girls nor our boys", and pleads the earth to cover, protect the deceased child as a soft wool.
The last rites are usually completed within a day of death. His or her body is washed, wrapped in white cloth if the dead is a man or a widow (red if her husband is still alive), the two toes tied together with a string, a Tilak (red mark) placed on the forehead. The dead adult's body is carried to the cremation ground near a river or water, by family and friends, and placed on a pyre with feet facing south. The eldest son, or a male mourner, or a priest then bathes before leading the cremation ceremonial function. He circumambulates the dry wood pyre with the body, says a eulogy or recites a hymn in some cases, places sesame seed in the dead person's mouth, sprinkles the body and the pyre with ghee (clarified butter), then draws three lines signifying Yama (deity of the dead), Kala (time, deity of cremation) and the dead. The pyre is then set ablaze, while the mourners mourn. The ash from the cremation is consecrated to the nearest river or sea. After the cremation, in some regions, the immediate male relatives of the deceased shave their head and invite all friends and relatives, on the tenth or twelfth day, to eat a simple meal together in remembrance of the deceased. This day, in some communities, also marks a day when the poor and needy are offered food in memory of the dead.
Samskara in Jainism
Similar to Hinduism, samskara serve as a rite of passage into a new phase of life in different sects of Jainism.
In the Digambara school, all 16 Hindu samskaras (see above) were incorporated by Jinasena in the Adipurana as part of 53 kriyas, of which 23 rites of passage are described for the Jain householder, with the last culminating in renunciation of household life. For those who skip the householder stage of life, the equivalent rite of passage was the 11th pratima, and called diksha (initiation into mendicancy).
In the Śvētāmbara school, 16 samskaras similar to the Hindu rites of passage are described, for example, in the Acara-Dinakara of Vardhamana. It includes rituals described above, such as those associated with conception, birth, name giving, ear piercing, baby's first haircut, studentship, wedding and death.
There are some differences between symbolism associated with samskara rites in Hinduism and Jainism. The fire ceremony has Vedic significance in the former, while it symbolizes the Tirthankaras, Ganadharas and Kevalins in Jainism. The mantras are often derived from Vedic texts in Hinduism, while they are derived from Jain texts such as Ratnatraya in Jainism. The oaths in some rites of passage include the vow of ahimsa (non-violence, non injury to all human beings and living beings) in both, but is of exclusive significance in Jainism.
Sanskars in Sikhism
Although Sikhs may individually recognise many rites of passage, four are universally important in Sikh religious life. They are the four main sanskars:
Naam Karan, "Naming a Child" ― the rite of naming a newborn at the Gurdwara; traditionally, it is during this rite that male Sikhs take the middle name Singh and female Sikhs take the middle name Kaur alongside their given first name.
Amrit Sanskar (also called Amrit Sanchar), "Ambrosia Rite" ― the Sikh rite of initiation (sometimes described as the 'Sikh baptism'); converts to Sikhism may take the traditional middle name of Singh or Kaur after receiving amrit although this is not a requirement.
Anand Karaj, "Blissful Union" ― the Sikh rite of marriage.
Antam Sanskar, "Final Rite" ― the Sikh funeral rites; traditionally, Sikhs are cremated during the funeral ceremony and the ashes are collected and immersed in a body of water.
Other rites of passage such as Dastar Bandhi, the first tying of the Dastar (the traditional Sikh turban), may also be celebrated.
See also
Hindu genealogy registers at Haridwar
Dharmasutras
Kalpa (Vedanga)
Vedas
Dharma
Kama
Artha
References
Further reading
Critical analysis of childhood samskaras (sacraments) in light of contemporary science Deepshikha and Rai Amit Kumar (2014), Int. Journal Ayur. Pharma Research, 2(2), pp. 95–100.
Culture as the Designer, Lalit Das (2005), Design Issues, MIT Press, 21(4), pp. 41–53.
The Existential, Social, and Cosmic Significance of the Upanayana Rite, Carl Olson (1977), Numen, Vol. 24, Fasc. 2, pp. 152–160.
Thomas N. Siqueira, The Vedic Sacraments, Thought, Volume 9, Issue 4, March 1935, pp. 598–609, .
External links
Ceremonies
Hindu rituals
Rites of passage
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Dhyana in Hinduism
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Dhyāna (Sanskrit: ध्यान) in Hinduism means contemplation and meditation. Dhyana is taken up in Yoga practices, and is a means to samadhi and self-knowledge.
The various concepts of dhyana and its practice originated in the Sramanic movement of ancient India, which started before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and the practice has been influential within the diverse traditions of Hinduism. It is, in Hinduism, a part of a self-directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which the yogi realizes Self (Atman, soul), one's relationship with other living beings, and Ultimate Reality. Dhyana is also found in other Indian religions such as Buddhism and Jainism. These developed along with dhyana in Hinduism, partly independently, partly influencing each other. All the while similiar traditions developed within Zoroastrianism in Persia under the label daena.
The term Dhyana appears in Aranyaka and Brahmana layers of the Vedas but with unclear meaning, while in the early Upanishads it appears in the sense of "contemplation, meditation" and an important part of self-knowledge process. It is described in numerous Upanishads of Hinduism, and in Patanjali's Yogasutras - a key text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy.
Etymology and meaning
Dhyāna (Sanskrit: ध्यान, Pali: झान) means "contemplation, reflection" and "profound, abstract meditation".
The root of the word is Dhi, which in the earliest layer of text of the Vedas refers to "imaginative vision" and associated with goddess Saraswati with powers of knowledge, wisdom and poetic eloquence. This term developed into the variant dhya- and dhyana, or "meditation".
Thomas Berry states that Dhyana, is "sustained attention" and the "application of mind to the chosen point of concentration". Dhyana is contemplating, reflecting on whatever Dharana has focused on. If in the sixth limb of yoga one is concentrating on a personal deity, Dhyana is its contemplation. If the concentration was on one object, Dhyana is non-judgmental, non-presumptuous observation of that object. If the focus was on a concept/idea, Dhyana is contemplating that concept/idea in all its aspects, forms and consequences. Dhyana is uninterrupted train of thought, current of cognition, flow of awareness.
A related term is nididhyāsana, the pondering over Upanishadic statements. It is a composite of three terms, namely dhyai, upasana ("dwelling upon"), and bhavana ("cultivating").
Origins
The term dhyana is used in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, with somewhat different meanings.
The origins of the practice of dhyana, which culminates into samadhi, are a matter of dispute. According to Bronkhorst, the mainstream concept is evidenced in Jain, Buddhist and early Hindu scriptures. Dhyana, states Sagarmal Jain, has been essential to Jaina religious practices, but the origins of Dhyana and Yoga in the pre-canonical era (before 6th-century BCE) is unclear, and it likely developed in the Sramanic culture of ancient India, Several śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy.
The earliest Jaina texts, on Dhyana such as Sutrakranga, Antakrta-Dasanga and Rsibhashita, mention Uddaka Rāmaputta who is said to be the teacher of some meditation methods to Buddha, as well as the originator of Vipassana and Preksha meditation techniques. The Jaina tradition believes Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara, to have founded meditation, but there is no historical confirming evidence. The earliest mention of Dhyana in the canonical Jaina texts simply mention Dhyana as a means of emancipation, but in them ascetic practices are not emphasized nor is the discussion as systematic as in later Jaina texts or Hindu texts such as the Patanjali's Yogasutras. There is no archeological or literary evidence, states Sagarmal Jain, about the origins of systems for Dhyana and Yoga, and there is a great deal of similarity between Jaina, Buddhist, Ajivika, Samkhya, Yoga and other ancient Indian traditions. The earliest texts, such as Tattvarthasutra suggest that these ideas developed in parallel, sometimes with different terms for similar ideas in various Indian traditions, influencing each other.
Buddhism introduced its own ideas, states Bronkhorst, such as the four dhyanas, which did not affect the mainstream meditation traditions in Jaina and Hindu traditions for a long time. All traditions, Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, introduced unique aspects and context to Dhyana, and mutually influenced each other. According to Bronkhorst, while Jaina and Hindu meditation traditions predate Buddhism, the Buddhist terminology such as Samadhi, may have influenced the wording found in one of the several types of Dhyana found in the Mahabharata as well as parts of Patanjali's Yogasutras.
Alexander Wynne interprets Bronkhorst as stating that dhyana was a Jaina tradition, from which both Hinduism and Buddhism borrowed ideas on meditation. Wynne adds that Bronkhorst opinion "understates the role of meditation" in early Brahmanical tradition. Dhyana was incorporated into Buddhism from Brahmanical practices, suggests Wynne, in the Nikayas ascribed to Alara Kalama and Uddaka Rāmaputta. In early Brahamical yoga, the goal of meditation was considered to be a nondual state identical to unmanifest state of Brahman, where subject-object duality had been dissolved. The early Buddhist practices adapted these old yogic methods, pairing it to mindfulness and attainment of insight. Kalupahana states that the Buddha "reverted to the meditational practices" he had learned from Alara Kalama and Uddaka Rāmaputta.
In Hinduism, state Jones and Ryan, the term first appears in the Upanishads. Techniques of concentration or meditation are a Vedic tradition, states Frits Staal, because these ideas are found in the early Upanishads as dhyana or abhidhyana. In most of the later Hindu yoga traditions, which derive from Patanjali's Raja Yoga, dhyana is "a refined meditative practice", a "deeper concentration of the mind", which is taken up after preceding practices such as mastering pranayama (breath control) and dharana (mental focus).
Discussion in Hindu texts
Vedas and Upanishads
The term dhyanam appears in Vedic literature, such as hymn 4.36.2 of the Rigveda and verse 10.11.1 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka. The term, in the sense of meditation, appears in the Upanishads. The Kaushitaki Upanishad uses it in the context of mind and meditation in verses 3.2 to 3.6, for example as follows:
The term appears in the context of "contemplate, reflect, meditate" in verses of chapters 1.3, 2.22, 5.1, 7.6, 7.7 and 7.26 of the Chandogya Upanishad, chapters 3.5, 4.5 and 4.6 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and verses 6.9 to 6.24 of the Maitri Upanishad. The word Dhyana refers to meditation in Chandogya Upanishad, while the Prashna Upanishad asserts that the meditation on AUM () leads to the world of Brahman (Ultimate Reality).
Agnihotra
The development of meditation in the Vedic era paralleled the ideas of "interiorization", where social, external yajna fire rituals (Agnihotra) were replaced with meditative, internalized rituals (Prana-agnihotra). This interiorization of Vedic fire-ritual into yogic meditation ideas from Hinduism, that are mentioned in the Samhita and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas and more clearly in chapter 5 of the Chandogya Upanishad (~800 to 600 BCE), are also found in later Buddhist texts and esoteric variations such as the Dighanikaya, Mahavairocana-sutra and the Jyotirmnjari, wherein the Buddhist texts describe meditation as "inner forms of fire oblation/sacrifice". This interiorization of fire rituals, where life is conceptualized as an unceasing sacrifice and emphasis is placed on meditation occurs in the classic Vedic world, in the early Upanishads and other texts such as the Shrauta Sutras and verse 2.18 of Vedic Vaikhanasa Smarta Sutra.
Beyond the early Upanishads composed before 5th-century BCE, the term Dhyana and the related terms such as Dhyai (Sanskrit: ध्यै, deeply meditate) appears in numerous Upanishads composed after the 5th-century BCE, such as: chapter 1 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, chapters 2 and 3 of Mundaka Upanishad, chapter 3 of Aitareya Upanishad, chapter 11 of Mahanarayana Upanishad, and in various verses of Kaivalya Upanishad, Chulika Upanishad, Atharvasikha Upanishad, Brahma Upanishad, Brahmabindu Upanishad, Amritabindu Upanishad, Tejobindu Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Kshuriki Upanishad, Dhyana-bindu Upanishad, Atharvasiras Upanishad, Maha Upanishad, Pranagnihotra Upanishad, Yogasikha Upanishad, Yogatattva Upanishad, Kathasruti Upanishad, Hamsa Upanishad, Atmaprabodha Upanishad and Visudeva Upanishad.
Brahma Sutras
The Brahma-sutras, which distills the teachings of the Upanishads and is one of three foundational texts of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, states that Dhyana is not Prativedam (or, one for each Veda), and meditation belongs to all Vedic schools.
Adi Shankara dedicates an extensive chapter on meditation, in his commentary on the Brahma-sutras, in Sadhana as essential to spiritual practice. His discussion there is similar to his extensive commentary on Dhyana in his Bhasya on Bhagavad Gita and the early Upanishads.
Dharma Sutras
The verse 30.8 of the ancient Vasistha Dharma-sutra declares meditation as a virtue, and interiorized substitute equivalent of a fire sacrifice.
Bhagavad Gita
The term Dhyana, and related words with the meaning of meditation appears in many chapters of the Bhagavad Gita, such as in chapters 2, 12, 13 and 18. The chapter 6 of the Gita is titled as the "Yoga of Meditation".
The Bhagavad Gita, one of the three key books of Vedanta school of Hinduism, states four Marga (paths) to purify one's mind and to reach the summit of spirituality – the path of Unselfish Work, the path of Knowledge, the path of Devotion and the path of Meditation (Dhyana). Huston Smith summarizes the need and value of meditation in Gita, as follows (abridged):
Meditation in the Bhagavad Gita is a means to one's spiritual journey, requiring three moral values – Satya (truthfulness), Ahimsa (non-violence) and Aparigraha (non-covetousness). Dhyana in this ancient Hindu text, states Huston Smith, can be about whatever the person wants or finds spiritual, ranging from "the manifestation of divinity in a religious symbol in a human form", or an inspiration in nature such as "a snow-covered mountain, a serene lake in moonlight, or a colorful horizon at sunrise or sunset", or melodic sounds or syllables such as those that "are intoned as mantras and rhythmically repeated" like Om that is audibly or silent contemplated on. The direction of deep meditation, in the text, is towards detaching the mind from sensory distractions and disturbances outside of oneself, submerging it instead on the indwelling spirit and one's soul towards the state of Samadhi, a state of bliss (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 6: Yoga of Meditation).
The Gita presents a synthesis of the Brahmanical concept of Dharma with bhakti, the yogic ideals of liberation through jnana, and Samkhya philosophy. It is the "locus classicus" of the "Hindu synthesis" which emerged around the beginning of the Common Era, integrating Brahmanic and shramanic ideas with theistic devotion.
The Bhagavad Gita talks of four branches of yoga:
Karma Yoga: The yoga of work in the world
Jnāna yoga: The yoga of knowledge and intellectual endeavor
Bhakti Yoga: The yoga of devotion
Dhyāna Yoga: The yoga of meditation (sometimes called Raja yoga or Ashtanga yoga)
The Dhyana Yoga system is specifically described by Krishna in chapter 6 of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna.
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (dated ca. 400 CE), a key text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, Dhyana is the seventh limb of this path, following Dharana and preceding Samadhi. Dhyana is integrally related to Dharana, one leads to other. Dharana is a state of mind, Dhyana the process of mind. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the meditator becomes actively engaged with its focus.
Patanjali defines contemplation (Dhyana) as the mind process, where the mind is fixed on something, and then there is "a course of uniform modification of knowledge". Bronkhorst states that Buddhist influences are noticeable in the first chapter of the Yogasutras, and confirmed by sutra 1.20 because it mentions asamprajnata samadhi is preceded by "trust (sraddha), energy (virya), mindfulness (smriti), concentration (samadhi), and insight (prajna)". According to Bronkhorst, "the definition of Yoga given in the first chapter of the Yoga Sutra does not fit the descriptions contained in the same chapter," and this may suggest the sutra incorporated Buddhist elements as described in the four jhanas. Wynne, in contrast to Bronkhorst's theory, states that the evidence in early Buddhist texts, such as those found in Suttapitaka, suggest that these foundational ideas on formless meditation and element meditation were borrowed from pre-Buddha Brahamanical sources attested in early Upanishads and ultimately the cosmological theory found in the Nasadiya-sukta of the Rigveda.
Adi Shankara, in his commentary on Yoga Sutras, distinguishes Dhyana from Dharana, by explaining Dhyana as the yoga state when there is only the "stream of continuous thought about the object, uninterrupted by other thoughts of different kind for the same object"; Dharana, states Shankara, is focussed on one object, but aware of its many aspects and ideas about the same object. Shankara gives the example of a yogin in a state of dharana on morning sun may be aware of its brilliance, color and orbit; the yogin in dhyana state contemplates on sun's orbit alone for example, without being interrupted by its color, brilliance or other related ideas.
In Patanjali's Raja Yoga, also called "meditation yoga", dhyana is "a refined meditative practice", a "deeper concentration of the mind", which is taken up after preceding practices. In Hinduism, dhyāna is considered to be an instrument to gain self-knowledge. It is a part of a self-directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which a world that by default is experienced as disjointed, comes to be experienced as Self, and an integrated oneness with Brahman. The Brahman has been variously defined in Hinduism, ranging from non-theistic non-dualistic Ultimate Reality or supreme soul, to theistic dualistic God.
Dharana
The stage of meditation preceding dhyāna is called dharana. Dharana, which means "holding on", is the focusing and holding one's awareness to one object for a long period of time. In Yogasutras, the term implies fixing one's mind on an object of meditation, which could be one's breath or the tip of one's nose or the image of one's personal deity or anything of the yogi's choice.
In the Jangama Dhyāna technique, for example, the meditator concentrates the mind to a spot between the eyebrows. According to Patañjali, this is one method of achieving the initial concentration (dhāraṇā: Yoga Sutras, III: 1) necessary for the mind to become introverted in meditation (dhyāna: Yoga Sutras, III: 2). In deeper practice of the technique, the mind concentrated between the eyebrows begins to automatically lose all location and focus on the watching itself. This step prepares one to begin the practice of Dhyana.
Dhyana
The Yogasutras in verse 3.2 and elsewhere, states Edwin Bryant, defines Dhyana as the "continuous flow of the same thought or image of the object of meditation, without being distracted by any other thought". Vivekananda explains Dhyana in Patanjali's Yogasutras as, "When the mind has been trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or external location, there comes to it the power of flowing in an unbroken current, as it were, towards that point. This state is called Dhyana".
While Dharana was the stage in yoga where the yogi held one's awareness to one object for a long period of time, Dhyana is concentrated meditation where he or she contemplates without interruption the object of meditation, beyond any memory of ego or anything else.
In Dhyana, the meditator is not conscious of the act of meditation (i.e. is not aware that he/she is meditating) but is only aware that he/she exists (consciousness of being), his mind and the object of meditation. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana, in that the yogi contemplates on the object of meditation and the object's aspects only, free from distractions, with his mind during Dhyana. With practice, the process of Dhyana awakens self-awareness (soul, the purusha or Atman), the fundamental level of existence and Ultimate Reality in Hinduism, the non-afflicted, conflictless and blissful state of freedom and liberation (moksha).
Samadhi
The Dhyana step prepares a yogi to proceed towards practicing Samadhi. Swami Vivekananda describes the teachings of Yogasutras in the following way:
Michael Washburn states that the Yogasutras text identifies stepwise stages for meditative practice progress, and that "Patanjali distinguishes between Dharana which is effortful focusing of attention, Dhyana which is easy continuous one-pointedness, and Samadhi which is absorption, ecstasy, contemplation". A person who begins meditation practice, usually practices Dharana. With practice he is able to gain ease in which he learns how to contemplate in a sharply focussed fashion, and then "he is able more and more easily to give uninterrupted attention to the meditation object; that is to say, he attains Dhyana". With further practice, the yogi "ceases being detachedly vigilant" and enters "a state of fusion with the meditation object" which is Samadhi.
Samadhi is oneness with the object of meditation. There is no distinction between act of meditation and the object of meditation. Samadhi is of two kinds, with and without support or an object of meditation:
Samprajnata Samadhi, also called savikalpa samadhi and Sabija Samadhi, is object-centered, and is associated with deliberation, reflection, blissful ecstasy that has been assisted by an object or anchor point. The first two, deliberation and reflection, form the basis of the various types of samapatti:
Savitarka, "deliberative": The citta(चित्त)is concentrated upon a gross object of meditation, and the yogi's deliberates and fuses with it, becoming unaware of everything else. Conceptualization (vikalpa) here is in the form of perception and the knowledge of the object of meditation. When the deliberation is ended this is called nirvitaka samadhi.
Savichara, "reflective": the citta(चित्त)is concentrated upon an abstract object of meditation, which is not perceptible to the senses, but arrived at through inference. The object of meditation can be inferred from the senses, the process of cognition, the mind, the I-am-ness, or the buddhi (intellect). The stilling of reflection is called nirvichara samapatti.
Asamprajnata Samadhi, also called Nirvikalpa Samadhi and Nirbija Samadhi: the state achieved when the meditation is without the help of a support or an object.
Both object-centered and objectless-centered meditative practice, in Hindu texts, leads to progressively more bright, pellucid and poised state of "powerful, pure, Sattvic" state of blissful Self, ultimately leading to the knowledge of purusha or Atman-Brahman (soul), states Michael Washburn. This is the state, in Hindu tradition, where states Gregor Maehle, the yogi or yogini realizes "the Atman in you is the Atman in everyone", and leading to the realization of Self.
Samyama
The practice of Dharana, Dhyana and Samādhi together is designated as Samyama (Sanskrit: संयम, holding together) in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Samyama, asserts the text, is a powerful meditative tool and can be applied to a certain object, or entire class of objects. A yogi who does Samyama on Pratyaya (notions, customs) of men, states sutra 3.19 of the text, knows the series of "psycho-mental states of other men". A yogi after successfully completing Samyama on "distinction of object and idea" realizes the "cries of all creatures", states sutra 3.17. A Samyama on friendliness, compassion and joy leads to these powers emerging within the yogi, states sutra 3.23. The meditation technique discussed in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is thus, states Mircea Eliade, a means to knowledge and siddhi (yogic power).
Vācaspati Miśra, a scholar of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, in his bhasya on the Yogasutra's 3.30 wrote, "Whatever the yogin desires to know, he should perform samyama in respect to that object". Moksha (freedom, liberation) is one such practice, where the object of samyama is Sattva (pure existence), Atman (soul) and Purusha (Universal principle) or Bhagavan (God). Adi Shankara, another scholar of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, extensively commented on samyama as a means for Jnana-yoga (path of knowledge) to achieve the state of Jivanmukta (living liberation).
Samāpatti
By the time the Yogasutras were compiled, the Hindu traditions had two broad forms of meditation, namely the ecstatic and enstatic types.
Comparison of Dhyana in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
Buddhism
According to Jianxin Li Samprajnata Samadhi of Hinduism may be compared to the rupa jhanas of Buddhism. This interpretation may conflict with Gombrich and Wynne, according to whom the first and second jhana represent concentration, whereas the third and fourth jhana combine concentration with mindfulness. According to Eddie Crangle, the first jhana resembles Patanjali's Samprajnata Samadhi, which both share the application of vitarka and vicara.
Asamprajnata Samadhi, states Jianxin Li, may be compared to the arupa jhanas of Buddhism, and to Nirodha-Samapatti. Crangle and other scholars state that sabija-asamprajnata samadhi resembles the four formless jhanas, with the fourth arupa jhana of Buddhism being analogous to Patanjali's "objectless dhyana and samadhi".
According to Sarbacker and other scholars, while there are parallels between Dhyana in Hinduism and in Buddhism, the phenomenological states and the emancipation experiences are described differently. Dhyana in Buddhism is aiming towards cessation and realization of shunya (state of null), while Dhyana Hinduism is aiming towards realization of Atman (soul) and consequent union with Brahman. Nirvana (or Nibbana), the desired end through Dhyana in Buddhism, is the realization that there is no permanent self nor permanent consciousness; while Moksha, the desired end through Dhyana in Hinduism, is acceptance of Self, realization of liberating knowledge, the consciousness of Oneness with all existence and understanding the whole universe as the Self. Nirvana of Buddhism starts with the premise that "Self is merely an illusion, there is no Self", Moksha of Hinduism on the other hand, starts with the premise that everything is the Self, states David Loy. The soteriological emphasis in Dhyana, therefore is different in Buddhism and Hinduism.
Jainism
Ancient Jaina scholars developed their own theories on Dhyana like other Indian religions, but little detail is mentioned in Jaina texts, and the Dhyana practices varied by sects within the Jaina tradition. Broadly, Jainism texts identify four types of meditation based on the nature of object. Arta-dhyana, states Jaina meditation literature, occurs when one's focus is on anguish and unpleasant things. Raudra-dhyana occurs when the focus is on anger or perverse ideas or objects. Dharmya-dhyana focuses on religious ideas or virtuous objects, while Shukla-dhyana is the focus on pure ideas or bright objects. This classification of four Dhyana types may have roots, suggests Paul Dundas, in the earlier Hindu texts related to Kashmir Shaivism.
Dundas states that Jaina tradition emphasized Dhyana, but its meditation-related literature likely went through two stages of formulation, the early stage independent of other Indian traditions, one which concerned itself with "cessation of mind and physical activities" rather than their transformation as in other Indian traditions; followed by a later stage, likely post-Yogasutras, where Jaina scholars of different sects restructured the contemplative model to assimilate elements of Hindu and Buddhist techniques on Dhyana. The terminology used in some Jainism texts however, states John Cort, are different.
The premise of Atman (soul) exists, that is found in Hinduism, is also present in Jainism. The soteriological goals of Jaina spiritual meditation are similar to Hindu spiritual meditation, aimed at experiential contact with the "ultimate self", wherein the yogi realizes the blissful, unfettered, formless soul and siddha-hood – a totally liberated state of being.
Related concept: Upasana
Two concepts associated with Dhyana found in ancient and medieval Hindu texts are Upasana and Vidya. Upasana means "come near to something, some idea" and denotes the act and state of meditation, while Vidya means knowledge and is the consequence of Dhyana. The term Upasana typically appears in the context of ritual meditative practices, such as before a devotional symbol such as deity or during a yajna type practice or community oriented bhakti worship singing, and is a subtype of Dhyana.
The 11th-century Vishishtadvaita Vedanta scholar Ramanuja noted that upasana and dhyana are equated in the Upanishads with other terms such as vedana (knowing) and smrti (remembrance). Ramanuja holds that all these are phases of meditation, adding that they must be done with love or bhakti.
See also
Yoga (philosophy)
Sahaja Yoga
Ashtanga Yoga
Pranava yoga
Raja Yoga
Samādhi
Samyama
Dhyāna in Buddhism
Jain meditation
History of meditation
Notes
References
Sources
Published sources
Web-sources
External links
George Feuerstein, Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana)
Yogi Baba Prem Yogacharya, The Myths of Meditation! Light on Dhyana.
Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati, Integrating 50+ Varieties of Yoga Meditation
Eight limbs of yoga
Hindu philosophical concepts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautham%20Vasudev%20Menon
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Gautham Vasudev Menon
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Gautham Vasudev Menon (born 25 February 1973) is an Indian film director, screenwriter, producer and actor who predominantly works in Tamil film industry. He has also directed Telugu and Hindi films that either simultaneously shot with or remakes of his own Tamil films.
Many of his films have been both critically acclaimed and commercially successful, most notably his romantic films Minnale (2001), Vaaranam Aayiram (2008), Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa (2010), his cop action thrillers Kaakha Kaakha (2003), Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu (2006), Yennai Arindhaal (2015) and his gangster drama Vendhu Thanindhathu Kaadu (2022). His 2008 Tamil film, Vaaranam Aayiram won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil. Menon produces films through his film production company named Photon Kathaas. His production Thanga Meengal (2013) won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil.
Early life and education
Gautham was born on 25 February 1973 in Ottapalam, a town in the Palakkad district of Kerala. His father Vasudeva Menon was a Malayali and his mother Uma was Tamil. Although born in Kerala, he grew up in Anna Nagar, Chennai.
Menon did his schooling at the Madras Christian College Higher Secondary School. He then earned a bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering from Mookambigai College of Engineering, Pudukkottai.
He can speak English, Malayalam, and Tamil fluently.
Film career
Early work, 2001
Menon's time at university inspired him to write the lead roles of Minnale, Vaaranam Aayiram, Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa, Neethaane En Ponvasantham and Enai Noki Paayum Thota who were students in the same course. During the period, he was inspired by films such as Dead Poets Society (1989) and Nayakan (1987) and expressed his desire to his parents to change his career path and become a filmmaker. His mother insisted that he become an ad filmmaker by shooting various commercials and he took an apprenticeship under filmmaker Rajiv Menon. He went on to work as an assistant director for Minsara Kanavu (1997), in which he also appeared in a cameo role.
Menon launched a Tamil romance film O Lala in 2000 with the project eventually changing producers and titles into Minnale (2001) with Madhavan, who was at the beginning of his career, being signed on to portray the lead role. About the making of the film, Menon revealed that he found it difficult as the team was new to the industry with only the editor of the film, Suresh Urs, being an experienced technician. Menon came under further pressure when Madhavan insisted that the film's story was narrated to the actor's mentor, Mani Ratnam, to identify if the film was a positive career move. Despite initial reservations, Menon did so and Ratnam was unimpressed; however, Menon has since cited that he thought that Madhavan "felt sorry" and later agreed to continue with the project. The film also featured Abbas and newcomer Reemma Sen in significant roles, whilst Menon introduced Harris Jayaraj as music composer with the film. The film was advertised as a Valentine's Day release in 2001 and told the tale of a young man who falls in love with the girl engaged to his ex-college rival. Upon release it went on to become a large success commercially and won positive reviews from critics, with claims that the film had a lot of "lot of verve and vigour" and that it was "technically excellent".
The success of the film led producer Vashu Bhagnani to sign him on to direct the Hindi language remake of the film, Rehnaa Hai Terre Dil Mein (2001), starring Madhavan alongside Dia Mirza and Saif Ali Khan. Menon was initially apprehensive but said it eventually took "half an hour" to agree, but against his intentions, the producer opted against retaining the technical crew of the original. He changed a few elements, deleted certain scenes and added some more for the version. A critic felt that "the presentation is not absorbing" though stating that Menon "handled certain sequences with aplomb"; the film subsequently became a below-average box office performer. The failure of the film left him disappointed, with Menon claiming in hindsight that the film lacked the simplicity of the original with the producer's intervention affecting proceedings. Several years after release, the film later gained popularity through screenings on television and subsequently developed a cult following amongst young Hindi-speaking audiences. In 2011, the producer of the film approached him to remake Rehnaa Hai Terre Dil Mein with the producer's son Jackky Bhagnani in the lead role, but Menon was uninterested with the offer. Later on in 2001, it was reported that he was working on a film tentatively titled Iru Vizhi Unadhu, though the project did not develop into production.
Police duology, 2003–06
Gautham Menon returned in 2003 by directing the realistic police thriller Kaakha Kaakha (2003) starring Suriya, Jyothika and Jeevan. The film portrayed the personal life of a police officer and how his life is affected by gangsters, showing a different perspective of police in comparison to other Tamil films of the time. Menon revealed that he was inspired to make the film after reading articles on how to encounter specialists who shoot gangsters and how their families get threatening calls in return, and initially approached Madhavan, Ajith Kumar and then Vikram for the role without success, with all three actors citing that they did not want to play a police officer. The lead actress Jyothika asked Menon to consider Suriya for the role, and he was subsequently selected after Menon saw his portrayal in Nandha. He held a rehearsal of the script with the actors, a costume trial with Jyothika and then enrolled Suriya in a commando training school before beginning production, which he described as a "very planned shoot". The film consequently opened to very positive reviews from critics on the way to becoming another success for Menon, with critics labeling it as a "career high film". Furthermore, the film was described as "for action lovers who believe in logical storylines and deft treatment" with Menon being praised for his linear narrative screenplay.
Menon subsequently remade the film in the Telugu language as Gharshana (2004) starring Venkatesh in Suriya's role. The film also featured actress Asin and Salim Baig in prominent roles and went on to earn commercial and critical acclaim with reviewers citing that "film redeems itself due to the technical excellence and masterful craft of Gautham", drawing comparisons of Menon with noted film makers Mani Ratnam and Ram Gopal Varma. In July 2004, Menon also agreed terms to direct and produce another version of Kaakha Kaakha in Hindi with Sunny Deol in the lead role and revealed that the script was written five years ago with Deol in mind, but the film eventually failed to take off. Producer Vipul Shah approached him to direct the Hindi version of the film in 2010 as Force with John Abraham and Genelia D'Souza, and Menon initially agreed before pulling out again. Menon and the original producer, Dhanu, also floated an idea of an English-language version with a Chechnyan backdrop, though talks with a potential collaboration with Ashok Amritraj collapsed. In 2018, Menon revealed that he had plans of making a sequel to Kaakha Kaakha with Suriya.
He was then signed on to direct a venture starring Kamal Haasan and produced by Kaja Mohideen, and initially suggested a one-line story which went on to become Pachaikili Muthucharam for the collaboration. Kamal Haasan wanted a different story and thus the investigative thriller film Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu (2006), was written with Jyothika, Kamalinee Mukherjee, Prakash Raj, Daniel Balaji and Salim Baig added to the cast. The film told another episode from a police officer's life, with an Indian cop moved to America to investigate the case of psychotic serial killers before returning to pursue the chase in India. During the shooting, the unit ran into problems after the producer had attempted suicide and as a result, Kamal Haasan wanted to quit the project. Menon subsequently convinced him to stay on as they had taken advance payments. He has since revealed that unlike Kamal Haasan's other films, the actor did not take particular control of the script or production of the film. The film however had gone through change from the original script with less emphasis on the antagonists than Menon had hoped and he also revealed that scenes for songs were forced in and shot without him. The film released in August 2006 and went on to become his third successive hit film in Tamil and once again, he won rave reviews for his direction. Menon later expressed interest in remaking the film in Hindi with Amitabh Bachchan in the lead role without the love angle, though the project fell through after discussions. In 2012, he re-began negotiations with producers to make a Hindi version of the film with Shahrukh Khan in the lead role. He had stated his intent on making a trilogy of police episode films, with a possible third featuring Vikram in the lead role, before completing it in 2015 with Ajith Kumar in Yennai Arindhaal.
Success, 2007–08
His next project, Pachaikili Muthucharam (2007), based on the novel Derailed by James Siegel, featured Sarath Kumar and Jyothika and was released in February 2007. Initially, the lead role was offered to Kamal Haasan who passed the opportunity, while actors Cheran and Madhavan declined citing date and image problems respectively. Menon met Sarath Kumar at an event where he cited he was looking to change his 'action' image and Menon subsequently cast him in the lead role. During production, the film ran into further casting trouble with Simran dropping out her assigned role and was replaced by Shobana after another actress, Tabu, also rejected the role. Shobana was also duly replaced by a newcomer, Andrea Jeremiah to portray the character of Kalyani in the film. The film was under production for over a year and coincided with the making of his previous film which was largely delayed. The film initially opened to positive reviews with a critic citing that Menon is "growing with each passing film. His style is distinctive, his vision clear, his team rallies around him and he manages to pull it off each time he attempts". However the film became a financial failure for the producer, V. Ravichandran and in regard to the failure of the film, Menon went on to claim that Sarath Kumar was "wrong for the film" and that he tweaked the story to fit his image; he also claimed that his father's ailing health and consequent death a week before the release had left him mentally affected. In mid-2007, Menon announced and began work on a youth-centric film titled Chennaiyil Oru Mazhaikaalam featuring Trisha and an ensemble of newcomers. Set in the backdrop of Chennai's booming IT industry, the team began its shoot in September 2007 and continued for thirty days but was later delayed and eventually shelved. In 2011, he revealed that the film was dropped because he felt the actors "needed to be trained", and would consider restarting the project at a later stage.
His next release, Vaaranam Aayiram (2008), saw him re-collaborate with Suriya, who played dual roles in the film. The film illustrates the theme of how a father often came across in his son's life as a hero and inspiration, and Menon dedicated the film to his late father who died in 2007. The pre-production of the film, then titled Chennaiyil Oru Mazhaikaalam began in 2003, with Menon planning it as a romantic film with Suriya as a follow-up to their successful previous collaboration, Kaakha Kaakha. Abhirami was signed and then dropped due to her height before a relatively new actress at the time Asin was selected to make her debut in Tamil films with the project.
The first schedule of the film began in January 2004 in Visakhapatanam and consequently romantic scenes with Suriya and Asin were shot for ten days and then a photo shoot with the pair. The film was subsequently stalled and was eventually relaunched with a new cast including Divya Spandana, Simran and Sameera Reddy in 2006 with Aascar Ravichandran stepping in as producer, who opted for a change of title. Menon has described the film as "autobiographical and a very personal story and if people didn't know, that 70% of this [the film] is from my life". Throughout the film-making process, Menon improvised the script to pay homage to his late father by adding a family angle to the initial romantic script, with Suriya eventually playing dual roles. The film's production process became noted for the strain and the hard work that Suriya had gone through to portray the different roles with production taking nearly two years. The film was released to a positive response, with critics heaping praise on Suriya's performance while claiming that the film was "just a feather in Gautam's hat" and that it was "a classic". The film was made at a budget of 150 million rupees and became a commercial success, bringing in almost 220 million rupees worldwide. It went on to become Menon's most appreciated work till date winning five Filmfare Awards, nine Vijay Awards and the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil for 2008 amongst other accolades. Post-release of the film, Menon had a public fallout with his regular music composer Harris Jayaraj and announced that they would no longer work together, though they later returned in 2015 for Yennai Arindhaal. In late 2008, during the making of Vaaranam Aayiram, he had signed on with Sivaji Productions to direct Ajith Kumar and Sameera Reddy in an action film titled Surangani. Menon later pulled out of the commitment citing that the producers were not willing to let him take his own time with scripting.
Romance and experimentation, 2010–2014
In 2010, Menon made a return to romantic genre after 2 years with the Tamil romantic film
Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa (2010), starring Silambarasan and Trisha. Originally planned as a d Jessie with Mahesh Babu in the lead role, the actor's refusal prompted Menon to make the Tamil version first. The film explored the complicated relationship between a Hindu Tamil assistant director, Karthik, and a Christian Malayali girl, Jessie and their resultant emotional conflicts. The film featured music by A. R. Rahman in his first collaboration with Menon whilst cinematographer Manoj Paramahamsa was also selected to be a part of the technical crew. Menon cited that he was "a week away from starting the film with a newcomer" before his producer insisted they looked at Silambarasan, with Menon revealing that he was unimpressed with the actor's previous work. The film was in production for close to a year and throughout the opening week of filming, promotional posters from classic Indian romantic films were released featuring the lead pair. Prior to release, the film became the first Tamil project to have a music soundtrack premiere outside of India, with a successful launch at the BAFTA in London. Upon release, the film achieved positive reviews, with several critics giving the film "classic" status, whilst also become a commercially successful venture. Reviewers praised Menon citing that "credit for their perfect portrayal, of course, goes to Gautam Vasudev Menon. This is one director who's got the pulse of today's urban youth perfectly" and that "crafted a movie that will stay in our hearts for a long, long time." Soon after the Tamil version began shoot, Menon decided to begin a Telugu version titled Ye Maaya Chesave (2010) and release it simultaneously, with featuring a fresh cast of Naga Chaitanya and debutante Samantha. Like the Tamil version, the film won critical acclaim and was given "classic" status from critics, as it went on to become among the most profitable Telugu films of 2010. In 2016, he revealed that he had scripted a spin-off film from Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa titled Ondraga, where the character of Karthik's life would be followed eight years after the happenings of the previous film.
He next began research and pre-production work on a 1920s period spy thriller titled Thuppariyum Anand in early 2010, with both Ajith Kumar and then Suriya considered for the lead roles, but the film failed to progress. Menon had also made progress over the previous two years directing the psychological thriller Nadunisi Naaygal (2011) featuring his assistant and debutant Veera Bahu and Sameera Reddy. Menon claimed that the film was inspired by a true event from the US, while also claiming that a novel also helped form the story of the film. During the making, he explicitly revealed that the film was for "the multiplex audience" and would face a limited release, citing that "it will not cater to all sections of the audience". He promoted the film by presenting a chat show dubbed as Koffee with Gautham where he interviewed Bharathiraja and Silambarasan, both of whom had previously worked in such psychological thriller films with Sigappu Rojakkal and Manmadhan. The film, which was his first home production under Photon Kathaas and did not have a background score, told the story of a victim of child abuse and the havoc he causes to women, narrating the events of a particular day. The film opened to mixed reviews with one critic citing it as "above average" but warning that "don't go expecting a typical Gautham romantic film" and that it "is definitely not for the family audiences", while criticizing that "there are too many loopholes in the story, raising doubts about logic". In contrast another critic dubbed it as an "unimpressive show by director Menon, as it is neither convincing nor appealing, despite having some engrossing moments". A group of protesters held a protest outside Gautham's house on reason for misusing a goddess's name in his film and also showing explicit sex and violent scenes, claiming that it was against Tamil culture. Soon after the release of the film, Menon began pre-production work on a television series featuring Parthiban in the lead role of a detective, but did not carry through with the idea after he failed to find financiers.
Menon returned to Bollywood with the Hindi remake of Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa, titled Ekk Deewana Tha (2012), with Prateik Babbar and Amy Jackson. Unlike the South Indian versions, the film opened to unanimously below average reviews, with critics noting the story "got lost in translation", and became a box office failure. Post-release, Menon admitted that he "got the casting wrong", and subsequently other Hindi films he had pre-planned were dropped. During the period, Menon also began pre-production work on the first film of an action-adventure series of films titled Yohan starring Vijay in the title role. However, after a year of pre-production, the director shelved the film citing differences of opinion about the project.
Menon's next releases were the romantic films Neethaane En Ponvasantham (2012) in Tamil and Yeto Vellipoyindhi Manasu (2012) in Telugu, both co-produced by Photon Kathaas. Jiiva and Nani played the lead roles in each version respectively, while Samantha was common in both films. Ilaiyaraaja was chosen as music composer for the film, which told the story of three stages in the life of a couple. A third Hindi version Assi Nabbe Poorey Sau, was also shot simultaneously with Aditya Roy Kapoor playing the lead role, though the failure of Ek Deewana Tha saw production ultimately halted. The films both opened to average reviews and collections, with critics noting Menon "falls into the trap every seasoned filmmaker dreads -- of repeating his own mandatory formula" though noting that the film has its "sparkling moments". The lukewarm response of the film prompted a legal tussle to ensue between Menon and the film's producer Elred Kumar, prompting the director to release an emotionally charged letter attempting to clear his name of any financial wrongdoing. Menon was then briefly associated with the anthology film, X, helping partially direct a script written by Thiagarajan Kumararaja before opting out and being replaced by Nalan Kumarasamy. He also began production work on a big-budgeted venture titled Dhruva Natchathiram, signing up an ensemble cast including Suriya, Trisha and Arun Vijay, with a series of posters issued and an official launch event being held. However, in October 2013, Suriya left the film citing Menon's lack of progress in developing the script and the film was subsequently dropped. Later in early 2015, Menon restarted pre-production for the project with Vikram and Nayantara, but again was forced to postpone the film citing financial restraints.
Return to action genre, 2015–present
Following Suriya's withdrawal from Dhruva Natchathiram, Menon moved on to begin a romantic thriller film with Silambarasan and Pallavi Subhash in the lead role from November 2013. The film developed under the title Sattendru Maarathu Vaanilai and was shot for thirty days, before the film was put on hold as a result of Menon getting an offer from producer A. M. Rathnam to begin a film starring Ajith Kumar. Consequently, in April 2014, he began filming for Yennai Arindhaal (2015), the third instalment in his franchise of police films. He described Ajith's character Sathyadev as an "extension" of the protagonists from Kaakha Kaakha and Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu, while Trisha, Anushka Shetty, Arun Vijay and Parvathy Nair were also selected to portray supporting roles. The film saw him collaborate again with music composer Harris Jayaraj, for the first time since their spat in 2008, while writers Shridhar Raghavan and Thiagarajan Kumararaja were both also involved in the screen-writing process. Focussing on the story of a police officer's professional and personal life from the ages of thirteen to thirty-eight with the backdrop of tackling an organ-trafficking gang, Yennai Arindhaal opened to mixed to positive reviews in February 2015. Critics from The Hindu wrote it "leaves you feeling like having gone back to a well-known play you have enjoyed a few times over", and that it is "a much-needed intervention in the Tamil commercial cinema space" while also "the most engaging of the three [police films]". Reviewer Udhav Naig of The Hindu added that "Gautham wins as he has reconfigured, albeit not radically, the basic contours of a Tamil cop", and that he "has consistently improved on the character sketch in the last three films." The film also performed well at the box office and gave Menon his first commercially successful Tamil film in five years. Soon after the release, he began work on a sequel to the film and expressed his interest in approaching Ajith again to work together in the future. Menon also worked as a singer in Radha Mohan's film Uppu Karuvaadu (2015).
After Yennai Arindhaal, Menon resumed work on his film with Silambarasan under the new title of Achcham Yenbadhu Madamaiyada, with Manjima Mohan joining the cast to replace Pallavi Sharda. A Telugu version with Naga Chaitanya and Manjima was simultaneously shot under the title Sahasam Swasaga Sagipo, with Menon revealing that he hoped to finance the Tamil version through the salary he received from the Telugu film's producers. The film developed slowly and was further delayed after Silambarasan refused to shoot for the film following a salary dispute during mid-2016. Menon also has Enai Noki Paayum Thota, a drama featuring Dhanush and Megha Akash in production, with the shoot began during February 2016.
Menon also has several proposed directorial projects in production. He began producing and directing the spy thriller Dhruva Natchathiram in late 2016 with Vikram leading an ensemble cast. Despite regular schedules throughout 2017, the film has been put on hold as Menon looks to raise funds. He has agreed terms to make an anthology film for Netflix, and another film titled Joshua: Adhiyayam Ondru for Vels Film International featuring Varun. He has also completed a web series titled Queen based on the life of political leader Jayalalithaa, which features Ramya Krishnan in the lead role. The series is released on MX Player. Menon also still aspires to complete his proposed multilingual film titled Ondraaga, which would be a spiritual sequel to Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa.
Filmmaking style
Menon has stated that he is largely inspired by the "depth and aesthetics" that are created by American films. He usually makes the characters in his films by sport identical haircuts and urban casual wear and by speaking in English. His films are also known for their strong depiction of female characters, in contrast to other contemporary Tamil films which, according to journalist Sudhish Kamath, are "hero-worshipping star vehicles where the heroine is just a mere prop". Kamath also notes that several defining traits of Menon's films include liberal doses of English and restraint, the villains being "a seriously dangerous threat", his male protagonists being a "picture of grace and dignity" who are yet fallible, who love their fathers and are trying hard to be good men, who respect women and accept them for who they are. The majority of Menon's police films feature a woman, typically the male lead's wife or lover, being fridged. Menon stated that distributors and financiers often lay several limitations and constraints on his films, that such actions only drift his thoughts and make him feel like he is losing creative control. Though his films are perceived as targeting mainly urban audiences, Menon feels they can be enjoyed by anyone.
According to The Hindus Udhav Naig, Menon's films are "regulated by a matrix of strong middle-class values", and also have biographical elements which, according to Menon, are inspired by his own life. Menon prefers to write the climax of his films only after filming has significantly progressed, stating that though he has an idea about the climax, it always changes when the film starts shooting. He also names his films after classic Tamil phrases and lines from Tamil film songs such as Achcham Yenbadhu Madamaiyada being named after the namesake song from Mannathi Mannan (1960) and Yennai Arindhaal being named after the song "Unnai Arindhaal" from Vettaikkaran (1964). Menon dislikes watching dubbed versions of his own films, and claims his scripts have "a universal theme", citing this as the reason he chose to film Vinnaithaandi Varuvaaya in Telugu as Ye Maaya Chesave, rather than dub. Menon also makes cameo appearances in the films he directs. Menon's films notably feature voiceovers, either from the view of the protagonist or the antagonist.
Personal life
Gautham married Preethi Menon and they have 3 sons Arya, Dhruva and Adhya. Costume designer Uthara Menon is his sister, and has worked on his films following Yennai Arindhaal (2015).
Filmography
As a director
Television
Other roles
Music videos
Short films
Awards
Awards
Honour by Government of Tamil Nadu - Kalaimamani (2021)
Vijay Award for Favourite Director for Vaaranam Aayiram (2008)
National Film Awards
National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil for Vaaranam Aayiram (2008)
National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil for Thanga Meengal (2013)
Filmfare Awards
Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil for Thanga Meengal (2013)
Nandi Awards
Nandi Award for Best Screenplay Writer for Ye Maaya Chesave (2010)
Nandi Special Jury Award for Ye Maaya Chesave (2010)
Other Awards
Vijay Award for Best Film for Thanga Meengal (2013)
Rotary Club of Chennai – Honored for Creative Excellence (2010)
References
External links
Living people
1973 births
21st-century Indian film directors
Film directors from Chennai
Film directors from Palakkad district
Film producers from Kerala
Filmfare Awards South winners
Nandi Award winners
CineMAA Awards winners
People from Ottapalam
Screenwriters from Kerala
Tamil film directors
Tamil screenwriters
Telugu film producers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity%20Catholic%20College%2C%20Dunedin
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Trinity Catholic College, Dunedin
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Trinity Catholic College (known as Kavanagh College before 2023) is a Catholic, state-integrated, co-educational, secondary school located in central Dunedin, New Zealand. The school was founded in 1989 as the successor of several other secondary (and one intermediate) schools the oldest of which was founded in 1871. Trinity is the only Catholic secondary school in Dunedin and is open to enrolments from throughout the entire city. The school's proprietor is the Catholic Bishop of Dunedin.
History
Kavanagh College
Trinity College began operations in 1989 (under the name Kavanagh College) on the former sites and in the former buildings of St Paul's High School (formerly called Christian Brothers High School), the Christian Brothers Junior School and St Dominic's College, between Rattray and Tennyson streets, the three sites being adjacent to each other. The college was named after the fourth Catholic Bishop of Dunedin John Patrick Kavanagh (Bishop, 1957–1985).
Due to a lack of space, the junior classes were accommodated at "south site" (formerly Moreau College) until 1993 when a new 18 classroom block was completed at a cost of $4 million. Further redevelopment in the 1990s saw the completion of a biology laboratory in an extended science block, the construction of a new auditorium accommodating 420 people and remodelled library, music studios and offices.
In 2011, the college expanded from its restricted main site by purchasing buildings and a carpark on the opposite side of Tennyson Street from Otago Polytechnic and thus increasing the area of the college by 25%. Two of the buildings were demolished, their sites becoming a green area used for school recreation. One of the buildings was kept and used for 6 classrooms. That building (on the corner of York Place) has a historic connection with the important New Zealand artist Colin McCahon as that was where he was trained.
The college's silver jubilee (25 years) was celebrated on 25 October 2014 with a well-attended Mass at the Forsyth Barr Stadium, Dunedin. This was also a celebration of the sesquicentennial of Catholic education in Dunedin (150 years), with each of the city's parishes and schools participating. When Mass came to an end, a plaque honouring the college's three founding orders – the Christian Brothers, Dominican Sisters and Sisters of Mercy was blessed and subsequently placed at the college.
Trinity Catholic College
In March 2022 it was announced that the school name would be changed to Trinity Catholic College in 2023. The name change followed an investigation in which the church found Bishop Kavanagh "failed to take appropriate action over claims of abuse" and "had previously let survivors down badly".
Character
The college is a large central city co-educational school which serves the entire city of Dunedin as the only Catholic secondary school in that city. It is an integrated school with a "special character" in terms of the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975. This special character is broadly the connection of the school with the Catholic faith. Preference of enrolment is given to students who have established a link with the Catholic Church through baptism or membership of a parish. Preference is decided by the appropriate parish priest in each case. A preference certificate from the student's parish is required for each student with their application for enrolment at the school. Under the Act, the school may enrol "non-preference" students but the enrolment of such students is restricted to 5% of the total roll. The College does not have an enrolment scheme which means that there is no restriction on enrolment because of a student's location of residence. The main contributing schools to the college are the Catholic parish schools of Dunedin. Enrolments come from both urban schools and rural schools.
Roll of Honour
Trinity honours former students who died in war. Many former Christian Brothers students died on war service during the First World War. For example, there were at least 83 war deaths from an average school attendance in 1893–1895 of 256 boys meaning that 32.42 percent of boys enrolled at that time died overseas in action.
49 ex-students of the Christian Brothers died in World War II .
Culture
The college emphasises cultural accomplishment including drama and dance group, and a Technical Team. A Cultural Awards ceremony is held annually to celebrate cultural achievement. Each year all Trinity College students are given the opportunity to participate in the annual musical. The students can participate in the cast, band, or technical crew. The annual musicals have been as follows:
West Side Story (2002);
Fame (2003);
Godspell (2004);
Les Misérables (2005);
The Wiz (2006);
The Boy Friend (2007);
Footloose (2008);
Disco Inferno (2009);
Jesus Christ Superstar (2010);
Grease (2011);
Chicago (2012);
Cabaret (2013);
A Dream To Share (a montage of songs from a variety of past musicals, celebrating 25 years of Kavanagh musicals) (2014);
Oliver! (2015);
The Wizard of Oz (2016);
Bugsy Malone (2017);
Beauty and the Beast (2018);
Annie (2019);
Grease (2020);
Seussical (2021);
The Addams Family (2023);
Sport
The College participates in many sporting codes. It has a particular reputation as one of New Zealand's leading rowing schools.
Principals
Antecedents
The first Catholic school (1863)
The Otago settlement was established in 1848 and had an overwhelmingly Presbyterian character. There were very few Catholics there. However, in March 1861 gold was discovered at the Lindis Pass and Gabriel Read made public his successful discovery of gold at Tuapeka in June. The situation dramatically changed. Every steamer reaching Port Chalmers or Bluff was packed with would-be miners, many of whom were Catholics. Accordingly, Bishop Viard (Bishop of the Catholic diocese of Wellington in which Dunedin was located at that time) appointed Father Delphin Moreau SM, who had visited Otago in April 1859, to be its first resident priest. Mass was said in the courthouse until St Joseph's Church was completed in July 1862. In 1864 the Catholic population of Otago was estimated at over 15,000; chapels (many of them rough and ready) sprang up in the diggings and main towns, and schools came into existence. A school was opened in 1863 and was called St Joseph's School (it still exists as a primary school). "When the old wooden Provincial Government buildings were replaced by new brick ones, the former were sold. Father Moreau secured some of them for his school. One large room was put on the side of the Rattrey Street gully, below the church. It was divided into two parts – one for the boys and one for the girls. Other parts of the buildings were used as a coach house and stables. In 1864, the boys at the school were taught by Mr Shepherd and the girls were taught by Miss Campion. In 1870 Mr Shepherd still taught the boys and the girls were taught by Miss Conway. "Father Moreau took a great interest in the schools and was constantly among the children in the playground, always wearing his cassock which was green with age; he knew every child and was loved by them all. His hope was to obtain brothers and nuns to staff his schools."
St Dominic's College (1871–1976)
On Monday 20 February 1871, the Dominican Sisters who had arrived with the first Catholic Bishop of Dunedin, Patrick Moran, on 11 February, took charge of the girls' school. On 27 February a High School, St Dominic's College, for day pupils was opened. This school also took a small number of boarders. There were 27 boarders in a total roll of approximately 200 in 1971, the centennial year of the college. The college existed in architectural splendour until 1976 being attached to the neo-gothic St Dominic's Priory (completed 1877), one of leading architect Francis Petre's "earliest commissions and one of his finest works" and being adjacent to Petre's St. Joseph's Cathedral, Dunedin (completed 1886).
Christian Brothers School (St Paul's High School) (1876–1989)
On the morning of Sunday, 2 April 1876, four Irish Christian Brothers arrived in Dunedin at the invitation of Bishop Moran to establish a secondary school for boys. "They were met by Bishop Moran and a group of Catholics and driven rapidly to Dunedin where, at 11.00 am Mass, Brothers Bodkin, Dunne, Healey and McMahon were introduced to the people." A school for boys was built on Rattray Street. In 1915 a new brick building fronting Tennyson Street replaced the original school. The name of the school changed to Christian Brothers High School in 1928. Rapidly rising rolls in the 1950s led to the diocese purchasing properties in both Rattray and Tennyson Streets and converting them to classrooms." It was clear that the rebuilding of Christian Brothers High School was not sufficient and that a more permanent solution was called for. This occurred in 1964, when a fine new building was erected fronting Rattray St, and Christian Brothers High School became St Pauls High School. The school celebrated its centennial in 1976. The older school building, housing the primary department, became a separate entity and was known as Christian Brothers' Junior School. The Christian Brothers lived opposite the school. The school closed in 1989.
St Aloysius College, Wakari (1878–1883)
A short-lived secondary boarding and day school for boys was operated by the Jesuits at Wakari. The school was established by two Irish Jesuits, Joseph O'Malley and Thomas McEnroe, and had 15 boarders and 6 day pupils. It was promoted by Bishop Moran but was not popular. The site later became a golf course (the Balmacewen course of the Otago Golf Club). One of the holes (the 10th) is called "the monastery" in memory of the Jesuit connection.
St Philomena's College (1897–1976)
On the morning of Sunday, 17 January 1897, the Sisters of Mercy arrived in Dunedin from Ireland at the invitation of Michael Verdon the second Catholic Bishop of Dunedin. The sisters established themselves in South Dunedin and in April 1897 opened a high school for girls. It was opened " ... with the very small roll of four pupils." This was the beginning of St Philomena's College.
St Edmund's School (1949–1989)
To help relieve the pressure on the Christian Brother's Rattray Street school roll a second school, St Edmund's, was opened in South Dunedin in 1949. This was a primary school for boys from about 9 years of age to 12 years of age (Standard 3 (Year 5) to Form 2 (Year 8)). The school closed as part of the reorganising of the Catholic schools in Dunedin in 1989.
Moreau College (1976–1989)
Early in the 1970s the roll numbers at both of Dunedin's Catholic girls' colleges, St Dominic's and St Philomena's, showed a slight reduction. At the same time, the demand for a greater variety of options for girls, particularly in the upper secondary classes, was gradually increasing so that it was becoming more difficult to maintain a full secondary school with a roll of less than 500. "It also had to be taken into account that the buildings at St Dominic's in Rattray Street were deteriorating and the cost of repair or renewal was considerable." The buildings at St Philomena's were newer and in a much better condition. It was therefore decided to merge the two schools on the St Philomena's site in 1976. The new college was called Moreau College after the first resident priest of Dunedin. Moreau College was closed in 1989 and its students transferred to the new college.
Confluence (1989)
In 1989 the new Catholic co-educational school, then named Kavanagh College, resulting from the amalgamation of Moreau College for girls and St Paul's High School (i.e. the Christian Brothers School) for boys, commenced. The senior classes of St Edmund's School (i.e. years 7 and 8) transferred to the new college. The junior classes (Years 5 and 6) were accommodated in Dunedin Catholic primary schools and St Edmund's closed. The religious orders of Dominican Sisters, Christian Brothers, and the Sisters of Mercy were the teaching foundation of the amalgamation. Vincent Jury was appointed as the first principal of the new college. He was the last of the 23 Christian Brother Principals to exercise authority in Rattray Street in the 115 years from 1876 to 1991. The decision to end the tradition of Catholic single-sex education in Dunedin (especially the closing of Moreau College) and to combine the Catholic secondary schools into a co-educational college was controversial especially in relation to senior staff appointments at the new college.
From the beginning of 2023, the college was renamed Trinity Catholic College. A dawn blessing for the school was held on the 30th of January 2023 to mark the change of name and acknowledge the historical mistakes made by the school's previous namesake, Bishop John Kavanagh. Bishop Michael Dooley stated that he hoped the blessing represented a beginning in the darkness which will work its way into the light.
Notable students and alumni
The following persons were educated at Trinity Catholic College or any of its predecessor schools.
The arts
Winifred Kathleen Joan Davin – teacher, community worker, editor (St Dominic's)
Kylie Price – singer-songwriter
Jordan Mullin – ballerina, Staatsballet Berlin
Business
Andrew Todd – businessman (Christian Brothers)
Bryan Todd – businessman (Christian Brothers)
Church
James Liston – archbishop (Christian Brothers)
Peter McKeefry – cardinal (Christian Brothers)
Hugh O'Neill – bishop (Christian Brothers)
Journalism
D. J. Cameron – journalist and sportswriter (Christian Brothers)
Nora Kelly – journalist, poet and playwright (St Dominic's)
Politics, law and public service
Margaret Austin – politician (St Dominic's)
John Callan – judge (Christian Brothers)
Mick Connelly – politician (Christian Brothers)
Clare Curran – politician (Moreau)
Marian Hobbs – politician (St Dominic's)
Brian MacDonell – politician (Christian Brothers)
Patrick O'Dea – public servant (Christian Brothers)
Foss Shanahan – diplomat and public servant (Christian Brothers)
Joe Walding – politician (Christian Brothers)
David Wilson – parliamentary official (St Paul's)
Michael Woodhouse – politician (St Paul's)
Science and medicine
Morva Croxson – music therapist, university chancellor (St Dominics)
Kathleen Todd – child psychiatrist, philanthropist (St Dominic's)
Sport
Nick Beard – cricketer
Andrew Boyens – association footballer
Michael Bracewell – cricketer
William Butler – cricket player and umpire (Christian Brothers)
Steve Casey – rugby union player (Christian Brothers)
Sean Eathorne – cricketer
Erika Fairweather – swimmer
John Flaherty (cricketer) (born 1942) - first-class cricketer for Otago (1964–65 and 1968–69) (Christian Brothers)
Richard Fogarty – rugby union player (Christian Brothers)
Anthony Harris – cricketer
Bert Lowe – boxer (Christian brothers)
Zoe McBride – rower
Brian McCleary – rugby union player and boxer (Christian Brothers)
Craig Miller – wrestler
Kilisitina Moata'ane – rugby union player
Ti'i Paulo – rugby union player
Kevin Skinner – rugby union player (Christian Brothers)
Sio Tomkinson – rugby union player
Lindsay Townsend – rugby union player (Christian Brothers)
Notes
References
A G Butchers, Young New Zealand, Dunedin, Coulls Somerville Wilkie Ltd., Dunedin, 1929.
Sister Mary Augustine McCarthy, O.P., Star in the South: The Centennial History of the New Zealand Dominican Sisters, St Dominic's Priory, Dunedin, 1970.
Sister M Stephanie, Divide and Share: The Story of Mercy in the South 1897–1997, The Sisters of Mercy, Dunedin 1996.
Sister M Regis (ed), The Philomenian; Celebrating 100 years, St Philomena's College, Centenary Committee, Dunedin, 1997.
Graeme Donaldson, To All Parts of the Kingdom: Christian Brothers in New Zealand 1876–2001, Christian Brothers New Zealand Province, Christchurch, 2001, pp. 5 and 6.
External links
Catholic-hierarchy website
Catholic Diocese of Dunedin
Catholic Church in New Zealand
Trinity Catholic College
Education Review Office report
Dominican schools in New Zealand
Congregation of Christian Brothers secondary schools
Congregation of Christian Brothers in New Zealand
Sisters of Mercy schools
Educational institutions established in 1871
Secondary schools in Dunedin
Catholic secondary schools in Dunedin
1871 establishments in New Zealand
Sexual abuse cover-ups
Jesuit secondary schools in New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca%20society
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Inca society
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The Inca society was the society of the Inca civilization in Peru. The Inca Empire, which lasted from 1438 to 1533 A.D., represented the height of this civilization. The Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the empire, the rulers used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andes mountain ranges. The empire proved relatively short-lived however: by 1533, Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca (emperor) of the Inca Empire, was killed on the orders of the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, marking the beginning of Spanish rule. The last Inca stronghold, the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.
Population
Population estimates for the Tawantinsuyu society range from as few as 4.1 million people to more than 36 million. Most estimates are between 6 and 14 million people. The reason for these various estimates is that, while the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus, knowledge of how to read them has been lost. Almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish in the course of their conquest and rule.
Marriage
Women and men had parallel roles, but were separate in Inca society. They were equally valued for the part they played in their society despite their differing roles. Marriage was no different.
Inca women were typically married at the age of sixteen, while men married at the age of twenty. Age, however, was not as important as keeping track of the stage of life that a person was at, such as whether or not they were able to work or be married. Ranks played a role in a person's marriage status as well. Men of lower rank could only have one wife; people of higher ranks than the kuraka were allowed more. If a man had more than one wife, one served as the principal wife while the others were considered secondary. Having more wives showed that the man had more labor showing that the household was wealthy. The death of the principal wife was sometimes met with the suspicion that the husband played a role in her death. The man had to find a new principal wife before he was able to recover from the previous wife's death. To prevent such suspicion and to increase the likelihood of a successful marriage, there were situations in which the couple could test how well the marriage would work out.
Trial marriages were typical of Inca culture. In this type of marriage, the man and woman would agree to try out being married to one another for a few years. At the end of this time, the woman could go home to her parents if she wished and her husband could also send her home if he did not think it would work out. However, once the marriage was made final, they could only divorce if the woman was childless. To make the marriage final, the provincial governor had to approve the union.
In the Incan society, a wedding wasn't a simple event. Instead, it was looked at more as a business-like agreement. Therefore, marriage was an economic agreement between two families. Parents on either side had to come to an agreement before the marriage took place and the couple could not be directly related to one another. Women would almost always marry men in the same social class as themselves. However, while it was very rare for them to marry a man with a higher social ranking, it was still possible for some young women. The only way for a young woman to alter her social ranking would be if a man of higher ranking took notice of her.
Once a woman was married, she was expected to collect food and cook, watch over the animals and the children and supply cloth to the government. Women of higher ranking also weaved, like those of lower ranks, but their work was used in special clothing for the higher ranks. A man's role sometimes resembled that of a woman, but acted in conjunction with one another. A woman’s household obligations would not change after she became pregnant. When she did find out she was pregnant she prayed and made offerings to an Inca god, Kanopa. Using marriage as an alliance strategy was also common among the Inca. Even before the Spaniards' arrival, the Inca used marriage as a way to claim themselves to power. After the Spaniards arrival the Inca allowed marriages between the Inca and Spaniards to gain power during a time of civil war.
The Incas were a conquering society and their expansionist assimilation of other cultures is evident in their artistic style. The artistic style of the Inca utilized the vocabulary of many regions and cultures but incorporated these themes into a standardized imperial style that could easily be replicated and spread throughout the empire. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles and metalwork were all part of the Inca culture. The motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were directly used except Huari and Tiwanaku arts.
Shipbuilding
For fishing, trade, construction, transport and military purposes, the Inca built seagoing vessels called balsas by weaving together totora reeds. The largest of these vessels were 20 to 30 meters long/787 inches to 1181 inches, making them comparable in length to the Spanish caravel. This method of constructing ships from woven reeds is an ancient Peruvian tradition which long predates the Inca. There are depictions of such vessels in Moche pottery dating back to 100 A.D.
Clothing
Inca officials wore stylized tunics that indicated their status. It contains an amalgamation of motifs used in the tunics of particular officeholders. For instance, the black and white checkerboard pattern topped with a pink triangle is believed to have been worn by soldiers of the army. Some of the motifs refer to earlier cultures, such as the stepped diamonds of the Huari and the three-step stairstep motif of the Moche.
The cloth was divided into three classes. Alaska was used for household use and usually made from llama wool. Finer cloth, quipu, was divided into two classes:the first, woven by male qunpikamayuq (keepers of fine cloth) from alpaca wool, was collected as tribute from throughout the country and was used for trade. The other class of quipu ranked highest. It was woven in the Acllawasi (acllahuasi) by "called" (female virgins of the sun god temple) from vicuña wool and used solely for royal and religious use. These had thread counts of 300 or more per inch, unsurpassed anywhere in the world, until the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century.
Aside from the tunic, a person of importance wore a llawt'u, a series of cords wrapped around the head. To establish his importance, the Inca Atahualpa commissioned a llawt'u woven from vampire bat hair. The leader of each ayllu, or extended family, had its own headdress.
In conquered regions, traditional clothing continued to be worn, but the finest weavers, such as those of Chan Chan, were transferred to Cusco and kept there to weave quips (the Chimú had previously transferred these same weavers to Chan Chan from Sican). The farmers were the most important people in the Inca empire, though they were at the bottom of the social class.
Jewelry
The wearing of jewelry was not uniform throughout Peru. Chimú artisans, for example, continued to wear earrings after their integration into the empire, but in many other regions, usually, only local leaders wore them. Jewelry may have been common among the Inca people, however it did not hold as much value to them because labor was the main way people paid each other.
Ceramics and metalwork
Ceramics were for the most part utilitarian in nature but also incorporated the imperialist style that was prevalent in the Inca textiles and metalwork. In addition, the Inca played drums and on woodwind instruments including flutes, pan-pipes and trumpets made of shell and ceramics.
The Inca made beautiful objects of gold, silver, copper, bronze and tumbaga. But precious metals were in shorter supply than in earlier Peruvian cultures. The Inca metalworking style draws much of its inspiration from Chimú art and, in fact, the best metal workers of Chan Chan were transferred to Cusco when the Kingdom of Chimor was incorporated into the empire. Unlike the Chimú, the Inca do not seem to have regarded metals to be as precious as fine cloth. Nonetheless, the metalworks of the Incas were perhaps the most advanced in America. When the Spanish first encountered the Inca they were offered gifts of quips cloth.
Incan ceramics are usually very distinct and easy to recognize. The shapes of the vessels are highly standardized. The most typical Incan pottery would have a spherical body with a cone-shaped base. This spherical body usually includes two vertical side handles with a tall neck and flaring rim. The Incans often would place animal heads on their pottery as well usually near the top of the vessel. There were also several other popular styles for Incan ceramics which included a shallow dish with a single bird head and handle, a pedestal beaker and a single or double handled bottle.
Incans often decorated their ceramics with a multitude of images and colors. They usually decorated their pottery with bright colors like red, yellow, orange, black and white. Much like all other forms of Incan art, the pottery was often decorated with geometric shapes. The Incans would put diamonds, squares, checkers, triangles, circles and dots on almost all of their ceramic work. Other common themes were animals and insects like llamas, birds, jaguars, alpacas, bees and butterflies as well as block-like humans.
As part of a tax obligation to the commoners, mining was required in all the provinces. Even though the Inca Empire contained a lot of precious metals, the Incans did not value their metal as much as fine cloth. The Incans adopted much of their metal-working characteristics from the metalwork of Chimu. Because of their expertise in metalworking, after the fall of Chimu many metalworkers were taken back to the capital city of Cuzco to continue their metalworking for the emperor. Copper, tin, gold and silver were all obtained from mines or washed from the river gravels. These metals would then be handed over to smiths. Because the Inca had a system that emphasized political and religious organizations, there were many specialized artisans like metal smiths. There were also: specialized weavers, cloth makers, pottery makers and many more. Both copper and bronze would be used for basic farming tools or weapons. Some of the common bronze and copper pieces found in the Incan empire included sharp sticks for digging, club-heads, knives with curved blades, axes, chisels, needles and pins. All of these items would be forged by a smith and then spread throughout the empire.
The Incans reserved their more precious metals for ornaments and decorations. Gold and silver were common themes throughout the palaces of Incan emperors. It was said that the walls and thrones were covered with gold and that the emperor dined on gold and silver service. These golden plated services would often be inlaid with llamas, butterflies or other creatures. Even beyond the gold and decoration of the emperor’s palace were the ornaments that decorated all of the temples throughout the empire. The temples of the Incans were strewn with sacred and highly precious objects. Headdresses, crowns, ceremonial knives, cups and a lot of ceremonial clothing were all inlaid with gold or silver.
Many historians believe that the choice of gold was to distinguish the more “sacred” or “holy” pieces from others. The commonality of gold has much to do with the Incan religion surrounding the sun. Because of the beautiful reflection that gold casts, it gave the appearance of containing the sun, making the precious metal even more valued in a sun-obsessed society. Gold was reserved for the highest class of Incan society which consisted of priests, lords and, of course, the Sapa Inca.
Politics
Inca government is generally seen as an omnipotent emperor that ruled over a bureaucracy made up of local elites who had been recruited to serve in the state. This style of rule is often credited to Cuzco's success.
The Inca empire was adamant about expansion and did so through two imperialism strategies: territorial administration and indirect-hegemonic control. Territorial administration consisted of a complete take over of provinces by reorganizing the economy through increased agricultural production and control of exchange routes via the Incan road system. The territorial administration allowed the Inca empire to put in a great deal of effort to control a new territory in hopes to strengthen the empire by a flow of surplus goods back to the empire core from the overtaken province. Indirect-hegemonic control enabled the Incas to gain control over a province but would allow the local leaders to govern the province. The reason behind this strategy was to gain land and flow of surplus goods back to the empire core without spending a great deal of effort to overtake and govern.
Imperial rule was sustained through enforcement by Incan rulers and military troops on a random basis, as well as education of the provincial elite youth of the Incan way of life. Temples and shrines were also constructed in overtaken provinces to inflict Incan religion upon provincial peoples.
Education
Religion
The belief system of the Incas was polytheistic. Viracocha, the creator of the universe and Inti, the Sun God, were the most important gods. Viracocha was believed to have created humanity on an island in the middle of Lake Titicaca. Inti was devoutly loved so much that the Inca people called themselves "Intip Churin" which in Quechua means "the children of the sun."
The Inca took part in spiritual human sacrifices known as the Capacocha. These sacrifices were taken out onto mountains throughout the Andes and placed alive into burial tombs where they were left with items such as:figurines, coca leaves, food, alcoholic beverages and pottery. These offerings were carried out on large mountains where ceremonial sites were constructed and were believed to have been made for numerous events such as important festivals, natural phenomenon and efforts to please the mountain deities. The Vilca camayos were the overseers of the offerings, in which they had a decision on where the sacrifices were made and the number of sacrifices made on each mountain. Mountain deities were worshiped because it was believed that they controlled things like rainfall, water flow and, therefore, the abundance and fertility of crops.
Other practices
The Inca practiced cranial deformation. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls. These deformations did not result in brain damage. Researchers at the Field Museum believe that the practice was used to mark different ethnicities across the Inca Empire.
The Inca preserved bodies through mummification. Bodies were wrapped in the fetal position in cloth or leather. Rank determined how the Incas were buried. Common people were placed in an open cave or chullpa for possible visiting. Emperors' organs were removed and placed in jars separate from their bodies. After preparation, they were placed where they most occupied in life.
Agriculture
It is estimated that the Inca cultivated around seventy crop species. The main crops were: potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, chili peppers, cotton, tomatoes, peanuts, an edible root called oca and the pseudograins quinoa and amaranth. The crops developed by the Inca and preceding cultures makes South America one of the historic centers of crop diversity (along with:the Middle East, India, Mesoamerica, Ethiopia and the Far East). Many of these crops were widely distributed by the Spanish and are now important crops worldwide. Salsa was originated by the Inca people using tomatoes, chili peppers and other spices.
In the Incan settlement of Vitcos, pollen from corn and quinoa was found in several soil samples which date back as early as the Incan period.
The Inca cultivated food crops on dry Pacific coastlines, high on the slopes of the Andes and in the lowland Amazon rainforest. In mountainous Andean environments, they made extensive use of terraced fields which not only allowed them to put to use the mineral-rich mountain soil which other peoples left fallow but also took advantage of micro-climates conducive to a variety of crops being cultivated throughout the year. A contributing factor for the ability of the Inca to expand their population and agriculture as quick as they did, was because of a small climate shift that allowed for slightly warmer temperatures and a small increase in annual precipitation. This contributed to the Inca's ability to use terraced and irrigated fields in higher elevations, opening up vast amount of the Andes Mountains for Inca agriculture. Agricultural tools consisted mostly of simple digging sticks.
The Inca developed qollqas, a building made of adobe, field stone, clay mortar, plaster and pirca used for food storage. These granaries stored: corn, quinoa, tomatoes, potatoes, chicha (maize beer), fruit, salt, fish, tubers and grain. Qollqas allowed for the survival of food supplies in the cold climate of the Andes.
The Inca also raised llamas and alpacas for their wool, meat and to use them as pack animals and captured wild vicuñas for their fine hair.
The Inca road system was key to farming success as it allowed the distribution of foods over long distances. The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through El Niño years while some neighboring civilizations suffered.
Inca leaders kept records of what each ayllu in the empire produced but did not tax them on their production. They instead used the mita for the support of the empire.
The Inca diet consisted primarily of fish and vegetables, supplemented less frequently with the meat of cuyes (guinea pigs) and camelids. In addition, they hunted various animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was malted and used to make chicha, a fermented alcoholic beverage.
Economy
According to Ferreira and Chamot:
"The social system of the Incas had an ancient Andean origin based on the ayllu, an extended family group with a common ancestor. The economic system was also based on ancient social structures and can be explained through several principles, namely reciprocity, redistribution, and vertical control."
These authors also add:
"Redistribution, a practice employed by the state, ensured that all agricultural goods not exchanged by reciprocity were to be distributed in the different areas of the empire in the case of bad crops."
In essence, the Inca government functioned as a safeguard against mass starvation.
Unlike the Europeans, gold and silver were not used as a form of currency. Instead, clothing and food were distributed by the rulers in exchange for labor.
The Incan required tribute from those they conquered. Historical records show that agricultural production as well as cloth production increased after the Incan conquest.
Infrastructure
The "Qhapaq Ñan" (Inca Road) was largely used and constructed across the Inca Empire. Uses were not only for nobility to spread information and expand the empire but were also used for soldiers, for transportation of goods and private usage. Not only were Incan roads expansive, but they were also well planned and maintained. The Incans made a standard design for the roads and carried out the standard throughout the empire. Roads were built so that they were easily drained to prevent damage to the roads and flooding. The roads were cleaned often by designated maintenance workers. Lodges for traveling nobles were also constructed alongside the roads. Rest stops called tambos were built close to roads with water supplies leading to each so that travelers and messengers could have a place to rest and clean water to drink. Military storehouses were also built near the roads and kept food for when troops were traveling. Bridges were built across rivers that were too deep to cross and large flat stones were placed along the sides of roads as markers to distinguish different sections of the roads.
The Inca relied on and worshiped water heavily. A temple was built, the Incamisana, to worship water and the deities granting them water. The temple, as well as many other buildings constructed by the Inca, incorporated aesthetics, underground water conduits and hydraulic systems. The Inca understood water was needed for agricultural production (used in terraces) and for domestic purposes. The civil engineers of the time for the Inca were tasked with laying out diversion and canal routes to a designated spot, finding what water source would give the desired flow rate and what elevation the water source would need to be tapped from for gravity to work effectively. Sanitation was also well known by the Inca. The Inca had their own wastewater treatment systems and it is documented that they would collect the human waste to perform land application to help ensure successful harvest seasons.
See also
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
References
External links
Inca Architecture
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Maya architecture
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Maya architecture spans several thousands of years, several eras of political change, and architectural innovation before the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Often, the buildings most dramatic and easily recognizable as creations of the Maya peoples are the step pyramids of the Terminal Preclassic Maya period and beyond. Based in general Mesoamerican architectural traditions, the Maya utilized geometric proportions and intricate carving to build everything from simple houses to ornate temples. This article focuses on the more well-known pre-classic and classic examples of Maya architecture. The temples like the ones at Palenque, Tikal, and Uxmal represent a zenith of Maya art and architecture. Through the observation of numerous elements and stylistic distinctions, remnants of Maya architecture have become an important key to understanding their religious beliefs and culture as a whole.
Urban design
As Maya cities spread throughout the varied geography of Mesoamerica, the extent of site planning appears to have been minimal, their cities having been built somewhat haphazardly as dictated by the topography of each independent location. Maya architecture tends to integrate a great degree of natural features. For instance, some cities existing on the flat limestone plains of the northern Yucatán grew into great sprawling municipalities, while others built in the hills of Usumacinta utilized the natural loft of the topography to raise their towers and temples to impressive heights. However, some semblance of order, as required by any large city, still prevailed. At the onset of large-scale construction, a predetermined axis was typically established in congruence with the cardinal directions. Depending upon the location and availability of natural resources such as fresh-water wells, or cenotes, the city grew by connecting great plazas with the numerous platforms that created the sub-structure for nearly all Maya buildings, by means of sacbeob causeways. As more structures were added and existing structures re-built or remodelled, the great Maya cities seemed to take on an almost random identity that contrasts sharply with other great Mesoamerican cities such as Teotihuacan and its rigid grid-like construction.
At the heart of the Maya city existed the large plazas surrounded by their most valued governmental and religious buildings such as the royal acropolis, great pyramid temples, and occasionally ballcourts. Though city layouts evolved as nature dictated, careful attention was placed on the directional orientation of temples and observatories so that they were constructed in accordance with the Maya interpretation of the orbits of the stars. Immediately outside this ritual center were the structures of lesser nobles, smaller temples, and individual shrines: the less sacred and less important structures had a greater degree of privacy. Outside the constantly evolving urban core were the less permanent and more modest homes of the common people.
Classic Era Maya urban design could easily be described as the division of space by great monuments and causeways. In this case, the open public plazas were the gathering places for the people and the focus of the urban design, while interior space was entirely secondary. Only in the Late Post-Classic era did the great Maya cities develop into more fortress-like defensive structures that lacked, for the most part, the large and numerous plazas of the Classic. In the Postclassic in Peten, Guatemala, smaller protected settlements emerged in defensible locations, for example on peninsulas and islands in the Petén Basin. These sites had diminutive plazas, and smaller ceremonials structures and the canons of architectural design were modified from the previous Classic period but were recognizable designs shifts from the Classic patterning.
Building process
All evidence suggests that most stone buildings existed on top of a platform that varied in height from less than a meter to 45 meters depending on the importance of the building. A flight of stone steps often split the large platforms on one side, contributing to the common bi-symmetrical appearance of Maya architecture. Depending on the prevalent stylistic tendencies of an area, these platforms most often were built of stucco and cut stone exteriors filled with densely packed gravel. As is the case with many other Maya reliefs, those on the platforms often were related to the intended purpose of the residing structure. Thus, as the sub-structural platforms were completed, the grand residences and temples of the Maya were constructed on the solid foundations of the platforms. As all structures were built, little attention seems to have been given to their utilitarian functionality and much to external aesthetics; however, a certain repeated aspect, the corbelled arch, was often utilized to mimic the appearance and feel of the simple Maya hut.
Though not an effective tool to increase interior space, as it required thick stone walls to support the high ceiling, some temples utilized repeated arches, or a corbelled vault, to construct what the Maya referred to as pibnal, or sweatbath, such as those in the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. As structures were completed, typically extensive relief work was added to the layer of stucco. However, many lintel carvings have been discovered, as well as actual stone carvings used as a facade. Commonly, these would continue uninterrupted around an entire structure and contain a variety of artwork pertaining to the inhabitants or purpose of a building. Though not the case in all Maya locations, broad use of painted stucco has been discovered as well.
Though the Maya did not use a specific measuring unit, their buildings were still proportioned according to the golden mean. For their homes, the Maya would begin with a square then use a cord or vine to measure the square corner to corner. Then by arcing the cord down, a new base length could be established based on the previous square. The new rectangle's length would be the square root of two, which is a proportion found in nature. Since the Maya had religious connotations for which proportions they used and when their form of measurement is called sacred geometry. It was also practiced by the Egyptians. The Maya played with different proportions in their temples and homes to yield symmetrical and harmonious designs all without the use of actual units.
It has been suggested that, in conjunction with the Maya Long Count Calendar, every fifty-two years, or cycle, temples and pyramids were remodelled and rebuilt. It appears now that the rebuilding process was often instigated by a new ruler or for political matters, as opposed to matching the calendar cycle. However, the process of rebuilding on top of old structures is indeed a common one. Most notably, the North Acropolis at Tikal seems to be the sum total of 1,500 years of architectural modifications.
Building materials
The Maya civilization used very simple tools for building their structures. The most common tools use were made of stone found in surrounding areas. Limestone was a huge part of the Maya tool making, as limestone was geographically very abundant in most settlements. Locations of the Maya cities were chosen with the access to necessary stones in mind. This allowed most quarries to be right outside the city for easy access to blocks needed for construction. Top limestone quarries used were Palenque and Tikal. Though limestone was the most important material, they still collected sandstone from Quiriguá and volcanic tuff from Copan.
The Maya people had taken advantage of mortar on most structural projects. The Mayas used a very difficult process of limestone under large amounts of heat to create their mortar. The mortar was so widely used, the Mayas even used it for sculptures, facades, and floor layers. Their mortar was very effective on a large building lifetime, but humid climates can have a negative effect on the mortar.
For more important construction projects the Mayas would cover the entire structures exterior with stucco, followed by bright paintings, prioritizing red, yellow, green, and blue.
Notable constructions
Ceremonial platforms
These were commonly limestone platforms of typically less than four meters in height where public ceremonies and religious rites were performed. Constructed in the fashion of a typical foundation platform, these were often accented by carved figures, altars and perhaps tzompantli, a stake used to display the heads to the victims or defeated Mesoamerican ballgame opponents.
Palaces
Large and often highly decorated, the palaces usually sat close to the center of a city and housed the population's elite. Every exceedingly large royal palace, or one consisting of many chambers on different levels might be referred to as an acropolis. However, often these were one-story and consisted of small chambers and typically at least one interior courtyard; these structures appear to take into account the needed functionality required of a residence, as well as the decoration required for their inhabitants stature. Archaeologists seem to agree that many palaces are home to various tombs.
At Copán (one of the most powerful and important cities), beneath over four-hundred years of later remodeling, a tomb for one of the ancient rulers has been discovered and the North Acropolis at Tikal appears to have been the site of numerous burials during the Terminal Pre-classic and Early Classic periods.
E-groups
"E-Group" is a classification given by Mayanists to certain structure complexes present at a number of Maya sites located in the central and southern Maya lowlands (e.g., the Petén region). Complexes of this type consist of a stepped pyramid main structure, situated on the western side of a quadrilateral plaza or platform. A raised but rather elongated structure appears along the eastern side of the plaza, running north–south; a variation has three smaller temple mounds on top of or replacing this platform, the middle of these substructures placed directly opposite the main structure. Often, two other subsidiary structures appear on the north and south sides of the plaza, respectively. The main western structure is typically terraced (i.e. has several levels), with inset stairways on each of its four sides, with only the eastern stairway, leading from the plaza, providing access to the summit. The stairways have large balustrades which protrude from the pyramid, which were decorated with large stucco masks and panels of architectural art. In other examples, believed to be of a later date, this quadripartite stairway configuration is lacking.
E-group complexes are named after their prototypical example, Structure E-VII-sub at the site of Uaxactun. They were first identified as a meaningful complex by archaeologist Frans Blom in 1924, who excavated the site under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
It has been theorized that these E-groups are observatories, because the eponymous group at Uaxactun contains alignments corresponding approximately to sunrises on the solstices and equinoxes. However, the architectural sequence documented in excavation reports reveals that these alignments connect elements from different periods and thus could have never been observationally functional. Besides, all other E-groups have different orientations, which pertain to widespread groups of astronomical alignments that are also embedded in a number of buildings of other types. Therefore, and considering that their primary uses were ritual and funerary, there are no grounds to designate E Groups as observatories. Other ideas seem to stem from the possible creation story told by the relief and artwork that adorns these structures.
Triadic Groups
They consist of an elevated platform (either an extensive acropolis or a steep pyramid) with a monumental stairway, with a central building facing the stairs, and two lateral structures facing each other on both sides of the platform. This formal complex has been attributed to the earthly re-creation of the Celestial Hearth (modern-day constellation of Orion), or a stage for enthronement rituals. Most recently Triadic Groups have been interpreted as sanctuaries commemorating Maize God's resurrection upon the Flowery Mountain. Such complexes appear during the Late Preclassic times and gradually decrease in number until their disappearance in the Early Postclassic.
Pyramids and temples
Often the most important sanctuaries sat atop towering Maya pyramids, some of over two hundred feet, such as that at El Mirador. The sanctuary on top commonly was heightened by a crest or roof comb. While recent discoveries point toward the extensive use of pyramids as tombs, the temples themselves seem to rarely, if ever, contain burials. Maya pyramids had flat tops and were similar to the Aztec pyramids, though The Aztecs were the individuals who built their pyramids indistinguishable.
At Chichén Itzá there is a pyramid called El Castillo ('the castle'). With four stairways, each with 91 steps (with the upper platform they sum up to 365), and having other architectural elements appearing in astronomically significant numbers, it is a good example of Maya myth and astronomical cycles joined in architecture. Ancient Egyptian civilizations believed there were powers in the sky that brought the rain and even kept hurricanes away. In order to get close enough for the powers to hear them, they built pyramids. The Mesopotamians built ziggurats that were similar to pyramids with steps. Additionally, the Mayas and many of the other Mesoamericans built their pyramids high above the surrounding forests to see the heavens. Besides honoring the gods on high, Maya pyramids also served as observatories for solar events. The Maya pyramids even aligned well with cardinal directions, or north, east, west, and south, so that they were used like a compass Also referred to as the Pyramid of Kukulcán, the structure provides a remarkable display, observed by thousands of modern visitors at the equinoxes. The setting sun's rays are projected on the northern balustrade, creating the illusion of a snake winding its way down the steps of the pyramid. The snake is composed of several triangle shapes giving it the appearance of a diamondback snake. At the base of the northern stairway, there are massive snake head sculptures, making this effect even more persuasive. While it is a widespread belief that this light-and-shadow effect was achieved on purpose to record the equinoxes, the idea is highly unlikely: it has been shown that the phenomenon can be observed, without major changes, during several weeks around the equinoxes, making impossible to determine any date by observing this effect alone.
Maya architecture is vastly different from the others in Meso-American cultures. The blend of mythology and astronomical events can be found in nearly all Maya palaces or pyramid structures. One will also notice the heavy influence of the Toltecs in the architecture at Chichén Itzá. The Toltecs invaded the Maya and merged their cultural traditions around the year 1000.
Observatories
The Maya were keen astronomers and had mapped out the phases of celestial objects, especially the Sun, Venus and the Moon. Many temples have doorways and other features aligning to celestial events. Round temples, often dedicated to Kukulcan, are perhaps those most often described as "observatories" by modern ruin tour-guides. It is now known, however, that many buildings of different types and uses were oriented on astronomical grounds, mostly to sunrises and sunsets on specific dates. The dates recorded are concentrated in four agriculturally significant seasons and tend to be separated by multiples of elementary periods of the calendrical system (13 and 20 days), suggesting that the orientations allowed the use of observational calendars intended to facilitate a proper scheduling of agricultural and associated ceremonial activities. Although most of the important Maya buildings were oriented on the basis of astronomical criteria, their primary functions were religious, residential or administrative; the label "observatory" applied to any structural type is thus hardly warranted.
Ballcourts
As an integral aspect of the Mesoamerican lifestyle, the courts for their ritual ballgame were constructed throughout the Maya realm, often on a grand scale. The playing alleys of ballcourts were defined by two long walls. Courts built earlier in Maya history (as at Cobá) had sloped sides, while ones built later (as at Chichén Itzá) had vertical sides. Frequently, the ends were enclosed so as to create an -shaped court when viewed from above.
When the Maya played games in the Ballcourts, the ball was made of solid rubber and was sometimes as much as a foot in diameter. It was passed between teams ranged on opposite ends of the court. The players could hit it only with their knees or hips, much like football or soccer today. Points could be scored when the opponents failed to return the ball correctly. In central Mexico, and in late times in Yucatán, rings of stone were set high up in the side walls of the court. It was considered a particular triumph for a player to knock the ball through the ring.
Cave sites
There are also cave sites that are important to the Maya. Maya cave sites include Jolja Cave, the cave site at Naj Tunich, the Candelaria Caves, and the Cave of the Witch. There are also cave creation myths among the Maya. Some cave sites are still used by the modern Maya in the Chiapas highlands in Mexico. Some of these caves were completely or partially artificial.
See also
Ancient American engineering
Twin pyramid complex
References
Hansen, Richard D., Continuity and Disjunction:The Pre-Classic Antecedents of Classic Maya Architecture. University of California, Los Angeles
Houston, Stephen D. (ed.), Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture. Dumbarton Oaks 1998.
Martin, Simon, and Mary Miller, Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2004.
Szymanski, Jan, "Between Death and Divinity. Rethinking the Significance of Triadic Groups in Ancient Maya Culture". Warsaw 2013.
. O'Kon, James A.,The Lost Secrets of Maya Technology, New York. Career Press, 2012
External links
https://mayansandtikal.com/mayan-architecture/
Maya ruins image gallery
Ancient Civilizations - Mayan Research site for kids
Mayan Ruins
Mayacaves.org A Mesoamerican cave archaeology community forum, field notes, and report site. The site is run by the Vanderbilt Upper Pasion Archaeological Cave Survey and is intended to be a resource for students and researchers in Guatemala and working in caves in Mesoamerica.
Geometry in Stone
The Prehispanic Architects
Maya art
Architectural history
Maya science and technology
Architecture in Mexico
Central American architecture
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Maya society
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Maya society concerns the social organization of the Pre-Hispanic Maya, its political structures, and social classes. The Maya people were indigenous to Mexico and Central America and the most dominant people groups of Central America up until the 6th century.
In the Neolithic Age, Maya society has contributed to the fields of astronomy, mathematics, agriculture, art and writing. They are people who excelled in these areas. Most of the great cities of the Maya were abandoned by A.D. 900.
The Maya lived in Mesoamerica, concentrated in the Yucantan Peninsula, the Peten district of northern Guatemala and southern Mexico. The Maya reached the height of their civilization during the Classic Period of Maya civilization (A.D 250 to 900) before a decline starting about 900 AD. The Maya Civilization, centered in these tropical lands, reached their peak of power and influence around the sixth century.
The Maya practiced body modification, including cranium modification, dental modification, skin modification and piercings. The Maya valued individualism through body modification. Body modification sometimes reflected one's political status, a cultural belief that body modification may ward them from evil spirits, impersonating important cultural figures and to signify important events that have happened through one's life.
The Maya were known to engage in warfare to procure nearby resources, assert political control over neighbors, procure slave labor and sacrificial victims for rituals. Warfare in Maya society was frequent.
Kingdom, court, and royalty
A Classic period Maya polity was a small kingdom (ajawil, ajawlel, ajawlil) headed by a hereditary ruler – ajaw, later kʼuhul ajaw. Both terms appear in early Colonial texts including Papeles de Paxbolón where they are used as synonyms for Aztec and Spanish terms for rulers and their domains. These are tlatoani and tlahtocayotl in Nahuatl, and the Spanish words rey, majestad, and reino and señor for ruler/leader/lord and señorío or dominio of realm. Such kingdoms were usually no more than a capital city with its neighborhood and several dependent towns (similar to a city-state). There were also larger polities that controlled larger territories and subjugated smaller polities; the extensive systems controlled by Tikal and Caracol serve as examples of these.
Each kingdom had its name that did not necessarily correspond to any locality within its territory. Its identity was that of a political unit associated with a particular ruling dynasty. For instance, the archaeological site of Naranjo was the capital of the kingdom of Saal. The land (chan chʼeʼn) of the kingdom and its capital were called Wakabʼnal or Maxam and were part of a larger geographical entity known as Huk Tsuk. Despite constant warfare and eventual shifts in regional power, most kingdoms never disappeared from the political landscape until the collapse of the whole system in the 9th century. In this respect, Classic Maya kingdoms were similar to late Postclassic polities encountered by the Spanish in Yucatán and Central Mexico: some polities were subordinate to hegemonic centers or rulers through conquest and/or dynastic unions and yet even then they persisted as distinct entities.
Mayanists have been increasingly accepting the "court paradigm" of Classic Maya societies that puts the emphasis on the centrality of the royal household and especially the person of the king. This approach focuses on the totality of Maya monumental spaces as the embodiment of the diverse activities of the royal household. It considers the role of places and spaces (including dwellings of royalty and nobles, throne rooms, temples, halls and plazas for public ceremonies) in establishing and negotiating power and social hierarchy, but also in producing and projecting aesthetic and moral values that define the order of a wider social realm. They focuses on the possessions and embodiment of which objects held in their society.
Spanish sources invariably describe even the largest Maya settlements of Yucatán and Guatemala as dispersed agglomerations of dwellings grouped around the temples and palaces of the ruling dynasty and lesser nobles. Though there was economic specialization among Classic period Maya centers (see Chunchucmil, for example), it was not conducted at a scale similar to that of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Some argue that Maya cities were not urban centers but were, instead, structured according to and conceptualized as enormous royal households, the locales of the administrative and ritual activities of the royal court. Within the theoretical framework of this model, they were the places where privileged nobles could approach the holy ruler, where aesthetical values of the high culture were formulated and disseminated, and where aesthetic items were consumed. They were the self-proclaimed centers and the sources of social, moral, and cosmic, order. The fall of a royal court as in the well-documented cases of Piedras Negras or Copán would cause the inevitable 'death' of the associated settlement.
Social classes
Maya society was rigidly divided between nobles, commoners, serfs and slaves. The noble class was even more than complex and specialised in the climate of Maya society. Noble status and the occupation where only served and passed on through elite family lineages. Thus revealing that the Maya Civilization was set and it was very difficult to move upwards within the society. Occupations for Maya men was limited to their father's occupation. Thus, if your father was a farmer, then you were a farmer. The upper caste was composed of rulers, nobles and priests. The middle caste were businessmen, merchants and soldiers. The lower caste was made up of farmers and slaves.
Kinship
Ancient Maya kinship and descent have alternatively been described as patrilineal, matrilineal, and bilateral. Maya political organization has been characterized as both segmentary (involving well-defined lineages and clan-like structures) and centralized.
Scribes
Scribes held a prominent position in Maya courts and had their own patron deities (see Howler monkey gods and Maya maize god). They often came from aristocratic families and likely were organized hierarchically. It appears that some scribes were attached to the royal house, while others were serving at temples and were, perhaps, counted among the priests. Maya art often depicts rulers with trappings indicating they were scribes or at least able to write, such as having pen bundles in their headdresses. Additionally, many rulers have been found in conjunction with writing tools such as shell or clay ink pots.
Body modifications
To the ancient Maya, body modification was a reflection of a cultural, and individual identity. Through different modifications, the body could be experienced individually, used as a symbol, or as a political statement. Beauty was also used to outwardly show and perform social and moral values.
Physical remains of the Maya help piece together the motivation and significance for enduring vast amounts of pain, and using great amounts of their wealth to make themselves beautiful. Ancient Maya placed a high value on certain extreme body modifications, often undergoing tedious and painful procedures as a rite of passage, an homage to their gods, and as a permanently visible status symbol of their place in society that would last a lifetime, and into their afterlife. Therefore, there was aesthetic, religious, and social reasoning behind the modification.
Cranium modification
The origin of cranial modification among the Maya is unknown, but it possibly was inherited from the Olmecs, predecessors of the Maya, who were located near the Tuxtla Mountains. Cranial modification was one of the most important practices of the Olmec culture. Individuals enduring cranial modification could be of any status, but many more elite individuals were depicted with cranial modifications. Intentional deformation practices were used as a way to differentiate between members of the society. All members of an elite family were expected to go through cranial modification, starting shortly after birth. The procedure occurred while the skull of the child was not fully grown and still soft, making it easily shaped.
Evidence
Most evidence of cranial deformation is found through osteological remains discovered through archaeological excavation of Maya sites. Through analysis of the different forms of the skulls, osteologists are able to differentiate between subtle differences in deformation styles to understand what these differences may mean. Interpretation of these different cranium types has been debated, but it is clear the shapes differed based on time and region. Spanish and other European records also provided detailed descriptions of cranium modification within their historical records. Some of the Spanish documentation included the different methods and materials used for cranium modification. Archaeological remains including artistic depictions or figurines exhibiting modified skull shape help to illuminate the importance of distinguishing one's self through the various types of modification.
Shapes
There are as many as 14 different cranial shapes caused by several different types of purposeful modification or deformation techniques used by members of the Maya society. Neonatal deformation was performed in two main ways: compression of the head with pads and adjusted bindings, or restraining the child on specially designed cradles. Often, a binding device was attached to the forehead so instead of growing naturally into a round or circular form, the child's cranium grew into a long, and tapered form which indented above the brow line. These different modifications resulted in an abundant amount of stress on the new child's body, and often led to death.
The two main head shapes of cranial modification for the Maya were erect deformation and oblique deformation. Erect deformation was modification through the use of cradle boards, which often left the occipital flattening asymmetrical, and affected a child's mobility. Oblique deformation was modification through the use of a paddle applied to the head and was sometimes in use with a frontal board and bandaging. This type of deformation did not cause problems with mobility. Practiced by all members of society, there were distinct differences of temporal and regional preferences.
During the Preclassic period, 2000 BCE – 250 CE, Maya skull modification imitated the head form of Olmec gods depicted throughout Olmec artwork. With the use of new and different techniques emerging in the Classic period, 250-900 CE, new cranial modification styles were endured, possibly as an indicator of membership within a kin group, or as a sign of a specific status. Additionally, in the Classic period, the general population used the erect deformation style of modification, while children expected to have high-status positions were given oblique deformation. Around 900 CE, the modification style standardized, and most human remains were found with tall skulls and flattened foreheads, the same modifications documented by the Spaniards when they arrived in Mesoamerica.
Regional differences in cranial modification styles were also evident. Within the Western Maya lowlands, the popular style of modification imitated the shape of the Maize God's head, and therefore, more people were discovered to have slanted skulls. Across the Guatemala highlands, erect deformation shapes were more likely to be used, and sometimes a band was placed vertically down the head to separate the head into two distinct sections. Cranial modification was able to draw lines between different ethnic groups, as well as represent social status/hierarchy within an individual culture.
Significance
Members of the community were expected to go through cranium modification as a part of a child's integration into the society. Maya men aspired to look like their ruler, Pakal, who was meant to represent incarnations of the deities. Pakal's body was shaped to resemble motifs and images of what the Sun and Maize gods were expected to look like. Evidence of the social hierarchy of the Maya was shown in pottery, figurines, drawings, monuments, and architecture picturing high-status elites with the oblique cranium modification. The oblique style cranuml modification, the style endured by Pakal, may have also meant to shape the head like a jaguar, a figure extremely important to Maya religion, sacred to their culture, and a status of power. Additionally, Maya women standards of beauty were also based on the Maize God. Overall, cranial modifications are significant because of their relation with deities and power symbols of the Maya and the outwardly performative aspect displaying specific characteristics of a member within the Maya culture and society.
Motivation
Due to a lack of written records on the reasons or motivation for cranial modification, the reason the head was the center of this modification is still not clear. One reason is possibly the need for children to be protected when they are born. The Maya believed when children were born, they were vulnerable and thus needed to be protected from soul loss and evil winds. The soul was encased within the head, and therefore these newly souled infants needed to be guarded; cranium modification was one of the ways to protect the soul from being snatched from the newborn. The head was understood to be a portal into a person's true essence or essential entity, which could be harmed, stolen, or manipulated. Performing cranial modification as soon as the child was born ensured the soul, or essence, of the child was fully protected.
Additionally, hair was seen as a way to preserve the essence of the soul, tonalli, from leaving the head of the body. Cutting the hair of a boy too soon was thought to diminish that individual's knowledge and reason. Lastly, Tzompantli, or skull racks, were associated with passage to the celestial world, and the heads on the rack were believed to contain the essence of the individual spirits. Therefore, by killing an enemy and removing their skulls from their bodies, the essence of the individual was violated.
Dental modification
Dental modification may have been a way to identify with a lineage, polity, ruler, or region. The modification of teeth was dependent on social status, as well as location.
The Maya practiced two different types of tooth modification, filing and inlay. Filing was altering the tooth shape to create notches, grooves, or points. This type of dental modification appeared during the Early Preclassic period (1400-1000 BCE) and was completed with stone abraders and water. Inlay was drilling holes to insert different materials, and was popular throughout the Middle Preclassic period (900-600 BCE). In the remainder of the time periods the two were used simultaneously, but filing was much more common overall.
Most likely teeth were modified as a part of ritual or for aesthetic purposes, and younger children usually did not have modified teeth. Once their permanent teeth had arrived, adolescent warriors had their teeth filed to sharp points to give them a fierce appearance, and as a further mark of status.[4] Maya women filed their teeth, or had holes drilled into them where precious stones or luxury materials, such as jade, pyrite, hematite, or turquoise could be inlaid into the teeth. High-status women often had their teeth filed, in different patterns, and would have jadeite, hematite, pyrite, turquoise, or other decorations inset into holes drilled in their teeth.[4] Depending on the material, the meaning of the inlay varied. For example, jade symbolized pure breath or the ability to express elegant speech.
Evidence
Overall, little evidence for the relationship between socioeconomic status and types of dental modification exists. Most evidence comes from documentation of Europeans in the 16th century who viewed the processes of dental modification. However, these accounts can be problematic as they are filled with bias, and much of the process may be recorded incorrectly, or emphasized in a way to villainize the Maya. More concrete evidence is found through archaeological of ceramics or iconography, and osteological remains of Maya people themselves. Iconographic or images of dental modification, including filling and inlay, are pictured on ceramics or within paintings found at Maya or other Mesoamerican sites. Additionally, teeth of Maya individuals have been excavated from Maya sites and analyzed by dendrologists and other dental specialists recognized dental disease associated with excess filling or drilling of the teeth. This means dental modification was occurring on living subjects. Dental diseases found on the remains of the teeth of Maya individuals shows evidence for excessive dental modifications. Additionally, some of the dental remains were inlaid with various stones, and were filed in a variety of ways.
Significance
Modification of the teeth was important as different teeth styles exhibited certain characteristics and motifs important to Maya religion, and social status. “Modified dentition conveyed ideas about wealth, threat, and the nature of speech.” Incisors were filed in “T” shape to represent “wind” motifs, as wind was especially important to the Maya embodying the “life force” and a way to honor the maize god. Pakal, the Maya King, had his teeth filed in the shape of a “T” as a way to change the structure of his facial features to make it look as though he were squinting, a direct reflection of the maize god. Teeth were an advertisement of status and as it was an abundant amount of pain, it was likely a rite of passage into adulthood, signifying the ability to tolerate pain. Overall, dental modification was meant to show a specific kind of status, despite being endured by both men and women of various classes. Enduring this type of pain exhibited traits about the overall character of an individual, and congratulated members for reaching a milestone of life.
Skin modification
Body paint, tattoos, and scarification were all used in different ways by the Maya to signify important events in one's life, as well as to symbolize differing class distinctions. As evidence of skin modification from human remains can not be studied, the evidence for tattooing, scarification, and body paint among the Maya comes from iconographic images such as pottery and murals, artifacts such as tools and vessels used for storing pigment, as well as ethnohistoric accounts.
Body paint
Body paint patterns were incredibly localized and color and design varied according to location. Two of the most widely used colors among the Maya were red, which was made of cinnabar or vermilion, with hematite and iron ore added. Another popular culture, and one that was possibly the most valued among the Maya was a blue or green pigment made with indigo and a mineral called Palygorskite. This blue/green color was highly valued because it was associated not only with jade, but with sacrifice to the gods as well. Spanish explorer Diego de Landa states in one of his accounts:
"...they had the custom of painting their faces and bodies red... they thought it very pleasing...the victim....having smeared him with blue... they brought him up to the round alter..." The evidence for body painting among the Maya largely comes from various murals. One mural found in Bonampak, Chiapa shows a man being painted red from the neck down by a servant while a woman's face is painted red. Another mural found at Calakmul depicts merchants and non-elites wearing face paint of various colors and designs, suggesting that paint may have been used to differentiate class and gender.
Tattoos and scarification
While there is a physical difference between scarification and tattoos, the Maya may not have differentiated between the two practices. Tattoos and scarification were used to mark significant events in Maya life. Diego de Landa says: "A thief from the highest class is punished by having his face tattooed on both sides from the beard to the forehead. … the young men do not tattoo except to a slight degree until marriage."
Scholar Cara Tremain argues that some tattoos and scars may have been associated with the elite, as "killing" and "rebirth" of the skin through cutting creates an association with death and the rebirth of deities. Tremain also argues that some types of tattooing and scarification symbolized valor and bravery. This theory is supported by the accounts of Diego de Landa who said, "They tattooed their bodies, and the more they do this, the more brave and valiant are they considered, as tattooing is accompanied with great suffering, and is done in this way. Those who do the work first painted the part which they wish with color and afterwards they delicately cut in the paintings, and so with the blood and coloring matter the marks remained in the body. This work is done a little at a time on account of the extreme pain, an afterwards also they were quite sick with it, since the designs festered and matter formed. In spite of all this they made fun of those who were not tattooed."
Piercings
The practice of piercing one's ears, lips, nose, or cheeks was shared by all Maya, but it was the type of jewelry worn that was used to differentiate social status. Children would be pierced at a young age as well, with ear flares and spools getting increasingly bigger as the child aged, stretching the ear. The majority of evidence for Maya piercings comes from archaeological remains of jewelry found in tombs, such as labrets and ear spools. Ethnohistorical accounts also provide us evidence for the amount and high quality of the piercings the Maya wore. In an account of his travels the Spanish Bishop Diego Lopez de Cogolludiois stated: "The holes in the noses and ears [were filled with] nose and ear pieces of cuzas and other stones of varied colors."
Visual modification
In Relación de las cosas de Yucatán, Diego de Landa reports that Maya mothers would artificially induce cross-eyedness in infants. Cross-eyedness was seen as a valued characteristic and it has been suggested that the Maya deity Kinich Ahau was depicted as cross-eyed as well.
Warfare
The Mayas employed warfare in each period of their development for the purposes of obtaining sacrificial victims, settling competitive rivalries, acquiring critical resources and gaining control of trade routes. Warfare was important to the Maya religion, because raids on surrounding areas provided the victims required for, as well as slaves for the construction of temples. Large-scale battles were also fought to determine and defend territories as well as secure economic power. The Mayas defended their cities with defensive structures such as palisades, gateways, and earthworks. Some cities had a wall within the outer wall, so advancing enemies would be trapped in a killing alley, where they could be slaughtered in great number. During the post-Classic period, the amount of internal warfare increased greatly as the region became more politically fragmented. Armies were enlarged, and in some cases mercenaries were hired. The resulting destruction of many urban centers contributed to the decline of the Maya.
Military organization
The ruler of a Maya city was the supreme war captain. Some only dictated military activity, while others participated in the battle. There was a core of warriors that served year-round as guards and obtained sacrificial victims, but most large Maya cities and religious centers had militias. These men were paid to fight for the duration of the battle. Then they would return to their fields or crafts. The militia units were headed by nacoms, hereditary war chiefs, that employed ritual as well as strategic methods in warfare. Some nacoms were only chief strategists, and the troops were led into battle by batabs, or officers. In a large war, even commoners who did not have weapons would fight using hunting tools and by hurling rocks. “In the highlands, women occasionally fought in battles according to native chronicles” (Foster, 144).
Tactics
The jungle terrain of Mesoamerica made it difficult for large armies to reach their destination. The warriors who were familiar with the battle landscape could strategically retreat into familiar wilderness. Other war tactics included the siege of cities and the formation of alliances with lesser enemies to defeat more prominent ones. There is evidence that canoes were used to attack cities, located on lakes and rivers. In the late Classic period, destructive warfare methods, such as burning, became more prevalent.
Rituals
Warfare was a ritual process, which was believed to be sanctioned by the gods. Military leaders, in many instances, also had religious authority. Before going into battle, the armies would call upon the gods with dances and music of drums, whistles, conch shell horns and singing. The drumming and war cries would signify the start of the battle. The armies also carried religious idols into battle to inspire the warriors. They fought fiercely because they believed that death on the battle field secured them eternal bliss, whereas capture by the enemy was regarded as worse than any death When an enemy was defeated, the victorious army exploited the religious icons and sometimes humiliated the defeated leader with prolonged captivity. The treatment of prisoners by the victorious was brutal and often ended in decapitation. The Maya also had a ritual of giving blood. The reason that they gave blood was to show respect to their gods. They gave blood from their genitals and tongue. Afterwards, they would drip their blood onto a piece of paper and burn it into the sky to show respect to their gods.
Weapons and uniform
Weapons used by the Maya included spear-throwers known as atlatls, blowguns, obsidian spiked clubs, spears, axes, lances and knives tipped with flint or obsidian blades. Bow and arrows were also used, but not as extensively. Though there were few helmets, they used decorated shields made from woven mats, wood and animal skins for protection. The Maya war leaders dressed to inspire their warriors and terrify their enemies. They usually wore padded cotton armor, a mantle with religious insignia, and elaborate wooden and cloth headdresses, that represented the animal spirit or “way” of the warrior. Metal was not used in battle because of the limited supply.
See also
Aztec body modification
References
External links
Maya Warfare Research
Weapons of the Maya - World Museum of Man Collection
Maya Society records, MSS 279 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
Society of Mexico
Central American society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Mar%C3%ADa%20Pino%20Su%C3%A1rez
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José María Pino Suárez
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José María Pino Suárez (; 8 September 1869 – 22 February 1913) was a Mexican politician, lawyer, journalist and newspaper proprietor who was a key figure of the Mexican Revolution and served as the 7th and last Vice President of Mexico from 1911 until his assassination in 1913, during the events of the Ten Tragic Days. Along with president Francisco I. Madero, he is remembered as a champion of democracy and an advocate for social justice in Mexico.
Born in Tenosique, into a prominent political family from the Yucatán Peninsula, his great-grandfather was Pedro Sainz de Baranda, a hero of the Mexican War of Independence. Pino Suárez was educated by the Jesuits in Mérida before earning his law degree in 1894. Later, he established a law firm in Mexico City in partnership with Joaquín Casasús and became involved in various businesses alongside his father-in-law, Raymundo Cámara.
In 1904, he founded El Peninsular, a newspaper that gave voice to a new generation of liberal intellectuals opposed to Olegario Molina, a powerful Porfirian cacique. El Peninsular quickly gained readers and advertisers, standing out for its use of modern printing technology, coverage of national and international news, and its editorial team that included prominent Yucatecan intellectuals. Pino Suárez authored a series of investigative journalism articles that exposed the exploitation of Maya and Yaqui indigenous people, who had been illegally reduced to conditions of slavery on some henequen haciendas. This provoked the anger of certain sectors of the Yucatecan oligarchy, known as the divine caste, who used their political and economic power to threaten the existence of the newspaper. The defense of freedom of expression against government censorship led Pino Suárez to enter the political arena.
As a supporter of Francisco I. Madero, he shared in Madero's struggle to democratize the country. As Madero's popularity grew, Porfirio Díaz, the dictator, decided to imprison him on charges of sedition. After escaping from prison, Madero issued the Plan de San Luis, which declared the 1910 federal elections fraudulent and demanded various political and social reforms, including the establishment of democratic institutions, prohibition of presidential reelection, agrarian reform, and an eight-hour workday, among others. This plan became a reference point for opponents of the Porfirian dictatorship and led to the Mexican Revolution. Pino Suárez organized the revolutionary cause in the southeastern region of Mexico and, threatened with imprisonment and forced into exile, joined Madero in San Antonio, Texas. There, Madero established a provisional government and appointed Pino Suárez as Secretary of Justice. After a significant military victory for the revolutionary cause, Pino Suárez was one of four peace commissioners tasked with negotiating the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez (1911), marking the end of the Porfirian dictatorship after three decades in power.
After the triumph of the Revolution, Pino Suárez was appointed interim Governor of Yucatán by the State Congress, but his appointment was met with violent protests by followers of Delio Moreno Cantón, a populist politician with close ties to the old regime who had strong support among the working classes. In a closely contested election, Pino Suárez managed to gain the support of the majority of the regional economic elite and was elected to his own term as governor by a narrow margin. Shortly thereafter, he requested a leave of absence from his position to assume the Vice Presidency, and the State Congress appointed Nicolás Cámara Vales, his brother-in-law, as his successor in the governorship.
The presidential elections of 1911 were characterized as peaceful, clean, and democratic, marking an important milestone in the country's history. In those elections, Francisco I. Madero was elected President and José María Pino Suárez as Vice President, forming what is considered Mexico's first democratically elected government. In February 1912, Pino Suárez assumed a prominent role as Secretary of Education, and his main objective was to carry out a comprehensive educational reform. Aware of the low literacy rate in the country, he focused his efforts on making public education accessible beyond the elite, advocating for popular education. Additionally, he sought to promote an ideological transition in education, shifting from positivism to humanism. He faced opposition from los Científicos, the group that controlled the National School of Jurisprudence and resisted the educational reforms of the Madero government. This situation led to the founding of the Escuela Libre de Derecho, which was established in open opposition to Pino Suárez. Despite this, Pino Suárez authorized this institution to operate autonomously from the government.
Within the government, Pino Suárez led the renewal bloc, a liberal faction of the Maderist movement that advocated for public policies oriented towards social liberalism and the progressive reforms promised in the Plan de San Luis. Despite having a parliamentary majority, they faced a well-organized opposition that included former Porfirians. Despite the challenges, politicians from the renewal bloc played a significant role in the drafting of the Constitution of Mexico (1917), which stands out as the world's first constitution to include extensive social and economic guarantees and protections, such as provisions regarding labor, agrarian reform, and the social dimension of property rights.
Madero's reformist government was considered too progressive by some and not radical enough by others. It had to contend with several rebellions led by different revolutionary and counterrevolutionary factions until it was overthrown in a military coup in February 1913. Subsequently, both Madero and Pino Suárez were assassinated on the orders of General Victoriano Huerta, the dictator who replaced them. In 1969, María Cámara Vales, Pino Suárez's widow, received the Belisario Domínguez Medal of Honor from the Senate of Mexico, recognizing the sacrifice that the couple had made for the country.
Youth and studies
Family origins
Born in Tenosique, Tabasco, "almost by accident – his family was among the most notable in Mérida." He was the eldest son of José María Pino Salvatiel, a businessman, and Josefa Suarez; both his parents had been born in Mérida. Shortly after his birth, his mother died, an event that was devastating for the young man. He had a younger brother, Néstor Pino Suárez who served as a colonel and was mortally wounded in battle in 1912, trying to end the Quintero insurrection in Sinaloa.
As mentioned above, Pino Suárez came from a well-known family in the Yucatan Peninsula, his great-grandfather was Pedro Sainz de Baranda (1787-1845), a Naval Officer, industrialist and liberal politician born in San Francisco de Campeche, who having trained in the Spanish Navy, fought in the Battle of Trafalgar. Afterwards, he was a deputy in the constituent assembly which drafted the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, before returning to Mexico to fight in the Mexican War of Independence and played an important role in founding the Mexican Navy. Under his command, Mexico captured the Fort of San Juan de Ulúa in Veracruz, the last remainder of Mexican territory still in Spanish hands, successfully thwarting a Spanish attempt to reconquer Mexico. Prior to his death in 1845, he served as Governor of Yucatán and is also credited with introducing the Industrial Revolution to Mexico, founding Aurora Yucateca, the first textile factory in the country to use steam power.
Pino's great-uncles were Joaquín Baranda and . Joaquín had served as Chief justice of the Supreme Court of Justice, Governor of Campeche, Senator, and was a long-serving cabinet minister (1882- 1901),being appointed as Secretary of Justice, Education and, briefly, Foreign Affairs under presidents Manuel González and Porfirio Díaz. He became one of the most powerful cabinet ministers of the porfiriato, but he resigned in 1901, after falling out with José Yves Limantour, the influnetial Secretary of the Treasury and head of the Cíentificos, a powerful group of technocrats; Limantour had demanded Baranda's resignation after the latter had successfully thwarted Limantour's candidacy for the presidency on a legal technisism, arguing his French origin. During his time in government, Joaquín Baranda was responsible for founding the Public Prosecutor's Office (Procuraduría General de la República) and the Normal school (Escuela Normal de Profesores). Meanwhile, Pedro Baranda was a General who fought for the liberal cause in the Reform Wars and the French Intervention, and participated in the constituent assembly that drafted the liberal Constitution of 1857. Later in his career, he promoted the creation of the states of Campeche and Morelos, serving as Governor of both states. In Campeche, the inflience of the Baranda brothers was such that for many years, the state capital was known as Campeche de Baranda, as noted by Rugeley:“ [Pedro Baranda] came from the highest echelons of southeastern political royalty. [He] haled from a Campeche-based family long active in civil and military affairs. His father, Pedro Sáinz de Baranda, [...] had championed a socially conservative, gaditano independence; shortly thereafter, he founded the famous Aurora Yucateca cotton mill in Valladolid, a bold experiment in industrial revolution […] Pedro himself had fought […] to create the state of Campeche, then fought against the interventionists in Tabasco. Promoted to the rank of General by Juárez, he then served as first governor of the state of Morelos and later as senator of his home state. The honorific "Campeche de Baranda" commemorates his role there, while an enormous statue of his father don Pedro, the elder, sword tightly in hand, greets the modern day motorist along the city's malecón.Another uncle of Pino Suárez was Joaquín Casasús, a lawyer, banker and economist who served as Ambassador to the United States and managed to obtain a favorable ruling for Mexico in the Chamizal dispute.
His first cousin, would later serve two terms as Governor of Tabasco.
Education
Shortly after Pino's birth, his mother died. His father, a busy businessman, entrusted his education to a Private Tutor. When Pino reached adolescence, it was decided that he should study in Mérida, where he lived in the house of Raúl Carrancá, a close friend of his father, who was then the Spanish Consul. His son, Raúl Carrancá y Trujillo, would later become an outstanding criminal defense lawyer. In Mérida, Pino was admitted to the prestigious , a Jesuit-run grammar school that had a curriculum based on the French Lycées. During those years, Pino became a close friend of Norberto Domínguez, then the headmaster, who would later become Archbishop of Yucatan. Pino graduated from San Ildefonso speaking fluent French and English. He obtained his law degree from Instituto Literario de Yucatán in 1894.
Marriage and descendants
In 1896, he married María Cámara Vales, the eldest daughter of Raymundo Cámara Luján, a business magnate and head of the House of Cámara, "a powerful clan of the high Yucatecan aristocracy." Her uncle was Agustín Vales Castillo, an industrialist and banker who served as the Mayor of Mérida between 1902 and 1907. Two of Marías brothers had political careers of their own: Nicolás Camára Vales served as Governor of Yucatán, while Alfredo Pino Cámara served as Governor of Quintana Roo.
The Pino Cámara couple had six children: Maria, Alfredo, José, Aída, Hortensia and Cordelia. When Pino Suárez died in February 1913, at the age of 43, María, the eldest of his daughters was a 14-year-old teenager while Cordelia, the youngest one, had not celebrated her first birthday.
His two sons, Alfredo and José, followed in their father's footsteps, excelling in the legal profession. Alfredo Pino Cámara, was an Associate justice of the Supreme court and is remembered for having acted as presiding judge in the criminal proceedings against Tina Modotti, the Italian actress and photographer accused of the First Degree Murder of Julio Antonio Mella, a political activist and one of the founders of the Communist Party of Cuba.
Several of his daughters married off into well-known Yucatecan business families. María, her eldest daughter, married Fernando Ponce Alonzo in her first marriage. Ponce Alonzo was the grandson of , the founder of Cervecería Yucateca, an important brewery which was sold by the Ponce family to Grupo Modelo in the 1980s. In her second marriage, she married José González Sada, an industrialist who was the first cousin both of president Francisco I. Madero and Eugenio Garza Sada, chairman and CEO of the Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma Brewery and founder of Tecnológico de Monterrey. Similarly, Cordelia married Patricio Escalante Guerra, the grandson of , the wealthy industrialist responsible for developing the henequen industry in Yucatán; meanwhile, his great uncle was Carlos Peón Machado, a liberal politician who served as Governor of Yucatán; between 1894 and 1897.
His grandson, Ismael Moreno Pino, served as Deputy Foreign Secretary and Ambassador of Mexico to Germany, The Netherlands, Chile, the OAS in Washington, D.C. and the United Nations in New York City and Geneva, Switzerland. He was one of the key negotiators of the Treaty of Tlatelolco which led to the denuclearization of Latin America.
Early career
Early years: lawyer and businessman
Newly wed, the Pino Cámara couple moved to Mexico City where Pino founded a law firm with his uncle, Joaquín Casasús, a distinguished jurist who had extensive connections with los Cientificos, the circle of technocratic advisors of President Díaz.
Around 1899, he returned to Mérida where he undertook commercial activities in partnership with his father-in-law, Raymundo Cámara Luján, a wealthy businessman with close ties to the Yucatecan oligarchy (known as the Divine Caste). At that time, the export house headed by Cámara Luján and José María Ponce Solís, exported 16% of the total bales of henequen fiber that was exported to the US and European markets, which had an insatiable demand for the Yucatecan monoculture. Unlike other businessmen, Cámara Luján focused on the export of henequen and not on its production, finding that this business was more profitable. Similarly, unlike other Yucatecan capitalists, he had diversified his business interests to include railways, banking and brewing. In association with Eusebio Escalante Bates, he was owner of Compañía Agrícola del Cuyo y Anexas, S.A, a company which owned a private estate of 2,627 km2 in the northwestern part of Yucatán (roughly the size of Luxembourg or Rhode Island) which was used to exploit various raw materials such as chicle, sugar cane, tobacco, cocoa, cotton, banana, vanilla and various forest resources.48 The dyewood and chicle were destined for export to the US and European markets.
By the end of the 19th century, the henequen boom had transformed Mérida into the city with the most millionaires per capita in the world; between 1870 and 1920, henequen comprised 20% of Mexico's total exports, making it the second largest product in Mexico. most important Mexican exportable after precious metals. Much of this wealth had been concentrated in the hands of a small number of Yucatecan families of European descent (criollos). The rivalry between various business groups intensified in the first decade of the 20th century. On the one hand were Eusebio Escalante, José María Ponce Solís, Carlos Peón and Cámara Luján himself, who represented a group of capitalists "made up of the traditional landowning families [...] whose prestige came from the viceregal era and who 'demonstrated a mysterious ability to adapt to the changing economic order'." On the other hand, there was Olegario Molina, whose fortune was newly minted but who intended to make use of the political and economic power that he monopolized as Governor of Yucatán and Secretary of Commerce and Industry to create a lucrative monopoly over the Henequen industry. In 1902, he signed a secret pact with Cyrus McCormick, the American businessman who headed International Harvester, to depress the prices of Henequen and force his competition into bankruptcy.
In 1899, the couple returned to Mérida where Pino Suárez undertook business activities in partnership with his father-in-law, Raymundo Cámara Luján. After the financial panic of 1907, the Escalante export house, one of the major henequen trading houses collapsed. had been a close business ally of Cámara Luján and his bankruptcy surprised the entire society of Mérida as well as financial circles in Mexico City, New York City and Paris. Many wealthy entrepreneurs and individuals lost significant sums of capital while the rival group of businessmen, headed by Olegario Molina profited: "rarely in history has one business benefited so much from the misfortune of another. The fall of the Escalante House ensured Molina's dominance over the key sectors of the regional economy." Faced with this situation, several landowners from traditional families, including the Cámara family, distanced themselves from Molina and the federal government headed by Porfirio Díaz. Faced with this situation, several traditional businessmen, including Cámara Luján, distanced themselves from Molina and the government of Porfirio Díaz, who supported him. These events surely influenced the young lawyer.
Man-of-Letters
In his spare time, Pino was also an accomplished poet, having published two volumes: Melancolias (1896) and Procelarias (1903). He also wrote the prologue to Memorias de un alférez (Memoires of an Ensign), written by Eligio Ancona in 1904, his close friend.
Shortly before he died, he wrote to his friend, Serapio Rendón, asking him to rescue a third volume that he was preparing that would be titled Constellations; Unfortunately, this last volume of poems was never published:In the drawers of my desk, I keep some manuscripts that have nothing to do with politics, since they are literary outlines written in a rush. Try to get them from the Undersecretary, who knows the passcode. If you get them, please give them to my wife. I don't want them to become lost or to be seen by profane eyes. You will find the little volume called Constellations written on blue paper at the bottom of the drawer on the right, under several letters of a private nature.In 1912, when Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo died, Pino Suárez received a letter from Alejandro Pidal y Mon, director of the Royal Spanish Academy, proposing to fill the vacant chair. Pino Suárez, then Vice President of the Republic, rejected the distinction citing his excessive workload. The chair was finally occupied by Jacinto Benavente.
Founder of El Peninsular
Since 1904 Pino Suárez had liquidated his partnership with his father-in-law and had decided to reinvest his capital in the foundation of El Peninsular, a newspaper from which he would criticize the monopoly headed by Olegario Molina.
The newspaper's editor-in-chief was Ignacio Ancona Horruytiner, a close friend of his and the nephew of Eligio Ancona, the 19th century liberal statesman. Pino Suárez and Ancona "were representatives of the liberal youth and with El Peninsular they gave voice to a critical sector of the Yucatecan social structure; a criticism coming from the same local political and business elite that had been sidelined with the rise of Olegario Molina. The newspaper headed by Pino and Ancona gave a voice to a generation educated by the "liberal" institutions of Yucatan, trained in the tradition of historical liberalism but which had been born in the period of Porfirian peace, a group which, regardless of their affiliation, was not allowed social, economic and political ascent during the first decade of the 20th century."
Pino Suárez gathered some of the most brilliant minds in the Yucatecan intelligentsia to work at the newspaper, including , who would later serve as a maderista Congressman before being brutally assassinated by the Huerta régime. Another journalist and future politician who worked for the newspaper was , a Pino protégé who would later become a drafter of the 1917 Mexican constitution, a three-term Senator and Governor of Yucatán in the 1920s. Other distinguished journalists who worked for El Peninsular included and .
At its launch, the newspaper was very successful:"El Peninsular was born as a modern newspaper, capable of continuously incorporating into its workshops the most innovative instruments in terms of typefaces, vignettes, cliches, linotypes, rotary presses or composition tables, as well as its telegraphic service, which allowed it to have national and international news earlier than its competitors. It had a constantly increasing circulation due to its coverage of the Yucatan Peninsula and some states of the Gulf of Mexico. Apparently, it came to a market already covered by an ample supply of publications. However, its dynamism managed to capture the attention of the Mexico City press, particularly El Mundo and El Imparcial. As a newcomer, El Peninsular quickly and successfully established itself in the taste of the public and managed to dictate the journalistic agenda. If as an editorial project it was intended to be a model of hard news journalism, the fact of having established newsrooms in Campeche and Quintana Roo, placed it as an attempt to achieve regional integration through the press.The newspaper, however, soon had to face off attacks from Molina and his supporters:Curiously enough, this evening paper was noted for its national and international news service, such as its review of the Russo-Japanese War. During its first year of circulation the paper gained many subscribers and advertisers. However, the denunciations of the system of exploitation of the peasants in some henequen haciendas that appeared after February 1905 provoked the anger of the landowners, who pressured companies to remove advertisements and readers to cancel their subscription to the point of threatening the newspaper's financial stability. In his efforts to maintain the newspaper and defend freedom of speech against such pressures, Pino Suárez participated in August of that year in the founding of the "Asociación de la Prensa Yucateca" (Yucatan Press Association), of which he served as vice-chairman. It seems to have been then, defending his newspaper, that he caught his first glimpse of his political vocation."Pino Suárez "expressed his open and clear repudiation of the bad treatment received by the serfs of the large plantations", chiefly the Maya and Yaqui indigenous peoples, as well as indentured Asians (chiefly Chinese and Korean immigrants) forced to work as slaves on henequen haciendas. The conditions faced by these labourers is aptly described by Professor Timothy J. Henderson in the following excerpt:To ensure the latter enticement – cheap labor – the Díaz government outlawed labor unions and gave employees carte blanche to behave as callously as they wished. Repression of labor during the Porfiriato […] was notorious. One of the most famous accounts, journalist John Kenneth Turner's aptly titled Barbarous Mexico, contains harrowing descriptions of Maya and Yaqui Indians forced to work as slaves on hemp plantations under the brutal sun of Yucatán, starting well before daylight and ending well after sunset, their day's only meal a couple of tortillas, a cup of beans, and a bowl of rancid fish broth […] American capitalists found the lure of so much cheap labor well-nigh irresistible. Ex-president Ulysses S. Grant, toward the end of his life, took to preaching boundless opportunities for American capital in Mexico, mostly because, in addition to many valuable natural resources, Mexico could furnish workers who were ‘industrious, frugal and willing to work for a pittance, if afforded an opportunity’." Felipe Carrillo Puerto, the future Governor of Yucatán, would later relate that in opposing the enslavement of the plantation laborers, Pino Suárez had first "fanned the revolutionary flame." Beginning in March 1905, Pino Suárez "began to publish a series of articles in which he attempted to analyze in depth the problem of labor relations on the henequen haciendas. This series, entitled Servitude in the fields of Yucatán, consisted of six articles" and argued "that the laborers were not "free" as a result of various practices that originated in colonial times and that kept the indigenous people in a state of degradation."
Although slavery had been prohibited by the Federal Constitution of 1824, the serfs continued to live in conditions akin to slavery. They were prohibited from leaving the farms where they worked because they were subject to debt mechanisms, those who protested were whipped and imprisoned by their employers. Pino Suárez pointed out that the use of whipping was a "degrading practice" and proposed establishing a minimum wage for day laborers and guaranteeing their mobility and ability to seek employment elsewhere and negotiate their employment conditions. Having trained as a lawyer, Pino Suárez pointed out that serfdom in Yucatán, in addition to being unfair, violated the Federal Constitution of 1857 that prohibited slavery and guaranteed the rights of transit (article 11), education (article 11) and labor (articles 3 and 4). He also accused "the Molinista regime of having disregarded its obligation to integrate of the indigenous people into public life and promoting the installation of schools on the haciendas which could provide compulsory secular education."
Pino Suárez's articles have been criticized, either because he disseminated an "idealized image of the Yucatecan indigenous peoples" or, according to contemporary Molinista newspapers, because by placing the rights of the indigenous peoples above the interests of the white population (criollo), he showed that he did not "love Yucatan." In the context of the Caste War of Yucatán, the ethnic conflict between the maya people and the criollos that had just ended in 1901, this criticism was particularly damaging in the eyes of predominantly white newspaper readers in Mérida, a city that had historically been inhabited almost exclusively by people of European descent. Although Pino Suárez was the son of meridano parents and had been raised, educated and married in Mérida, the Molinista newspapers did not miss any opportunity to remind their readers that he had been born in Tabasco and was, therefore, alien to Yucatán. Dominated by a powerful criollo oligarchy, known as "the Divine Caste", the Yucatán Peninsula had long considered itself autonomous from the rest of Mexico and had a long history of separatism.
The newspaper also criticized the role of Olegario Molina in his two facets as a leading politician and businessman: "State officials were so wary of criticism of any kind that they shut down [...] El Peninsular, in October, for having the temerity to argue that Molina did not deserve a second term." Molina reacted to the criticism, forcing the oligarchy to withdraw its support for the newspaper: "although Pino Suárez did not go to jail, the withdrawal of subscribers and advertisers promoted by Manuel Sierra Méndez and Rafael Peón was a hard blow that forced him to sell El Peninsular, which remained in the hands of two of his brother-in-laws; Nicolás and Raymundo Cámara Vales."
After this event, the Pino Cámara family withdrew from public life, going to live for two years to the Polyuc Hacienda, a remote sugar plantation
Political career
Maderismo and the 1909 local elections
In December 1908, Francisco I. Madero, published The Presidential Succession in 1910, which argued in favor of a transition from the military dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. who had governed the country for thirty years, toward a liberal democracy. His supporters became known as Maderistas or Antireleccionistas, due to their opposition to Mexican presidents seeking reelection, a prohibition which remain in effect to this date. Madero, who had been born in into one of the wealthiest families of industrialists in the country, had been educated in élite schools in France and the United States before returning to Mexico with liberal and progressive ideals.
Pino Suárez had retired from public life since his newspaper had been censured in 1908, narrowly avoiding being imprisoned by the regime due to the impeccable connections of his political family. During his exile at Polyuc, he received a copy of the book and enthusiastically traveled to Progreso to meet Madero who was campaigning in Yucatán:"In June 1909, Francisco I. Madero began his first political tour in Veracruz, seeking to dispute the presidency from Porfirio Díaz [...] he decided to continue towards Yucatan, but when he arrived at Progreso, only six people were waiting for him. Amongst these were two important figures: a gubernatorial candidate for the Independent Electoral Center and Pino [...] Madero's disappointment at the low turnout was temporary, not only because as soon as he arrived in Mérida a large crowd acclaimed him, but because of his encounter with Pino, who from then on would become a true friend. Mysteriously, or perhaps logically, the spiritist [Madero] had found a kindred soul in the poet [Pino ]."
Supporting the Maderista cause, Pino founded and presided over the Anti-Reelectionist Club in Mérida, which initially supported Delio Moreno as a candidate for governor in the 1909 elections. Madero knew that the oppositionist candidacy would not have the opportunity to overthrow the ruling party (Molinistas), which at that time was headed by Governor Enrique Muñoz Aristegui, a mere figurehead for Olegario Molina. However, he believed that Moreno's candidacy could establish the necessary foundations to ensure the triumph of anti-reelectionism in future elections.
Pino eventually withdrew his support for Moreno Cantón upon learning that he had sent a commission headed by José Vales Castillo to the capital of the Republic to confer with President Díaz and propose a list of candidates for the governorship so that the dictator could choose as he saw fit: the list included Luis del Carmen Curiel, Alfonso Cámara y Cámara, as well as Moreno himself, all of whom were "active porfiristas, although they later would declare, they had always been anti-reelectionists at heart." In this way, the opposition to Governor Muñoz Aristegui was divided between the followers of Delio Moreno (Morenistas) who negotiated with the military dictatorship to obtain power and the followers of José María Pino (Pinistas) who refused to do so.
Through an evident electoral fraud, the victory was granted to Muñoz Aristegui, the official candidate. The reelected state government almost immediately started a political persecution against the losing candidates that forced them to temporarily flee the state.
The Muñoz Arístegui administration repressed, exiled, and imprisoned many of its political opponents. The morenista opposition was mobilized, leading to the . This in turn provoked an even more violent reaction from the local government against the rebels. Faced with this wave of repression, the Morenistas went underground. Meanwhile, Pino was also forced to leave the state, settling in the neighboring state of Tabasco.
Given the situation of violence and repression in Yucatan, President Porfirio Díaz decided to send a military general with experience in matters of war to ensure control of the situation. On 11 March 1911, Governor Enrique Muñoz Arístegui was relieved of power by General Luis del Carmen Curiel, whose candidacy was supported by the Morenistas. Those in the opposition that had negotiated with the military dictatorship had gained access to the levers of power while those who had refused to do so remained in the political wilderness.
The 1910 Revolution
At the beginning of June 1910, Madero undertook what would be his fifth and last tour as a candidate for the presidency in the 1910 Mexican general election. While he was canvassing in Monterrey, the government decided to arrest him, an action that was "clumsy, counterproductive and tardy. Madero had already visited 22 states and founded no less than a hundred political clubs." A political prisoner, Madero was transferred to the penitentiary at San Luis Potosí.
With the only opposition candidate in prison, the presidential elections were held in the first days of July 1910, fraudulently allowing the dictator to win his seventh reelection as President of the Republic. In October, Madero managed to escape from prison and fled into exile in San Antonio, Texas. From exile, Madero issued the Plan of San Luis Potosí in which he proclaimed that the results of the 1910 election had been fraudulent: "out of the clauses [of his plan], the main points were the immediate assumption of the presidency by Madero under a provisional government, his lack of recognition of the Díaz government, the restitution of land to dispossessed peoples and communities and the freedom of political prisoners" and a call to citizens "take up arms, throw usurpers out of power, recover your rights as free men". The date of the Revolution had been set for 20 November 1910. In his provisional government, Madero appointed Pino as Secretary of Justice.
When the Mexican Revolution broke out in November 1910, Pino was in exile in Tabasco, fleeing the brutal repression of Muñoz Arigestguí. From Tabasco, he tried to take up arms and prepare an invasion of the Yucatecan Peninsula. According to his military plans, he would lead the invasion from Campeche, for which he enlisted the support of Urbano Espinosa and Calixto Maldonado, though both men were apprehended upon arrival in Campeche and the government was able to collect all the orders and communications that Pino sent to all his supporters in Campeche and Yucatan, thus frustrating his attempt at revolution.
Like Madero before him, Pino was forced to leave the country, bound for exile, after learning from María Cámara Vales, his wife, that Porfirio Díaz had instructed his immediate arrest:
Persecuted by express order of the President of the Republic, Pino had to cross the border to Guatemala from "where he undertook his pilgrimage through the mountains to the English colony of British Honduras [modern day Belize], where he tried to get in touch again with his political supporters in search for supplies to send to the revolutionary expedition, he had instructed to invade the coasts of Yucatan and Campeche." However, the triumph of the Revolution in the north of the country would render the military campaign that Pino was preparing in the south of the Republic, with the assistance of general , his cousin, completely unnecessary.
Exiled in Texas, Pino seized the opportunity to become closer to the Maderista leadership, particularly with Gustavo Madero, the "grey eminence" of the Maderista movement with whom he established "a strong friendship" and who would, going forward, "unconditionally support Pino in the Maderista movement."
After his return to Mexico, Pino Suárez participated in the Battle of Ciudad Juárez, a key city in the north of Mexico that fell to the hands of the revolutionaries on 10 May 1911, an important military victory for their cause. Faced with the loss of this important border city, President Díaz's advisers, headed by José Yves Limantour, Secretary of the Treasury, became convinced that the dictator must resign to avoid a civil war and a possible military intervention by the United States. The government decided to negotiate with the rebels and appointed Francisco S. Carvajal, a prominent jurist, as its representative.
Along with Francisco Vázquez Gómez and Francisco Madero Hernández (Madero's father), Pino Suárez was appointed Maderista Peace Commissioner, responsible for negotiating with the federal government the terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, which would be signed on 21 May 1911. Momentously, the Treaties would mean the overthrow of the Porfirio Díaz regime after more than thirty years in power. However, they would also be harshly criticized since they ensured the dismissal of the Rebel army, thereby placing a future Madero government at the mercy of a Porfirista Federal Army that was hostile to their cause and which would eventually overthrow the Madero and Pino administration in February 1913. Venustiano Carranza, one of Madero's main advisers had advised against signing the Treaties of Ciudad Juárez, saying that "a revolution that compromises is a revolution that is lost."
To preserve the constitutional order, the Treaties of Ciudad Juárez ensured that upon the resignation of President Díaz and Vice President Ramón Corral, Francisco León de la Barra, then the Foreign Secretary, would assume executive power as interim president until such time as 1911 Mexican general elections were held.
Governor of Yucatán
In mid-1911, after the triumph of the Maderista revolution, General Curiel submitted his resignation to the State Congress, which accepted it and appointed Pino interim governor of Yucatan. As interim governor of the state, Pino's fundamental responsibility was to call special state elections to elect a constitutional governor in the face of the vacancy caused by the resignation of Muñoz Aristegui. In order not to influence the elections in which he would be a candidate, Pino withdrew from the governorship in August 1911; the state congress left the executive power in the hands of Jesús L. González who assumed the interim governorship.
Pino's appointment provoked strong protests and violent reactions among the supporters of Delio Moreno Canton who soon undertook "more energetic and violent actions...citizens were frequently awakened by screams, gunshots and the explosion of bombs, watching in amazement as houses burned of the government officials or the henequen fields of the “Pinista" landowners. In some towns it was even necessary to organize night surveillance and public lighting services to prevent attacks. During the day, the Morenistas organized rallies and marches that defiantly paraded through the streets, symbolically storming the municipal palace and the police station."
As interim governor of the state, Pino's fundamental responsibility was to call special state elections to elect a constitutional governor in the face of the vacancy caused by the resignation of Muñoz Aristegui. In order not to influence the elections in which he would be a candidate, Pino withdrew from the governorship in August 1911; the state congress left the executive power in the hands of Jesús L. González who assumed the interim governorship. In the election, Pino contended for the governorship against Moreno Cantón.
Moreno Cantón was the political successor of his uncle, , a populist former Governor who had been close to the clergy. The Morenistas were demagogic and anti-elitist and their electoral base was mostly made up of serfs, working classes and artisans.
Pino Suárez, on the other hand, was the ideological successor of Carlos Peón, a former Governor, who believed in classical liberalism and who had been inspired by the French Revolution, being described as a "millionaire landowner [who] loved to present himself as a kind of Yucatecan Count Mirabeau". Thus, "pinismo gathered all the urban and rural clientele of the old peoncismo, led by landowners and businessmen and had the adherence of part of the intellectual sectors of Mérida". Among the followers of Pino, were Humberto Carlos Peón Suárez, son of Carlos Peón Machado, who in 1911 was elected alderman of the Mérida City Council, with Fernando Solís León elected as Maderista Mayor.
Although Pino Suárez had entered politics to oppose slavery in the plantations and out of conviction in Madero's democratic ideals, he never sought to ingratiate himself with the popular classes as Moreno Cantón had done, showing clear traces of political opportunism. For a revolutionary politician, Pino Suárez's family background was a liability that made it difficult for him to connect with the working classes and serfs with the same ease as Moreno Cantón; Pino Suárez's family had had close ties to the liberal elite that had ruled the country since the Reform War while his in-laws descended from the conservative landed aristocracy of New Spain.
Pino's political moderation and his closeness to the ruling classes have been harshly criticized as not being in line with revolutionary values, pointing out that he:“Maintained the previous power structure, carrying out agreements with the most powerful families of the regional oligarchy, [...] publicly condemning the "subversive" Morenista propaganda which he considered responsible for the imminent outbreak of a second Caste War… These actions which Pino undertook were not quite "revolutionary" but they did win over the vast majority of the families of the state's economic elite to the Maderista cause. Those who were Molinistas became Maderistas, as did former "liberal" supporters of former Governor Carlos Peón, politically inactive since the political crisis of 1897. Indeed, one of Pino Suárez's most prominent protectors was Augusto Peón, one of the wealthiest landowners, [who]…directly supported the Maderista leader, hauling-in his peasants to vote for him. The Cámara, Medina, Vales, Espejo, Castellanos, Escalante, Manzanilla and Peniche families [all important landowners] became supporters of Pinismo. The defection of the powerful Peniche family, from Espita, which had been a faithful supporter of the Molina regime, is an example of the attitude assumed by most of the wealthy groups in the state."The former supporters of Olegario Molina quickly decided to support Pino Suárez. In this sense, he successfully managed to get the Molinista oligarchy in Yucatán to change sides and support him, something that Madero would not achieve in the capital with the Porfirian oligarchy. The support of the large landowners was decisive in securing Pino's victory as governor since "the majority of the haciendas...continued to play the traditional role of electoral fiefdom of the landowners, as the flow of the votes of the peasant would reflect the political orientation of the landowners."“It must be remembered, by the way, that at that time the large rural owners who had formed part of the old regime and supported the traditional (oligarchic) system, maintained their power; they were bound to the leaders of regional Maderismo, a movement which maintained more moderate positions – one could even describe them as conservative – than it did in other states. In fact, Pino Suárez's wife, María Cámara Vales, was the daughter of a landowning family with ample economic resources, which had maintained a close relationship with the old regime: her parents were Raymundo Cámara Luján and Carmen Vales Castillo. Meanwhile, one of María's
brothers (Nicolás) would be governor of the state only a year later.” In the election, those urban districts with large working class constituents voted for Moreno, while the countryside, dominated by the landowners, voted for Pino. Those regions which voted for Moreno would be the same ones would later be "dominated by the Socialist Party of Yucatan from 1920 onwards. If we add to this the fact that the majority of the socialists were initially followers of Moreno, leaders such as Felipe Carrillo Puerto, we can glimpse the close connection that existed between the populist Yucatecan Catholic tradition and the genesis of regional socialism" Meanwhile, the liberals, who followed Pino, were almost all opposed to socialism and did not have the support of the clergy.
In his brief tenure as Governor, Pino set out to liberally reform the Penal Code, which had previously been designed, under the old regime, to restrict fundamental rights. On 15 November 1911, shortly after assuming the governorship, Pino Suárez requested indefinite leave to assume the position of vice president for which he had been elected,
In Yucatán, meanwhile, the state congress appointed Nicolás Cámara Vales, brother-in-law of Pino Suárez, as governor, against whom Delio Moreno rebelled in the same year of 1911, starting an unsuccessful movement from the town of Opichén. Forced to leave the state, Moreno Canton joined the revolt led by Pascual Orozco in the north of the country. Later, he would support the military coup led by General Victoriano Huerta against the Maderista government.
1911 Presidential elections
On 9 July 1911, Madero launched a manifesto creating the Progressive Constitutionalist Party (PCP) that replaced the National Anti-Reelectionist Party (PNA) since, having defeated President Díaz and modified the Constitution to prohibit Mexican presidents from seeking a second term, it no longer made sense to fight for anti-reelection. On 27 August, the delegates of the PCP met at the Teatro Hidalgo to decide who would occupy the candidacy for the presidency, deciding unanimously in favor of Madero. Next, on 2 September, the election of the candidate for the vice presidency of the Republic was carried out, with Pino's competing against Francisco Vázquez Gómez, Alfredo Robles Domínguez and Fernando Iglesias Calderón. Madero had declared himself in favor of Pino's election.
The vote was won by Pino with 876 votes against Francisco Vázquez Gómez's 469. However, there was immediate disagreement on the part of "some of the Vázquez supporters… [in] agreement with the result of the vote…[it was] proposed that a new compromise candidate be launched, who could be Federico González Garza, a proposal that It was rejected by the Assembly."
Francisco Vázquez Gómez did not accept the party's decision and decided to launch his own independent candidacy for the vice presidency. Meanwhile, the candidate of the Catholic party was Francisco León de la Barra, then interim president of the Republic. On 26 September, Madero and Pino arrived in Mexico City in the middle of the presidential campaign and "a crowd filled the platforms of the San Lázaro station to receive them." The primary elections were held on 1 October 1911, and the secondary elections on the 15th. Madero "won the presidency of the Republic by quite a margin. The real fight was between the vice presidential candidates.." After close competition, Pino triumphed with 63.90% of the popular vote. On 2 November 1911, in accordance with the Constitution of 1854, the Congress of the Union met as an electoral college to certify the popular elections; the triumph of Madero and Pino was declared. For the vice presidency of the Republic, Pino obtained 10,254 votes against the 5,564 obtained by León de la Barra and 3,374 obtained by Vázquez Gómez. Three days later, the proclamation was published that recognized the electoral triumph of Madero and Pino, who were to govern for a five-year period between 1911 and 1916.
Vice-President of Mexico and Secretary of Education
On 18 November, Pino arrived in Mexico City by train. On the morning of 23 November, in the plenary session of the Chamber of Deputies and before its president, Manuel Levy, he swore the oath of office. The newspapers of the time reported that Pino "was moved to such a degree that he changed some of the terms of the oath." After the act, he was escorted by two mounted gendarmerie regiments to the National Palace where President Madero, accompanied by his Ministers, received the vice-president to whom he said the following words:"You have just sworn to protect and preserve the Constitution and I know, because I know you well, that your oath is sincere and you will comply with it. The triumph of your candidacy is a guarantee for the future, because it demonstrates the intelligence, and patriotism of the Mexican people who, with the manifest intention of helping me in the arduous task imposed on me have put by my side, to collaborate with me, and, if necessary to replace me, a man of your energy, which you will use to defend the interests of the people. In Ciudad Juárez, you said at a certain moment: 'How is it possible that we abandon a man who has rendered such eminent services to the Republic at this difficult moment? It is possible that he will sink and go to an abyss, but it is our duty to accompany him, because such determination is only inspired by the purest love of the country!' As luck would have it, instead of accompanying me to the abyss, you accompany me to the highest position our Nation can offer.”
A few days after Pino assumed office, Emiliano Zapata, a radical revolutionary, published the Plan of Ayala, planning to topple the Madero's government and accusing him of having made "of the ideal of democratic elections a bloody mockery of the people and imposing, against the will of the same said people, José María Pino Suárez in the Vice Presidency of the Republic."
Madero had publicly pronounced himself in favor of naming Pino Suárez concurrently Vice President of the Republic and Secretary of the Interior. However, in Madero's first government, Pino Suárez did not occupy any ministerial portfolio, which led the historian José C. Valdés to affirm that at that time his "political influence was limited."
Madero's first government was beset by many problems: "The cabinet was formed with a conservative majority and a revolutionary minority. This situation generated serious problems in the administration, since all attempts at reform were hampered by conservative ministers supported by some members of the bourgeoisie, such as Madero's own father, and by the reactionary sector of the press, whose attacks were terribly virulent."
On 26 February 1912, President Madero inaugurated his second government, and Pino's political influence grew significantly as a result. Among the significant changes in the cabinet reshuffle, Abraham González Casavantes resigned from the Ministry of the Interior to take over as Governor of Chihuahua, being replaced in office by Jesús Flores Magón. Meanwhile, Pino was asked to lead the Ministry of Education and Fine Arts, replacing Miguel Díaz Lombardo, who would be appointed Ambassador to France.
Pino's appointment as Secretary of Education was important as education was one of the key pillars of the Maderista revolution: Madero desired to remove the last vestiges of the old regime's ideology from national education. Madero "began to show its sympathies for popular education and not only for the dissemination of culture to the circles of the intellectual elite as had been done hitherto."
On 9 April, resigned from the Foreign Ministry to become Ambassador in the United States, being replaced in office by Pedro Lascuráin. Calero's posting in Washington was brief: in December he was forced to resign due to an embarrassing scandal: the Ambassador was advising US companies to evade new taxes imposed by the Madero administration. After resigning, he accused that "the influence of Vice-President Pino Suárez has become dominant in the administration."
Madero's second government soon faced several uprisings in the context of the Mexican Revolution: the Bernardo Reyes rebellion, the Orozquista revolution, the growth of Zapatismo in Morelos, and finally the Félix Díaz uprising in Veracruz. All of these uprising were quashed by the government.
Within the cabinet, Pino Suárez headed the liberal wing of the Maderista party (known as bloque renovador) that sought to return to the liberal and democratic values that Madero had favored before assuming power and for which it had been necessary to overthrow the dictator:"Characters of all political affiliations paraded through Madero's cabinet, each with more or less determined ideologies; the cabinet strived to amalgamate the highest representatives of Mexican society, economy and politics, an objective which was difficult to achieve if not altogether contradictory. Maderismo, independent of Madero but loyal to Madero, although sometimes having to act against Madero, stuck for an idea of exclusivism which the government at times accepted and at times rejected: in some Ministries it acted in a conciliatory manner; in others, it was tenacious and intolerant to a civil service which remained loyal to the old regime. Pino Suárez headed the Renovador movement, a group of Ministers who wanted the government to be exclusive to revolutionaries and which strived to return the government to base its support on the people who had elected it."
In the legislative elections held in February 1912, the Renovador movement, headed in Congress by Gustavo Madero, obtained a slim legislative majority. However, the opposition against the government was better organized, effectively "exaggerating the badness of the situation in the country, hindering the action of the Executive branch and launching harsh attacks against the government... with their activities they were undermining the prestige of Madero, whom they branded as inept and naïve."
However, the most virulent attacks were always reserved for Pino who was immensely unpopular with the opposition in Congress. Manuel Márquez Sterling, the Cuban Ambassador to Mexico at the time, described it:"If the attacks on [Madero] were violent…the opposition to Pino Suárez was even more so. Daily, he was radicalized and the opposition attributed to his person defects which he did not possess [...] And as if fate made of the vice presidency in all forms of government a target of insatiable anger, Pino Suárez could match the headaches he suffered to those of his late predecessor [Vice President Ramón Corral]. Stuck between Madero [...] and his adversaries, on both sides of the political aisle, who were out to crucify him [...] he waited patiently for the discomforts and blows to tilt [Madero's] vacillating policy to his side and that of his party. After a delicious banquet offered by Madero to the Diplomatic corps, Pino Suárez, smoking a delicious cuban cigar from Vuelta Abajo and with a glass of Chartreuse between his fingers, explained to me, in an intimate tone, his criteria, and I remember, as if I was just hearing them now, his words, full of faith. "We find ourselves – he said – in a very critical situation; and only a change of methods will be able to avoid total catastrophe; the change is already planned and the government will manage to move away from the precipice. An energetic hand, a determined, concrete, invariable political leadership, is what the extremely altered state of the country requires. To go towards Don Porfirio's accomplices is to put one's throat under the executioner's axe. And that is exactly where we are today. I do not recommend carrying out persecutions, abuses, or evil. I maintain my allegiance to the ideal of the Plan of San Luis Potosí, which is a tribute to legality, freedom and civilization. But the policy of rapprochement with the oligarch, who hates us, will only throw us into the abyss. At the moment we are not exactly a Cíentifico [technocratic] government, but we are not a populist government either. And that is the cause of the riots and the origin of our dejection. We are caught between two fires. We are not anyone's adversaries; but the whole world is our adversary. The president already sees things clearly in this matter on which the life of the government and perhaps our own life depends. As long as we maintain the support of Congress and the people, we do not need the fat cats."
At the head of the Ministry of Education, Pino decided that he would favor "elementary and popular education" and, in accordance with the wishes of President Madero, he wanted to eliminate the last vestiges of positivism, an ideology that had been favored by the Cíentificos, a group of technocrats who had advised Porfirio Díaz. In the context of the Separation of church and state, the former ministers of Díaz had favored a secular education with a positivist ideology as opposed to naturalism, the ideology that had been favored by Catholic Church, historically predominant in the country's education. The Cíentificos, however, "due to the triumph of the revolutionary movement of 1910…had lost almost all of their political positions; the National School of Jurisprudence was one of the few important ones – as a source of supply for political “cadres" – that remained in their hands, and they decided to fight a head-to-head battle before losing it"
To end the control that the former regime had over the National School of Jurisprudence, Pino appointed Luis Cabrera as its director, an appointment that was greeted dismissively by the law students. Differences between the Ministry and law students led to the founding of the Escuela Libre de Derecho as a private university. Once the Maderista regime was overthrown in 1913, several professors from this new institution were ministers in the de facto government headed by General Victoriano Huerta, and many students celebrated the change of regime.
In January 1913, only months before the coup d'état, "the Congressmen belonging to the Renovador party opted for conferring with the President in order to make him aware of the danger that surrounded his government and to recommend that he restructure his cabinet, naming revolutionaries with a proven track record of loyalty to the government. Headed by [formerly Pino's private secretary], the Congressmen met with the President on January 25th, 1913, but Madero rejected their proposals and ended the meeting abruptly."
The Ten Tragic Days: Military Coup d'État
By February 1913, Gustavo Madero had already been appointed Ambassador to Japan, although he had not yet left for Tokyo. His separation from the government was "a good guarantee, hidden in a valise diplomatique, of his discrepancies [with the President]." For similar reasons, Pino, "in his heart of hearts, longed to resign and it was a point that he often discussed in hermetic privacy." Luis Cabrera, always close to Pino Suárez, "foreseeing the earthquake which would sink the government" decided to go abroad, to Europe.
Pino was perhaps the first member of Madero's cabinet to question the loyalty of General Victoriano Huerta, who still kept the outward appearance of serving the Madero government:"One afternoon, shortly before, Huerta announced himself at Pino Suárez's house. The butler ushered him into the living room; and the Vice-President believed that Huerta's objective was to arrest him. He was greatly astonished when Huerta, hugging him, said: 'Mr. Pino Suárez: my enemies affirm that I am going to carry out a coup d'état. Now, here I am to reiterate my adherence to the government'." On 9 February, when the coup that would cost them their lives broke out, Pino Suárez immediately informed Federico González Garza, Governor of the Federal District, of the military uprising, who in turn informed Emiliano López Figueroa, Chief-Inspector of the Federal Police. Later, Pino Suárez and González Garza headed towards the National Palace, the official seat of the executive branch, which was already being besieged by the rebels.
That same day, after inspecting the battle that had broken out in National Palace, Pino Suárez and González Garza went to the Chapultepec Castle, the presidential residence, to inform President Madero of the events that were developing in the city center. The National Palace had been successfully protected by General Lauro Villar, who remained loyal to the government. González Garza organized a company of cadets and gendarmes to protect the President and vice-president as they made their way from Chapultepec Castle to the National Palace, in a route that is remembered in Mexican history as la marcha de la lealtad (the march of loyalty). Modern-day Mexican presidents have continued to celebrate this historic event, retracing the steps of Madero's march. As they made their way through the city center, the military column, led by the President, riding on horseback, was fired upon by a sniper. The President and his entourage had to stop, seeking shelter at a daguerre photograph shop where they were joined by Gustavo Madero and, some time later, by General Victoriano Huerta. There, Madero was informed that General Villar had been wounded during combat and, at the request of Ángel García Peña, Secretary of Defense, it was decided to appoint General Huerta to replace him as the military commander in charge of ending the insurrection.
After the failure of the rebels to take the National Palace, the rebels had to retreat to La Ciudadela, a fortress and armements depot in the historic center of Mexico City. Victoriano Huerta, who had secretly reached an agreement with the rebels to assume the interim presidency once President Madero fell, pretended to remain loyal to the government. Nevertheless, his ammunition was fired in such a way as to cause minimum damage to La Ciudadela, ensuring that the fortress did not fall in government hands, and causing maximum damage to other buildings, particularly occupied by foreign residents, to convince the foreign diplomatic missions of the inefficiency of the Madero Government. As Pino before him, Gustavo Madero question that General Huerta, who had previously been recognized throughout his career for his talent in employing artillery, would now display such ineptitude. On 17 February, Gustavo Madero decided to arrest General Huerta and presented him to his brother, accusing him of treason. President Madero, in a mistake that would cost him his life, decided to free General Huerta, giving him a 24-hour deadline to capture La Ciudadela.
Prior to this, Madero had already travelled to Cuernavaca to enlist the support of the army headed by Felipe Ángeles, a capable and respected general who had remained loyal to the government and who was successfully quenching the Zapata rebellion in the State of Morelos. In case Huerta failed to meet the President's deadline, he would be replaced by Ángeles.
The following day, 18 February, while the Cabinet was meeting in the National Palace, rebel troops led by Colonel Teodoro Jiménez Riveroll broke into the session and tried to arrest the President, vice-president and the entire Cabinet. The secret service protected the President, and one of its officers, Captain Gustavo Garmendia, managed to kill Colonel Jiménez Riveroll, frustrating that attempt to overthrow the Madero government. A small delegation headed by President Madero and Vice President Pino Suárez intended to go to the courtyard of the National Palace to enlist the support of loyal troops. The military personnel stationed there, however, stood by while General Aureliano Blanquet arrested their commander in chief. Madero and Pino Suárez, now prisoners of the rebel forces, were taken to the offices of the quartermaster of the National Palace. There, they were imprisoned together with Felipe Ángeles. As these events were developing in the National Palace, Huerta had invited Gustavo Madero to a luncheon at Gambrinus, an elegant restaurant in the city center, ostensibly to smooth their misunderstandings and give him a full report of the military advances. There, Gustavo was arrested, brutally tortured by the rebel army and, subsequently assassinated.
Pedro Lascuráin, the Foreign Secretary, acted as an intermediary between the Madero government and the rebels led by General Huerta. Lascuráin conveyed Huerta's offer to Madero and Pino Suárez: if both men resigned from their respective positions, he would grant them safe conduct to travel to the port of Veracruz, from where he would allow them to embark to the foreign country of their choice. Madero and Pino Suárez agreed to present their respective resignations, but they established several conditions, among them, they demanded that Lascuráin not submit the double resignation to Congress until Madero, together with his brother Gustavo (they still did not know of his tragic end), Pino Suárez and Ángeles, had embarked with their respective families on a warship that had been provided by the government of Cuba. When drafting the resignation documents, Pino Suárez "haughtily stated that he was not satisfied with the reason given as the cause of the resignations and wanted it to be recorded that they were forced to do so by the force of arms," it was only after hectic negotiations with the vice-president, that it was decided that the resignation should contain the phrase "compelled by circumstances."
Disobeying the orders of the President who had instructed him to keep the resignations until such time as he knew the men were safely aboard the Cuban Warship, Lascuráin immediately traveled to the Chamber of Deputies, where he presented the resignations to the Speaker. The Speaker convened an extraordinary session, so that the Federal Deputies could vote on accepting the resignations. General Huerta took the precaution of surrounding the Congress building with armed troops. A majority of the Chamber voted to accept both resignations in the belief that this would save the lives of Madero and Pino. In the Presidential Line of Succession, the Foreign Secretary would become president if the vice-president was unable to succeed the President. Therefore, Lascuráin was sworn in as interim President. Lascuráin served for forty-five minutes, sufficient time to name Victoriano Huerta as Minister of the Interior and to present his own resignation. After Lascuráin's resignation was accepted by the Chamber, Huert was asked to take his place. As Interior Minister, he was the next in line to the presidency.
Despite several efforts made by various members of the diplomatic corps accredited in Mexico and the families of both men, the new de facto government headed by Victoriano Huerta never allowed them to go into exile.
Assassination
On the night of 22 February, Madero and Pino Suárez were taken from the National Palace, where they were being held captive, to be transferred in two vehicles to Lecumberri Prison. Ostensibly, this would be a safe site to detain the two men while the government decided their fate.
When they arrived at Lecumberri, the cars passed the main entrance, turning towards the farthest end of the compound. There, Francisco Cárdenas, a corporal in the Rurales, ordered Madero to get out of the car and, given his refusal to comply, shot him in the head, killing him instantly. Following this act, Lieutenant Rafael Pimienta shot Pino Suárez, whose body registered a total of thirteen bullet shots.
The assassination was carried out by express order of General Huerta and his cabinet. The Huerta government explained, however, that a group of supporters had attempted to rescue the former president and vice-president and that both men had been shot while trying to escape. Francisco León de la Barra, the Foreign Secretary, sent a diplomatic cable with this version of events, which "circulated through all the foreign ministries of the world [...] describing, in a tone worthy a novel, this sensational version of the events... In Mexico, where the Ley Fuga [killing someone who escapes] has been applied too many times [as an excuse for assassinating your enemies] [...] nobody, supporter or opponent of the government, believed the official fable."
In the United States, "public opinion was so shaken that it was impossible for President William Howard Taft to recognize the Huerta government." His successor, Woodrow Wilson, had sympathized with Madero and would support the constitutionalist forces of Venustiano Carranza who would succeed in overthrowing the Huerta dictatorship in August 1914. Huerta's military dictatorship had de facto recognition from some European governments, including Great Britain. as well as China and Japan. On the other hand, the United States and Latin American countries (with the exception of Guatemala) avoided granting recognition. Eventually, Woodrow Wilson, was able to convince the British government to change their attitude towards Huerta.
María Cámara Vales, Pino's widow, wanted to go to identify her husband's body, but was convinced by family and friends that she would not "suffer the torture of seeing him." But it was Alfredo Pino Cámara, his eldest son, then only a fourteen-year-old teenager, who "examined with horror the swollen features of his father and the strip of cardboard, bound by a bandage, that held the dismembered skull together."
Legacy
Maria Cámara, Pino's widow, fearing persecution from the new military dictatorship, fled Mexico City. Returning initially to her native Mérida. In 1969, shortly before her death, she was granted the Belisario Domínguez Medal of Honor by the Mexican Senate, the highest award Mexico can award to her own citizens.
In 1986, President Miguel de la Madrid ordered the remains of José María Pino Suárez to be transferred with full military honors to the Rotonda de las Personas Ilustres (Rotunda of Illustrious Persons), a site that honors those who are considered to have exalted the civic and national values of Mexico.
In 1915, the Congress of the State of Tabasco ordered that Pino's birthplace was to be renamed as Tenosique de Pino Suárez. In Villahermosa, the state capital of Tabasco, a statue was erected in his honor. Later, his name was written in golden letters in the assembly hall of the Congress of the State of Tabasco. The public library is also named after him.
Throughout the country, several cities have streets named in his honor near the city center. Pancho Villa decided that his memory should be honored in the historic center of Mexico City: on the morning of 8 December 1914, he declared that one of the street leading out of the Zócalo would be named for Pino Suárez; to this date, it remains as Pino Suárez Avenue (Avenida Pino Suárez), it is one of the most popular and historically significant streets in the city and was pedestrianised in 2009. The Supreme Court of Justice building is located in this street and is commonly known as Pino Suárez 2. A long-running television program which covers the judicial branch (canal judicial) is also called Pino Suárez Dos.
Metro Pino Suárez, one of the most important stations of the Mexico City Metro also bears his name.
In 2010, on the 100th anniversary of the Mexican Revolution, the Central Bank of Mexico (Banco de México) ordered the minting of a five peso coin ($5.00) which bore the portrait of José María Pino Suárez. Similar coins were minted bearing the likeness of Francisco I. Madero, Álvaro Obregón, Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata and other important revolutionary leaders.
Notes
See also
Liberalism in Mexico
Mexican Revolution
List of Vice Presidents of Mexico
Ten Tragic Days
References
Pino-Cámara family
1869 births
1913 deaths
Mexican democracy activists
Liberalism in Mexico
Vice presidents of Mexico
Mexican Secretaries of Education
Governors of Yucatán (state)
Presidents of the Senate of the Republic (Mexico)
People of the Mexican Revolution
Mexican revolutionaries
19th-century Mexican lawyers
20th-century Mexican lawyers
Mexican journalists
Assassinated Mexican journalists
Mexican male writers
20th-century Mexican poets
19th-century Mexican educators
20th-century Mexican educators
20th-century Mexican politicians
1913 murders in North America
Assassinated Mexican politicians
People murdered in Mexico
Male murder victims
Deaths by firearm in Mexico
Candidates in the 1911 Mexican presidential election
Progressive Constitutionalist Party (Mexico) politicians
People from Tenosique
Politicians from Tabasco
Mexican people of Spanish descent
Leaders ousted by a coup
Writers about activism and social change
Political prisoners in Mexico
1910s assassinated politicians
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May 2006 in sports
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31 May 2006 (Wednesday)
Football: Pre-World Cup friendlies
1 – 1
2 – 0
1 – 0
3 – 1
2 – 5
Baseball: Roger Clemens returns to baseball by signing a contract with the Houston Astros. The deal will pay him up to $12.6 million for the rest of the season. On Tuesday, he is to pitch for the Lexington Legends, the Astros' Single-A farm team, for whom Clemens' son Koby plays. (AP)
Football: Chelsea F.C. announce that they have signed former A.C. Milan and FC Dynamo Kyiv striker Andriy Shevchenko for a British record transfer of £34 million. BBC, UEFA
Cycling: 7-time winner of the Tour de France Lance Armstrong is cleared of drug abuse allegations dating back to 1999. (Forbes)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 5
Detroit Pistons 91, Miami Heat 78 Miami leads series 3–2
30 May 2006 (Tuesday)
Football: Pre-World Cup friendlies
With only nine days to go to the start of the World Cup, coaches are fine-tuning their teams and tactics. (Guardian)
2 – 0
1 – 1
1 – 0
3 – 1
At 17 years and 75 days, Theo Walcott becomes the youngest person ever to play for the senior England team.
2 – 2
Japan take an unexpected 2-goal lead over Germany before being pulled back.
1 – 2
Colombian goalkeeper Luis Enrique Martinez scores a goal with a goal kick that went the entire length of the pitch.
3 – 0
2006 NBA Playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 4
Phoenix Suns 106, Dallas Mavericks 86 Series tied 2–2
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 6
Buffalo Sabres 2, Carolina Hurricanes 1 (OT): Danny Briere's overtime power play goal forces a seventh game Thursday (June 1) at Carolina. Series tied 3–3
29 May 2006 (Monday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 4
Miami Heat 89, Detroit Pistons 78 Miami leads series 3–1
28 May 2006 (Sunday)
Baseball
Barry Bonds hits his 715th career home run, a two-run shot off Byung-hyun Kim in a home game against the Colorado Rockies. The home run puts Bonds past Babe Ruth for second place on the career homer list, behind only Hank Aaron, who had 755. The Rockies, however, go on to win 6–2. (AP)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: German sprinter Robert Förster wins the last stage of the Giro. Ivan Basso maintains his position and has therefore won the Giro.
Auto racing
Formula One: Grand Prix of Monaco
Championship leader Fernando Alonso wins the Monaco Grand Prix after his main rivals fall by the wayside. He wins by 14.5 seconds from the McLaren of Juan Pablo Montoya, while David Coulthard finished 3rd, to ensure the first podium ever for Red Bull Racing. No champagne was sprayed on the podium, as a mark of respect to the CEO of Michelin, Édouard Michelin who died in a boating accident on 26 May. (Formula One), (BBC)
IndyCar: 90th Indianapolis 500
Sam Hornish Jr. wins his first-ever Indianapolis 500 after beating Marco Andretti by just 6 feet, despite having to serve a drive-through penalty 30 laps from the end after leaving the pits with his fuel-hose still attached.
NASCAR NEXTEL Cup: Kasey Kahne wins the Coca-Cola 600 in Concord, North Carolina
2006 NBA Playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 3
Dallas Mavericks 95, Phoenix Suns 88 Dallas leads series 2–1
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 5
Carolina Hurricanes 4, Buffalo Sabres 3 (OT) Carolina leads series 3–2
CHL Memorial Cup
The Quebec Remparts get a measure of revenge against their QMJHL championship counterparts, the Moncton Wildcats by defeating them on their home ice 6–2 to win the 2006 Memorial Cup.
Cricket: Sri Lanka in England:
Second Test at Edgbaston, Birmingham: England defeats Sri Lanka by six wickets. After winning the toss and batting, Sri Lanka were dismissed for a paltry 141, the wickets shared equally between the five used English bowlers. England's reply of 295 was centred on a century (142) by Kevin Pietersen; the next highest English score was 30. Muttiah Muralitharan claimed his 52nd five-wicket haul and his 15th ten-wicket haul, taking 6/86. A 125-run partnership between Michael Vandort and Tillakaratne Dilshan guide Sri Lanka to 231 in its second innings, an overall lead of only 78 runs: England reached the target with six wickets to spare. (Cricinfo Scorecard)
27 May 2006 (Saturday)
Rugby union: 2006 Super 14 Final
Crusaders 19, Hurricanes 12: The Crusaders win the first Super 14 title after beating the Hurricanes in a game that was dampened by the conditions. Thick fog covered the ground close to an hour before kick off and despite talks to delay or postpone the game, the final went ahead as scheduled. Many fans in the ground and watching on television were unable to see much of the game and also hampered the calling of the game by the commentators. While the fog overshadowed the game itself, the Crusaders completely dominated territory and possession throughout the match. Much of the game was decided on penalties before Casey Laulala dived over late in the second half for the first try of the match and gave the Crusaders a seven point advantage and secured their sixth Super Rugby title. Stuff (Sport)
Auto racing: Michael Schumacher is disqualified from pole position for the 2006 Monaco Grand Prix after it is ruled that he intentionally spun at Rascasse hairpin as time in the third and final session of qualifying ran up slowing down the cars behind him, including Fernando Alonso who then qualified 0.064 seconds off Schumacher's pace. Schumacher is relegated to the back of the grid, while Alonso will start from pole, promoting Mark Webber to 2nd. Alonso's teammate Giancarlo Fisichella is docked his three fastest laps for blocking David Coulthard, resulting in a demotion from 5th to 9th on the grid. (BBC)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Ivan Basso wins the penultimate stage of the Giro, his third so far. Basso also takes considerable time out of all the other competitors, and with one stage to go, he has a 9-minute over the next placed rider in the contest for the Maglia rosa.
Mixed martial arts
Current UFC Lightweight Champion Matt Hughes defeats former UFC champion Royce Gracie in the first round at UFC 60.
2006 NBA Playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 3
Miami Heat 98, Detroit Pistons 83 Miami leads series 2–1
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 5
Edmonton Oilers 2, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 1: Behind a 32-save performance by Dwayne Roloson and a 10-for-11 penalty-killing unit, the Oilers return to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time since 1990, winning the series 4–1, and are the first 8th seeded team to play for the Cup since the current playoff format was adopted in 1994.
American football
NFL Europe: Behind running back Butchie Wallace, who is named the game's most valuable player, the Frankfurt Galaxy defeat the Amsterdam Admirals, 22–7, to win World Bowl XIV.
26 May 2006 (Friday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 2
Dallas Mavericks 105, Phoenix Suns 98 Series tied 1–1
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 4
Carolina Hurricanes 4, Buffalo Sabres 0 Series tied, 2–2
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Juan Manuel Gárate wins the 19th stage of the Giro, a tough mountain stage over seven hours. Ivan Basso maintains his firm hold of the Maglia rosa.
25 May 2006 (Thursday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 2
Detroit Pistons 92, Miami Heat 88 Series tied, 1–1
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 4
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 6, Edmonton Oilers 3 Edmonton leads series 3–1
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Stefan Schumacher wins his second stage of the Giro in a sprint finish between 5 breakaway riders. Ivan Basso maintains his firm lead in the provisional General Classement.
24 May 2006 (Wednesday)
Rugby league State of Origin, Australia:
New South Wales 17, Queensland 16: In the series opener at Telstra Stadium, Sydney, New South Wales narrowly defeats Queensland 17–16. Despite holding a 14–0 half-time lead and being ahead 16–6 late in the second half, NSW had to hold off a late charge from the Maroons who managed to tie the game with a few minutes left in the game. Brett Finch who had been rushed into the side over injury concerns, kicked a successful drop goal with a minute left in regulation to win the game. Game 2 will be on Wednesday June 14 at Suncorp Stadium, Brisbane.(ABC, Australia)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 1
Phoenix Suns 121, Dallas Mavericks 118, Phoenix leads series 1–0
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 3
Buffalo Sabres 4, Carolina Hurricanes 3 Buffalo leads series 2–1
Football (soccer)
MLS: Lewis Wolff and the ownership group of the Oakland Athletics of Major League Baseball enter into a three-year exclusivity agreement permitting them to receive a new MLS franchise for the San Francisco Bay Area if they come up with a deal to build a soccer-specific stadium. (ESPN.com)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Leonardo Piepoli wins his second mountain stage of the Giro. Ivan Basso again gains more time on his rivals in the contest for the Maglia rosa.
23 May 2006 (Tuesday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 1
Miami Heat 91, Detroit Pistons 86 Miami leads series 1–0
NBA draft lottery: The Toronto Raptors won the 2006 edition and will select first in the 2006 NBA draft on June 28.
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 3
Edmonton Oilers 5, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 4. Edmonton leads series 3–0.
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Ivan Basso wins his second stage of the Giro, again a mountaintop finish, and builds on his lead in the Maglia rosa.
22 May 2006 (Monday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Western Conference Semi-Finals, Game 7
Dallas Mavericks 119 San Antonio Spurs 111 (OT): The Mavericks go to the Western Conference finals for the first time since the 1984–85 season and eliminate the defending champion Spurs in the process.
Phoenix Suns 127, Los Angeles Clippers 107: The Suns sank the Clippers thanks to fifteen three-point baskets, and will face the Mavs starting Wednesday (May 24) in Dallas.
Thoroughbred racing: After six hours of surgery, Barbaro stands on his repaired right hindleg, making it more likely he will survive his injury at the 131st Preakness Stakes. His racing career over, if he recovers he will be retired to stud. (ESPN.com)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 2
Carolina Hurricanes 4, Buffalo Sabres 3 Series tied 1–1
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Paolo Bettini wins his first stage of the Giro. No change in the top of the provisional leaderboard as Ivan Basso remains in the Maglia rosa.
21 May 2006 (Sunday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Eastern Conference Semi-Final, Game 7
Detroit Pistons 79, Cleveland Cavaliers 61: The Pistons stifled LeBron James en route to a rematch of their 2005 NBA Eastern Conference Final against the Miami Heat.
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 2
Edmonton Oilers 3, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 1. Edmonton leads series 2–0.
Sweden wins the 2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships, defeating the Czech Republic in the final, 4:0.
Football – Football League Championship Playoff Final
Leeds United 0–3 Watford: Aidy Boothroyd's first full season in charge of the Hornets, ended with an easy victory over Leeds in the play-off final. Goals from Jay DeMerit, Darius Henderson and an own goal by Leeds goalkeeper Neil Sullivan gave Watford a supposed £30 million windfall. BBC, ESPN Soccernet.
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Colombian Luis Laverde takes the stage victory as part of a long breakaway. There is no change to the top of the provisional leaderboard as Ivan Basso keeps a firm hold of the Maglia rosa.
20 May 2006 (Saturday)
Major League Baseball: Barry Bonds ties Babe Ruth for second place on the all-time home run list with number 714 in the second inning of the San Francisco Giants–Oakland Athletics game. The Giants won the game 4–2.
Auto racing
NASCAR: In an event that did not finish until the wee small hours of the morning because of rain, Jimmie Johnson won the NEXTEL All-Star Challenge in Concord, North Carolina. Earlier, Scott Riggs earned his way into the event by winning the NEXTEL Open, and fans voted Kyle Petty into the event via online, cellular and on-site balloting.
Indianapolis 500: Sam Hornish Jr. wins the pole for the 90th edition of the race, which was delayed one week due to inclement weather.
Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing
Preakness Stakes in Baltimore, Maryland: Kentucky Derby winner Barbaro pulls up at the start of the Preakness and injures his leg, thus is unable to finish and so extends the Triple Crown drought to 28 years. Bernardini eventually wins the race.
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Eastern Conference Final, Game 1
Buffalo Sabres 3, Carolina Hurricanes 2 Bufalo leads series 1–0
Rugby union:
2006 Super 14 Semi-Finals
Crusaders 35, Bulls 15: On the back of three second half tries, the Crusaders comfortably cruise to victory over the Bulls in the second semi-final and make their fifth successive Super Rugby final. The Crusaders will now have appeared in all but one of the past nine finals. The win also ensures an all New Zealand final next Saturday at Jade Stadium. XtraMSN NZ
Heineken Cup Final at Millennium Stadium, Cardiff
Biarritz 19 – 23 Munster: In their third attempt to win the final since 2000, Munster defeat the Basque team to take the Heineken Cup and become the European club champions. All but 1,500 of the 74,000 fans filling the Millennium Stadium were Irish supporters. (BBC)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Italian Leonardo Piepoli wins a tough mountain stage after attacking provisional leader Ivan Basso on the final descent. Basso retains the Maglia rosa, and gains time on all his main rivals.
Boxing
Marco Antonio Barrera defeats Rocky Juarez by split decision in a very competitive fight, with Juarez breaking Barrera's nose in the early rounds. The fight was originally announced as a draw until it was later revealed that there were two scorecard tabulation errors.
19 May 2006 (Friday)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Western Conference Final, Game 1
Edmonton Oilers 3, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 1 Edmonton leads series 1–0
Rugby union: 2006 Super 14 Semi-Finals
Hurricanes 16, Waratahs 14: After 3 semi-final losses the Hurricanes make their first final in Super rugby history in front of a sold out home crowd. A late penalty goal from Jimmy Gopperth gave the Hurricanes a narrow lead heading into the final moments of the game and were able to run out the clock. The Hurricanes will now await the winner of the other semi-final between the Crusaders and Bulls tomorrow night in Christchurch. TVNZ
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Spaniard Joan Horrach takes the stage as part of a long breakaway. Ivan Basso retains the provisional lead.
18 May 2006 (Thursday)
Cycling:
Giro d'Italia: German time trial specialist Jan Ullrich takes the 50 km time trial. Maglia rosa Ivan Basso finishes second and grabs time on all his major rivals in the general classement.
Cricket:
Indian captain Rahul Dravid's run-a-ball century leads India to a 5 wicket victory in the first ODI against the West Indies at Sabina Park, Jamaica.
17 May 2006 (Wednesday)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Edmonton Oilers 2, San Jose Sharks 0: The improbable run for the eighth-seeded Oilers continues as Dwayne Roloson shuts down the Sharks for the summer and earned a date in Southern California against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim for their series opener Friday (May 19).
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Champions League Final at Stade de France, Saint-Denis.
Barcelona 2–1 Arsenal Arsenal keeper Jens Lehmann got red carded in the 18th minute, the first time in UEFA finals history that a player was ejected, despite the reduction to ten men, they took the lead on a Sol Campbell header after a feee kick. The Gunners were holding on until two late Barcelona goals by Samuel Eto'o and Juliano Belletti to give the Catalans the Champions League trophy. (UEFA.com)
16 May 2006 (Tuesday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Miami Heat 106, New Jersey Nets 105: Dwyane Wade's interception of a Vince Carter inbounds pass as time expires allows the Heat to escape a furious Nets comeback and advance to the Eastern Conference Finals for the second straight year. Next: The winner of the Pistons–Cavs series.
Football: Former Senator Guido Rossi, 75, is appointed commissioner of the Italian Football Federation as investigations continue into alleged corruption in Serie A. Shares in Juventus are suspended for the second day running; Juventus – who won the Serie A title last Saturday – may be relegated as a result of the scandal, which may cost the club 120 million euro. Former Juventus director Luciano Moggi was interviewed by magistrates for five hours on Monday. On Tuesday magistrates are interviewing A.C. Milan coach Carlo Ancelotti, Internazionale coach Roberto Mancini, retired referee Pierluigi Collina, and A.C. Milan vice-president Adriano Galliani as "persons acquainted with the facts" i.e. witnesses. (Sporting Life), (OhmyNews)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Italian climber Franco Pellizotti wins the 10th Stage in the Giro, and jumps into the top 5 of the provisional leaderboard. However Ivan Basso retains the Maglia rosa.
15 May 2006 (Monday)
American football: Doug Flutie, winner of the 1984 Heisman Trophy at Boston College and a veteran of two decades in the USFL, CFL and NFL officially retired.
Cricket: Sri Lankan cricket team in England in 2006:
First Test at Lord's, London: Match drawn. By stumps on Day 3, the game was firmly in England's control. The home side had compiled 551/6 declared courteousy of centuries to Kevin Pietersen (158) and Marcus Trescothick (106); in reply, Sri Lanka were dismissed for 192 in their first innings and forced to follow-on. In Sri Lanka's second innings, a century to Mahela Jayawardene (119) and half-centuries to six other batsmen allowed Sri Lanka to bat out the remaining time, the match ending prematurely on Day 5 when bad light called off play. (Scorecard)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Lithuanian sprinter Tomas Vaitkus takes the 9th stage in a closely contested sprint finish. There is no change to the top of the provisional leaderboard as Ivan Basso retains the Maglia rosa
Volta a Catalunya: Swiss time trial specialist Fabian Cancellara wins the opening day time trial prologue and therefore leads the provisional standings.
14 May 2006 (Sunday)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Carolina Hurricanes 4, New Jersey Devils 1: Brian Gionta scored the first goal of the game, but it was all Carolina after that as they exorcised the Devils from the post season in five games. The Canes will open their Eastern Conference Final series against the Buffalo Sabres on Saturday (May 20) at the RBC Center in Raleigh at 2 PM US EDT.
Auto racing
Formula One: Renault's reigning World Champion Fernando Alonso wins his home Grand Prix for the first time in his career, at the Spanish GP. The 130,000 crowd cheered on the 24-year-old from Oviedo, as he won the 66-lap race easily, winning by 18.5 seconds from Ferrari's Michael Schumacher and by almost 24 seconds to his Renault teammate Giancarlo Fisichella. Alonso now opens up a commanding 15 point championship lead, before the next round – the Monaco Grand Prix on May 28.
Major League Baseball: In celebration of Mother's Day in the US and Canada, the Office of the Commissioner approved use of special pink bats in all games that were played today. Monies raised from the auctioning of these bats, as well as line-up cards and special bases used in the games, along with strikeouts by pitchers since last Sunday (May 7) will go to charities for breast cancer research.
Football: FC Shakhtar Donetsk beat FC Dynamo Kyiv 2:1 to win the Ukrainian Premier League championship. This match was an extra match labeled the "Golden Match" because the regular season ended in a tie between the two first placed teams. Both teams had 75 points in 30 games and to determine the champion an extra game was played.
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Ivan Basso wins a mountaintop finish by a wide margin and takes over the provisional lead.
Rugby union: Sale Sharks beat defending champions London Wasps 22 – 12 and Leicester Tigers beats London Irish 40 – 8 and will meet in the Guinness Premiership final.
13 May 2006 (Saturday)
College Basketball: Southern California freshman point guard Ryan Francis, 19, is shot and killed in Baton Rouge, Louisiana while visiting his mother. One man is arrested and charged with murder. (Yahoo)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Buffalo Sabres 3, Ottawa Senators 2 (OT): Jason Pominville scores a short-handed goal 2:26 into overtime to eliminate the top-seeded Senators. The Sabres will now await the winner of the Carolina–New Jersey series.
Auto racing
NASCAR NEXTEL Cup: In a fast and furious finish, Greg Biffle defends his 2005 victory in the Dodge Charger 500 by two carlengths over Jeff Gordon.
Football:
FA Cup Final: Liverpool 3 – 3 West Ham United Liverpool win 3–1 on penalties: In the best FA Cup Final for decades, compared by commentators to the classic "Matthews Final" of 1953, for the second year running the FA Cup Final goes to extra time and a penalty shoot-out. West Ham take a 2-goal lead in the first half, through an own goal from Jamie Carragher and Dean Ashton before Djibril Cissé brings it back to 2–1 at half time. Steven Gerrard scores the equaliser in the 53rd minute, then defender Paul Konchesky puts West Ham back in the lead ten minutes later, with a cross-come-shot. But in the 91st minute, Gerrard scores a sensational goal, a well-hit 35-yard drive, worthy of levelling any football match. Extra time produced no goals, so it was onto penalties, and Liverpool's Pepe Reina is the hero, saving 3 of West Ham's 4 penalties from Bobby Zamora, Konchesky and Anton Ferdinand, to give Liverpool their 7th FA Cup, and their first since 2001.
Scottish Cup Final: Heart of Midlothian 1 – 1 Gretna Hearts win 4–2 on penalties: Third-tier Gretna's fairy tale story comes to an end at last, but not before they give SPL side Hearts a scare by taking the match to extra time and a penalty shoot-out. Rudi Skácel gave Hearts a 1–0 lead in the 39th minute, and they held that lead until the 76th minute. Deividas Česnauskis gave away a penalty when he tackled John O'Neil in the penalty area. Ryan McGuffie took the penalty, but was expertly saved by goalkeeper Craig Gordon, but he couldn't hold onto it, and McGuffie scored the rebound. Then in the last minute of extra time, Paul Hartley kicked out at Gretna defender Derek Townsley which earned him a 2nd yellow and he had to watch the shootout from the sidelines. Hearts scored all 4 of their penalties from Steven Pressley, Robbie Neilson, Skácel and Michal Pospíšil, while Gretna only scored 2 with 2 misses (Gavin Skelton – hit the bar & Townsley – saved by Gordon). Hearts win the Scottish Cup for the seventh time, and is their first since 1998.
Rugby union: 2006 Super 14 season
Hurricanes 19, Waratahs 14: The Hurricanes hold on to beat the Waratahs in Sydney and will host their first home semi-final in Super rugby history. They will meet the Waratahs next week in Wellington. TVNZ
Bulls 43, Stormers 10: The Bulls clinch the fourth and final semi-final spot in the Super 14 after defeating the Stormers in Cape Town. The 33 point winning margin was enough to overtake the Sharks in the standings on point difference by 1 point. The Bulls will now travel to Christchurch to face the defending champion Crusaders.TVNZ
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Rik Verbrugghe wins the stage in a solo breakaway. Serhiy Honchar regains the provisional lead in the Giro.
11 May 2006 (Thursday)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 4, Colorado Avalanche 1: The Ducks advance to their second Western Conference final in three NHL seasons by sweeping the Avalanche in Denver thanks to two Todd Marchant goals. Now they will await the winner of the San José–Edmonton series.
Football: The entire board of Juventus resigns only days before the club is expected to win its second successive Serie A championship. There have been days of embarrassing press revelations of collusion in the appointment of referees to Juventus matches. The club's share price falls 10% as prosecutors in Rome, Turin, and Naples investigate referee malpractice and several Serie A clubs. (BBC) (Guardian)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: In a Team time trial the Danish Team CSC wins by one second over the German T-Mobile Team. Ukrainian veteran Serhiy Honchar takes the provisional overall lead.
10 May 2006 (Wednesday)
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Cup Final, at Eindhoven.
Middlesbrough 0–4 Sevilla: Enzo Maresca scored two second half goals and Sevilla wraps up their first major European championship, and give a sad sendoff to Steve McClaren's new job as English manager. (UEFA.com)
9 May 2006 (Tuesday)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Australian sprinter Robbie McEwen wins a bunch sprint to take his second stage of the Giro. Stefan Schumacher retains the overall provisional lead.
8 May 2006 (Monday)
Football (soccer)
The Supreme Leader of Iran, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, overrules President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's decision in April to permit women to attend football matches, upholding the 27-year-old ban on women attending the games. (ESPN SoccerNet)
Cycling
Giro d'Italia: Young German Stefan Schumacher wins the 3rd stage in terrible weather conditions, and also takes the overall Leader's Jersey.
7 May 2006 (Sunday)
Cricket: New Zealand in South Africa
Third Test at Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg: South Africa defeats New Zealand by 4 wickets to win the three-Test series, 2–0.
The Test began disastrously for New Zealand, sent into bat by South Africa, with the first three wickets falling with only two runs on the board. The visitors were dismissed for 119 shortly after lunch on Day 1. Makhaya Ntini's bowling figures of 5/35 was the fourteenth time the fast bowler claimed a five-wicket haul in Test cricket. South Africa's reply of 186 was centred on a partnership of 98 runs between Graeme Smith and Hashim Amla. Trailing by 67 runs at the turn of the innings, New Zealand lost early wickets in its second innings before finishing with 283. South Africa overhauled the total with four wickets to spare, the match finishing within three of the designated five days. (Scorecard)
Football:
England: After 93 years and 2,010 matches played, Arsenal closed out Highbury with a Thierry Henry hat trick and an emotional 4–2 victory over Wigan Athletic, jumping them into fourth place (and the last UEFA Champions League spot) in the FA Premier League as Tottenham Hotspur lost to West Ham United, 2–1, as many of the Spurs' players were hampered by food poisoning. This now means that the Romanian champions will now not need to qualify for the Champions League, as Romania, currently 10th in the UEFA coefficients list, would have lost their automatic spot had Arsenal finished 5th and won the Champions League.
Scotland: Celtic signed off their dominant campaign with a stuttering 2–2 draw with Aberdeen at Pittodrie. John Hartson and Shaun Maloney gave Celtic a 2–0 lead, before a brace from John Stewart gave his side a point. Meanwhile, second-place Heart of Midlothian lost, 2–0, at third-place Rangers, in Rangers manager Alex McLeish's 235th and last game in charge. Kris Boyd scored his 36th and 37th goals of the season, to move Rangers to within a point of Hearts, and today's other game saw Kilmarnock move up to fifth place after a 3–1 win over nine-man Hibernian. Steven Fletcher gave Hibs a half-time lead before they fell apart in the second half. Firstly, David Murphy was sent off, for deliberate handball, and Steven Naismith converted the penalty. Gordon Greer and Colin Nish also scored in four minutes (72' & 75') to put the game beyond doubt, and to make the Hibs' day even worse, goalkeeper Zbigniew Małkowski was also sent off for two yellow cards.
Horse racing:
Great Britain: 10/1 shot Speciosa won the 1,000 Guineas at Newmarket, giving a first win in the race for jockey Michael Fenton and trainer Pam Sly. Speciosa's time of 1:40.53, was the slowest time for a winning horse this century and was the slowest since Musical Bliss in 1989.
Auto racing:
Formula One: Michael Schumacher won the European Grand Prix at the Nürburgring, to clinch the 86th victory of his career. Championship leader and reigning World Champion Fernando Alonso finished just 3.7 seconds behind the German, with Schumacher's teammate Felipe Massa, earning his first podium spot with third place. The next race is the Spanish Grand Prix on May 14.
Cycling:
Giro d'Italia: Robbie McEwen won the second stage of the Giro, winning a sprint finish in Charleroi. Paolo Savoldelli still led the race, points standings, King of the Mountains standings and Intergiro standings.
6 May 2006 (Saturday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Game 7, Western Conference Quarter Finals: Phoenix Suns 121, Los Angeles Lakers 90
The Phoenix Suns become only the eighth team in NBA history to overcome a 3–1 deficit to defeat the Lakers and advance to the Western Conference semi-finals. The Suns will now face the Los Angeles Clippers starting Monday (May 8). ESPN .
Auto racing:
NASCAR NEXTEL Cup: Dale Earnhardt Jr. wins the Crown Royal 400 at Richmond International Raceway.
Horse racing:
Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing
United States: Barbaro wins the 132nd running of the Kentucky Derby, the first win in the "Run for the Roses" for jockey Edgar Prado.
United Kingdom: George Washington wins the 2,000 Guineas, in the second consecutive triumph in this race for both jockey Kieren Fallon and trainer Aidan O'Brien.
Cycling — 2006 Giro d'Italia:
Paolo Savoldelli wins the opening day prologue and is currently the provisional leader of the general classement.
Football (soccer):
German Bundesliga: Bayern Munich become the first club in German history to successfully defend a league-cup double. Bayern, already winners of the German Cup, draw 1–1 at Kaiserslautern, but clinch the Bundesliga crown when their closest chasers, Hamburg, lose 4–2 at Hertha BSC.
Boxing
Oscar De La Hoya returns from a 20-month break and defeats Ricardo Mayorga for the WBC super welterweight title
5 May 2006 (Friday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
San Antonio Spurs 105, Sacramento Kings 83: The Spurs ended the Kings' season, and now face Dallas in the conference semi-finals beginning Sunday.
Cleveland Cavaliers 114, Washington Wizards 113 (OT): The Cavs will play Detroit in the Conference semi-finals beginning on Sunday (May 7).
Rugby league: ANZAC Test
Australia def. New Zealand 50–12 at Suncorp Stadium, Brisbane. (National Nine News)
4 May 2006 (Thursday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
New Jersey Nets 96, Indiana Pacers 90: While the Pacers' Anthony Johnson put 40 points on the board, it wasn't enough as the Nets finish off their series in six games.
Miami Heat 113, Chicago Bulls 96: Shaquille O'Neal had 30 points and 23 rebounds, and Dwyane Wade added 23 for Miami to end their-six game series and will now meet the Nets beginning on Monday (May 8).
Football: Steve McClaren, after his success as leader of Middlesbrough into the 2005–06 UEFA Cup Final, will take over as the manager of the English national team following the 2006 World Cup.
3 May 2006 (Wednesday)
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Game 7 Western Conference Quarter Final: Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 3, Calgary Flames 0. Teemu Selanne scored what was the series-winning goal as the Ducks will face Colorado in the Western Conference semi-finals, and the San Jose Sharks will meet Edmonton. The top four seeds in the West have all been eliminated, the first time since the adoption of this format.
2006 NBA playoffs
Detroit Pistons 122, Milwaukee Bucks 93: Rip Hamilton tore off 40 points and the Bucks were eliminated by the Pistons in five games. Detroit now awaits the winner of the Cavaliers–Wizards series.
2 May 2006 (Tuesday)
Football (soccer)
Ukrainian Cup Finals: FC Dynamo Kyiv beat FC Metalurh Zaporizhzhya 1–0 to win the Ukrainian Cup for the second consecutive year.
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Carolina Hurricanes 2, Montreal Canadiens 1 (OT): It takes Cory Stillman just 79 seconds to score the series-winning goal in overtime and advance the Canes to an Eastern Conference semi-final date with the New Jersey Devils.
Buffalo Sabres 7, Philadelphia Flyers 1: Team captain Chris Drury scores the last two goals after the Sabres scored five straight times against Robert Esche and leads the Sabres to the conference semi-finals against the Ottawa Senators.
1 May 2006 (Monday)
2006 NBA Playoffs
Dallas Mavericks 102, Memphis Grizzlies 76: For the third straight appearance since moving from Vancouver in 2001, the Griz get swept out of the playoffs, and have not won a playoff game in 12 attempts, a new NBA postseason futility record. The Mavs will now await the winner of the San Antonio–Sacramento series.
Los Angeles Clippers 101, Denver Nuggets 83: After three decades, three cities and four arenas, the Clippers won a playoff series, eliminating the Northwest Division champions in five games. Next, the winner of the Phoenix–Lakers series.
NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs
Edmonton Oilers 4, Detroit Red Wings 3: The Wings were twenty minutes away from sending the series back to Detroit for a seventh game, but the Oilers score four unanswered goals capped by Ales Hemsky's game winner with 1:06 left in regulation and eliminate the Presidents' Trophy (regular season) champions. Next up, either their Alberta rivals, the Calgary Flames or the San Jose Sharks.
Auto racing: Jimmie Johnson goes two-for-two on restrictor plate races by winning the NASCAR NEXTEL Cup Aaron's 499 in Talladega, Alabama, which was postponed from April 30 due to rain.
Cricket: New Zealand in South Africa
Second Test at Newlands, Cape Town: The Second Test ends in a draw. South Africa leads three-Test series 1–0.
In a high scoring match, New Zealand compiled 593/8 declared, the innings centred on a record eighth-wicket partnership of 256 between captain Stephen Fleming (262) and tail-ender James Franklin (122 not out). In reply, South Africa were dismissed for 512, Hashim Amla (149) and Ashwell Prince (108 not out) scoring centuries. With only two-and-a-half hours of play remaining on the final day, New Zealand reached 121/3 by stumps. (Scorecard)
References
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Kosovo Albanians
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The Albanians of Kosovo (, ), also commonly called Kosovo Albanians, Kosovan Albanians or Kosovars (), constitute the largest ethnic group in Kosovo.
Kosovo Albanians belong to the ethnic Albanian sub-group of Ghegs, who inhabit the north of Albania, north of the Shkumbin river, Kosovo, southern Serbia, and western parts of North Macedonia. They speak Gheg Albanian, more specifically the Northwestern and Northeastern Gheg variants.
According to the 1991 Yugoslav census, boycotted by Albanians, there were 1,596,072 ethnic Albanians in Kosovo or 81.6% of population. By the estimation in the year 2000, there were between 1,584,000 and 1,733,600 Albanians in Kosovo or 88% of population; as of 2011, their population share is 92.93%.
History
Pre-7th century
Toponymical evidence suggests that Albanian was spoken in western and eastern Kosovo and the Niš region before the Migration Period. In this era, Albanian in Kosovo was in linguistic contact with Eastern Romance which was presumably spoken in contemporary eastern Serbia and Macedonia.
Middle Ages
Between 1246 and 1255, Stefan Uroš I had reported Albanian toponyms in the Drenica valley. A chrysobull of the Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan that was given to the Monastery of Saint Mihail and Gavril in Prizren between the years of 1348-1353 states the presence of Albanians in the Plains of Dukagjin, the vicinity of Prizren and in the villages of Drenica.
In the 14th century in two chrysobulls or decrees by Serbian rulers, villages of Albanians alongside Vlachs are cited in the first as being between the White Drin and Lim rivers (1330), and in the second (1348) a total of nine Albanian villages are cited within the vicinity of Prizren. Toponyms such as Arbanaška and Đjake shows an Albanian presence in the Toplica and Southern Morava regions (located north-east of contemporary Kosovo) since the Late Middle Ages.
The Albanian villages Ujmir and Gjonaj are mentioned in Serbian scriptures from the 1300's In Gjonaj stands possibly one of the oldest Catholic churches in Kosovo. Village Gjonaj is also believed to be the birthplace of Pjeter Bogdani. Other Albanian villages mentioned from the 14th and 15th centuries are Planeje, Zym, Gorozhub, Milaj, Kojushe, Batushe, Mazrek, Voksh etc. Ottoman registers from 1452-53 reveal the Has region in Kosovo was inhabited by a Christian Albanian population Villages that have been identified and still existed today such as Mazrek, Kojushe, Gorozhub, Zym, Zhur, Milaj, Planeje etc were recorded in the defter. In the defter of 1485 which covered the Gjakova region of Western Kosovo, half of the villages had Albanian names or a mixture of Slavic-Albanian names.
The Ottomans defters of 15th and 16th century also recorded new arrivals into Kosovo and abandoned places. Nothing indicates the area was massively depopulated during this period nor massively settled by another population from outside
Ottoman records indicate that during the 15th and 16th century, the Hasi region, which was part of the Nahiya of Hasi, was inhabited almost entirely by Albanians. Ottoman records from the 15th century show western Kosovo had a large native Albanian population. And further research indicates the towns in Eastern Kosovo had a large Muslim Albanian population prior to the Austrian-Ottoman wars of 1690 and research shows the towns lost their population considerably due to the wars. During the 18th century and onwards there were also movements of people within these Albanian inhabited territories (Nish, Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania)
Kosovo was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1455 to 1912, at first as part of the eyalet of Rumelia, and from 1864 as a separate province (vilayet). During this time, Islam was introduced to the population. Today, Sunni Islam is the predominant religion of Kosovo Albanians.
The Ottoman term Arnavudluk (آرناوودلق) meaning Albania was used in Ottoman state records for areas such as southern Serbia and Kosovo. Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) in his travels within the region during 1660 referred to the western and central part of what is today Kosovo as Arnavudluk and described the town of Vushtrri's inhabitants as having knowledge of Albanian or Turkish with few speakers of Slavic languages.
Modern period
19th century
A large number of Albanians alongside smaller numbers of urban Turks (with some being of Albanian origin) were expelled and/or fled from what is now contemporary southern Serbia (Toplica and Morava regions) during the Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–78). Many settled in Kosovo, where they and their descendants are known as muhaxhir, also muhaxher ("exiles", from Arabic 'muhajir'), and some bear the surname Muhaxhiri/Muhaxheri or most others the village name of origin. During the late Ottoman period, ethno-national Albanian identity as expressed in contemporary times did not exist amongst the wider Kosovo Albanian-speaking population. Instead collective identities were based upon either socio-professional, socio-economic, regional, or religious identities and sometimes relations between Muslim and Christian Albanians were tense.
As a reaction against the Congress of Berlin, which had given some Albanian-populated territories to Serbia and Montenegro, Albanians, mostly from Kosovo, formed the League of Prizren in Prizren in June 1878. Hundreds of Albanian leaders gathered in Prizren and opposed the Serbian and Montenegrin jurisdiction. Serbia complained to the Western Powers that the promised territories were not being held because the Ottomans were hesitating to do that. Western Powers put pressure to the Ottomans and in 1881, the Ottoman Army started the fighting against Albanians. The Prizren League created a Provisional Government with a President, Prime Minister (Ymer Prizreni) and Ministries of War (Sylejman Vokshi) and Foreign Ministry (Abdyl Frashëri). After three years of war, the Albanians were defeated. Many of the leaders were executed and imprisoned. In 1910, an Albanian uprising spread from Pristina and lasted until the Ottoman Sultan's visit to Kosovo in June 1911. The aim of the League of Prizren was to unite the four Albanian-inhabited Vilayets by merging the majority of Albanian inhabitants within the Ottoman Empire into one Albanian vilayet. However at that time Serbs consisted about 25% of the whole Vilayet of Kosovo's overall population and were opposing the Albanian aims along with Turks and other Slavs in Kosovo, which prevented the Albanian movements from establishing their rule over Kosovo.
20th century
In 1912 during the Balkan Wars, most of eastern Kosovo was taken by the Kingdom of Serbia, while the Kingdom of Montenegro took western Kosovo, which a majority of its inhabitants call "the plateau of Dukagjin" (Rrafshi i Dukagjinit) and the Serbs call Metohija (Метохија), a Greek word meant for the landed dependencies of a monastery. Aside from many war crimes and atrocities committed by the Serbian Army on the Albanian population, colonist Serb families moved into Kosovo, while the Albanian population was decreased. As a result, the proportion of Albanians in Kosovo declined from 75 percent at the time of the invasion to slightly more than 65% percent by 1941.
The 1918–1929 period under the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was a time of persecution of the Kosovar Albanians. Kosovo was split into four counties—three being a part of official Serbia: Zvečan, Kosovo and southern Metohija; and one in Montenegro: northern Metohija. However, the new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three Regions in the Kingdom: Kosovo, Rascia and Zeta.
In 1929 the Kingdom was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The territories of Kosovo were split among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar. The Kingdom lasted until the World War II Axis invasion of April 1941.
After the Axis invasion, the greater part of Kosovo became a part of Italian-controlled Fascist Albania, and a smaller, Eastern part by the Axis allied Tsardom of Bulgaria and Nazi German-occupied Serbia. Since the Albanian Fascist political leadership had decided in the Conference of Bujan that Kosovo would remain a part of Albania they started expelling the Serbian and Montenegrin settlers "who had arrived in the 1920s and 1930s".
Prior to the surrender of Fascist Italy in 1943, the German forces took over direct control of the region. After numerous Serbian and Yugoslav Partisans uprisings, Kosovo was liberated after 1944 with the help of the Albanian partisans of the Comintern, and became a province of Serbia within the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.
The Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija was formed in 1946 to placate its regional Albanian population within the People's Republic of Serbia as a member of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia under the leadership of the former Partisan leader, Josip Broz Tito, but with no factual autonomy. This was the first time Kosovo came to exist with its present boundaries. After Yugoslavia's name changed to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Serbia's to the Socialist Republic of Serbia in 1963, the Autonomous Region of Kosovo was raised to the level of Autonomous Province (which Vojvodina had had since 1946) and gained inner autonomy in the 1960s.
In the 1974 constitution, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo's government received higher powers, including the highest governmental titles—President and Premier and a seat in the Federal Presidency, which made it a de facto Socialist Republic within the Federation, but remaining as a Socialist Autonomous Region within the Socialist Republic of Serbia. Serbo-Croat and Albanian were defined official on the provincial level marking the two largest linguistic Kosovan groups: Serbs and Albanians. The word Metohija was also removed from the title in 1974 leaving the simple short form, Kosovo.
In the 1970s, an Albanian nationalist movement pursued full recognition of the Province of Kosovo as another Republic within the Federation, while the most extreme elements aimed for full-scale independence. Tito's government dealt with the situation swiftly, but only giving it a temporary solution.
In 1981 the Kosovar Albanian students organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia. Those protests were harshly contained by the centralist Yugoslav government. In 1986, the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) was working on a document, which later would be known as the SANU Memorandum. An unfinished edition was filtered to the press. In the essay, SANU portrayed the Serbian people as a victim and called for the revival of Serb nationalism, using both true and exaggerated facts for propaganda. During this time, Slobodan Milošević rose to power in the League of the Socialists of Serbia.
Soon afterwards, as approved by the Assembly in 1990, the autonomy of Kosovo was revoked, and the pre-1974 status reinstated. Milošević, however, did not remove Kosovo's seat from the Federal Presidency, but he installed his own supporters in that seat, so he could gain power in the Federal government. After Slovenia's secession from Yugoslavia in 1991, Milošević used the seat to obtain dominance over the Federal government, outvoting his opponents.
Many Albanians organized a peaceful active resistance movement, following the job losses suffered by some of them, while other, more radical and nationalistic oriented Albanians, started violent purges of the non-Albanian residents of Kosovo.
On 2 July 1990, an unconstitutional ethnic Albanian parliament declared Kosovo an independent country, although this was not recognized by the Government since the ethnic Albanians refused to register themselves as legal citizens of Yugoslavia. In September of that year, the ethnic Albanian parliament, meeting in secrecy in the town of Kačanik, adopted the Constitution of the Republic of Kosova. A year later, the Parliament organized the 1991 Kosovan independence referendum, which was observed by international organisations, but was not recognized internationally because of a lot of irregularities. With an 87% turnout, 99.88% voted for Kosovo to be independent. The non-Albanian population, at the time comprising 10% of Kosovo's population, refused to vote since they considered the referendum to be illegal. In the early nineties, ethnic Albanians organised a parallel state system and a parallel system of education and healthcare, among other things, Albanians organized and trained, with the help of some European countries, the army of the self-declared Kosovo republic called the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). With the events in Bosnia and Croatia coming to an end, the Yugoslav government started relocating Serbian refugees from Croatia and Bosnia to Kosovo. The KLA managed to re-relocate Serbian refugees back to Serbia..
After the Dayton Agreement in 1995, a guerilla force calling itself the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) started to operate in Kosovo, although there are speculations that they may have started as early as 1992. Serbian paramilitary forces committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the Serbian government claims that the Army was only going after suspected Albanian terrorists. This triggered a 78-day NATO bombing campaign in 1999. The Albanian Kosovar KLA played a major role not only in reconnaissance missions for the NATO, but in sabotaging the Serbian Army as well.
21st century
International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which ended the Kosovo conflict of 1999. While Serbia's continued sovereignty over Kosovo is recognised by much of the international community, a clear majority of Kosovo's population prefers independence. The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, began in February 2006. While progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself. In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution that proposes 'supervised independence' for the province. As of early July 2007 the draft resolution, which is backed by the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the United Nations Security Council, had been rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty. Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, has stated that it will not support any resolution that is not acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina.
On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck Albania. The Kosovo Albanian population reacted with sentiments of solidarity through fundraising initiatives and money, food, clothing and shelter donations. Volunteers and humanitarian aid in trucks, buses and hundreds of cars from Kosovo traveled to Albania to assist in the situation and people were involved in tasks such as the operation of mobile kitchens and gathering financial aid. Many Albanians in Kosovo have opened their homes to people displaced by the earthquake.
Demographics
Diaspora
There is a large Kosovo Albanian diaspora in central Europe.
Culture
Culturally, Albanians in Kosovo are very closely related to Albanians in Albania. Traditions and customs differ even from town to town in Kosovo itself. The spoken dialect is Gheg, typical of northern Albanians. The language of state institutions, education, books, media and newspapers is the standard dialect of Albanian, which is closer to the Tosk dialect.
Religion
The vast majority of Kosovo Albanians are Sunni Muslims. There are also Catholic Albanian communities estimated between 60,000 to 65,000 in Kosovo, concentrated in Gjakova, Prizren, Klina and a few villages near Peja and Viti. Converting to Christianity is growing among Kosovo Albanian Muslims in Kosovo.
Art
Kosovafilm was the film industry, which releases movies in Albanian, created by Kosovar Albanian movie-makers. The National Theatre of Kosovo is the main theatre where plays are shown regularly by Albanian and international artists.
Music
Music has always been part of Albanian culture. Although in Kosovo music is diverse (as it was mixed with the cultures of different regimes dominating Kosovo), authentic Albanian music does still exist. It is characterized by use of çiftelia (an authentic Albanian instrument), mandolina, mandola and percussion.
Folk music is very popular in Kosovo. There are many folk singers and ensembles.
Modern music in Kosovo has its origin from western countries. The main modern genres include pop, hip hop/rap, rock, and jazz.
Kosovo Radiotelevisions like RTK, RTV21 and KTV have their musical charts.
Education
Education is provided for all levels, primary, secondary, and university degrees. University of Pristina is the public university of Kosovo, with several faculties and majors. The National Library (BK) is the main and the largest library in Kosovo, located in the centre of Pristina. There are many other private universities, among them American University in Kosovo (AUK), and many secondary schools and colleges such as Mehmet Akif College.
Notable people
See also
Albanians in Serbia
Albanian nationalism in Kosovo
Albania-Kosovo relations
References
Sources
Ethnic groups in Kosovo
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20State%20of%20Prussia
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Free State of Prussia
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The Free State of Prussia (, ) was one of the constituent states of Germany from 1918 to 1947. The successor to the Kingdom of Prussia after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I, it continued to be the dominant state in Germany during the Weimar Republic, as it had been during the empire, even though most of Germany's post-war territorial losses in Europe had come from its lands. It was home to the federal capital Berlin and had 62% of Germany's territory and 61% of its population. Prussia changed from the authoritarian state it had been in the past and became a parliamentary democracy under its 1920 constitution. During the Weimar period it was governed almost entirely by pro-democratic parties and proved more politically stable than the Republic itself. With only brief interruptions, the Social Democratic Party (SPD) provided the Minister President. Its Ministers of the Interior, also from the SPD, pushed republican reform of the administration and police, with the result that Prussia was considered a bulwark of democracy within the Weimar Republic.
As a result of the Prussian coup d'état instigated by Reich Chancellor Franz von Papen in 1932, the Free State was subordinated to the Reich government and deprived of its independence. Prussia had thus de facto ceased to exist before the Nazi Party seized power in 1933, even though a Prussian government under Hermann Göring continued to function formally until 1945. After the end of the Second World War, by decree of the Allied Control Council, the de jure abolition of Prussia occurred on 25 February 1947.
Establishment (1918–1920)
Revolution of 1918–1919
On 9 November 1918, in the early days of the Revolution of 1918–1919 that brought down the German monarchy, Prince Maximilian von Baden, the last Chancellor of the German Empire – who like most of his predecessors was also Minister President of Prussia – announced the abdication of Wilhelm II as German Emperor and King of Prussia before he had in fact done so.
On the same day, Prince Maximilian transferred the office of Reich Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, the chairman of the Majority SPD (MSPD), which was the largest party in the Reichstag. Ebert then charged Paul Hirsch, the MSPD's party leader in the Prussian House of Representatives, with maintaining peace and order in Prussia. The last Minister of the Interior of the Kingdom of Prussia, Bill Drews, legitimized the transfer of de facto governmental power to Hirsch. On 10 November Ebert found himself forced to form a joint government, the Council of the People's Deputies, with representatives of the Independent SPD (USPD), a more leftist and anti-war group that had broken away from the original united SPD in 1917, and to enter into an alliance with the council movement, a form of council communism.
On 12 November 1918 commissioners from the Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin, including Paul Hirsch, Otto Braun (MSPD) and Adolph Hoffmann (USPD), appeared before the last Deputy Minister President of Prussia, Robert Friedberg. They declared the previous government deposed and claimed the management of state affairs for themselves. On the same day the commissioners issued instructions that all departments of the state should continue their work as usual. A manifesto, "To the Prussian People!", stated that the goal was to transform "the old, fundamentally reactionary Prussia ... into a fully democratic component of the unified People's Republic."
Revolutionary cabinet
On 13 November the new government confiscated the royal property and placed it under the Ministry of Finance. The following day, the Majority and Independent Social Democrats formed the Prussian revolutionary cabinet along the lines of the coalition at the Reich level. It included Paul Hirsch, Eugen Ernst and Otto Braun of the MSPD and Heinrich Ströbel, Adolph Hoffmann and Kurt Rosenfeld of the USPD. Almost all departments were under ministers from both parties. Hirsch and Ströbel became joint chairmen of the cabinet. Other non-partisan ministers or ministers belonging to different political camps were also included, such as the Minister of War, initially Heinrich Schëuch, then from January 1919 Walther Reinhardt. The narrower, decisive political cabinet, however, included only politicians from the two workers' parties. Since the leadership qualities of the two chairmen were comparatively weak, it was mainly Otto Braun and Adolph Hoffmann who set the tone in the provisional government.
Political change and its limits
On 14 November the Prussian House of Lords () was abolished and the House of Representatives dissolved. The replacement of political elites, however, remained limited during the early years. In many cases the former royal district administrators () continued to hold office as if there had been no revolution. Complaints against them by the workers' councils were either dismissed or ignored by Interior Minister Wolfgang Heine (MSPD). When conservative district administrators themselves requested to be dismissed, they were asked to stay on in order to maintain peace and order.
On 23 December the government issued an administrative order for the election of a constitutional assembly. Universal, free and secret suffrage for both women and men replaced the old Prussian three-class franchise. At the municipal level, however, it took eight months before the existing governmental bodies were replaced by democratically legitimized ones. Deliberations concerning a fundamental reform of property relations in the countryside, in particular the breaking up of large landholdings, did not bear fruit. The manor districts that were the political power base of the large landowners remained in place.
In educational policy, Minister of Culture Adolph Hoffmann abolished religious instruction as a first step in a push towards the separation of church and state. The move triggered considerable unrest in Catholic areas of Prussia and revived memories of Bismarck's 1870s Kulturkampf ('cultural conflict') against the Catholic Church. At the end of December 1919, MSPD Minister Konrad Haenisch rescinded Hoffmann's decree. In a letter to the Cardinal of Cologne Felix von Hartmann, Minister President Hirsch assured him that Hoffmann's provisions for ending clerical supervision of schools had been illegal because they had not been voted on in the cabinet. More strongly than any other government measures, Hoffmann's socialist cultural policies turned large segments of the population against the revolution.
The Christmas riots in Berlin between the People's Navy Division and units of the German army led to the withdrawal of the USPD from the government in both Prussia and at the Reich level. The dismissal of Emil Eichhorn (USPD) as Berlin's police chief triggered the failed Spartacist Uprising of 5–12 January 1919 that attempted to turn the direction of the revolution towards the founding a communist state.
Separatist tendencies and the threat of dissolution
Prussia's continued existence was by no means assured in the aftermath of the revolution. In the Rhine Province, the advisory council of the Catholic Centre Party, fearing a dictatorship of the proletariat, called on 4 December 1918 for the formation of a Rhineland-Westphalian republic independent of Prussia. In the Province of Hanover, 100,000 people signed an appeal for territorial autonomy. In Silesia too there were efforts to form an independent state. In the eastern provinces, a revolt broke out at Christmas 1918 with the aim of restoring a Polish state. The movement soon encompassed the entire Province of Posen and eventually took on the character of a guerrilla war.
Even for many supporters of the Republic, Prussian dominance seemed a dangerous burden for the Reich. Hugo Preuß, author of the draft version of the Weimar Constitution, originally envisaged breaking Prussia into various smaller states. Given Prussian dominance in the former empire, there was sympathy for the idea. Otto Landsberg (MSPD) of the Council of the People's Deputies commented, "Prussia occupied its position with the sword and that sword is broken. If Germany is to live, Prussia in its present form must die."
The new socialist government of Prussia was opposed to such a move. On 23 January 1919 participants in an emergency meeting of the central council and the provisional government spoke out against Prussia's dissolution. With the Centre Party abstaining, the State Assembly during its first sessions adopted a resolution against a possible breakup of Prussia. Aside from a few exceptions, which included Friedrich Ebert, there was little support for it even among the Council of the People's Deputies at the Reich level because it was seen as the first step toward the secession of the Rhineland from the Reich.
The mood in Prussia was more uncertain. In December 1919 the State Assembly passed a resolution by 210 votes to 32 that stated: "As the largest of the German states, Prussia views its first duty to be an attempt to see whether the creation of a unified German state cannot be achieved."
State Assembly and coalition government
On 26 January 1919, one week after the 1919 German federal election, elections were held for the constituent Prussian State Assembly. During the campaign, reaching out to female voters, who were going to the polls for the first time, played an important role. In Catholic regions of the state, Hoffmann's anti-clerical school program helped the Centre Party to mobilize its voter base. The MSPD emerged as the strongest party, followed by the Centre and the German Democratic Party (DDP). The Assembly met for the first time on 13 March 1919, during the final days of the violent Berlin March battles and the Ruhr uprising.
On 20 March the Assembly passed a law for the provisional ordering of the state's powers. It transferred all previous rights of the Prussian king, including his role as the highest authority of the Protestant church, to the Ministry of State, with the exception of his right to adjourn or close the State Assembly. The Ministry of State was appointed by the President of the State Assembly, had a collegial structure, and depended on the confidence of a majority in Parliament. In order to provide legal certainty, all previous laws that did not contradict the provisions of the provisional order remained in force.
The most important task of the Assembly was to draft a constitution. The constitutional committee included eleven members from the MSPD, six from the Centre, four each from the DDP and the right-wing nationalist German National People's Party (DNVP), and one each from the USPD and the liberal German People's Party (DVP). (See the Constitution section below for additional details.)
On 25 March 1919 the provisional revolutionary Hirsch government resigned. It was replaced, as in the Reich, by a coalition of MSPD, Centre and DDP, the so-called Weimar Coalition, which together held 298 of 401 seats. Paul Hirsch became Minister President. His cabinet included four members from the MSPD, two from the Centre, and two from the DDP. Most of the ministries had existed under the monarchy, although the Ministry of Public Welfare was new. Along with the Ministry of the Interior, it developed into one of the largest ministries because of the range of its tasks.
Unrest and the Kapp Putsch
Widespread strikes, especially in the mining industry of the Ruhr, began in January 1919. They led to shortages in energy supplies across Germany, and particularly in Prussia caused transportation problems as well. In early April Reichswehr troops marched into the Ruhr and bloodily put down the uprising. In August 1919 armed uprisings took place in Upper Silesia among segments of the Polish population (first Silesian uprising). The violence there was suppressed by military means as well. In Pomerania clashes broke out between agricultural workers and large landowners, who received support from regional army and Freikorps units. Agriculture Minister Otto Braun pushed through an emergency decree in September to enforce collectively agreed on regulations regarding farm workers' wages.
In March 1920 the republican order in the Reich and in Prussia was challenged by the Kapp Putsch, a right-wing attempt to overthrow the Reich government. It was part of specifically Prussian history in that the only relatively united social group behind the putsch was the state's large landowners. They were joined by some military officers and members of the educated civil service. Overall, the putsch was a rebellion of conservative East Elbia, the largely rural area east of the Elbe River, that feared loss of its traditional power. While the Reich government fled to Stuttgart, the Prussian government remained in Berlin. A general strike against the putsch, initiated in particular by unions and civil servants, largely paralyzed public life in Prussia. Most of the governors of the Prussian provinces stood behind the legal state government. Only those of the provinces of Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover and East Prussia supported the putsch. It is noteworthy that August Winnig, the governor of East Prussia, was a Social Democrat. The situation was different with many district administrators. There was a clear east–west divide among them. In the western provinces almost all of the district administrators stood by the constitutional government, even if in some cases only under pressure from the workers. In East Prussia all of them sided with the anti-republicans. The putsch attempt collapsed after six days.
The Kapp Putsch and ensuing general strike led to a profound break that all but turned Prussia into a model republican state. Otto Braun replaced Hirsch as Minister President. Carl Severing became the new Minister of the Interior. Both were much more assertive than their predecessors in office. Hirsch and Finance Minister Südekum were also politically discredited because they had negotiated with the putschists. The "Braun-Severing system" became synonymous with democratic Prussia.
Structure
Territory
Most of the German territorial cessions stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles affected Prussia. Eupen-Malmedy went to Belgium, Danzig became a free city under the administration of the League of Nations, and the Memel Territory came under Allied administration before ultimately going to Lithuania. The Hultschiner Ländchen went to Czechoslovakia, large areas of the provinces of Posen and West Prussia became part of the new state of Poland, and East Prussia was separated from the rest of Reich territory by the Polish Corridor. Additional changes were decided by plebiscites. In Northern Schleswig 74% of the vote on 10 February 1920 was in favor of annexation to Denmark, to which it was subsequently ceded. In the southern part, 81% of voters chose on 14 March to remain in Germany. The new German-Danish border was established on 26 May. Eastern Upper Silesia went to Poland, although the majority of voters in the plebiscite there had voted to remain in the German Reich. Over 90% of those who voted in the plebiscite in southern East Prussia and parts of West Prussia were in favor of remaining part of Germany. The Saar region was placed under the control of the League of Nations for fifteen years before a referendum was to be held there. The former Imperial Territory of Alsace–Lorraine, which had been effectively under Prussian administration, was ceded to France without a vote.
The annexation of the Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont was the one Prussian territorial addition during the Weimar Republic. The Pyrmont district made the first step after a referendum in 1921. The rest of the state followed in 1929.
The loss of territory had considerable negative economic and financial consequences for the Prussian state, including the costs of repatriation and provision for state employees. Under the Ministry of Justice alone, 3,500 civil servants and employees were affected.
Population
After 1918 the population did not increase as rapidly as it had before the war. In addition to the continuation of the demographic transition of modern industrial societies to lower birth rates, the losses of the First World War were also a factor. The large population movements within Prussia slowed. In contrast to the period before 1914, more people were moving into Prussia from foreign countries than were emigrating. In-migration from ceded territories along with increasing immigration, especially from eastern Europe, both played a role.
There were also major differences in population density across Prussia. In 1925 East Prussia had an average of 60.9 inhabitants per square kilometer, while the Rhine Province had 295.6. Because of the extent of its low population rural regions, Prussia had a density of 130.7 per square kilometer, which was below average among the German states. The Free State of Saxony, by way of contrast, had 333 inhabitants per km2.
Settlement patterns and urban growth
Urbanization and urban growth lost momentum compared to the pre-1914 period. Population increases in larger cities were caused not so much by in-migration as by incorporation. This was the case with the formation of Greater Berlin in 1920, when 7 cities, 56 rural communities and 29 estate districts were incorporated. Even more extensive and consequential for the formation of large cities were the municipal reforms in the Ruhr region at the end of the 1920s.
There were still considerable geographical differences in the extent of urbanization. While in East Prussia more than 60% of the inhabitants lived in village communities in 1925, in the Province of Westphalia the figure was just 16.5%. In East Prussia 12.4% of the population lived in cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants; in the Rhine Province it was over 41%.
Economy
Industry and the skilled trades dominated Prussia's economy in 1925, accounting for 41.3% of all workers. Agriculture played only a secondary role at 22%, with trade and transport trailing only slightly at 17.5%. The other economic sectors lagged well behind. There were strong geographic differences in Prussia's economic structure as well. In East Prussia agriculture employed 45.4% of the workforce, while industry and skilled crafts accounted for only 19.6%. The Hohenzollern Lands, where 53.7% of the population lived from the land, was the most heavily agricultural region. By contrast, agriculture was of very little importance in the Rhineland and Westphalia, each with about 13%. The commercial sector was correspondingly strong, at over 56% in Westphalia. Berlin's commercial sector at 46% was high, but the city's metropolitan character was reflected above all in the share of the trade and transport sector, which was over 28%. Overall there were still considerable economic differences after 1918 between the eastern part of the Free State which tended to be agrarian and the industrial west.
Social structure
In 1925 almost half of the population was employed. Of these, 46.8% were blue collar workers, 17.1% were salaried employees and civil servants, 16.2% were self-employed, 15.4% were contributing family members (those who work in a business managed by a self-employed member of their family such as an independent farmer or shop owner and who receive at most pocket money instead of a salary), and 4.5% were domestic workers. The unemployment rate in 1925 was 6%. The proportions varied depending on the predominant economic sector of the individual provinces. In more rural East Prussia, the number of contributing family members was significantly higher at 22.3% than in industrial Westphalia, where it was 12.8%. Conversely, the proportion of blue-collar workers in East Prussia was 42.6%, while in Westphalia it was 54.1%. In metropolitan Berlin, the proportion of blue-collar workers at 45.9% was lower than in Westphalia despite Berlin's important industrial sector. The reason was the strength of the city's tertiary sector. Salaried employees and civil servants accounted for 30.5% in Berlin, whereas in Westphalia it was 15.6%.
Berlin's special urban situation was also reflected in its average income. At 1,566 Reichsmarks in 1928, the average income in Berlin-Brandenburg was more than 30% higher than the Reich average. In agrarian East Prussia, average earnings were only 814 Reichsmarks, more than 30% below the Reich average. Industrial areas such as Westphalia and the Rhineland were roughly in line with the German average.
Despite the efforts of the Prussian government in areas such as education, upward mobility remained limited. In 1927/28, only one percent of junior lawyers came from working-class families. Advancement opportunities were significantly better from primary schools. The proportion of students from working-class families at educational academies rose from 7 percent in 1928/29 to 10 percent in 1932/33.
State and administration
Administrative divisions
The Free State consisted of twelve provinces plus Berlin, whose status corresponded to that of a province. The Hohenzollern Lands in southern Germany were a unique type of administrative district () that was not a true province but that had almost all the rights of one. The provinces were headed by governors () appointed by the Ministry of State. There was in addition a provincial council consisting of the governor, a member appointed by the Minister of the Interior and five members elected by the provincial committee. The provinces each had a parliament. In Hesse-Nassau, municipal parliaments existed for the district associations alongside the provincial parliament. The provincial parliaments elected a who headed the governmental administration; the corresponding office in Berlin was the mayor. In addition, the provincial parliament elected a provincial committee from its own ranks to manage day-to-day business. The provincial parliaments sent representatives to the national-level Reichsrat and the corresponding Prussian State Council ().
Below the provincial level there were (as of 1933) 34 administrative districts; some provinces, including Posen-West Prussia, Upper Silesia, Schleswig-Holstein and also Berlin, had just a single administrative district. A total of 361 districts (called or ) formed the basis of state administration in rural areas and small towns. Larger cities generally formed urban districts (), of which there were a total of 116. While there were only five urban districts in agrarian East Prussia, there were 21 in industrial Westphalia.
Constitution
See also: (Full text in English)
Carl Severing did not submit a draft constitution until 26 April 1920 because of delays caused by the Kapp Putsch and the wait for the Reich constitution, which was ratified on 11 August 1919. On 30 November 1920 the State Assembly adopted the constitution of the Free State of Prussia. 280 deputies voted in favor, 60 against and 7 abstained. The DNVP and independent deputies in particular voted against it.
In contrast to the Reich and other states in the Weimar Republic, there was no state president. The lack of an institution above the governing ministers and the parliamentary majority clearly distinguished Prussia from the Reich. Overall, the position of Parliament under the constitution was strong. A distinctive feature was the Minister President's position, which was elevated by his authority to make policy. Minister President Otto Braun in particular clearly recognized this and made purposeful use it.
The constitution also provided for elements of plebiscitary democracy in the form of referendums and petitions.
Parliament ()
The legislative period of the Parliament was four years. It could be dissolved by majority vote or referendum. Parliament acted as the legislature, elected the Minister President, had the right to establish committees of inquiry, and could amend the constitution by a majority of two-thirds of the deputies. It also had the right to censure individual ministers or the Ministry of State as a whole. With a two-thirds majority, it could impeach ministers before the state court.
Ministry of State
The Ministry of State was the highest and leading authority in the state; it consisted of the Minister President and the ministers of state (Article 7). Although it was organized collegially, the Minister President had policy-making authority (Article 46). He was elected by Parliament. After an amendment to the rules of procedure, an absolute majority was required from 1932 onward. The Minister President appointed the other ministers (Article 45).
The constitution did not specify the ministries; they came about from practical requirements. Following the transfer of military responsibilities to the Reich, there was no Prussian Minister of War after 1919. The Minister of Public Works also lost his most important area of responsibility with the establishment of the German National Railway, and the ministry was dissolved in 1921. The office of Minister of Welfare, which had existed in the provisional government, was formally created. There were also ministries of the interior, finance, justice, agriculture and trade. The Ministry of Spiritual, Educational and Medical Affairs was renamed the Ministry of Science, Art and National Education in 1918. The economic interests of the state were largely concentrated in the Ministry of Trade and Commerce. It was the second most powerful state ministry after the Ministry of the Interior and was able to have a considerable impact on domestic and foreign trade beyond Prussia's borders.
After the 1932 Prussian coup d'état, which replaced Prussia's legal government by Franz von Papen as Reich Commissioner, the Ministry of Welfare in its old form was dissolved. At the same time, the Minister of Trade also became the Minister of Economics and Labor. The Ministry of Justice was dissolved in 1935 under the law transferring the administration of justice to the Reich.
State Council
The constitution stipulated the formation of a State Council to represent the provinces of Prussia. Its members were elected by the provincial parliaments; they could not be parliamentary members at the same time. The government was to inform the body about affairs of state. The State Council could express its views, had the right to initiate legislation and could lodge an objection to laws passed by Parliament. With a two-thirds majority, Parliament could, with a few exceptions, reject the objection or call for a referendum. Until 1933 the mayor of Cologne and future Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, Konrad Adenauer, was chairman of the State Council.
Relationship to the Reich
The Weimar Constitution and the new Prussian Constitution permanently changed the relationship between the Reich and Prussia. Unlike during the empire, the executive branch at the Reich level was completely independent of Prussia's. The same person was no longer both Reich Chancellor and Prussian Minister President. The great importance of state taxes declined in favor of a central tax administration. The Reich had fiscal sovereignty and distributed revenues to the states. Along with the military and railroads, waterways and a large part of social administration became the responsibility of the Reich.
Although 61% of the Reich's population lived in Prussia in 1925, it had only two-fifths of the votes in the Reichsrat, the Reich-level equivalent of the State Council. In a departure from the empire's Federal Council, and in contrast to the other states, only half of the members of the Reichsrat to which Prussia was entitled were appointed by the Prussian government. The remaining members were elected by the provincial parliaments.
State-owned enterprises
Between 1921 and 1925 the administration of state-owned enterprises was moved away from the direct responsibility of the Ministry of Trade and Industry on the initiative of the department's minister, Wilhelm Siering (SPD). Joint stock companies were formed to manage the state-owned mines, salt works, smelters, water works, and electrical generation plants. Ideas about the economic common good, such as those advocated by State Secretary Hans Staudinger (SPD), also played a role in the expedited development of state-owned companies.
Political system
Party system
The Prussian party system – made up of conservatism (German National People's Party, DNVP), political Catholicism (Centre Party), liberalism (German People's Party, DVP, and German Democratic Party, DDP), social democracy (Majority Social Democratic Party, MSPD) and socialism/communism (Independent Social Democratic Party, USPD, and Communist Party of Germany, KPD) – corresponded to that at the Reich level. The DNVP had a special affinity to the former Prussian monarchy. Among the regional parties, the German-Hanoverian Party (DHP) had some influence. The MSPD and USPD, which had split in 1917, merged in 1922 and resumed the original SPD name. (A small and politically insignificant part of the USPD continued to exist until 1931 when it merged with the Socialist Worker's Party of Germany.)
The DNVP and DVP had strongholds in a few cities and in areas that were more rural and Protestant, especially east of the Elbe River. In East Prussia the DNVP received over 30% of the vote in the 1928 federal election for the Reichstag. The Centre was strong in Catholic areas such as Silesia, the Rhineland and Westphalia. The left-wing parties were important in large cities and heavily commercial non-Catholic areas. In Berlin, for example, the SPD's vote came to 34% in 1928 and the KPD's to almost 30%. The rise of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) changed the pattern, but it remained dominant in basic terms until 1932.
Within Prussia there were considerable differences in support for the Republic. The majority in Berlin, the Rhineland and Westphalia were in favor of a democracy, while reservations remained in the eastern and agrarian provinces. In the March 1933 Reichstag elections, the NSDAP had above-average strength in constituencies such as East Prussia (56.5%), Frankfurt an der Oder (55.2%), Liegnitz (54%) and Schleswig-Holstein (53.2%), but was significantly weaker in Berlin (31.3%), Westphalia (34.3%) and the Rhineland (34.1%) than the Reich average (43.9%).
A factor in Prussia's political stability was that the SPD, which was the strongest party during most of the Weimar Republic, was prepared until 1932 to assume government responsibility and not withdraw into an opposition role as it had at the Reich level in 1920, 1923 and 1930. Leaders in the Prussian SPD quickly identified with their new task. The philosopher Eduard Spranger spoke of an "affinity of Social Democracy for the Prussian", and Otto Braun claimed that "Prussia has never been governed in a more Prussian manner than during my term of office." In addition to the party's leading individuals, structural reasons also played a role in the SPD's strength. The political break from the three-class franchise to a democratic constitution was more pronounced in Prussia than in other states of the Reich that had had similar voting systems. Unlike in the Reichstag, which had many long-standing SPD parliamentarians who were accustomed to the role of opposition, there were hardly any such in the Prussian Parliament. The parliamentary party members were therefore not as influenced by entrenched roles and were better able to adapt to being a party that formed part of the government. In addition, the left wing of the party, which was critical of cooperation with the bourgeois parties, was weak. Compromise solutions were therefore easier to implement in Prussia than in the Reich.
Despite their strength, especially in the large cities, only a few mayors in the major cities were Social Democrats. The party had respect for the expertise of bourgeois municipal politicians and often left this position to representatives of the DDP. Only Ernst Reuter in Magdeburg and Max Brauer in Altona were among the Social Democratic mayors in early 1933.
Democratization of the state administration
During the revolution, Prussian civil servants declared that their loyalty was not to the monarchy but to the Prussian state. Initially, the government, and in particular the Minister of the Interior Wolfgang Heine (SPD), largely refrained from reorganizing the state administration in the spirit of the Republic. Heine made a crucial mistake when he appointed Magnus Freiherr von Braun (DNVP) – father of rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and later one of the supporters of the Kapp Putsch – as a personnel officer. By the end of 1919, only 46 Social Democrats had been appointed to higher administrative posts. Of some 480 district administrators (), only 24 belonged to the SPD. The Kapp Putsch showed the weakly developed loyalty of some of the senior civil servants, many of whom were close to the DNVP, which was hostile to the Republic.
The new Minister of the Interior, Carl Severing, carried out a fundamental reform after the March 1920 Kapp Putsch. Senior civil servants hostile to the Republic were dismissed, and the political reliability of new hires was checked. A total of about one hundred senior civil servants were placed on retirement. Among these were three governors (), three district presidents () and 88 district administrators. Almost all of these were from the eastern provinces. In addition to supporters of the conservative parties, they included the Social Democratic governors August Winnig (East Prussia) and Felix Philipp (Lower Silesia).
Severing and his successors purposefully appointed supporters of the coalition parties as political officials. The policy led to a considerable change in the heads of departments. In 1929, 291 of 540 political officials were members of Weimar Coalition parties, including nine of 11 governors and 21 of 32 district presidents. The shift also changed the social composition among top officials. While in 1918 eleven governors were aristocrats, only two were in the period between 1920 and 1932. There were nevertheless still lagging regions. While in the western provinces 78% of newly appointed district administrators were supporters of the governing parties, the situation in the eastern provinces was noticeably different as late as 1926. There supporters of the coalition made up only one-third of district administrators; the rest were mostly conservative nonpartisans.
Another limitation was that a breakup of the monopoly of lawyers in the higher civil service posts did not succeed. Only in exceptional cases, such as that of Wilhelm Richter, Berlin's police chief, were outsiders appointed.
Republicanization of the police
The Prussian police force was not only the strongest in the Reich but also the most important instrument of the Prussian government's executive branch for maintaining constitutional order. Massive restructuring also began in the police force after the Kapp Putsch in order to ensure its loyalty to the Republic. Under the leadership of the Minister of the Interior, the republican-minded police chief Wilhelm Abegg became the decisive figure in carrying out the reform. By the end of the 1920s, all leading police officers were republicans. Of thirty police chiefs in 1928, fifteen were members of the SPD, five belonged to the Centre, four to the DDP, three to the DVP, and the rest were nonpartisan.
Below the command level, however, the situation was somewhat different. A large proportion of the police were former professional soldiers; the majority were conservative and anti-communist, and some maintained relations with right-wing organizations. For them the enemy was on the left.
An important change in the organization was the creation of the Protection Police (Schutzpolizei) as an instrument to protect the constitution and the Republic.
Justice
In the judiciary, reforms remained limited even longer than they did in the police force. Many judges continued to support the monarchy. In political trials, left-wing defendants were regularly judged more harshly than those on the right. One reason in particular for the hesitant intervention of democrats and centrists was respect for the independence of the judiciary. The autonomy of judges had been explicitly enshrined in the constitution. It made a fundamental republicanization of the judiciary impossible. Moreover, the Minister of Justice Hugo am Zehnhoff, who held the office from 1919 to 1927, had no real interest in judicial reform. The authorities did, however, pay attention to the attitude towards democracy among new appointees. But the Free State did not survive long enough for it to have a noticeable effect. One estimate in 1932 suggested that only about 5% of judges were republican-minded.
Weimar Republic (1921–1933)
Grand coalition (1921–1925)
Formation
After the adoption of the constitution, elections for the first regular state Parliament were set for 20 February 1921. The MSPD emerged as the strongest political force with 114 seats, followed by the Centre with 81. Even though the German Democratic Party (DDP) lost seats to the German People's Party (DVP), the Weimar coalition (SPD, DDP, and Centre) with a combined 224 of 428 seats still had a majority, albeit a small one, unlike in the 1920 Reichstag election, following which a minority government of the Centre, DDP and DVP was built.
Forming a new government in Prussia did not prove to be easy. While the DDP and the Centre wanted to bring the DVP into the coalition, the MSPD rejected the proposal because of the DVP's closeness to heavy industry and its unclear attitude towards the Republic. As a result, Otto Braun did not run as a candidate for Minister President. Instead, Adam Stegerwald of the Centre Party was elected with the votes of the previous coalition and the DVP, but his attempt to form a solid grand coalition failed. The MSPD then terminated its support, and Stegerwald resigned.
In a second election on 21 April, Stegerwald was re-elected with the votes of the bourgeois parties including the DNVP. He formed a minority government consisting of the Centre and the DDP as well as some independents. They had to seek support from the MSPD and DNVP on a case-by-case basis.
Pressure on Prussian policy came primarily from external factors. After the London ultimatum of 5 May 1921 regarding German payment of war reparations, Allied troops occupied Düsseldorf and Duisburg in the Ruhr. The assassination of former Reich Vice-Chancellor and Finance Minister Matthias Erzberger on 26 August by members of the far right Organisation Consul shocked supporters of the Republic. In September 1921 the MSPD cleared the way for a coalition with the DVP at its party congress in Görlitz. Otto Braun stated:What we are dealing with here is the conversion of our party from an acting to a governing party. This is very difficult for many because it takes us from a comfortable position to one that is sometimes very uncomfortable and full of responsibility. ... The comrades who speak against the resolution do not have sufficient confidence in the power of our party's appeal. We must have the will to power.After the MSPD withdrew support from the government in October 1921, accusing the Ministry of State of leaning towards the DNVP, negotiations began to form a grand coalition. On 5 November 1921, the MSPD and DVP joined the cabinet, and Stegerwald resigned.
The opposition within the MSPD parliamentary group was considerable. Forty-six deputies voted for and 41 against the formation of a grand coalition. There were also significant reservations within the DVP. In the end, 197 of 339 deputies present voted for Braun as Minister President. Ministers were chosen from the MSPD, Centre, DDP and DVP. Carl Severing again became Minister of the Interior.
Prussia's grand coalition proved to be a stabilizing factor in the Weimar Republic and contributed to its ability to survive the crisis year of 1923. The DVP remained loyal to the coalition even though it was courted by the DNVP to form a "citizens' bloc". An effectively functioning coalition committee successfully ensured that the different political interests were balanced, but despite the collegial cooperation, Braun and Severing dominated the government.
The coalition lay claim to nothing less than a "Prussian democratic mission" for all of Germany. This was especially true after the murder of Reich Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau (DDP) on 24 June 1922, once again by members of the Organisation Consul. On the basis of the Reich Law for the Protection of the Republic (), which was strongly supported by the Prussian government, Interior Minister Severing banned the Nazi Party in Prussia on 15 November 1922.
Crisis year 1923
Prussian territory was directly affected when troops from France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr on 11 January 1923 after Germany defaulted on its war reparations payments, although the main decisions on how to react were made at the Reich level. Immediately before the occupation, the Prussian Parliament – with the exception of the Communist Party – protested against the actions of the French and Belgians. At the same time, the population of the Rhineland and Westphalia was called on to exercise prudence. The Prussian government ultimately supported the passive resistance called for by the Reich. Prussian officials were instructed not to obey the orders of the occupiers. It quickly became apparent, however, that the economic burden caused by the situation was becoming enormous. The trend toward inflation that had existed since World War I exploded into the hyperinflation of the Weimar Republic.
Domestically, the crisis strengthened radical forces. After a number of violent acts by right-wing militants, Interior Minister Severing banned the German Völkisch Freedom Party (, DVFP), despite the reservations of the Reich government. Nationalists sharply attacked Severing in public and in the state Parliament, but overall Parliament backed him by a large majority.
Ending the struggle against the occupation of the Ruhr (which occurred on 26 September 1923) was necessary before currency reform could be carried out in the Reich. The still occupied Rhineland, however, was excluded from the introduction of the new Rentenmark on 16 November 1923. This spurred the regional separatists to action. A Rhenish Republic was proclaimed in various cities, but it met with little response from the population. By the end of the year, secession of the Rhineland and Westphalia had failed. The major political crises of 1923, such as Adolf Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch in Bavaria and the attempt at a communist revolution, the so-called "German October" in central Germany, took place outside Prussia. Reich Chancellor Gustav Stresemann (DVP) described the Prussia of the 1923 crisis period as the "bulwark of German republicans".
Transitional cabinet of Wilhelm Marx
At the beginning of 1924 there were increasing signs that the grand coalition's common ground had been lost. On 5 January the DVP demanded that the DNVP be brought into the government and that Braun resign. When he refused, the DVP withdrew its ministers from the government and brought an end to the coalition. Forming a new government proved as difficult as it had been in 1920. On 10 February the former Reich Chancellor Wilhelm Marx (Centre), supported by the Centre, DDP and SPD, was elected Minister President. He formed a cabinet consisting of the Centre and DDP, keeping Severing as Minister of the Interior. After losing a vote of confidence, Marx resigned but remained in office until April in an acting capacity.
New state parliamentary elections were held on 7 December 1924.
High point of political stability
Otto Braun was elected Minister President on 3 April 1925, with 216 of 430 votes. Like Marx, his base was SPD, Centre and DDP. Braun took over the majority of Marx's cabinet and looked to continuity in policy. He blamed the months-long government crisis on what he called the "German national communist bloc", by which he meant all the opposition parties from the DVP and DNVP to the various small parties, which included the NSDAP and the Communists. Braun said that "they are as incapable of building as they are unanimous in destroying." The new cabinet was a minority government, but it proved remarkably stable.
Settlement with the Hohenzollerns
The question of financial settlements with Germany's former ruling dynasties was in principle a matter for the states. In Prussia negotiations with the Hohenzollerns failed in 1920 because the SPD rejected the proposal in the state Parliament, and the former royal house objected to it in 1924. In 1925 the Ministry of Finance under Hermann Höpker-Aschoff (DDP) submitted another draft proposal. It was extraordinarily favorable to the Hohenzollerns and led to fierce criticism from the SPD and DDP. The DDP then introduced a bill in the Reichstag that would authorize the states to find a solution without recourse to the courts. It was the starting point for a political process that led to the failed referendum on princely expropriation at the Reich level in 1926.
The Braun government subsequently intensified negotiations with the Hohenzollerns over the former royal house's assets. In the end a compromise was reached that the SPD viewed very critically. The main Hohenzollern line received 250,000 acres of land and 15 million Reichsmarks. The Prussian state also received 250,000 acres, plus the royal palaces along with the Bellevue and Babelsberg palaces, works of art, the coronation regalia, the library of the former royal house, the archives and the theater. In Parliament, KPD deputies reacted with anger and even violence. The vote went in favor of the agreement. It is noteworthy that not only the Communists rejected the bill, but also that the representatives of the governing SPD party either voted against it or did not participate in the vote. Braun was only able to ensure that more SPD deputies did not vote against the bill by threatening to resign.
Tensions with the Reich government
On 6 October 1926, as had been agreed with Braun some time earlier, Carl Severing resigned as Minister of the Interior, leaving the Minister President the only political heavyweight in the cabinet. Severing was succeeded by Albert Grzesinski (SPD).
There were frequent tensions between the Christian-bourgeois Reich governments and the center-left government in Prussia. One practical issue was revenue sharing between the Reich and the states. Compensation for the financial harm caused by territorial losses under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles remained a central point of conflict between the Reich and Prussia. The disputes over the use of flags on Constitution Day in 1927 fell into the realm of symbolic politics, which was important for the citizens' idea of the state. Braun announced a boycott of those hotels in Berlin that flew the old imperial black-white-red colors instead of the Republic's black-red-gold. When he asked the Reich government to join in the boycott call, Reich Minister of the Interior Walter von Keudell (DNVP) protested against Prussia's "insolence". The conflict was exacerbated when Prussian Minister of Culture Becker restricted the rights of student self-government at Prussian universities because of the increasing influence of the völkisch movement there. When nationally minded student bodies protested against the move, Keudell openly backed them. Not least because of these and other conflicts with the Reich Minister of the Interior, Braun became an important integration figure among Social Democrats.
Agricultural policy
A relic of the feudal past in Prussia was the manorial district. Those living on them had no communal right of residence and were subject to the police power invested in the landlords. Using groundwork laid by Interior Minister Grzesinski, the Braun government abolished the districts in 1927. The change affected 12,000 manorial districts with a combined population of 1.5 million. Some remnants of the old conditions did however continue to exist east of the Elbe River (East Elbia). There were many agricultural workers who received part of their wages in kind, such as free housing, food or land use. As late as 1928, 83% of the income of an average farm worker in East Prussia consisted of such wages, although the figure was somewhat lower in Silesia and Pomerania. Employers preferred this form of pay because it tied workers more closely to them and made it difficult to verify the accuracy of their wages.
The situation was different in areas with a population made up predominantly of independent farmers. Even so, reservations about politics in rural regions remained strong, as is shown by the emergence of rural protest parties such as the Christian-National Peasants' and Farmers' Party. In Schleswig-Holstein, which was characterized not by large landholdings but by farmers, an agrarian protest movement developed toward the end of the 1920s with the Rural People's Movement.
Educational policy
The period of the grand coalition saw the beginning of a reform of the educational system that was initially pushed forward by the independent Minister of Education Carl Heinrich Becker. One of its goals was to reduce the educational disparity between urban and rural areas.
According to the Reich constitution, the training of elementary school teachers was to be aligned with that of the higher schools. How that was to be done was left a matter for the states. Some, such as Thuringia and Saxony, introduced teacher training at universities or technical universities. Others, including Bavaria and Württemberg, retained the old seminar method. In 1924 Prussia introduced a middle course using denominational pedagogic academies with a shorter training period than in a regular university course.
Prussia increased its funding for additional educational opportunities aimed in particular at gifted blue- and white-collar workers. In 1928 there were 102 – schools with the goal of bringing gifted elementary school students up to high school readiness level – with 13,000 students. In 1928 a broad majority decided to introduce educational grants of 20,000 Reichsmarks to support the less well-off. Just one year later, the sum had reached 100,000 Reichsmarks, although additional increases were slowed by fiscal considerations, including on the part of the SPD.
In other areas, problems of long standing were addressed, such as reducing the pupil-teacher ratio from 55 in 1911 to 38 in 1928. Overall, however, personnel costs in education, which placed a heavy burden on the state budget, led to the SPD at times limiting educational expenditures in opposition to its stated goals.
State Parliament election 1928
In May 1928 elections were held at both the Reich and state levels. In the Prussian state elections, the SPD made gains while the Centre and DDP both lost seats. In spite of that, the coalition had a parliamentary majority, with a combined 228 of 450 seats. The government remained the same, and Braun promised continued work. One of the government's projects was to be a municipal reorganization of the Ruhr region.
Religious politics
As the election campaign of 1918/19 had shown, the memory of royal Prussia's Kulturkampf ('cultural conflict') against the Catholic Church was still alive, but in large part due to the strong position of the Centre Party in Parliament and the government, the Catholic population had come to identify relatively strongly with the new Free State of Prussia. Its high point and symbol was the Prussian Concordat with the Vatican, signed on 14 June 1929 by Eugenio Pacelli (later Pope Pius XII). The treaty superseded an 1821 agreement between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Vatican and eliminated the last remnants of church legislation from the period. It regulated state contributions to the church and the arrangement of bishoprics, including reestablishing the bishoprics of Aachen and Berlin. School issues were excluded, but it regulated the academic training of clergy. The forms of episcopal elections and similar issues were also clarified.
There was opposition to the concordat from various sides. The Lutheran Church, supported by the DNVP and DVP, saw it as strengthening Catholicism. Freethinkers in the SPD also rejected the agreement.
While the Catholic population was successfully won over to the new Prussia, the issue was more difficult when it came to Protestants. With the revolution, the Protestants of the Prussian Union of Churches lost the king as their top leader. He had officially been the head bishop (summus episcopus) of the Union with far-reaching rights, even to the shaping of the liturgy. Emperor William II had taken the task very seriously, and after the revolution many Protestants lacked an important figure by which to orient themselves. A considerable percentage of church-going Protestants voted for the anti-democratic and nationalistic DNVP. It was no coincidence that the motto of the Protestant church congress of 1927 was "". Antisemitic influences, especially among theological faculties, also grew in strength.
An ecclesiastical treaty with the Protestant regional churches in Prussia did not come about until 1931. On the state's side, it was promoted by Adolf Grimme (SPD), who had become Minister of Culture. A "political clause" that regulated the state's objections to the filling of high church positions, similar to the concordat with the Catholic Church, met with resistance from the church.
Prussia and the crisis of the Republic
Blood May 1929
Using sometimes drastic measures, the Prussian government tried to oppose the increasing radicalization from both the left and the right. In December 1928, following political clashes between Communists, National Socialists and Social Democrats in Berlin, the city's police chief Karl Zörgiebel issued a ban on all open-air demonstrations and gatherings. The ban applied to 1 May 1929, International Workers' Day. The KPD ignored the ban and called for a mass demonstration. Fighting resembling a civil war broke out between police and Communist supporters. Zörgiebel had ordered a crackdown and, with the SPD's approval, was determined to set an example. The fighting – which came to be known as "Blood May" – cost 33 lives, and nearly 200 people were injured. More than 1,200 arrests were made. The assumption that the KPD had planned a violent overthrow of the government could not be proven. Only later did telegrams intercepted from Moscow seem to suggest this. The Prussian government pressed for a ban of the KPD and all its subsidiary organizations. Carl Severing, who at the time was Reich Minister of the Interior, rejected the idea as unwise and impracticable. Prussia then banned the Alliance of Red Front Fighters (). With the exception of Brunswick, the other German states did the same.
The events led to increased hostility in the KPD towards the Social Democrats. Ernst Thälmann, leader of the KPD, called the "social fascism" of the SPD a particularly dangerous form of fascism. He urged the KPD to direct its policies against the SPD as the "main enemy".
Bulwark of democracy
Even after the formation of Heinrich Brüning's (Centre Party) Reich government on 31 March 1930 and the Reichstag election of 14 September 1930, which marked the NSDAP's parliamentary breakthrough, Prussia's government continued to work for democracy and the Republic. The ban on uniforms for the NSDAP was not lifted, nor was the provision that civil servants could not belong to the anti-constitutional KPD or NSDAP. In a sign of the crisis, Severing returned as Minister of the Interior in October 1930. He named his predecessor Albert Grzesinski as Berlin's chief of police. Braun, Severing and chairman of the SPD parliamentary group Ernst Heilmann supported the SPD's course of tolerating Brüning due to the lack of political alternatives.
The National Socialists saw Prussia as an important strategic target in taking over power in Germany. Joseph Goebbels wrote in 1930, "The key to power in Germany lies in Prussia. Whoever has Prussia also has the Reich." Others on the right saw the situation similarly. Unlike during the Reich government of Hermann Müller (28 June 1928 – 27 March 1930), Brüning temporarily blocked cooperation with Prussia against the NSDAP. In December 1931 the Reich government prevented the execution of an arrest warrant against Adolf Hitler issued by Berlin police chief Grzesinski. The Prussian government then presented the Reich government with an extensive dossier proving the anti-constitutional activities of the NSDAP and announced a ban on the Sturmabteilung (SA) in Prussia. Only after such pressure did Brüning also support the ban of all paramilitary units of the NSDAP at the Reich level.
Referendum on the dissolution of the state Parliament
In 1929 the Braun government banned the paramilitary Stahlhelm in the Rhineland and Westphalia for violating the demilitarization provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1930, when the Young Plan on German reparations came into force and foreign troops were to evacuate the Rhineland, Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, who was an honorary member of the Stahlhelm, forced the ban to be lifted by threatening not to take part in the celebrations in Koblenz to mark the evacuation.
On 4 October 1930, Stahlhelm leader Franz Seldte sharply attacked the "Marxist" Prussian government at the Reich Front-Line Soldiers' Day in Koblenz. He announced a plan to call a referendum for the premature dissolution of the Prussian Parliament. The Stahlhelm's move was supported by the DVP, DNVP and NSDAP, and 5.96 million Prussians signed the initiative to put the referendum on the ballot. This was slightly more than the necessary 20% of eligible voters, and the referendum was held on 8 August 1931. Under pressure from Joseph Stalin and the Comintern, which at the time considered the fight against the "social-fascist" SPD more important than resistance to the extreme right, the KPD also supported the referendum. Especially because many Communist voters did not follow the party's lead, the referendum failed with only 37.1% of the votes in favor of an early dissolution.
State Parliament election 1932
Elections in Prussia and several other states were scheduled to be held after the Reich presidential election of 1932 in which Hindenburg, supported by the German State Party (formerly the DDP), the Centre and the SPD, prevailed over Hitler and Thälmann (KPD). Since Prussia's coalition parties had to assume that the democratic camp would fare badly in view of the political radicalization, the rules of procedure were changed at the instigation of Ernst Heilmann, chairman of the SPD parliamentary group. A preliminary form of a constructive vote of no confidence was introduced to prevent the Minister President from being voted out of office by a purely negative majority – one formed by two parties unwilling to work with one another. From then on, an absolute majority was required for the election of the Minister President.
The coalition parties' fears about the 1932 Prussian election were justified. The SPD dropped to 21.2%. The German State Party shrank almost to insignificance with 1.5%. In contrast, the NSDAP grew from 1.8% to 36.7% and became the strongest parliamentary group with 162 seats. The coalition had lost its majority. Together the parties had only 163 seats. With 219 seats, the KPD and NSDAP had a negative majority. The National Socialist Hanns Kerrl became president of the Prussian Parliament.
The government then resigned but remained in office on a caretaker basis until a new Minister President could be elected. Similar situations existed in other states of the Reich.
The attempt to form a new majority government proved unsuccessful. There were negotiations between the Centre and the NSDAP, but the configuration, which Severing and Braun considered to be a possibility, failed. Nor could a majority be found to again revise the amended rules of procedure. It thus seemed possible that the caretaker government could continue on indefinitely. Ernst Heilmann in particular tried to convince the KPD to tolerate it. Since the KPD had weakened its stance against social fascism in favor of a united front, the attempt had at least some chance at success, but in the end it too failed.
Braun had had a physical collapse on the night of 22–23 April in the wake of the exertions of the election campaign. When it became clear that his caretaker government would remain in office, he handed over the day-to-day affairs to his deputy Heinrich Hirtsiefer of the Centre Party.
1932 Prussian coup d'état ()
Behind the scenes, the cabinet of Reich Chancellor Franz von Papen exerted pressure for the quick election of a new Minister President based on cooperation between the NSDAP and the Centre. Coalition negotiations did take place, but the Centre was unwilling to elect a National Socialist Minister President. On 11 June the Reich government threatened for the first time to appoint a Reich commissioner for Prussia. The occasion was the Altona Bloody Sunday of 17 July 1932. In Altona, a town in Prussia adjacent to Hamburg, there were violent clashes between supporters of the KPD, the NSDAP and members of the police that left 18 dead. It prompted the use on 20 July 1932 of an emergency decree, already prepared but not yet dated, entitled "Restoration of Public Safety and Order in the State of Prussia" (). The members of the executive Prussian State Ministry were relieved of their posts, von Papen was appointed Reich Commissioner for Prussia, and Franz Bracht of the Centre Party became his deputy. When von Papen asked Severing whether he was prepared to voluntarily vacate his post, he replied, "According to my understanding of the actions of the Reich government, I cannot think of voluntarily leaving my office. I will therefore yield only to force."
A state of emergency was declared in Berlin and the province of Brandenburg. The police were placed under the command of General Gerd von Rundstedt, and high-ranking leaders of the police were arrested. There was no active resistance, such as a general strike by the SPD and trade unions. The Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold – a paramilitary force connected primarily to the SPD – was also not mobilized.
Von Papen and Bracht then began removing leading civil servants and other executives who were close to the parties of the Braun government and replacing them for the most part with conservative officials.
On the day of the Prussian coup d'état, the caretaker government filed suit with the Reich Constitutional Court in Leipzig. Hermann Heller represented the SPD parliamentary group and Carl Schmitt the Reich government. On 25 October 1932 the court determined that the removal of the Prussian government had been illegal. The caretaker government was given the right to represent Prussia before the state's Parliament, the State Council (), the Reichsrat and the other states. The judges also ruled that a "temporary" appointment of Reich commissioners was constitutional. As a result, Prussia effectively had two governments: the Braun government, which had no access to the administrative apparatus, and the Reich commissioner's office that controlled the government resources that wielded power.
After the de facto dismissal of the Braun government, Joseph Goebbels summed up the situation in his diary: "The Reds have been eliminated. Their organizations offer no resistance. ... The Reds have had their great hour. They will never come again."
National Socialist era (1933–1945)
After the installation of Hitler's government on 30 January 1933, Hermann Göring became Reich Commissioner of the Interior for Prussia. In a departure from the previous arrangement, the office of Reich Commissioner itself was assumed not by the Reich Chancellor (Hitler) but by the Vice Chancellor, Franz von Papen. The replacement of politically undesirable officials was pushed forward more aggressively. The Prussian police force, subordinate to Göring, was an important element in enforcing National Socialist rule. The Gestapo grew out of the Prussian political police.
To clear the way for the dissolution of the Prussian Parliament, Minister President Braun was removed from office by emergency decree on 6 February. In accordance with the constitution, a three-member body consisting of von Papen, parliamentary president Hanns Kerrl and the chairman of the State Council Konrad Adenauer were to decide whether to dissolve Parliament. Adenauer opposed the move and left the negotiations. The two remaining members then decided on its dissolution.
The Reichstag fire on 27 February 1933 led not only to the suspension of numerous fundamental rights and an intensification of the persecution of political opponents but also to a wide-ranging abolition of the powers of state governments.
The new Reich government pushed to end Braun's caretaker government. In the elections for the Prussian Parliament on 5 March, the NSDAP won the most votes at 43.2%. Although it did not achieve a majority, it made significant gains even in Catholic regions. Since the National Socialists, despite gains, did not have a majority in many cities even after the municipal elections of 12 March 1933, the takeover of power was achieved through political manipulation. The Prussian Municipal Constitution Act of 15 December 1933 replaced elected municipal parliaments with appointed municipal councils.
On 22 March 1933, the new Prussian Parliament was constituted. As in the Reich, the mandates of the Communist deputies were revoked and many of them arrested. As a result, the NSDAP had an absolute majority. The Parliament confirmed the dismissal of the Braun government, which officially resigned. The Parliament refrained from electing a new Minister President. The Provisional Law and Second Law on the Coordination of the States with the Reich of 31 March and 7 April 1933 subordinated Prussia to the Reich. On 11 April Hitler appointed Göring Prussian Minister President, and the state Parliament met for the last time on 18 May 1933. It approved an enabling act that transferred all legislative power to the Reich Ministry of State for a period of four years and then adjourned. The SPD alone refused to go along. The act meant the final end of a democratic system in Prussia.
Under the Nazi regime, the structures of the states were increasingly eroded. Utilizing the enabling act authority, on 8 July 1933 Göring enacted a law abolishing the existing Prussian State Council, the second chamber of the legislature that represented the interests of the Prussian provinces. In its place, he created a revised non-legislative Prussian State Council to serve him in an advisory capacity. Göring himself was President of the Council. It would consist, ex officio, of the Prussian cabinet ministers and state secretaries, as well as hand-picked Nazi Party officials and other industry and society leaders selected solely by Göring.
The "First Ordinance for the Unification and Simplification of Administration" of 19 July 1934 () effectively merged state ministries with Reich ministries. In the "Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich" () of 30 January 1934 and the "Reich Governors Law" () of 30 January 1935, the states and the provinces of Prussia were dissolved in fact if not in law. The state landtage were abolished and state governments were controlled by Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governors) who were appointed by the Chancellor. The law designated Hitler himself as the Reich Governor of Prussia, although he delegated these functions to Göring. By the "Law on the Abolition of the Reichsrat" of 14 February 1934, the states lost their representation to the upper chamber of the German parliament.
The new rulers were quite successful in appealing to Prussian traditions of discipline and devotion to the state. They were able to connect with trends of the 1920s from the right wing of the political spectrum in which the Prussia of Frederick the Great and Otto von Bismarck and their "Prussian socialism" were compared favorably to liberalism and social democracy. Prussian administrative efficiency was misused for coercive and terrorist rule. In the Prussian-influenced officer corps, few invoked Prussia to refuse serving Hitler.
A few changes were made to Prussian provinces under the Nazi regime. The Greater Hamburg Act of 1937 transferred some territory from the provinces of Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein to Hamburg while at the same time annexing Geesthacht (part of Hamburg) and Lübeck to Schleswig-Holstein, as well as Cuxhaven (Hamburg) to the Province of Hanover. Other changes took place in 1939 involving cessions of suburban municipalities of Hanover to Bremen and in return the annexation of Bremerhaven to the Province of Hanover. Wilhelmshaven (Hanover) was ceded to Oldenburg.
The Prussian lands transferred to Poland after the Treaty of Versailles were reannexed during World War II. Most of the territory was not reintegrated into Prussia but assigned to separate territories of Nazi Germany.
Formal dissolution (1945–1947)
At the end of World War II in 1945, Germany was divided into occupation zones, and all of Germany east of the Oder–Neisse line was ceded to other countries. As had been the case after World War I, almost all of the territory had been Prussian, although a small portion east of the new border had belonged to Saxony. Most of the land went to Poland, ostensibly as compensation for the seizure of Poland's eastern territories by the Soviet Union. The northern third of East Prussia including Königsberg (renamed Kaliningrad in 1946) was annexed by the Soviets. The losses represented nearly two-fifths of Prussian territory and nearly a quarter of the territory within Germany's pre-1938 borders. An estimated ten million Germans fled or were forcibly expelled from the territories.
What remained of Prussia comprised both a little over half of the remaining German territory and a little over half of Prussia's pre-1914 territory. Control Council Law No. 46 of 25 February 1947 explicitly decreed that Prussia should be dissolved. The Allies cited Prussia's history of militarism as a reason for dissolving it. Its reconstitution was also opposed (if not for the same reasons) by powerful German postwar politicians, especially the first West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.
Moreover, growing tensions between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union eventually resulted in the Prussian territories west of the Oder-Neisse line being further divided by what became known as the inner German border. The lands east of this boundary (except West Berlin) became part of the German Democratic Republic and the remainder became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. This effectively would have made it impossible to reconstitute a Prussian state resembling the one that existed prior to the Nazi era, even if there had been any significant political will to do so.
Post-war dismemberment
After the Allied occupation of Germany in 1945, the provinces of Prussia were split up into the following territories/German states:
Ceded to the Soviet Union The northern third of East Prussia. Today the Kaliningrad Oblast is a Russian exclave between Lithuania and Poland.
Ceded to Poland Everything east of the Oder–Neisse line plus Stettin. This included most of Silesia, Eastern Pomerania, the Neumark region of Brandenburg, all of Posen-West Prussia, and the portion of East Prussia not ceded to Russia.
Placed under Soviet administration The following states, after merging with other German states, were formed after the war, then abolished in 1952 and finally recreated following the reunification of Germany in 1990:
Brandenburg, from the remainder of the Province of Brandenburg.
Saxony-Anhalt, from the bulk of the Province of Saxony. The remainder of the province became part of Thuringia.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern: the remainder of the Province of Pomerania (most of Western Pomerania) merged into Mecklenburg.
Saxony: the remainder of the Province of Silesia merged into Saxony.
Placed under Allied administration The remainder of Prussia was merged with other German states to become the following states of West Germany:
Schleswig-Holstein, from the province of Schleswig-Holstein (under British administration).
Lower Saxony, from the province of Hanover (under British administration).
North Rhine-Westphalia, from the province of Westphalia and the northern half of the Rhine Province (under British administration).
Rhineland-Palatinate, from the southern part of the Rhine Province (under French administration).
Hesse, from the province of Hesse-Nassau (under American administration).
Württemberg-Hohenzollern, from the southern half of the former state of Württemberg and the province of Hohenzollern (under French administration). The state was ultimately merged with Baden and Württemberg-Baden to form Baden-Württemberg.
Berlin Divided into East Berlin under Soviet administration and West Berlin under Allied sectors of administration (British, French and American). West Berlin was surrounded by East Germany and ultimately was enclosed by the Berlin Wall. The two halves were reunited after German reunification to form the modern German state of Berlin. A proposal to merge Berlin with the reformed state of Brandenburg was rejected by popular vote in 1996.
References
Prussia
1910s in Prussia
1920s in Prussia
1930s in Prussia
West Prussia
1918 establishments in Germany
1947 disestablishments in Germany
1918 establishments in Prussia
1947 disestablishments in Prussia
States and territories established in 1918
States and territories disestablished in 1947
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital%20punishment%20in%20Japan
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Capital punishment in Japan
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Capital punishment is a legal penalty in Japan. In practice, it is applied only for aggravated murder, but the current Penal Code and several laws list 14 capital crimes, including conspiracy to commit civil war; conspiracy with a foreign power to provoke war against Japan; murder; obstruction of the operation of railroads, ships, or airplanes resulting in the death of the victim; poisoning of the water supply resulting in the death of the victim; intentional flooding; use of a bomb; and arson of a dwelling. Executions are carried out by long drop hanging, and take place at one of the seven execution chambers located in major cities across the country.
Death sentences are usually passed in cases of multiple murders, although there have been some extremely grave cases where individuals who committed a single murder have been sentenced to death and executed, such as those involving torture, extreme brutality (or cruelty) or kidnapping with a demand for ransom.
Since 2000, 98 inmates have been executed in Japan, with the most recent being the execution of Tomohiro Katō, the perpetrator of the Akihabara massacre in 2008, who was executed on 26 July 2022. There are currently 106 death row inmates awaiting execution. Support for capital punishment has consistently been high among the Japanese public. In a poll conducted in November 2019 of 3,000 Japanese adults by the Cabinet Office, 80.8% of respondents stated they support the continued usage of the death penalty in Japan, while 9% stated it should be abolished in all cases. When the question proposed the introduction of life sentencing without parole, 35.1% answered that the death penalty should be abolished, while 52.0% said it should continue.
Japan is one of four developed countries to continue the death penalty. It is the third most active developed death penalty country, after Singapore, and the United States.
History
According to the Kojiki, Japan's oldest historical book, the death penalty is believed to have first appeared in Japan in the first half of the 5th century during the reign of Emperor Nintoku. Methods of execution during this period included strangulation, beheading, and burning to death, and in some special cases, the death penalty was carried out and then exposed to public view.
The Taihō Code and the Yōrō Code stipulated two methods of capital punishment: beheading and strangulation. In 773, the method of beating to death was added for arsonists and thieves, bringing the total to three methods of capital punishment. The execution of the death penalty required the approval of the emperor.
Beginning in the Nara period (710－794), the death penalty was infrequently used, and the death penalty was abolished completely in the Heian period (794－1185). The death penalty was not used for 346 years following the execution of Fujiwara no Nakanari in 810, until it was revived during the Hōgen rebellion of 1156. However, during the Genpei War (1180－1185), the death penalty by sawing and crucifixion may have been carried out.
During the Kamakura period (1185－1333), the only method of capital punishment was beheading, and felons in particular were displayed to the public as an example after their execution. The Muromachi period (1333－1573) largely followed the Kamakura period method of capital punishment. On the other hand, seppuku, which appeared as a method of suicide in the Heian period, was first used as a method of capital punishment in this period.
From the Sengoku period to the Azuchi-Momoyama period, the methods of execution became more varied and cruel, reflecting the climate of warfare. The following methods of execution were used: skewering with a yari, burying them in the ground from the neck down and cutting off their heads with a bamboo saw, tying the criminal's legs to two oxen and tearing the legs apart, tying the criminal's legs to two wheels and tearing the legs apart, burning the criminal at the stake, boiling the criminal in a pot, wrapping the criminal in a woven straw rug and throwing him under water, and so on. During this period, capital punishment by crucifixion was also practiced, which is believed to have begun under Western influence.
In the early Edo period (1603－1867), there was no new code on capital punishment, and some of the methods of execution used in the Sengoku period, such as execution by oxen, were continued, but, in 1742, during the reign of Tokugawa Yoshimune, a new law was enacted that changed the method of capital punishment and lessened its severity. Under the new law, the only methods of capital punishment were sawing, crucifixion, beheading, burning at the stake, and seppuku. Burning at the stake applied only to arsonists, while seppuku applied only to the samurai class. Even for the same beheading, there were differences in the treatment of the body after execution, depending on the severity of the crime. If the crime was serious, the body was exposed to the public for three days, used for test cutting with a Japanese sword (tameshigiri), or had its property confiscated by the government. In the Edo period, sawing was a method of execution for criminals who had killed their lord, which was the most severe of the death penalties. The revised law by Tokugawa Yoshimune stated that the criminal should be buried in the ground from the neck down and exposed to the public for two days, and if any of the victim's relatives or passersby so requested, he or she should actually be sawed to death. After the law was revised, however, the sawing became a mere formality, and no saws were ever used in executions. In practice, the saw was placed next to the criminal, who was buried from the neck down, and exposed to the public for two days before he was finally executed by crucifixion.
In 1871 during the Meiji era (1868－1912), as the result of a major reform of the penal code, the number of crimes punishable by death was decreased and excessively harsh torture and flogging were abolished. In 1873, another revision resulted in a further reduction in the number of crimes punishable by death, and methods of execution were restricted to beheading or hanging. However, such sentiments would see a sharp reversal after World War I as the country descended into militarism up to World War II, and after the country's defeat, continuing towards post-war Japan until today.
Today, executions in Japan are carried out by long drop hanging, which is intended to cause death by breakage of the neck.
System
Sentencing guideline – Nagayama Standard
In Japan, the courts follow guidelines laid down in the trial of Norio Nagayama, a 19-year-old from a severely disadvantaged background, who committed four separate robbery-murders in 1968 and was finally hanged in 1997. The Tokyo High Court originally gave him a life term, but, in 1983, the Supreme Court of Japan held it was an error, and quashed this sentence before sending Nagayama back on death row.
The court ruled that the penalty shall be decided in consideration of the degree of criminal liability and balance of justice based on a nine-point set of criteria. Though technically not a precedent, this guideline has been followed by all subsequent capital cases in Japan. The nine criteria are as follows:
Degree of viciousness
Motive
How the crime was committed; especially the manner in which the victim was killed.
Outcome of the crime; especially the number of victims.
Sentiments of the bereaved family members.
Impact of the crime on Japanese society.
Defendant's age (in Japan, the age of majority is 18).
Defendant's previous criminal record.
Degree of remorse shown by the defendant.
The number of victims killed is the most important criterion for imposition of a death sentence. A death sentence handed down for a single murder (previous convictions included) is considered "extraordinary".
In 2012, a research institute affiliated with the Supreme Court issued a report on application of capital punishment from 1980 to 2009. The study found that, while prosecutors very rarely demand the death penalty in cases of single murder, death sentences were passed in 32% of those cases where they requested it. On the other hand, prosecutors seek the death penalty almost systematically in cases of multiple homicide, and 59% of cases of double-murder and 79% of cases where three or more victims have been killed result in death sentences being passed.
The study also found that death sentences were passed in all cases of convicted murderers who killed again after being released on parole from life prison terms, and in all robbery-murder cases with three or more people killed.
Furthermore, in 5 of 10 kidnap-for-ransom cases in which one person was killed, the defendants were sentenced to death.
Judicial process
Since May 2009, district courts try capital cases using the lay judge system, where three professional judges sit with six randomly chosen citizens. Five votes of nine-member court, including at least one professional judge, are required for issuing a conviction and any punishment, including death.
Japan has a civil law legal system; therefore, appeal courts retry both facts and law. High courts retry cases with only three judges and no lay judges, and can either reduce a death sentence to life or raise a life sentence to death. Ultimately, a five-member petty bench of the Supreme Court has the final say on the penalty, Article 411 of Code of Criminal Procedure allowing it to remand the case or change the punishment if the one handed down by the high court is "seriously unfair".
In only three cases since 1945 has the Supreme Court ruled a high court-imposed life sentence too lenient and ordered a retrial for death sentence. Among them are Norio Nagayama and Takayuki Fukuda, both under 20 at time of crime. The third case was that of a man convicted of murdering an elderly woman for robbery shortly after being paroled from a life sentence imposed for a similar crime.
Stays of execution
According to Article 475 of the Japanese Code of Criminal Procedure, the death penalty must be executed within six months after the failure of the prisoner's final appeal upon an order from the Minister of Justice. However, the period requesting retrial or pardon is exempt from this regulation. Therefore, in practice, the typical stay on death row is between five and seven years; a quarter of the prisoners have been on death row for over ten years. For several, the stay has been over 30 years (Sadamichi Hirasawa died of natural causes at the age of 95, after awaiting execution for 32 years).
Death row
Japanese death row inmates are imprisoned inside the detention centers of Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Sendai, Fukuoka, Hiroshima and Sapporo. Despite having high courts, Tachikawa Detention Center and Takamatsu Detention Center are not equipped with execution chambers; executions administered by the Tachikawa and Takamatsu High Courts are carried out in the Tokyo and Osaka Detention Centers. Those on death row are not classified as prisoners by the Japanese justice system and the facilities in which they are incarcerated are not referred to as prisons. Inmates lack many of the rights afforded to other Japanese prisoners. The nature of the regime they live under is largely up to the director of the detention center, but it is usually significantly harsher than normal Japanese prisons. Inmates are held in solitary confinement and are forbidden to communicate with their fellows. They are permitted two periods of exercise a week, are not allowed televisions and may only possess three books. Prison visits, both by family members and legal representatives, are infrequent and closely supervised.
As of 21 December 2021, 107 inmates currently sit on death row awaiting execution.
Execution
The execution warrant is signed by the Minister of Justice after internal consultations within the justice ministry. Once the final approval is signed, the execution will take place within five business days.
By statute, the execution cannot take place on a national holiday, Saturday, Sunday, or between 31 December and 2 January.
Executions are carried out by hanging in an execution chamber within the detention center. When the death warrant has been signed, the condemned prisoner is informed on the morning of their execution. The condemned is given a choice of a last meal. The prisoner's family and legal representatives, and also the general public, are informed only after the execution has taken place. Since 7 December 2007, the authorities have been releasing names, natures of crime, and ages of executed prisoners.
In Japan, until the 1970s, the date of execution was announced to the condemned prisoner before the execution. However, because there were cases of death row inmates committing suicide before the execution, the method was changed to one or two hours before the execution to ensure the emotional stability of the inmate.
The method of hanging is the long drop, causing instant unconsciousness and rapid death by neck fracture.
Death sentences for minors
Having signed both the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which forbid any executions for those under the age of 18, Japan sets the minimum age for capital punishment at 18 (Juvenile Law § 51).
Prior to April 2022, the age of majority in Japan was 20 years of age (as per 1876 legislation). Although death sentences for minors aged 18 or 19 years were rare, those who committed capital crimes at those ages could be legally sentenced to death.
Between 1966 and 2022, nine juvenile criminals received death sentences that were finalized: Misao Katagiri, Kiyoshi Watanabe, Mitsuo Sasanuma, Fumio Matsuki, Sumio Kanno, Tsuneo Kuroiwa, Norio Nagayama, Teruhiko Seki and Takayuki Mizujiri. Eight of them have already been executed and Watanabe, who killed four people when he was 19 years old, remains on death row awaiting execution.
, the most recent juvenile death sentence was given to Takayuki Fukuda, passed by the Hiroshima High Court on 22 April 2008, and upheld by the Supreme Court on 20 February 2012. A month after his 18th birthday, he killed and then raped a woman, along with murdering her baby.
Public debate
The Japanese public has generally supported the death penalty. The government regularly monitors support for the death penalty, the last survey, in 2020, showing that more than 80% of the public believed the death penalty to be "permissible"; and only about 8% said that it should be abolished. This was a minimal change to the previous survey conducted in 2015, which also showed that 80.3% of the public believed the death penalty to be "permissible". At a 2003 trial, a Tokyo prosecutor presented the court a petition with 76,000 signatures as part of his case for a death sentence.
During the late 1980s, four death penalty defendants who were sentenced in the period just after World War II were exonerated by the Supreme Court. Charles Lane of The Washington Post claims that this embarrassed the Ministry of Justice, whose officials sincerely believed that such mistakes by the system were almost impossible. Between 1989 and 1993, four successive ministers of justice refused to authorise executions, which amounted to an informal moratorium.
The British newspaper The Times claimed that the death penalty was "effectively suspended" on 17 September 2009 with the appointment of Keiko Chiba, who was a member of anti-death penalty MPs caucus group, as Minister of Justice. However, no official policy statement was made in this regard. Chiba only stated that "I will cautiously handle (the cases) based on the duties of the justice minister." The Times''' speculation was conclusively disproven when Chiba signed two death warrants and personally witnessed their executions.
Support
Supporters say that capital punishment is justified and only to those who have committed the most extreme of crimes — a single murder is not considered to warrant a death sentence unless there are additional aggravating circumstances, such as rape or robbery. In the 1956 debate, Japanese serial killer Genzo Kurita, who engaged in rape and necrophilia, was cited by the Diet as an example of a murderer whose crimes were atrocious enough to merit death. However, it is more the rarity of extreme crimes in Japanese society rather than an unwillingness of the authorities to carry out executions that has caused so few executions to take place.
Since executions resumed in 1993, a rise in street crime during the 1990s, the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in 1995 have hardened attitudes amongst the public and the judiciary. Since 1999, there have been a series of cases in which criminals sentenced to life imprisonment have been given the death penalty after prosecutors successfully appealed to high courts.
On 18 March 2009, a district court sentenced to death two men for the murder of Rie Isogai. Fumiko Isogai, who lost her only child in this crime, launched a campaign to call for the death penalty on the three murderers in September 2007. Within ten days, her petition was signed by 100,000 citizens. She presented her petition for the death penalty with some 150,000 signatures to the District Public Prosecutors' Office of Nagoya on 23 October 2007. About 318,000 citizens had signed her petition by December 2008.
Although single murderers rarely face a death sentence in Japan, Takeshi Tsuchimoto, a criminal law scholar at Hakuoh University and former prosecutor of the Supreme Public Prosecutors' Office, expected that the recent trend toward harsher punishments, backed by the growing public support for capital punishment, would encourage the court to sentence Kanda and Hori (of the Rie Isogai case) to death. Major national newspapers published editorials in support of this unorthodox judgment on the premise that capital punishment is retained. The Asahi Shimbun and the Mainichi Shimbun, both major national liberal newspapers, wrote in editorials that the general public favored the judgment, and the Nikkei lent its support to it.
The Sankei Shimbun, a major national paper on the right, evaluated the judgement with a phrase "a natural and down-to-earth judgment of great significance". The Tokyo Shimbun expressed that capital punishment would be the inevitable sentence in consideration of the brutality of the murder and the pain that the victim's family felt. They also noted, however, that it would be difficult for citizen judges to determine whether death penalty would be appropriate in this kind of case under the lay judge system, which would be started in May 2009. Hiroshi Itakura, a criminal law scholar at Nihon University, said that this decision could be a new criterion for capital punishment under the lay judge system. However, one of the two men sentenced to death in the Isogai case had his sentence reduced to life imprisonment on appeal, and the Supreme Court refused to raise the punishment to death (but he was later sentenced to death in another murder case). The other defendant sentenced to death did not appeal and was hanged in 2015.
Opposition
Amnesty International argues that the Japanese justice system tends to place great reliance on confessions, even ones obtained under duress.
According to a 2005 Amnesty International report:
Some critics claim that coerced confessions are responsible for Japan's high conviction rate; as of 2017, the conviction rate in Japan was 97.8%. Legal scholars, on the other hand, cite a low prosecution rate and a different method of calculating the conviction rate than in other countries as reasons for Japan's high conviction rate. According to them, Japanese prosecutors formally prosecute only about 8% of the cases they accept. These are the cases that prosecutors believe are certain to result in a conviction. About 60% of the cases they accept are not prosecuted, and about 30% are summarily tried and punished with fines of 1 million yen or less.
Amnesty also reports allegations of abuse of suspects during these interrogations. There are reports of physical abuse, sleep deprivation and denial of food, water and use of a toilet. One of its biggest criticisms is that inmates usually remain for years (and sometimes decades) on death row without ever actually being informed of the date of their execution prior to the date itself, so inmates suffer due to the uncertainty of not knowing whether or not any given day will be their last. According to Amnesty International, the intense and prolonged stress means many inmates on death row have poor mental health, suffering from the so-called death row phenomenon. The failure to give advanced notice of executions has been stated by the United Nations Human Rights Committee to be incompatible with articles 2, 7 and 10 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
The Human Rights Documentation Centre says that the issuance of death warrants by the Ministry of Justice may be politically motivated. In 1997, Norio Nagayama, a prisoner who committed the first of several murders as a juvenile, was executed during the sentencing phase of "Sakakibara Seito" for the Kobe child murders, also resulting in a high-profile juvenile murder trial – an attempt, according to South Asia Human Rights Documentation Center, to show that the harshest punishment could be administered to juveniles. According to The New York Times, the execution of Tsutomu Miyazaki after the Akihabara massacre was claimed to be a similar case.
Supporters say that due to capital punishment, it acts as a deterrence which resulted in Japan having one of the lowest murder rates in the world, only after Singapore, which also practices capital punishment. A 2020 study examining the issue by the University of Chicago concluded that "neither the death sentence rate nor the execution rate has a statistically significant effect on the homicide and robbery-homicide rates" in Japan.
Executions
See also
Capital punishment in the United States
Criminal justice system of Japan
Criminal punishment in Edo-period Japan
Death by Hanging, a 1968 satirical Japanese film by Nagisa Oshima which criticizes the death penalty in Japan
Judicial system of Japan
Law of Japan
Norio Nagayama
Nobuto Hosaka
Shizuka Kamei
Life imprisonment in Japan
References
External links
Japan's Supreme Court jurisprudence on the death penalty :
The Nagayama Case (1983)
Other landmark cases : 1996 1999 2015 2015
David T. Johnson, "Japan’s Secretive Death Penalty Policy: Contours, Origins, Justifications, and Meanings" Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal, vol. 7(2006) pp. 62-124
Death Penalty Database - Japan. Academic research database on the laws, practice, and statistics of capital punishment for every death penalty country in the world. Published by the Cornell Center on the Death Penalty Worldwide. Information current as of: 12 November 2013. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Articles
To advise lay judges, Supreme Court institute cites death penalty precedents Japan Times. Published 25 July 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
A Secret Theater: Inside Japan's Capital Punishment System . Japan Society. United States-Japan Foundation Media Fellows Program 2003–2004. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Japan's dance with the death penalty - report by Matthew Carney broadcast by ABC Radio National Sunday, 15 February 2015, which includes an interview with Iwao Hakamada who was released after 43 years on death row.
Japan executes two prisoners amid protests. The Guardian. Published 26 March 2016. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Japan dances with the death penalty. The Japan Times. Published 2 July 2016. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Calls to abolish death penalty grow louder in Japan. The Guardian. Published 21 September 2016. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Questioning capital punishment. The Japan Times. Published 14 October 2016. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Japan: Man hanged as secretive executions continue. Amnesty International''. Published 11 November 2016. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Video
Ishida, Kaneko, Goto & Masaki: "The Quest to Scrap Japan's Death Penalty". YouTube. FCCJchannel. Foreign Correspondents' Club of Japan. Published 16 October 2014. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
Murder in Japan
Law of Japan
Human rights abuses in Japan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makhnovshchina
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Makhnovshchina
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The Makhnovshchina () was a mass movement to establish anarchist communism in southern and eastern Ukraine during the Ukrainian War of Independence of 1917–1921. Named after Nestor Makhno, the commander-in-chief of the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine, its aim was to create a system of free soviets that would manage the transition towards a stateless and classless society.
The Makhnovist movement first gained ground in the wake of the February Revolution, when it established a number of agricultural communes in Makhno's home town of Huliaipole. After siding with the Bolsheviks during the Ukrainian–Soviet War, the Makhnovists were driven underground by the Austro-German invasion and waged guerrilla warfare against the Central Powers throughout 1918. After the insurgent victory at the Battle of Dibrivka, the Makhnovshchina came to control much of Katerynoslav province and set about constructing anarchist-communist institutions. A Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents was convened to organise the region politically and economically, with a Military Revolutionary Council being established as the movement's de facto executive organ.
Surrounded on all sides by different enemies, the Makhnovist line in the battle for the Donbas eventually fell to the advancing White movement in June 1919. The Makhnovists were subsequently driven into a retreat to Kherson, where they reorganised their military and led a successful counteroffensive against the Whites at the Battle of Peregonovka. With the White advance defeated, the Makhnovists came to control most of southern and eastern Ukraine in late 1919, even taking over a number of large industrial cities, despite being a predominantly peasant movement.
The Makhnovist control over the region was brought to an end when the Red Army invaded Ukraine in January 1920, initiating the Bolshevik–Makhnovist conflict. The Makhnovists waged a guerrilla war against the forces of the Red Terror and war communism, supported in large part by their peasant base. Although a peace was briefly secured by the two factions, with the Starobilsk agreement, in order to combat the remnants of the White movement, the Makhnovists were again attacked by the Red Army (USSR) and eventually defeated by August 1921. Leading Makhnovists were either driven into exile, defeated by the USSR or captured and killed by the Red Army.
Etymology and orthography
The term "Makhnovshchina" () can be loosely translated as the "Makhno movement", referring to the mass movement of social revolutionaries that supported the anarchist Nestor Makhno and his Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine (RIAU).
The area controlled by the RIAU also came to be known as "Makhnovia" (; ), a term used primarily in Soviet historiography. This "Makhnovist territory" or "Makhnovist region" was alternatively referred to as a "liberated zone", "liberated region", "liberated area", or "autonomous area".
In June 1919, the Bolsheviks began to refer to the Makhnovist territory as the "independent anarchist republic of Huliaipole", in calls for the Makhnovshchina's abolition. According to Bolshevik sources, that month's Planned Fourth Regional Congress intended to assert the region's independence and establish the "Priazov-Donets Republic" or a "libertarian republic of Makhnovia". Later, during their alliance with the Bolsheviks in October 1920, the Makhnovists insisted on terms allowing for the establishment of an "Autonomous Republic of Free Soviets" in the region.
History
Background
What became the territory of the Makhnovshchina was centered in the region of Zaporizhzhia, which had previously been inhabited by Cossacks before its conquest by the Russian Empire. Rechristened as the province of Katerynoslav, land largely came to be used for agriculture, leading to the rise of a landed nobility and a middle-peasant class known as the kulaks, many of whom were Black Sea Germans. The region's poor peasants attempted to resist Pyotr Stolypin's agrarian reforms, which threatened to break up their traditional communes, but by the 20th century the region had been thoroughly integrated into the grain market and came to export nearly half of its wheat each year.
As the price of land was raised in order to prevent poor peasants from buying it, they became actively hostile to the concentration of land ownership by the pomeshchiks and kulaks. Supported by their local governments, peasants resolved to found their own agricultural cooperatives and began trading their grain in a system of market socialism. This eventually led to the development of an agricultural industry in Katerynoslav, which produced almost a quarter of the Russian Empire's agricultural machinery and developed the region's settlements into small industrial centers. The development of industry brought together the peasantry and proletariat for the first time, with peasants often moving to centers of industry to become wage-earners and then back to their villages during times of industrial crisis. This also caused the region to become quite ethnically diverse, with Ukrainians, Russians, Germans, Jews and Greeks all settled alongside each other. The region's common language soon became Russian and eventually, much of its Ukrainian population stopped speaking the Ukrainian language.
Due in part to the diversity of the region's peasantry, the local Jewish population faced relatively little antisemitism, in comparison to the Jewish communities living in right-bank Ukraine. It was young Jews that eventually formed the nucleus of the nascent Ukrainian anarchist movement, which became a leading force during the 1905 Revolution in Ukraine. The town of Huliaipole saw strike actions and a series of robberies, carried out by a group of young anarchist-communists known as the Union of Poor Peasants. The group was eventually caught and its leading members arrested, with many of them being sentenced to the death penalty or life imprisonment.
Revolution (February 1917 – February 1918)
In the wake of the February Revolution, Ukrainian intellectuals around Mykhailo Hrushevsky established the Central Council of Ukraine, which initially sought freedom of the press and education in the Ukrainian language, and eventually declared the autonomy of the Ukrainian People's Republic. In concert with the emergence of the movement for Ukrainian nationalism, largely made up of social democrats and socialist revolutionaries, the Ukrainian anarchist movement also began to experience a revival, catalyzed by the return of Nestor Makhno from his imprisonment in Moscow.
With Makhno as its leading figure, the anarchist movement in Huliaipole established a peasants' union, seized control of the town from the local provisional government and established a Soviet in its place, laying the foundations for the implementation of anarcho-communism. According to Michael Malet, Huliaipole "was moving leftwards at a faster pace than elsewhere", with the town successfully organizing a May Day demonstration and even declaring its support for the workers' uprising in Petrograd, while the Oleksandrivsk Soviet still supported the Provisional Government. The nascent Makhnovist movement undertook the seizure of land from the pomeshchiks and kulaks in Huliaipole and redistributed it to the peasantry, aiming to abolish the concentration of land ownership. By the summer of 1917, the town's peasants had stopped paying rent and had brought the land largely under the control of a land trust, which prevented landlords from selling off livestock or farming equipment.
In August 1917, the Ukrainian Central Council and Russian Provisional Government reached an agreement on the position of the Russia–Ukraine border, which placed Katerynoslav within the territory of the Russian Republic, a decision which was rejected by the province's anarchist movement. Viktor Chernov, the Russian Minister of Agriculture, attempted to implement a comprehensive package of land reform in the province, but his efforts were blocked by the Provisional Government. However, the Kornilov affair had resulted in the Provisional Government losing its control over Katerynoslav and the Makhnovists becoming the dominant force in the region. They subsequently resolved to implement land reform directly, without waiting for the Provisional Government's consent. On , the Huliaipole Congress of Soviets announced that it would be confiscating all land owned by the nobility and bringing it under common ownership, leading many landlords to flee the region. Attempts to bring the region back under the control of the Provisional Government met with resistance, both from the armed anarchist detachments led by Maria Nikiforova and from a series of strike actions by sympathetic industrial workers.
On 7 November 1917, the Central Council declared the autonomy of Ukraine, which brought Katerynoslav back within its borders. Although the Central Council safely controlled right-bank, its new territorial claims in the left-bank were met with indifference from the more ethnically mixed population. By December 1917, Eastern Ukraine had come under Soviet influence, with the First All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets establishing the Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets in Kharkiv. Unable to reconcile their differences, a civil war soon broke out between the forces of the People's Republic and the new Soviet Republic.
Before the outbreak of the October Revolution, the Makhnovists had already established "soviet power" in Katerynoslav, implementing initiatives of workers' control and self-management. So when the Bolsheviks seized power under the slogan of "all power to the soviets", the Ukrainian anarchists initially supported it, while remaining critical of political and economic centralisation. As the Makhnovists desired to bring the region under Soviet power, they declared themselves against the new Ukrainian nation state, establishing armed detachments to combat both the forces of the Ukrainian People's Army and the Don Cossacks. An anarchist detachment led by Savelii Makhno aided in the capture of Oleksandrivsk and the reestablishment of Soviet power in the city. By January 1918, Southern Ukraine had largely come under the control of the Soviet Republic, which established revolutionary committees as its local organs of power. In Huliaipole, the local revolutionary committee included members of the Ukrainian Socialist-Revolutionary Party and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, alongside the anarchists.
The rapid capture of territory by the Soviet Republic culminated on 8 February 1918, when the Ukrainian capital of Kyiv was captured by Mikhail Muravyov's Red Guards.
War of independence (February–November 1918)
Just one day after the fall of Kyiv, the Central Council of Ukraine signed a peace treaty with the Central Powers, which invited the Imperial German Army to invade Ukraine and oust the Soviets from power. The Red Guards were unable to halt the imperial advance, which within a month forced the Bolsheviks to negotiate their own peace treaty with the Central Powers, ceding control of Ukraine to the German Empire and Austria-Hungary.
When the Ukrainian nationalists in Huliaipole began threatening anarchists with reprisals, local anarcho-syndicalists initiated a campaign of "revolutionary terror" against them, assassinating one nationalist leader before being forced to the negotiating table by Nestor Makhno. The nationalists subsequently began planning a coup, threatening pogroms against the local Jewish community in order to bring them on side. On the night of 15–16 April, the Ukrainian nationalists carried out the coup, launching a surprise attack against the anarchist "free battalion" and disarming them, before arresting leading anarcho-communists. The following day, a demonstration managed to secure the release of the arrested anarchists but were unable to organize any armed defense of the town, which was soon occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Army. Before the end of the month, the Ukrainian People's Republic was overthrown by the Central Powers and replaced with the Ukrainian State. Under the rule of Pavlo Skoropadskyi, the new regime began returning land to the nobility and requisitioning grain from the peasantry, which fomented popular discontent that ignited the Ukrainian War of Independence.
At a conference in Taganrog, anarchist insurgents regrouped and agreed to return to Huliaipole in July 1918, in order to carry out an insurrection against the occupation forces. By the time they returned to Ukraine, the country was already in revolt against the Ukrainian State, with hundreds of thousands participating in armed uprisings and rail strikes, even in the face of harsh reprisals by the occupation forces. Peasant bands under various self-appointed otamans now attacked the occupation forces and eventually came to dominate the countryside; some defected to the Directorate or the Bolsheviks, but the largest portion followed either socialist revolutionary Nykyfor Hryhoriv or the anarchist flag of Makhno.
On 30 September, insurgent detachments led by Nestor Makhno and Fedir Shchus linked up at and defeated the occupation forces in battle. When the November Revolution brought World War I to an end, the occupation finally began to melt away. In right-bank Ukraine, the Ukrainian State was overthrown by the Directorate and the Ukrainian People's Republic was reestablished, while the region of Pryazovia quickly fell under the control of the Makhnovshchina. On 27 November, the Makhnovshchina's capital of Huliaipole was definitively retaken by the insurgents, who reestablished the local Soviet and reorganized the town's trade unions. Before long the Makhnovshchina's territory had expanded as far west as Katerynoslav, as far north as Pavlohrad, as far east as Yuzivka and as far south as the Sea of Azov.
Free soviet power (November 1918 – June 1919)
The end of the imperial occupation and the fall of the Ukrainian State allowed the Makhnovshchina to shift its emphasis from military campaigns towards political concerns, transforming the movement "from a destructive peasant uprising to a social revolutionary movement". In order to restart the construction of a anarchist-communist society, the Makhnovists convened a Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents, which would act as the supreme authority of the Makhnovshchina. The Congress declared its intention to create "a society without ruling landowners, without subordinate slaves, without rich or poor", and called on workers and peasants to begin building this society themselves, "without tyrannical decrees and orders, and in defiance of tyrants and oppressors throughout the world."
Under the direction of the democratically elected Military Revolutionary Council (VRS), the Makhnovshchina began to establish a new system of education, redistributed land and set up a number of agricultural cooperatives. The Ukrainian Soviet Army commander Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko reported that the Makhnovists had established a number of schools, hospitals and "children's communes", which had transformed Huliaipole into "one of the most cultured centres of Novorossiya." The VRS also instituted adult educational programs and extended a number of civil liberties to the population, including freedom of speech, press and association, even allowing the Bolsheviks to agitate amongst the local populace. During this period, the peasants of the Makhnovshchina implemented a system of common ownership where "land belongs to no one, and only those who work it may use it." The largest of the peasant communes was one named after the Polish communist Rosa Luxemburg, which, in May 1919, counted 285 members and 125 hectares of land.
While in the Ukrainian Soviet capital of Kharkiv, the insurgent commander Viktor Bilash met with the Nabat and requested they begin producing anarchist propaganda for the Makhnovshchina, securing the passage of numerous Russian anarchist intellectuals to Ukraine, including Peter Arshinov and Aron Baron. With the Nabat having moved its headquarters to Huliaipole, anarchist newspapers such as The Road to Freedom and the Makhnovist Voice quickly began circulating throughout the Makhnovist territory, widely publicizing anarchist ideas. The arrival of these "urban anarchist newcomers" accelerated the development of the Makhnovshchina's anarcho-communist character, which aimed to completely restructure Ukrainian society along the lines of "free soviets". These soviets, independent of all political parties, began to be set up by industrial workers, with some even receiving financing from the Makhnovists in order to make up for lost wages, which hadn't been paid due to the conditions of war. The end goal of the free soviet system was to eventually convene an "all-Ukrainian labour congress", which would become the new central organ of an independent Ukraine, as a result of the Ukrainian workers' self-determination.
Around this time, the Bolsheviks finally broke the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and ordered the Red Army to invade Ukraine, with Christian Rakovsky proclaiming the establishment of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in Kharkiv. As the Makhnovshchina had found itself surrounded by the Ukrainian People's Republic and South Russia, the Makhnovists resolved to form an alliance with the Bolsheviks in order to maintain "soviet power" in the region, although they explicitly ruled out a political alliance and held that their pact was an exclusively military endeavor. Now integrated into the Red Army, the Makhnovists secured and expanded their territory with the capture of Orikhiv, Polohy, Bakhmut, Berdiansk and Volnovakha.
However, the implementation of Bolshevik rule in Ukraine was soon followed by repression. As the Bolsheviks favored the proletariat over the peasantry, on 13 April, the Ukrainian Soviet government implemented food requisitioning in order to supply its urban centers, shooting any peasants that resisted, which caused a resurgence of peasant revolts in Ukraine. The Cheka also carried out its Red Terror in the areas captured by the Bolsheviks, with residents of Katerynoslav reporting arbitrary political persecution and increased economic hardship. Regiments of the Red Army even began to committ robberies against the local population and carried out a number of antisemitic pogroms, as part of a rising wave of violence against Ukrainian Jews that was perpetrated by the Reds, Whites and nationalists alike. In comparison to the surrounding states, the Makhnovshchina "represented a relatively peaceful model", given the ethnically diverse makeup of the Makhnovists, who severely punished acts of antisemitism.
The Bolsheviks' implementation of bureaucratic collectivism and their authoritarianism brought them into opposition with the Makhnovshchina, which still upheld soviet democracy and libertarian socialism. In May 1919, tensions between the two were exacerbated when Nykyfor Hryhoriv led an anti-Bolshevik uprising in right-bank Ukraine, during which his green army carried out a series of antisemitic pogroms and anti-communist purges. The Makhnovists decided to take up arms against Hryhoriv and maintain their alliance with the Bolsheviks, hoping that talks between the two parties would result in the official extension of autonomy to the territory of the Makhnovshchina. But tensions between the two parties only increased with time, eventually resulting in the Makhnovists completely breaking from their Bolshevik commanders.
Retreat to the west (June–October 1919)
When the Military Revolutionary Council called an extraordinary Regional Congress, it was considered to be an act of treason by the Bolshevik government, which ordered the Congress be prohibited and that any of its participants be executed by firing squad. The Bolsheviks subsequently attacked the Makhnovshchina, killing a number of the Makhnovist general staff and forcing the insurgents to flee, which began a period of guerrilla warfare in the region. By June 1919, the autonomy of the Makhnovshchina had been suppressed by the successive Red Terror and White Terror.
It was at this time that the White movement broke through the Soviet lines in Donbas, with the Kuban Cossacks under Andrei Shkuro leading an attack against Huliaipole, capturing the town from the Makhnovists. As the Red Army had also declared war against the Makhnovshchina, labelling Huliaipole as a "paradise on earth for cowards and good-for-nothings," the local insurgents were left without Bolshevik support and many peasants were forced to defend the town themselves, armed only with farming tools and a few rifles. The Cossacks massacred the peasant rebels and raped 800 of the town's women, before restoring the property rights of the former landowners, causing a mass exodus of the town's peasantry.
The Makhnovists fled to right-bank Ukraine and linked up with Nykyfor Hryhoriv's green army. But after revelations of the otaman having committed antisemitic pogroms, the Makhnovists assassinated Hryhoriv and began rebuilding their forces to take on the Whites. By September 1919, the Makhnovshchina had been pushed back as far as Uman, the last stronghold of the Ukrainian People's Republic. In order for their wounded to be tended to, the Makhnovists formed a temporary alliance with the Directorate, before turning back around and leading an attack against the General Command of the Armed Forces of South Russia. After the Battle of Peregonovka, the tide turned against the Whites as the Makhnovists pushed them back into Katerynoslav, which was brought back under the control of the Makhnovshchina on 11 November 1919.
Apex (October 1919 – January 1920)
The Makhnovist advance brought with it a second period of reconstruction, during which a system of libertarian socialism was once again implemented throughout the territory of the Makhnovshchina, with all enterprises being directly transferred to workers' control. Wherever the insurgents captured, the locals were invited to elect their own trade union delegates and Soviets, which would then convoke a regional congress that would form the decision-making body for the region.
Regional workers' conferences were subsequently held in Oleksandrivsk between 27 October and 2 November, bringing together 180 peasant delegates, 20 worker delegates and 100 delegates from left-wing political organizations and insurgent units. Volin, the chair of the congress, proposed that they adopt the anarchist thesis of establishing "free soviets", outside of political party control, throughout the Makhnovist territory. This proposal was objected to by 11 delegates from the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionary Party, who still desired the reestablishment of the Constituent Assembly and walked out of the congress. Further objections were made by a Bolshevik delegate, who rejected calls for anarchy.
By December 1919, the Makhnovshchina was struck by an outbreak of epidemic typhus, which incapacitated the Makhnovist forces, allowing the White movement to briefly recapture Katerynoslav and the Red Army to invade the region.
Red Terror (January–October 1920)
By the end of January 1920, the territory of the Makhnovshchina had been overrun by the Red Army. The Cheka set about disarming the local populace, taking villagers hostage while their troops set about searching homes, killing the hostages if they found any unreported weaponry. Petro Grigorenko would later state that "there was no end of bloodshed", drawing attention to reports of one massacre in the Makhnovist town of Novospasivka, where the Cheka had "shot down one in every two able-bodied men". In what Alexandre Skirda described as an act of "outright genocide", an estimated 200,000 Ukrainian peasants were killed during the Red Terror.
The Bolshevik government implemented war communism in Ukraine, introducing a strict system of rationing and food requisitioning, which confiscated agricultural produce and livestock from the peasantry, and even forbade them from fishing, hunting or collecting lumber. The attacks against the Ukrainian peasantry were justified under the policy of Dekulakization, despite the fact that, by this point in time, only 0.5% of the peasantry owned more than 10 hectares of land. The sovkhozes also collapsed, with the number of state-owned farms halving and their land area reducing to a third, over the course of 1920. Even the soviet historian noted that to most of the Ukrainian peasantry: "the Soviet economy was a new and abhorrent form of rule [...] which in reality had merely set the State in the place of the former big landowner." The implementation of war communism thus resulted in a resurgence of peasant revolts. Before the fall of 1920, over 1,000 Bolshevik victualers had been killed by the Ukrainian peasantry.
The Makhnovists themselves began to wage a campaign of guerrilla warfare against the Bolsheviks, launching a series of attacks against small Red detachments and infrastructure. In the areas which they captured, they abolished war communism and redistributed requisitioned food back to the peasantry, forcing many Bolsheviks in the area back underground.
Starobilsk peace (October–November 1920)
Following a successful White offensive into Northern Taurida, the Makhnovists and Bolsheviks once again formed an alliance. The conditions of the Political Agreement between the two parties stated that: all anarchist political prisoners were to be released and political repression against the anarchist movement ceased; anarchists were to be extended a number of civil liberties including freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of association, excluding any anti-Soviet agitation; and anarchists were to be allowed to freely participate in elections to the Soviets and the upcoming Fifth All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets.
A fourth clause of the political pact would have extended full autonomy to the Makhnovshchina, allowing them to establish institutions of workers' self-management and self-government in south-eastern Ukraine, under a federative agreement with the Ukrainian SSR. But this clause was disputed by the Bolshevik delegation, who feared this would limit their access to the Ukrainian rail network and turn the Makhnovshchina into a "magnet for all dissidents and refugees from Bolshevik-held territory." The issue was postponed indefinitely.
But now that Ukrainian anarchists were once again free to operate, they quickly pushed the Russian Army out of Huliaipole and Makhnovshchina control was once again reestablished. Having once again regained control of their home territory, the Makhnovists drew up a program to reorganize the economy and society along anarchist lines. By mid-November, the free soviets were being reconstituted, libertarian schools were established and theater shows were put on daily. According to the Polish anarchist Casimir Teslar, the scars of war ran deep throughout the region. He reported seeing abandoned trenches, demolished houses and a strong presence of insurgent detachments, detailing that even the local children were playing wargames based on recent events.
Defeat (November 1920 – August 1921)
After Semen Karetnyk's detachment assisted in the siege of Perekop, which had forced the Army of Wrangel to evacuate from Crimea, the Bolsheviks turned against the Makhnovshchina on 26 November 1920. Many prominent Ukrainian anarchists were arrested and shot, while the Makhnovist capital of Huliaipole was itself captured by the Red Army. The Cheka also intensified the Red Terror in Ukraine, ordering the Southern Front to search and disarm peasants, and to shoot any that resisted. They also purged the district of any suspected Makhnovists, arresting the entire revolutionary committee in Polohy and executing a number of its members for allegedly collaborating with the Makhnovists during the Ukrainian War of Independence in 1918. In the place of the liquidated free soviets, the Bolsheviks established committees of Poor Peasants to take over local administration of Ukrainian villages.
Hoping to keep the Makhnovshchina safe from reprisals, the Insurgent Army retreated into right-bank Ukraine then moved on north, passing through Poltava, Chernihiv and Belgorod, before returning to Katerynoslav in February 1921. Once again on their home turf, they aimed to spread the Makhnovshchina to new territories and to establish reliable insurgent bases throughout Ukraine. However, the Bolshevik government's implementation of the New Economic Policy resulted in many Ukrainian peasants losing their will to fight, leading to a series of military defeats and the dwindling of insurgent forces. On 28 August 1921, Nestor Makhno's forces fled to Romania, leaving the country entirely under control of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.
Politics
The political system established by the Makhnovshchina was variously described as a "people's commune" or an "anarchist republic", one based on the theories of anarcho-communism and built on a network of trade unions, factory committees, peasant committees and popular assemblies. The assemblies were used by the local citizens as a form of referendums, where decisions were made through direct democracy, and became the basis for civil law. The vast majority of the Makhnovshchina's decisions were made independently, through a system of local self-governance at the village and district level. Networks of "free soviets" acted as institutions of participatory democracy, where issues would be discussed and dealt with directly.
Local self-government
The free soviets were conceived of as the basic form of organization in the Makhnovshchina. These soviets acted independently from any Central Authority, excluding all political parties from participation, and met to self-manage the activities of workers and peasants through participatory democracy. The soviets acted as the local organs of self-governance and federated together up to the regional and national levels, resulting in the relatively horizontal organization of the soviets. However, the conditions of the war meant that the Soviet model could only be implemented at scale during "periods of relative peace and territorial stability", as the populace was largely concerned with securing food or staying safe from the advancing armies.
Regional congress and executive
The Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents represented the "highest form of democratic authority" within the political system of the Makhnovshchina. They brought together delegates from the region's peasantry, industrial workers and insurgent soldiers, which would discuss the issues at hand and take their decisions back with them to local popular assemblies. Four Congresses were held over the course of 1919, while one was banned by the Bolsheviks and another was unable to convene due to renewed conflict with the Red Army.
The Military Revolutionary Council (VRS) acted as the executive in the interim between sittings of the Regional Congresses. Its powers covered both military and civil matters in the region, although it was also subject to instant recall at the will of the Regional Congress and its activities were limited to those explicitly outlined by the Congresses themselves. At each Regional Congress, the VRS was to provide detailed reports of its activities and subjected itself to reorganization. When it came to the decisions of local soviets and assemblies, the VRS presented itself as a solely advisory board, with no power over the local bodies of self-government.
Armed forces
The Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine (RIAU), commanded by Bat'ko Nestor Makhno, constituted the principal armed force of the Makhnovshchina. Composed largely of peasant partisans and generally supported by the wider peasantry, the RIAU was able to capture large amounts of territory throughout southern Ukraine. Within this area, the RIAU's Draft Declaration stated that its aim was to "serve and protect" the social revolution in Ukraine, but also that it would not impose its own ideals upon the Ukrainian people. Nominally overseen by the civilian VRS, the RIAU played a purely military role, with Makhno himself functioning as little more than a military strategist and advisor. According to the Soviet historian , "neither the overall command of the army nor Makhno himself truly ran the movement; they merely reflected the aspirations of the mass, acting as its ideological and technical agents."
Civil liberties
Civil liberties were first introduced to southern and eastern Ukraine following the February Revolution, but were suspended with the outbreak of the Ukrainian War of Independence, when the territory fell under the sequential control of the Ukrainian State, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and South Russia. Following the defeat of the White movement in October 1919 and the subsequent extension of the Makhnovshchina throughout the area, freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of association were all reintroduced.
The implementation of freedom of the press resulted in the appearance of a number of newspapers in the territory, including the official organs of several political organizations. These included the Socialist Revolutionary Party's People's Power (Narodovlastie), the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries' Banner of Revolt (Znamya Vosstanya), the Bolsheviks' Star (Zvezda), the Mensheviks' Workers' Gazette (Rabochaia Gazeta), the Ukrainian Anarchist Confederation's Nabat and the Insurgent Army's own Road to Freedom.
Economy
Workers and peasants of Ukraine saw the October Revolution, which had promised "Factories to the Workers; Land to the Peasants!", as the beginning of workers' control of the industrial economy and land redistribution to the peasantry. In the territory controlled by the Makhnovshchina, a system of market socialism was implemented, to the particular benefit of the peasantry and workers that produced consumer goods, while social welfare was introduced through the redistribution of income and wealth.
Agricultural communes
For the first year of the Russian Revolution, an energized Ukrainian peasantry carried out a campaign of expropriations against the pomeshchiks and kulaks, redistributing land to those that worked it and creating an agrarian socialist economy. In the wake of the Kornilov affair, the revolutionary defense committee in Huliaipole sanctioned the disarmament and dispossession of the local bourgeoisie, bringing all private enterprise in the area under workers' control. Peasants took control of the farms they worked and large estates were collectivized, creating agrarian communes that were settled by previously landless peasant families and individuals, with each commune counting around 200 members.
The first commune, named after Rosa Luxemburg, was highly successful. Though only a few members actually considered themselves anarchists, the peasants operated the communes on the basis of full social equality, including gender equality. They accepted Kropotkin's principle of mutual aid ("from each according to their ability, to each according to their need") as their fundamental tenet. Land was held in common, with shared meals also being eaten in communal kitchens, though members who wished to cook separately or to take food from the kitchen and eat it in their own quarters were allowed to do so. The work was collectively self-managed, with work programs being voluntarily agreed upon through consensus decision-making at general assemblies, and those who were unable to work could notify their neighbors in order for a replacement to be found. Many commune members considered communal life to be the "highest form of social justice", with some former landowners even voluntarily adopting the new lifestyle.
The father of Victor Kravchenko was one of the promoters of a commune called the "Tocsin", which counted 100 families on an estate made up of 200 hectares of wheat fields and orchards. The estate had been divided up and supplied by the local soviet, with many former industrial workers flocking to the new commune due to the promise of "well-being for everybody", while others were driven to communal life by their own ideological commitments. Some peasants even made fun of the urban communists that had joined the commune, although Kravchenko insisted that "such teasing was without malice", as the peasants still undertook to help the unskilled industrial laborers. However, this commune eventually dissolved, "with commune workers quitting one after another".
Industry
While the Makhnovshchina was a primarily agrarian society, efforts were also made to organize the industrial economies in the cities which the Makhnovists briefly occupied, despite the pervasive lack of understanding that the (largely peasant) insurgents had for large-scale industry. Upon the occupation of cities, the Makhnovists organized workers' conferences with the intention of restarting production under a system of workers' self-management. When urban workers asked for the payment of their wages, still in arrears following the end of the White occupation, the Makhnovists responded by proposing they extract payment directly from their customers, albeit exempting the Insurgent Army from such payment.
Railroad workers in Oleksandrivsk took the first steps in organising a self-managed economy in 1919. They formed a committee charged with organizing the railway network of the region, establishing a detailed plan for the movement of trains, the transport of passengers, etc. Soviets were soon formed to coordinate factories and other enterprises across Ukraine.
In Katerynoslav, the local anarcho-syndicalist movement took the reins on bringing the city's industrial economy under social ownership. Collective agreements were won at a tobacco factory and the city's bakeries were brought under workers' control, with a number of anarcho-syndicalist bakers drawing up plans to ensure food security for the local population.
Many industrial workers ended up becoming disillusioned with the Makhnovshchina and instead supported the program of the Mensheviks. At one Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents, Menshevik trade union delegates were denounced as "counter-revolutionaries" for speaking out against the Makhnovist platform of free soviets and subsequently walked out of the congress.
Money
The Makhnovshchina came up against difficulties concerning the issue of money, as its largely peasant base could easily go without money through subsistence farming, while urban workers still needed to buy their own food. When the direct exchange of goods was not possible, the Makhnovshchina largely continued to use money, but planned to build a moneyless system following the Russian Civil War.
Early on, barter had been a popular means of exchange, with the Huliaipole Soviet even establishing links with textile factories in industrial centers such as Moscow. The Soviet procured wagon loads of cloth in exchange for grain, directly exchanged in quantities determined by the needs of both parties. However, this barter economy was frustrated by the newly established Council of People's Commissars, controlled by the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, which demanded an end to the independent barter economy and called for it to be brought under the control of the government.
Although the anarchists of the Makhnovshchina preferred a barter economy, they recognized that the working poor were still in need of money and permitted the use of any currencies, including the Imperial ruble, Soviet ruble and Ukrainian karbovanets. One account even suggests that the Makhnovists printed their own money (the Makhnovist ruble), which stated on its reverse that "no-one would be prosecuted for forging it".
The regional congresses imposed levies against the local bourgeoisie and banks, extracting about 40 million rubles from the bourgeoisie and seizing 100 million rubles from the banks. An extensive wealth redistribution campaign was subsequently implemented, in which the poor were able to apply for material assistance from the Military Revolutionary Council. One resident of Katerynoslav reported that thousands of people queued up on a daily basis for the redistribution packages, which they would receive in varying amounts depending on the assessment of their needs, with applicants being awarded up to thousands of rubles. Redistribution measures reportedly continued up until the final days of Makhnovshchina control, with an estimate 3–10 million rubles being distributed to the population of Katerynoslav alone.
The Makhnovists' unfamiliarity with monetary economics led to high rates of inflation, while the changing military situation resulted in wild fluctuations of currency value, with Soviet rubles appreciating in value as the Red Army advanced into Ukraine. They also neglected to impose price controls, which caused the price of bread to rise by 25% during Makhnovshchina control.
Demographics
The territory of the Makhnovshchina was mainly spread across the regions of Pryazovia and Zaporizhzhia. At its height, the population of the Makhnovshchina was roughly 7.5 million people, spread across 75,000 km of territory. At its greatest extent, the territory covered five provinces, including the entirety of Katerynoslav, as well as the northern part of Taurida, the eastern part of Kherson and the southern parts of Poltava and Kharkiv.
Nationalities and ethnic groups
Following the end of World War I, the existing empires and multinational states were collapsing, leading to a rise of the nation state as the dominant polity. While a number of ethnic minorities of the former Russian Empire began to break off and form their own independent states, such as the Ukrainian People's Republic, the territory of the Makhnovshchina was notably multicultural and resisted the rising wave of Ukrainian nationalism. According to Peter Arshinov, while 90% of the Makhnovshchina was made up of Ukrainians, 6–8% was made up of Russians and the remainder consisted of Greek and Jewish communities. There also existed small minorities of Armenians, Bulgarians, Georgians, Germans and Serbs.
As such, the Makhnovshchina sought "to deconstruct the entire state-based national paradigm, and build local socio-economic relations from the bottom up on anarchist principles." In February 1919, the Second Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents passed a resolution denouncing nationalism and called on "the workers and peasants of every land and all nationalities" to join together in a social revolution to overthrow the state and capitalism. In October 1919, the Draft Declaration adopted by the Military Revolutionary Council hoped to put an end to the "domination of one nationality over others" through the introduction of free soviets. Although it proclaimed "the right of the Ukrainian people (and every other nation) to self-determination", it also considered nationalism to be "profoundly bourgeois and negative" and called instead for the "union of nationalities" under socialism, which it believed would "lead to development of the culture peculiar to each nationality."
The Makhnovists specifically railed against antisemitism, which they considered to be a "bequest" of the Tsarist autocracy, and the Military Revolutionary Council even went so far as to declare a "war on anti-Semitism". Instances of antisemitic violence were notably much less common in the territory of the Makhnovshchina than they were in right-bank Ukraine, with any cases of antisemitism being punished severely by the Makhnovists. After one documented instance of an antisemitic pogrom taking place in Makhnovist territory, the insurgents responsible were executed by firing squad and weapons were redistributed to the local Jewish communities for their own protection. Many of the Makhnovshchina's most influential figures also came from a Jewish background, including a number of Nabat's leading members: Aron Baron, Mark Mratchny and Volin.
In contrast to the Makhnovist hostility to antisemitism, anti-German sentiment was allowed to proliferate throughout the ranks of the Makhnovshchina, as the result of long and deeply-held resentments between the native Ukrainian peasantry and German Mennonite colonists. Following the battle of Dibrivka and the destruction of Velykomykhailivka by the Austro-Hungarian Army and local German collaborators, the Insurgent Army carried out a campaign of reprisals against Mennonite colonists in southern Ukraine. Anti-Mennonite repression intensified when the Selbstschutz formed an alliance with the White movement, leading to a number of insurgent raids against Mennonite settlements. Violence against the Mennonites reached its apex following the battle of Peregonovka, when the insurgents rapidly occupied most of southern and eastern Ukraine, bringing numerous Mennonite colonies under their occupation. Throughout late-1919, hundreds of Mennonites were murdered in a series of massacres committed by the insurgent forces, the most infamous of which was the Eichenfeld massacre.
Language
The different language policies of the various regimes that occupied Ukraine during the war of independence led to a number of shifts in the use of language throughout Zaporizhzhia. The Ukrainian State had prioritized the use of the Ukrainian language, enforcing its use in education, and following the region's occupation by the Volunteer Army in June 1919, Vladimir May-Mayevsky banned the use of the Ukrainian language in schools throughout South Russia, instead enforcing the use of the Russian language. In reaction to the linguistic restrictions enforced by the various preceding governments, after the Makhnovist victory over the White movement at the Battle of Peregonovka, the Makhnovshchina's "Cultural Enlightenment Section" declared that people were to be educated in whichever language was used by the local population, to be decided on voluntarily by the people themselves. In the majority of villages and towns in the Makhnovist territory, this meant a return to the use of the Ukrainian language and an end to the privileged status of the Russian language.
Nevertheless, the Russian language had a notable prevalence in left-bank Ukraine. Since the 1905 Revolution, the Ukrainian anarchist movement's publications had largely been in the Russian language, and the predominance of the Russian language in anarchist literature continued following the emigration of Russian anarchists to the territory of the Makhnovshchina. But driven by a small number of Ukrainian intellectuals, led by Halyna Kuzmenko, the Makhnovshchina increasingly started to use the Ukrainian language in both its propaganda and educational activities, leading to a notable Ukrainization of the Makhnovist movement. In late 1919, the Makhnovists began to publish a Ukrainian language edition of The Road to Freedom () in Katerynoslav, and set up a new publication called Anarchist Rebel () in Poltava. But this would prove to be the extent of the Makhnovist movement's Ukrainian language publications, as they still lacked editors and proofreaders that were competent in the written Ukrainian language, and sometimes had no access to printing presses that carried the Ukrainian alphabet.
Education and culture
During the 1917 Revolution, members of the Huliaipole Anarchist Group first proposed the creation of a new system of education, inspired by the work of the Catalan pedagogue Francesc Ferrer. One group member, Abram Budanov, took the initiative to establish a Cultural-Educational section for the nascent Makhnovist movement. This section would publish pamphlets and hold meetings, but would also organise the establishment of educational institutions, theatre productions and live music shows. With the outbreak of the war, the Cultural-Educational Section was brought under the oversight of the Military Revolutionary Council. At the beginning of 1919, a number of Russian anarchist intellectuals emigrated to southern Ukraine, where they began work for the Cultural-Educational section. Peter Arshinov, who had educated Nestor Makhno during their time in prison, became the section's Chairman and edited the insurgent newspaper The Road to Freedom. In the summer of 1919, he was joined members of the Nabat, including Volin and Aron Baron. Volin, who had briefly worked in the Department of Education of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic, oversaw the drawing up of the Draft Declaration, which declared the need for cultural and educational institutions to be outside of state control, instead proposing they be established as voluntary associations.
The Makhnovshchina's education system was spearheaded by Halyna Kuzmenko, a Ukrainian pedagogue and former primary school teacher. From as early as the February Revolution, teachers were already engaged in setting up schools in Huliaipole, with three secondary schools being established by 1919, despite the conditions of the war. Adult education was also carried out, with a focus on political agitation, by educational workers within the Insurgent Army itself. But by the time that the armistice with the Bolsheviks was promulgated in October 1920, most of the region's teachers had fled and few schools were still open. Driven by the ideology of the Ferrer movement, the Makhnovshchina responded with plans to open new workers' schools, supported by their local communities, which would educate both children and adults. The Nabat member Levandovski proposed the establishment of an anarchist university in Kharkiv, which would have cost the Huliaipole Soviet some 10 million rubles. But Nestor Makhno himself rejected the idea, as he considered educational institutions to be most needed in rural areas and believed that the instinct to establish such a university in a large city like Kharkiv was indicative of centralism.
Meanwhile, the cultural section travelled with the Insurgent Army, publishing flyers and issues of The Voice of the Free Insurgent using a mobile printing press. When the Insurgent Army halted, the cultural section provided entertainment and organised conferences, where they advocated for free soviets. As part of their cultural activities, Makhnovist men and women staged daily amateur theatre shows, during which they dramatised the region's recent history and the story of the Insurgent Army. The theatre section itself had a number of units that specialised in different types of productions, whether musical, dramatic, operatic or satirical. The Cultural-Educational Section often used entertainment as a way to raise money for wounded insurgents, holding plays and Dutch auctions in a number of southern Ukrainian towns. Music also played an important role in the Makhnovshchina, with musical ensembles often accompanying meetings and the harmonica becoming a popular instrument among the insurgents. Makhnovist musicians played a number of original songs, including their own version of the popular folk song Yablochko, which depicted insurgents triumphing over the forces of Anton Denikin's White movement.
Following the siege of Perekop and the renewal of Bolshevik attacks against the Makhnovshchina, the remains of the Makhnovist cultural and educational programs were finally destroyed. Bolshevik reforms to education included the scrapping of the final year of secondary education and the requirement that all teachers seek election. Political commissars and Bolshevik cells were established in all schools, in order to remove teachers that contradicted the party line.
Urbanisation
While the territory of the Makhnovshchina was a predominantly rural, it also included a number of large cities, with the Insurgent Army capturing several following the Battle of Peregonovka. Its capital city was Nestor Makhno's relatively small hometown of Huliaipole, which was nicknamed "Makhnograd" by the Bolsheviks.
See also
Armed Forces of South Russia
Revolutionary Catalonia
Korean People's Association in Manchuria
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
1918 establishments in Ukraine
1921 disestablishments in Ukraine
20th-century revolutions
Agrarian politics
Anarchism in Ukraine
Anarchist communities
Anarchist revolutions
History of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast
History of Donetsk Oblast
History of Zaporizhzhia Oblast
Peasant revolts
Post–Russian Empire states
Russian Revolution in Ukraine
States and territories established in 1918
States and territories disestablished in 1921
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorius%20Nekschot
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Gregorius Nekschot
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Gregorius Nekschot is the pseudonym of a controversial Dutch cartoonist who mocks political ideas about Dutch multicultural society and the behaviour of people with rigid religious or ideological views. Islam is frequently subject of his cartoons. Gregorius Nekschot publishes his cartoons and satire mostly on his own website. His cartoons are also available in print from one publisher. On May 13, 2008, the cartoonist was arrested and taken into custody for interrogation. He was released after 30 hours, but it was expected that he would be prosecuted for discriminatory speech, insulting certain groups in society on the basis of their race or beliefs and possibly also for the crime of inciting hatred. His arrest has caused much debate in the press and parliament in what has been coined The Affair by Trouw newspaper on May 24, 2008. Charges against him were eventually dropped in September 2010. In December 2011 he announced he would no longer publish cartoons.
Pseudonym
In an interview the cartoonist has given an explanation for his sombre name. With "Gregorius" he refers to Pope Gregory IX, who instituted the Papal Inquisition, and "Nekschot" means literally "shot in the neck," a method used, according to the cartoonist, by "fascists and communists to get rid of their opponents."
Freedom of speech
Theo van Gogh
Gregorius Nekschot was an associate of filmmaker Theo van Gogh who was murdered in 2004 by a young, homegrown, Muslim fundamentalist by the name of Mohammed Bouyeri. Van Gogh supported Nekschot by including his cartoons on his website De Gezonde Roker (The Healthy Smoker). Both Van Gogh and Gregorius Nekschot criticized Islam's perceived unwillingness to adopt the Dutch value of tolerance. They defended their right to criticise, provoke and speak freely. Nekschot's two comic books Misselijke grappen (Sick jokes) are published by Uitgeverij Xtra in Amsterdam. The same company publishes Theo van Gogh's Allah weet het beter (Allah knows best).
Blasphemy
Following the murder of Theo van Gogh a debate arose in the Netherlands about the limits of freedom of speech. This debate became alive again with the Danish cartoon affair and the making of the controversial film Fitna in 2008 by Dutch MP Geert Wilders of the Party for Freedom (PVV). Justice minister Ernst Hirsch Ballin of the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) party wished to revitalize a law on blasphemy and expand it with protecting non-religious philosophies of life. Since writer Gerard Reve was acquitted in 1966 for writing about intercourse with God as a donkey, the government had no longer prosecuted blasphemy. Minister Ballin met with opposition in parliament however, which wanted to completely abolish laws on blasphemy.
Lèse majesté
Another law which might affect cartoons by Gregorius Nekschot is that of 'Lèse majesté.' The cartoonist has indeed drawn the majesty of queen Beatrix in compromising positions. The last time that such an offence, in an artistic expression, was prosecuted, was in 1969 when the majesty of queen Juliana was insulted by cartoonist Willem Holtrop who presented her as a red light district prostitute and was fined 200 guilders. However, the cartoons for which Nekschot was investigated did not include those of the queen in sexual explicit positions with the prime minister.
Discrimination
Never have artists been prosecuted for discriminatory speech. Discriminatory speech was first brought within the penal code in the years preceding World War II. The present wording of the code follows a 1966 treaty to banish all forms of racial discrimination. In 1996 however, a Christian MP, and a few years later, a Muslim imam were prosecuted for derogatory comments about homosexuals. Both were acquitted, the judge giving priority to their freedom of religion.
In a weekend special of Trouw newspaper on May 24, 2008, about the Nekschot 'affair' author Nahed Selim of Allah houdt niet van vrouwen (Allah doesn't like women, 2007) argues that discrimination laws have turned out to be discriminatory themselves, allowing only religious people to speak freely. She cites a case of a mosque in Amsterdam selling ancient books with paragraphs about homosexuals and of an imam in The Hague giving instructions for light corporal punishment of women, both of which were not prosecuted. She observes this to be a reversal of the intention of freedom of religion: to protect people from discrimination, not to provide a safe haven for it. Selim concludes that equality before the law in a rechtsstaat then demands abolishing the laws on discriminatory speech.
Criticism
Nekschot has met with strong resistance from elements in society he seeks to criticize. His early work appeared in the satirical Amsterdam student magazine Propria Cures. The mainstream newspapers were unwilling to publish his cartoons on a regular basis, with the exception of weekly magazine HP/De Tijd. Nekschot says he has been threatened by fundamentalist Muslims and Dutch anarchists. Dutch Jews, perceiving parallels with cartoons in Nazi publication Der Stürmer, and a member of parliament for the CDA party emailed him with strong objections to his cartoons. After his release Nekschot said he had never before received objections from authorities. Only a local initiative against discrimination of Muslims, supported by a city district of Amsterdam, once summoned him to remove cartoons from his website. However, he deliberately seeks to criticize Islam because of the 'apartheid' it advocates between men and women, Muslims and non-Muslims and because he considers circumcision of children a crime. The cartoonist was nominated for a Clickies, a Dutch web-comic award in 2005. A review of his Misselijke grappen in de Volkskrant newspaper of March 31, 2006 considered his (quoting the artist himself) 'needlessly offensive' work was not mirrored by any form of idealism. The reviewer did not discuss who is to judge the need or cause to offend. Having no such judge, may in itself be an ideal. When asked where he himself believed freedom of speech should stop, Nekschot replied that a cartoon should never call for violence.
Arrest
On May 13, 2008, Gregorius Nekschot was arrested at his home in Amsterdam. The cartoonist was taken into custody for interrogation, but released after 30 hours. According to the press release by the prosecutor's office, the arrest was made in the presence of a judge, a public prosecutor, two assistants to the prosecutor and six civilian clothed police officers. According to the same release, the home of the cartoonist was traced by establishing who paid the monthly fees for the website and a search of the premises was necessary to confirm the identity of the cartoonist. After his release, Nekschot arrived at the editorial board of HP/De Tijd magazine with a new mobile phone, his previous one apparently confiscated by the police. In an interview with newspaper de Volkskrant, he commented that it was the first time in 800 years of satire history in the Netherlands that an artist was put in jail. Expanding on his arrest Nekschot said that police took much material like DVDs from his home. They also confiscated sketchbooks with never published drafts for his cartoons. He suspects that they were hoping to find material which would tie him to right-wing extremist views. Nekschot says that he remained silent during interrogation, but nerves and laughter once broke his silence when police were reading him in official jargon a description of one of his cartoons. 'It felt like being in a Monty Python'. Justice minister Hirsch Ballin informed Parliament on May 20, 2008, that the purpose of the police visit was the search itself and that it was only a coïncidence that the cartoonist had been present and was arrested. He also added that two uniformed police officers had stood guard in front of Nekschot's house.
Allegations
Gregorius Nekschot's arrest was preceded by several reports to the police of discrimination, the first of which was made in April 2005. Many said the reports were made at the initiative of a controversial Dutch convert to Islam, but no source was given. The office of the public prosecutor alleged that after reviewing dozens of cartoons by Gregorius Nekschot, it considered that eight cartoons, by attributing negative qualities to certain groups of people, are insulting and constituted the crime of discrimination according to article 137c and possibly also the crime of inciting hate according to article 137d of the Dutch Penal Code.
Anonymity
In several reports the cartoonist's fear of losing his anonymity and becoming a target of physical attack have been mentioned. The editors of HP/De Tijd have reported that the cartoonist experienced that one police officer made fun of him losing his anonymity because of his arrest.
Prosecution
The public prosecutor in the case has been named as Paul Velleman. In an article in de Volkskrant Henny Sackers, from the law school of Radboud University in Nijmegen, is quoted to suggest that the prosecutor may use Nekschot as a case-study to explore the limits of the laws on free speech.
In parliament, the evening before, the justice minister Hirsch Ballin had denied a similar suggestion by MP De Wit for the SP. Hirsch Ballin specified his own involvement with the arrest of Nekschot as follows. The prosecutor's office had been intensely and meticulously busy with the cartoons and had been in contact with the minister on several occasions. The prosecutor himself had done a very careful assessment, in which the LECD was of the utmost importance, but had by himself concluded for which cartoons he was going to prosecute. In December 2006 the prosecutor had informed the minister about his intention to press charges against Gregorius Nekschot. In this communication the prosecutor specified which cartoons he deemed liable to prosecution and which cartoons not. There followed, said the minister, more conversations, deliberations and further particulars. In the meantime an 'interdepartmental study group cartoon problems' (interdepartementale studiegroep cartoonproblematiek) had been established to anticipate situations as in Denmark. Never had the minister given the prosecutor an order to stop or continue prosecution. He had only reviewed the consistency of the prosecution: for which cartoons to prosecute and for which ones not. There followed, once more, deliberations. Those contacts were continued, also within the study group. All this time the identity of Gregorius Nekschot was not investigated. Until the beginning of 2008 it was thought he was in fact two people.
All charges against Nekschot in the case were eventually dropped in September 2010. The only caveat is that he is still not allowed to show the cartoons on his own website any more due to Dutch penal code's article 137c, which forbids incitement to hatred. The images can still be reprinted when it is for journalistic reasons.
MDI (Racism Monitoring Centre)
Marco Hughes, former activist director of MDI (Meldpunt Discriminatie op Internet), a centre that monitors racism on the internet, has also fallen victim to Gregorius Nekschot, when his organization incarnated as a rat copulating with would-be Dutch fundamentalist terrorists (Hofstadgroep) in one of Nekschots cartoons in Misselijke grappen 1(pag 138). In a Turkish journal Hughes complained in 2006 that Dutch authorities turned a blind eye to racist internet sites, naming both an apparently no longer existing site [on which visitors called] for setting fire to mosques and a site in support of Ayaan Hirsi Ali publishing online shirts poking fun at the prophet. Hughs said Dutch authorities failed to take action about Muslim complaints. In a news release on their website MDI said it would take a special interest in monitoring developments in the case. A surge of 80 reports about cartoons and text on the website of the cartoonist at the beginning of 2005 was passed on by them to the public prosecutor. It was denied that they had filed a complaint in the name of Dutch convert Van de Ven, as was reported by others. The timing of the surge of complaints follows shortly the murder of Theo van Gogh in November 2004, perhaps providing a foundation for suggestions by Opheffer and Sylvain Ephimenco in Trouw (see press reactions) that prosecution of Van Gogh smells of a posthumous reckoning with the murdered filmmaker.
MDI is founder of international internet hate crime fighter INACH. INACH believes the Netherlands, 'once a liberal democracy where the rights of all were protected', should balance the fight against terrorism by enforcing and expanding anti-discrimination laws. INACH says that some members of parliament have the wrong priorities if they are worried more by infringement of free speech than protecting its citizens against a cartoonist 'who hates blacks and Muslims.' Niels van Tameren, the present day director of MDI would like the judge to decide whether this is a case of 'free speech or racism'.
Discriminatory cartoons
The office of the public prosecutor has seen to the removal of the eight allegedly discriminatory cartoons from the internet. It has not informed the public which cartoons it considered discriminatory and why. This lack of information has led to speculation in all media as to which cartoons were the 'forbidden' ones. There was no clear understanding among the public or press what constituted a crime in a cartoon. The prosecutor had also not specified which groups were discriminated against by Gregorius Nekschot. A large body of the cartoonist's work deals with Muslims. For example: one cartoon deals with an incident in which an imam refused to shake hands with a female minister and implies that the same hands do not object to receiving social security hand-outs from the government. The HP/De Tijd (May 23, 2008) Nekschot fires back issue became available in the shops on May 21 and included all eight cartoons, putting an end to speculation on which cartoons the justice officials deemed illegal.
Press reactions
Newspapers initial reactions
After his arrest, many mainstream media supported Gregorius Nekschot by publishing his cartoons, as for example on the front page of Amsterdams Het Parool newspaper. All mainstream newspapers raised questions about at least the way the prosecutor handled the arrest and expressed doubts about the prosecutor's chances of winning a conviction. Only the small, but influential with the government's Christian parties, Trouw newspaper has been somewhat supportive of the prosecution itself, stating in its chief editorial that only a judge can decide whether the cartoons constitute a crime. In an editorial, the newspaper most closely associated with the government PvdA party, de Volkskrant, immediately condemned the decision to police satire or other 'cultural candy'. Many cartoonists of newspapers made drawings in support of Gregorius Nekschot.
The nation's largest newspaper De Telegraaf on its front page on May 22, 2008, focused its readers attention on a colourful painting of two rather abstract female nudes by artist Ellen Vroegh that the municipality of Huizen removed from public space at city hall at the request of a Muslim gentlemen. A sideshow. Other sideshows turned up bearing witness to tension within the social-democratic PvdA party which accommodates both traditional socialists and immigrants.
In de Volkskrant (May 22, 2008) two University Law School professors advised the justice minister not to interfere with the case to conserve the prosecutors neutrality. MP Fred Teeven for the VVD, a former prosecutor, however denied the prosecutor's neutrality and declared it a political case. Paul de Beer, a labor relations professor at the University of Amsterdam, in the same de Volkskrant shared his concern that the freedom of the press was not in safe hands with the governments Christian CDA party. He cited several other muzzlings of the press, most importantly the prime-ministers continued legal action against weekly Opinio, which had published a fictional speech by the prime-minister challenging his official position on Islam.
Weekly magazines
Syp Wynia in Elsevier magazine argued that events pointed to a sudden and conspicuous change of policy within the prosecutor's office, and by its highest authority: the justice minister. Also he expressed surprise that cartoons insulting Christians did not receive police attention. Vrij Nederland May 24, 2008 issue in a short article Lange tenen (Long toes) attempted to downplay the media hype. Denying exaggerated talk on internet of a clash of civilizations and wanting to be evenhanded, the editors reminded readers of recent arrests of protestors against Wilders and concluded that the government is nervous about all trespassing. Crying Bwehhh! Scandalous the Opheffer column in De Groene Amsterdammer, was pissed off by the intellectual crowd that distanced itself first from the rudeness of the cartoons, before criticizing the arrest. Opheffer said the cartoons were excellent and a great comfort to him after Van Gogh's murder.
Newspapers continued
Cartoonist Ruben L. Oppenheimer in NRC Handelsblad (May 24–25, 2008, pg 14) presented a fictional, signed and stamped, document of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, headed (in translation): PLEDGE OF LOYALTY, SUPREME NATIONAL AUTHORITY FOR WISDOM OF THE PRESS AND HUMOUR EXPERIENCE, SUB-DEPARTMENT CARTOON ARTS. One of the stamps was from the 'Interdepartementale Werkgroep Cartoonproblematiek' or the 'Interdepartemental Studygroup Cartoonproblems' the existence of which and its discussion of the Nekschot cartoons was revealed in parliament by the minister of justice. On the same page, in a satirical column the paper's editor Marc Chavannes pretended to have received a document from the governments legal counsel, addressed to the PM, advising him to declare a state of limited emergency in order to win his lawsuit against Opinio magazine, which had published a secret speech under his name to his political advisors (obviously a pastiche), admitting that not extremist Islam was the problem, but Islam itself.
Another and important contribution was made by Frenchman Sylvain Ephimenco, a regular columnist in Trouw, in the weekend special De Affaire (May 24, 2008), believing that the intimidating action against Gregorius Nekschot bears an uncomfortable resemblance to a posthumous reckoning with Theo van Gogh. Although he judged the cartoonist as merely provocative, he pointed to his obvious relationship in style and real life with the murdered filmmaker. While Europe celebrated its May 1968 heritage, he saw the Netherlands turning its head the other way. He documented the way in which Christian politicians within a few weeks after the murder of Van Gogh changed the issue from the filmmakers very real slit throat to the virtual wounds of the religious soul. He agreed that there should be a limit to free speech, but only when it incites hate or violence. He refrained from a personal opinion whether such was the case with Gregorius Nekschot, but said he had been informed by (unnamed) specialists that this was not the case. The Nekschot-affair thus became 'a serious incident, without precedent' in modern times, associating the Netherlands with regimes for which works of art are threatening.
Following the weekend Trouw on Monday May 26, 2008 offered a third of a page to Thomas Mertens, a professor at both the Nijmegen and Leiden universities in 'theory and philosophy of the law' and 'human rights and obligations.' Mertens, reacting to both the Nekschot and Jonas Staal affairs, shared with his readers his surprise at so many defending some absolute right to speak freely. He said this belief in 'free speech' was legally undefendable and in this case very likely abused to serve a wish to discredit a certain minority in society. Defending justice minister Hirsch Ballin he said the government was held to protect 'the good standing and rights' of this minority.
NRC Handelsblad the same day, in a twist, had one of its illustrators comment in words instead of pictures, actually writing that life for Dutch cartoonists was made too easy in a world with absolute freedom of speech. Also he believed they used too many words in their cartoons and should concentrate on the drawing, being less explicit. Cyprian Koscielniak, a Pole by birth, drew on his fifteen years of experience as an illustrator in a country with a communist regime. Naturally, he said, he was not in favor of censorship.
de Volkskrant on May 28, 2008, informed us that the liberal VVD party would be turning its parliament offices into an art gallery for 'freethinkers'. Gregorius Nekschot had agreed to an exhibition.
Weekly magazines (2)
In Out of range, a supposedly new series about censorship, Rudi Kagie reveals a name that may be the real identity of Gregorius Nekschot. He considers the dilemma that this name had asked him not even to quote him as 'not being Gregorius Nekschot'. But Kagie points out his own freedom of speech to share with us the name, which is not repeated here. (Vrij Nederland, May 31, 2008). Becoming rich in Dubai is the cover story of HP/De Tijd of May 30, 2008 in which two articles deal with the arrested critic of Muslims trying their luck in the Netherlands. One is an interview with Esther Gasseling of Nekschots publisher Xtra telling us which bookshops are, and which are not selling his books.
The other is an interview with influential philosopher Paul Cliteur. He thinks the cartoons ask legitimate questions. He objects to the 'blaming ourselves' habit of the Dutch, even quoting the queen's Christmas message after the Van Gogh murder in which she said on equal terms that 'extremism in both word and deed' was dividing the country. As long as people didn't call for violence you should allow them their speech. He agreed however with interviewer Boudewijn Geels that one could expect politicians to be a little more careful. Geert Wilders, he believed, was learning. The real problem was that the MP could not live without security measures.
Political reactions
Immediately after the arrest, justice minister Ernst Hirsch Ballin, a Christian-Democrat, was criticized by a large part of parliament for the arrest. He also found opposition from within his own Christian community. In an emergency debate in parliament on May 20, 2008, Hirsch Ballin expressed his support for the prosecutor but criticized the lengthy detention of the cartoonist. A majority within parliament, including the parties supporting the government, considered the manner in which the arrest was made 'disproportionate'. The minister denied accusations made by members of the opposition that the arrest was politically motivated. The decision to prosecute was made by the prosecutor and not as the result of government policy, said the minister. The minister confirmed, however, that he had been in contact with the office of the prosecutor at whose initiative the investigation was started.
On May 21, 2008, the popular and largest Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf headed an article about parliament's condemnation of the arrest with a quote of a right wing member of parliament comparing it to practices in former East-Germany. De Volkskrant, the same morning, mentioned near disbelief within the left wing GroenLinks party that the prosecutor's office had needed three years to establish the identity of Nekschot. MP De Wit from the socialist SP party suggested that the justice minister was seeking retribution for parliament's recent opposition to new legislation on profanity. De minister denied any relation.
Attacks on authorities
In cartoons and satire that was published on his website one month before his arrest Gregorius Nekschot directed his creativity at the justice minister, the prime minister and the government chief terrorism official. Writing with another pseudonym, as Dolf Histler, he accused the justice minister of not being able to achieve much in the field of crime fighting and the cabinet of Christians and social democrats of prime minister Balkenende of religious mania. In a cartoon a naked prime minister is being depicted as 'in touch' with the darker side of public opinion through his 'mighty organ', being the government chief terrorism official as a tapeworm awaiting orders. In another cartoon, once more the prime minister is drawn as praying five times a week in front of a circumcised penis or lingam while wearing a fake beard and a djellaba.
Cartoons described
The following cartoon was immediately after the arrest published in newspapers as being part of the eight that the prosecutor considered to be a crime:
Now too a monument for the slavery of the white Dutch taxpayer, shows a chained white man, on a pedestal titled Kingdom of the Netherlands, carrying a very large black baby on his back. The cartoon appears to react to a debate about the meaning of a slavery monument for the descendants of slaves from Surinam and the Dutch Antilles. Another interpretation, is that the cartoon joins a recent debate in Parliament about the financial burden of the Dutch Caribbean islands.
On May 21, 2008, the morning paper de Volkskrant confirmed the previous cartoon as being one of the eight cartoons liable to prosecution, and added two cartoons to the list on the authority of Nekschot himself:
Ali sits comfortably on his pouffe. An elderly gentleman wearing a tie and fez informs us that nowhere in the Koran it reads that one is supposed to give something in return for thirty years of disability benefits, child support and housing subsidies. Nekschot later commented that his intention had been to show that religion stands in the way of complete participation of immigrants in society.
Left wing Dutch unrelentingly optimistic, depicts a black youth wearing a baseball cap the wrong way round pointing two guns at the head of an elderly Dutch anarchist demanding cash money. The Dutchman looks at us and informs us: 'its only the second generation'. The cartoon comments on a general belief among many citizens that problems will evaporate with the generations. However, there has been a motion in parliament for special treatment of young people arriving from the island of Curaçao, by sending them back to the island when they embark on a criminal career.
Some facts behind these ideas may be supported by government statistics that actually analyze much information for different groups in society. An issue in defending the cartoonist in an opinion in NRCHandelsblad (May 20, 2008) was that Nekschot was not judged to attribute purely fictional negative qualities to his antagonists and they did not represent the group but only certain types within that group.
Publication of all eight cartoons in HP/De Tijd magazine in their May 23, 2008 issue titled 'Nekschot fires back' added the missing five:
Muslim Democratic Party presents logo. A Muslim presents not a T-shirt but a burqa with the letters MDP and the silhouette of a bearded person copulating with a goat. The insult that Muslims, many of whom arrived in the Netherlands from provincial areas, had sexual intercourse with animals was frequently used by Theo van Gogh as a provocative image. Nekschot's Misselijke Grappen includes a cartoon of the Christian prime minister having intercourse with a cow in some provincial area of The Netherlands.
Ali el Wakkie performs Islamic charity. A bearded man in eskimo or perhaps father Christmas clothes is having intercourse with a polar bear and tells us it is his duty to help the bear with an obstipation problem.
Mrs Ouroubourou, born Klapstra. An elderly and very much beaten-up woman, using a crutch, finds that the Dutch too should adjust and that receiving a few hits is educational. The woman who is apparently married to a Muslim refers to a view sometimes expressed, and published by Joris Luyendijk, that a good Muslim sometimes beats his wife.
Why young Muslims identify with Palestinians. A young man with a baseball cap worn the wrong way round and with a Smiley on the front of his jacket explains with his hands in his pockets:'loitering..., no school..., no homework..., provoking police..., benefits...'
The Christmas-Imam wishes you a blessed holiday and.... A bearded man with father Christmas clothes, without pants, finishes the sentence while having sexual intercourse with a goat: 'a happy 1426', a reference to the Islamic calendar.
Other cartoons stayed available on the cartoonists website and could thus be considered as not being part of the eight supposedly criminal ones. However, Nekschot reported that police had shown him older cartoons and that he felt they had acted for political reasons on a dossier they had prepared a while ago.
References
External links
The website of Gregorius Nekschot (also in English) went offline on 1 January 2012. A few webpages and a number of blogs were captured by The Internet Archive [https://archive.org/web/ Internet Archive: Wayback Machine.
Living people
Free speech activists
Dutch editorial cartoonists
Dutch humorists
Dutch satirists
Dutch critics of Islam
Pseudonymous artists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Religious controversies in the Netherlands
Pseudonymous writers on Islam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20KLF
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The KLF
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The KLF (also known as the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu, the JAMs, the Timelords and other names) are a British electronic band formed in London in 1987. Bill Drummond (alias King Boy D) and Jimmy Cauty (alias Rockman Rock) began by releasing hip hop-inspired and sample-heavy records as the JAMs. As the Timelords, they recorded the British number-one single "Doctorin' the Tardis", and documented the process of making a hit record in a book The Manual (How to Have a Number One the Easy Way). As the KLF, Drummond and Cauty pioneered stadium house (rave music with a pop-rock production and sampled crowd noise) and, with their 1990 LP Chill Out, the ambient house genre. The KLF released a series of international hits on their own KLF Communications record label and became the biggest selling singles act in the world in 1991.
From the outset, the KLF adopted the philosophy espoused by esoteric novels The Illuminatus! Trilogy, making anarchic situationist manifestations, including the defacement of billboard adverts, the posting of cryptic advertisements in NME and the mainstream press, as well as unusual performances on Top of the Pops. In collaboration with Extreme Noise Terror at the BRIT Awards in February 1992, they fired machine gun blanks into the audience and dumped a dead sheep at the aftershow party. This performance pre-announced the KLF's departure from the music business and, in May of that year, they deleted their entire back-catalogue. Drummond and Cauty established the K Foundation and sought to subvert the art world, staging an alternative art award for the Worst Artist of the Year, and burning one million pounds sterling (approximately £2.35m as of 2022).
Although the duo remained true to their word of May 1992, with the KLF Communications catalogue remaining deleted, they have released a small number of new tracks since then, as the K Foundation, the One World Orchestra, and in 1997, as 2K. Drummond and Cauty reappeared in 2017 as the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu, releasing the novel 2023, and rebooting an earlier campaign to build a "People's Pyramid". In January 2021, the band began uploading their previously deleted catalogue onto streaming services, in compilations.
History
Background
Bill Drummond was an established figure within the British music industry, having co-founded Zoo Records, played guitar in the Liverpool band Big in Japan, and worked as manager of Echo & the Bunnymen and the Teardrop Explodes. Artist and musician Jimmy Cauty was the guitarist in the three-piece Brilliant – an act that Drummond had signed to WEA Records and managed.
In July 1986, Drummond resigned from his position as an A&R man at record label WEA, citing that he was nearly 33⅓ years old (33⅓ revolutions per minute being the speed at which a vinyl LP revolves), and that it was "time for a revolution in my life. There is a mountain to climb the hard way, and I want to see the world from the top". In the same year he released a solo LP, The Man. Drummond intended to focus on writing books once The Man had been issued but, as he recalled in 1990, "That only lasted three months, until I had an[other] idea for a record and got dragged back into it all". Recalling that moment in a later interview, Drummond said that the plan came to him in an instant: he would form a hip-hop band with former colleague Cauty, and they would be called the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu:
The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu
Early in 1987, Drummond and Cauty's collaborations began. They assumed alter egos – King Boy D and Rockman Rock respectively – and adopted the name the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (the JAMs), after the fictional conspiratorial group "The Justified Ancients of Mummu" from The Illuminatus! Trilogy. The JAMs' primary instrument was the digital sampler with which they would plagiarise the history of popular music, cutting chunks from existing works and pasting them into new contexts, underpinned by rudimentary beatbox rhythms and overlaid with Drummond's raps, of social commentary, esoteric metaphors and mockery.
The JAMs' debut single "All You Need Is Love" dealt with the media coverage given to AIDS, sampling heavily from the Beatles' "All You Need Is Love" and Samantha Fox's "Touch Me (I Want Your Body)". Although it was declined by distributors fearful of prosecution, and threatened with lawsuits, copies of the one-sided white label 12" were sent to the music press; it received positive reviews and was made "single of the week" in Sounds. A later piece in the same magazine called the JAMs "the hottest, most exhilarating band this year .... It's hard to understand what it feels like to come across something you believe to be totally new; I have never been so wholeheartedly convinced that a band are so good and exciting."
The JAMs re-edited and re-released "All You Need Is Love" in May 1987, removing or doctoring the most antagonistic samples; lyrics from the song appeared as promotional graffiti, defacing selected billboards. The re-release rewarded the JAMs with praise (including NME's "single of the week") and the funds necessary to record their debut album. The album, 1987 (What the F**k Is Going On?), was released in June 1987. Included was a song called "The Queen and I", which sampled the ABBA single "Dancing Queen". After a legal showdown with ABBA and the Mechanical-Copyright Protection Society, the 1987 album was forcibly withdrawn from sale. Drummond and Cauty travelled to Sweden in hope of meeting ABBA and coming to some agreement, taking an NME journalist and photographer with them, along with most of the remaining copies of the LP. They failed to meet ABBA, who they didn't realize already lived in Britain at the time, so they disposed of the copies by burning most of them in a field and throwing the rest overboard on the North Sea ferry trip home. In a December 1987 interview, Cauty maintained that they "felt that what [they]'d done was artistically justified."
Two new singles followed on the JAMs' "KLF Communications" independent record label. Both reflected a shift towards house rhythms. According to NME, the JAMs' choice of samples for the first of these, "Whitney Joins the JAMs" saw them leaving behind their strategy of "collision course" to "move straight onto the art of super selective theft". The song uses samples of the Mission: Impossible and Shaft themes alongside Whitney Houston's "I Wanna Dance with Somebody". Drummond has claimed that the KLF were later offered the job of producing or remixing a new Whitney Houston album as an inducement from her record label boss (Clive Davis of Arista Records) to sign with them. The second single in this sequence – Drummond and Cauty's third and final single of 1987 – was "Down Town", a dance record built around a gospel choir and "Downtown" by 1960s star Petula Clark, with lyrics that commented on poverty and homelessness. These early works were later collected on the compilation album Shag Times.
A second album, Who Killed the JAMs?, was released in early 1988. Who Killed the JAMs? earned the duo a five-star review from Sounds magazine, who called it "a masterpiece of pathos".
The Timelords
In 1988, Drummond and Cauty released a 'novelty' pop single, "Doctorin' the Tardis" as the Timelords. The song is predominantly a mash-up of the Doctor Who theme music, "Block Buster!" by Sweet and Gary Glitter's "Rock and Roll (Part Two)".
Credited on the record was "Ford Timelord", Cauty's 1968 Ford Galaxie American police car, and "Lord Rock" (Cauty) and "Time Boy" (Drummond). The Timelords claimed that Ford Timelord was the "Talent" in the band and had given them instructions on how to make the record; Ford fronted the promotional campaign for the single and was "interviewed" on TV.
They later portrayed the song as the result of a deliberate effort to write a number one hit single. In interviews with Snub TV and BBC Radio 1, Drummond said that they had intended to make a house record using the Doctor Who theme. After Cauty had laid down a basic track, Drummond observed that their house idea wasn't working and what they actually had was a Glitter beat. Sensing the opportunity to make a commercial pop record they went instead for the lowest common denominator. According to the British music press, the result was "rancid", "pure, unadulterated agony" and "excruciating" and from Sounds "a record so noxious that a top ten place can be its only destiny". A single of the Timelords' remixes of the song was released: "Gary Joins the JAMs" featured original vocal contributions from Glitter, who also appeared on Top of the Pops to promote the song with the Timelords. "Doctorin' the Tardis" sold over one million copies.
The Timelords released one other product, a 1989 book called The Manual (How to Have a Number One the Easy Way), a step-by-step guide to achieving a number one hit single with little money or talent.
The KLF
By the time the JAMs' single "Whitney Joins the JAMs" was released in September 1987, their record label had been renamed "KLF Communications" (from the earlier The Sound of Mu(sic)). The duo's first release as the KLF was in March 1988, with the single "Burn the Bastards"/"Burn the Beat" (KLF 002). Although the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu name was not retired, most future Drummond and Cauty releases went under the name "The KLF".
The name change accompanied a change in Drummond and Cauty's musical direction. As 'King Boy D', Drummond said in January 1988, "We might put out a couple of 12" records under the name The K.L.F., these will be rap free just pure dance music, so don't expect to see them reviewed in the music papers". King Boy D also said that he and Rockman Rock were "pissed off at [them]selves" for letting "people expect us to lead some sort of crusade for sampling." In 1990, he recalled that "We wanted to make [as the KLF] something that was... pure dance music, without any reference points, without any nod to the history of rock and roll. It was the type of music that by early '87 was really exciting me... [although] we weren't able to get our first KLF records out until late '88."
The 12" records subsequently released in 1988 and 1989 by the KLF were indeed rap free and house-oriented; remixes of some of the JAMs tracks, and new singles, the largely instrumental acid house anthems "What Time Is Love?" and "3 a.m. Eternal", the first incarnations of later international chart successes. The KLF described the new tracks as "Pure Trance". In 1989, the KLF appeared at the Helter Skelter rave in Oxfordshire. "They wooed the crowd", wrote Scotland on Sunday some years later, "by pelting them with... £1,000 worth of Scottish pound notes, each of which bore the message 'Children we love you.
Also in 1989, the KLF embarked upon the creation of a road movie and soundtrack album, both titled The White Room, funded by the profits of "Doctorin' the Tardis". Neither the film nor its soundtrack were formally released, although bootleg copies exist. The soundtrack album contained pop-house versions of some of the "pure trance" singles, as well as new songs, most of which would appear (in radically reworked form) on the version of the album which was eventually released to mainstream success. A single from the original album was released: "Kylie Said to Jason", an electropop record featuring references to Todd Terry, Rolf Harris, Skippy the Bush Kangaroo and BBC comedy programme The Good Life. In reference to that song, Drummond and Cauty noted that they had worn "Pet Shop Boys infatuations brazenly on [their] sleeves."
The film project was fraught with difficulties and setbacks, including dwindling funds. "Kylie Said to Jason", which Drummond and Cauty were hoping could "rescue them from the jaws of bankruptcy", flopped commercially, failing even to make the UK top 100. In consequence, The White Room film project was put on hold, and the KLF abandoned the musical direction of the soundtrack and single. Meanwhile, "What Time Is Love?" was generating acclaim within the underground clubs of continental Europe; according to KLF Communications, "The KLF were being feted by all the 'right' DJs". This prompted Drummond and Cauty to pursue the acid house tone of their Pure Trance series. A further Pure Trance release, "Last Train to Trancentral", followed. By this time, Cauty had co-founded the Orb as an ambient side-project with Alex Paterson. Cauty's ambient album Space and the KLF's "ambient house" LP Chill Out ambient video Waiting were released in 1990, as was a dance track, "It's Grim Up North", under the JAMs' moniker.
Throughout 1990, the KLF launched a series of singles with an upbeat pop-house sound which they dubbed "stadium house". Songs from The White Room soundtrack were re-recorded with rap and more vocals (by guests labelled "Additional Communicators"), a sample-heavy pop-rock production and crowd noise samples. The first "stadium house" single, "What Time Is Love? (Live from Trancentral)", released in October 1990, reached #5 on the UK Singles Chart and hit the top-ten internationally. The follow-up, "3 a.m. Eternal (Live at the S.S.L.)", was an international top-five hit in January 1991, reaching #1 in the UK and #5 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The album The White Room followed in March 1991, reaching #3 in the UK. A substantial reworking of the aborted soundtrack, the album featured a segued series of "stadium house" songs followed by downtempo tracks.The KLF's chart success continued with the single "Last Train to Trancentral" hitting number two in the UK, and number three on the Eurochart Hot 100. In December 1991, a re-working of a song from 1987, "Justified & Ancient" was released, featuring Tammy Wynette. It was another international hit – peaking at number two in the UK, and number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 – as was "America: What Time Is Love?", a hard, guitar-laden reworking of "What Time Is Love?". In 1990 and 1991, the KLF also remixed tracks by Depeche Mode ("Policy of Truth"), the Moody Boys ("What Is Dub?"), and Pet Shop Boys ("So Hard" from the Behaviour album, and "It Must Be Obvious"). Neil Tennant described the process: "When they did the remix of 'So Hard', they didn't do a remix at all, they re-wrote the record ... I had to go and sing the vocals again, they did it in a different way. I was impressed that Bill Drummond had written all the chords out and played it on an acoustic guitar, very thorough."
The "stadium house" singles trilogy was characterised by Tom Ewing of Freaky Trigger as applying "the possibilities for mass lunacy" to "awe-inpsiring, colossal, unprecedented dancefloor bulldozers." He adds: "For novelty scam-mongers and pranksters, they knew the public well, particularly that strain in British pop listening which likes an occasional brush with the gigantic. The KLF did to house what Jim Steinman did to rock – they turned it into a thing of tottering grand opera absurdity, pushed the excitement in the music to hysteria, traded content for ever-huger gesture. The difference being that the KLF never lost track of what made the music special in the first place. Maybe because there's less inherent 'meaning' in the KLF's music, or maybe just because the 'meaning' in house music is less fragile".
After successive name changes and dance records, Drummond and Cauty ultimately became, as the KLF, the biggest-selling singles act in the world for 1991, still incorporating the work of other artists but in less gratuitous ways and predominantly without legal problems.
BRIT Awards and retirement from the music business
On 12 February 1992, the KLF and grindcore group Extreme Noise Terror performed a live version of "3 a.m. Eternal" at the BRIT Awards, the British Phonographic Industry's annual awards show. Drummond and Cauty had planned to throw buckets of blood over the audience, or to disembowel a dead sheep on stage, but were prevented from doing so due to opposition from BBC lawyers and vegetarians Extreme Noise Terror; Sheep were a symbol of the KLF, and Drummond conceded that the "sheep hacking" idea was akin to a suicide. Associates reasoned that the plan was to generate such revulsion towards the KLF that they would be ostracised from the music industry and a comeback would be impossible. The dead sheep purchased but the plan thwarted, Drummond considered chopping his hand off with an axe live on stage.
The performance was instead concluded with a limping, kilted, cigar-chomping Drummond firing blanks from an automatic weapon over the heads of the crowd. As the band left the stage, the KLF's promoter and narrator Scott Piering proclaimed over the PA system that "The KLF have now left the music business". Later in the evening the band dumped the dead sheep, with the message "I died for you – bon appetit" tied around its waist, at the entrance to one of the post-ceremony parties. Piering's PA announcement was largely not taken seriously at the time; even he and other close associates of the band thought the announcement was a joke. NME'''s detailed piece on the events at the BRIT Awards and the after-party, which included an interview with Drummond the day after, assured readers that the "tensions and contradictions" would continue to "push and spark" the KLF and that more "musical treasure" would be the result.
In the weeks following the BRITs performance, the KLF continued working with Extreme Noise Terror on the album The Black Room, but it was never finished. On 14 May 1992, the KLF announced their immediate retirement from the music industry and the deletion of their back catalogue:
In a comprehensive examination of the KLF's announcement and its context, Select called it "the last grand gesture, the most heroic act of public self destruction in the history of pop. And it's also Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty's final extravagant howl of self disgust, defiance and contempt for a music world gone foul and corrupt." Many of the KLF's friends and collaborators gave their reactions in the magazine. Movie director Bill Butt said that "Like everything, they're dealing with it in a very realistic way, a fresh, unbitter way, which is very often not the case. A lot of bands disappear with such a terrible loss of dignity". Scott Piering said that "They've got a huge buzz off this, that's for sure, because it's something that's finally thrilling. It's scary to have thrown away a fortune which I know they have. Just the idea of starting over is exciting. Starting over on what? Well, they have such great ideas, like buying submarines". Even Kenny Gates, who as a director of the KLF's distributors APT stood to lose financially from the move, called it "Conceptually and philosophically... absolutely brilliant". Mark Stent reported the doubts of many when he said that "I [have] had so many people who I know, heads of record companies, A&R men saying, 'Come on, It's a big scam.' But I firmly believe it's over". "For the very last spectacularly insane time", the magazine concluded, "The KLF have done what was least expected of them".
The final KLF Info sheet discussed the retirement in a typically offbeat fashion, and asked "What happens to 'Footnotes in rock legend'? Do they gather dust with Ashton, Gardner and Dyke, the Vapors, and the Utah Saints, or does their influence live on in unseen ways, permeating future cultures? A passing general of a private army has the answer. 'No', he whispers 'but the dust they gather is of the rarest quality. Each speck a universe awaiting creation, Big Bang just a dawn away'." There have been numerous suggestions that in 1992 Drummond was on the verge of a nervous breakdown. Drummond himself said that he was on the edge of the "abyss". The KLF's BRITs statuette for "Best British Group" of 1992 was later found buried in a field near Stonehenge.
K Foundation and other pre-millennium projects
The K Foundation was an arts foundation established by Drummond and Cauty in 1993 following their 'retirement' from the music industry. From 1993 to 1995 they engaged in art projects and media campaigns, including the high-profile K Foundation art award (for the "worst artist of the year"), and in 1993 released a limited edition single – "K Cera Cera" – in Israel and Palestine "to create awareness of peace in the world". They burnt what was left of their KLF earnings – a million pounds sterling in cash (equivalent to £2.35m as of 2022) – and filmed the performance. For Cauty's actual words – a breakdown of The KLF's earnings and spending – see K Foundation Burn a Million Quid. Cauty and Drummond announced a 23-year moratorium on all K Foundation activities in November 1995.
Also in 1995, Drummond and Cauty contributed a song to The Help Album as The One World Orchestra ("featuring The Massed Pipes and Drums of the Children's Free Revolutionary Volunteer Guards"). "The Magnificent" is a drum'n'bass version of the theme tune from The Magnificent Seven, with vocal samples from DJ Fleka of Serbian radio station B92: "Humans against killing... that sounds like a junkie against dope".
On 17 September 1997, Drummond and Cauty re-emerged briefly as 2K. 2K made a one-off performance at London's Barbican Arts Centre with Mark Manning, Acid Brass, the Liverpool Dockers and Gimpo; a performance at which "Two elderly gentlemen, reeking of Dettol, caused havoc in their motorised wheelchairs. These old reprobates, bearing a grandfatherly resemblance to messrs Cauty and Drummond, claimed to have just been asked along." The song performed at the Barbican – "***k the Millennium" (a remix of "What Time Is Love?" featuring Acid Brass and incorporating elements of the hymn "Eternal Father, Strong to Save") – was also released as a single. These activities were accompanied by the usual full page press adverts, this time asking readers "***k The Millennium: Yes/No?" with a telephone number provided for voting. At the same time, Drummond and Cauty were also K2 Plant Hire, with plans to build a "People's Pyramid" from used house bricks; this plan never reached fruition. K2 Plant Hire Ltd had been registered at Companies House since 1995; Cauty and Drummond are directors. The Directors' Report for the period ending 31 March 1996 listed the company's activities as "a music company," and the accompanying accounts noted a transaction with "KLF Communications Residual Royalties", a Cauty-Drummond partnership.
The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu return
On 23 August 2017, in Liverpool, 23 years after they burnt a million pounds, Drummond and Cauty returned as the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu. The duo launched a novel, 2023: A Trilogy, and staged a three day event, "Welcome to the Dark Ages". Ending their self-imposed moratorium, the festival included a debate asking "Why Did The K Foundation Burn A Million Quid?" The JAMs also announced new plans for a People's Pyramid to be built from bricks each containing 23 grams of human ashes. New bricks will be laid at the annual "Toxteth Day Of The Dead".
Cauty emphasised to the BBC in 2018 that the People's Pyramid project, inspired by his brother's death, is serious: "It's easy to make it sound like a joke", he said, "but it isn't a joke, it's deadly serious and it's a long-term project." He also confirmed that The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu are a going concern: "It's interesting to be in a band that doesn't make records but only makes pyramids of dead people.
Samplecity thru Trancentral
On 31 December 2020, the release of series of remastered compilations under the collective title Samplecity thru Trancentral was announced on a graffiti and posters hung under a railway bridge on Kingsland Road in Shoreditch, East London. The 30-minute collection of eight remastered singles Solid State Logik 1 appeared at midnight 1 January 2021, on streaming platforms, while high-definition videos were published for the first time on the band's official YouTube channel, marking the first activity of Cauty and Drummond as the KLF since 1992. On 23 March 2021, the collection was followed by its part 2 featuring 12" versions of the singles.
On 4 February 2021, a re-edited version of Chill Out was released, retitled Come Down Dawn, with previously unlicensed samples from the original release removed, and added "What Time Is Love? (Virtual Reality Mix)," originally from the 1990 remix EP What Time Is Love? (Remodelled & Remixed), integrated in the new mix.
On 23 April 2021, The White Room (Director's Cut) was officially released as the fourth part of the series. The album's edition includes tracks from the unreleased 1989 album, as well as an extended version of "Last Train to Trancentral" from the 1991 album.
The documentary Who Killed the KLF?, directed by Chris Atkins, was released on April 4 2022. Atkins began creating the documentary against Drummond's and Cauty's wishes, but was incarcerated in 2016 for tax fraud for two years; he continued editing the film while in prison. According to Atkins, the duo eventually claimed they "love" the film, though they pointed out some minor inaccuracies.
The band's master tapes were donated to the British Library in 2023.
KLF Communications
From their very earliest releases as The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu until their retirement in 1992, the music of Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty was independently released in their home country (the UK). Their debut releases – the single "All You Need Is Love" and the album 1987 – were released under the label name "The Sound Of Mu(sic)". By the end of 1987 Drummond and Cauty had renamed their label to "KLF Communications" and, in October 1987, the first of many "information sheets" (self written missives from the KLF to fans and the media) was sent out by the label.
KLF Communications releases were distributed by Rough Trade Distribution (a spinoff of Rough Trade Records) in the South East of England, and across the wider UK by the Cartel. As Drummond and Cauty explained, "The Cartel is, as the name implies, a group of independent distributors across the country who work in conjunction with each other providing a solid network of distribution without stepping on each other's toes. We are distributed by the Cartel." When Rough Trade Distribution collapsed in 1991 it was reported that they owed KLF Communications £500,000. Plugging (the promotion to TV and radio) was handled by longtime associate Scott Piering.
Outside the UK, KLF releases were issued under licence by local labels. In the US, the licensees were Wax Trax (the Chill Out album), TVT (early releases including The History of The JAMs a.k.a. The Timelords), and Arista Records (The White Room and singles). The KLF Communications physical catalogue remains deleted in the United Kingdom.
Themes
Several threads and themes unify the many incarnations of Drummond and Cauty's creative partnership, many of these influenced by The Illuminatus! Trilogy; combined, these themes, threads and their activities over the years have been said to form a "mythology." Drummond and Cauty made heavy references to Discordianism, popularised by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson in the Illuminatus! books, Situationism, and tactics often interpreted by media commentators as "Situationist pranks.
In a 2000 review of Drummond's book 45, and an appraisal of the duo's career to date, writer Steven Poole stated that Drummond and Cauty "are the only true conceptual artists of the [1990s]. And for all the eldritch beauty of their art, their most successful creation is the myth they have built around themselves." This deep and perplexing mythology, he suggested, results in all their subsequent activities (as a partnership or otherwise) being absorbed into their mystique:
Drummond and Cauty have also been compared to Stewart Home and the Neoists. Home himself said that the duo's work "has much more in common with the Neoist, Plagiarist and Art Strike movements of the nineteen-eighties than with the Situationist avant-garde of the fifties and sixties." Drummond and Cauty "represent a vital and innovative strand within contemporary culture", he added.
Illuminatus!
Drummond was the set designer on Ken Campbell's 1976 stage production of The Illuminatus! Trilogy. In the first KLF Communications Info Sheet, Drummond explained that The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu name was "pinched" from Illuminatus! which he had been reading the year before.
A notable theme of Illuminatus! is the number 23, placed overtly and surreptitiously, both in the book and later throughout the band's career:
In lyrics to the song "Next" from the album 1987: "23 years is a mighty long time".
They announced they had signed a contract preventing either of them from publicly discussing the burning of a million pounds for a period of 23 years;
The 1997 return as 2K was "for 23 minutes only".
In numbering schemes: for instance, the debut single "All You Need Is Love" took the catalogue number JAMS 23, while the final KLF Communications Information Sheet was numbered 23; and Cauty's Ford Galaxie police car had on its roof the identification mark 23.
In significant dates during their work: for instance, a rare public appearance by the KLF, at the Liverpool Festival of Comedy, was on 23 June 1991; they announced the winner of the K Foundation award on 23 November 1993; and they burned one million pounds on 23 August 1994.
The 2017 reunion happened at 00:23 on 23 August 23 years after the burning, with the release of a book entitled 2023: A Trilogy. The numerals of the date – 23 August 2017 – also sum to 23 (2+3+0+8+2+0+1+7=23).
When questioned on the importance that he attaches to this number, Drummond has been evasive, responding enigmatically "I know. But I'm not going to tell, because then other people would have to stop having to wonder and the thing about beauty is for other people to wonder at it. It's not very beautiful once you know."
The "Pyramid Blaster" is a logo and icon frequently and prominently depicted within the duo's collective work: a pyramid, in front of which is suspended a ghetto blaster displaying the word "Justified". This references the Eye of Providence icon, often depicted as an eye within a triangle or pyramid, a significant symbol of Illuminatus! The pyramid was also a theme of the duo's 1997 and 2017 reunions, with the proposed building by K2 Plant Hire of a "People's Pyramid" (in 1997, a pyramid built with as many bricks as there were births in the 20th century in the UK, and in 2017 a pyramid built from bricks containing the ashes of dead people).
Trancentral
Trancentral (a.k.a. the Benio) was the band's studios. Despite the grandiose lyrics of "Last Train to Trancentral", the Trancentral was in fact Cauty's residence in Stockwell, South London (), "a large and rather grotty squat." According to Melody Maker's David Stubbs, "Jimmy has lived [there] for 12 years. There's little evidence of fame or fortune. The kitchen is heated by means of leaving the three functioning gas rings on at full blast until the fumes make us all feel stoned... And pinned just above a working top cluttered with chipped mugs is a letter from a five-year-old fan featuring a crayon drawing of the band."
Sheep
Following the February 1990 release of Chill Out (the press release for which credited sheep as guest vocalists), sheep had recurring roles in the duo's output until their 1992 retirement. Drummond has claimed that the use of sheep on the Chill Out cover was intended to evoke contemporary rural raves and the cover of the Pink Floyd album Atom Heart Mother.
Ceremonies and journeys
Drummond and Cauty's work often involved notions of ceremony and journey. Journeys are the subject of the KLF Communications recordings Chill Out, Space, "Last Train to Trancentral", "Justified & Ancient" and "America: What Time Is Love?", as well as the aborted film project The White Room. The Chill Out album depicts a journey across the U.S. Gulf Coast. In his book 45, Drummond expressed his admiration for the work of artist Richard Long, who incorporates physical journeys into his art.
Fire and sacrifice were recurring ceremonial themes: Drummond and Cauty made fires to dispose of their illegal debut album and to sacrifice the KLF's profits; their dead sheep gesture of 1992 carried a sacrificial message. The KLF's short film The Rites of Mu depicts their celebration of the 1991 summer solstice on the Hebridean island of Jura: a tall wicker man was burnt at a ceremony in which journalists were asked to wear yellow and grey robes and join a chant; the journalists' money was also burnt.
Promotion
Drummond and Cauty were renowned for their distinctive and humorous public appearances (including several on Top of the Pops), at which they were often costumed. They granted few interviews, communicating instead via semi-regular newsletters, or cryptically phrased full-page adverts in UK national newspapers and the music press. Such adverts were typically stark, comprising large white lettering on black.
From the outset of their collaborations, Drummond and Cauty practised the guerrilla communication tactic that they described as "illegal but effective use of graffiti on billboards and public buildings" in which "the original meaning of the advert would be totally subverted". Much as the JAMs' early recordings carried messages on the back of existing musical works, their promotional graffiti often derived its potency from the context in which it was placed. For instance, The JAMs' "SHAG SHAG SHAG" graffiti, coinciding with their release of "All You Need Is Love", was drawn over the "HALO HALO HALO" slogan of a Today billboard that depicted Greater Manchester Police Chief Constable James Anderton, who had decried homosexuals amidst the UK media's AIDS furore.
Music press journalists were occasionally invited to witness the defacements. In December 1987, a Melody Maker reporter was in attendance to see Cauty reverse his car Ford Timelord alongside a billboard and stand on its roof to graffiti a Christmas message from the JAMs. In February 1991, another Melody Maker journalist watched the KLF deface a billboard advertising The Sunday Times, doctoring the slogan "THE GULF: the coverage, the analysis, the facts" by painting a 'K' over the 'GU'. Drummond and Cauty were, on this occasion, caught at the scene by police and arrested, later to be released without charge.
In November 1991, the JAMs placed a photograph of graffiti with the slogan "It's Grim Up North" – which had appeared on the junction of London's M25 orbital motorway with the M1 that runs to Northern England – as an advert in the NME. The graffiti, for which the JAMs denied responsibility, had been the subject of an early day motion in the British House of Commons on 21 October 1991. In September 1997, on the day after Drummond and Cauty's brief remergence as 2K, the graffiti "1997: What The Fuck's Going On?" appeared on the outside wall of London's National Theatre, ten years after the slogan "1987: What The Fuck's Going On?" had been similarly placed to mark the release of the JAMs' debut album.
Reputation as "pranksters"
Cauty and Drummond's tactics have often been labelled by media commentators as "pranks" or "publicity stunts". In 1991, Drummond told an NME journalist that "we never felt we went out and did things to get reactions. Everything we've done has just been on a gut level instinct", whilst acknowledging that people would likely not believe him. On the morning after the BRITs performance, an impassioned Drummond told the NME that "I really hate it when people go on about us being 'schemers' and 'scammers'. We do all this stuff from the very depths of our soul and people make out its some sort of game. It depresses me." Cauty has expressed similar feelings, saying of the KLF, "I think it worked because we really meant it."
LegacyChill Out is cited by AllMusic as "one of the essential ambient albums". In 1996, Mixmag named Chill Out the fifth best "dance" album of all time, describing Cauty's DJ sets with the Orb's Alex Paterson as "seminal". The Guardian has credited the KLF with inventing "stadium house"; NME named the KLF's stadium house album The White Room the 81st best album of all time whilst Q listed it as the 89th best British album of all time, in 2000.
Opinions of contemporaries
In 1991, Chris Lowe of Pet Shop Boys said that he considered the only other worthwhile group in the UK to be the KLF. Neil Tennant added that "They have an incredibly recognisable sound. I liked it when they said EMF nicked the F from KLF. They're from a different tradition to us in that they're pranksters and we've never been pranksters."
At the time of the KLF's retirement announcement, Drummond's old friend and colleague David Balfe said of Drummond's KLF career that "the path he's trod[den] is a more artistic one than mine. I know that deep down I like the idea of building up a very successful career, where Bill is more interested in weird stuff ... I think the very avoidance of cliché has become their particular cliché".
In March 1994, members of the anarchist band Chumbawamba expressed their respect for the KLF. Vocalist and percussionist Alice Nutter referred to the KLF as "real situationists" categorising them as political musicians alongside the Sex Pistols and Public Enemy. Dunst Bruce lauded the K Foundation, concluding "I think the things the KLF do are fantastic. I'm a vegetarian but I wish they'd sawn an elephant's legs off at the BRIT Awards."
Direct influence
The KLF have been imitated to some degree by German techno band Scooter, being sampled on virtually every album Scooter have released.
In the weeks leading up to the 1996 FA Cup Final, a group called "1300 Drums featuring the Unjustified Ancients of M.U." released a novelty single to cash-in on the popularity of Manchester United footballer Eric Cantona.
The Timelords' book, The Manual, was used by the one-hit-wonders Edelweiss to secure their hit "Bring Me Edelweiss".
The duo "The FLK" released two albums and several singles in the 2010s, appropriating the KLF's aesthetic and musical style and mixing it with samples and references from folk music. Their anonymity, along with details such as their use of a Ford Timelord which was very similar to the original in their videos and promotional material, led some to believe that the FLK actually were the KLF. However, it emerged in 2018 that they were two ex-members of the Leeds-based indie band The Hollow Men.
Career retrospectives
Drummond and Cauty have appeared frequently in British broadsheets and music papers since the KLF's retirement, most often in connection with the K Foundation and their burning of one million pounds. The NME called them "masters of manipulating media and perceptions of themselves".
In 1992, NME referred to the KLF as "Britain's greatest pop group" and "the two most brilliant minds in pop today", and in 2002 listed the duo in their "Top 50 Icons" at number 48. The British music paper also listed the KLF's 1992 BRIT Awards appearance at number 4 in their "top 100 rock moments of all time". "What's unique about Drummond and Cauty", the paper said in 1993, "is the way that, under all the slogans and the sampling and the smart hits and the dead sheep and the costumes, they appear not only to care, but to have some idea of how to achieve what they want."
"[Of their many aliases,] it is as the KLF that they will go down in pop history," wrote Alix Sharkey in 1994, "for a variety of reasons, the most important being the resolute purity of their self-abnegation, and their visionary understanding of pop." He added: "By early 1992 the KLF was easily the best-selling, probably the most innovative, and undoubtedly the most exhilarating pop phenomenon in Britain. In five years it had gone from pressing up 500 copies of its debut recording to being one of the world's top singles acts." The same piece also quoted Sheryl Garratt, editor of The Face: "the music hasn't dated. I still get an adrenaline rush listening to it." Garratt believes their influence on the British house and rap scene cannot be overestimated. "Their attitude was shaped by the rave scene, but they also love pop music. So many people who make pop actually despise it, and it shows."Trouser Press reviewer Ira Robbins referred to the KLF's body of work as "a series of colorful sonic marketing experiments". The Face called them "the kings of cultural anarchy". Robert Sandall wrote in 1993 that one of the KLF's "maxims" was "making the unthinkable happen". In 1999, Ewing wrote: "Even before they put their money where their matches were, the KLF, also known as the Justified Ancients Of Mu Mu, furthermore known as the JAMMS, were the most brilliant pop-artists of the decade. They were witty with the left hand and baffling with the right; they had a sense of timing and event like nobody since Maclaren; they appeared to not give even the merest hint of a fuck; and they made records which were the best shotgun wedding of concept to rhythm this side of Kraftwerk."
In 2003, The Observer named the KLF's departure from the music business (and the BRITs performance in which the newspaper says "their legend was sealed") the fifth greatest "publicity stunt" in the history of popular music. A 2000 piece in The Daily Telegraph called the BRITs performance "violently antagonistic" and reported that the "music-business audience" was "stunned"; on the other hand, Piers Morgan writing shortly after the performance called the KLF "pop's biggest wallies". A 2004 listener poll by BBC 6 Music saw the KLF/K Foundation placed second in a list of "rock excesses", after The Who.
A 2017 piece in The Guardian, pondering the rumoured return of The KLF, noted that "in the 25 years since their disappearance, nobody else has come up with anything that matches the duo's extraordinary career"; another piece in the same newspaper in the same year, by a different author, called them "abstruse" and "pop's greatest provocateurs", and their career "anarchic, anti-commercial and mostly ludicrous".
Instrumentation
Early releases by the JAMs, including the album 1987, were performed using an Apple II computer with a Greengate DS3 sampler peripheral card, and a Roland TR-808 drum machine. On later releases, the Greengate DS3 and Apple II were replaced with an Akai S900 sampler and Atari ST computers respectively.
The KLF's 1990–1992 singles were mixed by Mark Stent, using a Solid State Logic automated mixing desk, and The White Room album mixed by J. Gordon-Hastings using an analogue desk. The SSL is referenced in the subtitle of the KLF single "3 a.m. Eternal (Live at the S.S.L.)", and the title of their 2021 digital compilation albums Solid State Logik 1 and Solid State Logik 2.
The house music of Space and the KLF involved much original instrumentation, for which the Oberheim OB-8 analogue synthesiser was prominently used. Drummond played a Gibson ES-330 semi-acoustic guitar on "America: What Time Is Love?", and Cauty played electric guitar on "Justified & Ancient (Stand by The JAMs)" and "America: What Time Is Love?". Graham Lee provided prominent pedal steel contributions to the KLF's Chill Out and "Build a Fire". Duy Khiem played clarinet on "3 a.m. Eternal" and "Make It Rain". The KLF track "America No More" features a pipe band. The Roland TB-303 bassline and Roland TR-909 drum machine feature on "What Time Is Love (Live at Trancentral)".
Discography
The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu: 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?) (The Sound of Mu(sic), 1987)
The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu: Who Killed The JAMs? (KLF Communications, 1988)
The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu/The KLF/The Timelords: Shag Times (KLF Communications, 1988)
The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu/The KLF/The Timelords: The History of The JAMs a.k.a. The Timelords (TVT Records, 1989)
The KLF/Various Artists: The "What Time Is Love?" Story (KLF Communications, 1989)
The KLF: Chill Out (KLF Communications, 1990)
Space: Space (KLF Communications, 1990)
The KLF: The White Room (KLF Communications, 1991)
The KLF: Solid State Logik 1 (KLF Communications, 2021)
The KLF: Come Down Dawn (KLF Communications, 2021)
The KLF: Solid State Logik 2 (KLF Communications, 2021)
The KLF: The White Room – The KLF 1989 Director's Cut'' (KLF Communications, 2021)
See also
List of ambient music artists
List of The KLF's creative associates
Anti-art
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
KLF mailing list
The KLF and Illuminatus! – including a list of their references to the number 23
The KLF at Acclaimed Music – artist rank #373
KLF Communications artists
English electronic music duos
Acid house musicians
Arista Records artists
Alternative dance musical groups
British ambient music groups
British conceptual artists
British Eurodance groups
Deutsche Grammophon artists
English techno music groups
English dance music groups
Brit Award winners
Male musical duos
Musical groups disestablished in 1992
Musical groups established in 1987
Musical groups from London
Musical groups reestablished in 2017
Remixers
20th-century squatters
Wax Trax! Records artists
1987 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavija%20Square
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Slavija Square
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Slavija Square () is a major commercial junction between the intersections of Kralja Milana, Beogradska, Makenzijeva, Svetosavska, Bulevar oslobođenja, Deligradska and Nemanjina streets in Belgrade. The square was previously named Dimitrije Tucović Square after the prominent Serbian socialist.
Location
Slavija is located less than south of Terazije (downtown Belgrade), at an altitude of . The square itself belongs entirely to the municipality of Vračar, though the municipality of Savski Venac begins immediately to the west. The Slavija neighborhood which surrounds the square borders the neighborhoods of Cvetni Trg in the north, Grantovac and Krunski Venac in the north and north-east, and Englezovac and Savinac in the south-east, all in Vračar. The Manjež park is to the north, while West Vračar is to the west, both in Savski Venac.
History
19th century
Until the 1880s, the area around Slavija was a large pool on the eastern outskirts of the city. The pond was naturally drained by the Vračarski potok, down the modern Nemanjina street, into the Gypsy Pond in the neighborhood of Savamala. The remnant of the pond is the large underground water spring under the modern Hotel Slavija. The earth from the top of the Vračar hill above the Slavija was used to cover and drain the pond, in turn flattening the hill and creating the modern Vračar plateau. The formation of the square started when a well-known Scottish businessman and Nazarene Francis Mackenzie, bought a large piece of land above the present square and parcelled it for sale (the area became subsequently known as Englezovac). Soon after that, Mackenzie built a house for himself at Slavija (at the place where the old "Slavija" cinema used to be), which in 1910 was turned into the Socialist People's Center, a gathering place of the worker's movement. The other, smaller buildings at the corner of Kralja Milana and the square, where the famous cafés "Tri seljaka" and "Rudničanin" used to be, were destroyed before and during World War II.
Today demolished, the original inn, later hotel "Slavija" was built from 1882 to 1888. The hotel's kafana became one of the best known in Belgrade. The venue had a big hall for the parties and balls, and a spacious summer, open-air garden. The hotel hosted recitals, theatrical shows and choirs performances. The large object gave name to its surroundings, and then to the entire neighborhood. Word "Slavija" itself is a generic term for land inhabited by the Slavs.
20th century
Until World War II Slavija remained an unregulated crossroad of eight streets, which crossed at different angles. Surrounding was an entangled web of small streets which, though cobblestoned in the early 20th century, were remains of the old, dirt paths dating from the Ottoman period. However, the plans in the late Interbellum included almost complete makeover of Slavija, with construction of numerous important buildings, including the Belgrade Opera House and the "Mitić Tower", the largest department store and the tallest building in the Southeast Europe. All plans, including some foundations already laid, were cut by the outbreak of World War II in 1941.
German occupational forces concluded that the traffic flow rate in Slavija was too low and that it obstructed transportation. City government, part of the Quisling administration in Serbia, was entrusted with the task of conducting construction plans for Slavija devised in Germany. Massive works, headed by engineer Maksimović, began in the fall of 1942. Apart from transforming Slavija into the proper roundabout, underground works were also conducted. A major effluent sewer (sewage collector) was built, which collected wastewater and groundwater from the hills of Vračar and Zvezdara. The sewer further conducted the water under the Nemanjina Street into the Sava river. As of 2022, the roundabout, sewer and its outlet into the river still function. In the 21st century, the massive size of the sewer and large pipes are major obstacles for the construction of the projected underground passages around Slavija.
After World War II, the new communist regime renamed the square in 1947 in honor of prominent socialist figure, Dimitrije Tucović and placed a bronze bust of Tucović at the central square plateau. The bust, work of Stevan Bodnarov, was placed in 1949. In the early 2000s it was officially changed back to Slavija.
Hotel Slavija was built in 1962, and enlarged later (complex Slavija A and Slavija B). A third addition, the ultra modern Slavija Lux was built in 1989.
Projects
For decades, architects, urbanists and city authorities can't decide how to reconstruct and adapt the square. Over the time, many public competitions were held for the best solutions, labeling it sometimes as a “haunted square”. Architects always pointed out that the traffic function is the most important and that it has to be addresses first, and then to plan the surroundings and also that Slavija was to be envisioned as a whole and not to be fixed partially, because sum of the parts does not make a whole. Some of the projects were quite over-ambitious and exotic:
1992 – Projects for the construction on the location of the Mitićeva Rupa.
2004 – Project envisioned a monument to the "modern Serbia" instead of the monument to Dimitrije Tucović. New monument was to be a cylindrical glass construction of the same height as the neighboring hotel "Slavija". Inside the construction a panoramic elevator was predicted which would reach the lookout at the top. Lyrics of the "Himna slobode" (Hymn to the Liberty) were planned to be written on the inside walls of the glass monument. City even provided the funds for the project, but the project was ultimately rejected, with the official explanation that the public was against it.
2005 – Architects Tamara Petrović & Miloš Komlenić; central part of the roundabout was to be the location of a sun clock. Roofed square in the section in front of the National Bank was planned with commercial area below the roof and an underground passage to the metro.
2006 – Energoprojekt's project envisioned Slavija as the pedestrian zone, while the traffic was to be lowered two floors underground. New symbol of Slavija was planned, a 150 meters tall tower.
2008 – Belgrade's Institute for urbanism rehashed the 2005 project, but mostly concentrated on the traffic. Instead of reconstructing the entire square, the Institute adopted a plan to do it block by block. Project also included the construction of two commercial 8-stories buildings, shopping mall and an entrance to the underground garage and a future metro station, on the location of the former cinema Slavija. In front of the National Bank a shallow pool with a sculpture in it was projected and the green zone around it. The fountain would "react" to the emotions of the pedestrians through the special sensors.
2012 – Project envisioned the transfer of the pedestrian traffic in the network of tunnels, in an effort to quicken the car traffic on the ground level. Trolleybuses and trams were to be relocated to the rim of the roundabout. Plan also has foreseen the removal of the remains of Dimitrije Tucović and construction of the large fountain instead, covering the entire island within the roundabout.
2016–2018 reconstruction
After the political changes in the city government in 2013, new city authorities decided to adopt the 2012 project, with some changes. They abandoned the idea of the underground pedestrian passages and instead plan to displace the existing zebra crossings 50 to 100 meters further from the roundabout. They kept the fountain on the central island of the roundabout which was to be a musical fountain with a diameter of 32 meters and the water jets 16 meters high.
Criticism from the architects was directed to the fact that transportation solutions will not speed up the traffic flow, the needlessness of the fountain on such a place, and that, in general, new city government removed from the project the best parts and kept the worst. Traffic experts pointed out that the displacement of the pedestrian crossings won't help the traffic and that it will be less safe for the pedestrians themselves. Also, as Belgrade is known for its strong winds, the water from such a high jet streams would constantly wet the pavement of the square. City government replied that the fountain will have wind sensors. Architect Dragoljub Bakić said that both the project, and the execution which followed, are of the "horribly low quality". Actually, the area of the already busy roundabout is reduced by one lane during the reconstruction.
Fountain
Construction of the fountain began on 3 December 2016. As a response to the constant criticism about the fountain, including that it will be completely surrounded by some of the busiest traffic in the city, thus inaccessible to the pedestrians, and a price which is, for the Serbian economic conditions deemed way to high for such a construction (214 million dinars or some 1.75 million euros), Belgrade's city manager Goran Vesić stated that those who do not like the musical fountain don't have to listen to it. On 13 November 2016 the bust of Dimitrije Tucović was removed and on 15 December 2016 his remains were reinterred into the Alley of the Greats in Belgrade's New Cemetery. Surviving members of Tucović family weren't present, while their wishes to bury Tucović in his home village of Gostilje and to relocate the bust to the town of Užice were ignored. A smaller version of Tucović bust was placed at his tomb.
In March 2017, the city's Transportation Secretariat sent a memo in which warned that the project is not adjusted for such a major traffic section. The secretariat warned that the planned dispersion of the water will make the roads wet and slippery in summer and create ice in winter, as it is supposed to work throughout the year, thanks to the special heaters. They concluded that the fountain projected that way is not suitable for the highly frequent roundabout but rather for the parks and open green areas and that it can endanger the traffic. Ban on further construction was suggested if the inadequacies are not fixed. The solution turned out to be a changed direction of the sprinklers, 74 out of 458, within the fountain.
Lit with 400 spotlights, the fountain was opened on 6 June 2017, after a month of delay, and at the final cost of 254 million dinars (2,06 million euros), with taxes. The traffic policemen who manage the traffic on Slavija now wear the traditional white uniforms. As the fountain is unreachable, Vesić stated that the new park, across the fountain, will be a place where the "citizens will gather, watch at the fountain and take photos of it".
Experts' criticism of the fountain continued. During the trials in the days before it was officially opened, music was played all day (after the opening it is several hours before noon and several in the evening) and was indeed too loud - it was heard several blocks away. Local residents called both the communal inspection and the communal police, but they both declared themselves incompetent. Milan Vujanić, professor at the University of Belgrade's Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, asserted that the fountain is still a safety risk. Architect Borislav Stojkov, who devised the 1979 urbanistic plan for Slavija, called it a "kitsch-parade", waste of money and "Potemkin village in the center of Belgrade". Architectural theorist and member of the Serbian Academy of Architecture Slobodan "Giša" Bogunović described it as the "rosemary on the lapel of the ragged suit", "illiterate pleasing to the taste of politicians and ignorant councilors" and "water well that swallowed lot of money". Author and critic Milan Vlajčić called it an "insult for Belgrade", a "Chinese rattle" and a "nonsense". Bakić called it an "eyesore" and "watering trough".
Politicians, on the other hand, praised the project. Vesić dismissed all criticism calling it "political" and that after only three days, the fountain became the "symbol of Belgrade". Minister of Construction, Transport and Infrastructure, Zorana Mihajlović, stated that to her, Slavija is more beautiful with the fountain. President of Serbia Aleksandar Vučić, who in terms of administration or jurisdiction has nothing to do with the fountain, defended the project saying that he can't give an answer to "those who complain that they have no access to the fountain...what did they expect, that they will be able to wash their feet in it" and to "people who hate the entire world". Vučić added that those who criticize the fountain actually can't forgive him "because he participated in three strongest, most compelling victories in the modern Serbian history", referring to the last three electoral rounds. He asserted that the fountain is among the ten most beautiful ones in Europe. The fountain was damaged in December 2017 when a van, which participated in the three-car collision, hit its outer granite plates, forcing it out of service for a week.
In September 2018, the commission was formed to choose which songs will be played. It was officially named "The Commission for the realization of the artistic work of the fountain on the Slavija Square". With everything that happened during the construction, and things which followed (malfunctioning, wetting the carriageways, shutting down because of the repairs, several car accidents including cars crashing into the fountain damaging it), it has been described as the controversial, "creature" and "jinxed attraction", with dubious effect on traffic safety in the square. Occasional crashes into the fountain continued in 2019 and 2021.
Controversies continued around the COVID-19 pandemic, mostly because of deputy mayor Vesić. He announced the fountain would play "patriotic" songs for the Statehood Day on 15 February. Part of the cultural establishment called it unacceptable, opposed to the meaning of the holiday and political campaigning. Though the idea wasn't publicly dropped, the fountain remained silent on holiday. Vesić ordered for the fountain and several other city landmarks to be lit in the lights of the German flag, supporting Germany in fighting the outbreak, on the eve of 6 April, anniversary of the vicious 1941 German bombing of Belgrade, which killed several thousand people and destroyed up to 25% of the city. This action met with almost unanimous public odium. In order to support Serbian health workers, on 11 April he organized gathering of city communal workers, who parked various vehicles around the fountain during the total pandemic curfew. At the time when citizens already began to support health workers with applause in the evening, early 1-minute long applause, with Vesić's TV statement was labeled magnificent by the government media, while the opposition called it a political campaign.
Roundabout
After the fountain was opened, on 10 June 2017 the first phase of the reconstruction began. It includes the demolition of the smaller, illegally built edifices around Slavija. The latest change in the project includes a small park between the Kralja Milana and Nemanjina streets. The park will be a location of the monument to Dimitrije Tucović, which was removed from the center of the roundabout. The deadline for the reconstruction was 7 November 2017. However, in the summer of 2017, major traffic congestions developed in the wider downtown area as the city began several large reconstructions of important traffic spots. Due to the delays because of the failed tendering and problems with permits, the reconstructions of the Ruzveltova street (which began in May), Bulevar Oslobođenja and Slavija (June), Bore Stankovića (July) Branko's Bridge, Plateau of Milan Mladenović and Beogradska (August) and Glavna in Zemun, all overlapped in August. The summer of 2017 has been named as an example of a good idea with a bad plan, it was nicknamed the "hell summer", while the commuting through the city was described as a "nightmare". Concerning Slavija, there was also a matter of the fountain which was shut down and conserved until the works on the square were finished. Fountain worked only for two and a half months, so questions are asked why the square wasn't finished first, cause now there are additional costs (conservation, etc.) for the already too expensive fountain.
The works on Slavija were awarded to the "Ratko Mitrović" company, which was already criticized for its handling of the 2014 reconstruction of the Vojvode Stepe Street. The situation, described as the "months of collapse" was further aggravated by the temporary strikes of the workers of "Ratko Mitrović" because their salaries were months late and the company didn't pay their social and health insurance. They organized strikes on 13 July and 11 September. It was announced that the company didn't pay the insurance and pension fees for the workers since 2014, which raised question how the city could choose such a company because one of the conditions was that they have no debts to the state. On 13 October 2017, while the excavator was digging a channel on Slavija, a lump of hard material fell from its bucket onto the main water pipe in this part of the city causing it to burst. As a result of the pipe burst, described as a "deluge", the water was ejected in the air and the pond was created in the center of the square, up to deep. The water then spilled over into the ending section of the Kralja Milana street, further complicating the traffic. Though the problem was fixed later that day, the communities on social networks had a field day with the comments and photomontages. They especially made fun of mayor Siniša Mali's comment on a previous incident with the Slavija fountain ("it isn't cracked, it overspills") and his and president Alexander Vučić's pet project Belgrade Waterfront (in Serbian, Beograd na vodi, "Belgrade on the water"). The three most problematic spots were open for traffic simultaneously on 16 November 2017 (Slavija, adjoining Bulevar Oslobođenja, Ruzveltova) even though none of them were fully completed. Citizens noted that not much appears to be changed after such a long reconstructions, while mayor Mali admitted that on Slavija only the pavement was changed.
Soon, the problems appeared, apparently as a result of hasty and low quality work. By January 2018 the granite slabs on the sidewalks and concrete bedding for the tram tracks were cracking, the asphalt concrete with which the streets were paved was denting, while the painted marks and signs were peeling off.
Plateau
The park, promised by the authorities, turned out to be a large concrete-granite plateau. Even though still being under construction, the cracks and deterioration were quite visible by February 2018. City architect Milutin Folić then announced that the plateau will host info-center, public restroom, a mini store and an observation point from which people could watch the fountain. He set the deadline for October 2018. Still, by April 2018 the damages and cracks were widespread and the granite plating of the plateau began to crumble. The city secretariats, contractors and planners all accused each other, blaming the bad project, dumping prices, bad sub-contractors, etc. The same contractor, "MBA MIljković" has been previously hired by the city several times and each time there were problems (Vojvode Stepe Street, Ruzveltova Street), but city continued to hire them "because they always had the lowest price". City ordered them to fix the problems by May or the penalties will be collected.
The repair of the still unfinished plateau began on 18 April 2018, with deadline set to mid-May. As works barely progressed, city extended the deadline until early August. The construction on Slavija has been jokingly named "The Building of Slavija", after epic poem The Building of Skadar in which the construction of a fortress was hampered by a vengeful fairy who destroyed by night everything the workers would build by day. The deadline was then prolonged again, to 31 August. On 1 September, works officially ended and the drinking fountain has been placed, with journalists noting that no one will probably ever be blamed or punished for such a sloppy work. It turned out that not everything was completed even though the workers left on the deadline date, which prompted the mayor Zoran Radojičić to state how he is "disappointed because not everything was finished", while the arrangement of the plateau extended further. By November 2018 it was evident that the plateau was cracking all over again and was still being occasionally repaired. Allegedly, it was because of the trams passing by, even though city administration plans to conduct new tram tracks around the plateau. Over the cracked concrete, the decking began, but the deck started deteriorating and cracking right away, even before the placing of it was finished.
The bust of Tucović was returned to the square on 16 October 2018, but placed on the new pedestal built on the plateau, close to the building of the National Bank. In July 2019, ten months after the official completion of the works, city administration admitted there are damages, though it was obvious before (cracks, including some quite long ad deep, especially on the cascade part of the plateau, sitting areas cracked and crumbled, broken slabs all over, neglected and out of order drinking fountain). City summoned the contractors who defended themselves claiming that city added additional jobs to then so they couldn't do the previously accepted jobs properly, but also blamed a weather. City, on the other hand, also accused occasional skaters of breaking the slabs. City ordered the contractors to fix the plateau until December 2019, when the warranty expires, or the city will activate the collateral.
The elevated part of the plateau, in one of the corners, was envisioned as the location of the Belgrade Tourist Organization office, public restroom and a kiosk. As of July 2019, nothing has been built. Due to the lack of any maintenance, the decorative decking deteriorated by 2023, but city accused citizens using skateboards and bicycles. In general, the plateau never became a gathering point of citizens as intended, due to the lack of practicality in design and lack of greenery.
21st century
In November 2021 city announced the project for the block between the square's plateau and the Manjež park, in the northwest direction. It included construction of three buildings, 13-storey building at the square, 14-storey building across the park, and 6-storey building which would connect two residential towers. The connecting building was to have a green roof, with park cultivated on it. Central section of the block, parallel to the outer Kralja Milana and Nemanjina streets, was to include green, pedestrian passage which would directly connect the square and Manjež. Project, drafted by Anđela Karabašević Sudžum and Vladislav Sudžum, also included construction of additional floors on the old, already existing buildings in the area.
When the developer, Maison Royal company, asked for of total floor area above the ground (plus below), instead of the projected envisioned by the competition, the Sudžums withdrew deeming it inappropriate for this location. The developer itself is controversial. Partially owned by the former footballer Dejan Stanković, it is known for the corruptive deals with city officials, and illegal, or after the fact permitted constructions. Demolition of the block began on 17 August 2023.
The area was partially placed under preliminary protection as potential cultural monument. but the preliminary protection expired on 25 December 2020, the protection was not confirmed, and the demolition was allowed. Demolished buildings include the Old Citizens Savings Bank from the 19th century (at the corner of Svetozara Markovića and Kralja Milana streets), Citizens Savings Bank (1929, by Stevan Tobolar; 43 Svetozara Markovića), and 1927 building by Milan Zloković at No. 47. All buildings have individual architectural values but are not protected.
Administration
Slavija is today divided between the municipalities of Vračar and Savski Venac. Savski Venac's section was within the local community of West Vračar, while Vračar's section was organized as the local community of Slavija with the population of 4,608 in 1981 and 4,281 in 1991. That local community was later annexed to Cvetni Trg (total population of 25,759 in 2002), but municipality of Vračar later abolished local communities altogether.
Traffic importance
Slavija was projected as the final square in a succession of squares around Belgrade's central route from Kalemegdan to Englezovac: Studentski Trg-Trg Republike-Terazije-Cvetni Trg-Slavija. In time, Studentski Trg and Terazije lost their square functions, becoming streets, while Cvetni Trg, with final changes in early 2000s, is completely defunct as a traffic object, so Slavija and Trg Republike remain as the rare true squares in downtown Belgrade.
Today, it is one of the most vibrant traffic objects in Belgrade, being one of the major squares of Belgrade. It is one of the rare traffic routes in the city where all three types of public transportation (buses, trolleybuses and trams) meet. Due to the general inadequacy of the city's transportation, traffic jams are regular on the square and especially hard if helped by some additional reason (bad weather, snow, especially the 2006 reconstruction of the Autokomanda interchange, etc.).
The transportation importance of the square can be seen as it branches into the eight streets:
Boulevard of Liberation, which goes up and down the Vračar hill and connects it to Autokomanda and the highway;
Svetog Save, which also goes up the Vračar hill and ends up at the Temple of Saint Sava;
Makenzijeva, which also through Vračar connects it to the neighborhood of Čubura;
Prote Mateje, which connects it to the Belgrade's longest street, Boulevard of the King Alexander;
Beogradska, which also connects it to the Boulevard of the King Alexander, and the neighborhood of Tašmajdan and further to Palilula;
Kralja Milana, the main street of Belgrade, going through downtown (Terazije) and further to the Square of the Republic and Kalemegdan;
Nemanjina, which connects it to the main railway and bus stations and the bank of the Sava river;
Deligradska, which connects it to the vast complex of the Clinical Center of Serbia;
Over 70,000 pedestrians and 140,000 vehicles pass through Slavija daily.
After the prolonged 2016-2018 reconstruction, the roundabout was further narrowed to make room for the central fountain while nothing to fix any traffic problems was done. After the Republic Square reconstruction in 2019, without any announced plans, and due to the botched works on the square and city administration's wish to turn the entire downtown into the pedestrian zone, lines of public transportation across the Slavija were partially shortened, making Slavija the terminus (trolleybuses 21 and 22), or were completely abolished (trolleybus 19). Thousands of commuters were then forced to use the square as a transfer station for further commuting to downtown, with additional bus line 22A being introduced as trolleybuses replacement, further polluting already highly polluted city.
This caused instant traffic jams in Slavija, already burdened by the massive traffic. Already crowded, the remaining lines became almost useless during the rush hours as they were constantly overcrowded, while pedestrian part of the square became a "race track" for the commuters who have to run to make a transfer as neither the timetable nor the location of the stations were synchronized. It was pointed out that after the reconstruction the traffic worked "somehow", but that after latest changes it collapsed completely. City authorities stated they acted after "serious analyses and talks" and upon wishes of the citizens. Asked to make public those analyses and explain when and how the citizens were interviewed about such major changes, administration refused to disclose any documents.
Architecture
Due to numerous and constant changes in the architectural structure of the urban tissue surrounding the square, Slavija became a synonym for an architecturally ugly and devastated area and the source of one of the most popular urban legends in Belgrade: the curse of the Mitićeva rupa ("Mitić's hole").
Mitićeva rupa
In the 19th century, the "Rudničanin" kafana was located at the modern corner of Beogradska and Kralja Milana streets. In decades before the opening of the Belgrade Main railway station in 1884, the venue was one of the major transloading and packaging spots in Belgrade. It had a vast yard, which also included stables and quarters for merchants and bullockies, where the goods and food arriving from the interior were stored and repackaged for the city markets. The complex survived until the 1920s.
In 1935, one of the richest people in Belgrade before World War II, Vlada Mitić, bought the lot to build the largest department store in the Balkans, but the outbreak of the war halted the realization, though the foundations were dug. The project was to be the third twin of the Palace Albanija, the tallest building and the first skyscraper in Belgrade and in the Balkans at the time. The future store was tentatively named "Mitić Warehouse" or "Mitić Tower", and was planned to be even taller than Albanija itself, with the height of .
After the war, Communist government imprisoned Vlada Mitić and confiscated his entire property, including the lot on Slavija, on the corner of the Kralja Milana and Beogradska streets, and money prepared for the construction of the department store. From 1946 to 1980 26 different project were completed for the lot, but none was realized. Then mayor of Belgrade, Bogdan Bogdanović decided to put a large sundial in the place in the first half of the 1980s. In the early 1990s, Dafiment banka, one of the major Ponzi schemes of the Milošević's regime, bought the lot and announced a monumental shopping mall, but after the scheme failed completely, the lot was fenced and turned into the dump . After the regime change in 2000, the area was cleaned and a temporary park with children playground was built instead. The failed projects continued, including the ultra-modern, gigantic shopping mall by the Israeli investors which turned out to be a complete hoax. All of this was more than enough for people to consider the "hole" a cursed place. The park was renovated from April to July 2017.
The entire lot covers and by 2021, one third was returned to the pre-World War II owners in the restitution process. In March 2021 it was announced that the private owners sold their parcels to the Czech developer "Sebre", which already purchased properties of Marina Dorćol and Avala Grad. According to the 2005 project of the square, which served as the basis for the development of the area, a massive commercial and residential building is planned. Citizens reacted by organizing a petition for the park to remain instead. Despite two thirds of the area are not held by the "Sebre", and the project was still unknown, deputy mayor Goran Vesić in May 2021 announced that the Czech company will build "a magnificent building", with triumphal arch.
In 2021, the Do not let Belgrade drown organized a petition "For park in Slavija", to turn the area into the permanent, proper park. In October 2022, it was proposed that the park should be named the Dušan Jovanović Park, after a 13-year Romani boy beaten to death in 1997 by the skinheads in the vicinity of Mitićeva Rupa.
Cinema Slavija
Built in 1888, the residence of Francis Mackenzie became known as the "Peace Salon" after it was ceremonially opened in 1889. Next to it, a pharmacist Kosta Nikolić built a one-storey house which became a well-known pharmacy, so as the several smaller buildings around it with shops, including the tinsmith Anton Šuster. The Serbian Social Democratic Party purchased the edifice in 1910, turning it into the center of the burgeoning worker's movement. In the early 1930s the venue was transformed into the inn.
After World War II, new authorities nationalized everything and turned former Mackenzie's residence into the "Slavija" cinema, occupying area between the Beogradska and Prote Mateje streets. For decades one of the symbols of Belgrade, the cinema was demolished in 1991, but like the Mitić's hole, none of the projects for construction on this site have been realized, though the official reason for the demolition of the entire quarter, including the former Nikolić's complex, was the construction of the new Beobanka building. Not knowing what to do with the empty lot, city government turned it into the temporary parking lot. As of 2020, the area is still a parking and the land is in the process of restitution to the descendants of its pre-nationalization owners. One of the nationalized parcels, owned by the medical doctor and radiologist Aleksandar Marković (1878-1961), which covers , was returned to his descendants in October 2020. Majority of the modern parking lot is located on it.
Slavija hotels
There are three Slavija hotels on the square:
Slavija I, between the Makenzijeva and Svetog Save streets, right on the square;
Slavija II, also between those two streets but behind the Slavija I (to which it makes one complex), further from the square;
Slavija Lux, across the old hotels, between the street of Svetog Save and the Boulevard of the Liberation;
The old hotel Slavija from 1962, in the manner of the International style is today viewed by the Belgraders as an obsolete and ugly building, with its hospital-like look, especially compared to the modern marble and glass Slavija Lux which perfectly fits into the buildings behind it. Inside the hotel is elaborately decked out with wooden panelling on most surfaces in the rooms. It features a Casino and large dining room. The hotel was never fully renovated and still operates, though not using all rooms.
The hotel was opened in 1962 before the 7th European Athletics Championships. The oldest section, Slavija I, also known as Kula ("Tower"), has 17 floors. Slavija II was added in 1973, serving as the dependency of Slavija I. Slavija Lux, built in only 6 months in 1989, was opened for the 9th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement. Altogether, there are 600 rooms in all three buildings.
National Bank of Serbia
Construction of the new building of the National Bank of Serbia also began in the early 1990s. It is located a little bit further from the square itself, but due to its size it is visible from many parts of Belgrade. Money problems caused a decade and a half of delays. A massive construction was deemed ugly and inappropriate for the location by many Belgraders and in 1994 the then governor of the bank, Dragoslav Avramović, stated that he would not move into the new building even if it were completed on time. The massive glass building was finished in 2006.
References
External links
City of Belgrade
Neighborhoods of Belgrade
Squares in Belgrade
Vračar
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20and%20South%20%28miniseries%29
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North and South (miniseries)
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North and South is the title of three American television miniseries broadcast on the ABC network in 1985, 1986, and 1994. Set before, during, and immediately after the American Civil War, they are based on the 1980s trilogy of novels North and South by John Jakes. The 1985 first installment, North and South, remains the seventh-highest rated miniseries in TV history. North and South: Book II (1986) was met with similar success, while 1994's Heaven and Hell: North and South Book III was poorly received by both critics and audiences.
The saga tells the story of the enduring friendship between Orry Main of South Carolina (Patrick Swayze) and George Hazard of Pennsylvania (James Read), who become best friends while attending the United States Military Academy at West Point but later find themselves and their families on opposite sides of the war. The slave-owning Mains are rural planters from outside Charleston, South Carolina, while the Hazards, who reside in a small Pennsylvania mill town, profit from ownership of iron manufacturing and industry capital, their differences reflecting the divisions between North and South that eventually led to the Civil War.
Cast
The initial 1985 miniseries cast Patrick Swayze as Orry Main and James Read as George Hazard with Lesley-Anne Down as Orry's love interest Madeline and Wendy Kilbourne as George's future wife Constance. Kirstie Alley played George's outspoken abolitionist sister Virgilia, with Genie Francis as Orry's "good" sister Brett and Terri Garber as his selfish and wicked sister Ashton, as well as Philip Casnoff as Elkanah Bent, George and Orry's nemesis. All of these actors returned for the 1986 sequel, and the roles of George's brother Billy Hazard and sister-in-law Isabel Hazard were recast with Parker Stevenson and Mary Crosby.
North and South (1985) also featured many well-known actors as guest stars, including Elizabeth Taylor as bordello proprietor Madam Conti, David Carradine as the sadistic Justin LaMotte, Hal Holbrook as U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, Gene Kelly as Bent's father Senator Charles Edwards, Robert Mitchum as Colonel Patrick Flynn, M.D., Johnny Cash as abolitionist John Brown, Jean Simmons as Orry's mother Clarissa Main, Mitchell Ryan as Orry's father Tillet Main, John Anderson as George's father William Hazard, Jonathan Frakes as George's older brother Stanley Hazard, Inga Swenson as George's mother Maude Hazard, Robert Guillaume as abolitionist Frederick Douglass, Morgan Fairchild as Burdetta Halloran, David Ogden Stiers as Representative Sam Greene, and Olivia Cole as Madeline's devoted but doomed servant Maum Sally. John Jakes' wife Rachel also made an appearance in Episode 6 as Lincoln's wife Mary. North and South: Book II (1986) saw the return of Carradine as LaMotte, Holbrook as Lincoln, and Stiers as Greene, as well as new guests Lloyd Bridges as Confederate President Jefferson Davis, Anthony Zerbe as Ulysses S. Grant, Nancy Marchand as Dorothea Dix, James Stewart as Miles Colbert, Wayne Newton as Captain Thomas Turner, and William Schallert as Robert E. Lee, with Linda Evans as Rose Sinclair and Olivia de Havilland as Mrs. Neal. 1994's Heaven and Hell featured Peter O'Toole as "louche actor" Sam Trump and Billy Dee Williams as Francis Cardozo.
Filming of the miniseries resulted in four marriages among the cast and crew. Read and Kilbourne, who played opposite each other, married in 1988 and now have two children. Frakes and Francis, who had previously played opposite each other on the failed NBC soap Bare Essence, also married in 1988. Lesley-Anne Down married assistant cameraman Don E. FauntLeRoy in 1986. They met during filming of Book I when both were married to other people, and eventually obtained divorces. Garber married screenwriter Chris Hager, whom she met in 1985 when he worked as a grip on the set of North and South: Book II. They had a daughter, Molly, in 1986, and later divorced.
Crew
North and South (1985) was directed by Richard T. Heffron, from a script adaptation by Patricia Green, Douglas Heyes, Paul F. Edwards, and Kathleen A. Shelley. It was produced by David L. Wolper, Paul Freeman, Rob Harland, and Chuck McLain, with music by Bill Conti and Stevan Larner as cinematographer. Wolper also produced 1986's North and South: Book II with his son Mark Wolper, as well as Stephanie Austin and Robert Papazian. Conti returned as composer, with Kevin Connor directing, Jacques R. Marquette as cinematographer, and a script by Heyes and Richard Fielder. Heaven and Hell: North and South Book III (1994) was directed by Larry Peerce from a script by Suzanne Clauser. Hal Galli produced the miniseries, with music by David Bell and Don E. FauntLeRoy as cinematographer.
Plot
Book I: North and South
Episode 1 (summer 1842 – summer 1844) – Young Southerner Orry Main, the second born son of a wealthy South Carolina plantation owner, decides to go to West Point. On his way to the train station, he rescues and falls in love with the beautiful French-Creole southern belle from New Orleans, Madeline Fabray. In New York City, Orry meets Northerner George Hazard, the second son of a wealthy Pennsylvania steel-factory owner, who is also on his way to West Point. They quickly become close friends. At the Academy, they meet classmates George Pickett, George McClellan, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson and a senior student named Ulysses Grant. They also meet the amoral egomaniac Elkanah Bent, a fellow cadet from Georgia. Bent is a handsome, smooth-talking man who hides his evil, twisted nature beneath his charm and good looks. He takes an instant dislike to Orry and George and uses his status as their drillmaster to constantly harass them. Orry constantly writes letters to Madeline, although it seems that she has not been responding to him. After two years of training, the men return home for a summer leave. George's sister, Virgilia, is a passionate abolitionist and immediately takes a dislike to Orry when she finds out that his family keeps slaves. While at home, Orry is devastated to learn that Madeline is marrying his cruel neighbor, plantation owner Justin LaMotte. Orry has an argument with his father over the hiring of the brutal and sadistic Salem Jones as the plantation's overseer. Orry stops Jones from using a bullwhip to "punish" one of the slaves, sparking a tense relationship between the two. After Orry witnesses Madeline's marriage, they privately speak to each other afterwards and find out that Madeline's father has been hiding Orry's letters to ensure that she would marry Justin. That night, Justin hits and rapes Madeline, leaving her broken.
Episode 2 (autumn 1844 – spring 1848) – Bent continues his cruelty toward George, Orry, and their friends. The men, with some help from other cadets, arrange for Bent to be caught with a prostitute and he is forced to leave the Academy. When Bent learns that Orry and George were involved, he vows revenge. George and Orry graduate from West Point two years later. They leave to fight in the Mexican War. During the Battle of Churubusco, Bent, who has blackmailed his father (Bent is an illegitimate son of a US senator) in order to obtain a superior rank, orders George and Orry to lead a suicidal charge against the Mexican forces. Both men survive, but Orry is shot in his left leg and permanently crippled. Meanwhile, George meets Constance Flynn, the Irish Catholic daughter of an Army surgeon, and falls in love. They plan to marry. Orry drowns his sorrows in alcoholism. With the Mexican War over, George quits the army, finds Bent, and beats him, threatening to kill him if he ever tries to harm him or Orry again. Traumatized by his injuries, Orry temporarily becomes a recluse. When Madeline helps Priam, one of Orry's slaves, escape, one of the other slaves gets whipped for helping Priam.
Episode 3 (spring 1848 – summer 1854) George marries Constance and Orry is his best man. Orry and Madeline become secret lovers. A terrible fire erupts at Hazard Iron and kills many of the workers due to George's older brother, Stanley, making a greedy decision. All authority over Hazard Iron is handed to George, greatly displeasing Stanley and his wife, Isabel. Orry's father dies five years later, leaving Orry to inherit the family plantation. His first act is to fire the brutal Salem Jones as overseer. Jones vows revenge. Orry's cousin Charles, who does not have good relations with the Main family, is challenged to a pistol duel in a dispute over an engaged woman. Orry, as Charles' second, begrudgingly helps Charles to survive the duel and they become close. The Mains visit the Hazards in Pennsylvania. Billy and Charles plan to attend West Point together, just as Orry and George did. Orry's sister Ashton purposely courts George's younger brother Billy, whom Brett has come to fancy. Orry and George begin a partnership cotton mill at Orry's plantation in South Carolina; they do so on George's condition that Orry not use slave labor in the mill. Virgilia is furious that her family has allowed slave owners into their house and tries to humiliate them, angering the rest of her family.
Episode 4 (summer 1854 – autumn 1856) – The Hazards visit the Mains in South Carolina. Billy discovers how selfish and seductive Ashton can be and falls in love with Ashton's younger and kinder sister, Brett, much to Ashton's jealousy. George's sister Virgilia enters a passionate relationship with Grady, the proud and aggressive coachman of James Huntoon, an ambitious but easily manipulated South Carolina politician, who is also a strong suitor of Ashton, and helps Grady escape from slavery. Ashton, however, becomes aware of Virgilia's involvement and informs James, as well as announcing it in the Hazard family's presence. On his deathbed, Madeline's father tells her that her maternal great-grandmother was black. Billy and Charles graduate from West Point, and both families attend the graduation. Ashton sleeps with many of Billy's friends, still bitter over his rejection and attraction to Brett, which Charles is furious to discover, but keeps secret for the family's sake. Ashton gets pregnant and begs Madeline for help, who takes her to a local midwife to perform a secret abortion. When Madeline lies to Justin about where she was when she was away helping Ashton, he beats Madeline, locks her in a spare bedroom to starve, and kills Maum Sally for trying to help Madeline escape.
Episode 5 (spring 1857 – November 1860) – Madeline is drugged by Justin into becoming robotic and submissive and disappears from society, even forgetting her love for Orry. Ashton marries James Huntoon, though she doesn't plan on being a committed wife. Elkanah Bent befriends James Huntoon, and subtly interrogates him at a brothel about the people in his wedding picture, including Orry, Ashton, and Madeline. Bent recognizes the resemblance between Madeline and the painting of a former popular prostitute that worked there. Orry visits George, but Virgilia's views cause a serious argument to ensue over the issue of slavery. Orry does not want Brett to marry Billy because of the growing tensions between the North and South. Virgilia and Grady both join abolitionist leader John Brown. In 1859, Brown makes his famous raid on Harper's Ferry, Virginia, to arm and free the slaves there. The U.S. Army stops the raid, Virgilia's husband Grady and Priam are killed, and Brown is captured. Virgilia escapes, but is more bitter than ever towards Southerners. Abraham Lincoln is elected president; several Southern states make plans to secede from the U.S. and establish themselves as a separate nation.
Episode 6 (November 6, 1860 – April 1861) – Having argued with Orry, now a bitter drunk, Brett has fled to Ashton's house in Charleston and runs into Billy, who is stationed at Fort Sumter. Ashton, however, still holds a grudge against Billy and conspires with Justin's nephew and her lover, Forbes LaMotte, to harm them both. George visits Orry and the two apologize to each other after years of estrangement. Orry gives Brett his blessing to marry Billy. South Carolina secedes from the Union, infuriating Orry. Ashton schemes to have Billy killed, partly out of jealousy, and partly because Billy is now a "Yankee" enemy in the eyes of the South. She fails, however, due to a drugged Madeline, who overhears Justin and Forbes discussing it. Her memories come back and she runs to inform Orry after slashing Justin's left eye with a sword, blinding and scarring him in the process. After stopping Billy and Brett on their way to the train station, Forbes provokes Billy into a rigged pistol duel, which turns into a full-fledged fight after Charles arrives, resulting in Forbes' death. Orry is enraged at Ashton for her part in trying to destroy the new friendship between the two families with the Hazards as in-laws through Billy and disowns her, with her vowing revenge, seeing Orry as a traitor to the new Confederacy because of his friendship with the "Yankee" Hazards. Justin comes looking for Madeline, as she has taken refuge with Orry at Mont Royal, but is forced to leave with a warning. Now off the drugs and with her memories returned, Madeline plans to divorce Justin and marry Orry. Orry visits the Hazard mansion near Philadelphia to give George his part of their cotton mill money. When he arrives, Orry discovers that George and Constance now have a baby girl named Hope. Virgilia finds out that Orry is present and tries to have him killed by forming a lynch mob which threatens the Hazard estate; the mob's leaders demand that George hand Orry over to them, leaving little doubt that their intentions are to kill him. George and Orry face off against the mob with shotguns and manage to drive them off. In the aftermath, Virgilia, feeling her family will never truly understand who she really is, leaves the Hazard mansion, despite Constance's pleas for her to stay. Orry boards a train to return to South Carolina. The two friends part, unsure if they will ever see each other again. The Civil War begins.
Book II: Love and War
Episode 1 (June 1861 – July 21, 1861) – Orry and Charles, now officers in the Confederate Army, leave the Main family plantation for the war in Virginia. Orry, despite having been against secession, becomes a general and military aide to Confederate President Jefferson Davis in the Confederate capital of Richmond. Meanwhile, George and Billy are in Washington, D.C., where they are officers in the U.S. Army. Billy joins the U.S. Sharpshooters regiment, while George becomes a military aide to U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. Charles, a Confederate cavalry officer, meets Augusta Barclay, a Virginia belle who smuggles medicine for the southern soldiers. Virgilia wants to work as a nurse at a Washington, D.C. military hospital and asks Congressman Sam Greene, a fellow abolitionist, for help. Orry's cruel and manipulative sister Ashton meets her match in Elkanah Bent, who sees the Civil War as a great way to get rich by smuggling forbidden luxury goods through the U.S. Navy blockade of the South. Bent and Ashton quickly become lovers, while Ashton's politician husband, James Huntoon, is unaware of his wife's adultery. With Orry and Charles gone to war, Justin kidnaps Madeline from the Main family plantation and burns the cotton barn; Orry's mother is injured trying to stop the fire. The First Battle of Bull Run takes place with George and Constance getting caught up in the panicked aftermath as they reluctantly watch from a distance. The South is the winner.
Episode 2 (July 1861 – summer 1862) – Hearing about her mother's injury, Brett and one of the Main household servants, Semiramis, make the dangerous trip from Washington, D.C. to the Main plantation in South Carolina. Along the way, Semiramis is captured by Union soldiers, but rescued by Brett. Orry leaves Richmond and returns to South Carolina as well; he finds Madeline at Justin's plantation and kills Justin in a fight. Orry and Madeline finally get married. Orry discovers Bent's illegal smuggling enterprise and stops it by capturing Bent's blockade runners, arresting his men, and destroying most of his merchandise. Bent and Ashton vow revenge. Meanwhile, in Pennsylvania, George's older brother Stanley takes over the family's steel factories. His greedy wife Isabel talks him into profiteering from the war by using cheap, low-grade iron to make cannons for the U.S. Army; the cannons often explode and kill Northern soldiers. They forge George's name on the documents, in case the cannons are traced back to Hazard Iron.
Episode 3 (September 17, 1862 – spring 1864) – At the bloody battle of Antietam, Charles and Billy nearly kill each other, but each allows the other to escape. Charles's friend Ambrose is killed in the battle by one of the poor-quality cannons made by Hazard Iron after the Confederates capture it to turn on the Union forces, unaware of the sabotage. Afterwards, President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation frees the slaves in the rebel Southern states. Most of the slaves leave the Main plantation in South Carolina, but Ezra and Semiramis decide to remain until they decide how to move forward with their newfound freedom. Ashton visits her family's plantation, supposedly to see her recovering mother and sister Brett, but in reality to carry out Bent's revenge against Orry. Ashton tells Madeline that she knows that Madeline's mother was a high-priced, part-black prostitute in New Orleans, and that, unless Madeline leaves Orry with no explanation, she will reveal this secret and ruin Orry's public reputation. Madeline flees to Charleston where she is befriended by a suave gambler Rafe Baudeen and begins working for the city's poor and orphans who are suffering from the war. Following the Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg, Billy, sick of not having seen his wife Brett for nearly two years, goes AWOL from the U.S. Army and makes his way to South Carolina, where he and Brett spend some time together. Ashton discovers Billy's presence and goes to tell the local authorities, but Billy is saved when Brett threatens her sister with a pitchfork long enough for Billy to escape.
Episode 4 (May 1864 – late autumn 1864) – When Billy returns to his regiment, his commanding officer threatens to court-martial and execute him if he ever leaves again. Billy is also placed in harm's way by being put in charge of the regiment's skirmishers. George, now a general, is captured in a raid by Southern forces and taken to the dreaded Libby Prison in Richmond, where he is tortured by Captain Turner, the prison's psychotic commandant. Orry is shot and taken to the hospital where Virgilia works; despite her hatred of Southerners, she helps him recover and looks the other way, allowing him to escape. Later, Virgilia is accused of allowing a wounded Southern soldier to die and is fired from the hospital. In a fit of rage, Virgilia pushes the elderly chief nurse Mrs. Neal, causing her to lose her balance and tumble to the floor. Believing Mrs. Neal to be dead, Virgilia panics and flees the hospital. Desperate for money and a hiding place, she goes to Congressman Greene for help. He gives her money and protection in exchange for sex. Charles saves Augusta from being raped by Northern soldiers at her farm in Virginia, and the two become lovers.
Episode 5 (December 1864 – February 1865) – The war has turned against the South. Orry and Charles save George from Libby Prison, kill Turner in a fight, and allow George to return to the North. Madeline helps starving people in Charleston. Returning home, George learns of his brother and sister-in-law's illegal business schemes to use cheap iron to build cannon, and forces Stanley and Isabel to admit guilt. While Isabel remains defiant and spiteful, Stanley expresses remorse to George and vows to atone for his crimes. Bent tries to kill Madeline in Charleston, but she is rescued by her gambler friend Rafe, who saves Madeline but is fatally shot by Bent. Bent enlists James Huntoon for help in his plot to overthrow the Confederate government. Although he is still oblivious to Bent's and Ashton's affair, Huntoon acts as a double agent gathering intelligence on the planned coup d'état and reporting the activities to Jefferson Davis. The Confederate President orders Orry to squash the planned revolution and capture Bent for treason. In a final fight, Orry and Huntoon attack Bent's hideout near Richmond. Bent is (apparently) killed when the ammunition he was hiding in a barn explodes after it is accidentally set ablaze by Huntoon and Ashton. In a moment of shock and clarity after witnessing the destruction of Bent's munitions and possibly him as well, Ashton confesses her affair to James, conspiring to have Billy killed, her past abortion, and tells Orry that she helped Bent drive Madeline away. Orry once more disowns Ashton in fury for her secrets and actions against both the Main and Hazard families, and tells Huntoon that he never wants to see his sister again, considering her dead to him now. Ashton begs Huntoon's forgiveness, but he tells her that it is too late, hinting that he, also in anger and disappointment for her betrayal of their marriage, plans to divorce her as punishment for her actions.
Episode 6 (March 1865 – April 1865) – The fighting ends with a Northern victory. Orry and George lead troops against each other in the last major battle at Petersburg; Orry is wounded while trying to fight off Union troops as they overrun his position. Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrenders the Army of Northern Virginia to U.S. Army General Ulysses Grant and the Army of the Potomac, negotiating the terms of surrender at Appomattox. With the war over, Charles goes to Augusta's farm and finds that she has died giving birth to his child, a son. He goes to Charleston and gets his child from Augusta's uncle's wife. Billy also quits the army and reunites with Brett at her family's plantation. Congressman Greene ends his affair with Virgilia, which he thinks detrimental to his political career. Virgilia learns that Greene had been lying to her about the seriousness of the charges and using Virgilia's dependence for his own gratification; she murders the congressman and is sentenced to death by hanging. She and George have a tearful farewell before her execution. George learns that Orry is wounded and searches for him, finally finding him in a Union hospital. Their reunion is spoiled when both learn that President Lincoln has been shot. George helps Orry find Madeline, who reveals that Orry is now the father of their son. Orry, Madeline, their baby, and George all set out for the Main plantation. Salem Jones, the cruel former overseer of the Main plantation, joins with one of the Mains' former slaves, Cuffey, in an attack on the Main plantation; they burn the mansion before being killed or driven off by Charles, Billy, and Ezra. Orry, George, and Madeline arrive, with the former two helping to fend off the last of the attackers. Οrry's mother is killed in the attack by Cuffey while trying to prevent Semiramis' rape, but Cuffey is shot dead by Charles, while Salem Jones is shot dead by Brett when he is about to shoot Billy. Orry and George pledge to renew their family's friendship, and George agrees to help Orry rebuild his plantation home by reopening the cotton mill and letting Orry take the profits. The two families depart the burned out and collapsed remains of Mont Royal to prepare for the future.
Book III: Heaven and Hell
Episode 1 (summer 1865–autumn 1865) – Elkanah Bent, having survived the explosion of his hidden ammunition depot near Richmond, becomes obsessed with getting his "final revenge" on Orry Main and George Hazard, whom he blames for his failures in life. Bent travels to Richmond and stabs Orry to death. Ashton visits Madeline with the threat of taking back everything of hers that Orry and Madeline took from her, including Mont Royal, but is horrified to learn that Bent killed Orry. When Bent tells her he has no use for her anymore, a furious Ashton tries unsuccessfully to kill him. Heartbroken at Orry's death, Madeline tries to rebuild the Main family mansion at Mont Royal and helps local freed slaves, to the disapproval of most of her white neighbors. After learning of Orry's death, George goes to Mont Royal and helps Madeline. Charles Main, now a corporal in the U.S. Cavalry in the Old West, meets and romances Willa Parker. Ashton begins working as a prostitute in Santa Fe to earn enough money to buy Mont Royal, unaware of its fate. Carrying out the next part of his plan of revenge, Bent goes to the Hazard mansion near Philadelphia and murders George's wife Constance.
Episode 2 (autumn 1865–spring 1866) – Devastated by news of his wife's murder, George begins searching for Bent to exact justice. Cooper Main, Orry's older brother, becomes a member of the Ku Klux Klan and begins working to undermine his sister-in-law Madeline's efforts to help local Blacks. Isabel Hazard, George's greedy sister-in-law, wants to buy Mont Royal and evict the Main family. Charles continues to work as a cavalryman in the Old West, and continues to romance Willa. Realizing that she cannot stand against Cooper and Isabel alone, Madeline asks George for help. Charles helps to form a unit of buffalo soldiers. Cavalrymen massacre a Cheyenne village.
Episode 3 (spring 1866–spring/summer 1866) – George arrives at Mont Royal to help Madeline, and they fall in love. George, with his brother Stanley's help (who has now gone into politics), make Isabel end her plans, and Stanley divorces her, blaming her for all his mistakes. Carrying out the final part of his revenge, Bent kidnaps Charles and Augusta's son Gus. When George learns of this, he goes West and finds Charles. Together the two men rescue Gus, hunt down Bent, and hang him, avenging Orry and Constance. Ashton returns to Mont Royal and weeps when she sees that it has been destroyed. George and Charles return to Mont Royal to help Madeline and the freed slaves defeat the Ku Klux Klan. Cooper takes Madeline during the fight, and George rides after to save her. When Cooper is told by Gettys LaMotte to kill both Madeline and George, he refuses. Gettys kills Cooper, and George kills Gettys. Charles says his goodbyes before returning to Willa and Gus, while George and Madeline plan for their future together.
Awards and nominations
The North and South miniseries were nominated and/or awarded with many different awards around the world, among which the most significant are:
Media
VHS and DVD releases
North and South Books I and II were released on NTSC VHS in the United States. Book III was never released on VHS in the United States. Books I, II and III were released on PAL VHS in Europe.
All three Books were released on Region 1 DVD in October 2004. This release also included a bonus featurette with John Jakes and David Wolper talking about the books and the miniseries; James Read, Lesley-Anne Down, and Patrick Swayze discussing their characters; general thoughts of other cast and crew members; plus information about the historical background and trials of its reconstruction for the miniseries.
The Region 2 DVD release contained only Books I and II at first, but eventually Book III also became available, with the bonus featurette included. All volumes were sold as separate boxes, but later on they were also available in one box.
Soundtrack
A soundtrack CD published by Varèse Sarabande in 1985 (VCD47250) contains tracks from the Bill Conti scores to North and South and The Right Stuff. It includes the following tracks from North and South:
Main Title 3:45
Southern Life 1:38
Love In The Chapel 4:04
A Close Call 2:00
Returning Home 2:13
Last Embrace 2:57
Final Meeting 2:28
The Varèse Sarabande Soundtrack Club released the entire score to North and South (1985) in a four-CD box set on February 25, 2008. The tracks in this set are the original recordings used in the production of the series, with three discs devoted to Conti's score and a fourth to the source music from the series. The entire score to North and South: Book II (1986) was released on October 3, 2008, and includes three CDs. On December 4, 2015, North and South: Highlights, a 76-minute disc featuring selections from the first miniseries score, was released. David Bell scored Heaven and Hell: North and South Book III using Conti's thematic material.
See also
List of films featuring slavery
References
External links
(1985)
(1986)
(1994)
Official DVD Homepage
1985 television films
1985 films
1986 television films
1986 films
1994 television films
1994 films
1980s American television miniseries
American Broadcasting Company original programming
Cultural depictions of Frederick Douglass
Cultural depictions of Robert E. Lee
Cultural depictions of Ulysses S. Grant
Fictional depictions of Abraham Lincoln in film
Fictional depictions of Abraham Lincoln in television
Films based on military novels
Television shows based on American novels
Television series about the American Civil War
Television series by The Wolper Organization
Television series set in the 1840s
Television series set in the 1850s
Television series set in the 1860s
Television shows set in Charleston, South Carolina
Works about women in war
Films directed by Kevin Connor
Mexican–American War films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20cricket%20frog
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Northern cricket frog
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The northern cricket frog (Acris crepitans) is a species of small hylid frog native to the United States and northeastern Mexico. These frogs are majorly in grey, green, and brown color with blotching patterns. Many have a brown or orange stripe down the center of their back and a triangular marking on the top of their head. Despite being members of the tree frog family, they are not arboreal. These frogs prefer habitats near the edges of slow-moving bodies of water, and in close proximity to shelter items, like rocks. It has two recognized subspecies, A. c. crepitans and A. c. paludicola.
Description
The northern cricket frog is one of three smallest vertebrates in North America, ranging from long. Its dorsal coloration varies widely, and includes greys, greens, and browns, often in irregular blotching patterns. The dorsal stripes vary in brightness and hue and are not present until metamorphosis occurs. One New York biologist has identified six distinct color morphs and four pattern morphs, and several intergrades between these. Typically there is dark banding on the legs and a white bar from the eye to the base of the foreleg. The skin has a bumpy texture. It is very similar to the southern cricket frog, Acris gryllus, found in the US Southeastern Coastal Plain, but with some overlap along the Fall Line. The southern cricket frog has longer legs, with less webbing on the hind feet, and a more pointed snout, though northern cricket frogs have been observed with snouts indistinguishable from those of the southern species, and the markings on the back of the thigh are typically more sharply defined than that of the northern cricket frog, though biologists have recorded northern cricket frogs in the northern fringes of their range with extremely sharp posterior leg stripes. Northern cricket frogs do not have toe pads. This frog is active throughout most of the year, with activity significantly decreasing during December and resuming around mid-March.
Habitat and distribution
Cricket frogs prefer the edges of slow-moving, permanent bodies of water. They prefer open, shallow waters with an abundance of aquatic vegetation. Adults live in temperate environments while tadpoles live in shallow freshwater habitats with varying temperatures. Large groups of them can often be found together along the muddy banks of shallow streams, especially during pre-migratory clustering. The northern cricket frog has been observed to hibernate upland, often at considerable distances from water. Given their small size and their large surface to volume ratio, it comes as no surprise that this species utilize microhabitats. There are various factors that influence microhabitat site selection for this species: temperature, proximity to water, shelter accessibility, etc.
Geographic distribution
A. c. crepitans is found from New York, south to Florida, and west along the Gulf Coast states to Texas.
A. c. paludicola occurs in southwestern Louisiana to East Texas.
Conservation
Frogs such as A. crepitans are important as an indicator of wetland health and general environmental quality in the areas they inhabit.
Speciation
The genus Acris is composed of two species: A. crepitans and A. gryllus.
Northern vs. southern cricket frog
The southern cricket frog has longer legs, with less webbing on the hind feet, and a more pointed snout, though northern cricket frogs have been observed with snouts indistinguishable from those of the southern species, and the markings on the back of the thigh are typically more sharply defined than that of the northern cricket frog, though biologists have recorded northern cricket frogs in the northern fringes of their range with extremely sharp posterior leg stripes. Compared to its southern counterpart, A. Crepitans is a stronger swimmer due to having more complete webbing on its feet. Additionally, it is less likely to hop on the water surface than the southern cricket frog. Northern cricket frogs in Mississippi live in open mud flats, call far from shore, and quickly dive into water when disturbed. Southern cricket frogs inhabit low vegetation near shores, call near shore, and escape into vegetation, and quickly return to land when forced into water.
Sub-species
Eastern cricket frog, A. c. crepitans (Baird, 1854)
Coastal cricket frog, A. c. paludicola (Burger, Smith and Smith, 1949)
Diet
The diet of Northern cricket frogs is strongly correlated with what is abundant and available. The most abundant above-ground invertebrates are dipterans, homopterans and spiders. Cricket frogs consume more ground-dwelling prey but such prey account for less volume of food consumed. Bigger frogs consume prey of longer length: less ants, springtails, mites and more leafhoppers, damselflies, butterflies, moths, grasshoppers, crickets. Cricket frogs generally feed little on aquatic species. A study of 279 A. crepitan stomach contents showed that ground prey composed of 45.6% of prey and 20.7% of the stomach volume, above ground prey composed of 33% prey and 38.7% volume, and aquatic prey composed of 3.2% prey and 5.0% volume, with the remaining being unidentified prey and non-prey items.
Mating
Breeding generally occurs from late spring through the summer (May through August). The males call from emergent vegetation with a high-pitched, short, pebble-like call which is repeated at an increasing rate. The sound suggests pebbles being clicked together, much like a cricket, hence the name. These click-like pulses are combined to form calls, and calls are repeated in call groups. Calls increase in the number of pulses and note duration from beginning to end of a call group.
One egg is laid at a time, generally attached to a piece of vegetation. The 14 millimeters (0.55 in) tadpoles hatch in only a few days, and undergo metamorphosis in early fall. Maturity is usually reached in less than a year.
Production of male calls
Almost all male frogs have a unique call with the purpose of attracting mates. These calls are defined by unique acoustic characteristics in order to attract female frogs of the same species. In frogs, auditory sounds are produced as a result of the interaction between the structure of the larynx (otherwise known as the voice box), vocal tract, and cartilages that control the flow of air out of lungs. Sound is produced when air hits the vocal cords, causing them to vibrate. The frequency of sound is dictated by the pressure of airflow through the larynx, as well as characteristics of vocal cords such as size and mass. Movements of various muscles in the throat and abdomen can create a pulsing sound.
Using snout vent length as an indicator of body size, researchers found that a longer snout vent length corresponded to a lower frequency call and lower pulse rate as well as fewer pulses in general. The production of lower frequency sounds can be attributed to the slower movements of larger physiological structures. High frequency calls were observed to have a shorter duration and faster pulse rate. Other findings of this study on Acris crepitans male calling, which perhaps offers insight into frog calling in general, include relationships between physical anatomy and auditory characteristics. A larger middle ear volume corresponded to a longer call duration, and the number of pulses in the calls showed a significant negative relationship with arytenoid cartilage, vocal cord and constrictor muscle volumes. The pulse rate is also correlated with vocal cord, basal cartilage and constrictor muscle volumes, but not with arytenoid cartilage or dilator muscle volumes.
Interestingly, northern cricket frog calls resemble calls of the Bufo genus even though two types of frogs are not closely phylogenetically related. Thus, the vocal mechanisms of the two frogs are assumed to operate the same way.
Variation in male calling
The calls at the beginning of a call group have been found to vary independently of calls from the middle and end of the call group. Researchers have found that nearest neighbor distance, measured through the sound-pressure level of nearby calls, exert the biggest effect on variation in male calling. Additionally, calling behavior significantly changes during aggressive encounters.
Female preference of male calls
The amphibian papilla and basilar papilla of Northern cricket frog ears are tuned, or sensitive, to different frequencies; the Amphibian papilla is more sensitive to lower frequencies, while the basilar papilla is more sensitive to higher frequencies. Both papilla are more sensitive to frequencies of conspecific calls rather than to the frequencies of the calls of other species. Frogs of the same species generally prefer local calls, which are calls of other frogs located geographically close. One study demonstrated that the basilar papilla tuning is different among Northern cricket frog females from three different populations (Bastrop, Austin, Indiana), with Bastrop frogs having the highest tuning and Austin frogs having the lowest. Further tests demonstrated that some populations showed a preference to local rather than foreign calls, while other populations preferred foreign calls, and some with no preference. However, if there is a preference for call type, females generally prefer lower frequency calls. There appears to be a reasonable explanation for such a preference, since larger males produce lower frequency calls. Attraction to larger males is beneficial since larger males fertilize more females eggs. More specifically larger females are more sensitive to and prefer lower frequencies, while smaller females prefer higher frequencies.
Male mating tactics
Subordinate males that have recently matured and cannot effectively compete with dominant male display patterns use alternative mating tactics, such as satellite behavior. The satellite tactic is intercepting and mating with females going toward other calling males. Interestingly, the frequency of this tactic is not related to the size of males.
Other hylid species such as H. cinerea switch from calling to satellite in proximity of other strong-calling males. A study observed much fewer A. crepitans switching tactics, which can be explained by the overall lower occurrence of satellite males, less risk of predation, or lower mating success rate for satellite males of this species.
Biological reproductive patterns
The lipid stores of both males and females are lower during the breeding season than in non-breeding periods (pre-breeding, post-breeding, post-hibernation). Observation of dissected stomachs of males indicate that feeding is minimal or non-existent during the breeding season. Since feeding is reduced, males metabolize more lipids during this period. Lower lipid stores in females can be explained by an increase in ovarian size during the breeding season.
Predators
Northern cricket frogs are preyed upon by a number of species, including birds, fish, and other frogs. To escape predators, they are capable of leaping up to 3 feet in a single jump and are excellent swimmers. It has been found that not only temperature, but hydration also has an effect on how far these frogs can jump. Being hydrated at a higher temperature is thought to allow them to jump farther and higher.
Physiology
Sun compass orientation
Many animals can navigate using the sun as a compass in combination with an internal clock providing a sense of time, which is known as sun compass orientation. Other orientation cues used by cricket frogs include the moon and stars. Acris crepitans and A. gryllus, both cricket frogs, have been observed to show similar orienting mechanisms, namely the Y-axis concept. The Y-axis is a reference axis established by land and water. Frogs require information about shore position, direct view of a celestial cue, and sense of time in order for the successful use of Y-axis type of orientation during the day.
Sex determination
Numerous environmental factors have been associated with sex determination in amphibians, including temperature, pH, and presence of foreign chemicals that affect the gonads. A study observing Northern cricket frogs in environments contaminated with organochlorides concluded that sites contaminated with point polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) were significantly related to sex-ratio reversal: contaminated sites had more males compared to control ponds, suggesting that organochlorines can influence cricket frog sexual differentiation. For example, the same study had shown that in certain parts of Illinois that are more industrialized and had organochlorine peptides there was a larger proportion of intersex frogs. In the case of Illinois, this was in the northeast. However, more environmentally friendly regions, like southern Illinois, had a more diverse frog population.
Immunology vs. reproduction
Metabolic resources are allocated to different physiological systems. The amount of allocation may vary with changing external conditions and thus internal demands. Much research has been conducted to demonstrate the balance of resources between immunity and reproduction, including that of Acris crepitans. Male northern cricket frogs were collected at the peak of the breeding season and injected with sheep blood cells to elicit an immune response. Researchers found that spermatic cyst diameter, germinal epithelium depth, and gonadosomatic index were smaller in the injected males compared to males injected with saline (control) as well as their noninjected counterparts. This suggests that sperm production decreases under immunological stress. More generally and importantly, these results demonstrate that resource investment in reproduction decreases as more resources must be allocated to the immune system under immunologically-challenging conditions.
Thermoregulation
Northern cricket frogs are diurnal and generally active much of the year, except in midwinter in northern areas when the water is frozen. They are freeze resistant so during winter months, they stay underground near the surface to resist freezing. Individuals can increase the concentration of body fluids to lower their freezing points, making them resistant to supercooling and flashpoint freezing.
Morphology
Acris crepitans morphologically unique among hylidaes because of their unusually small size. A snout vent length of 20mm marks sexual maturity. Females are slightly larger than males and can reach a maximum snout vent length of 38mm. The northern cricket frog's overall small size and limited skull ossification suggests miniaturization of this species. Miniaturization, or the evolution of a smaller body size, due to changes in anatomy, physiology, life history, and behavior over time. For this species, the necessity to rapidly attain sexual maturity could explain its miniaturization; frogs grow 12 to 26 mm within a few months in preparation for the breeding season.
The cranial cartilages of these frogs are very mineralized with calcium, which reinforce cartilage as frogs develop into adulthood. These frogs possess small, thin, and long nasals, which is consistent with its being a small anuran. The nasals take a triangle-like shape. Other skeletal abnormalities of A. crepitans include lateral asymmetry in development of vomerine teeth and parasphenoid alae as well as tumor-like growth on the femur.
Several hypotheses have been presented in an attempt to explain the observed abnormalities in this frog: small skeletal malformations are normally present at a high rate in this species, stress caused by habitat fragmentation, or there is environmental contamination.
References
External links
Animal Diversity Web: Acris crepitans
USGS: Northern Cricket Frog
Frogs & Toads of Georgia: Acris crepitans crepitans
Conant et al. (1998). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. .
Martof et al. (1980). Amphibians and Reptiles of the Carolinas and Virginia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. .
Acris
Amphibians of Mexico
Amphibians of the United States
Fauna of Northeastern Mexico
Fauna of the Southeastern United States
Cenozoic amphibians of North America
Extant Pliocene first appearances
Pliocene animals of North America
Pliocene United States
Amphibians described in 1854
Taxa named by Spencer Fullerton Baird
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Luntz
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Frank Luntz
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Frank Ian Luntz (born February 23, 1962) is an American political and communications consultant and pollster, best known for developing talking points and other messaging for Republican causes. His work has included assistance with messaging for Newt Gingrich's Contract with America, and public relations support for pro-Israel policies in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He advocated use of vocabulary crafted to produce a desired effect; including use of the term death tax instead of estate tax, and climate change instead of global warming.
Luntz has historically frequently contributed to Fox News and CBS News (and since 2021 on CNN) as a commentator and analyst, as well as running focus groups during and after presidential debates on Fox News and CBS News. Luntz describes his specialty as "testing language and finding words that will help his clients sell their product or turn public opinion on an issue or a candidate." He is also an author of business books dealing with communication strategies and public opinion.
Early life and education
Luntz was born and grew up in West Hartford, Connecticut, the son of Phyllys (née Kelmenson) and Lester Luntz, who together wrote the first American forensic dentistry textbook. His family is Jewish. He graduated from Hall High School, earned a bachelor of arts degree in history and political science from the University of Pennsylvania, and received a doctorate in politics from Trinity College, Oxford where he was a contemporary of future British Prime Minister Boris Johnson. Luntz's doctoral thesis formed the basis for his first book, Candidates, Consultants, and Campaigns: The Style and Substance of American Electioneering. published in 1988.
Luntz's studies at Oxford were funded by The Thouron Award, a scholarship established in 1960 by Sir John R.H. Thouron, K.B.E., and Esther du Pont Thouron to strengthen the "special relationship" between the United States and the United Kingdom through educational exchange between British universities and the University of Pennsylvania to foster the sort of relationship that Luntz had with Boris Johnson (as Luntz counseled Johnson regarding his election as President of the Oxford Union debate society). Since its founding in 1960, the Thouron Award has sponsored programs of graduate study for more than 650 fellows, known as Thouron Scholars.
Career
Luntz has appeared as a consultant or panel member on a number of television news shows, including The Colbert Report, Capital Gang, Good Morning America, Hannity, Hardball with Chris Matthews, Meet the Press, PBS NewsHour, Nightline, The O'Reilly Factor, Real Time with Bill Maher, and The Today Show. He has written op-eds for publications such as The Financial Times, The Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and The Washington Post. In addition to his work in the United States, Luntz also provides analysis for British news programmes such as Newsnight.
He was an adjunct professor at the University of Pennsylvania from 1989 until 1996 and also taught at George Washington University and Harvard University.
On January 10, 2020, Luntz suffered a stroke, a matter he freely discussed in interviews afterwards. He recovered, and continued his public analysis and media appearances.
Use of language
Luntz frequently tests word and phrase choices using focus groups and interviews. His stated purpose in this is the goal of causing audiences to react based on emotion. "80 percent of our life is emotion, and only 20 percent is intellect. I am much more interested in how you feel than how you think. ... If I respond to you quietly, the viewer at home is going to have a different reaction than if I respond to you with emotion and with passion and I wave my arms around. Somebody like this is an intellectual; somebody like this is a freak."
In an article in The New Yorker Luntz said,The way my words are created is by taking the words of others.... I've moderated an average of a hundred plus focus groups a year over five years... I show them language that I've created. Then I leave a line for them to create language for me.
In a 2007 interview on Fresh Air with Terry Gross, Luntz argued that the term "Orwellian" could be considered in a positive sense, saying that if one reads George Orwell's essay Politics and the English Language, "To be 'Orwellian' is to speak with absolute clarity, to be succinct, to explain what the event is, to talk about what triggers something happening… and to do so without any pejorative whatsoever." Luntz suggested that Orwell would not have approved of many of the uses of the term, given that his essay derides the use of cliché and dying metaphors.
Luntz's description of his job revolves around exploiting the emotional content of language. "It's all emotion. But there's nothing wrong with emotion. When we are in love, we are not rational; we are emotional. ... my job is to look for the words that trigger the emotion. ... We know that words and emotion together are the most powerful force known to mankind."
Additionally in his 2007 interview on Fresh Air, Luntz discussed his use of the term "energy exploration" to refer to oil drilling. His research on the matter involved showing people a picture of current oil drilling and asking if in the picture it "looks like exploration or drilling." He said that 90 percent of the people he spoke to said it looked like exploring. "Therefore I'd argue that it is a more appropriate way to communicate." He went on to say, "if the public says after looking at the pictures, that doesn't look like my definition of drilling—it looks like my definition of exploring—then don't you think we should be calling it what people see it to be, rather than adding a political aspect to it all?" Terry Gross responded, "Should we be calling it what it actually is, as opposed to what somebody thinks it might be? The difference between exploration and actually getting out the oil—they're two different things, aren't they?"
James L. Martin, chairman of the conservative 60 Plus Association, described Luntz's role as being that of pollster and popularizer of the phrase "death tax."Martin gained an important ally in GOP pollster Frank Luntz, whose polling revealed that 'death tax' sparked voter resentment in a way that 'inheritance tax' and 'estate tax' couldn't match. After all, who wouldn't be opposed to a 'tax on death'? Luntz shared his findings with Republicans and included the phrase in the GOP's Contract with America. Luntz went so far as to recommend in a memo to GOP lawmakers that they stage press conferences 'at your local mortuary' to dramatize the issue. 'I believe this backdrop will clearly resonate with your constituents,' he wrote. 'Death is something the American people understand.' Apparently, he's right. Spurred by Luntz, Republicans have employed the term 'death tax' so aggressively that it has entered the popular lexicon. Nonpartisan venues like newspapers and magazines have begun to use it in a neutral context—a coup for abolitionists like Martin.
In a confidential memo to the Republican party, Luntz is credited with advising the Bush administration that the phrase "global warming" should be abandoned in favour of "climate change", which he called a "less frightening" phrase than the former.
Publications
Luntz is the author of the 2007 New York Times Best Seller, "Words That Work: It's Not What You Say, It's What People Hear." His second book, "What Americans Really Want ... Really: The Truth About Our Hopes, Dreams and Fears," climbed to #6 on the New York Times Business Best Sellers list. In March 2011, Luntz released his book,"Win: The Key Principles to Take Your Business From Ordinary to Extraordinary".
Work and views
U.S. politics, 1990s
Luntz was Pat Buchanan's pollster during the 1992 U.S. Republican presidential primary, and later that year served as Ross Perot's pollster in the general election.
Luntz also served as Newt Gingrich's pollster in the mid-1990s for the Contract with America. During that time, he helped Gingrich produce a GOPAC memo that encouraged Republicans to "speak like Newt" by describing Democrats and Democratic policies using words such as "corrupt," "devour," "greed," "hypocrisy," "liberal," "sick," and "traitors."
In 1993 and 1997 Luntz served as pollster and strategist for the successful mayoral campaigns of Rudolph Giuliani in New York City.
Israel and the Palestinians
In December 2008 to January 2009, Luntz wrote a report titled "The Israel Project's 2009 Global Language Dictionary" that has been used by the Israeli government to defend Israeli policy in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The report, commissioned by The Israel Project, advised media spokespeople to use specific language that Luntz believed would create a more favorable impression of Israel in the United States and the rest of the international community. For example, when discussing the contours of a two-state solution, the report advised describing Palestinian negotiating points as "demands" because Americans dislike people who make "demands." The report was marked "not for distribution or publication", but it was leaked to Newsweek shortly after it was written.
Global warming
Although Luntz later tried to distance himself from the Bush administration policy, it was his idea that administration communications reframe global warming as climate change since "climate change" was thought to sound less severe. The term "climate change" was not altogether new, as in 1956, the physicist Gilbert Plass published a seminal study called "The Carbon Dioxide Theory of Climatic Change", and in 1978 the journal Climatic Change debuted. Luntz has since said that he is not responsible for what the Bush administration did after that time. Though he now believes humans have contributed to global warming, he maintains that the science was in fact incomplete, and his recommendation sound, at the time he made it.
In a 2002 memo to President George W. Bush titled "The Environment: A Cleaner, Safer, Healthier America", obtained by the Environmental Working Group, Luntz wrote: "The scientific debate is closing [against us] ... but not yet closed. There is still a window of opportunity to challenge the science. ... Voters believe that there is no consensus about global warming within the scientific community. Should the public come to believe that the scientific issues are settled, their views about global warming will change accordingly. Therefore, you need to continue to make the lack of scientific certainty a primary issue in the debate, and defer to scientists and other experts in the field."
In 2010, Luntz announced new research that shows the American people are eager for Congress to act on climate legislation that would promote US energy independence and a healthier environment. "Americans want their leaders to act on climate change—but not necessarily for the reasons you think," Luntz said. "A clear majority of Americans believe climate change is happening. This is true of McCain voters and Obama voters alike. And even those that don't still believe it is essential for America to pursue policies that promote energy independence and a cleaner, healthier environment." In reference to recent political events, Luntz added: "People are much more interested in seeing solutions than watching yet another partisan political argument."
On July 25, 2019, Luntz spoke in front of the United States House Select Committee on the Climate Crisis where he shared his advice to people pushing for action on the climate crisis. Furthermore, he stated that "I'm here before you to say that I was wrong in 2001", "That was a lifetime ago", and "I've changed." He promised to help the Democrats on the climate committee, provided that they put "policies ahead of politics" and commit to nonpartisan solutions. He had his change of heart after a wildfire, the Skirball Fire, threatened and forced him to evacuate his home in 2017.
2005 UK Conservative leadership election
In 2005, Luntz conducted a focus group broadcast on the Conservative leadership race on the BBC current affairs show Newsnight. The focus group's overwhelmingly positive reaction to David Cameron was seen by many as crucial in making him the favorite in a crowded field. Cameron was the eventual victor. In March 2007, Newsnight invited him back to gauge comparative opinions on Cameron, Gordon Brown and Sir Menzies Campbell in the city of Birmingham.
2007 Irish general elections
Luntz led a focus group telecast with the Irish state broadcaster RTÉ to gather the opinions of the Irish people before the May 24, 2007 general elections. RTÉ hoped to show viewers some of the campaign techniques the political parties were using without their knowledge.
2007 Australian federal election
Another focus group of swing voters was analysed by Luntz in the lead-up to the November 2007 poll between the ruling Coalition and the opposition Labor party. Luntz noted that, like the Irish scenario, the Coalition was well established, presiding over the country for 11 years and overseeing continued economic growth for much of that period; and that unlike the lead-up to the Irish elections, Australia had a stronger and more popular opposition leader in Kevin Rudd: "This is much closer to the Irish election where the leader just barely scraped in, Bertie Ahern, because the economy was so good. But the big difference there was the opposition leader was not as good as Kevin Rudd." Luntz was brought in to conduct his research in a collaborative effort by Sky News Australia and The Australian newspaper.
2010 UK general election
During the 2010 UK general election, Luntz led focus groups during the Prime Ministerial debates between Gordon Brown, David Cameron and Nick Clegg, and also appeared on the BBC's Daily Politics.
Luntz predicted that the next election in 2015 would result in a hung parliament (it ultimately produced a Conservative majority government).
Gun control
In 2012, Luntz conducted a poll that found that sizable majorities of gun owners supported gun control measures such as mandatory criminal background checks, minimum age restrictions, and eligibility requirements for concealed weapon permits.
U.S. politics, 2010–2022
Occupy Wall Street movement, 2011
In November 2011, during the height of the Occupy Wall Street movement, Luntz had a meeting with the Republican Governors Association to discuss how to address the growing populist Occupy movement sweeping the country. He was quoted as saying: "I'm so scared of this anti-Wall Street effort. I'm frightened to death. They're having an impact on what the American people think of capitalism."
Depression and sale of LuntzGlobal, 2012–2014
According to a 2014 article in The Atlantic, Luntz became frustrated with the contention and argumentation of voters after the 2012 presidential election and, at the time of the interview for the article, was in psychological turmoil: "Something in his psyche has broken, and he does not know if he can recover." As a result, in 2014, he sold the majority of shares of his polling business, LuntzGlobal.
State of the Republican Party
In August 2020, Luntz was asked what the defining principles of the Republican Party were, to which he responded, "You know, I don’t have a history of dodging questions. But I don’t know how to answer that. There is no consistent philosophy. You can’t say it’s about making America great again at a time of Covid and economic distress and social unrest. It’s just not credible."
Midterm election 2022
On election day in 2022, Nov. 8, Luntz tweeted his prediction: "When the dust settles from the 2022 midterms, the GOP will have between 233–240 House seats – outdoing their total from 1994. Republicans also will take control of the Senate, but that won’t be clear until Friday. Top issues for 2022 voters: 1. The economy 2. Inflation and rising prices 3. Crime... 6. Abortion...
10. Donald Trump. This year, Democrats ran on abortion and Trump while ignoring Americans' growing economic hardship." Instead, Republicans narrowly won control of the House, but failed to win control of the Senate.
Controversies
Refusal to release poll data
In 1997, the American Association for Public Opinion Research, of which Luntz was not a member, criticized Luntz for refusing to release poll data to support his claimed results "because of client confidentiality". Diane Colasanto, who was president of the AAPOR at the time, said
It is simply wanting to know, How many people did you question? What were the questions? We understand the need for confidentiality, but once a pollster makes results public, the information needs to be public. People need to be able to evaluate whether it was sound research.
In 2000 he was censured by the National Council on Public Polls "for allegedly mischaracterizing on MSNBC the results of focus groups he conducted during the [2000] Republican Convention." In September 2004, MSNBC dropped Luntz from its planned coverage of that year's presidential debate, saying "[W]e made a decision not to use focus groups as part of our debate coverage. This decision had nothing to do with Frank's past work or politics." Luntz disagreed, believing that MSNBC "buckled to political pressure" from activist David Brock.
2010 "Lie of the Year" award
Luntz was awarded the 2010 PolitiFact Lie of the Year award for his promotion of the phrase 'government takeover' to refer to healthcare reform, starting in the spring of 2009. "'Takeovers are like coups,' Luntz wrote in a 28-page memo. 'They both lead to dictators and a loss of freedom.'" In an editorial response, the Wall Street Journal wrote that "PolitiFact's decree is part of a larger journalistic trend that seeks to recast all political debates as matters of lies, misinformation and 'facts,' rather than differences of world view or principles." The editors of PolitiFact announced "We have concluded it is inaccurate to call the plan a government takeover."
Leaked tape from the University of Pennsylvania
On April 25, 2013, The American Spectator, a conservative news outlet, published a scathing article about Luntz entitled "The Problematic Frank Luntz's Stockholm Syndrome".
In fact, what Luntz has done is simply reveal the kind of thinking that goes on in the minds of too many on the right who, whether they realize it or not, have been intellectually and culturally bullied that there is some sort of 'right way'—'right' as in 'correct'—to think. Resulting in some conservatives who suffer from what might be called a political version of Stockholm Syndrome—where the captives identify with their captors.
The article was a response to an April 22, 2013 leaked recording of Luntz at the University of Pennsylvania, where he said conservative radio personalities (specifically Rush Limbaugh and Mark Levin) were being "problematic" and "destroying" Republicans' ability to connect with more voters, or even maintain a majority in the House of Representatives in the 2014 mid-term elections.
As part of his critique Luntz said:
And they get great ratings, and they drive the message, and it's really problematic. And this is not on the Democratic side. It's only on the Republican side. ... [Democrats have] got every other source of news on their side. And so that is a lot of what's driving it. If you take—Marco Rubio's getting his ass kicked. Who's my Rubio fan here? We talked about it. He's getting destroyed! By Mark Levin, by Rush Limbaugh, and a few others. He's trying to find a legitimate, long-term effective solution to immigration that isn't the traditional Republican approach, and talk radio is killing him. That's what's causing this thing underneath. And too many politicians in Washington are playing coy.
After the leak, Luntz announced that he would no longer fund a scholarship to the University of Pennsylvania. The scholarship, which was in his father's name, supported student trips to Washington, D.C.
Bibliography
Candidates, Consultants, and Campaigns: The Style and Substance of American Electioneering. New York: Blackwell, 1988.
Words That Work: It's Not What You Say, It's What People Hear. New York: Hyperion, 2007.
What Americans Really Want ... Really. New York: Hyperion, 2009.
Win: The Key Principles to Take Your Business from Ordinary to Extraordinary. New York: Hyperion, 2011.
References
External links
1962 births
20th-century American writers
21st-century American writers
Alumni of the University of Oxford
American political consultants
American public relations people
American statisticians
Connecticut Republicans
Framing theorists
George Washington University faculty
Harvard University faculty
Jewish American writers
Living people
People from West Hartford, Connecticut
Pollsters
University of Pennsylvania alumni
University of Pennsylvania faculty
Writers from Connecticut
Hall High School (Connecticut) alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20Zen
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Japanese Zen
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See also Zen for an overview of Zen, Chan Buddhism for the Chinese origins, and Sōtō, Rinzai and Ōbaku for the three main schools of Zen in Japan
Japanese Zen refers to the Japanese forms of Zen Buddhism, an originally Chinese Mahāyāna school of Buddhism that strongly emphasizes dhyāna, the meditative training of awareness and equanimity. This practice, according to Zen proponents, gives insight into one's true nature, or the emptiness of inherent existence, which opens the way to a liberated way of living.
History
Origins
According to tradition, Zen originated in India, when Gautama Buddha held up a flower and Mahākāśyapa smiled. With this smile he showed that he had understood the wordless essence of the dharma. This way the dharma was transmitted to Mahākāśyapa, the second patriarch of Zen.
The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word of dhyāna ("meditation"). Buddhism was introduced from India to China in the first century AD. According to tradition, Chan was introduced around 500 C.E. by Bodhidharma, an Indian monk teaching dhyāna. He was the 28th Indian patriarch of Zen and the first Chinese patriarch.
Early Japanese Zen
Zen was first introduced into Japan as early as 653-656 C.E. in the Asuka period (538–710 C.E.), at the time when the set of Zen monastic regulations was still nonexistent and Chan masters were willing to instruct anyone regardless of buddhist ordination. Dōshō (道昭, 629–700 C.E.) went over to China in 653 C.E., where he learned Chan from the famed Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (玄奘, 602 – 664 C.E.), and he studied more fully with a disciple of the second Chinese patriarch, Huike (慧可, 487–593 C.E.) . After returning home, Dōshō established the Hossō school, basing it on Yogācāra philosophy and built a Meditation Hall for the purpose of practising Zen in the Gangō-ji in Nara. In the Nara period (710 to 794 C.E.), the Chan master, Dao-xuan (道璿, 702-760 C.E.), arrived in Japan, he taught meditation techniques to the monk Gyōhyō (行表, 720–797 C.E.), who in turn was to instruct Saichō (最澄, 767-822 C.E.), founder of the Japanese Tendai sect of Buddhism. Saicho visited Tang China in 804 C.E. as part of an official embassy sent by Emperor Kammu (桓武天皇, 781-806 C.E.). There he studied four branches of Buddhism including Chan and Tiantai, which he was, by that time, already familiar with.
The first attempt of establishing Zen as an independent doctrine was in 815, when the Chinese monk Yikong (義空) visited Japan as the representative of Chan's Southern-school lineage, based on the teachings of the master Mazu Daoyi (馬祖道一, 709–788 C.E.), who was the mentor of Baizhang (百丈懐海, 720–814 C.E.), the supposed author of the initial set of Zen monastic regulations. Yikong arrived in 815 C.E. and tried unsuccessfully to transmit Zen systematically to the eastern nation. It is recorded in an inscription left at the famous Rashõmon gate protecting the southern entryway to Kyoto that, on leaving to return to China, Yikong said he was aware of the futility of his efforts due to hostility and opposition he experienced from the dominant Tendai Buddhist school. What existed of Zen in the Heian period (794-1185 C.E.) was incorporated into and subordinate to the Tendai tradition. The early phase of Japanese Zen has been labeled "syncretic" because Chan teachings and practices were initially combined with familiar Tendai and Shingon forms.
Kamakura (1185–1333 C.E.)
Zen found difficulties in establishing itself as a separate school in Japan until the 12th century, largely because of opposition, influence, power and criticism by the Tendai school. During the Kamakura period (1185–1333 C.E.), Nōnin established the first independent Zen school on Japanese soil, known as the short-lived and disapproved Daruma school. In 1189 Nōnin sent two students to China, to meet with Cho-an Te-kuang (1121–1203 C.E.), and ask for the recognition of Nōnin as a Zen-master. This recognition was granted.
In 1168 C.E., Eisai traveled to China, whereafter he studied Tendai for twenty years. In 1187 C.E. he went to China again, and returned to establish a local branch of the Linji school, which is known in Japan as the Rinzai school. Decades later, (1235–1308 C.E.) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Ōtōkan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai.
In 1215 C.E., Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.
Zen fit the way of life of the samurai: confronting death without fear, and acting in a spontaneous and intuitive way.
During this period the Five Mountain System was established, which institutionalized an influential part of the Rinzai school. It consisted of the five most famous Zen temples of Kamakura: Kenchō-ji, Engaku-ji, Jufuku-ji, Jōmyō-ji and Jōchi-ji.
Muromachi (or Ashikaga) (1336–1573 C.E.)
During the Muromachi period the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools, since it was favoured by the shōgun.
Gozan-system
In the beginning of the Muromachi period the Gozan system was fully worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura. A second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to the central government, which administered this system. The monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by the shōgun for the governing of state affairs.
Rinka-monasteries
Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under such strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were primarily located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence. The O-to-kan lineage, that centered on Daitoku-ji, also had a greater degree of freedom. It was founded by Nampo Jomyo, Shuho Myocho, and Kanzan Egen. A well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji was Ikkyū.
Another Rinka lineage was the Hotto lineage, of which Bassui Tokushō is the best-known teacher.
Azuchi-Momoyama (1573–1600 C.E.) and Edo (or Tokugawa) (1600–1868 C.E.)
After a period of war Japan was re-united in the Azuchi–Momoyama period. This decreased the power of Buddhism, which had become a strong political and military force in Japan. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at the expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world. The only traders to be allowed were Dutchmen admitted to the island of Dejima. New doctrines and methods were not to be introduced, nor were new temples and schools. The only exception was the Ōbaku lineage, which was introduced in the 17th century during the Edo period by Ingen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of the Ming dynasty to the Manchu people, his teachings were seen as a separate school. The Ōbaku school was named after , which had been Ingen's home in China.
Well-known Zen masters from this period are Bankei, Bashō and Hakuin. Bankei Yōtaku (盤珪永琢?, 1622–1693 C.E.) became a classic example of a man driven by the "great doubt". Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉?, 1644 – November 28, 1694) became a great Zen poet. In the 18th century Hakuin Ekaku (白隠 慧鶴?, 1686–1768) revived the Rinzai school. His influence was so immense that almost all contemporary Rinzai lineages are traced back to him.
Meiji Restoration (1868–1912 C.E.) and Imperial expansionism (1912–1945 C.E.)
The Meiji period (1868–1912 C.E.) saw the Emperor's power reinstated after a coup in 1868 C.E.. At that time Japan was forced to open to Western trade which brought influence and, eventually, a restructuring of all government and commercial structures to Western standards. Shinto became the officiated state religion and Buddhism was coerced to adapt to the new regime. The Buddhist establishment saw the Western world as a threat, but also as a challenge to stand up to.
Buddhist institutions had a simple choice: adapt or perish. Rinzai and Soto Zen chose to adapt, trying to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity. This Japanese identity was being articulated in the Nihonjinron philosophy, the "Japanese uniqueness" theory. A broad range of subjects was taken as typical of Japanese culture. D.T. Suzuki contributed to the Nihonjinron-philosophy by taking Zen as the distinctive token of Asian spirituality, showing its unique character in the Japanese culture
This resulted in support for the war activities of the Japanese imperial system by the Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers. According to Sharf,
War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during the Pacific War were supported by the Zen establishment.
A notable work on this subject was Zen at War (1998) by Brian Victoria, an American-born Sōtō priest. One of his assertions was that some Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism and promotion of "world peace" were open Japanese nationalists in the inter-war years. Among them as an example Hakuun Yasutani, the founder of the Sanbo Kyodan School, even voiced antisemitic and nationalistic opinions after World War II. Only after international protests in the 1990s, following the publication of Victoria's 'Zen at war', did the Sanbo Kyodan express apologies for this support This involvement was not limited to the Zen schools, as all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the militarist state. Victoria's particular claims about D. T. Suzuki's involvement in militarism have been much disputed by other scholars.
Criticisms of post-WWII Zen
Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Harada Daiun Sogaku and Shunryū Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attained realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest's function has largely been reduced to officiating at funerals, a practice sardonically referred to in Japan as . For example, the Sōtō school published statistics stating that 80 percent of laity visited temples only for reasons having to do with funerals and death.
Teachings
Buddha-nature and sunyata
Mahayana Buddhism teaches śūnyatā, "emptiness", which is also emphasized by Zen. But another important doctrine is the buddha-nature, the idea that all human beings have the possibility to awaken. All living creatures are supposed to have the Buddha-nature, but don't realize this as long as they are not awakened. The doctrine of an essential nature can easily lead to the idea that there is an unchanging essential nature or reality behind the changing world of appearances.
The difference and reconciliation of these two doctrines is the central theme of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.
Kensho: seeing one's true nature
The primary goal of Rinzai Zen is kensho, seeing one's true nature, and mujodo no taigen, expression of this insight in daily life.
Seeing one's true nature means seeing that there is no essential 'I' or 'self', that our true nature is empty.
Expression in daily life means that this is not only a contemplative insight, but that our lives are expressions of this selfless existence.
Zen meditation
Zen emphasizes zazen, meditation c.q. dhyana in a sitting position. In Soto, the emphasis is on shikantaza, 'just sitting', while Rinzai also uses koans to train the mind. In alternation with zazen, there is walking meditation, kinhin, in which one walks with full attention.
To facilitate insight, a Zen teacher can assign a kōan. This is a short anecdote, which seems irrational, but contains subtle references to the Buddhist teachings. An example of a kōan is Joshu's 'Mu': A monk asked: "Does a dog have buddha-nature?" Joshu responded: "Mu!"
Zen-meditation aims at "non-thinking," in Japanese fu shiryō and hi shiryō. According to Zhu, the two terms negate two different cognitive functions both called manas in Yogacara, namely "intentionality" or self-centered thinking, and "discriminative thinking" (vikalpa). The usage of two different terms for "non-thinking" points to a crucial difference between Sōtō and Rinzai in their interpretation of the negation of these two cognitive functions. According to Rui, Rinzai Zen starts with hi shiryō, negating discriminative thinking, and culminates in fu shiryō, negating intentional or self-centered thinking; Sōtō starts with fu shiryō, which is displaced and absorbed by hi shiryō.
Contemporary Zen organizations
The traditional institutional traditions (su) of Zen in contemporary Japan are Sōtō (), Rinzai (), and Ōbaku (). Sōtō and Rinzai dominate, while Ōbaku is smaller. Besides these there are modern Zen organizations which have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.
Sōtō
Sōtō emphasizes meditation and the inseparable nature of practice and insight. Its founder Dogen is still highly revered. Soto is characterized by its flexibility and openness. No commitment to study is expected and practice can be resumed voluntarily.
Rinzai
Rinzai emphasizes kōan study and kensho. The Rinzai organisation includes fifteen subschools based on temple affiliation. The best known of these main temples are Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji. Rinzai is characterized by its stringent regiments of meditation through every second of life. Whether a practitioner is practicing seated meditation, walking meditation, working, or even out in public, meditation can be applied to each instance of a Rinzai student's life.
Obaku
Ōbaku is a small branch, which organizationally, is part of the Rinzai school.
Sanbo Kyodan
The Sanbo Kyodan is a small Japanese school, established by Hakuun Yasutani, which has been very influential in the West. Well-known teachers from this school are Philip Kapleau and Taizan Maezumi. Maezumi's influence stretches further through his dharma heirs, such as Joko Beck, Tetsugen Bernard Glassman, and especially Dennis Merzel, who has appointed more than a dozen dharma heirs.
FAS Society
The FAS Society is a non-sectarian organization, founded by Shin'ichi Hisamatsu. Its aim is to modernize Zen and adapt it to the modern world. In Europe it is influential through such teachers as Jeff Shore and Ton Lathouwers.
Zen in the Western world
Early influences
Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced its profile in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners pursuing a serious interest in Zen, other than descendants of Asian immigrants, reached a significant level.
Eugen Herrigel's book Zen in the Art of Archery describing his training in the Zen-influenced martial art of Kyūdō, inspired many of the Western world's early Zen practitioners. However, many scholars, such as Yamada Shoji, are quick to criticize this book.
D.T. Suzuki
The single most influential person for the spread of Zen Buddhism was D. T. Suzuki. A lay student of Zen, he became acquainted with Western culture at a young age. He wrote many books on Zen which became widely read in the Western world, but he has been criticised for giving a one-sided and overly romanticized vision of Zen.
Reginald Horace Blyth (1898–1964) was an Englishman who went to Japan in 1940 to further his study of Zen. He was interned during World War II and started writing in prison. While imprisoned he met Robert Aitken, who was later to become a roshi in the Sanbo Kyodan lineage. Blyth was tutor to the Crown Prince after the war. His greatest work is the 5-volume "Zen and Zen Classics", published in the 1960s. Here he discusses Zen themes from a philosophical standpoint, often in conjunction with Christian elements in a comparative spirit. His essays include "God, Buddha, and Buddhahood" and "Zen, Sin, and Death".
Beat Zen
The British philosopher Alan Watts took a close interest in Zen Buddhism and wrote and lectured extensively on it during the 1950s. He understood Zen as a vehicle for a mystical transformation of consciousness, and also as a historical example of a non-Western, non-Christian way of life that had fostered both the practical and fine arts.
The Dharma Bums, a novel written by Jack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into the bohemian lifestyles of a small group of American youths, primarily on the West Coast. Beside the narrator, the main character in this novel was "Japhy Ryder", a thinly veiled depiction of Gary Snyder. The story was based on actual events taking place while Snyder prepared, in California, for the formal Zen studies that he would pursue in Japanese monasteries between 1956 and 1968.
Christian Zen
Thomas Merton (1915–1968) was a Catholic Trappist monk and priest. Like his friend, the late D.T. Suzuki, Merton believed that there must be a little of Zen in all authentic creative and spiritual experience. The dialogue between Merton and Suzuki explores the many congruencies of Christian mysticism and Zen.
Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle (1898–1990) was a Jesuit who became a missionary in Japan in 1929. In 1956 he started to study Zen with Harada Daiun Sogaku. He was the superior of Heinrich Dumoulin, the well-known author on the history of Zen. Enomiya-lassalle introduced Westerners to Zen meditation.
Robert Kennedy (roshi), a Catholic Jesuit priest, professor, psychotherapist and Zen roshi in the White Plum lineage has written a number of books about what he labels as the benefits of Zen practice to Christianity. He was ordained a Catholic priest in Japan in 1965, and studied with Yamada Koun in Japan in the 1970s. He was installed as a Zen teacher of the White Plum Asanga lineage in 1991 and was given the title 'Roshi' in 1997.
In 1989, the Vatican released a document which states some Catholic appreciation of the use of Zen in Christian prayer. According to the text none of the methods proposed by non-Christian religions should be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian:
Zen and the art of...
While Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, by Robert M. Pirsig, was a 1974 bestseller, it in fact has little to do with Zen as a religious practice, nor with motorcycle maintenance for that matter. Rather it deals with the notion of the metaphysics of "quality" from the point of view of the main character. Pirsig was attending the Minnesota Zen Center at the time of writing the book. He has stated that, despite its title, the book "should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice". Though it may not deal with orthodox Zen Buddhist practice, Pirsig's book in fact deals with many of the more subtle facets of Zen living and Zen mentality without drawing attention to any religion or religious organization.
A number of contemporary authors have explored the relationship between Zen and a number of other disciplines, including parenting, teaching, and leadership. This typically involves the use of Zen stories to explain leadership strategies.
Art
In Europe, the Expressionist and Dada movements in art tend to have much in common thematically with the study of kōans and actual Zen. The early French surrealist René Daumal translated D.T. Suzuki as well as Sanskrit Buddhist texts.
Western Zen lineages derived from Japan
Over the last fifty years mainstream forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia and their successors, have begun to take root in the West.
United States
Sanbo Kyodan
In North America, the Zen lineages derived from the Sanbo Kyodan school are the most numerous. The Sanbo Kyodan is a Japan-based reformist Zen group, founded in 1954 by Yasutani Hakuun, which has had a significant influence on Zen in the West. Sanbo Kyodan Zen is based primarily on the Soto tradition, but also incorporates Rinzai-style kōan practice. Yasutani's approach to Zen first became prominent in the English-speaking world through Philip Kapleau's book The Three Pillars of Zen (1965), which was one of the first books to introduce Western audiences to Zen as a practice rather than simply a philosophy. Among the Zen groups in North America, Hawaii, Europe, and New Zealand which derive from Sanbo Kyodan are those associated with Kapleau, Robert Aitken, and John Tarrant.
The most widespread are the lineages founded by Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi and the White Plum Asanga. Maezumi's successors include Susan Myoyu Andersen, John Daido Loori, Chozen Bays, Tetsugen Bernard Glassman, Dennis Merzel, Nicolee Jikyo McMahon, Joan Hogetsu Hoeberichts, and Charlotte Joko Beck.
Soto
Soto has gained prominence via Shunryu Suzuki, who established the San Francisco Zen Center. In 1967 the Center established Tassajara, the first Zen Monastery in America, in the mountains near Big Sur.
The Katagiri lineage, founded by Dainin Katagiri, has a significant presence in the Midwest. Note that both Taizan Maezumi and Dainin Katagiri served as priests at Zenshuji Soto Mission in the 1960s.
Taisen Deshimaru, a student of Kodo Sawaki, was a Soto Zen priest from Japan who taught in France. The International Zen Association, which he founded, remains influential. The American Zen Association, headquartered at the New Orleans Zen Temple, is one of the North American organizations practicing in the Deshimaru tradition.
Soyu Matsuoka established the Long Beach Zen Buddhist Temple and Zen Center in 1971, where he resided until his death in 1998. The Temple was headquarters to Zen centers in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Everett, Washington.
Matsuoka created several dharma heirs, three of whom are still alive and leading Zen teachers within the lineage: Hogaku ShoZen McGuire, Zenkai Taiun Michael Elliston Sensei, and Kaiten John Dennis Govert.
Brad Warner is a Soto priest appointed by Gudo Wafu Nishijima. He is not a traditional Zen teacher, but is influential via his blogs on Zen.
Rinzai
Rinzai gained prominence in the West via D.T. Suzuki and the lineage of Soen Nakagawa and his student Eido Shimano. Soen Nakagawa had personal ties to Yamada Koun, the dharma heir of Hakuun Yasutani, who founded the Sanbo Kyodan. They established Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji in New York. In Europe there is Havredal Zendo established by a Dharma Heir of Eido Shimano, Egmund Sommer (Denko Mortensen).
Some of the more prominent Rinzai Zen centers in North America include Rinzai-ji founded by Kyozan Joshu Sasaki Roshi in California, Chozen-ji founded by Omori Sogen Roshi in Hawaii, Daiyuzenji founded by Dogen Hosokawa Roshi (a student of Omori Sogen Roshi) in Chicago, Illinois, and Chobo-Ji founded by Genki Takabayshi Roshi in Seattle, Washington.
United Kingdom
The lineage of Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi Roshi is represented in the UK by the White Plum Sangha UK.
Throssel Hole Buddhist Abbey was founded as a sister monastery to Shasta Abbey in California by Master Reverend Jiyu Kennett Roshi. It has a number of dispersed priories and centres. Jiyu Kennett, an Englishwoman, was ordained as a priest and Zen master in Shoji-ji, one of the two main Soto Zen temples in Japan. The Order is called the Order of Buddhist Contemplatives. There are several affiliated temples across the UK, including the Norwich Zen Buddhist Priory.
Taisen Deshimaru Roshi's lineage is known in the UK as IZAUK (International Zen Association UK).
The Zen Centre in London is connected to the Buddhist Society.
Zenways is a Rinzai school organisation in South London. It is led by Daizan Roshi a British teacher who received Dharma transmission from Shinzan Miyamae Roshi.
The Western Chan Fellowship is an association of lay Chán practitioners based in the UK. They are registered as a charity in England and Wales, but also have contacts in Europe, principally in Norway, Poland, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland and the US.
See also
Buddhism
Outline of Buddhism
Timeline of Buddhism
List of Buddhists
Buddhism in Japan
Buddhist modernism
Chinese Chán
Notes
References
Sources
Printed sources
Web-sources
Further reading
Modern classics
Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones
Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen
Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind
Classic historiography
Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China. World Wisdom Books.
Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan. World Wisdom Books.
Critical historiography
Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at War. Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. (Second Edition)
Mcrae, John (2003), Seeing through Zen. Encounter, Transformation, and Genealogy in Chinese Chan Buddhism. The University Press Group Ltd .
McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press.
(Japanese) Zen as living religious institution and practice
External links
Overview
Zen Buddhism WWW Virtual Library
The Zen Site
Rinzai-zen
Joint Council for Rinzai and Obaku Zen
The International Research Institute for Zen Buddhism
Soto-zen
Website on Soto Zen
Sanbo Kyodan
Sanbo Kyodan Homepage
Critical Zen-practice
David Chapman
Brad Warner
Against the stream
Zen-centers
Zen centers of the world
Zen centers
Texts
Sacred-text.com's collection of Zen texts
Buddhanet's collection of Zen texts
Shambhala Sun Zen Articles
Kyoto and Japanese Buddhism by Tokushi Yusho. Introduction to Zen culture in Kyoto.
Critical Zen Research
Steven Heine (2007), A Critical Survey of Works on Zen since Yampolsky
Homepage of Robert H. Sharf
Japanese
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20SF%20double%20titles
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List of Ace SF double titles
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Ace Books published 221 science fiction Ace doubles between 1952 and 1973 in tête-bêche format, and a further 40 between 1974 and 1978 in a more traditional format in which the two books are both the same way up.
Genres and collectability
Ace published science fiction, mysteries, and westerns, as well as books not in any of these genres. Collectors of these genres have found the Ace doubles an attractive set of books to collect, because of the unusual appearance of the tête-bêche format. This is particularly true for the science fiction books, for which several bibliographic references have been written (see the References section). The format inspired a further series of sf doubles published by Tor Books between 1988 and 1991, the Tor Double Novels.
Because the tête-bêche format is part of the attraction for collectors, some do not regard as true Ace Doubles those books published between 1974 and 1978, which contain two works by one or two authors bound traditionally rather than back-to-back and upside-down (tête-bêche format). All volumes containing two SF works, in the entire 1952 to 1978 series, are listed below, with the late change in format noted.
Each listing gives a publication date; in all cases, that is year of publication by Ace, with the given catalog number, not earliest publication date of the contents. The list is complete for books containing two science fiction titles. Number D-13 in the official series, listed in Miscellaneous Ace Doubles, contains one novel, Cry Plague! by Theodore S. Drachman, which can be regarded as science fiction. Therefore some science fiction collectors treat D-13 the first science fiction Ace Double, although the novel on the other side of the book is a mystery, The Judas Goat by Leslie Edgley.
For more information about the history of these titles, see Ace Books, which includes a discussion of the serial numbering conventions used and an explanation of the letter-code system.
D Series
D-031 SF A. E. van Vogt The World of Null-A / The Universe Maker (1953)
D-036 SF Robert E. Howard Conan the Conqueror / Leigh Brackett The Sword of Rhiannon (1953)
D-044 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) The Ultimate Invader and Other Science-Fiction / Eric Frank Russell Sentinels of Space (1954)
D-053 SF Murray Leinster Gateway to Elsewhere / A. E. van Vogt The Weapon Shops of Isher (1954)
D-061 SF L. Sprague de Camp Cosmic Manhunt / Clifford D. Simak Ring Around The Sun (1954)
D-069 SF Lewis Padgett (Henry Kuttner and C. L. Moore) Beyond Earth's Gates / Andre Norton Daybreak—2250 A. D. (1954)
D-073 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Adventures in the Far Future / Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Tales of Outer Space (1954)
D-079 SF Francis Rufus Bellamy Atta / Murray Leinster The Brain Stealers (1954)
D-084 SF Isaac Asimov The Rebellious Stars / Roger Dee An Earth Gone Mad (1954)
D-094 SF Murray Leinster The Other Side of Here / A. E. van Vogt One Against Eternity (1955)
D-096 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet / Alan E. Nourse A Man Obsessed (1955)
D-099 SF Robert Moore Williams Conquest of the Space Sea / Leigh Brackett The Galactic Breed (1955)
D-103 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery / Leigh Brackett The Big Jump (1955)
D-110 SF Isaac Asimov The 1,000 Year Plan / Poul Anderson No World of Their Own (1955)
D-113 SF Dwight V. Swain The Transposed Man / J. T. McIntosh One in 300 (1955)
D-118 SF Charles L. Harness The Paradox Men / Jack Williamson Dome Around America (1955)
D-121 SF Andre Norton The Stars are Ours! / Sam Merwin, Jr. Three Faces of Time (1955)
D-139 SF Nick Boddie Williams The Atom Curtain / Gordon R. Dickson Alien From Arcturus (1956)
D-146 SF Lee Correy Contraband Rocket / Murray Leinster The Forgotten Planet (1956)
D-150 SF Philip K. Dick The World Jones Made / Margaret St. Clair Agent of the Unknown (1956)
D-162 SF Jerry Sohl The Mars Monopoly / R. DeWitt Miller and Anna Hunger The Man Who Lived Forever (1956)
D-164 SF Gordon R. Dickson Mankind on The Run / Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1956)
D-173 SF Ray Cummings The Man Who Mastered Time / Joseph E. Kelleam Overlords From Space (1956)
D-176 SF Thomas Calvert McClary Three Thousand Years / Margaret St. Clair The Green Queen (1956)
D-193 SF Philip K. Dick The Man Who Japed / E. C. Tubb The Space-Born (1956)
D-199 SF Poul Anderson Planet of No Return / Andre Norton Star Guard (1956)
D-205 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) The Earth in Peril / Lan Wright Who Speaks of Conquest? (1957)
D-215 SF Eric Frank Russell Three To Conquer / Robert Moore Williams Doomsday Eve (1957)
D-223 SF Robert Silverberg The 13th Immortal / James E. Gunn This Fortress World (1957)
D-227 SF H. Beam Piper and John J. McGuire Crisis in 2140 / Cyril Judd Gunner Cade (1957)
D-237 SF Robert Silverberg Master of Life and Death / James White The Secret Visitors (1957)
D-242 SF A. E. van Vogt Empire of the Atom / Frank Belknap Long Space Station #1 (1957)
D-249 SF Philip K. Dick The Cosmic Puppets / Andre Norton (as Andrew North) Sargasso of Space (1957)
D-255 SF Kenneth Bulmer City Under the Sea / Poul Anderson Star Ways (1957)
D-266 SF E. C. Tubb The Mechanical Monarch / Charles L. Fontenay Twice Upon A Time (1958)
D-277 SF Murray Leinster City on The Moon / Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Men on The Moon (1958)
D-286 SF Robert Silverberg Invaders From Earth / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) Across Time (1958)
D-291 SF Robert Silverberg (as Calvin M. Knox) Lest We forget Thee, Earth / Raymond Z. Gallun People Minus X (1958)
D-295 SF Jack Vance Big Planet / The Slaves of The Klau (1958)
D-299 SF Andre Norton Star Born / H. Beam Piper and John J. McGuire A Planet for Texans (1958)
D-303 SF Poul Anderson The Snows of Ganymede / War of the Wing-Men (1958)
D-311 SF Robert Silverberg Stepsons of Terra / Lan Wright A Man Called Destiny (1958)
D-315 SF Eric Frank Russell The Space Willies / Six Worlds Yonder (1958)
D-322 SF Robert Moore Williams The Blue Atom / The Void Beyond and Other Stories (1958)
D-331 SF Kenneth Bulmer The Secret of Zi / Ray Cummings Beyond the Vanishing Point (1958)
D-335 SF Poul Anderson The War of Two Worlds / John Brunner Threshold of Eternity (1959)
D-345 SF Andre Norton (as Andrew North) Plague Ship / Voodoo Planet (1959)
D-351 SF Edmond Hamilton The Sun Smasher / Robert Silverberg (as Ivar Jorgenson) Starhaven (1959)
D-358 SF Robert Silverberg (as Calvin M. Knox) The Plot Against Earth / Milton Lesser Recruit for Andromeda (1959)
D-362 SF John Brunner The 100th Millennium / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) Edge of Time (1959)
D-369 SF Brian W. Aldiss Vanguard From Alpha / Kenneth Bulmer The Changeling Worlds (1959)
D-375 SF Damon Knight Masters of Evolution / George O. Smith Fire in the Heavens (1959)
D-381 SF Jerry Sohl One Against Herculum / Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race (1959)
D-385 SF John Brunner Echo in the Skull / Alan E. Nourse Rocket to Limbo (1959)
D-391 SF John Brunner The World Swappers / A. E. van Vogt Siege of the Unseen (1959)
D-403 SF Murray Leinster The Mutant Weapon / The Pirates of Zan (1959)
D-407 SF Poul Anderson We Claim These Stars! / Robert Silverberg The Planet Killers (1959)
D-413 SF Harlan Ellison The Man With Nine Lives / A Touch of Infinity (1959)
D-421 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Futurity / John Brunner Slavers of Space (1960)
D-427 SF Robert Moore Williams World of the Masterminds / To the End of Time and Other Stories (1960)
D-431 SF A. E. van Vogt Earth's Last Fortress / George O. Smith Lost in Space (1960)
D-437 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman / Richard Wilson And Then The Town Took Off (1960)
D-443 SF Manly Wade Wellman The Dark Destroyers / Brian W. Aldiss Bow Down to Nul (1960)
D-449 SF Gordon R. Dickson The Genetic General / Time to Teleport (1960)
D-453 SF Kenneth Bulmer The Earth Gods Are Coming / Margaret St. Clair The Games of Neith (1960)
D-457 SF Philip K. Dick Vulcan's Hammer / John Brunner The Skynappers (1960)
D-465 SF John Brunner The Atlantic Abomination / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) The Martian Missile (1960)
D-471 SF John Brunner Sanctuary in the Sky / Jack Sharkey The Secret Martians (1960)
D-479 SF Wilson Tucker To the Tombaugh Station / Poul Anderson Earthman Go Home! (1960)
D-485 SF Robert A. W. Lowndes The Puzzle Planet / Lloyd Biggle, Jr. The Angry Espers (1961)
D-491 SF Fritz Leiber The Big Time / Fritz Leiber The Mind-Spider and Other Stories (1961)
D-497 SF John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) I Speak For Earth / Ray Cummings Wandl The Invader (1961)
D-507 SF Kenneth Bulmer Beyond the Silver Sky / John Brunner Meeting At Infinity (1961)
D-509 SF Andre Norton The Beast Master / Star Hunter (1961)
D-517 SF Clifford Simak The Trouble With Tycho / A. Bertram Chandler Bring Back Yesterday (1961)
F Series
F-104 SF Kenneth Bulmer No Man's World / Poul Anderson Mayday Orbit (1961)
F-108 SF G. McDonald Wallis The Light of Lilith / Damon Knight The Sun Saboteurs (1961)
F-113 SF Charles L. Fontenay Rebels of The Red Planet / J. T. McIntosh 200 Hundred Years to Christmas (1961)
F-117 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Door Through Space / A. Bertram Chandler Rendezvous on a Lost World (1961)
F-119 SF Gordon R. Dickson Spacial Delivery / Delusion World (1961)
F-123 SF Robert Silverberg Collision Course / Leigh Brackett The Nemesis From Terra (1961)
F-127 SF Marion Zimmer BradleySeven From The Stars / Keith Laumer Worlds Of The Imperium (1962)
F-129 SF William F. Temple The Automated Goliath / William F. Temple The Three Suns Of Amara (1962)
F-133 SF John Brunner Secret Agent of Terra / A. Bertram Chandler The Rim of Space (1962)
F-139 SF Poul Anderson The Makeshift Rocket/Un-Man and Other Stories (1962)
F-141 SF Robert Moore Williams The Darkness Before Tomorrow / John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) The Ladder In The Sky (1962)
F-145 SF Robert Silverberg Next Stop The Stars / The Seed of Earth (1962)
F-147 SF Andre Norton The Sea Siege / The Eye of The Monster (1962)
F-149 SF Robert Moore Williams King of the Fourth Planet / Charles V. de Vet and Katherine MacLean Cosmic Checkmate (1962)
F-153 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Sword of Aldones / The Planet Savers (1962)
F-161 SF John Brunner Times Without Number / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnel) Destinies Orbit (1962)
F-165 SF Philip José Farmer Cache From Outer Space / The Celestial Blueprint (1962)
F-173 SF James White Second Ending / Samuel R. Delany The Jewels of Aptor (1962)
F-177 SF Terry Carr Warlord of Kor / Robert Moore Williams The Star Wasps (1963)
F-185 SF Jack Vance 5 Gold Bands / The Dragon Masters (1963)
F-187 SF Leigh Brackett Alpha Centauri or Die! / G. McDonald Wallis Legend of Lost Earth (1963)
F-195 SF Robert Silverberg The Silent Invaders / William F. Temple Battle on Venus (1963)
F-199 SF John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) The Psionic Menace / Samuel R. Delany Captives of the Flame (1963)
F-209 SF Ken Bulmer The Wizard of the Starship Poseidon / Poul Anderson Let The Spacemen Beware! (1963)
F-215 SF John Brunner Listen! The Stars / Jane Roberts The Rebellers (1963)
F-223 SF Keith Laumer Envoy to New Worlds / Robert Moore Williams Flight From Yesterday (1963)
F-227 SF John Brunner Astronauts Musn't Land / The Space-Time Juggler (1963)
F-237 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Ship From Outside / Beyond the Galactic Rim (1963)
F-242 SF John Brunner The Rites of Ohe / Castaway World (1963)
F-249 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Hand of Zei/The Search for Zei (1963)
F-253 SF Robert Silverberg (as Calvin M. Knox) One of Our Asteroids is Missing / A. E. van Vogt The Twisted Men (1964)
F-261 SF Samuel R. Delany The Towers of Toron / Robert Moore Williams The Lunar Eye (1964)
F-265 SF Jack Vance The Houses of Iszm / Son of The Tree (1964)
F-273 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Falcons of Narabedla / The Dark Intruder (1964)
F-275 SF Philip E. High No Truce With Terra / Murray Leinster The Duplicators (1964)
F-285 SF Fritz Leiber Ships to the Stars / Ken Bulmer The Million Year Hunt (1964)
F-289 SF Ken Bulmer Demons' World / Tom Purdom I Want the Stars (1964)
F-299 SF John Brunner Endless Shadow/ Gardner Fox The Arsenal of Miracles (1964)
M Series
M-101 SF Leigh Brackett The Secret of Sinharat / People of the Talisman (1964)
M-103 SF Fred Saberhagen The Golden People / Lan Wright Exile From Xanadu (1964)
M-105 SF Margaret St. Clair Message From the Eocene / Three Worlds of Futurity (1964)
M-107 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Coils of Time / Into The Alternate Universe (1964)
M-109 SF G.C. Edmondson Stranger Than You Think / The Ship That Sailed the Time Stream (1965)
M-111 SF Edmond Hamilton Fugitive of the Stars / Kenneth Bulmer Land Beyond the Map (1965)
M-113 SF Damon Knight Off Center / The Rithian Terror (1965)
M-115 SF John Brunner The Repairmen of Cyclops / Enigma From Tantalus (1965)
M-117 SF Bruce W. Ronald Our Man in Space / Jack Sharkey Ultimatum in 2050 A.D. (1965)
M-121 SF Emil Petaja Alpha Yes, Terra No! / Samuel R. Delany The Ballad of Beta-2 (1965)
M-123 SF John Brunner The Altar on Asconel / Ted White Android Avenger (1965)
M-125 SF Jack Vance Monsters in Orbit / The World Between and Other Stories (1965)
M-127 SF John Rackham We, The Venusians / Fred Saberhagen The Water of Thought (1965)
M-129 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Alternate Martians / A. Bertram Chandler Empress of Outer Space (1965)
M-131 SF Kenneth Bulmer Behold The Stars / Mack Reynolds Planetary Agent X (1965)
M-133 SF A. Bertram Chandler Space Mercenaries / Emil Petaja The Caves of Mars (1965)
M-135 SF Philip E. High The Mad Metropolis / Murray Leinster Space Captain (1966)
M-139 SF Samuel R. Delany Empire Star / Tom Purdom The Tree Lord of Imeton (1966)
M-141 SF Jack Vance The Brains of Earth / The Many Worlds of Magnus Ridolph (1966)
G Series
G-574 SF Avram Davidson The Kar-Chee Reign / Ursula K. Le Guin Rocannon's World (1966)
G-576 SF John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) Danger From Vega / Avram Davidson Clash of Star-Kings (1966)
G-580 SF Mack Reynolds Dawnman Planet / Claude Nunes Inherit the Earth (1966)
G-585 SF John W. Campbell The Planeteers / The Ultimate Weapon (1966)
G-588 SF Lin Carter The Star Magicians / John Baxter The Off-Worlders (1966)
G-592 SF John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) The Beasts of Kohl / John Brunner A Planet Of Your Own (1966)
G-597 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Planet of Exile / Thomas M. Disch Mankind Under the Leash (1966)
G-602 SF Jack Jardine and Julie Jardine (jointly as Howard L. Cory) The Mind Monsters / Philip K. Dick The Unteleported Man (1966)
G-606 SF John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) Time to Live / Lin Carter The Man Without a Planet (1966)
G-609 SF Philip E. High Reality Forbidden / A. Bertram Chandler Contraband From Otherspace (1967)
G-614 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Shock Wave / Frederick L. Shaw, Jr. Envoy to the Dog Star (1967)
G-618 SF Emil Petaja The Stolen Sun / H. Warner Munn The Ship From Atlantis (1967)
G-623 SF Philip E. High These Savage Futurians / John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) The Double Invaders (1967)
G-632 SF A. Bertram Chandler Nebula Alert / Mack Reynolds The Rival Rigelians (1967)
H Series
H-20 SF Kenneth Bulmer The Key to Irunium / Alan Schwartz The Wandering Tellurian (1967)
H-21 SF Jack Vance The Last Castle / Tony Russell Wayman World Of The Sleeper (1967)
H-22 SF Tom Purdom Five Against Arlane / Emil Petaja Lord of the Green Planet (1967)
H-27 SF Juanita Coulson Crisis on Cheiron / E. C. Tubb The Winds of Gath (1967)
H-29 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond The Lost Millennium / A. Bertram Chandler The Road to the Rim (1967)
H-34 SF Mack Reynolds Computer War / E. C. Tubb Death is a Dream (1967)
H-36 SF Emil Petaja Tramontane / Michael Moorcock The Wrecks Of Time (1967)
H-40 SF E. C. Tubb C.O.D. Mars / John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) Alien Sea (1968)
H-48 SF Ellen Wobig The Youth Monopoly / Lan Wright The Pictures Of Pavanne (1968)
H-51 SF John M. Faucette Crown Of Infinity / Emil Petaja The Prism (1968)
H-56 SF Ernest Hill Pity About Earth / R. A. Lafferty Space Chantey (1968)
H-59 SF Philip E. High The Time Mercenaries / Louis Trimble Anthropol (1968)
H-65 SF Mack Reynolds Mercenary From Tomorrow / Kenneth Bulmer The Key to Venudine (1968)
H-70 SF Dean R. Koontz Star Quest / Emil Petaja Doom of the Green Planet (1968)
H-77 SF Juanita Coulson The Singing Stones / E. C. Tubb Derai (1968)
H-85 SF Philip E. High Invader on My Back / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) and Lin Carter Destination: Saturn (1968)
H-91 SF Laurence M. Janifer and S.J. Treibich Target Terra / John Rackham The Proxima Project (1968)
H-95 SF Clifford D. Simak So Bright the Vision / Jeff Sutton The Man Who Saw Tomorrow (1968)
H-103 SF Mack Reynolds Code Duello / John M. Faucette The Age of Ruin (1968)
Numbered Series
22600 SF Dean R. Koontz The Fall Of The Dream Machine / Kenneth Bulmer The Star Venturers (January 1969)
72400 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Rim Gods / Laurence M. Janifer The High Hex (February 1969)
30300 SF Fritz Leiber The Green Millennium / Night Monsters (March 1969)
37250 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Brass Dragon / John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) Ipomoea (April 1969)
23140 SF Dean R. Koontz Fear That Man / E. C. Tubb Toyman (May 1969)
77710 SF Robert Lory The Eyes Of Bolsk / Mack Reynolds The Space Barbarians (June 1969)
81680 SF John Jakes Tonight We Steal The Stars / Laurence M. Janifer and S. J. Treibich The Wagered World (July 1969)
12140 SF Brian M. Stableford Cradle of the Sun / Kenneth Bulmer The Wizards of Senchuria (August 1969)
42800 SF E. C. Tubb Kalin/ Alex Dain The Bane of Kanthos (September 1969)
23775 SF Barry N. Malzberg (as K.M. O'Donnell) Final War and Other Fantasies / John Rackham Treasure of Tau Ceti (October 1969)
42900 SF Lin Carter Tower Of The Medusa / George H. Smith Kar Kaballa (November 1969)
66160 SF Nick Kamin Earthrim / Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Phoenix Ship (December 1969)
89250 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Winds Of Darkover / John Rackham The Anything Tree (January 1970)
06707 SF Brian M. Stableford The Blind Worm / Emil Petaja Seed of the Dreamers (February 1970)
81610 SF Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) To Venus! To Venus! / E. C. Tubb The Jester at Scar (March 1970)
27235 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Gallaghers Glacier / Positive Charge (April 1970)
24100 SF John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) Flower of Doradil / Thomas Edward Renn (as Jeremy Strike) A Promising Planet (May 1970)
76096 SF Jeff Sutton Alton's Unguessable / Kenneth Bulmer The Ships of Durostorum (June 1970)
52180 SF Robert Lory A Harvest Of Hoodwinks / Masters Of The Lamp (July 1970)
78400 SF John Jakes Mask of Chaos / Barrington Bayley The Star Virus (August 1970)
51375 SF Philip José Farmer The Mad Goblin / Philip José Farmer Lord of the Trees (September 1970)
11560 SF Suzette Haden Elgin The Communipaths / Louis Trimble The Noblest Experiment In The Galaxy (October 1970)
13793 SF Dean R. Koontz Soft Come the Dragons / Dark of the Woods (November 1970)
27400 SF Neal Barrett, Jr. The Gates of Time / Barry N. Malzberg (as K.M. O'Donnell) Dwellers of the Deep (December 1970)
58880 SF Sam Lundwall Alice's World / No Time For Heroes (January 1971)
05595 SF Kenneth Bulmer Electric Sword Swallowers / John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) Beyond Capella (February 1971)
11182 SF Ron Goulart Clockwork Pirates / Ghost Breaker (March 1971)
71082 SF Claudia Nunes and Rhoda Nunes Recoil / E. C. Tubb Lallia (April 1971)
13783 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Dark Dimensions / Alternate Orbits (May 1971)
13805 SF John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) Dark Planet / Robert J. Antonick (as Nick Kamin) The Herod Men (June 1971)
77785 SF Eric Frank Russell Six Worlds Yonder 6 unrelated stories. / The Space Willies A spoof on Scientology. (July 1971)
68310 SF John Glasby Project Jove / Kenneth Bulmer The Hunters of Jundagai (August 1971)
27415 SF Barry N. Malzberg (as K.M. O'Donnell) Gather in the Hall of Planets / In the Pocket and Other S-F Stories (September 1971)
66525 SF Murray Leinster The Mutant Weapon / Pirates of Zan (October 1971)
75781 SF Leigh Brackett The Secret of Sinharat / Leigh Brackett People of the Talisman (November 1971)
77525 SF Jack Vance Son of the Tree / The Houses of Iszm (December 1971)
33710 SF Neal Barrett Jr. Highwood / Barrington Bayley Annihilation Factor (January 1972)
15890 SF A. Bertram Chandler Rendezvous On A Lost World / Marion Zimmer Bradley The Door Through Space (February 1972)
79975 SF E. C. Tubb Technos / E. C. Tubb A Scatter of Stardust (March 1972)
16640 SF Jack Vance The Dragon Masters / 5 Gold Bands (April 1972)
00990 SF Susan K. Putney Against Arcturus / Dean R. Koontz Time Thieves (May 1972)
37062 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Inheritors / The Gateway to Never (June 1972)
10293 SF John T. Phillifent (as John Rackham) Earthstrings / Ken Bulmer The Chariots of Ra (July 1972)
06612 SF Mack Reynolds Blackman's Burden / Border, Breed Nor Birth (August 1972)
15697 SF Philip K. Dick The Unteleported Man / Dr. Futurity (September 1972)
31755 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Hard Way Up / Robert Lory The Veiled World (October 1972)
11451 SF A. Bertram Chandler Coils of Time / Into The Alternate Universe (November 1972)
22576 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Falcons of Narabedla / The Dark Intruder & Other Stories (December 1972)
76960 SF Lester del Rey Badge of Infamy / The Sky is Falling (January 1973)
11650 SF Mack Reynolds Computer War / Code Duello (February 1973)
93900 SF Ross Rocklynne The Sun Destroyers / Edmond Hamilton A Yank at Valhalla (March 1973)
16641 SF Jack Vance The Dragon Masters / The Last Castle (April 1973)
53415 SF John T. Phillifent Hierarchies / Doris Piserchia Mister Justice (May 1973)
76380 SF William F. Temple Battle on Venus / William F. Temple The Three Suns of Amara (June 1973)
89301 SF E. C. Tubb Derai / The Winds of Gath (July 1973)
48245 SF John T. Phillifent Life With Lancelot / William Barton Hunting on Kunderer (August 1973)
Serial number 48245, above, was the last Ace Double published in the tête-bêche format. The remainder of the books listed in this section contain two novels, but are published in the traditional way with a single cover and the text the same way up throughout the book. Another Ace SF double(G-723-Andre Norton-Star Hunter/Voodoo Planet) was published in 1968 as a traditional reprint in the second G series (begun in 1964). G-723 was the only traditionally printed SF double included in that series and thus does not fit under any of the categories listed here.
66995 SF Mack Reynolds The Rival Rigelians / Planetary Agent X (June 1974)
14250 SF Mack Reynolds Depression Or Bust / Dawnman Planet (September 1974)
20571 SF Samuel R. Delany The Ballad of Beta-2 / Empire Star (October 1975)
24035 SF Mack Reynolds The Five Way Secret Agent / Mercenary from Tomorrow (November 1974)
The remaining novels do not have complete date information, so they are sorted in numerical order of the serial number. Note that the following are also not in tête-bêche format.
01685 SF Gordon R. Dickson Alien Art / Arcturus Landing (June 1981)
11555 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Commodore at Sea / Spartan Planet (June 1979)
11556 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Commodore at Sea / Spartan Planet (September 1981; same cover as 11555-1)
11705 SF Robert Silverberg Conquerors From the Darkness / Master of Life and Death (July 1979)
24890 SF H. Beam Piper Four-Day Planet / Lone Star Planet (April 1979)
24892 SF H. Beam Piper Four-Day Planet / H. Beam Piper and John J. McGuire Lone Star Planet (September 1984)
37063 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Inheritors / The Gateway to Never (June 1978)
37064 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Inheritors / The Gateway to Never (September 1981)
37108 SF A. Bertram Chandler Into the Alternate Universe / Contraband From Otherspace (March 1979)
37109 SF A. Bertram Chandler Into the Alternate Universe / Contraband From Otherspace (September 1981)
37130 SF Robert Silverberg Invaders From Earth / To Worlds Beyond (July 1980)
37365 SF Robert E. Howard The Iron Man / The Adventures of Dennis Dorgan
49252 SF Philip José Farmer Lord of the Trees / The Mad Goblin (May 1980)
65874 SF Robert Sheckley The People Trap / Mindswap (August 1981)
66093 SF Walter Ernsting (as Clark Darlton) Perry Rhodan 109 The Stolen Spacefleet / Klaus Mahn (as Kurt Mahr) Perry Rhodan 110 Sgt. Robot
66094 SF Willi Voltz (as William Voltz) Perry Rhodan 111 Seeds of Ruin / K. H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 112 Planet Mechanica
66095 SF Walter Ernsting (as Clark Darlton) Perry Rhodan 113 Heritage of the Lizard People / Klaus Mahn (as Kurt Mahr) Perry Rhodan 114 Death's Demand
66096 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 115 Saboteurs in A-1 / Willi Voltz (as William Voltz) Perry Rhodan 116 The Psycho Duel
66097 SF K. H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 117 Savior of the Empire / Walter Ernsting (as Clark Darlton) Perry Rhodan 118 The Shadows Attack
66098 SF Winfried Scholz (as W.W. Shols) Perry Rhodan The Wasp Men Attack / Ernst Vlcek Atlan #1: Spider Desert
66099 SF Klaus Mahn (as Kurt Mahr) Perry Rhodan Menace of Atomigeddon / Walter Ernsting (as Clark Darlton) Atlan #2: Flight from Tarkihl
66121 SF Winfried Scholz (as W.W. Shols) Perry Rhodan Robot Threat: New York / Hanns Kneifel (as Hans Kneifel) Atlan #3: Pale Country Pursuit
66128 SF K. H. Scheer Perry Rhodan Atlan #4: The Crystal Prince / Walter Ernsting (as Clark Darlton) Atlan #5: War of the Ghosts
67021 SF Marion Zimmer BradleyThe Planet Savers / The Sword of Aldones (April 1980)
67025 SF Marion Zimmer BradleyThe Planet Savers / The Sword of Aldones (1983)
67026 SF Marion Zimmer BradleyThe Planet Savers / The Sword of Aldones (August 1985)
67027 SF Marion Zimmer BradleyThe Planet Savers / The Sword of Aldones (1987)
72401 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Rim Gods / The Dark Dimension (August 1978)
72402 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Rim of Space / The Ship From Outside (November 1979)
72403 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Rim Gods / The Dark Dimension (September 1981)
73100 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Road to the Rim / The Hard Way Up (April 1978)
73101 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Road to the Rim / The Hard Way Up (1979)
73102 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Road to the Rim / The Hard Way Up (September 1981)
73390 SF Avram Davidson Rogue Dragon / The Kar-Chee Reign (March 1979)
78537 SF Robert Sheckley The Status Civilization / Notions: Unlimited (November 1979)
81237 SF Gordon R. Dickson Time to Teleport / Delusion World (July 1981)
86495 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Tower of Zanid / The Virgin of Zesh (February 1983)
References
Ace Image Library. Contains images of most covers for the doubles in all genres, as well as many of the single titles.
Bookscans. Contains numerous images of the Ace covers.
Corrick, James A. Double Your Pleasure: The Ace SF Double, Gryphon Books, 1989. . A historical article, followed by a checklist of the SF Doubles, giving prior publication history for the contents of each one.
Thiessen, J. Grant Science Fiction Collector #1, Pandora's Books, 1976. Includes Ace Double checklist.
Thiessen, J. Grant Science Fiction Collector #2, Pandora's Books, date unknown. Includes errata for checklist in #1.
Tuck, Donald H. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Volume 3, Advent: Publishers, Inc., 1982. . Lists all ACE sf titles, single and double, published through 1968.
The following references have not been seen but cover the Ace Doubles:
Jaffery, Sheldon Double Trouble: A Bibliographic Chronicle of Ace Mystery Doubles, Starmont Popular Culture Series no. 11, Borgo Press, 1987. .
Jaffery, Sheldon Double Futures: An Annotated Bibliography of the Ace Science Fiction Doubles, Borgo Press, 1999. .
Peters, Harold R. Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror in the Ace Letter-Series Editions: A Collector's Notebook, Silver Sun Press, 1996.
SF Double Titles
Ace SF Double Titles
Ace SF Double Titles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20theatre%20of%20World%20War%20I
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African theatre of World War I
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The African Theatre of the First World War comprises campaigns in North Africa instigated by the German and Ottoman empires, local rebellions against European colonial rule and Allied campaigns against the German colonies of Kamerun, Togoland, German South West Africa, and German East Africa. The campaigns were fought by German , local resistance movements and forces of the British Empire, France, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal.
Background
Strategic context
German colonies in Africa had been acquired in the 1880s and were not well defended. They were also surrounded by territories controlled by Britain, France, Belgium and Portugal. Colonial military forces in Africa were relatively small, poorly equipped and had been created to maintain internal order, rather than conduct military operations against other colonial forces. The Berlin Conference of 1884 had provided for European colonies in Africa to be neutral if war broke out in Europe; in 1914 none of the European powers had plans to challenge their opponents for control of overseas colonies. When news of the outbreak of war reached European colonialists in Africa, it was met by little of the enthusiasm seen in the capital cities of the states which maintained colonies. An editorial in the East African Standard on 22 August argued that Europeans in Africa should not fight each other but instead collaborate to maintain the repression of the indigenous population. War was against the interest of the white colonialists because they were small in number, many of the European conquests were recent, unstable and operated through existing local structures of power; the organisation of African economic potential for European profit had only recently begun.
In Britain, an Offensive sub-committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence was appointed on 5 August and established a principle that command of the seas was to be ensured and that objectives were considered only if they could be attained with local forces and if the objective assisted the priority of maintaining British sea communications, as British Army garrisons abroad were returned to Europe in an "Imperial Concentration". Attacks on German coaling stations and wireless stations were considered to be important to clear the seas of Imperial German Navy commerce raiders. The objectives were at Luderitz Bay, Windhoek, Duala and Dar-es-Salaam in Africa and a German wireless station in Togoland, next to the British colony of Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, which were considered vulnerable to attack by local or allied forces and in the Far East, which led to the Siege of Tsingtao.
North Africa
Zaian War, 1914–1921
Attempts were made by the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire to influence conditions in the French colonies by intriguing with the potentates who had been ousted by the French. Spanish authorities in the region informally tolerated the distribution of propaganda and money but thwarted a German plot to smuggle 5,000 rifles and 500,000 bullets through Spain. The maintained several agents in North Africa but had only two in Morocco. The Zaian War was fought between France and the Zaian confederation of Berber people in French Morocco between 1914 and 1921. Morocco had become a French protectorate in 1912 and the French Army extended French influence eastwards through the Middle Atlas mountains towards French Algeria. The Zaians, led by Mouha ou Hammou Zayani quickly lost the towns of Taza and Khénifra but managed to inflict many casualties on the French, who responded by establishing , combined arms formations of regular and irregular infantry, cavalry and artillery. By 1914 the French had in Morocco but two-thirds were withdrawn from 1914 to 1915 for service in France and at the Battle of El Herri (13 November 1914) more than soldiers were killed. Hubert Lyautey, the governor, reorganised his forces and pursued a forward policy rather than passive defence. The French regained most of the lost territory, despite intelligence and financial support from the Central Powers to the Zaian Confederation and raids which caused losses to the French when already short of manpower.
Senussi campaign, 1915–1917
Before 1906, when the Senussi became involved in resistance against the French, they had been a "relatively peaceful religious sect of the Sahara Desert, opposed to fanaticism". In the Italo-Turkish War Italian forces occupied enclaves along the Libyan coast and the Senussi resisted from the interior, maintaining generally friendly relations with the British in Egypt. In 1913, the Italians had been defeated at the action of Etangi but in 1914 Italian reinforcements led to a revival and by January the Senussi were in south-eastern Cyrenaica. The Senussi had about armed with modern rifles, with ammunition from a factory which produced a day. Intermittent fighting continued between the Italians in fortified towns and the Senussi ranging through the desert. The British declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 5 November and the leadership of the Ottoman Empire encouraged the Senussi to attack Egypt from the west. The Ottomans wanted the Senussi to conduct operations against the rear of the defenders of the Suez Canal; the Ottomans had failed in previous attacks against British forces from Sinai in the east and wanted them to be distracted by attacks from the opposite direction.
Coastal campaign, 1915–1916
On 6 November, the German submarine U–35 torpedoed and sank a steamer, , in the Bay of Sollum. U-35 surfaced, sank the coastguard gunboat Abbas and badly damaged Nur el Bahr with its deck gun. On 14 November the Senussi attacked an Egyptian position at Sollum and on the night of 17 November, a party of Senussi fired into Sollum as another party cut the coast telegraph line. Next night a monastery at Sidi Barrani, beyond Sollum, was occupied by 300 and on the night of 19 November, a coastguard was killed. An Egyptian post was attacked east of Sollum on 20 November. The British withdrew from Sollum to Mersa Matruh, further east, which had better facilities for a base and the Western Frontier Force (Major-General A. Wallace) was created. On 11 December, a British column sent to Duwwar Hussein was attacked along the Matruh–Sollum track and in the Affair of Wadi Senba, drove the Senussi out of the wadi. The reconnaissance continued and on 13 December at Wadi Hasheifiat, the British were attacked again and held up until artillery came into action in the afternoon and forced the Senussi to retreat.
The British returned to Matruh until 25 December and then made a night advance to surprise the Senussi. At the Affair of Wadi Majid, the Senussi were defeated but were able to withdraw to the west. Air reconnaissance found more Senussi encampments in the vicinity of Matruh at Halazin, which was attacked on 23 January, in the Affair of Halazin. The Senussi fell back skilfully and then attempted to envelop the British flanks. The British were pushed back on the flanks as the centre advanced and defeated the main body of Senussi, who were again able to withdraw. In February 1916, the Western Frontier Force was reinforced and a British column was sent west along the coast to re-capture Sollum. Air reconnaissance discovered a Senussi encampment at Agagia, which was attacked in the action of Agagia on 26 February. The Senussi were defeated and then intercepted by the Dorset Yeomanry as they withdrew; the Yeomanry charged across open ground swept by machine-gun and rifle fire. The British lost half their horses and men but prevented the Senussi from slipping away. Jafar Pasha, the commander of the Senussi forces on the coast, was captured and Sollum was re-occupied by British forces on 14 March 1916, which concluded the coastal campaign.
Band of Oases campaign, 1916–1917
On 11 February 1916 Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, leader of the Senussi order in Cyrenaica, occupied Bahariya Oasis in Giza, which was then attacked by British Royal Flying Corps bombers. Farafra Oasis was occupied at the same time and then the Senussi moved on to Dakhla Oasis on 27 February. The British responded by forming the Southern Force at Beni Suef. Egyptian officials at Kharga Oasis were withdrawn and the oasis was occupied by the Senussi until they withdrew without being attacked. The British reoccupied the oasis on 15 April and began to extend the light railway terminus at Kharga to the Moghara Oasis. The mainly Australian Imperial Camel Corps patrolled on camels and in light Ford Motor Company cars to cut off the Senussi from the Nile Valley. Preparations to attack Bahariya Oasis were detected by the Senussi garrison, which withdrew to Siwa in early October. The Southern Force attacked the Senussi in the Affairs in the Dakhla Oasis , after which the Senussi retreated to their base at Siwa.
In January 1917, a British column including the Light Armoured Car Brigade with Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars and three Light Car Patrols was dispatched to Siwa. On 3 February the armoured cars surprised and engaged the Senussi at Girba, who retreated overnight. Siwa was entered on 4 February without opposition but a British ambush party at the Munassib Pass was foiled, when the escarpment was found to be too steep for the armoured cars. The light cars managed to descend the escarpment and captured a convoy on 4 February. Next day the Senussi from Girba were intercepted but managed to establish a post the cars were unable to reach and then warned the rest of the Senussi. The British force returned to Matruh on 8 February and Sayyid Ahmed withdrew to Jaghbub. Negotiations between Sayed Idris and the Anglo-Italians which had begun in late January were galvanised by news of the Senussi defeat at Siwa. In the accords of Akramah, Idris accepted the British terms on 12 April and those of Italy on 14 April.
Volta-Bani War, 1915–1917
The Volta-Bani War was an anti-colonial rebellion that took place in parts of French West Africa (now Burkina Faso and Mali) between 1915 and 1917. It was a war between an indigenous African army, a heterogeneous coalition of peoples against the French Army. At its height in 1916, the indigenous forces mustered from 15,000–20,000 men and fought on several fronts. After about a year and several setbacks, the French army defeated the insurgents and jailed or executed their leaders but resistance continued until 1917.
Darfur Expedition, 1916
On 1 March 1916 hostilities began between the Sudanese government and the Sultanate of Darfur. The Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition was conducted to forestall an imagined invasion of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the Sultanate of Egypt by the Darfurian leader, Sultan Ali Dinar, which was believed to have been synchronised with a Senussi advance into Egypt from the west. The Sirdar (commander) of the Egyptian Army organised a force of men at Rahad, a railhead east of the Darfur frontier. On 16 March, the force crossed the frontier mounted in lorries from a forward base established at Nahud, from the border, with the support of four aircraft. By May the force was close to the Darfur capital of El Fasher. At the Affair of Beringia on 22 May, the Fur Army was defeated and the Anglo-Egyptian force captured the capital the next day. Dinar and had left before their arrival and as they moved south, were bombed from the air.
French troops in Chad who had returned from the Kamerun campaign prevented a Darfurian withdrawal westwards. Dinar withdrew into the Marra Mountains south of El Fasher and sent envoys to discuss terms but the British believed he was prevaricating and ended the talks on 1 August. Internal dissension reduced the force with Dinar to men; Anglo-Egyptian outposts were pushed out from El Fasher to the west and southwest after the August rains. A skirmish took place at Dibbis on 13 October and Dinar opened negotiations but was again suspected of bad faith. Dinar fled southwest to Gyuba and a small force was sent in pursuit. At dawn on 6 November, the Anglo-Egyptians attacked in the Affair of Gyuba and Dinar's remaining followers scattered. The body of the Sultan was found from the camp. After the expedition, Darfur was incorporated into Sudan.
Kaocen revolt, 1916–1917
Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen (1880–1919), the Amenokal (Chief) of the Ikazkazan Tuareg confederation, had attacked French colonial forces from 1909. The Sanusiya leadership in the Fezzan oasis town of Kufra declared Jihad against the French colonialists in October 1914. The Sultan of Agadez convinced the French that the Tuareg confederations remained loyal and Kaocen's forces besieged the garrison on 17 December 1916. Kaocen, his brother Mokhtar Kodogo and Tuareg raiders, armed with rifles and a field gun captured from the Royal Italian Army in Libya, defeated several French relief columns. The Tuareg seized the main towns of the Aïr, including Ingall, Assodé and Aouderas. Modern northern Niger came under rebel control for over three months. On 3 March 1917, a large French force from Zinder relieved the Agadez garrison and began to recapture the towns. Mass reprisals were taken against the town populations, especially against marabouts, though many were neither Tuareg or rebels. The French summarily killed in public in Agadez and Ingal. Kaocen fled north; in 1919 he was killed by local militia in Mourzouk. Kaocen's brother was killed by the French in 1920 after a revolt he led amongst the Toubou and Fula in the Sultanate of Damagaram was defeated.
Somaliland campaign, 1914–1918
In British Somaliland, Diiriye Guure, sultan of the Dervish state, continued his campaign against Ethiopian and European encroachment. In March 1914, forty Dervishes had ridden to attack Berbera, the capital of British Somaliland, which caused considerable panic; in November, troops of the Somaliland Camel Corps, with 600 Somali and 650 Indian Army troops, captured three forts at Shimber Berris and then had to return in February 1915 to take them again. The British adopted a policy of containment given their slender resources and tried to keep Sayyid and his 6,000 supporters penned in eastern Somaliland, to encourage desertion and ruthless killings of his own men by Sayyid, which succeeded. British prestige depended on the protection of friendly Somali areas and the deterrence of those Somali peoples inspired by Sayyid from crossing into the East Africa Protectorate (British East Africa, now Kenya).
When the Ottoman Empire entered the war in November 1914, the British colonial authorities in British East Africa became apprehensive of attacks from the Muslims of Ethiopia and Somaliland but none transpired until 1916, when trouble also broke out in some Muslim units of the Indian Army stationed in East Africa, including desertions and self-inflicted wounds. In February, about 500 Aulihan warriors from Somaliland captured a British fort at Serenli and killed 65 soldiers of the garrison and their British officer. The British retired from their main fort in the north-east at Wajir and it was not for two years that the Aulihan were defeated. The complications caused by the Ottoman call to Jihad had put the British to considerable trouble in East Africa and elsewhere, to avoid the growth of a pan-Muslim movement. Even when the Ottoman call had little effect, the British were fearful of an African Jihad. To impress the Somali people, some elders were taken to Egypt in 1916 to view the military might of the British empire. The warships, railways and prison camps full of German and Ottoman soldiers made a great impression, which was increased by the outbreak of the Arab Revolt in June.
West Africa
Togoland campaign, 1914
The Togoland Campaign (9–26 August 1914) was a French and British invasion of the German colony of Togoland in West Africa (which became Togo and the Volta Region of Ghana after independence) during the First World War. The colony was invaded on 6 August, by French forces from Dahomey to the east and on 9 August by British forces from Gold Coast to the west. German colonial forces withdrew from the capital Lomé and the coastal province and then fought delaying actions on the route north to Kamina, where a new wireless station linked Berlin to Togoland, the Atlantic and South America. The main British and French force from the neighbouring colonies of Gold Coast and Dahomey advanced from the coast up the road and railway, as smaller forces converged on Kamina from the north. The German defenders were able to delay the invaders for several days at the battles of Bafilo, Agbeluvhoe and Chra but surrendered the colony on 26 August 1914. In 1916, Togoland was partitioned by the victors and in July 1922, British Togoland and French Togoland were created as League of Nations mandates. The French acquisition consisted of of the colony, including the coast. The British received the smaller, less populated and less developed portion of Togoland to the west. The surrender of Togoland was the beginning of the end for the German colonial empire in Africa.
Bussa uprising, 1915
In the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria (now Nigeria), the British policy of indirect rule through local proxies was extended after the outbreak of the First World War, when British colonial officers and troops were withdrawn for war service. The British became more dependent on local emirs but in Bussa, the re-organisation of local government in 1912 overthrew the authority of the traditional ruler. The hereditary Emir of Bussa, Kitoro Gani was moved aside and the Borgu Emirate was divided, each area ruled by a (native administration). In June 1915, about 600 rebels, armed with bows and arrows occupied Bussa, captured and killed half of the new native administration; the survivors fled the district. The rebellion caused panic because the British authorities were so short of troops. A small force from the West African Frontier Force (WAFF) and the Nigeria police moved into Bussa and skirmished with the rebels. No soldiers were killed and only 150 shots were fired. Sabukki, one of the ringleaders fled to nearby French Dahomey and the rebellion was suppressed.
The war in Nigeria played a role in British politics during the war. At the beginning of the war, the British government seized foreign expatriate firms in the lucrative palm oil trade owned by the Central Powers. Merchants based in Liverpool wanted to establish a British monopoly over the trade, but the ruling Liberal Party under Prime Minister H. H. Asquith favoured allowing international competition. Although the issue was insignificant, it allowed Conservatives dissatisfied with their party's exclusion from key posts and decision-making in the Asquith coalition ministry to stage a parliamentary revolt. On November 8, 1916, Edward Carson attacked Conservative Party Leader Bonar Law for supporting the Liberal position and led a successful vote against the party leadership on the issue. This began the downfall of Asquith's government and its replacement by a new coalition government of Conservatives and Coalition Liberals led by David Lloyd George, with Asquith and the majority of the Liberals going into opposition.
Kamerun campaign, 1914–1916
By 25 August 1914, British forces in Nigeria had moved into Kamerun towards Mara in the far north, towards Garua in the centre and towards Nsanakang in the south. British forces moving towards Garua under the command of Colonel MacLear were ordered to push to the German border post at Tepe near Garua. The first engagement between British and German troops in the campaign took place at the Battle of Tepe, eventually resulting in German withdrawal. In the far north British forces attempted to take the German fort at Mora but failed and began a siege which lasted until the end of the campaign. British forces in the south attacked Nsanakang and were defeated and almost completely destroyed by German counterattacks at the Battle of Nsanakong. MacLear then pushed his forces further inland towards the German stronghold of Garua but was repulsed in the First Battle of Garua on 31 August.
In 1915 the German forces, except for those at Mora and Garua, withdrew to the mountains near the new capital of Jaunde. In the spring the German forces delayed or repulsed Allied attacks and a force under Captain von Crailsheim from Garua conducted an offensive into Nigeria and fought the Battle of Gurin. General Frederick Hugh Cunliffe began the Second Battle of Garua in June, which was a British victory. Allied units in northern Kamerun were freed to push into the interior, where the Germans were defeated at the Battle of Ngaundere on 29 June. Cunliffe advanced south to Jaunde but was held up by heavy rains and his force joined the Siege of Mora. When the weather improved, Cunliffe moved further south, captured a German fort at the Battle of Banjo on 6 November and occupied several towns by the end of the year. In December, the forces of Cunliffe and Dobell made contact and made ready to conduct an assault on Jaunde. In this year most of had been fully occupied by Belgian and French troops, who also began to prepare for an attack on Jaunde.
German forces began to cross into the Spanish colony of Rio Muni on 23 December 1915 and with Allied forces pressing in on Jaunde from all sides, the German commander Carl Zimmermann ordered the remaining German units and civilians to escape into Rio Muni. By mid-February, and civilians had reached Spanish territory. On 18 February the Siege of Mora ended with the surrender of the garrison. Most Kamerunians remained in Muni but the Germans eventually moved to Fernando Po and some were allowed by Spain to travel to the Netherlands to go home. Some Kamerunians including the paramount chief of the Beti people moved to Madrid, where they lived as visiting nobility on German funds.
Adubi War, 1918
The Adubi War was an uprising that occurred in June and July 1918 in the British Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, because of taxation introduced by the colonial government. Direct taxes were introduced by the colonial government along with existing forced labour obligations and various fees. On 7 June, the British arrested 70 Egba chiefs and issued an ultimatum that resisters should lay down their arms, pay the taxes and obey the local leaders. On 11 June, a party of soldiers returned from East Africa were brought in and on 13 July, Egba rebels pulled up railway lines at Agbesi and derailed a train. Other rebels demolished the station at Wasimi and killed the British agent and Oba Osile was attacked. Hostilities between the rebels and colonial troops continued for about three weeks at Otite, Tappona, Mokoloki and Lalako but by 10 July, the rebellion had been put down, the leaders killed or arrested. About 600 people died, including the British agent and the Oba Osile, the African leader of the north-eastern Egba district, although this may have been due to a dispute over land and unconnected to the uprising. The incident led to the abrogation of Abeokutan independence in 1918 and the introduction of forced labor in the region; imposition of the direct taxes was postponed until 1925.
South West Africa
German South West Africa campaign, 1914–1915
An invasion of German South West Africa from the south failed at the Battle of Sandfontein (25 September 1914), close to the border with the Cape Colony. German fusiliers inflicted a serious defeat on the British troops and the survivors returned to British territory. The Germans began an invasion of the Union of South Africa to forestall another invasion attempt and the Battle of Kakamas took place on 4 February 1915, between the South African Union Defence Force and German Schutztruppe, a skirmish for control of two river fords over the Orange River. The South Africans prevented the Germans from gaining control of the fords and crossing the river. By February 1915, the South Africans were ready to occupy German territory. South African Prime Minister Louis Botha put Jan Smuts in command of the southern forces while he commanded the northern forces. Botha arrived at Swakopmund on 11 February and continued to build up his invasion force at Walfish Bay (or Walvis Bay), a South African enclave about halfway along the coast of German South West Africa. In March Botha began an advance from Swakopmund along the Swakop valley with its railway line and captured Otjimbingwe, Karibib, Friedrichsfelde, Wilhelmsthal and Okahandja and then entered Windhuk on 5 May 1915.
The Germans offered surrender terms, which were rejected by Botha and the war continued. On 12 May Botha declared martial law and divided his forces into four contingents, which cut off German forces in the interior from the coastal regions of Kunene and Kaokoveld and fanned out into the north-east. Lukin went along the railway line from Swakopmund to Tsumeb. The other two columns rapidly advanced on the right flank, Myburgh to Otavi junction and Manie Botha to Tsumeb and the terminus of the railway. German forces in the north-west fought the Battle of Otavi on 1 July but were defeated and surrendered at Khorab on 9 July 1915. In the south, Smuts landed at the South West African naval base at Luderitzbucht, then advanced inland and captured Keetmanshoop on 20 May. The South Africans linked with two columns which had advanced over the border from South Africa. Smuts advanced north along the railway line to Berseba and on 26 May, after two days' fighting captured Gibeon. The Germans in the south were forced to retreat northwards towards Windhuk and Botha's force. On 9 July the German forces in the south surrendered.
Maritz rebellion, 1914–1915
General Koos de la Rey, under the influence of Siener van Rensburg, a "crazed seer", believed that the outbreak of war foreshadowed the return of the republic but was persuaded by Botha and Smuts on 13 August not to rebel and on 15 August told his supporters to disperse. At a congress on 26 August, De la Rey claimed loyalty to South Africa, not Britain or Germany. The Commandant-General of the Union Defence Force, Brigadier-General Christian Frederick Beyers, opposed the war and with the other rebels, resigned his commission on 15 September. General Koos de la Rey joined Beyers and on 15 September they visited Major Jan Kemp in Potchefstroom, who had a large armoury and a force of many of whom were thought to be sympathetic. The South African government believed it to be an attempt to instigate a rebellion. Beyers claimed that it was to discuss plans for a simultaneous resignation of leading army officers, similar to the Curragh incident in Ireland.
During the afternoon De la Rey was mistakenly shot and killed by a policeman, at a roadblock set up to look for the Foster gang; many Afrikaners believed that De la Rey had been assassinated. After the funeral, the rebels condemned the war but when Botha asked them to volunteer for military service in South West Africa they accepted. Manie Maritz, at the head of a commando of Union forces on the border of German South West Africa, allied with the Germans on 7 October and issued a proclamation on behalf of a provisional government and declared war on the British on 9 October. Generals Beyers, De Wet, Maritz, Kemp and Bezuidenhout were to be the first leaders of a new South African Republic. Maritz occupied Keimoes in the Upington area. The Lydenburg commando under General De Wet took possession of the town of Heilbron, held up a train and captured government stores and ammunition.
By the end of the week, De Wet had a force of and Beyers had gathered more in the Magaliesberg. General Louis Botha had pro-government troops. The government declared martial law on 12 October and loyalists under General Louis Botha and Jan Smuts repressed the uprising. Maritz was defeated on 24 October and took refuge with the Germans; the Beyers commando force was dispersed at Commissioners Drift on 28 October, after which Beyers joined forces with Kemp and then was drowned in the Vaal River on 8 December. De Wet was captured in Bechuanaland on 2 December and Kemp, having crossed the Kalahari desert and lost and most of their horses on the journey, joined Maritz in German South West Africa and attacked across the Orange River on 22 December. Maritz advanced south again on 13 January 1915 and with German support attacked Upington on 24 January but was repulsed. Most of the rebels then surrendered on 30 January.
German invasion of Angola, 1914–1915
The campaign in southern Portuguese West Africa (modern-day Angola) took place from Portuguese forces in southern Angola were reinforced by a military expedition led by Lieutenant-Colonel Alves Roçadas, which arrived at Moçâmedes on 1 October 1914. After the loss of the wireless transmitter at Kamina in Togoland, German forces in South West Africa could not communicate easily and until July 1915 the Germans did not know if Germany and Portugal were at war (war was declared by Germany on 9 March 1916.). On 19 October 1914, an incident occurred in which fifteen Germans entered Angola without permission and were arrested at fort Naulila and in a mêlée three Germans were killed by Portuguese troops. On 31 October, German troops armed with machine guns launched a surprise attack, which became known as the Cuangar Massacre, on the small Portuguese Army outpost at Cuangar and killed eight soldiers and a civilian.
On 18 December a German force of under the command of Major Victor Franke attacked Portuguese forces at Naulila. A German shell detonated the munitions magazine at Forte Roçadas and the Portuguese were forced to withdraw from the Ovambo region to Humbe, with and taken prisoner. The Germans lost killed and Local civilians collected Portuguese weapons and rose against the colonial regime. On 7 July 1915, Portuguese forces under the command of General Pereira d'Eça reoccupied the Humbe region and conducted a reign of terror against the population. The Germans retired to the south with the northern border secure during the Ovambo Uprising, which distracted Portuguese forces from operations further south. Two days later German forces in South West Africa surrendered, ending the South West Africa Campaign.
East Africa
East African campaign, 1914–1915
Military operations, 1914–1915
On the outbreak of war there and in the King's African Rifles in East Africa. On 5 August 1914, British troops from the Uganda Protectorate attacked German outposts near Lake Victoria and on 8 August and bombarded Dar es Salaam. On 15 August, German forces in the Neu Moshi region captured Taveta on the British side of Mount Kilimanjaro. In September, the Germans raided deeper into British East Africa and Uganda and operations were conducted on Lake Victoria by a German boat armed with a QF 1 pounder pom-pom gun. The British armed the Uganda Railway lake steamers , , and and regained command of Lake Victoria, when two of the British boats trapped the tug, which was then scuttled by the crew. The Germans later raised the tug, salvaged the gun and used the boat as a transport.
The British command planned an operation to suppress German raiding and to capture the northern region of the German colony. Indian Expeditionary Force B of in two brigades would land at Tanga on 2 November 1914 to capture the city and take control the Indian Ocean terminus of the Usambara Railway. Near Kilimanjaro, Indian Expeditionary Force C of in one brigade, would advance from British East Africa on Neu-Moshi on 3 November, to the western terminus of the railway. After capturing Tanga, Force B would rapidly move north-west to join Force C and mop up the remaining Germans. Although outnumbered and Longido, the under Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck defeated the British offensive. In the United Kingdom's official History of the Great War, Charles Hordern wrote that the operation was "... one [of] the most notable failures in British military history".
Chilembwe uprising, 1915
The uprising was led by John Chilembwe, a millenarian Christian minister of the Watch-Tower Society, in the Chiradzulu district of Nyasaland (now Malawi) against colonial forced labour, racial discrimination and new demands on the population caused by the outbreak of World War I. Chilembwe rejected co-operation with Europeans in their war, when they withheld property and human rights from Africans. The revolt began in the evening of 23 January 1915, when rebels attacked a plantation and killed three colonists. In another attack early in the morning of 24 January in Blantyre, several weapons were captured. News of the insurrection was received by the colonial government on 24 January, which mobilised the settler militia and two companies of the King's African Rifles from Karonga. The soldiers and militia attacked Mbombwe on 25 January and were repulsed. The rebels later attacked a nearby Christian mission and during the night fled from Mbombwe to Portuguese East Africa. On 26 January government forces took Mbombwe unopposed and Chilembwe was later killed by a police patrol, near the border with Portuguese East African border. In the repression after the rebellion, more than were killed and were imprisoned.
Naval operations, 1914–1916
Battle of the Rufiji Delta, 1915
A light cruiser, of the Imperial German Navy, was in the Indian Ocean when war was declared. Königsberg sank the cruiser HMS Pegasus in Zanzibar City harbour and then retired into the Rufiji River delta. After being cornered by warships of the British Cape Squadron, two monitors, and , armed with guns, were towed to the Rufiji from Malta by the Red Sea and arrived in June 1915. On 6 July, clad in extra armour and covered by a bombardment from the fleet, the monitors entered the river. The ships were engaged by shore-based weapons hidden among trees and undergrowth. Two aircraft based at Mafia Island observed the fall of shells, during an exchange of fire at a range of with Königsberg, which had assistance from shore-based spotters.
Mersey was hit twice, six crew killed and its gun disabled; Severn was straddled but hit Königsberg several times, before the spotter aircraft returned to base. An observation party was seen in a tree and killed and when a second aircraft arrived both monitors resumed fire. German return fire diminished in quantity and accuracy and later in the afternoon the British ships withdrew. The monitors returned on 11 June and hit Königsberg with the eighth salvo and within ten minutes the German ship could only reply with three guns. A large explosion was seen at At seven explosions occurred. By Königsberg was a mass of flames. The British salvaged six guns from the Pegasus, which became known as the Peggy guns, and the crew of Königsberg salvaged the main battery guns of their ship and joined the .
Lake Tanganyika expedition, 1915
The Germans had maintained control of the lake since the outbreak of the war, with three armed steamers and two unarmed motorboats. In 1915, two British motorboats, and (Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson), each armed with a 3-pounder gun and a Maxim gun, were transported by land to the British shore of Lake Tanganyika. The British captured the German ship Kingani on 26 December, renamed it and accompanied by two Belgian ships, attacked and sank the German ship Hedwig von Wissmann. MV Liemba and Wami, an unarmed motorboat, were the only German ships left on the lake. In February 1916 the Wami was intercepted and run ashore by the crew and burned. Lettow-Vorbeck had the Königsberg gun removed and sent by rail to the main fighting front. Graf von Götzen was scuttled in mid-July after the Belgian Armed Forces made bombing attacks by floatplanes, loaned by the British, before Belgian colonial troops advancing on Kigoma could capture it; Graf von Götzen was refloated and used by the British.
East African campaign, 1916–1918
Military operations, 1916
General Horace Smith-Dorrien was sent from England to take command of the operations in East Africa but he contracted pneumonia during the voyage and was replaced by General Smuts. Reinforcements and local recruitment had increased the British force to Africans British and Rhodesians and and African troops, from a ration strength of which included the Carrier Corps of African civilians. Belgian troops and a larger but ineffective group of Portuguese military units based in Mozambique were also available. During the previous 1915, Lettow-Vorbeck had increased the German force to
The main attack was from the north from British East Africa, as troops from the Belgian Congo advanced from the west in two columns, over Lake Victoria on the British troop ships and and into the Rift Valley. Another contingent advanced over Lake Nyasa (now Lake Malawi) from the south-east. Lettow-Vorbeck evaded the British, whose troops suffered greatly from disease along the march. The 9th South African Infantry began the operation in February with and by October it was reduced to troops, mostly by disease. The Germans avoided battle and by September 1916, the German Central Railway from the coast at Dar es Salaam to Ujiji had been taken over by the British. As the German forces had been restricted to the southern part of German East Africa, Smuts began to replace South African, Rhodesian and Indian troops with the King's African Rifles and by 1917 more than half the British Army in East Africa was African. The King's African Rifles was enlarged and by November 1918 had Smuts left in January 1917 to join the Imperial War Cabinet at London.
Belgian-Congolese campaign, 1916
The Belgian of formed three groups, each with yet expected to live off the land. The 1915 harvest had been exhausted and the 1916 harvest had not matured; Belgian requisitions alienated the local civilians. On 5 April, the Belgians offered an armistice to the Germans and then on 12 April commenced hostilities. The advanced between Kigali and Nyanza under the command of General Charles Tombeur, Colonel Molitor and Colonel Olsen and captured Kigali on 6 May. The Germans in Burundi were forced back and by 17 June the Belgians had occupied Burundi and Rwanda. The and the British Lake Force then advanced towards Tabora, an administrative centre of central German East Africa. The Allies moved in three columns and took Biharamulo, Mwanza, Karema, Kigoma and Ujiji. Tabora was captured unopposed on 19 September. To forestall Belgian claims on the German colony, Smuts ordered Belgian forces back to Congo, leaving them as occupiers only in Rwanda and Burundi. The British were obliged to recall Belgian troops in 1917 and after this the Allies coordinated campaign plans.
Military operations, 1917–1918
Major-General Jacob van Deventer began an offensive in July 1917, which by early autumn had pushed the Germans to the south. From 1917, Lettow-Vorbeck and the British fought a mutually costly battle at Mahiwa, with casualties and casualties. After the news of the battle reached Germany, Lettow-Vorbeck was promoted to Generalmajor. British units forced the further south and on 23 November, Lettow-Vorbeck crossed into Portuguese Mozambique to plunder supplies from Portuguese garrisons. The Germans marched through Mozambique in caravans of troops, carriers, wives and children for nine months. Lettow-Vorbeck divided the force into three groups, one detachment of under Theodor Tafel, was forced to surrender after running out of food and ammunition when Lettow-Vorbeck and Tafel were unaware they were only one day’s march apart. The Germans returned to German East Africa and then crossed into Northern Rhodesia in August 1918. On 13 November two days after the Armistice was signed in France, the German Army took Kasama unopposed. The next day at the Chambezi River, Lettow-Vorbeck was handed a telegram announcing the signing of the armistice and he agreed to a cease-fire. Lettow-Vorbeck marched his army to Abercorn and formally surrendered on 23 November 1918.
Makonbe uprising, 1917
In March 1917 the Makonbe people achieved a measure of social unity, rebelled against the Portuguese colonialists in Zambezia province of Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique) and defeated the colonial regime. About 20,000 rebels besieged the Portuguese in Tete. The British refused to lend troops to the Portuguese but people were recruited on the promise of loot, women and children. Through terrorism and enslavement, the Portuguese quashed the rebellion by the end of the year. Repercussions of the rising continued as British administrators in Northern Rhodesia in 1918 struggled to compensate local civilians for war service, particularly during the famine of 1917–1918. The Colonial Office banned the coercion of local civilians into British service in the colony, which stranded British troops.
Barue uprising, 1917
The colonial authorities in Portuguese Mozambique increased the brutality of their occupation during the war. "Revolting practices" criticised by the British, such as forced labour, were increasingly applied despite the abolition of slavery. Press gangs (cipais) used the most brutal coercion to mobilise whole populations, young, old and infirm people not being exempted and women being raped. By the end of 1916, many young men had fled to Southern Rhodesia and Transvaal to escape the Portuguese and to earn living wages. The condition of the populations left behind worsened to the point that when the cipais tried to raise another 5,000 carriers from the Kingdom of Barue in March 1917, the population rebelled. Disgust at Portuguese depredations united many Peoples but the rivals for the title of Makombe of the Wabarue fought independent campaigns, attracting support from the bandits in the Zambesi valley. At the end of April, the rebels routed a Portuguese force sent to suppress the rising and reached the provincial capital of Tete; by the end of May had overrun most of Zambezia Province. About 100,000 people crossed the border into British Nyasaland and the Rhodesian colonies to escape the violence but the disruption did little to alter British disdain for Portuguese methods and despite having received troops to help put down the Chilembwe rebellion, they refused to send troops, only allowing guns and ammunition over the border. In May the Portuguese began to suppress the rebels by butchering thousands of people, enslaving women and plundering territory. The rebels held out into November and the rivals for the title of Makombe fled to Southern Rhodesia. During June the Portuguese had to divide their forces and send thousands of Portuguese and local troops to attack the Makonde living on the Mvua plateau, who had also rebelled. Another rebellion broke out early in 1918.
Aftermath
Analysis
The war marked the end of the German colonial empire; during the war, the Entente powers, posed as crusaders for liberalism and enlightenment but little evidence exists that they were seen as such by Africans. Many African soldiers fought on both sides, loyal to military professionalism, rather than nationalism and porters had mainly been attracted by pay or had been coerced. The war had been the final period of the Scramble for Africa; control and annexation of territory had been the principal war aim of the Europeans and the main achievement of Lettow-Vorbeck, had been to thwart some of the ambitions of the South African colonialists. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany's colonies were divided between Britain, Belgium, Portugal and South Africa. The former German colonies had gained independence by the 1960s except for South West Africa (Namibia) which gained independence from South Africa in 1990.
Casualties
The British official historian of the "History of the Great War" campaigns in "Togo and the Cameroons", F. J. Moberly, recorded casualties, casualties, the invaliding of Europeans and soldiers. Civilian porters were brought from Allied colonies and of killed or died of disease and invalided as they could be "more easily replaced than soldiers". Of recruited civilians, no records were kept. Franco-Belgian troops under the command of General Joseph Aymerich suffered and died of disease.
In 2001 Strachan recorded British losses in the East African campaign as in action, of disease and deaths among African porters. In South West Africa, Strachan recorded Africans killed in action and of disease or accidents. German casualties were whom killed and taken prisoner. In 2007 Paice recorded casualties in the East African campaign, of whom of the in the campaign. By 1917 the conscription of as carriers, had depopulated many districts and had died, among them of the British Carrier Corps in East Africa.
A Colonial Office bureaucrat wrote that the East African campaign had not become a scandal only "....because the people who suffered most were the carriers - and after all, who cares about native carriers?" In the German colonies, no records of the number of people conscripted or casualties were kept but in the German Official History, the writer referred to
Paice referred to a 1989 estimate of and a death rate Carriers impressed by the Germans were rarely paid and food and cattle were stolen from civilians; a famine caused by the consequent food shortage and poor rains in 1917, led to another deaths in Ruanda, Urundi and German East Africa. The conscription of farm labour in British East Africa, the failure of the rains at the end of 1917 and early 1918 led to famine and in September Spanish flu reached sub-Saharan Africa. In British East Africa died, in South Africa there were and in German East Africa of the population died of famine and disease; in sub-Saharan Africa, 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 people died in the epidemic.
See also
German Colonial Empire
African theatre of World War II
Black and White in Color (1976)
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Journals
Theses
Further reading
Books
Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume III, Kämpfe im Süden, Windhoek 2014, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-872-8-5
Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume IV, Der Süden ist verloren, Windhoek 2016, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-2-6
Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume V, Aufgabe der Küste, Windhoek 2016, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-4-0
Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume VI, Aufgabe der Zentralregionen, Windhoek 2017, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-5-7
Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume VII, Der Ring schließt sich, Windhoek 2018, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-7-1
Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume VIII, Das Ende bei Khorab, Windhoek 2018, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-9-5
Krömer/Krömer: Fotografische Erinnerungen an Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Volume III, Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Windhoek 2018, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-8-8
Journals
Theses
External links
Liberia from 1912–1920
Togoland 1914 Harry's Africa Web 2012
Funkentelegrafie Und Deutsche Kolonien: Technik Als Mittel Imperialistischer Politik. Familie Friedenwald
Schutzpolizei uniforms
German Colonial Uniforms
Brian Digre: Colonial Warfare and Occupation (Africa), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
Campaigns and theatres of World War I
Military history of Africa
1910s in Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasavathaaram
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Dasavathaaram
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Dasavathaaram () is a 2008 Indian Tamil-language science fiction action film directed by K. S. Ravikumar. It stars Kamal Haasan, who also wrote the script, in ten distinct roles. Asin, Jaya Prada, Mallika Sherawat and K. R. Vijaya play subsidiary roles. The film focuses on scientist Govind, who's forced to steal a vial containing a deadly virus from his corrupt boss who intended to sell it to a terrorist nation, all the while he's hunted by an American mercenary named Fletcher. Several other people also get involved in the process and all their stories connect after the striking of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, thus bringing philosophical views into the picture.
The film, which had been under production for nearly three years, was produced and primarily distributed by V. Ravichandran. Primary filming locations included the United States and across Tamil Nadu in India. The soundtrack to the film's songs was composed by Himesh Reshammiya and the background scores was done by Devi Sri Prasad.
After delays in post-production, the film was released on 13 June 2008 in around 1300 prints worldwide and received positive reviews from critics. Though its Hindi version was an average success, the film was a massive success at the box-office, grossing million worldwide against a budget of million.
Plot
Relating to chaos theory and the butterfly effect, geneticist Govindarajan Ramaswamy aka Govind addresses an event at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Chennai and details the Shaivite Chola emperor Kulothunga II's persecution of Vaishnavites in the 12th century Chidambaram. Rangarajan Ramanuja Nambi resists Kulothunga's attempts to demolish an idol of Vishnu and offends the king, prompting the latter to drown him in the sea along with the idol and what follows is the suicide of Nambi's wife Kodhai.
On 20 December 2004, Govind, a scientist in BEAGLE II, aUS-based corporate company researching on nanobiotechnology and pathogens, witnesses Hanu, the lab monkey, swallowing a viral vector intended to be a bio-weapon for defending further terrorist actions after September 11 attacks as per the orders of the President of United States George W. Bush. Grieving Hanu's death, Govind quarantines the lab and fills it with concentrated salt solution to deactivate the virus; he refuses to relinquish the main vial, having recognized its lethal potential and dreading misuse. Govind discerns the senior scientist Dr. Sethu's malicious plan of selling the vial to a terrorist organization and absconds with the vial while the guards and officials pursue him. He flees to the residence of his colleague Suresh, who deceives him. Christian Fletcher, a ruthless ex-CIA agent, fast-ropes down to Suresh's apartment with a crossbow, murders Suresh and attempts to seize the vial. While Govind makes a quick exit with the vial, Yukha Narahazi, Suresh's wife and an Aikido champion from Hiroshima, fights Fletcher and protects Govind only to be killed ultimately. Govind meets his friend Sairam, who inadvertently ships the package containing vial to India; Govind boards the aircraft carrying the virus, flies to India and discovers that the package is being delivered to Krishnaveni, an aged woman in Chidambaram.
In Japan, Shingen Narahazi, a skilled martial arts teacher, is notified of his sister Yukha's death and sets out to avenge the tragedy. Balram Naidu, an unconventional Telugu police officer, apprehends Govind in Chennai and adamantly insists that he is involved with the terrorists. Having arrived in India and married Jasmine, a translator, Fletcher abducts Govind and an official Bharath; the arrival of a renowned pop singer Avatar Singh at the airport eases their evasion. Midway, Govind escapes with Bharath's assistance and reaches Chidambaram. Fletcher follows him with Jasmine and an aide Kumar. Govind meets Krishnaveni and her clumsy granddaughter Andal to retrieve the package; after discovering the vial's potential, Krishnaveni puts it into an idol of Vishnu, asking Him to protect it from exploitation while the idol is being carried in a festive procession. Fletcher provokes an elephant to create chaos, amidst which Jasmine is impaled on an iron rod on the wall. Having noticed Govind escape with the vial while Andal pursues him for the idol, Fletcher kills Jasmine and chases them. Govind and Andal are seized by a mob of illegal sand miners, whose chief Sundaram tries to molest Andal. Vincent Poovaraghan, a Malayali social activist intervenes in the impending crime with a crowd, intent on exposing the mafia; Govind and Andal slip away with the idol and a truck.
Andal urges Govind to return to Chidambaram and in a scuffle that ensues between them, the truck hits the vehicle of an extended Muslim family; they rescue the family whose eldest son Khalifulla is gigantic. After Khalifulla's mother faints, they rush her to a hospital where Govind procures a chiller icebox to store the idol; Avatar Singh visits the same hospital to treat his throat cancer and stores his medicines in a similar box, prompting the boxes to get switched in the elevator. Fletcher spots Andal in the hospital and takes her and Khalifulla's family hostage, intimidating Govind to fetch the vial. After reaching Khalifulla's home, Govind ascertains that the boxes are swapped; the police surround the residence and requests them to surrender but Fletcher evades with Govind, Andal and Khalifulla's brother to Avatar's concert, where amidst a clash between Fletcher and Govind for the idol, Avatar is shot in his throat while trying to assist Govind. Outraged Ranjita, Avatar's wife, fights Fletcher for wounding her husband while Andal escapes with the idol and Govind chases her. Govind and Andal, while being hunted by Fletcher, reach a construction site and the grappling causes the vial to slip out of the idol. Govind conceals the vial, handovers the idol to an unaware Fletcher and takes off with Andal, who is disappointed with Govind for giving away the idol.
Next day, on 26 December 2004, Govind intends to immerse the virus into the sea (which obviously consists of salt) to destroy it; Fletcher, nevertheless, combats him again, only to be desisted by Narahazi, who seeks apology from Govind for mistaking him to be Yukha's murderer. Subsequently, Balram arrives in his helicopter and threatens Fletcher to surrender. Caught between the duo, Fletcher swallows the virus and succumbs to its deadly communicable effects while the others stare helplessly. A tsunami washes Fletcher away and generates considerable destruction while simultaneously ceasing the impact of the virus, which had the prospects of destroying the entire state. Govind, Andal, Narahazi and Balram survive the disaster while Vincent, who was invited to negotiate with Sundaram's brother-in-law Raghavendra, succumbs to the catastrophe in the process of rescuing Raghavendra and his wife Meenakshi's kids. As the disarray comes to an end ultimately, Krishnaveni mistakes Vincent for his long-lost son (who had died 50 years ago) and mourns while Khalifulla and his kin, who were gathered in a Mosque by Balram for investigation, get through the calamity and Narahazi immerses Yukha's ashes in the sea. Avatar's cancerous growth is taken away due to Fletcher's shot, rescuing him from death. Andal, meanwhile, insists that God initiated the tsunami to cease the virus from causing destruction while Govind disagrees, stating that it was not fair to kill thousands to protect millions. They, however, unite and profess their feelings for each other while Nambi's remains, shackled to the idol of Vishnu, are on the banks (due to the tsunami).
Currently, following Govind's speech in the stadium, George Bush takes over.
Cast
Production
Pre-production
Kamal Haasan came up with an original storyline and approached a number of directors, including Gautham Vasudev Menon to direct it, when K. S. Ravikumar accepted the offer. It began soon after the announcement of Sivaji: The Boss starring Rajinikanth. Ravikumar and Haasan came together for the fourth time following their three previous successful ventures, Avvai Shanmughi, Thenali and Panchatanthiram.
Development
Kamal was set to play ten different roles in the film, making it the first time that an actor has appeared in so many roles in world cinema. V. Ravichandran signed up to produce the venture securing distribution rights in the process. Pyramid Film Fund had an exposure of 50 percent in the project.
Following nearly a year of pre-production, deciding the cast and the locations, the film began its first schedule on 11 September 2006.
Ashmith Kunder was signed up to edit the film, despite early indications that A. Sreekar Prasad would have landed the offer. Haasan also wrote the script for the film following negotiations with Sujatha, who died before the release of the film, and Crazy Mohan. Jeeva was initially announced as the cinematographer of the film, and he had taken over the role for a day of the shooting. However, the shots taken by him did not appear in the film and Ravi Varman became the director of photography.
Casting
Between the announcement of the project and prior to the launch a year later, several actress were signed up, who then either opted out or were removed from the project. Vidya Balan was first signed up and set to make her debut in Tamil films, however due to the long inactivity of the film, Balan opted out citing date clashes with her Bollywood project. Following the removal of Balan, it was reported that each of the ten characters portrayed by Kamal Haasan in the film, would have a female lead opposite them. Actresses who were considered but failed to make the final shortlist were: Meena, Mumtaj, Kiran Rathod, Nadhiya, Kamalinee Mukherjee, Nithya Das, Meera Jasmine, and Vasundhara Das. Moreover, actresses Balan, Trisha opted out due to date clashes. Furthermore, Shriya Saran was forced to opt out of the project by the producers of her other film Sivaji: The Boss, a film built up as the rival to Dasavathaaram at the box-office.
Finally, the major female lead role was given to Asin, who was later assigned two distinct roles in the project. The second lead female role in the film went to Mallika Sherawat, for whom Dasavathaaram was her first Tamil language film. Over the course, of the production more supporting actors were added to the film, the first being Napoleon, who was signed up to portray a king in the film. Other veteran actors, Jaya Prada, Nagesh, P. Vasu, K. R. Vijaya and M. S. Bhaskar as well as a bevy of American supporting actors were roped into essay other small roles in the film. Actors, Jayaram and Vadivelu opted out of the film during the production of the project, citing date problems.
Filming
A preliminary schedule took place before the start of the film, which featured no filming, but only the make-up tests, lasting for 25 days in the USA. The make-up used for Kamal's characters proved to create difficulties. It took nine hours to implement the make-up and it failed to stay for a long period of time. To compensate for that, he had to rest and take fluids using a straw and at the same time, refrain from making movement in the facial muscles to make sure that it was not disturbed. The technology of motion control was employed for the cinematography in the film. The filming of Dasavathaaram began on 3 August 2006 at Mahabalipuram in Chennai, where the intro song was picturised on a set created by art director Sameer Chanda. The set resembled the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram in Kumbakonam and scenes with Kamal Haasan in an Iyengar priest get-up, accompanied by over 750 extras, were recorded. Though it was initially planned to be shot in the temple itself, permission could not be obtained as the structure was a heritage site and the shooting was believed to interfere with the activities of the temple. Further plans to use a hundred elephants were shelved after the transport and accommodation for the animals was deemed impossible. However, in September 2006, Sameer Chanda was sacked from the project due to his tendency to employ only workers from Mumbai and not Tamilians, prompting Haasan and Ravikumar to remove him from the project, with his role being entrusted to Prabhakar of Virumaandi fame.
Another team member was sacked in Chengelpet when a stunt sequence was being captured by the camera; stunt master Kanal Kannan was reported to have used unparliamentarily and corporation words at the workers and that took over the public address system. Angered and humiliated by such remarks, the workers walked out of the sets refusing to work anymore and resumed duty only after the elimination of Kanal Kannan. A new stunt master, Thyagarajan was given the opportunity to take over following the controversy caused by Kannan, who had a similar problem while shooting for Sivaji: The Boss.
Major portions of the films were shot extensively in overseas locations which included the US, Tokyo, Malaysia and Thailand. A role of an American mercenary, played by Haasan, was shot for in casinos in and around Las Vegas and Orlando. A song involving Kamal Haasan and Mallika Sherawat that was to be shot in US was moved to Malaysia due to problems with Sherawat's visa. The crew instead decided to shift to another destination in Malaysia and the song was shot in posh night clubs; furthermore scenes were shot at a lobby of a prominent Malaysian airport.
A Replica of the White House was erected at the Taramani Film City in India, with Haasan's makeup for the role of George Bush lasting six whole hours to obtain the desired outcome. For the climax, another scene was shot dramatically above the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium with the permission of the chief minister, M. Karunanidhi. A tsunami effect was created in Mahabalipuram and shot at a area of land in which a wall was created near Muttukadu. Six machines, which generated high waves, were imported from the US, for a total cost of . The film's final shoot occurred on 8 October 2007 at Uthandi, a coastal village.
Music
The film was originally announced with A. R. Rahman as the music director of the film. However he opted out of the project owing to schedule clashes. Kamal, who quickly wanted the tunes, roped in Himesh Reshammiya, for whom Dasavathaaram became his Tamil film debut and only Tamil film to date. The background score was composed by Devi Sri Prasad. As the film demanded a "stylish and western" quality of music, two reels of music were initially composed and tested. A two-and-a-half-minute theme song was later composed for the promos. The background music in the second half consisted of extensive usage of violins and chorus and the entire score for the film was recorded over a period of one month, in Chennai.
The soundtrack was released on 25 April 2008 at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Chennai, which became the largest audio launch for a south Indian film. Prominent film personalities across the world attended the event, with Jackie Chan, in his first such appearance, being Hollywood's ambassador for the function. Other prominent regional Indian artistes such as Amitabh Bachchan, Mammootty, Vijay and Madhavan attended the launch. The then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M. Karunanidhi, attended the event. The event saw overcrowding and the Chennai Police employed lathi charge on the streets to regain control. The event hosted by Shobana, was attended by all the artistes of the film apart from producer V. Ravichandran, who avoids to attend public events. The soundtrack album was acquired by Sony BMG, purchasing their first Tamil film, for a record of .
Behindwoods wrote, "In spite of donning many roles Kamal Hassan has used only six songs for the movie. So the story could be expected to be a tightly edited one and should not drag. Though there are no duets here, the songs themselves could become hits if the storyline packs a punch. One must add that the songs have a decidedly 'Hindi flavour'." and rated the album 3 out of 5. Indiaglitz summarised, "Dasavatharam music is here to rock.". Rediff, however, gave 2 out of 5 stars and concluded that the album was "a mediocre listening experience."
Release
Theatrical
The film was delayed for multiple times when scheduled for a release in 2007 and also in Pongal 2008, due to extensive post-production works and in February 2008, V. Ravichandran announced that Dasavaatharam will be released worldwide on 10 April 2008 in the eve of Tamil New Year weekend. But due to the success of inaugural Indian Premier League season, the release of the film along with Suriya's Vaaranam Aayiram, scheduled for May 2008 release, was put on hold till 1 June 2008, the date when the tournament is concluded. In late May 2008, the makers announced the release date as 13 June 2008.
The film was shown subsequently to the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M. Karunanidhi, by the request of the producer on 8 June 2008.
Pre-release record
Two days prior to the release, the film was shown to film personalities of Indian cinema at Four Films Cinema in Chennai, with the film receiving praise. The film earned a total pre-release revenue of 500 million from selling all its rights.
Distribution
Sony Pictures India distributed the film in North India, whilst Ayngaran International sold the film to cinema halls in the United Kingdom, Singapore and the Gulf. Canadian rights for the film were bought by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, becoming the first distributional venture of an Indian film by the production house. Narmadha Travels acquired the rights from Aascar Films to distribute the film in the United States of America.
Besides Tamil, the film was also dubbed and released in different languages including Hindi, Telugu, Malayalam, Bengali and Bhojpuri versions with the Hindi version titled Dashavtar. The Indian censor board certified the film on 24 April 2008, giving it a "U" (universal) rating, after 9 cuts were made and letting the film run for 166 minutes. The film released worldwide with 1,300 prints in all the respective languages. Tamil Nadu had 275 prints, and Karnataka had 80, with 190 prints released overseas. The Hindi version Dashavtar had an unusually high 410 prints in North India. The Telugu version had 260 prints in Andhra Pradesh including 45 prints in Nizam region. The film opened in 25 screens in Hyderabad. The Malayalam version had 85 prints in Kerala.
Marketing
The film's theatrical trailer was released publicly on 23 April 2008, a day after it was shown to special guests, which included M. Karunanidhi at a screen. The first exclusive screening of the film, prior to release, was held on the morning of the audio launch on 25 April 2008, to visiting guests Jackie Chan, Amitabh Bachchan, Mammootty and Vijay, all of whom were full of praise for the film.
Home media
The satellite rights of Tamil version of the film were sold to Kalaignar TV for 45 million.
Legal issues
Assistant director Senthil Kumar filed a case against the film at the Madras High Court. He claimed to have created the story of Dasavathaaram, in a script titled, Ardhanari alias Clones, and that Kamal Haasan and V. Ravichandran had "stolen" the script and left him out of the credits, violating the copyright act. On the basis of this complaint, the Chennai police queried the actor and later accepted his explanation with the high court sending notices to Kamal Haasan and the producer V. Ravichandran announcing an interim stay on the release of the film. The film was allowed to continue with its schedules, but the case was delayed till in 2007. However, in September 2007, the Court dismissed the petition of Senthil Kumar in the case, clearing the legal hurdles for the film.
Following the audio launch on 25 April 2008, Mallika Sherawat received a police complaint against the donning of improper attire at a film function. Hindu Makkal Katchi, a splinter group of the Hindu Munnani, lodged a complaint with the police, saying that Sherawat's attire at the function to release audio-CDs of Dasavathaaram, in which Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi had been present, had "hurt the sentiments of Hindus". The actress was accused of wearing a mini-skirt and exposing her back in front of the chief minister.
In May 2008, the film was criticised by the Vishva Hindu Parishad, which claimed that the film has portrayed the clash between Shaivism and Vaishnavism which prevailed in the 12th century in the film in an objectionable manner. However, following the accusations, V. Ravichandran announced that the film contains no controversial scenes and added that the film, based around the Hindu religion, will convert atheists to theists. The charges were cleared on 29 May 2008 insisting that Dasavathaaram did not portray Hindu culture in bad light.
Reception
Box office
India
Dasavathaaram completed a 50-day run on 2 August 2008. It completed a 100-day run on 20 September 2008 in four screens in Chennai.
The Chennai Corporation had given the producer special permission to hold five shows daily, which helped the film to garner the extraordinary opening. In the second weekend too, the film registered at least 95% at multiplexes and 80% in single screens. The film grossed from 17 screens in Chennai in the opening weekend. The film grossed all over Tamil Nadu on its first weekend. It grossed outside South India in the three-day weekend. The film grossed in a fortnight in Mayajaal multiplex. In Sathyam Cinemas multiplex, the film grossed in a fortnight. The film stayed at No.1 position in Chennai box office for five consecutive weeks. In Chennai, the film grossed in three weeks, in four weeks, crore in five weeks, in six weeks and around in the lifetime run.
The Hindi version Dashavtar, that was released after almost one year opened to a 5–10% response. Dashavtar netted in six weeks in North India and was declared as an average success. The Malayalam version of the film grossed in Kerala in the first week. In a fortnight, the Telugu version earned share in Nizam, in Ceded, in Vizag, in East and West Godav.
Other territories
Dasavathaaram grossed $4,632,719 and was ranked No.7 in the opening week, becoming the first Tamil film to reach the Top 10 at the International box office. In Malaysia, the film opened in second place, having collected $601,000 from 58 screens on the opening weekend and $1,720,780 in nine weeks.
The film grossed ₹200 crore (US$ million) worldwide, and is currently one of the highest-grossing Tamil films of all time.
Critical response
Dasavathaaram received positive reviews from critics, with critical acclaim on the performances of Kamal Haasan as the ten characters, script, music, narration, and concepts used in the film. Although some critics felt that the plot was little bit confusing and that Kamal Haasan's ten roles were forced, with only four or five relevant to the plot and the film's CGI received mixed response.
On the contrary, Rediff praised the film as "spectacular" and a "superhuman effort", rating it with 4 out of 5 stars. The reviewer concluded that the film will "go down in the history of Indian cinema as a unique experiment in the commercial circuit". Sify called the film "average", stating that it would "fall short of the huge expectation and hype it had generated." The reviewer also criticised the make-up, lamenting that "Kamal's prosthetic makeup, especially as George Bush, Fletcher and Khan, is a bit of a dampener" but claimed that Brian Jennings's special effects, "mainly of the climax Tsunami scene, are a top-class by Indian standards". The reviewer praised cinematographer Ravi Varman, noting: "[He] may take a bow, as his camerawork is glossy and superb", but noted that some of Haasan's characters like Avatar Singh and Khalifullah Khan were "unnecessarily stitched together to make it a perfect 10." Behindwoods rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and said, "In short, with unexpected twists and turns missing in the film, Dasavatharam is a make-up magic show that disappoints as drama and satisfies as a technical showpiece." but concluded, "Watch for Kamal!"
T S Sudhir of NDTV wrote, "Dasavathaaram, unfortunately, remains just a film with its USP of 10 Kamals. This Kamal does not blossom the way he did in Indian or Nayakan, Appu Raja, Mahanadi, Avvai Shanmughi or in Thevar Magan" and further stated, "One of the best in the business falters with the film's story and screenplay." Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India rated the film 2.5 out of 5 and said, "EXPERIMENTS aren't always successful. Like Dasavatharam, Kamal Haasan's ambitious venture sees him playing ten roles which include a take on George Bush too. Daring, we'd like to insist; only the make-up and the fake appearance borders more on the comic." The Deccan Herald said, "The ten roles are awfully disparate: they are more like pantomime characters. Kamal appears too flabby and jaded. Sorry, Appu Raja (or shall we say Michael, Madana, Kamarajan) it's time you start being your age. From start to finish there is a severe decibel assault aided and abetted by Himesh Reshammiya."
Oneindia said, "After watching Dasavatharam- the so-called magnum opus of the year- an ardent fan of Kamal Hassan will ask why indeed it is called a magnum opus in the first place. Why was all the hype, tension, cases, expectations and unnecessary expenses wasted on this average film. Once again, Kamal fails to attract Tamil audiences with his own script." and gave the verdict, "Not up to expectations!" Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said, "The film would have worked even better had the narrative been tauter and more purposive post-interval" but concluded, "All in all, Dasavathaaram shows that Kamal Haasan has once again taken great pains to make his cinematic projects convincing. The effort has paid off." Ananda Vikatan rated the film 43 out of 100.
Accolades
Cancelled spin-off
A spin off film Sabaash Naidu, based on this film's character Balaram Naidu, the police officer, was planned but eventually dropped due to financial issues.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
2008 films
Films set in Chennai
Indian disaster films
Indian fantasy action films
Indian science fiction action films
Films about tsunamis
Disaster films based on actual events
Films shot in Florida
Films shot in the Las Vegas Valley
Films shot in Tokyo
Films shot in Malaysia
Films shot in Thailand
Films shot in Chennai
Films directed by K. S. Ravikumar
2000s Tamil-language films
Films with screenplays by Kamal Haasan
Films scored by Himesh Reshammiya
Films scored by Devi Sri Prasad
Films about terrorism
Films set in the 12th century
Cultural depictions of Manmohan Singh
Films involved in plagiarism controversies
Films about the Research and Analysis Wing
Indian martial arts films
2008 martial arts films
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
Films set in Tokyo
Films set in the Las Vegas Valley
Indian science fiction thriller films
Weapons of mass destruction in fiction
Techno-thriller films
Films about infectious diseases
2008 action thriller films
Sony Pictures Networks India films
Film controversies in India
Works subject to a lawsuit
Hinduism in pop culture-related controversies
Religious controversies in film
Religious controversies in India
Indian intellectual property law
Biopunk films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom%20%28Ray%20Palmer%29
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Atom (Ray Palmer)
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The Atom (Raymond "Ray" Palmer) is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by editor and co-plotter Julius Schwartz, writer Gardner Fox and penciler Gil Kane. The Atom was one of the first superheroes of the Silver Age of Comic Books and debuted in Showcase #34 (October 1961).
The Atom has been played in various television series by Alfie Wise and John Kassir. He was played by Brandon Routh in Legends of Tomorrow in the shared DC Arrowverse on The CW. His character first appeared in the third season of Arrow.
Publication history
The Atom debuted in Showcase #34 (cover-dated Oct. 1961) from the DC Comics precursor, National Comics. Early comics-fandom pioneer Jerry Bails wrote to the National Comics editor Julius Schwartz in December 1960 outlining an updated version of Al Pratt, the company's 1940s Golden Age Atom. Bails and future Marvel Comics editor-in-chief Roy Thomas collaborated on a suggested version that incorporated elements of a Golden Age hero, Quality Comics' Doll Man. Eventual Atom writer Gardner Fox wrote Bails on January 1, 1961, stating that Schwartz passed along Bails' letter to him.
Schwartz wrote Bails on January 6 saying he had already been planning a new version of the Atom, in the vein of National's reimagined Golden Age superheroes the Flash and Green Lantern, and had already asked artist Gil Kane to sketch designs. Kane, unaware of Bails' suggestions, said he did "a series of drawings" on large illustration boards, including a depiction of the new Atom riding a German shepherd dog and another of a pistol firing at the Atom, who wore the costume he eventually would in his comic debut but without a belt. Kane, who lived in Jericho, New York, on Long Island, at the time, drove to the nearby Hicksville home of DC production person Tom Nicolosi, who colored the drawings using St. Martin's dyes. Schwartz, after seeing the drawings, had the belt added, a detail Kane said he disliked since "it broke up the costume lines." Schwartz said he had not wanted to reuse the Golden Age Atom, Al Pratt, and had read about dwarf stars and thought a fragment of one could power the new hero's miniaturization. He added that he and Fox together plotted the early stories of this new Silver Age Atom. Fox said in 1979, "I doubt that any feedback from Bails or Thomas had very much of an influence, though always kept their ideas in the back of our minds."
His alter ego, Ray Palmer, is an homage to science-fiction magazine editor Raymond A. Palmer.
Fictional character biography
Silver Age
Raymond "Ray" Palmer, is a physicist and professor at Ivy University in the fictional city of Ivy Town, somewhere in New England, specializing in matter compression as a means to fight overpopulation, famine and other world problems. Using a mass of white dwarf star matter he finds after it lands on Earth, Palmer fashions a lens that enables him to shrink any object to any degree he wishes. Compression destabilizes an object's molecular structure, however, causing it to explode.
During a spelunking expedition, Palmer and his students, along with his girlfriend, lawyer Jean Loring, find themselves trapped in a cave. In desperation, Palmer secretly uses the lens he has carried with him to shrink himself to be able to climb through a small opening in the fallen rocks sealing the cave, knowing he will likely explode. Using a diamond engagement ring, Palmer enlarges the hole sufficiently and descends to the floor to try to alert the others of the escape route before dying. However, upon entering the lens' beam, he finds himself returned to normal size and without danger of exploding. As the lens is covered with cave moisture, Palmer believes this has altered the beam to allow this strange effect. When subsequent experiments still result in objects exploding, Palmer concludes some unknown force in his own body allows him to safely size-shift. He decides to use this effect to become a superhero. A retcon in Brightest Day: The Atom Special (July 2010) removes the influence of his exotic physical makeup, tying his survival instead to the discovery of a compression matrix, a fabric able to spread the effects of the ray on the entire body, stabilizing it. The prototype matrix later became his costume.
Palmer creates a belt tool to control his miniaturization to subatomic size with an emergency backup mechanism in his gloves, and develops a costume that he can wear at most times that only becomes visible when he shrinks significantly. In addition, he develops equipment that allows him to decrease his weight in addition to his size, allowing him to glide on air currents on a low setting, while a high setting allows him to handle or strike objects with the equivalent strength of his normal size and build. A favorite travel method is to call some location on the telephone and when the phone is answered, Palmer can shrink enough to travel through the phone lines in seconds to emerge out the answering phone.
He carries out the bulk of his early superheroic adventures in Ivy Town, where he often helps his girlfriend, Jean Loring, win her cases. Much later, he gains the innate equivalent powers within his own body.
Palmer has fought against several alien and supernatural threats, as well as having his own rogues gallery: his arch enemy is Chronos the Time Bandit, the menace of the Bug-Eyed Bandit, the dangerous eco-terrorist Floronic Man, and the miniature misguided Bat-Knights of Elvaran. He also had several time travel adventures by means of Professor Alpheus V. Hyatt's Time Pool. The Atom is a member of several incarnations of the Justice League, and the team is gracious enough to supply a special chair scaled to his default size which can elevate to whatever height needed so he can easily partake in team meetings without having to go out of costume. There, he meets Hawkman (Katar Hol pre-Hawkworld, Carter Hall post-Hawkworld), one of his closest friends in the superhero community. Neither character achieved major popularity, and even in their heyday were mostly supporting characters, often with Palmer as a specialist in size alteration who was often needed to access extremely confined areas only he could access. Hawkman would manufacture prosthetic wings for a myna Ray saved, taking on the name Major Mynah and became the Atom's partner and steed.
Sword of the Atom, Power of the Atom, and Teen Titans
The Atom had one short-lived miniseries and three subsequent specials, all titled Sword of the Atom, in which Palmer abandons civilization after divorcing his wife Jean, who had an affair with fellow lawyer Paul Hoben, and becomes the hero of a tribe of six-inch (152 mm) -tall yellow-skinned humanoid aliens called Morlaidhans in the jungles of South America. He also becomes consort to their princess, Laethwyn. Palmer bequeathes his size-changing belt and role as Ivy Town's protector to Jean's new husband, Hoben. During this time, Palmer's friend Norman Brawler pens the book The Atom's Farewell, in which he reveals Palmer's identity as the Atom.
Eventually the colony is destroyed, despite Palmer's attempt to save it, by a group associated with the US Government acting as loggers. Palmer is forced to escape via the telephone to North America. In the attempt, he fails to anticipate that the connection will involve satellite relay and the unexpectedly arduous trip causes him to remain at approximately three feet high and without his costume's size changing equipment.
With the help of a friend, Ray creates a new costume from the material of the white dwarf star. This time, instead of a belt, Palmer uses an encephalotronic grid in the costume's headpiece to control the costume. The grid is keyed to his unique brainwaves. This enables him to transfer his mass into an unknown dimension which allows him to alter his size and weight just by thinking about it. He can even make the new costume appear or disappear with a thought by shifting most of its atoms to or from the other dimension. This allows him to be in costume while at full height or to shrink without having to have his costume appear. He can even increase his weight while remaining six inches (152 mm) tall or reduce his weight while remaining at full size. Ray often does this and is then light enough to ride wind currents, where he actually appears to be flying to a limited degree. Palmer also develops a mental link with the white dwarf matter to which he has been regularly exposed. Most of the mass lies within another dimension. Ray can draw upon that mass and hit with a super-concussive force. He has been shown to punch through concrete walls, crush an exam table and break the axle of a car that is moving at high speed.
Palmer would learn of those behind the genocide of the Morlaidhans, namely five CIA operatives, part of a group called the Cabal. In a mission called Operation: Fireball, the tiny aliens were murdered in hopes Ray would return as the Atom and become a tool for the Cabal (as Ray worked for the CIA in his earlier years). Instead, Palmer shrank the five agents to six-inch height and the CIA would employ them as a group called Micro/Squad. The Atom would take on new enemies during this period, such as Humbug, a sentient robot in control of an army of duplicates of itself, and Strobe, a technological armor-clad crook. Micro/Squad would also return, attempting to murder Palmer for what he did to them. Instead, teammate Ginsburg dies in the explosion they set and Ray approaches Adam Cray about becoming the new Atom to bring the remaining Micro/Squad into the open. Cray agrees, steals Paul Hoben's size-changing belt, and joins the Suicide Squad. The plan works as the villains emerge and Palmer takes the place of operative Sting; but their leader, Blacksnake, kills Cray and takes the belt for himself, returning to normal height. Blacksnake murders the remaining members of his crew as Ray arrives, revealing himself, posing as Sting, and battles him. After Blacksnake is defeated, the Cabal employs Task Force X II to murder him to protect their secrets.
Later, during the events of Zero Hour, Palmer is rejuvenated to a teenage state and develops the ability to grow in height in addition to his previous abilities, all of which he was capable of controlling innately without using his white dwarf star-based equipment. He becomes field leader of a new group of Teen Titans, composed of hybrids of human beings and the H'San Natall, after a chance meeting with Isaiah Crockett on his first day attending Ivy University. As a former member of the Justice League, Palmer viewed his affiliation with the Teen Titans as a step backward. The group primarily battled the Veil, an anti-alien organization that employed Deathstroke and Dark Nemesis, but it's revealed that their leader Pylon was actually a H'San Natall. They would also face Jugular (hired by the H'San Natall) and Loren Jupiter's son Jarrod, aka Haze. The Atom's new growth powers were instrumental in the battle against Sekhmet of the Millennium Giants. Ray subsequently regains his original age and memories and loses his new powers after he begins to rapidly age and Waverider has to use DNA taken prior to his rejuvenation to restore him to his original state. Palmer returns to his teaching job at Ivy University, but also becomes an associate and alternate member of the JLA. With his exit from the Teen Titans, the group disbands. One notable student under Palmer was Ronnie Raymond, who, without the knowledge of elements of Martin Stein, found difficulty in fully employing his abilities as Firestorm.
Identity Crisis and Countdown
In the 2004-05 limited series Identity Crisis, Jean Loring kills Sue Dibny, the wife of the Elongated Man. After stealing some of the Atom's shrinking technology and his costume, she kills Sue in a misguided attempt to win Palmer back. She also arranges a hit on Tim Drake's father which is carried out by Captain Boomerang (Digger Harkness). The intent is for Jack Drake to kill some random attacker, but both manage to kill each other. After committing her to Arkham Asylum, Palmer shrinks himself to microscopic size and disappears.
Palmer eventually meets up with his old friend Carter Hall after microscopically traveling through phone lines. He warns Hall of the consequences of mindwiping Batman and of harassing criminals over a crime that is perpetrated by Jean, one of their own. Palmer explains he needs time away, and shrinks himself again after Hall agrees to keep the meeting secret.
His legacy lived on, however. Ryan Choi, a student of physics in Hong Kong who corresponded with Ray Palmer via mail in the past, found a copy of his costume and shrinking device to become the current Atom. Around this same time, an unnamed teenager with powers similar to Palmer joins the Teen Titans under the name Molecule. After a brief tenure with the team, he is later killed during a confrontation with the Terror Titans.
During the missing year, Palmer's technology is employed by Supernova to shrink and grow in size to enter and exit the bottle city of Kandor.
DC Comics would not reveal Palmer's whereabouts since his disappearance at the end of Identity Crisis. However, Palmer returned to play a very important role in the Countdown limited series. A Monitor asks the Source Wall what is the solution to "the great disaster," it answers "Ray Palmer". Subsequently, Kyle Rayner, Donna Troy and Jason Todd scour the Multiverse for the former Atom, who just might hold the key to saving reality from a crisis of unparalleled proportions."
In their travels, the quartet has found people marked with the Atom's familiar symbol. The group tracks Palmer to Earth-51, where he assumes the life of its native Palmer after his life is cut short during his studies of the Multiverse and discovery of the looming Crisis. Meeting the Jean of Earth-51 and the Justice League again for the first time, Palmer is found on a world where the heroes have been able to eradicate supercrime and create a utopian Earth (later revealed to have been the result of this reality's Batman murdering all of this world's super-criminals after the Joker killed Jason Todd). However, once Kyle, Donna, Jason and Bob the Monitor are able to track him down, Bob attempts to kill Palmer; with the Challengers' help, Palmer escapes and reveals to the Challengers that it was the Ray Palmer of Earth-51 who was meant to stop the Great Disaster and that he had been trying to carry on his work, to no avail.
When the Challengers return to their own Earth, Jimmy Olsen is kidnapped by Mary Marvel, who has been corrupted by Darkseid. Palmer hitches a ride from within Jimmy. When Darkseid takes control of Jimmy's powers, Palmer locates and shuts down the control sphere inside Jimmy's brain, but is then swarmed by Apokoliptian antibodies. While escaping this onslaught, Palmer discovers the "battery" containing the New God spirit energies. Palmer removes it from Jimmy's head and shatters it, releasing the energies.
Palmer later (after much cajoling) joins Donna, Kyle, and Forager in their new mission as border guards to the Multiverse, realizing that there is nothing left for him on Earth anymore. However, Palmer returns home to New Earth one more time, upon realizing that his old nemesis Chronos had taken his identity to mislead a young pretender to his identity, Ryan Choi. After helping his successor to once again save Ivy Town, he returns to the Multiverse with a new sense of fulfillment, leaving his town in the hands of a new, capable hero.
During the Final Crisis, Palmer returns to New Earth and works with Choi again to aid in the efforts to evacuate the last free humans.
In the Justice League: Cry for Justice mini-series, it has been confirmed that Palmer will become a member of Hal Jordan's new Justice League.
Blackest Night
On the night of the superhero's memorial day, Palmer asks Hawkman to visit Jean's grave to be honored as a fallen member of the community, but Hawkman refuses because of what she did in Identity Crisis. Palmer is later shown speaking to Hawkman again, over the phone (unaware that his friend has been killed and reanimated as a Black Lantern). Atom is then invited to visit undead Hawkman to discuss his heartache over his wife. Palmer is later revealed to have shrunk into Hawkman's ring, escaping certain death. Joining the battle between Hal Jordan, Barry Allen, and the Black Lanterns, Palmer is set upon by Black Lanterns Ralph and Sue Dibny, who use his guilt over Jean's actions to try to feed on his compassion-filled heart. Palmer is saved from death by the Indigo Tribe, who combine their light with Hal's to destroy the Dibnys and their rings. During the crisis, Palmer was able to deduce with the heroes that the black rings are simulations taking the identities of the deceased and needing to feed. The Indigo Tribe take the heroes to the Hall of Justice, unceremoniously taking Hal Jordan and abandoning the rest when the Black Lanterns renew their attack.
Palmer helps the heroes escape via a phone line, and then brings them to the JSA, who were also being attacked by Black Lanterns. During the crisis, Palmer meets Damage, son of Al Pratt, the first hero to be called Atom. The two heroes briefly acquainted during the battle, and begin to develop a friendship. Palmer stopped the Black Lantern Al Pratt from killing Damage, but was unable to keep the reanimated Jean from finishing the job. Palmer made a futile attempt to stop one of the black rings from turning Damage's corpse into an undead before Jean used his own technology to shrink him, Mera, and herself into the fully transformed Damage's ring. As Palmer and Mera battle Jean inside the black ring, Jean reveals Nekron's plan along showing what is happening at Coast City, as deceased residents and revived heroes arise as Black Lanterns under the demon lord's commands. Deadman witnesses their battle and plans to rescue Palmer and Mera from Jean. Deadman saves Palmer and Mera by briefly possessing Jean, allowing them to escape and join the heroes against Nekron and his army. During the battle, Palmer is chosen as a deputy officer of the Indigo Tribe to be more effective against Nekron's forces. Although the Indigo Tribe eschews formal uniforms for tribal patterns over simple garments, Ray Palmer's costume is turned into a close approximation of the tattered Sword of the Atom clothing he had used in the past.
Palmer's past is rehashed, showing that he never quite got over Jean, even during the days of Sword of the Atom. Indigo-1 claims that she can teleport the armies of each Lantern Corps onto Earth, if given time to meditate. The responsibility falls to Palmer to protect her while she does so. Before she enters her trance, she reveals to Palmer that the indigo staff and his overwhelming compassion allows him to mimic the other powers of the Lantern Corps; she demonstrates this by temporarily becoming a Red Lantern and vomiting corrosive blood all over an attacking company of Black Lanterns. She then enters her trance, while Palmer fights off Black Lanterns Hawkman and Hawkgirl by temporarily becoming an Orange Lantern, loudly proclaiming "I want my friends back!" He then summons two orange energy duplicates of Khufu and Chay-Ara to help him fight off his and Indigo-1's attackers. He is briefly successful. But then Jean shows up to torment him, and she leaps into Indigo-1's ring. Palmer follows her. He ends up reliving Sue Dibny's death, and is then attacked by various Black Lantern Morlaidhans, the minuscule race he befriended during Sword of the Atom. He fights them off and, summoning the powers of a Green Lantern, destroys Jean. Indigo-1 manages to summon the various armies and thanks Palmer for his help. He tells her to keep his involvement in the deployment of the troops a secret, and asks that she help him find a way to legitimately resurrect Hawkman and Hawkgirl.
In the final battle, Palmer gets his wish when Hawkman and Hawkgirl are brought back to life by power of white light at the end of the Blackest Night series. Ray's involvement of secret resurrect remains unknown.
Brightest Day and Adventure Comics co-feature
In July 2010 Ray Palmer had a Brightest Day one-shot that led to a co-feature in Adventure Comics. Written by Jeff Lemire with art by Mahmud Asrar, the co-feature focused on Ray Palmer's early life. For a brief three-issue tenure, Palmer was part of writer James Robinson's new Justice League line-up, but resigned to help his friend Martin Stein with some sort of project. At the start of the Brightest Day event, Ray and Stein are seen at the funeral of Gehenna, the girlfriend and partner of the second Firestorm, Jason Rusch. When Jason gets into a confrontation with Ronnie Raymond over Gehenna's death, Ray steps in and tries to stop it. Ray manages to separate Jason and Ronnie from Black Lantern constructs.
Afterward, Ray discovered his father was attacked and the suspect was his own uncle David. With Ray's father in the hospital, Ray discovers his father had a stroke and his investigation of technology had been stolen. He seeks out Oracle to find the Calculator, Oracle manages to trace a data line, and Ray enters through the internet where he then encounters the Calculator and interrogates him to find out the dealers are. However, Calculator creates a room with no oxygen to make Atom's heartrate slower and he attempts to kill the Atom. Ray manages to grab Calculator and shrinks to return to Oracle's base. While Ray is in remission, he threatens Calculator who tells him that something called the Colony has manipulated Ray. Later, Prof. Hyatt was attacked by the Colony while looking for white dwarf matter. When Ray arrives, he goes to rescue Prof. Hyatt. During the fight, the Colony dies by incineration from the white dwarf matter. Ray calls Oracle to trace the phone line, and while he arrives at the Colony's base he is confronted by the Colony squad.
After failing to avoid detection, he is confronted by Uncle David and with his help, pulls him away from the Colony heading towards the teleporter. Once safe, Uncle David tells Ray about the Colony. David also tells Ray that he could not leave and could not work on the projects on his own, he shows Ray how to travel using the astrology orb called the ant farm to see a mini-planet of microscopic nature. But, the Colony followed them to David's hideout and travels to the ant farm Ray then engages them in an epic battle. After the battle the Colony died from incineration as it did before but, Ray managed to save him using his stable white dwarf matter. Ray demanded to know what they desired and the Colony tells him the same thing, and they transport the ant farm to the Colony's base. He destroys Ray's belt buckle's white dwarf matter and kills himself. Since they cannot return, Ray follows David with a backup plan when suddenly Ray is approached by robotic insects. David explains that the robotic insects are caretakers. They manage to fix the belt buckle and he returns to normal size when in Colony's base. Failing to escape, Ray is forced by the scientist to bring the white dwarf matter. He shows the monitor renderings where Colony is standing in front of the hospital where is father his and he is going to kill him.
When Ray refused, Hawkman prevents Colony from attacking Ray's father. Ray receives a call from Oracle to trace the monitor renderings, but Hawkman is being attacked by the Colony squad that miniaturize into Hawkman's body. Ray chooses to save Hawkman to leave the Colony's base while the other Colony escapes and kidnaps Ray's father. Ray rescues Hawkman by leaping into a body of the Colony attackers. When Hawkman is recovering, the Colony leaves their message to bring the white dwarf meteor and warned him no tricks, and to bring the meteor to save his family. While Ray traded the meteor to Colony before the Colony leaves, they exchange it for Ray's family that is in the ant farm. Ray travels into the ant farm and discovers that they planted a nuclear bomb on a vest strapped to his uncle David. Ray then manages to save his father and David and shrinks the bomb before it had a chance to detonate. While Ray's father is recovering, Ray reveals to David that he planted the white dwarf meteor into a nano-liquid to make the Colony's headquarters shrink. Ray, David, and Hawkman arrive at the location of the Colony's headquarters to attack their base. After the Colony was defeated however, David tells him there are more Colonies in the area. Later, Ray returns his father home. Ray forgives his father and apologizes for giving him a rough life before he overhears a firefighter rescue service, as he is a capable hero once more.
During this same period, Ray begins an investigation into the disappearance of Ryan, whom unbeknownst to the superhero community, had been murdered by Deathstroke. Ray comforts Ryan's girlfriend Amanda, and muses Ryan may be hiding out like Ray did after the events of Identity Crisis. While he shrinks himself to investigate he discovers microbiology blood. He arrives at the Hall of Justice to tell the League members that Ryan is missing. The League starts to help Ray's investigation to find Ryan's whereabouts. He discovers Ryan's DNA cell is not a match. The DNA cell came to someone else. Later, Ray discovers evidence that Dwarfstar had a hand in Ryan's death, and vows to find him and make him pay. Ray eventually finds Dwarfstar in a hospital, where he is recovering from the severe injuries he sustained from his torture at the hands of Giganta (Ryan's ex-girlfriend). Believing it may lead to a lighter sentence, Dwarfstar confesses to hiring Deathstroke to kill Ryan. Armed with this knowledge, Ray leaves to inform the Justice League. Later, he asked Batman (Dick Grayson) to get revenge on Deathstroke for murdering Ryan. Ray and the Justice League arrive to attempt to arrest Deathstroke and the Titans. The Justice League battle against the Titans in Khandaq, where Ray seriously injures Deathstroke for killing his friend. The battle is stopped by Isis, who forces the Justice League to flee to avoid restarting World War III. After failing, Ray begins writing the eulogy for Ryan's funeral, and is comforted by Superman. In the final issue, Ray meets Ryan's friends and family, and gives the speech at his protégé's funeral.
Convergence
In the Convergence crossover, when the alternate Brainiac miniaturized the universe of the New Earth, Ray Palmer, who had been in a mental state with his powers to increase size affected since imprisoned in the dome, sends out a broadcast message that he will pursue Deathstroke for Ryan Choi's murder. Ray then engages Deathstroke in an epic battle, but Ray is being pulled by the mysterious voice of Telos to fight opposite Angor universe's Barracuda. While Ray battles Barracuda, Ryan Choi suddenly appears and to be alive, and confronts him. Ryan explains that his death and consciousness had survived in the universe where the Atoms' masses are shifted to whenever they change size. Ryan then returns to the realm of the living after appropriating Ray's hand that Barracuda severed during their battle, to create a new body for him after they defeat Barracuda. Ray is hospitalized after losing his hand, and Deathstroke infiltrates the hospital and attempts to kill him, but Ryan interferes as they work together to defeat Deathstroke and restored Ray's hand.
The New 52
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Ray appears in Frankenstein: Agent of S.H.A.D.E. as S.H.A.D.E.'s science advisor, although he appears to have retained his abilities. His shrinking technology enables S.H.A.D.E. agents to enter and leave their microscopic headquarters, the Ant Farm. He later uses his size-shifting abilities to assist Superman in visiting the Bottle City of Kandor, during which he wears a protective suit similar to the Atom costume. At the end of this adventure he expresses an interest in becoming a superhero as the Atom. He subsequently assists Superman in costume during Superman's fight with Vandal Savage.
DC Rebirth
Subsequently, in the DC Rebirth reboot, on Earth-0, Ray Palmer is, by day, a professor at an Ivy League college and, by night, the experienced crime fighter The Atom. He reveals his secret identity to his friend and apprentice Ryan Choi, and enlists him for tech support during his adventures. After many adventures together, Ray disappears and Ryan is scolded when Ray cancels classes for the fifth day in a row. When Ryan goes to get Ray from his workshop where he has seemingly been confined for a week, he instead finds a video recording from Ray. In it he reveals he discovered a universe beyond the subatomic, a so-called Microverse while investigating a disruption in space and time, and within he found something that posed an existential threat to their universe. He asks Ryan, the only other person who knows how to use the Atom's technology and whom Ray trusts, to go into it, rescue him, and finish his work. Ray informs Ryan that upon arrival he will also meet with someone who he himself has encountered. He tries to warn Ryan about something, but the footage cuts out abruptly before he can finish. When Batman begins recruiting for his new Justice League of America, he chooses Ray as one of the members of the new league, however when he enters Ray's office he finds Ryan instead. Ryan explains to Batman about Ray's situation so he takes Ryan as Ray's successor.
Carter Hall, during his ongoing quest to reveal the mysteries of his past lives, is transported to the Microverse, where Ray has relocated. Together they recover a starship located on the living planet Moz-Ga which belonged to several of Hall's past lives.
Powers and abilities
Atom possesses the power to alter his size down to the subatomic level while retaining his natural strength level. This is accomplished by using the remnants of a white-dwarf star made into a belt buckle worn with his costume. Originally, he had to manipulate his abilities via the belt, and later with hand movements, before eventually syncing directly with his brain via mental commands. The Atom is one of the few heroes in the DC Universe that has 100% control over his body on the molecular level (Plastic Man being another), thus making him exponentially more powerful than he is often portrayed; he is limited only by his application of his powers. Some of the applications he has demonstrated include reducing his mass to glide through the air and increasing his mass to punch through concrete. He also demonstrated the ability to make his costume appear and disappear at will by shifting its atoms between this dimension and another.
During Countdown to Final Crisis, Palmer learned he could shrink down beyond the subatomic scale to traverse the Multiverse by slipping below the quantum layer beneath reality. He has been shown to be able to ride phone lines to his destination by dialing a number and traveling through the handset (his signature use of his power), and recently shrinking small enough to travel on photon signals through fiber optic cable.
Some of The Atom's more impressive feats include shrinking into Superman's atomic structure and manually compile his protonic minutia to generate Kryptonite radiation and defusing Black Lantern Al Pratt's Atomic Punch and resizing within him, ripping his body apart in the process.
Following the events of Zero Hour, the Atom gained the ability to also grow in size and internalizes his other abilities without the use of his white dwarf star-based apparatus. However, when returned to his natural age, these abilities were lost.
As a member of the Indigo Tribe, Ray possessed an indigo power ring powered by compassion, which provided him with flight, energy projection, and a protective force field. He also utilized a staff capable of duplicating the abilities of other wielders of the Emotional spectrum within range.
He has also shown the ability to allow others to shrink down with him if the situation requires it, such as when he shrank himself, Superman, Flash, Green Lantern, Wonder Woman and Plastic Man to repair the links between seven shattered subatomic particles, or shrinking Steel, Supergirl and Superboy to directly treat a kryptonite tumor in Superman's body. However, this ability is relatively limited; initially anyone other than himself who was shrunk would explode after two minutes if not returned to their normal size, although by the time he sent Superman's allies into the Man of Steel, he was able to extend this time to around an hour.
Palmer is exceptionally intelligent. He has a IQ of 140 and prior to acquiring his abilities, he had four PhDs under his belt. He is a world authority on physics, with other superheroes often consulting him for assistance with physics-related projects.
Although physics is his primary forte, he is proficient in various other scientific disciplines. He has proven to be a master of engineering, as he was able to design and build the A.T.O.M. He has also developed several other technologically sophisticated gadgets during his tenure as the CEO of Palmer Tech such as surgical nanobots, dispersal units, smartwatches, etc. He is an adept chemist as well, as he was able to analyze and modify Eobard Thawne's biomolecular enhancer to have lasting and more stable effects while in World War II, despite the formula initially being made from 22nd-century technology.
Additionally, he is in excellent physical condition, engaging in frequent exercise and workouts. He has a high level of experience with-hand-to-hand combat, having received training from various different Justice League members, namely Batman. Boxing and judo are his preferred fighting styles. He has also displayed proficiency in swordsmanship and acrobatics.
Supporting cast
Adam Cray - The son of an assassinated senator, Adam Cray is approached by Ray Palmer to take up his mantle as the Atom to bring Micro/Squad into the open so Palmer can infiltrate their ranks and bring them to justice. Cray steals the size-changing belt given to Paul Hoben and joins the Suicide Squad. The plan works but at the cost of Cray's life.
Hawkman - Meeting in the Justice League, Hawkman became Palmer's best friend.
Jean Loring - Palmer's girlfriend when he became the Atom. He would go on to marry her but the two would divorce years later when Jean had an affair with fellow lawyer Paul Hoben. Jean would marry Hoben but the two would eventually divorce. In wake of the events of Identity Crisis, Jean and Ray would reconnect until it was discovered Jean was behind the murders therein and separated again.
Laethwyn - Princess of the Morlaidhans that falls mutually in love with the Atom when he helps her reclaim her throne. She, like the rest of her people, are murdered by the CIA operatives under order of the Cabal.
Loren Jupiter - A wealthy philanthropist that financed the original Teen Titans during their early years. He would return to help form another band of Teen Titans with his daughter Lilith when the alien race H'San Natall threatened Earth, largely the force behind Ray Palmer's membership in the group as its leader in the wake of Zero Hour.
Major Mynah - A myna Palmer saves and brings to Hawkman to give it prosthetic wings to replace its severely damaged wings. The bird goes on to become the Atom's partner and steed.
Maya - Queen of the Flower Spirits/Dryads from another dimension, after the Atom frees her people from the control of the Plant Master they become his friends and assist him occasionally. She later became friends with Floronic Man.
Norman Brawler - A close friend of Palmer's that authors his biography The Atom's Farewell where the Atom's identity is revealed to the world.
Paul Hoben - Lawyer who had an affair with Jean Loring while she was married to Ray Palmer. After her divorce, she marries Paul with Ray's blessing. When Ray decides to remain in Morlaidh, he gives Paul his size-changing belt and the role as the protector of Ivy Town.
Professor Alpheus V. Hyatt - A scientist and friend of Ray Palmer at Ivy University that invents a Time Pool, but the opening to it is remarkably small. As such, the Atom is the only person capable of using it to travel through time.
Rogues gallery
Big Gang - A group of specialists that each take the title 'Big' for their specialties that target the largest/biggest of items to steal. Membership includes Big Deal (illusionist and expert in prestidigitation), Big Ben (timing specialist), Big Wig (master of disguise wigs), Big Bertha (strong woman), Big Shot (marksman), Big Cheese (who uses specially made cheeses with different properties), and led by Big Head.
The Bug-Eyed Bandit - Bertram Larvan invented an army of mechanical insects and spiders to do his bidding as the Bug-Eyed Bandit.
Chronos the Time-Thief - David Clinton was a criminal with perfect timing and developed an arsenal of time-based paraphernalia. As Chronos, he became the Atom's archenemy and would, in time, became an expert in time travel and time manipulation.
The Colony - They started during the Cold War program using their connections, codenaming it Project Colony. The C.I.A. gathered a group of America's brightest scientific minds power of the United States. Project Colony quickly developed projects and weapons systems that over the next years. The original group changed over the decades, faces and minds were constantly being and handed an unlimited budget to explore and experiment. After the Cold War ended, the group and Project Colony was officially discontinued. However, the greatest minds the country had to offer were in the middle of new experiments and projects. They reformed as a private organization, now calling ourselves simply the Colony, and continued their work in secret to America's global and metahuman. Unfortunately, the global landscape grew increasingly unstable; tension grew within their ranks. The Colony was willing to sacrifice anything, including humans, for their mankind to come to fruition.
Deathstroke the Terminator - Originally facing the mercenary as part of the Teen Titans and again when he protected Dr. Light, Palmer would help take down Deathstroke after he murdered his protégé Ryan Choi.
Doctor Light - After Dr. Light escapes from prison, the warden asks the Atom to discover how he achieved such a feat. The Atom is able to recreate the escape and follows the villain to his hideout. Though captured, he manages to stop Light from his assault on the Justice League and brings him into custody. Later, the Atom would vote to lobotomize Light for his rape of Sue Dibny.
Eddie Gordon - A petty criminal, Eddie Gordon stumbled upon the Bat-Knights of Elvaran, a race of miniature humanoids, in Giants Cavern and would manipulate them on several occasions to perform crimes for him.
The Floronic Man - Exiled from an alternate dimension, Jason Woodrue would become the Plant Master and try to control plants to conquer Earth. One of the Atom's most frequent opponents, Woodrue would become a living plant able to control flora and take the name the Floronic Man.
Humbug the Reusable Man - In an attempt to create artificial intelligence, the Department of Scientific Investigation's Darwin Jones, Annetta Kaplan, and Anton Kraft created the computer Gestalt. However, the project took on a life all its own and the trio built a humanoid body for the emerging lifeform, giving birth to Humbug. Armed with an army of these artificial bodies endowed with super-strength, super-durability, and able to inflate/deflate, Humbug could jump between them at will with a murderous penchant for games.
The Man in the Ion Mask - Masquerading as a modern-day Man in the Iron Mask, Bill Jameson wore a mask that emitted ion rays that when in the presence of Encephalonic waves (such as those his brother Ed's brain emitted) would black out those nearby and rob them.
Micro/Squad - A group of CIA operatives tasked with committing genocide on the Morlaidhan race in Operation: Fireball in hopes of rousing the absent Ray Palmer into returning to the agency as an operative. When Palmer learned of this, he shrank the operatives responsible to six-inch height (much to the pleasure of the CIA whom employed the group in Palmer's stead). The group, dubbed Micro/Squad, composed of Mr. Baily, Ms. Hubbard, Ginsburg, Sting, and led by Blacksnake, returned and believed they murdered Palmer in an explosion. When a new Atom emerged in the Suicide Squad, Blacksnake murdered him and claimed his size-changing belt to return to normal height. He followed this by killing Mr. Baily and Ms. Hubbard, crushing them in his hands. However, Ray switched places with Sting and revealed Ginsburg instead died in the explosion. Defeating Blacksnake, the villain is murdered by Task Force X II to bury evidence of the CIA's involvement in mass murder. Sting would return as a member of the Society.
The Panther Gang - A group of criminals known for robbery.
Strobe - Employing a suit of technological armor, Strobe had super-strength and could fire concussion blasts and blinding flashes of light. When this did not pan out, he became Edg the Destroyer again using armor but in a samurai motif. Defeated again by the Atom, he has returned to his Strobe identity since.
The Thinker - In a plot to steal without penalty of arrest, the Thinker robs artifacts of Earth-One and returns to his native Earth-Two where he cannot be prosecuted for his ill-gotten gains. This plot brings him into conflict with the Atoms of both worlds.
Toyboy - Criminal ringleader Johnny Burns becomes the supervillain Toyboy when his mother experienced an accident that briefly endowed her with psychic powers, which in turn gave Toyboy telekinesis (which he uses to control toys) and super-strength. Mrs. Burns also created a psionic construct of Johnny that wanted to reform and when in the presence of Toyboy, Johnny was reborn as a man seeking redemption for his crimes.
Wizardo the Great (fake) - Howard Crane wears an astronaut-like suit to blame Wizardo the Great for robberies during his Space Man act.
Other versions
The Dark Knight Strikes Again
Frank Miller portrayed Ray Palmer as a major player in Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again. He was taken prisoner by Lex Luthor and made to live in one of his own petri dishes for a period of years until his rescue by Catgirl. He was then instrumental in the liberation of Kandor, gaining access to the bottle by 'hiding' inside Lara- the daughter of Superman and Wonder Woman- when she confronted Brainiac, slipping inside the bottle to break it from the inside and allowing the Kryptonians within to gain superpowers to defeat Brainiac.
In The Dark Knight III: The Master Race, Palmer attempts to restore the natives of Kandor to their full height, but is instead tricked into reviving a twisted Kryptonian cult, whose leader proceeds to crush Palmer and Kandor.
League of Justice
Other re-imaginings of the Atom include an appearance in League of Justice, an Elseworlds story portraying the Justice League in a The Lord of the Rings-type story where the Atom was recast as a wizard/fortune teller called "Atomus The Palmer".
JLA: Age of Wonders
In JLA: Age of Wonder, Ray Palmer worked with a science consortium whose members at one point included Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla.
JLA: Rock of Ages
In JLA: Rock of Ages, the Atom is part of what remains of the Justice League in an alternate future where Darkseid has taken control of the Earth. The Atom dies sacrificing himself to kill Darkseid, riding a burst of photons through the villain's invisible force field and into his optic nerve, then discharging white dwarf radiation into Darkseid's four-lobed brain.
JLA/Avengers
In JLA/Avengers, Ray appears first as taking the place of Wally West during the Justice League's mission to the Marvel Universe when he realizes that there is no Speed Force in the other reality. The Justice League arrives and battles a group of monsters while searching for the Ultimate Nullifier, but Ray stays behind after a brief confrontation with the Avengers, where he sees them meeting with Metron who gives a story different from the one given to the League by The Grandmaster. Intrigued at this turn of events, Ray jumped on Metron's chair, which took him to the Grandmaster's base. When Batman and Captain America arrive, having tracked Metron with the aid of equipment provided by the Fantastic Four, he shows them that while the Grandmaster is trying to stop Krona, his team in his game is the League, rather than his own universe's Avengers. When the Grandmaster merges the universes to stop Krona, Ray disappears until the two teams join up to go after Krona himself. Ray participates in the battle and ends up disappearing after Krona's defeat.
DC: The New Frontier
In DC: The New Frontier, Ray Palmer hasn't become the Atom yet but is a leading scientist in using lenses to shrink matter. However, in his experiments this matter would then explode. His technology was instrumental in destroying the Centre when the Flash bathes the alien in the beam and it explodes. Later, in the epilogue, the Atom is shown in a group shot.
JLA: The Nail
In JLA: The Nail and Another Nail, Atom often stands on Flash's shoulder, following Hawkman's death. He is shown infiltrating the Thinker's base to investigate the possibility that he was involved in the conspiracy against other heroes, but discovered upon entering the base that the Thinker was dead after he stumbled upon clues to the true mastermind's plans, the villain having been killed by a brainwashed Metamorpho (The only other person capable of infiltrating the Thinker's security). In the sequel, the Flash and the Atom are briefly sent to the Earth of the Crime Syndicate of America during the dimensional anomalies caused by the limbo cell, with the Atom observing that the Syndicate's tendency to steal everything they have prevents them from understanding the true nature of their current threat. Despite their efforts, the two only return to their world after the Limbo Cell has been defeated.
Countdown to Final Crisis
In Countdown to Final Crisis, The Search for Ray Palmer and Countdown: Arena (2007), a number of alternate versions of Ray are introduced.
On Earth-6, Ray Palmer has developed solar powers and taken the name of superhero the Ray.
Ray's counterpart on Earth-11 is a woman on a gender-reversed world.
The Jessica Palmer of Earth-15 is a young physicist on a world of efficient second- and third-generation heroes.
On Earth-30 in the Superman: Red Son limited series, Ray is an American scientist living in Russia.
On Earth-51, a younger Ray's life is cut short during a dangerous experiment. This Ray never specialized in size-manipulation or became a superhero, but served as the JLA's resident genius and was uniquely born with a superhuman immune system.
Flashpoint
In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, the Atom lost a leg to radiation poisoning and became a corrections officer in Doom Prison, acting as a controller of Amazo. During the prison break, the Atom's control is pulled out by Eel O'Brian and Heat Wave who then force him to retrieve their weapons. After the Atom does it, Heat Wave crushes his skull with his fingers.
In other media
Television
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure, voiced by Pat Harrington Jr..
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in Super Friends, voiced by Wally Burr.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in Justice League of America, portrayed by John Kassir.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in Justice League Unlimited, voiced by John C. McGinley. This version is a member of the Justice League.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Sword of the Atom!", voiced by Peter Scolari. This version was the original Atom and mentored Ryan Choi before eventually retiring to the Amazon rainforest, where he entered a relationship with Princess Laethwyn of the Morlaidhans.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in Young Justice, voiced by Jason Marsden. This version is a member of the Justice League who is assisted by Bumblebee.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in the DC Nation Shorts segment "Sword of the Atom", voiced again by Jason Marsden.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in Justice League Action, voiced by Jerry O'Connell.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in the Teen Titans Go! episode "Strength of a Grown Man", voiced by Patton Oswalt.
Arrowverse
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in media set in the Arrowverse, portrayed by Brandon Routh. This version has an I.Q. of 140 and four PhDs, is the CEO of Palmer Technologies (formerly Queen Consolidated), and was married to Anna Loring before she was killed by Deathstroke's men. Additionally, his suit was originally designed as the combat exosuit OMAC. Palmer first appears as a recurring character in the live-action TV series Arrow before making guest appearances in the live-action spin-off The Flash and the animated CW Seed series Vixen, as well as being a main character in the live-action spin-off Legends of Tomorrow.
Film
Ray Palmer appears in Justice League: The New Frontier, voiced by an uncredited Corey Burton.
An alternate universe version of Ray Palmer appears in Justice League: Gods and Monsters, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker. This version was a member of Lex Luthor's "Project Fair Play", a weapons program contingency meant to be used to destroy their version of the Justice League if necessary, before Palmer is killed by a Metal Man designed by Will Magnus to frame Wonder Woman.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies, voiced again by Patton Oswalt.
Video games
Ray Palmer appears in Injustice: Gods Among Us as a non-player character in the Insurgency headquarters stage and a playable character in the Joker's S.T.A.R. Labs minigames.
Ray Palmer appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Troy Baker.
The Arrowverse incarnation of Ray Palmer / Atom appears as a playable character in the "DC TV Super-Heroes" DLC of Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced by Brandon Routh.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
Miscellaneous
Jessica Palmer appears in Smallville Season 11 as an associate of Superman, among others.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in the Injustice: Gods Among Us prequel comic.
Ray Palmer / Atom appears in the Injustice 2 prequel comic as a member of Batman's Insurgency working to repair the damage caused by the Regime.
Collected editions
Reception
This version of Atom was ranked as the 144th Greatest Comic Book Character of All Time by Wizard magazine. IGN also ranked the Atom as the 64th Greatest Comic Book Hero of All Time stating; "Of all the superheroes out here, Dr. Ray Palmer might be one of the most brilliant tortured souls imaginable."
See also
Ant-Man
References
1961 comics debuts
2010 comics debuts
Characters created by Gardner Fox
Characters created by Gil Kane
Characters created by Julius Schwartz
Comics characters introduced in 1961
DC Comics American superheroes
DC Comics male superheroes
DC Comics scientists
Atom
DC Comics characters who are shapeshifters
Fictional characters who can change size
Fictional nuclear physicists
Fictional professors
Fictional swordfighters in comics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20western%20double%20titles
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List of Ace western double titles
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Ace Books published 250 western Ace doubles between 1952 and 1973 in dos-à-dos format.
Genres and collectability
Ace published science fiction, mysteries, and westerns, as well as books not in any of these genres. Collectors of these genres have found the Ace doubles an attractive set of books to collect, because of the unusual appearance of the dos-à-dos format.
The list given here gives a date of publication; in all cases this refers to the date of publication by Ace, and not the date of original publication of the novels. For more information about the history of these titles, see Ace Books, which includes a discussion of the serial numbering conventions used and an explanation of the letter-code system.
D Series
D-002 WE William Colt MacDonald Bad Man's Return / J. Edward Leithead Bloody Hoofs (1952)
D-004 WE Lewis B. Patten Massacre at White River / Walker A. Tompkins Rimrock Rider (1952)
D-006 WE William E. Vance The Branded Lawman / Nelson C. Nye Plunder Valley (1952)
D-008 WE Allan K. Echols Terror Rides the Range / Tom West Gunsmoke Gold (1953)
D-010 WE Leslie Scott The Brazos Firebrand / Gordon Young Hell on Hoofs (1953)
D-012 WE Dudley Dean Mcgaughy (as Dean Owen) The Man From Boot Hill / Dan J. Stevens Wild Horse Range (1953)
D-014 WE Paul Evan Lehman Vultures On Horseback / George Kilrain Maverick With A Star (1953)
D-018 WE J. Edward Leithead The Lead-Slingers / Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Hanging Hills (1953)
D-020 WE Roy Manning The Desperado Code / Allan K. Echols Double-Cross Brand
D-022 WE Bliss Lomax Maverick Of The Plains / Leslie Scott Badlands Masquerader (1953)
D-024 WE Tom West Vulture Valley / John Callahan The Sidewinders (1953)
D-028 WE Paul Evans Gunsmoke Kingdom / William E. Vance Avenger From Nowhere (1953)
D-030 WE George Kilrain South To Santa Fe / Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) Johnny Sundance (1953)
D-034 WE Ken Murray Hellion's Hole / Ken Murray Feud In Piney Flats (1953)
D-038 WE Bliss Lomax Outlaw River / Louis L'amour (as Jim Mayo) Showdown At Yellow Butte
D-039 WE Frank Gruber Quantrell's Raiders / Frank Gruber Rebel Road (1953)
D-042 WE Walker A. Tompkins One Against The Bullet Horde / Charles M. Martin Law For Tombstone (1954)
D-046 WE Chuck Martin Law From Back Beyond / Roy Manning Vengeance Valley (1954)
D-048 WE Louis L'Amour (as Jim Mayo) Utah Blaine / Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) Desert Showdown (1954)
D-052 WE William Colt Macdonald Boomtown Buccaneers / Louis L'Amour Crossfire Trail (1954)
D-056 WE Bliss Lomax Ambush At Coffin Canyon / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Hellbent For A Hangrope (1954)
D-064 WE Paul Evan Lehman Bullets Don't Bluff / Chandler Whipple Under The Mesa Rim (1954)
D-068 WE Walker A. Tompkins Deadwood / William Hopson Bullet-Brand Empire (1954)
D-072 WE Ralph R. Perry Night Rider Deputy / Norman A. Fox The Devil's Saddle (1954)
D-078 WE Nelson Nye The One-Shot Kid / Tom West Lobo Legacy (1954)
D-086 WE Richard Brister The Shoot-Out At Sentinel Peak / Roy Manning Tangled Trail (1954)
D-092 WE Burt Arthur The Drifter / Richard Wormser and Dan Gordon The Longhorn Trail (1955)
D-098 WE Nelson Nye Texas Tornado / Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) The Lobo Horseman (1955)
D-106 WE D.L. Bonar Lawman Without A Badge / Lee Floren Four Texans North (1955)
D-112 WE Frank Castle Border Buccaneers / Harry Sinclair Drago Trigger Gospel (1955)
D-120 WE John Mcgreevey Bounty Man / Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) The Call Of The Gun
D-128 WE William Hopson High Saddle / William E. Vance Way Station West (1955)
D-134 WE Gene Olsen The Outsiders / Nelson Nye Tornado On Horseback (1955)
D-138 WE Paul Evan Gunsmoke Over Sabado / T.V. Olsen Haven Of The Hunted (1956)
D-144 WE Jay Albert The Man From Stony Lonesome / Rod Patterson A Killer Comes Riding (1956)
D-156 WE Lee Floren Thruway West / Stephen C. Lawrence The Naked Range (1956)
D-160 WE Karl Kramer Action Along The Humboldt / Michael Carder Decision At Sundown
D-166 WE Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) Terror At Tres Alamos / Stuart Brock Whispering Canyon
D-172 WE Robert J. Steelman Stages South / Ben Smith Johnny No-Name (1956)
D-180 WE Nelson C. Nye The No-Gun Fighter / Walt Coburn One Step Ahead Of The Posse (1956)
D-186 WE Ray Hogan Ex-Marshall / Edward Churchill Steel Horizon (1956)
D-192 WE Roy Manning Beware Of This Tenderfoot / John Callahan Bad Blood At Black Range (1956)
D-196 WE Walt Coburn The Night Branders / Frank Gruber The Highwayman
D-204 WE Paul Durst John Law, Keep Out! / Gordon Donalds The Desperate Donigans (1957)
D-208 WE Glenn Balch Blind Man's Bullets / Barry Cord The Prodigal Gun (1957)
D-216 WE Barry Cord Savage Valley / William Colt Macdonald Ridin' Through (1957)
D-220 WE Ray Hogan The Friendless One / John Jakes Wear A Fast Gun (1956)
D-226 WE Edwin Booth Showdown At Warbird / Samuel A. Peeples Doc Colt (1957)
D-230 WE Barry Cord Boss Of Barbed Wire / Lee Floren Burn 'Em Out! (1957)
D-236 WE Edwin Booth Jinx Rider / Ray Hogan Walk A Lonely Trail (1957)
D-240 WE Wayne C. Lee Broken Wheel Ranch / Tom West Torture Trail (1957)
D-248 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Longhorn Law / Ray Hogan Cross Me In Gunsmoke (1957)
D-252 WE John Callahan The Rawhide Breed / Rod Patterson Prairie Terror (1957)
D-260 WE Ray Hogan and Matt Slade Land Of The Strangers / Lee Floren The Saddle Wolves (1957)
D-264 WE Barry Cord Cain Basin / Lee E. Wells Brother Outlaw (1958)
D-272 WE Lee Floren Riders In The Night / William Hopson Backlash At Cajon Pass
D-276 WE Barry Cord The Gunsmoke Trail / Tom West Lead In His Fists (1958)
D-284 WE Barry Cord The Guns Of Hammer / Edwin Booth The Man Who Killed Tex (1958)
D-288 WE Edwin Booth Trail To Tomahawk / John Callahan Land Beyond The Law
D-294 WE John H. Latham Bad Bunch Of The Brasada / Walt Coburn Beyond The Wide Missouri (1958)
D-298 WE Paul Evans Thunder Creek Range / William Vance Outlaws Welcome! (1958)
D-304 WE Archie Joscelyn River To The Sunset / Ben Smith Trouble At Breakdam (1958)
D-308 WE Jack M. Bickham Gunman's Gamble / Roy Manning Draw And Die! (1958)
D-316 WE Rod Patterson A Time For Guns / Barry Cord / Mesquite Johnny (1958)
D-320 WE Robert Mccaig The Rangemaster / William Hopson The Last Shoot-Out (1958)
D-328 WE Merle Constiner The Fourth Gunman / Tom West Slick On The Draw (1958)
D-332 WE Kermit Welles Blood On Boot Hill / Ben Smith Stranger In Sundown (1959)
D-346 WE Ray Hogan Wanted: Alive! / Barry Cord Sherriff Of Big Hat (1957)
D-348 WE T.V. Olsen The Man From Nowhere / John L. Shelley The Avenging Gun (1959)
D-356 WE Paul Durst Kansas Guns / Tom West The Cactus Kid (1958)
D-360 WE John H. Latham Johnny Sixgun / Barry Cord War In Peaceful Valley (1959)
D-368 WE Ray Hogan Hangman's Valley / Joseph Gage A Score To Settle (1959)
D-372 WE Dan Kirby Cimarron Territory / Glenn Balch Grass Greed (1959)
D-380 WE William Heuman My Brother The Gunman / Barry Cord Concho Valley (1959)
D-384 WE Louis Trimble Mountain Ambush / Jack M. Bickham Feud Fury
D-392 WE Tom West Twisted Trail / Archie Joscelyn The Man From Salt Creek (1959)
D-400 WE Barry Cord Last Chance At Devil's Canyon / Gordon D. Shirreffs Shadow Of A Gunman (1959)
D-408 WE Edwin Booth Wyoming Welcome / Giles A. Lutz Law Of The Trigger (1959)
D-412 WE E.A. Alman Ride The Long Night / Gordon D. Shirreffs Apache Butte (1959)
D-418 WE C.S. Park The Quiet Ones / Tom West Nothing But My Gun (1960)
D-424 WE Lee Richards Shoot Out At The Way Station / Robert Mccaig Wild Justice (1960)
D-430 WE William Hopson Born Savage / Ray Hogan The Hasty Hangman (1960)
D-436 WE Tom West The Phantom Pistoleer / Giles A. Lutz The Challenger (1960)
D-442 WE Jack M. Bickham Killer's Paradise / Rod Patterson Rider Of The Rincon (1960)
D-448 WE Lee Floren Pistol-Whipper / Archie Joscelyn (as Al Cody) Winter Range (1960)
D-450 WE Tom West Side Me With Sixes / Ray Hogan The Ridgerunner (1960)
D-456 WE Edwin Booth Danger Trail / Edwin Booth The Desperate Dude
D-462 WE Jack M. Bickham The Useless Gun / John H. Latham The Long Fuse (1960)
D-470 WE Gene Olsen The Man Who Was Morgan / Ben Smith The Maverick (1960)
D-476 WE Tom West Double Cross Dinero / Edwin Booth Last Valley (1960)
D-484 WE Ray Hogan Ambush At Riflestock / Archie Joscelyn (as Al Cody) Dead Man's Spurs (1961)
D-492 WE William Hopson Winter Drive / Giles A. Lutz The Wild Quarry (1961)
D-496 WE Steven G. Lawrence With Blood In Their Eyes / Tom West Killer's Canyon (1961)
D-502 WE Paul Evan Lehman Troubled Range / Archie Joscelyn (as Al Cody) Long Night At Lodgepole (1961)
D-510 WE Harry Whittington The Searching Rider / Jack M. Bickham Hangman's Territory (1961)
D-514 WE Gordon D. Shirreffs Hangin' Pards / Gordon D. Shirreffs Ride A Lone Trail (1961)
F Series
F-103 WE Harry Whittington A Trap For Sam Dodge / Lee Floren High Thunder (1961)
F-106 WE Brian Garfield Justice At Spanish Flat / Tom West The Gun From Nowhere (1961)
F-110 WE Ray Hogan Track The Man Down / Lee Wells Savage Range (1961)
F-116 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Lurking Gun / Louis Trimble Deadman Canyon (1961)
F-120 WE Jack M. Brickham Gunman Can't Hide / John Callahan Come In Shooting (1961)
F-124 WE Steven G. Lawrence Slattery / Steven G. Lawrence Bullet Welcome For Slattery (1961)
F-126 WE Edwin Booth The Troublemaker / Ray Hogan A Marshall For Lawless (1962)
F-128 WE Tom West The Buzzard's Nest / Louis Trimble Siege At High Meadow (1962)
F-134 WE Rod Patterson A Shooting At Sundust / Gordon D. Shirreffs Tumbleweed Trigger (1962)
F-138 WE Steven G. Lawrence Walk A Narrow Trail / Steven G. Lawrence A Noose For Slattery (1962)
F-142 WE L. P. Holmes Wolf Brand / Smoky Pass (1962)
F-144 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Massacre Basin / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Badge Shooters (1962)
F-148 WE Harry Whittington Wild Sky / Tom West Dead Man's Double Cross (1962)
F-150 WE Nelson Nye Hideout Mountain / Rafe (1962)
F-152 WE Gordon D. Shirreffs Rio Desperado //Voice Of The Gun (1962)
F-160 WE Ray Hogan New Gun For Kingdom City / The Shotgunner (1962)
F-164 WE Steven G. Lawrence Longhorns North / Slattery's Gun Says "No" (1962)
F-172 WE Tom West Battling Buckeroos / Giles A. Lutz Gun Rich (1962)
F-176 WE Dan J. Stevens Gun Trap At Bright Water / Ray Hogan The Outside Gun (1963)
F-184 WE Nelson C. Nye Death Valley Slim / The Kid From Lincoln County (1963)
F-186 WE William O. Turner The High Hander / Louis Trimble Wild Horse Range (1963) (may be misprinted as F-185 on some copies)
F-196 WE Harry Whittington Dry Gulch Town / Prairie Raiders (1963)
F-200 WE Tom West Triggering Texan / Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) The Big Snow (1963)
F-208 WE L. P. Holmes Side Me At Sundown / The Buzzards Of Rocky Pass
F-214 WE Louis Trimble The Man From Colorado / Bill Burchardt The Wildcatters (1963)
F-224 WE Nelson Nye Bancroft's Banco / The Seven Six-Gunners (1963)
F-230 WE Tom West Lobo Lawman / Ray Hogan Trail Of The Fresno Kid (1963)
F-238 WE Stephen Payne Brand Him Outlaw / Gordon D. Shirreffs Quicktrigger (1963)
F-244 WE Ray Hogan Last Gun At Cabresto / Edwin Booth Valley Of Violence (1962)
F-250 WE Barry Cord The Masked Gun / Tom West Gallows Gulch (1963)
F-254 WE Philip Ketchum The Ghost Riders / William Heuman Hardcase Halloran (1964)
F-260 WE Louis Trimble Trouble At Gunsight / Brian Garfield Trail Drive
F-264 WE Ben Elliott Contract In Cartridges / Tom West Don't Cross My Line (1964)
F-272 WE Ray Hogan The Man From Barranca Negra / Stephen Payne No Job For A Cowboy (1964)
F-276 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) Mr. Six Gun / William E. Vance The Wolf Slayer (1964)
F-284 WE Lin Searles Border Passage / Ben Smith The Homesteader (1964)
F-292 WE Gordon D. Shirreffs The Hidden Rider Of Dark Mountain / Tom West The Man At Rope's End (1964)
F-298 WE Nelson Nye Treasure Trail From Tucson / Sudden Country (1964)
M Series
M-100 WE John Callahan A Man Named Raglan / Barry Cord Gun Junction (1964)
M-102 WE Ray Hogan Hoodoo Guns / Rod Patterson Trouble At Hangdog Flats (1964)
M-104 WE Tom West Sidewinder Showdown / Dan J. Stevens Land Beyond The Law
M-106 WE Reese Sullivan The Blind Trail / Tim Kelly Ride Of Fury (1964)
M-108 WE Rod Patterson Gunfire Heritage / Wayne C. Lee Warpath West (1965)
M-110 WE Tom West Bushwack Brand / Merle Constiner Wolf On Horseback (1965)
M-112 WE Nelson Nye Rogue's Rendezvous / Gun Feud At Tiedown
M-114 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Lynch Law Canyon / Stephen Payne Stampede On Farway Pass
M-118 WE Merle Constiner Guns At Q Cross / Tom West The Toughest Town In The Territory (1965)
M-120 WE Nelson Nye Ambush At Yuma's Chimney / John Callahan Ride The Wild Land (1965)
M-122 WE Roger G. Spellman Tall For A Texan / William Vance Outlaw Brand (1965)
M-124 WE Stephen Payne Trail Of The Vanishing Ranchers / Tom West Battle At Rattlesnake Pass (1965)
M-126 WE Harry Whittington Valley Of Savage Men / Ben Elliott Brother Badman (1965)
M-128 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) The Night It Rained Bullets / Reese Sullivan Nemesis Of Circle A (1965)
M-130 WE John Callahan Half-Injun, Half-Wildcat / Clement Hardin Outcast Of Ute Bend (1965)
M-134 WE Tom West Lost Loot Of Kittycat Ranch / Lin Searles Saddle The Wind (1965)
M-136 WE Ray Hogan Panhandle Pistolero / Nelson Nye The Marshall Of Pioche (1966)
M-138 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Call Me Hazard / Dean Owens The Rincon Trap (1966)
M-140 WE Reese Sullivan Deadly Like A .45 / Barry Cord Last Stage To Gomorrah (1966)
G Series
G-573 WE Tom West Rattlesnake Range / Merle Constiner Top Gun From The Dakotas (1966)
G-577 WE Roger Spellman Big Man From The Brazos / Ray Hogan Killer's Gun (1966)
G-579 WE Lee E. Wells Ride A Dim Trail / Louis Trimble Showdown In The Cayuse (1966)
G-584 WE William E. Vance Son Of A Desperado / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Ruthless Breed (1966)
G-587 WE Lee Hoffman Gunfight At Laramie / Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) The Wolf Pack
G-591 WE Dan J. Stevens Stage To Durango / Tom West Hangrope Heritage (1966)
G-596 WE Reese Sullivan The Demanding Land / John Callahan Hackett's Feud (1966)
G-601 WE John L. Shelley The Return Of Bullet Benton / Ray Hogan The Hellsfire Lawman (1966)
G-607 WE Merle Constiner Rain Of Fire / Tom West Bitter Brand (1966)
G-610 WE John L. Shelley The Siege At Gunhammer / Frank Wynee The Lusty Breed (1967)
G-615 WE Ray Hogan Legacy Of The Slash M / William Vance Tracker (1967)
G-619 WE Barry Cord Gallows Ghost / Stephen Payne Room To Swing A Loop
G-622 WE Tom West Showdown At Serano / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Paxman Feud (1967)
G-633 WE Wayne C. Lee Return To Gunpoint / Dan J. Stevens The Killers From Owl Creek
G-638 WE Edwin Booth A Time To Shoot / Merle Constiner The Action At Redstone Creek
G-642 WE Louis Trimble Standoff At Massacre Buttes / Kyle Hollingshead Echo Of A Texas Rifle (1967)
G-648 WE William Vance The Raid At Crazyhorse / Tom West Crossfire At Barbed M (1967)
G-659 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Oxbow Deed / John Callahan Kincaid (1967)
G-668 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) A Badge For A Badman / Ray Hogan Devil's Butte (1967)
G-674 WE William Vance No Man's Brand / Merle Constiner Two Pistols South Of Deadwood (1967)
G-682 WE John Callahan Ride For Vengeance / Tom West Bandit Brand
G-687 WE Dan J. Stevens Stranger In Rampart / Eric Allen The Hanging At Whiskey Smith
G-698 WE Ray Hogan Trouble At Tenkiller / Kyle Hollingshead The Franklin Raid (1968)
G-705 WE Barry Cord The Long Wire / Merle Constiner Killers' Corral (1968)
G-710 WE Tom West The Face Behind The Mask / Louis Trimble Marshall Of Sangaree (1968)
G-721 WE Don P. Jenison The Silver Concho / Lee Hoffman Dead Man's Gold (1968)
G-727 WE John Callahan Tracks Of The Hunter / Clay Ringold Return To Rio Fuego (1968)
G-732 WE Reese Sullivan The Trouble Borrower / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Ambush Reckoning (1968)
G-742 WE Tom West Write His Name In Gunsmoke / Dean Owen Lone Star Roundup (1968)
G-747 WE Ray Hogan Killer On The Warbucket / Dean Owen Sage Tower (1968)
G-755 WE Wayne C. Lee Trail Of The Skulls / Merle Constiner The Four From Gila Bend (1968)
G-760 WE Reese Sullivan The Vengeance Ghost / X.X. Jones Bronc (1968)
G-764 WE Louis Trimble West To The Pecos / John Callahan Jernigan (1968)
Numbered Series
04612 WE Tom West Bad Blood At Bonita Basin / Tom West Rattlesnake Range (1972)
06760 WE C. Hall Thompson The Killing Of Hallie James / Ray Hogan The Bloodrock Valley War (1969)
08560 WE Louis Trimble Siege At High Meadow / Tom West The Buzzard's Nest (1973)
09135 WE Clay Ringold The Hooded Gun / Sam Bowie Canyon War (1969)
10665 WE Giles A. Lutz The Challenger / Tom West The Phantom Pistoleer (1960)
11530 WE Louis Trimble The Lonesome Mountains / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Colt Wages (1970)
11738 WE Dan J. Stevens Hunter's Moon / Tom West Corral This Killer (1973)
11785 WE Phillip Ketchum The Cougar Basin War / Louis Trimble Trouble Valley
14193 WE Nelson Nye Death Valley Slim /The Kid From Lincoln County
14195 WE Kyle Hollingshead Ransome's Debt / Merle Constiner Death Waits At Dakins Station (1970)
14265 WE Norman A. Daniels The Plunderers / Tom West Desperado Doublecross (1970)
17000 WE Reese Sullivan The Deadly Deputy / Dan J. Stevens The Dry Fork Incident (1969)
17235 WE Don P. Jenison South To New Range / Clay Ringold Duel In Lagrima Valley (1970)
24925 WE Merle Constiner The Fourth Gunman / Tom West Slick On The Draw
27251 WE Barry Cord Gallows Ghost / The Long Wire (1967)
27376 WE Tom West Gallows Gulch / The Man At Rope's End (1964)
30701 WE Nelson Nye Rogue's Rendezvous / Gun Feud At Tiedown (1965)
30850 WE Tom West Black Buzzards Of Bueno / Ben Smith The Guns Of Sonora (1969)
31739 WE Edwin Booth Hardesty / Reese Sullivan The Stranger (1972)
32718 WE Barry Cord Hell In Paradise Valley / Clay Ringold The Night Hell's Corners Died
33460 WE Louis Trimble Wild Horse Range / William O. Turner The High Hander (1963)
38500 WE Kyle Hollingshead Ransome's Move / L. L. Foreman Jemez Brand (1971)
47200 WE L. L. Foreman Last Stand Mesa / Philip Ketchum Mad Morgan's Hoard (1969)
48755 WE Tom West Lobo Of Lynx Valley / Louis Trimble The Ragbag Army (1971)
48885 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) Gunslick Territory / John Callahan Loner With A Gun (1973)
49301 WE Lin Searles Saddle In The Wind / Tom West Lost Loot Of Kittycat Ranch (1965)
52035 WE Eric Allen Marshall From Whiskey Smith / Gene Tuttle Imposters In Mesquite
53540 WE William E. Vance The Wolf Slayer / Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) Mr. Sixgun (1954)
57140 WE Ray Hogan New Gun For Kingdom City / The Shotgunner
57601 WE Reese Sullivan Nemesis Of Circle A / Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) The Night It Rained Bullets (1965)
58601 WE Merle Constiner Two Pistols South Of Deadwood / William Vance No Man's Brand
60990 WE Reese Sullivan Man On The Run / John Callahan Odds Against The Texan (1971)
67580 WE Ray Hogan The Vengeance Gun / L. L. Foreman Powdersmoke Partners (1973)
70350 WE Nelson Nye Hideout Mountain / Rafe (1962)
71372 WE Louis Trimble The Hostile Peaks / Tom West Renegade Roundup (1969)
72260 WE Gordon D. Shirreffs Quicktrigger / Rio Desperado
72360 WE John Callahan Ride The Wild Land / Jernigan (1965)
72525 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Call Me Hazard / Dean Owen The Rincon Trap (1966)
74180 WE Barry Cord Desert Knights / The Running Iron Samaritans (1973)
75150 WE Ray Hogan Track The Man Down / Lee. E. Wells Savage Range (1965)
75520 WE Tom West Scorpion Showdown / Clay Ringold Reckoning In Fire Valley (1969)
75968 WE Nelson Nye Bancroft's Banco / The Seven Six-Gunners (1963)
76900 WE Dean Owen The Skull Riders / Merle Constiner The Man Who Shot "The Kid" (1969)
77520 WE Barry Cord Gun Boss of Triangle / Wayne C. Lee Son of a Gunman (1973)
77910 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Stage Line To Rincon / Ray Hogan A Man Called Ryker (1971)
77925 WE Stephen Payne Stampede On Farway Pass / Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Lynch Law Canyon (1965)
79117 WE Tom West Sweetgrass Valley Showdown / Dean Owen Gun Country (1971)
79601 WE Roger Spellman Tall For A Texan / Big Man From The Brazos (1965)
81861 WE Merle Constiner Guns At Q Cross / Tom West The Toughest Town In The Territory
82101 WE Brian Garfield Trail Drive / Louis Trimble Trouble At Gunsight (1964)
82190 WE Harry Whittington A Trap For Sam Dodge / Valley Of Savage Men (1965)
82435 WE Barry Cord The Coffin Fillers / Don T. Jenison Trouble On Diamond Seven (1972)
83360 WE Barry Cord Two Graves For A Lawman / The Deadly Amigos
86465 WE Don P. Jenison Zero Hour At Black Butte / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Sheriff Of Sentinel (1969)
89590 WE L. P. Holmes Smoky Pass / L. P. Holmes Wolf Brand (1962)
References
Ace Image Library. Contains images of most covers for the doubles in all genres, as well as many of the single titles.
Bookscans. Contains numerous images of the Ace covers.
Western Double
Ace Double
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%20Cricket%20World%20Cup
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2019 Cricket World Cup
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The 2019 ICC Cricket World Cup was the 12th Cricket World Cup, a quadrennial One Day International (ODI) cricket tournament contested by men's national teams and organised by the International Cricket Council (ICC). The tournament was hosted between 30 May and 14 July across 10 venues in England and a single venue in Wales. It was the fifth time that England had hosted the World Cup, while for Wales it was their third.
The tournament was contested by 10 teams, a decrease from 14 teams in the previous edition, with the format of the tournament changing to a single round-robin group with the top four teams qualifying through to the knockout stage. After six weeks of round-robin matches, which saw four games not have a result, India, Australia, England and New Zealand finished as the top four, with Pakistan missing out on net run rate.
In the knockout stage, England and New Zealand won their respective semi-finals to qualify for the final, which was played at Lord's in London. The final ended in a tie after the match ended with both teams scoring 241 runs, followed by the first Super Over in an ODI; England won the title, their first, on the boundary countback rule after the Super Over also finished level. The total attendance throughout the 2019 ICC Cricket World Cup was 752,000.
Overall, videos of the group stages amassed over 2.6 billion views from around the world, making it the most-watched cricket competition
Hosting
The hosting rights were awarded in April 2006, after England and Wales withdrew their bid to host the 2015 Cricket World Cup, which was played in Australia and New Zealand. It was the fifth Cricket World Cup played in England, following the 1975, 1979, 1983 and 1999 World Cups. Wales also hosted matches at the 1983 and 1999 tournaments, the latter also seeing matches played in Scotland, Ireland and the Netherlands.
Qualification
The 2019 World Cup featured 10 teams, a decrease from previous World Cups in 2011 and 2015, which each featured 14 teams. The hosts (England) and the top seven other teams in the ICC One Day International rankings on 30 September 2017 earned an automatic qualification. Results from 19 September 2017 confirmed that these teams were Australia, Bangladesh, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa and Sri Lanka. The remaining two spots were decided by the 2018 Cricket World Cup Qualifier.
At the time of the announcement of the qualification structure, ICC Associate and Affiliate Members, who were guaranteed four spots in the previous two World Cup tournaments, could now only be represented by at most two teams, and possibly none at all if they were beaten by the lowest-ranked Full Members in the Qualifier. It also meant that at least two of the ten Test-playing nations at the time of the announcement would have to play in the qualifying tournament, and could miss the World Cup finals entirely. Thus, this was the first World Cup to be contested without all of the Full Member nations being present.
The final stage of the tournament was a "Super Six" group, from which the top two teams qualified for the 2019 World Cup. The West Indies were guaranteed a spot after defeating Scotland in the penultimate round. Afghanistan joined them after defeating Ireland in the final over of their match. This was the first time since 1983 that Zimbabwe had failed to qualify for a World Cup. Ireland also missed the competition for the first time since 2007, and, for the first time, no Associate nation participated.
Venues
The fixture list for the tournament was released on 26 April 2018 after the completion of an ICC meeting in Kolkata, India. London Stadium had been named as a possible venue in the planning stages, and in January 2017, the ICC completed an inspection of the ground, confirming that the pitch dimensions would be compliant with the requirements to host ODI matches. However, when the fixtures were announced, London Stadium was not included as a venue. All of the venues used are in England except for Sophia Gardens, which is in Wales. The final was scheduled for 14 July 2019 at Lord's in London.
Squads
All the participating teams had to submit the names of their respective World Cup squads by 23 April 2019. The teams were allowed to change players in their 15-man squad anytime up to seven days before the start of the tournament. New Zealand was the first team to announce their World Cup squad. The oldest player of the tournament was South African player Imran Tahir, who was 40 years old, while the youngest was Afghan spinner Mujeeb Ur Rahman, who was 18.
Match officials
In April 2019, the ICC named the officials for the tournament. Ian Gould announced that he would retire as an umpire following the conclusion of the tournament.
Umpires
Australia
Bruce Oxenford
Paul Reiffel
Rod Tucker
Paul Wilson
India
Sundaram Ravi
England
Michael Gough
Ian Gould
Richard Illingworth
Richard Kettleborough
Nigel Llong
New Zealand
Chris Gaffaney
Pakistan
Aleem Dar
South Africa
Marais Erasmus
Sri Lanka
Kumar Dharmasena
Ruchira Palliyaguruge
West Indies
Joel Wilson
Referees
The ICC also named six match referees for the tournament.
David Boon
Chris Broad
Jeff Crowe
Ranjan Madugalle
Richie Richardson
Andy Pycroft
Prize money
The International Cricket Council declared a total prize money pool of US$10 million for the tournament, the same as the 2015 edition. The prize money was allocated according to the performance of the team as follows:
Warm-up matches
Before the World Cup, the participating nations competed in 10 warm-up matches, which were played from 24 to 28 May 2019. These matches did not have either One Day International (ODI) status or List A status as teams were allowed to field all 15 members of their squad.
Opening ceremony
The opening ceremony took place on The Mall in central London during the evening of 29 May 2019, a day before the start of the World Cup. Andrew Flintoff, Paddy McGuinness and Shibani Dandekar hosted the event. Prior to the opening ceremony, the 10 captains met at Buckingham Palace where they were greeted by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Harry. A 60-second challenge took place among the 10 participating 'teams', with each side represented by two guest figures, including Viv Richards, Anil Kumble, Mahela Jayawardene, Jacques Kallis, Brett Lee, Kevin Pietersen, Farhan Akhtar, Malala Yousafzai, Yohan Blake, Damayanthi Dharsha, Azhar Ali, Abdur Razzak, Jaya Ahsan, James Franklin and Steven Pienaar, while David Boon was the umpire for the game. England won the game by scoring 74 points, and Australia came second with 69 points.
Michael Clarke, who captained Australia to the title in 2015, took the World Cup trophy to the stage, accompanied by former England spin bowler Graeme Swann. The ceremony concluded with the official World Cup song, "Stand By", performed by Loryn and Rudimental.
Group stage
The initial stage of the tournament saw the 10 teams grouped together for a single round-robin, in which each team played the other nine once for a total of 45 matches. Teams earned two points for a win and one for a tie or no-result (a minimum of 20 overs per side was needed to constitute a result). Matches in this stage had no reserve day set aside in the event of bad weather. After four games in seven days were rained off and complaints were made about the lack of reserve days, the ICC chief executive, Dave Richardson, said that trying to include reserve days "would significantly increase the length of the tournament and practically would be extremely complex to deliver".
The top four teams from the group stage progressed to the knockout stage. If teams were tied on points, then the number of wins and then the net run rate was used to separate them. A similar format was previously used in the 1992 Cricket World Cup, though that tournament featured nine teams instead of ten.
Following the 2019 Pulwama attack, several former Indian players and the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) called for the boycott of the group match fixture between India and Pakistan. They also wanted to have the Pakistan team banned from playing in the tournament. However, after conducting a board meeting in Dubai, the ICC rejected the BCCI's proposal and confirmed that the scheduled match would go ahead as planned, at Old Trafford in Manchester, despite the ongoing standoff between the two nations.
Points table
Summary
Week 1
The tournament began on 30 May at The Oval in London, between the host nation, England, and South Africa. England batted first and, despite losing their first wicket to the second ball of the tournament, went on to score 311/8, with Ben Stokes top-scoring with 89 runs. South Africa were bowled out for 207, following a collapse of eight wickets for 78 runs, to give England a victory by 104 runs. The next three matches were one-sided: in the first, the West Indies bowled Pakistan out for just 105, which was the lowest score of the tournament. The target of 106 was chased down in only 13.4 overs, the quickest successful run chase in the tournament. The first double-header of the group stage saw comfortable wins for New Zealand and Australia, as they won by 10 and 7 wickets respectively over Sri Lanka and Afghanistan.
At The Oval, in the fifth match of the group stage, Bangladesh made their highest score in an ODI, with 330/6. Mushfiqur Rahim top-scored for Bangladesh with 78, as he and Shakib Al Hasan had a 142-run partnership for the third wicket. In reply, the South Africans could not sustain a partnership with wickets falling regularly throughout their innings. Mustafizur Rahman took three wickets for Bangladesh as South Africa fell short by 22 runs. The following day saw Pakistan cause an upset over one of the tournament favourites, as they beat England by 14 runs at Trent Bridge. This was despite Joe Root (107) and Jos Buttler (103) both scoring centuries in the chase, as they became the first and second batsmen to score hundreds at the tournaments.
In Cardiff, three wickets in five balls from Afghanistan's Mohammad Nabi provided the catalyst for a Sri Lankan collapse, as they fell from 144/1 to 201 all out. Kusal Perera top-scored for Sri Lanka with 78, while Nabi took another wicket to finish with four for the innings. After rain reduced Afghanistan's innings to 41 overs, they were unable to reach the revised target of 187 as they lost by 34 runs. Najibullah Zadran top-scored for Afghanistan with 43, while Sri Lanka's Nuwan Pradeep took four wickets. Wednesday saw a double-header being played at the Rose Bowl and The Oval. At the Rose Bowl, India started their campaign with a six-wicket win over South Africa. Yuzvendra Chahal took four wickets as he helped restrict the batsmen to a total of 227. In reply, Rohit Sharma scored 122 not out to help India chase the target with 15 balls to spare. The other match on the Wednesday saw Bangladesh give New Zealand a scare, as the Black Caps went from 160/2 to 191/5 chasing 245, before getting home with three overs to spare. Ross Taylor top-scored for New Zealand with 82, while Matt Henry was the pick of the bowlers with four wickets.
Week 2
The second week began with Australia having an early batting collapse to fall to 38/4 in their innings against the West Indies at Nottingham. Half-centuries from Steve Smith and Nathan Coulter-Nile helped Australia recover before they were bowled out for 288. In response, Chris Gayle had two overturned decisions go his way before he was dismissed for 21. Despite a 68 from Shai Hope, Australia won by 15 runs off the back of a five-wicket haul by Mitchell Starc. After the Friday match between Pakistan and Sri Lanka in Bristol was abandoned due to rain, the Saturday matches were played in nearby Cardiff and Taunton. At Cardiff, Jason Roy made the highest score of the tournament so far, with 153, as he was named man of the match in England's 106-run victory over Bangladesh. In Taunton, a five-wicket haul from Kiwi bowler James Neesham led New Zealand to their third consecutive win, with a seven-wicket victory over Afghanistan.
The final completed match of the week saw India defeat Australia by 36 runs at The Oval. Batting first, India targeted Marcus Stoinis and Adam Zampa's bowling with a combined total of 113 runs coming from their 13 overs, as India scored 352/5. Shikhar Dhawan (pictured) top-scored for India with 117, while Stoinis was the only bowler to take more than one wicket. In the run chase, Australia were behind the required run rate for much of their innings, despite half-centuries from David Warner, Steve Smith and Alex Carey, and were bowled out for 316, Bhuvneshwar Kumar and Jasprit Bumrah taking three wickets each. The following two games of the week were washed out. Only 7.2 overs of play was possible in the fixture between South Africa and the West Indies, while the match between Bangladesh and Sri Lanka was abandoned without the toss taking place. The following day at Taunton saw Australia open with a 146-run stand between David Warner and Aaron Finch, with Warner going on to get a century. Pakistan fought back into the innings, with Mohammad Amir taking five wickets, which restricted Australia to 307. In response, Pakistan could not get a partnership established with regular wickets coming from Australia; Pat Cummins finished his 10 overs with figures of 3/33. Sarfaraz Ahmed and Wahab Riaz tried to get Pakistan the victory with a quick-fire 64-run partnership, but it was not enough, with Starc taking two of the final three wickets in the 41-run victory.
Week 3
After a wash-out of the match between India and New Zealand in Nottingham to open up the third week, the fourth wash-out in the World Cup, Joe Root scored his second century of the tournament and took two wickets in England's eight-wicket victory over the West Indies at Southampton. However, the English victory was soured as Jason Roy had to leave the field in the eighth over with hamstring injury that ruled him out of the next two games. South Africa recorded their first win of the tournament at Cardiff against Afghanistan, with Imran Tahir taking four wickets as Afghanistan were bowled out for 125. In reply, South Africa chased down their target for the loss of just one wicket. The other match on Saturday at The Oval saw Aaron Finch and Mitchell Starc guide Australia to an 87-run victory over Sri Lanka that sent them to the top of the table with eight points from five games. The following day saw rivals India and Pakistan face each other at Old Trafford. India scored 336/5 from their 50 overs, which included a man-of-the-match performance of 140 runs from Rohit Sharma. In response, Pakistan got off to a good start and were 117/1 at one stage before Kuldeep Yadav took two wickets in three balls to turn the tide for India, helping them to an 89-run victory via the Duckworth–Lewis–Stern method.
Monday saw Bangladesh beat the West Indies by seven wickets at the County Ground in Taunton. In the West Indies' innings, Shai Hope top-scored with 96 runs from 121 balls as he and Evin Lewis (70) got the West Indies to 321/8 from their 50 overs. In the run chase, Bangladeshi all-rounder Shakib Al Hasan scored 124 from 99 balls as aided Bangladesh in chasing the target of 322 and recording Bangladesh's highest successful run chase in their ODI history. At Manchester, Eoin Morgan hit 17 sixes, a new world record in ODIs, as he top-scored for England with 148, leading the hosts to a total of 397/6, the highest total of the tournament. Afghanistan's Rashid Khan conceded 110 runs without taking any wickets, the most expensive bowling spell in Cricket World Cup history, and the second-most expensive of all time. Hashmatullah Shahidi managed 76 in response for Afghanistan, but they were always behind the required rate and fell 151 runs short, managing 247 from their 50 overs. Wednesday saw South Africa taking on New Zealand at Edgbaston. With the match reduced to 49 overs each due to a wet outfield, South Africa posted a total of 241/6 with some late hitting from Rassie van der Dussen, who was unbeaten on 67, while Lockie Ferguson was the best of the bowlers with three wickets. In response, New Zealand were 137/5 at one stage, before a partnership from Kane Williamson (who went on to score a century) and Colin de Grandhomme guided New Zealand to their fourth victory of the tournament.
Week 4
Week four saw David Warner score 166, the highest individual score of the tournament, as Australia's total of 381/5 proved out of reach for Bangladesh, despite Mahmudullah and Mushfiqur Rahim getting them within 48 runs of the target. Friday saw Lasith Malinga dismantle the English top order, as his four wickets helped Sri Lanka defend a total of 232 for their second win of the tournament. Despite the best efforts of Stokes, who was left stranded on 82 not out, England fell 21 short. Angelo Mathews top-scored for the Sri Lankans with an unbeaten 85, while Mark Wood was the best of the English bowlers with 3/40. The Saturday games saw the first elimination of the tournament, with Afghanistan's loss to India at Southampton meaning they could no longer qualify for the knockout stage. Despite limiting India to 224 from their 50 overs, a Mohammed Shami hat-trick saw Afghanistan fall 12 runs short. The other match on the Saturday saw a close game between New Zealand and the West Indies at Manchester. After New Zealand scored 291/8, including 148 from Kane Williamson, they had the West Indies reeling at 164/7 after 27 overs. The momentum, though, was swung to the West Indies, with Carlos Brathwaite making 101 (including five sixes and nine fours) as he led them to within six runs of the target; however, his attempt to finish off the game with a six saw him caught by Trent Boult at long on, as New Zealand won by five runs.
The following day saw South Africa eliminated from the World Cup after an 89-run performance from Haris Sohail got Pakistan to 308/7 before Shadab Khan took three wickets in the South African run chase to give Pakistan a 49-run victory. Monday saw Bangladesh record their third win of the tournament; a 62-run victory over Afghanistan at the Rose Bowl. The match also saw Bangladesh's Shakib Al Hasan become the second player in World Cup history to take five wickets and score a half-century in the same match. Australia became the first team to qualify for the semi-finals as a century from Aaron Finch, a five-wicket haul from Jason Behrendorff and another four from Mitchell Starc guided them to a 64-run victory over England at Lord's, with only Stokes (89) showing any resistance to Australia's bowling. The result left England needing to win both of their remaining two games to guarantee qualification for the semi-finals. Pakistan caused New Zealand's first loss of the World Cup at Edgbaston with a Babar Azam century guiding them to a victory by six wickets.
Week 5
The fifth week of the tournament started with India defeating the West Indies by 125 runs at Old Trafford, with Mohammed Shami taking four wickets as they bowled the West Indies out for 143. The result also knocked the West Indies out of the World Cup. The following day saw play suspended in the match between South Africa and Sri Lanka when bees swarmed the Riverside Ground pitch. Faf du Plessis and Hashim Amla led the run chase with a partnership of 175 runs, taking South Africa to a nine-wicket victory. Saturday saw two matches played. At Lord's, Starc became the first player to take three five-wicket hauls at a World Cup as he guided Australia to an 86-run victory over New Zealand. This was after Australia were 92/5 in the 22nd over before a century partnership between Usman Khawaja and Alex Carey got the total to 243/9. New Zealand managed 157 in response, with Kane Williamson top-scoring with 40. The other match, played at Headingley, saw Afghanistan set 227 against Pakistan, with Shaheen Afridi taking four wickets. The run chase got off to a shaky start with Fakhar Zaman getting out LBW to Mujeeb Ur Rahman for a duck from the second ball of the innings. Babar Azam and Imam-ul-Haq made a partnership of 72, but Pakistan's progress was once again throttled by regular wickets, leaving them needing 46 runs from the last five overs. Imad Wasim immediately hit 18 runs in the 46th over, and despite losing Shadab Khan to a run out in the 47th, Wasim and Wahab Riaz saw Pakistan home to a three-wicket victory with two balls to spare.
The return of opener Jason Roy from injury helped England escape their slump as they emerged victorious by 31 runs against the hitherto unbeaten India in a crucial must-win game for the hosts. An opening partnership between Roy (66) and Jonny Bairstow (111) was the key factor in the victory, while Stokes scored 79 runs off 54 balls for his third consecutive half-century, to help England reach 337/7. The score proved too much for India, despite Rohit Sharma and Virat Kohli scoring 102 and 66 respectively, while the returning England bowler Liam Plunkett took 3/55. Sri Lanka won the dead rubber against the West Indies at Chester-le-Street, where both Avishka Fernando and Nicholas Pooran scored their maiden ODI centuries. Bangladesh's Shakib Al Hasan made history against India, as he became the first man to score 500 runs and take 10 wickets in a single World Cup. This performance was not enough, though, with a Rohit Sharma century leading India into the semi-finals at their opponents' expense.
Week 6
The final round started with England taking on New Zealand, with the winner guaranteed a semi-final position. Another Jonny Bairstow hundred saw England win by 119 runs and qualify for the semi-finals for the first time since 1992. After the West Indies won the dead rubber against Afghanistan at Leeds, Pakistan needed to win their final match against Bangladesh by a record margin of over 300 runs at Lord's. They won, but only by 94 runs, allowing New Zealand to take the fourth and final semi-final berth. The match saw Pakistan's Shaheen Afridi, aged , become the youngest player to take a five-wicket haul at a Cricket World Cup with the tournament's best bowling figures of 6/35. Despite Bangladesh losing the match, Shakib Al Hasan finished his tournament with 606 runs, surpassing Sachin Tendulkar's record for the most runs in the group stage of a World Cup. Shakib's record would very soon be surpassed by Rohit Sharma and David Warner by the end of the group stage, with former top-scoring in the group stage with 647 runs.
The final two matches of the group stage were played on the Saturday to determine who would finish top of the group. At Leeds, India cruised to a seven-wicket victory over Sri Lanka off the back of centuries from K. L. Rahul and Rohit Sharma as they chased down a target of 265 runs. This was Sharma's fifth century of the tournament, the most in a single World Cup. Angelo Mathews scored his third ODI century for Sri Lanka, all of which had come against India. With South Africa defeating Australia by 10 runs, India finished top of the table, sending Australia to a semi-final against England. A century from Faf du Plessis and a further 95 from Rassie van der Dussen saw South Africa set the Australians a target of 326. In response, Australia lost Usman Khawaja early on to a hamstring injury; he later returned but was dismissed for 18, before being ruled out for the rest of the tournament. David Warner scored 122, his third century of the tournament, and Alex Carey scored a career-best 85 but crucial wickets in the middle of the innings gave South Africa the victory.
Fixtures
The ICC released the fixture details on 26 April 2018.
Knockout stage
The knockout stage started with semi-finals at Old Trafford and Edgbaston, the winners of each progressing to the final at Lord's. All three knockout games were allotted a reserve day. If a reserve day came into play, the match would not be restarted but instead resumed from the previous day's play, if there was any. In the event of no play on the scheduled day or the reserve day, in the semi-finals, the team that finished higher in the group stage progressed to the final, and if no play were possible in the final, the trophy would be shared. If any match ended in a tie, a Super Over would be used to determine the winner. If the scores in the Super Over were also tied, the winner would be determined by the two teams' overall boundary count, including both the match itself and the Super Over.
On 25 June 2019, Australia became the first team to qualify for the semi-finals after beating England at Lord's. India became the second team to qualify after they defeated Bangladesh at Edgbaston on 2 July 2019. The following day saw tournament hosts England become the third team to qualify after they beat New Zealand at the Riverside Ground. After Pakistan were unable to increase their net run rate sufficiently enough in their match against Bangladesh at Lord's New Zealand were the fourth and final team to qualify for the semi-finals.
The first semi-final was played between India and New Zealand at Old Trafford, while the second semi-final was played between Australia and England at Edgbaston.
England won the Final match on the boundary count back rule (26–17).
Semi-finals
The first semi-final between India and New Zealand was played at Old Trafford in Manchester. Batting first, New Zealand lost opener Martin Guptill in the fourth over, having scored just one run. However, the Indians found wickets hard to come by after that, as Kane Williamson combined with Henry Nicholls and Ross Taylor for partnerships of 68 and 65 respectively. Williamson managed 67 runs before he was the third man out in the 36th over, a score matched by Taylor when rain stopped play in the 47th over with New Zealand at 211/5 following the wickets of Neesham and De Grandhomme. No further play was possible on the day, so the match went into its reserve day. Taylor managed another seven runs to top-score for the Kiwis, who managed to get the score to 239/8 at the end of their 50 overs. The Indian chase got off to a poor start with India falling to 5/3 in the fourth over, with the top three batsmen all going for one run each, then 24/4 after 10 overs. After a small partnership of 47 runs for the fifth wicket between Rishabh Pant and Hardik Pandya, Ravindra Jadeja was joined by MS Dhoni for a century partnership for the seventh wicket that left India needing 37 runs from the final three overs. This game turned out to be MS Dhoni's final game for India, he retired from all formats in August 2020. Once Dhoni had gone (run out), a late-order collapse saw New Zealand take the last four wickets for just 13 runs, sending them into their second consecutive World Cup final.
The second semi-final saw England take on Australia at Edgbaston. Australia took the unusual move of walking barefoot around the pitch before the match in a bid to create "positive energy". Australia won the toss and chose to bat first, but lost three of their top four batsmen for single-figure scores, two of them to Chris Woakes, to reduce them to 14/3 into the seventh over. Wicket-keeper Alex Carey was promoted up the order due to his recent form, and, after getting his helmet knocked off by a Jofra Archer bouncer, he scored 46 before being caught by Adil Rashid. As wickets continued to tumble at the other end, Steve Smith held his wicket to top-score with 85 as Australia were bowled out for 223 with Woakes and Rashid being the best of the bowlers with three wickets apiece. England took their time to get going in the run chase but were soon making progress, reaching 124 before Jonny Bairstow was trapped LBW by Starc for the first wicket. Quick-hitting Jason Roy went two overs later to a controversial decision, caught behind off a bouncer that appeared not to touch his bat, but England had already used their review on Bairstow's wicket, and Roy departed for 85 off 65 balls, including five sixes. Nevertheless, England were well over halfway to their target by this point, and an unbroken partnership of 79 between Joe Root and captain Eoin Morgan saw them home to an eight-wicket victory and their first World Cup final since 1992.
Final
After New Zealand won the toss and chose to bat first, Henry Nicholls' first half-century of the tournament and a further 47 from wicket-keeper Tom Latham helped the Kiwis to a total of 241/8 from their 50 overs, as Chris Woakes and Liam Plunkett each secured three wickets for the hosts. Defending a middling score, the New Zealand bowlers bowled effectively, hampering England's top order, with only Jonny Bairstow managing more than a start with 36. With the loss of their top order, England fell to 86/4 in the 24th over, however, a century partnership between Ben Stokes and Jos Buttler for the fifth wicket got them back into the game before Buttler was caught on 59. However, with five overs to play, England still required another 46 runs, and the bottom order were forced to bat more aggressively. Stokes managed to farm the strike and, more crucially, score runs, leaving England needing 15 to win from the final over, two wickets still in hand. After two dot balls, Stokes first planted a six into the stands at deep mid-wicket; on the next ball, the fielder's throw deflected off Stokes' bat as he was coming back for a second run and went to the boundary for an additional four; umpire Kumar Dharmasena awarded six runs for that delivery, although one interpretation of Laws of Cricket was that it should have resulted in only five runs being awarded as one of the runs should have not counted as the batsmen had not crossed during the attempted second run at the moment the fielder threw the ball in. The final two deliveries of the over saw England get a run each, but losing their last two wickets going for a second run each time, leaving the scores tied at 241 with Stokes left unbeaten with 84.
With the scores tied, the match went to a Super Over. England returned Stokes and Buttler to the crease, and they handled Trent Boult's bowling to accumulate 15 runs without loss. For New Zealand, Martin Guptill and James Neesham went in to face Jofra Archer needing at least 16 runs to claim the title. After a steady accumulation of runs, including a wide and a six, left New Zealand needing two from the final delivery, Guptill hit the ball out to deep mid-wicket and tried to scamper back for the winning run, but Roy's throw in to Buttler was a good one with Guptill being well short of his crease. New Zealand finished with 15 runs to tie the Super Over, but England's superior boundary count in the match and Super Over combined (26 to New Zealand's 17) meant they claimed the World Cup title for the first time after three previous final defeats in 1979, 1987 and 1992. This game has gone down in history as one of the greatest ever finals, and games, in cricketing history. Ben Stokes was named man of the match; referring to the controversial overthrows that deflected off his bat, he said he would be "apologising to [New Zealand captain Kane Williamson] for the rest of [his] life", and later said England's first World Cup victory was "written in the stars".
Statistics
India's Rohit Sharma ended the tournament as the leading run scorer with 648 runs from nine matches which featured a 140 against Pakistan at Old Trafford. He finished ahead of Australia's David Warner (647 runs) and Bangladesh's Shakib Al Hasan (606 runs). Australian bowler Mitchell Starc ended up as the leading wicket-taker with 27 wickets, which surpassed the record set by Glenn McGrath in 2007. Second was Lockie Ferguson from New Zealand with 21 wickets, while Mustafizur Rahman (Bangladesh) and Jofra Archer (England) were tied for third place with 20 wickets.
Most runs
Most wickets
Team of the tournament
The ICC announced its team of the tournament on 15 July 2019 with Kane Williamson being named as player of the tournament and captain of the team.
Broadcasting
The ICC agreed deals for broadcast and digital distribution on a range of platforms, including television, radio and online streaming. The in-house ICC TV served as host broadcasters of the world feed, in collaboration with Sunset+Vine (as part of a new long-term agreement covering all ICC events, excluding the 2021 ICC T20 World Cup and 2023 Cricket World Cup in India).
In the United Kingdom, live coverage of the tournament was exclusive to pay television service Sky Sports, with free-to-air highlights packages sub-licensed to Channel 4. Sky later agreed to sub-license a simulcast of the final to Channel 4 if England reached the final. Sky Sport (New Zealand) also decided to air the final on its co-owned free-to-air channel Prime.
Hotstar held digital rights to the tournament in India and several other markets. Hotstar surpassed 100 million daily users during the group match between India and Pakistan, and reached a record 25.3 million concurrent viewers during the semi-final between India and New Zealand.
Source: icc-cricket.com (unless otherwise stated)
Notes
References
External links
ICC Cricket World Cup 2019 Playing Conditions, International Cricket Council
Tournament home at ESPNcricinfo
2019 in English sport
2019 in Welsh sport
2019
World Cup
World Cup, 2019
World Cup, 2019
May 2019 sports events in the United Kingdom
June 2019 sports events in the United Kingdom
Cricket World Cup
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation%20Seventh%20Day%20Adventist%20Church
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Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church
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The Creation Seventh Day (and) Adventist Church began as a small group that broke off from the Seventh-day Adventist Church in 1988, and organized its own church in 1991. It has been involved in court cases with the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists over trademarks and internet domain names.
History
The Creation Seventh Day Adventists broke away from the official Seventh-day Adventist church in 1988, because of doctrinal disagreements; specifically, as a response to the acquisition and enforcing of a trademark regarding the name "Seventh-day Adventist" on other believers outside of the denominational umbrella. In 2012, there was a United States congregation located in Guys, Tennessee, and a church house in the country of Uganda as a result of missionary efforts in Africa.
Litigation
WIPO ruling on disputed domain names
On May 23, 2006, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Arbitration and Mediation Center received notice from the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists regarding several domain names operated by the Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church. The defendant claimed that such a confiscation of web domains would be a violation of religious freedom.
In the decision rendered on July 21, 2006, WIPO concluded that although "Respondent alleges that he is involved in the free dissemination of the gospel of Jesus Christ and not in commercial activity..." and disclaimers were posted on the domains in question, "persons interested in finding religious information are Internet users and consumers within the meaning of the Policy." They further concluded several of the church's domain names to be infringing on the trademark held by the General Conference, and based on these conclusions, WIPO ordered "that the Domain Names be transferred to Complainant."
U.S. federal trademark lawsuit
The General Conference filed a lawsuit against the Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church in 2006, with Walter McGill as the defendant. McGill's defense cited the Free Exercise Clause, the fact that the church's name had never been used in commerce, and the lack of any actual confusion over the course of the church's fifteen-year history. He later added the Religious Freedom Restoration Act in support of his Free Exercise claim, citing that the use of the name "Creation Seventh Day Adventist" was mandated by his religion. The jury trial was initially rescheduled from January 2008 to June, but was further delayed. In the interim, on June 11, the Tennessee district court judge issued a partial summary judgment on behalf of the plaintiff that the name "Seventh-day Adventist" could not be used in the promotion of the church's materials or services at any locality in the United States, despite the Judge's conclusion that the Church sincerely believed that it took the name as a result of divine revelation with no intent to confuse or deceive the public. As of May 27, 2009, a recommendation for permanent injunction was adopted by the Court against McGill and the Church enjoining them from using the names "Seventh-day Adventist," "Seventh-day," "Adventist," or the acronym "SDA" either alone or in conjunction with modifying terms, with an order to submit a sworn notice of compliance to the Court by June 17, 2009. No compliance report was filed. In August 2009, an appellant brief was filed by the Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church in the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit.
On November 21 attorneys representing the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists submitted a Proposed Order of Contempt and Sanctions to the Court, seeking among other things the arrest of Pastor McGill pending his compliance, the dispatch of U.S. Marshals to the CSDA Church property to destroy signs and materials containing the terms banned under the injunction, the cost of attorney's fees, the authority to conduct an inquisition into others aside from Pastor McGill involved in managing the Church's websites, and the removal of all such websites. On December 14, Magistrate Judge Bryant issued a report and recommendation to the Court adopting much of the Conference's wording, but advising against the use of U.S. Marshals for the destruction of the Church's signs and materials in favor of having it done by the Plaintiffs themselves or their agents. Judge Breen adopted the recommended order in full on January 6, 2010, further authorizing the confiscation of several websites and domains registered either by the Church or suspected associates, including several not in violation of the injunction.
On February 16, the order was enforced by a sign crew and a constable at the Guys property, amid protests from members and supporters. On March 8 the main signs were repainted by the Church, which the General Conference responded to with a motion for a contempt hearing, scheduled to be held on May 25. Lucan Chartier, the assistant pastor of the Guys congregation, testified to his involvement in the repainting of the signs and maintenance of Church websites, further answering when questioned that he would continue to do so because he "has no option but to continue doing what my religion dictates." On June 26, the Judge filed his report and recommendation to find both Mr. Chartier and Pastor McGill in contempt of court for disobeying the Court order in repainting the Church signs, maintaining websites, and editing the Wikipedia entry describing the movement. On August 10, the Court of Appeals handed down their judgment affirming the ruling of the District Court, concluding that while the ruling substantially burdens Pastor McGill's religious convictions, religious liberty laws were inapplicable in property disputes, with trademark law under that category as intellectual property. They further defined the RFRA as applying only to cases in which the Federal Government is a direct party, not cases in which a private party seeks to enforce Federal laws against another. In so ruling, the Court sided against a prior Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruling concluding the opposite, siding instead with the previous dissenting opinion of then-Judge Sonia Sotomayor.
On November 8, a petition for certiorari was filed with the Supreme Court of the United States, focusing on a portion of the Sixth Circuit's decision rejecting the defendant's claim that the RFRA's protection against religious beliefs being burdened applies to this case. The petition referenced disagreements between various Courts of Appeal on this matter, pointing out that while the Fifth and Seventh Circuits are in agreement with the Sixth Circuit in this regard, others, such as the Eighth and DC Circuits have in fact applied the RFRA to similar cases involving only private parties. The Rutherford Institute filed an amicus curiae brief with the Supreme Court on February 11, 2011, arguing that the case should be heard and the RFRA's protections defined as applicable to civil suits such as employment discrimination claims, intellectual property disputes, and bankruptcy proceedings. On April 18, the Supreme Court denied the petition.
A second Report and Recommendation was filed on December 16 advising that McGill and Chartier both be placed into custody of the U.S. Marshals Service and required to serve thirty-day sentences in addition to a $500.00 fine. Overruling objections by both Chartier and McGill, Judge Bryant adopted the R&R and modified it in part on April 5, authorizing warrants for the arrest of both McGill and Chartier by the U.S. Marshals Service.
Arrests and incarceration
Pastor McGill was arrested in Loma Linda, California on July 13, 2012, two days before he intended to turn himself in at the location, and was incarcerated in the San Bernardino County prison. On July 31, 2012, Chartier surrendered himself to San Bernardino County sheriff's deputies, and was incarcerated in the same location as McGill following a 20-minute press conference held before a group of reporters.
McGill was held for thirty days before being released on August 11, 2012, during which time he engaged in a liquid-only fast. Upon his release, he expressed the intention to continue this fast another 10 days "to emulate a 40-day fast by Jesus." Chartier was released after ten days, on August 9, having also engaged in a similar fast, subsisting only on "water, along with some milk and the juice squeezed from oranges he sometimes had for breakfast." Both have indicated their intention to continue to maintain the name Creation Seventh Day Adventist for their religion, even if this means returning to jail in the future.
Petitions and walk across America
In the aftermath of their arrest and incarceration, McGill and Chartier launched an online petition in an attempt to convince the General Conference Corporation of Seventh-day Adventists to withdraw its lawsuit. Regarding their potential response to this effort, McGill stated in an interview with McNairy County publication Independent Appeal, "We're hoping that if enough people sign the petition to give us freedom of religion in America that perhaps they would see that it's better for their image to just let this thing go." During an interview with The Jackson Sun later that month, Chartier stated that, "We cannot stop practicing our faith, and the court cannot ignore us violating their order. The only way for this to be resolved is for the Seventh-day Adventist Church to stop asking the court to imprison us."
In a September 2013 interview with Independent Appeal, McGill stated his intention to walk across the United States from coast to coast in 2014. His stated reasons for this walk, in addition to gathering hard-copy signatures for their religious liberty petition, are to raise awareness for "a new birth of freedom and integrity, restoring self-respect, family values, liberty of conscience, and victorious living while observing the universal principles of God's laws of physical, mental and spiritual health."
According to the interview, he received a largely positive response from both individuals and city officials during a preliminary trip by car throughout which he mapped his anticipated route.
McGill's walk officially launched on April 23, 2014 at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, and was completed on April 29, 2015 at the Santa Monica Pier in Santa Monica, California after traveling a route of over 3,200 miles. His website dedicated to the walk, walkthewalknow.com, indicates an extensive list of causes that were promoted, including: civil liberties, human rights, national integrity, the restoration of individual and corporate self-respect, support for traditional family values, liberty of conscience for all citizens, the defense of constitutional principles, the review and appreciation of American heritage, care for the poor and homeless, the promotion of naturopathy, employment of the Golden Rule in daily living, and a spiritual awakening for the healing of the country.
Doctrinal positions
The group holds to certain mainstream Adventist beliefs, such as the observance of the seventh day Sabbath, avoiding unclean meats, death as a sleep, the investigative judgment, and an imminent Second Coming of Christ. Alongside these are several more notable doctrines, such as the following. While differing from modern Seventh-day Adventists on the matters listed below, their doctrines regarding religious accountability, rejecting the Trinity, separation of Church and State, and victory over all known sins were practiced and observed by early prominent Adventist leaders.
Victory over sin
The CSDA Church teaches an experience of complete victory over known sins for the born again believer. The CSDA Church teaches that when an individual is born again, the Spirit of Christ comes to dwell in them in place of the nature of the “old man,” which they consider to be dead. The result of this union is taught to be a complete conformity to the will of God as revealed in a life lived free from all known sins. CSDAs believe in free will and are quick to differentiate between their beliefs and the doctrine of once saved always saved (OSAS) in that, while the OSAS doctrine teaches that a man is saved regardless of his actions, the victory over sin doctrine teaches an actual ceasing from the wrong actions themselves as a result of being saved from sin.
In some ways the victory over sin doctrine is similar to that taught by reformer John Wesley regarding the new birth, however it differs in that, while Wesley believed that a person could not commit sin while in a vacillating state known as “being born of God,” the CSDA Church teaches that this is a one-time event with a subsequently permanent state, the result being that a born again Christian by definition will not commit known sin at any time. The CSDA Church believes this was presented to the Seventh-day Adventist denomination in 1888 under the name "Righteousness by Faith," by elders A. T. Jones and E. J. Waggoner, but rejected by the leading men of the General Conference despite strong endorsement from Ellen G. White.
Rejection of the Trinity doctrine
While not a test of fellowship, the CSDA Church generally considers the doctrine of the Trinity as an error. They believe that the Father and Son are two distinct and separate beings which each may be referred to by the Hebrew term El, translated as God in the Old Testament, or collectively by the plural Elohim, also translated as God. They reject the idea of the Holy Spirit as a person in the same sense as the Father and Son, believing it to be the shared essence, power, characteristics, presence, and personality of those two. They believe that it is by sharing the same Spirit that the Father and Son are referred to as "one", and that it is in this same way that Christ and the believer are "one". They also see this shared Holy Spirit as being the means of unity between believers, citing several passages from John 17. While they believe that the Son fulfills a submissive and thus lesser role in relation to the Father, they do not accept the idea that the Son is an inherently inferior being to the Father or that he was created by the Father. They have argued that the original edition of Ellen White's book The Desire of Ages did not support the Trinity.
The CSDA view was held by the great majority of the early Seventh-day Adventist leadership, but was however abandoned in favor of the Trinity doctrine by the Seventh-day Adventist denomination in the mid-20th century.
Trademark dispute
The CSDA Church believes in a complete separation of Church and State (i.e., a rejection of the idea that governmental agencies possess the authority to intrude upon freedom of religion), and religious accountability for a church's actions. They differ from the Seventh-day Adventist denomination in their interpretation of this concept; the foremost example is that while the General Conference leadership sees trademark registration and enforcement as a necessary action to protect the Church's identity, the CSDA Church views this as a union of church and state to regulate religious observances, which they consider forbidden by the Scriptures. Their understanding of the accountability of members for the actions of their church leadership taken from passages such as Revelation 18:4, caused their separation from the mainstream Adventist body, particularly after the incarceration of Pastor John Marik over his use of the name "Seventh-day Adventist".
The CSDA Church teaches that when a Church joins to the state to regulate religious observances, they “fall” in the sense that they are no longer God's chosen body, and the faithful people must come out of that organization. This view was also taught by early Adventists. The CSDA Church believes that the trademark on the name Seventh-day Adventist fulfills the prophecy of the mark of the beast, in that it both regulates religious observances and requires believers to submit to a law that they believe to violate their conscience.
The name Seventh-day Adventist
The CSDA Church believes that the name Seventh-day Adventist was given by God to describe the faith of Seventh-day Adventism, and that as a result, those who accept the beliefs of Adventism must use the name in identifying themselves and their organizations. They consider this to be a matter of conscience equivalent to denying or affirming the name “Christian” based on several quotes from Ellen G. White regarding the adoption and use of the name being Divinely commissioned.
Church membership
The CSDA Church holds strict views on church membership, claiming that once one has come into unity with Christ, unity with his church (which they hold themselves to be) will be the natural result, with one not being valid while rejecting the other.
Holy days and sacred names
The CSDA church observes New Moons monthly during the conjunction phase of the lunar cycle. Also referred to in their writings as the “New Moon Festival of Humility,” it is the day on which they partake of the communion meal, foot washing, and a meal called the agape feast in which they eat fresh fruits and nuts in anticipation of the marriage supper of the lamb after the return of Christ. They observe New Moons in a similar fashion to weekly Sabbaths in that they cease from secular work and trade.
The CSDA Church holds their biannual camp meetings during the Spring and Fall feasts of Unleavened Bread and Tabernacles, respectively. This fashion of observing some of the Annual Feasts found in the Old Testament and use of the names יהוה (Yahweh) and יהושע (Yahshua) for the Father and Son of the Godhead in worship are generally practiced by members, although these are not dogmatically taught.
References
External links
Official website (English)
Christian organizations established in 1988
Adventist organizations established in the 20th century
Seventh-day denominations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20SF%20letter-series%20single%20titles
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List of Ace SF letter-series single titles
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Ace Books have published hundreds of science fiction titles, starting in 1953. Many of these were Ace Doubles (dos-a-dos format), but they also published many single volumes. Between 1953 and 1968, the books had a letter-series identifier; after that date they were given five-digit numeric serial numbers. There were a total of 378 letter-series sf titles (62 S&D, 174 F, 19 M, 78 G, 29 H, 1 N, 1 K, and 14 A series books).
The list given here gives a date of publication; in all cases this refers to the date of publication by Ace, and not the date of original publication of the novels. For more information about the history of these titles, see Ace Books, which includes a discussion of the serial numbering conventions used and an explanation of the letter-code system.
D and S Series
S-066 SF L. Ron Hubbard Return to Tomorrow (1954)
S-090 SF Robert Moore Williams The Chaos Fighters (1955)
D-096 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet (special edition – half of the Ace Double with same code – 1955)
D-110 SF Isaac Asimov The 1,000 Year Plan (special edition – half of the Ace Double with same code – 1955)
D-121 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours! (special edition – half of the Ace Double with same code – 1955)
D-125 SF Isaac Asimov The Man Who Upset the Universe (1955)
S-133 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) Adventures On Other Planets
D-146 SF Murray Leinster The Forgotten Planet (special edition – half of the Ace Double with same code – 1956)
D-155 SF Jules Verne A Journey To The Center Of The Earth (1956)
D-169 SF Jack Williamson And James E. Gunn Star Bridge
S-183 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) The End of the World
D-187 SF A. E. van Vogt The Pawns of Null-A
D-211 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1957)
D-233 SF Rex Gordon First on Mars
D-245 SF Jules Verne Off on a Comet (1957)
D-261 SF Philip K. Dick The Variable Man And Other Stories (1957)
D-274 SF Charles Eric Maine World Without Men (1958)
D-283 SF Clifford D. Simak City (1958)
D-309 SF H. G. Wells The Island Of Dr. Moreau (1958)
D-324 SF Ray Cummings Brigands of the Moon (1958)
D-327 SF Jefferson Howard Sutton First on the Moon
D-339 SF Clifford D. Simak Ring Around the Sun
D-340 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1959)
D-350 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert
D-354 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) The Hidden Planet: Science-Fiction Adventures On Venus (1959)
D-366 SF Alan E. Nourse and J. A. Meyer The Invaders Are Coming
D-377 SF Jefferson Howard Sutton Bombs in Orbit (1959)
D-388 SF H. G. Wells When the Sleeper Wakes (1959)
D-397 SF Jules Verne Journey to the Center of the Earth
D-405 SF Rex Gordon First to the Stars
D-422 SF Anthony Boucher and J. Francis Mccomas (eds.) The Best From F & SF, 3rd Series
D-434 SF Jules Verne The Purchase of the North Pole (1960)
D-455 SF Anthony Boucher (Ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, 4th Series (1960)
D-461 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1960)
D-468 SF Eric Frank Russell Sentinel of Space (1960)
D-473 SF Eric Temple Bell (As John Taine) The Greatest Adventure
D-478 SF Jefferson Howard Sutton Spacehive (1960)
D-482 SF A. E. van Vogt The Weapon Shops of Isher (1961)
D-490 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) Adventures on Other Planets (1961)
D-498 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1961)
D-504 SF Jules Verne Master of the World (1961)
D-516 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Swordsman Of Mars (1961)
D-525 SF Murray Leinster This World Is Taboo (1961)
D-527 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (1961)
D-528 SF Murray Leinster The Forgotten Planet
D-530 SF Robert Moore Williams The Day They H-Bombed Los Angeles (1961)
D-531 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Outlaws of Mars
D-534 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A. D. (1961)
D-535 SF Ray Cummings The Shadow Girl (1962)
D-537 SF H. G. Wells The Island of Dr. Moreau (1961)
D-538 SF Isaac Asimov The 1,000 Year Plan (1961)
D-541 SF Alan E. Nourse Scavengers in Space (1962)
D-542 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet (1962)
D-544 SF Frank Belknap Long Space Station #1 (1962)
D-546 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time
D-547 SF John Brunner The Super Barbarians (1962)
D-548 SF Dean Owen The End of the World (1962)
D-550 SF Poul Anderson No World of Their Own (1962)
D-551 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert
D-553 SF William Hope Hodgson The House On The Borderland (1962)
D-555 SF Jack Williamson The Trial of Terra (1962)
D-568 SF Poul Anderson Star Ways (1962)
F Series
F-105 SF Anthony Boucher (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Fifth Series
F-109 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1961)
F-114 SF Wallace West The Bird of Time (1961)
F-131 SF Anthony Boucher (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Sixth Series
F-135 SF Leigh Brackett The Long Tomorrow (1962)
F-154 SF A. E. van Vogt The Wizard of Linn (1962)
F-156 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At The Earth's Core (1962)
F-157 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid (1962)
F-158 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar (1962)
F-159 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men (1962)
F-162 SF Anthony Boucher (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Seventh Series (1962)
F-167 SF Andre Norton Catseye (1962)
F-168 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Thuvia, Maid of Mars (1962)
F-169 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan and the Lost Empire (1962)
F-170 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Chessmen of Mars (1962)
F-171 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar Of Pellucidar (1962)
F-174 SF Rex Gordon First Through Time (1962)
F-178 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) More Adventures On Other Planets (1963)
F-179 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus (1963)
F-180 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan at the Earth's Core (1963)
F-181 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Master Mind of Mars (1963)
F-182 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men (1963)
F-183 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents (1963)
F-188 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D. (1962)
F-189 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan the Invincible (1963)
F-190 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs A Fighting Man of Mars (1963)
F-191 SF Jules Verne Journey to the Center of the Earth (1963)
F-192 SF Andre Norton Star Born (1963)
F-193 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Son of Tarzan (1963)
F-194 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan Triumphant (1963)
F-197 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1963)
F-201 SF Paul MacTyre Doomsday, 1999 (1963)
F-203 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Beasts of Tarzan
F-204 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar (1963)
F-205 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan and the City of Gold (1963)
F-206 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Jungle Tales of Tarzan (1963)
F-207 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours!
F-210 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert
F-211 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Planet of Peril (1963)
F-212 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan and the Lion Man
F-213 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot (1963)
F-216 SF Isaac Asimov The Man Who Upset the Universe (1963)
F-217 SF Anthony Boucher (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Eighth Series (1963)
F-220 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot (1963)
F-221 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus (1963)
F-222 SF Jefferson Howard Sutton First on the Moon (1963)
F-225 SF H. Beam Piper Space Viking (1963)
F-226 SF Andre Norton Huon of the Horn (1963)
F-231 SF Andre Norton Star Gate (1963)
F-232 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land of Hidden Men (1963)
F-233 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Out of Time's Abyss (1963)
F-234 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage (1963)
F-235 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lost Continent (1963)
F-236 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders
F-239 SF Clifford D. Simak Time And Again (1963)
F-240 SF H. G. Wells When the Sleeper Wakes (1963)
F-241 SF Jack Williamson and James E. Gunn Star Bridge (1963)
F-243 SF Andre Norton Lord Of Thunder (1963)
F-245 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back to the Stone Age (1963)
F-246 SF Thea von Harbou Metropolis (1963)
F-247 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus (1963)
F-248 SF Ray Cummings Beyond the Stars (1963)
F-251 SF Philip K. Dick The Game-Players of Titan (1963)
F-255 SF Philip E. High The Prodigal Sun (1964)
F-256 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land Of Terror (1964)
F-257 SF Fletcher Pratt Alien Planet (1964)
F-258 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl (1964)
F-259 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Prince Of Peril (1964)
F-263 SF Andre Norton Web Of The Witch World (1964)
F-267 SF Robert P. Mills (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, 9th Series (1964)
F-268 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus (1964)
F-269 SF J. H. Rosny Quest of the Dawn Man (1964)
F-270 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King (1964)
F-271 SF Edmond Hamilton Outside the Universe (1964)
F-274 SF H. Beam Piper The Cosmic Computer (1964)
F-277 SF John Brunner To Conquer Chaos (1964)
F-279 SF Andre Norton (as Andrew North) Sargasso of Space
F-280 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar (1964)
F-281 SF Pierre Benoit Atlantida (1964)
F-282 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond The Farthest Star (1964)
F-283 SF Sax Rohmer The Day the World Ended (1964)
F-287 SF Andre Norton The Key Out of Time (1964)
F-291 SF Andre Norton Plague Ship (1964)
F-293 SF E. C. Tubb Moonbase (1964)
F-294 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Port of Peril (1964)
F-295 SF A. E. van Vogt The World of Null-A
F-296 SF Edwin L. Arnold Gulliver of Mars (1964)
F-297 SF Henry Kuttner The Valley of the Flame (1964)
F-301 SF Philip K. Dick The Simulacra (1964)
F-303 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Bloody Sun
F-304 SF Ralph Milne Farley The Radio Beasts (1964)
F-305 SF Robert E. Howard Almuric (1964)
F-306 SF C. L. Moore and Henry Kuttner Earth's Last Citadel (1964)
F-307 SF Gardner F. Fox Warrior of Llarn (1964)
F-308 SF Andre Norton Judgment on Janus (1964)
F-309 SF Philip K. Dick Clans of the Alphane Moon (1964)
F-310 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1964)
F-311 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Swordsmen in the Sky (1964)
F-312 SF Ralph Milne Farley The Radio Planet
F-313 SF Ray Cummings A Brand New World (1964)
F-314 SF James H. Schmitz The Universe Against Her (1964)
F-315 SF Andre Norton The Beast Master
F-317 SF James White The Escape Orbit (1965)
F-318 SF Austin Hall The Spot Of Life (1965)
F-319 SF Edmond Hamilton Crashing Suns (1965)
F-320 SF John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) The Martian Sphinx (1965)
F-321 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Maza of the Moon (1965)
F-322 SF Samuel R. Delany City of a Thousand Suns (1965)
F-323 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A.D.
F-325 SF Andre Norton Ordeal in Otherwhere (1965)
F-326 SF Lin Carter The Wizard of Lemuria (1965)
F-327 SF Henry Kuttner The Dark World (1965)
F-328 SF Edward E. Smith The Galaxy Primes (1965)
F-329 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1965)
F-330 SF Avram Davidson What Strange Stars and Skies (1965)
F-332 SF Andre Norton Three Against the Witch World (1965)
F-333 SF L. Sprague de Camp Rogue Queen (1965)
F-334 SF Rex Dean Levie The Insect Warriors (1965)
F-335 SF Robert Moore Williams The Second Atlantis (1965)
F-337 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1965)
F-342 SF H. Beam Piper Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen (1965)
F-343 SF Ray Cummings The Exile of Time (1965)
F-344 SF Henry Kuttner The Well of the Worlds (1965)
F-345 SF Homer Eon Flint The Lord of Death and the Queen of Life (1965)
F-346 SF John W. Campbell, Jr. The Black Star Passes (1965)
F-347 SF Ian Wright The Last Hope of Earth (1965)
F-350 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Star Of Danger (1965)
F-353 SF Avram Davidson Rogue Dragon (1965)
F-354 SF Gardner F. Fox The Hunter Out Of Time (1965)
F-355 SF Homer Eon Flint The Devolutionist and The Emancipatrix (1965)
F-356 SF Henry Kuttner The Time Axis (1965)
F-357 SF Andre Norton Year of the Unicorn (1965)
F-361 SF John Brunner The Day of the Star Cities (1965)
F-363 SF Ray Cummings Tama of the Light Country (1965)
F-364 SF John W. Campbell, Jr. The Mightiest Machine (1965)
F-365 SF Andre Norton Night of Masks (1966)
F-366 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet
F-367 SF Philip José Farmer The Maker of Universes (1965)
F-372 SF Edward E. Smith Spacehounds of IPC (1966)
F-373 SF Howard L. Cory The Sword of Lankor (1966)
F-374 SF Jefferson Howard Sutton The Atom Conspiracy (1966)
F-375 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein (1966)
F-377 SF Philip K. Dick The Crack In Space (1966)
F-379 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain (1966)
F-382 SF Brian W. Aldiss Bow Down To Nul (1966)
F-383 SF Lin Carter Thongor of Lemuria (1966)
F-386 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1966)
F-388 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1966)
F-390 SF Jack Vance The Languages of Pao (1966)
F-391 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1966)
F-392 SF Emil Petaja Saga Of Lost Earths (1966)
F-393 SF Roger Zelazny This Immortal (1966)
F-396 SF Kenneth Bulmer Worlds for the Taking (1966)
F-398 SF Eric Frank Russell Somewhere a Voice (1966)
F-399 SF Gardner F. Fox Thief of Llarn (1966)
F-400 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Jan of the Jungle (1966)
F-402 SF Cordwainer Smith Quest of the Three Worlds (1966)
F-403 SF Roger Zelazny The Dream Master (1966)
F-406 SF Ray Cummings Tama, Princess Of Mercury (1966)
F-407 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Day Of The Minotaur (1966)
F-408 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman (1966)
F-412 SF Philip José Farmer The Gates of Creation (1966)
F-414 SF Emil Petaja The Star Mill (1966)
F-416 SF Rex Gordon Utopia Minus X (1966)
F-420 SF Neil R. Jones Professor Jameson Space Adventure 1: The Planet Of The Double Sun (1967)
F-421 SF Donald E. Westlake (as Curt Clark) Anarchaos (1967)
F-422 SF Leigh Brackett The Sword of Rhiannon (1967)
F-425 SF Poul Anderson World Without Stars (1967)
F-426 SF Gordon R. Dickson The Genetic General (1967)
F-427 SF Samuel R. Delany The Einstein Intersection (1967)
F-429 SF Philip K. Dick The World Jones Made (1967)
M Series
M-116 SF Robert P. Mills (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Tenth Series
M-119 SF Jules Verne Journey to the Center of the Earth (1965)
M-132 SF Robert W. Chambers The King in Yellow (1965)
M-137 SF Robert P. Mills (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Eleventh Series (1966)
M-142 SF H.F. Heard Doppelgangers (1966)
M-143 SF John W. Campbell Islands of Space (1965)
M-147 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours!
M-148 SF Andre Norton Star Born (1966)
M-149 SF Jack Vance The Eyes of the Overworld (1966)
M-150 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents
M-151 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet
M-152 SF H. Warner Munn King Of The World's Edge (1966)
M-153 SF A. E. van Vogt The Weapon Makers (1966)
M-154 SF John W. Campbell Invaders from the Infinite (1966)
M-155 SF Roger Zelazny Four For Tomorrow (1966)
M-156 SF Andre Norton Key Out Of Time (1966)
M-157 SF Andre Norton Star Gate (1966)
M-162 SF Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) Edge Of Time (1966)
M-165 SF Keith Laumer Worlds Of The Imperium (1966)
G Series
G-547 SF Austin Hall and Homer Eon Flint The Blind Spot (1965)
G-551 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction: 1965 (1965)
G-570 SF Alan Garner The Weirdstone Of Brisingamen (1965)
G-582 SF Jules Verne Journey to the Center of the Earth (1966)
G-586 SF William L. Chester Hawk of the Wilderness (1966)
G-595 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime (1966)
G-599 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (1966)
G-605 SF Larry Maddock The Flying Saucer Gambit - Agent Of T.E.R.R.A. #1 (1966)
G-611 SF Avram Davidson (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Twelfth Series (1967)
G-620 SF Larry Maddock The Golden Goddess Gambit - Agent Of T.E.R.R.A. #2 (1967)
G-625 SF Kenneth Bulmer To Outrun Doomsday (1967)
G-626 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City Of Illusions (1967)
G-627 SF Fritz Leiber The Big Time (1967)
G-630 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World (1967)
G-631 SF Neil R. Jones The Sunless World: Professor Jameson Space Adventure #2 (1967)
G-634 SF Poul Anderson War of the Wing-Men (1967)
G-637 SF Philip K. Dick and Ray Nelson The Ganymede Takeover (1967)
G-639 SF Edmond Hamilton The Weapon from Beyond: Starwolf Series #1 (1967)
G-640 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Weirwoods (1967)
G-641 SF Jack Williamson Bright New Universe (1967)
G-644 SF Larry Maddock The Emerald Elephant Gambit: Agent Of T.E.R.R.A. #3
G-646 SF Andre Norton The X Factor (1967)
G-647 SF Murray Leinster S.O.S. From Three Worlds (1967)
G-649 SF John Brunner The World Swappers (1967)
G-650 SF Neil R. Jones Space War: Professor Jameson Space Adventure #3
G-654 SF Andre Norton Catseye (1967)
G-655 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1967)
G-656 SF John Jakes When the Star Kings Die (1967)
G-660 SF A. E. van Vogt The Universe Maker (1967)
G-661 SF Jack Vance Big Planet (1967)
G-664 SF John Brunner Born Under Mars (1967)
G-667 SF David McDaniel The Arsenal Out Of Time (1967)
G-669 SF Leigh Brackett The Coming Of The Terrans (1967)
G-673 SF Mark S. Geston Lords of the Starship
G-675 SF James White The Secret Visitors (1967)
G-677 SF Damon Knight Turning On: Thirteen Stories (1967)
G-680 SF Kenneth Bulmer Cycle of Nemesis (1967)
G-681 SF Neil R. Jones Twin Worlds: Professor Jameson Space Adventure #4 (1967)
G-683 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump (1967)
G-688 SF Jack Vance City Of The Chasch: Planet Of Adventure #1 (1968)
G-690 SF Andre Norton The Beast Master (1968)
G-691 SF Andre Norton Lord of Thunder
G-692 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Swordsman Of Mars (1968)
G-693 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Outlaws Of Mars (1968)
G-694 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Dolphin And The Deep (1968)
G-697 SF Poul Anderson We Claim These Stars (1968)
G-701 SF Edmond Hamilton The Closed Worlds: Starwolf #2 (1968)
G-703 SF Andre Norton Victory On Janus (1968)
G-706 SF Samuel R. Delany The Jewels Of Aptor (1968)
G-709 SF John Brunner Bedlam Planet (1968)
G-712 SF Anthony Boucher and J. Francis Mccomas (eds.) The Best From Fantasy and Science Fiction, Third Series
G-713 SF Anthony Boucher (ed.) The Best From F & Sf Fourth Series (1968)
G-714 SF Anthony Boucher (ed.) The Best From F & Sf Fifth Series (1968)
G-715 SF Anthony Boucher (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Sixth Series (1968)
G-716 SF Andre Norton Web Of The Witch World
G-717 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A.D. (1968)
G-718 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1968)
G-719 SF Neil R. Jones Doomday on Ajiat: Professor Jameson Space Adventure #5 (1968)
G-723 SF Andre Norton Star Hunter & Voodoo Planet (1968)
G-724 SF Philip José Farmer A Private Cosmos (1968)
G-728 SF Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell)Across Time (1968)
G-730 SF Alan E. Nourse Psi High And Others (1968)
G-733 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1968)
G-734 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar (1968)
G-735 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar Of Pellucidar (1968)
G-736 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan At The Earth's Core (1968)
G-737 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back to the Stone Age (1968)
G-738 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror (1968)
G-739 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar (1968)
G-740 SF Fred Saberhagen The Broken Lands (1968)
G-745 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid (1968)
G-748 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men (1968)
G-753 SF Alan Garner The Moon of Gomrath (1968)
G-756 SF Alexei Panshin Star Well (1968)
G-758 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Moondust (1968)
G-761 SF John Brunner Catch A Falling Star (1968)
G-762 SF Alexei Panshin The Thurb Revolution (1968)
G-766 SF Edmond Hamilton World of the Starwolves: Starwolf #3 (1968)
H Series
H-15 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) The World's Best Science Fiction (1966)
H-18 SF Jefferson Howard Sutton H-Bomb Over America (1966)
H-19 SF Frederik Pohl (ed.) The If Reader of Science Fiction (1966)
H-26 SF Avram Davidson (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, 13th Series (1967)
H-30 SF Clifford D. Simak City (1967)
H-33 SF Andre Norton Moon of Three Rings (1967)
H-38 SF Fritz Leiber The Swords of Lankhmar (1968)
H-39 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1968)
H-41 SF Jules Verne Into The Niger Bend (1968)
H-42 SF Clifford D. Simak Why Call Them Back From Heaven? (1968)
H-43 SF Jules Verne The City in the Sahara (1968)
H-49 SF Jules Verne The Begum's Fortune (1968)
H-52 SF Jules Verne Yesterday and Tomorrow (1968)
H-54 SF R. A. Lafferty Past Master (1968)
H-58 SF Gertrude Friedberg The Revolving Boy (1968)
H-60 SF Jules Verne Carpathian Castle (1968)
H-62 SF Wilson Tucker The Lincoln Hunters (1968)
H-67 SF Jules Verne The Village in the Treetops (1968)
H-72 SF Joanna Russ Picnic on Paradise (1968)
H-73 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardy (1968)
H-78 SF Jules Verne The Hunt for the Meteor (1968)
H-79 SF Bob Shaw The Two-Timers (1968)
H-84 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (1968)
H-86 SF D. G. Compton Synthajoy (1968)
H-89 SF John Macklin Dimensions Beyond The Unknown
H-90 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist (1968)
H-92 SF A. E. van Vogt The Far-Out Worlds of A. E. van Vogt (1968)
H-102 SF Edward E. Smith Subspace Explorers (1968)
H-105 SF James H. Schmitz The Demon Breed (1968)
K Series
K-154 SF George R. Stewart Earth Abides (1962)
A Series
Ace Books published its A series of books from about 1966 to 1968, priced at 75 cents.
A-3 SF Bernard Wolfe Limbo (1966)
A-4 SF J. R. R. Tolkien The Fellowship of the Ring (1966)
A-5 SF J. R. R. Tolkien The Two Towers (1966)
A-6 SF J. R. R. Tolkien The Return of the King (1966)
A-8 SF John Myers Myers Silverlock (1966)
A-10 SF Terry Carr and Donald A. Wollheim (eds.) The World's Best SF: 1967 (1967)
A-12 SF Terry Carr (ed.) New Worlds of Fantasy (1967)
A-13 SF James H. Schmitz The Witches of Karres (1968)
A-15 SF Terry Carr and Donald A. Wollheim (eds.) World's Best SF: 1968 (1968)
A-16 SF Alexei Panshin Rite of Passage (1968)
A-17 SF Avram Davidson (ed.) The Best From Fantasy & Science Fiction, 14th Series (1968)
A-19 SF Piers Anthony and Robert E. Margroff The Ring (1968)
A-25 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn (1968)
A-29 SF James Blish and Norman L. Knight A Torrent of Faces (1968)
N Series
N-3 SF Frank Herbert Dune (1966)
References
Ace Image Library. Contains images of most covers for both the singles and doubles.
Tuck, Donald H. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Volume 3, Advent: Publishers, Inc., 1982. . Lists all ACE sf titles, single and double, published through 1968.
The following references have not been seen:
Peters, Harold R. Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror in the Ace Letter-Series Editions: A Collector's Notebook, Silver Sun Press, 1996.
Ace SF letter-series single titles
SF letter-series single titles
Ace SF letter-series single titles
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4973036
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation%20Baith%20Israel%20Anshei%20Emes
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Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes
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Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes (, "House of Israel – People of Truth"), more commonly known as the Kane Street Synagogue, is an egalitarian Conservative synagogue located at 236 Kane Street in Cobble Hill, Brooklyn, New York City, United States. It is currently the oldest continuously operating synagogue in Brooklyn.
Founded as Baith Israel in 1856, the congregation constructed the first synagogue on Long Island, and hired Aaron Wise for his first rabbinical position in the United States. Early tensions between traditionalists and reformers led to the latter forming Congregation Beth Elohim, a Reform synagogue, in 1861.
The synagogue nearly failed in the early 20th century, but the 1905 hiring of Israel Goldfarb as rabbi, the purchase of its current buildings, and the 1908 merger with Talmud Torah Anshei Emes re-invigorated the congregation. The famous composer Aaron Copland celebrated his Bar Mitzvah there in 1913, and long-time Goldman Sachs head Sidney Weinberg was married there in 1920.
Membership peaked in the 1920s, but with the onset of the Great Depression declined steadily, and by the 1970s the congregation could no longer afford to heat the sanctuary. Membership has recovered since that low point; the congregation renovated its school/community center in 2004, and in 2008 embarked on a million-dollar capital campaign to renovate the sanctuary.
19th century
Origins
Twelve Bavarian, Dutch, and Portuguese Jews gathered at a private home on January 22, 1856, to discuss their "earnest desire [to] effect the incorporation of a synagogue and congregation for divine service", and in March that year they founded Congregation Baith Israel. The group had originally organized in 1855 as the United Brethren Society, a benefit society that provided members with medical and burial assistance. Hiring the Reverend M. Gershon as cantor (the person who leads the prayers), they first met in various homes, then rented space at 155 Atlantic Street, now Atlantic Avenue.
Gershon's appointment was controversial; after a background check, the board decided by a 10–9 vote on April 6, 1856, that he had never held the position of cantor in any other congregation, and was therefore not "sufficiently acquainted with the actual requirements to fill said office", and was furthermore not "a competent reader enough to read the Sepher Torah". As a result, services were led by laymen, except during the Jewish holidays, when a professional cantor would be brought in from Manhattan.
An 1886 Brooklyn Eagle article states that until the founding of Baith Israel "[h]itherto the Hebrew residents in Brooklyn had been under the necessity of finding their way across the East River in all kinds of weather, when they wished to go to their place of worship". According to synagogue legend, the founders had grown tired of rowing across the East River each Friday to celebrate Shabbat in Manhattan. Carol Levin, however, writes that a ferry service from Whitehall Street in Manhattan to South Ferry, Brooklyn (at the foot of Atlantic Street) had existed since 1836 (see South Ferry (ferry)), that the Atlantic Street synagogue's location, so close to the ferry terminus, "must have seemed convenient to many", and that "[f]erry service was fast, frequent and inexpensive ... In the year 1869 there were almost 52 million passengers." Thus, in her view, the story of the founders growing tired of rowing across the East River is a "folk tale".
Attempts at reform and amalgamation, construction of first synagogue
In the congregation's early years, tensions existed between traditionalists and reformers, and in 1861, 41 of the latter left Baith Israel to form the Congregation Beth Elohim, a Reform synagogue. That year Baith Israel hired the Reverend Joel Alexander as its religious leader. Alexander, the synagogue's first full-time rabbi, was a graduate of the Jews Seminary in Münster, and had been ordained both in Posen and by Hermann Adler, the Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom.
In 1862, the remaining 35 members purchased two lots at the corner of State Street and Boerum Place in Boerum Hill for $3,000 (today $), and on January 12 laid the cornerstone for a new building, the first synagogue built on Long Island. The building was completed on August 12, at a cost of $10,000 (today $), and was consecrated on August 31 by Alexander and assembled dignitaries. The synagogue, which came to be known as the Boerum Schule, created a Sunday school soon afterwards, the first in Brooklyn, and at the time, an innovation. The school was free, and run by volunteers, with separate classes for boys and girls. By 1890 the school had 160 students, and at its peak the school had 500 pupils.
In 1869 reformers again left Baith Israel, and, joining with dissenters from Kahal Kodesh Beth Elohim of Williamsburg, founded Temple Israel. Though many reformers had left the congregation, several reforms in the service were nonetheless introduced: the congregation abolished most piyyutim and the Priestly Blessing, and, in 1873, introduced a confirmation ceremony for girls, led by the Reverend Dr. Tinter. The confirmation ceremonies, which had initially been held during the holiday of Sukkot, were eventually moved to the holiday of Shavuot (the holiday during which the Reform movement held these ceremonies), and continued for both boys and girls (in place of Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations) until the 1940s.
Aaron Wise, father of Stephen Samuel Wise, was one of the synagogue's earliest rabbis, from 1874 to 1875. This was his first rabbinical position in the United States, before moving to Congregation Rodeph Sholom in Manhattan.
Building renovations, failed mergers, traditionalism
In 1876, the congregation voted by a margin of over two to one to re-orient the synagogue pews in the manner of Christian churches, and introduce mixed seating. However, nothing was done about this until 1879, when the renovations were carried out: the front pews were removed, the side pews extended to the walls, and the vestibule moved outside the sanctuary. Led by rabbi Dr. E. M. Myers, the synagogue was re-dedicated on September 7.
In April 1883, Baith Israel, Beth Elohim, and Temple Israel, Brooklyn's three leading synagogues, tried to merge; Beth Elohim and Temple Israel had both been formed in the 1860s by dissenters from Baith Israel. This was the third such attempt; the previous two had failed when the members could not agree on synagogue ritual. The combined congregation, which would purchase new premises, would have 150 members (only heads of households were considered members at that time). Members would be refunded half the purchase price of the pews in their existing buildings. The rabbis of Beth Elohim and Temple Israel were to split the offices of rabbi and cantor: Baith Israel, at the time, had no rabbi. Though this attempt also failed, in the following year the three congregations carried out combined activities, including a picnic and a celebration of the 100th birthday of Sir Moses Montefiore.
Baith Israel hired Marcus Friedlander as rabbi in 1887. Born in Congress Poland in 1862, he left Russia for England before he was twenty. Though speaking little English at the time, he graduated there from the London Theological Seminary, before emigrating to the United States. He was 24 years old when he assumed the post at Baith Israel, at the time the youngest man in New York state to be appointed to so significant a position of Jewish leadership. Friedlander served until 1893, when he resigned to take a more lucrative position in California at the First Hebrew Congregation of Oakland. After Friedlander left, his name was, for reasons unknown, deleted from the synagogue histories, and the financial records and minute books dating from his tenure were removed from Baith Israel's archives. He was succeeded by Joseph Taubenhaus, the brother of Dr. Gottheil/Godfrey Taubenhaus, the rabbi of Congregation Beth Elohim; another brother, Jacob/Jean Taubenhaus was a famous French chess master.
In 1889, the congregation again renovated the synagogue building, repairing it and replacing the roof, increasing the seating capacity, adding a new vestibule and double entrance way, and redecorating the interior. At that time over half of the congregants still spoke German as their native language. The congregation had 50 members—defined as "heads of families who own seats"—by 1891, and 300 congregants in total. By 1900, the congregation had 160 members, and the congregational school, which held classes for two hours once a week, had ten teachers and 150 students.
Though the synagogue had undertaken innovations in some areas of Jewish law, it still insisted on strict adherence in others. In 1878 Tinter was dismissed for officiating at the marriage of a Jewish woman and Christian man, and Baith Israel was, for a time, the only congregation in Brooklyn that celebrated Jewish holidays for the traditional two days. In 1889 Baith Israel asserted it was "the only orthodox congregation in the city", and that year the board forced the resignation of a Mr. J. Folkart, for transgressing the laws of Yom Kippur. In 1892, when Hyman Rosenberg was expelled as rabbi of Brooklyn's Beth Jacob synagogue for eating ham, the Brooklyn Eagle canvassed local rabbis for their views on the matter. While George Taubenhaus, rabbi of Beth Elohim stated, "I do not believe my congregation would expel me if I ate ham", Baith Israel's rabbi Friedlander responded, "While there are some differences between the reform and orthodox Jews, I do not think it is the place for any Jewish minister to eat ham. The reformers do not so strictly observe the old Mosaic law, but it does not seem to me a good example for a rabbi to set to his congregation."
20th century
Decline and reinvigoration
By 1904, membership had fallen to 30, and the synagogue nearly failed: mass transit had allowed Jews to migrate away from downtown Brooklyn, and a fire had nearly destroyed the Boerum synagogue building. Further innovations were attempted, including a pipe organ and a mixed-sex choir, but these were removed after objections from Orthodox members. The congregation decided that the Boerum location was part of the problem, and made the bold decision to sell it, buy new premises, and hire a rabbi (the synagogue had, for many years, run without one). In 1905, they hired Israel Goldfarb, a 1902 graduate of the Jewish Theological Seminary, as "Hazan [cantor] and Teacher", his first and only pulpit. The following year Goldfarb was appointed rabbi, a position he would hold for over 50 years.
In 1905, the congregation also purchased for $30,000 (today $) its current building at Tompkins Place and Harrison Street (renamed Kane Street in 1928), along with an adjacent school building and a connecting two-story arcade. The Romanesque revival church building, erected in 1855, had originally housed the Middle Dutch Reformed Church, and, from 1887, the Trinity German Lutheran Church. The hiring of Goldfarb and purchase of a new building helped revive the congregation, and by 1906 (its 50th anniversary) membership had doubled.
Goldfarb was a talented musician, known to this day as composer of popular tunes for the songs "Shalom Aleichem" and "Magein Avot" used in most Ashkenazi synagogues. With his brother Samuel E. Goldfarb, he compiled The Jewish Songster for schoolchildren, the first American collection of Jewish songs. Israel Goldfarb also served as Professor of Liturgical Music at the Jewish Theological Seminary from 1920 to 1944, and in 1949 founded the School of Sacred Music at Hebrew Union College.
In his Kol Nidre sermon of 1905, Goldfarb emphasized the need for a Talmud Torah (providing inexpensive Jewish education for primary school children), and it was immediately founded. Talmud Torahs helped synagogues in neighborhoods with small Jewish populations to attract young Jewish families, and were common in "second-settlement areas of New York City such as Harlem and Brooklyn". By 1907–1908 the congregation had grown to 85 member families. The Talmud Torah, which held classes four days a week, had three teachers and 75 students.
Merger with Talmud Torah Anshei Emes and growth
In 1908, Baith Israel merged with Degraw Street's Talmud Torah Anshei Emes Synagogue, a growing congregation that had become too large for the row house in which it held services. Talmud Torah Anshei Emes's membership was mostly made up of Eastern European Jews, who were stricter in their observances than Baith Israel's mostly German-origin membership; to accommodate them, a special all-men section of pews was designated at the front left of the sanctuary.
The merged congregations adopted the current name, a combination of the two previous names, and, with the assistance and encouragement of Goldfarb and synagogue president Harris Copland founded a sisterhood. Nevertheless, the combined membership was still not large; in 1911, the year the congregation renovated the recently acquired synagogue building, the Talmud Torah had only 45 students, 10 of them the children of non-members.
The sisterhood had grown to 42 members by 1913; that year 11 men were accepted as new congregants, including "a dentist, an optician, a druggist, a lawyer, a butler and two store owners and a roofer"—in general, middle class occupations. Baith Israel Anshei Emes also became one of the charter members of the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism in 1913, with Michael Salit, who had been synagogue president in 1906, serving as the congregation's delegate, and he, Rabbi Goldfarb and another synagogue member, Isaac Applebaum, were among the 22 individuals who initially founded the organization.
Aaron Copland celebrated his Bar Mitzvah at Baith Israel Anshei Emes in 1913. The Copland family was active in the synagogue; his father Harris became treasurer and chairman of the Talmud Torah in 1905, had helped purchase the current building, served as president of the congregation from 1907 to 1910, and was made a life trustee in 1936. Aaron's brother Ralph served as superintendent of the Sunday School. Goldfarb was instrumental in assisting Aaron Copland in his early musical career. While still in high school, Aaron had approached Goldfarb for his support in studying music: Aaron's father wanted him to enter the legal profession. Goldfarb engineered an agreement whereby Aaron would study music for two or three years, and, if that did not work out, then study law. In his memoirs, Copland would later describe Goldfarb as "a composer of liturgical music and the possessor of a fine baritone voice ... a sensitive human being and an effective leader of the congregation".
By 1916, the congregation had installed 10 stained glass windows, electric lighting, a new pulpit, and two large bronze menorahs, and employed six people. Dues were $12 (today $) per year, and Sunday school fees were $0.02 (today $0) per session. Membership had grown to 140 families by 1919. The congregational school held classes daily, and had 400 students and 20 teachers.
Sidney Weinberg, who rose from the job of assistant porter to head Goldman Sachs from 1930 to 1969, was married at Baith Israel Anshei Emes in 1920. The Weinberg family, which had joined the synagogue when it was still on Beorum Place, was also very active in the synagogue; Sidney's mother, Sophie, was sisterhood president from 1912 to 1913, and his father, Pincus, served as president from 1919 to 1921, and the children all attended the Sunday school and Talmud Torah. The Weinbergs subsequently moved to Flatbush, where in 1924 Pincus became the first president of the East Midwood Jewish Center.
In 1924, a fire almost destroyed the upper level of the school building, but the congregation repaired the damage. Another renovation was begun in 1928, and included installing illuminated stained glass over the ark and bronze memorial tablets at the rear of the sanctuary, and repainting the sanctuary walls and columns in a trompe-l'œil manner imitating Jerusalem stone and marble.
Great Depression and post-World War II decline
On its 75th anniversary in 1931, the congregation received a congratulatory message from President Herbert Hoover. Additional congratulatory messages arrived from Governor (later President) Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lieutenant Governor Herbert H. Lehman, Mayor Jimmy Walker, and Felix M. Warburg. Nevertheless, the Great Depression brought difficult times; officers were no longer paid their salaries, and were informed in 1932 that they would have to "wait indefinitely" to receive their back wages. In 1933, the synagogue abolished fixed wages entirely for its employees, and instead paid them on a "month-to-month basis", depending on what the congregation could afford.
In 1932 women were allowed to join the choir. In deference to traditionalists, however, the choir was moved to the organ loft, so that the women would be less visible.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Herman Belth raised $20,000 (today $) and contributed another $20,000 for another renovation of the synagogue. The building was fortified, the interior (except the front wall) repainted, and the exterior brick walls, which had been clad in "blue-veined white stone", were refinished with "brownstone type stuccoed slabs". When the renovations were complete, the synagogue was re-dedicated in January 1953. Despite Belth's efforts, membership continued to decline, as congregants moved to the suburbs. Though the Centennial Celebrations of 1956 "provided a brief burst of energy for the Congregation and produced funds to maintain the Synagogue", during this period the choir was disbanded, the Sunday School and Talmud Torah closed, and paid staff reduced.
In the 1960s, following Goldfarb's retirement, the synagogue hired a series of part-time rabbis, including Goldfarb's grandson, Henry D. Michelman, who served as rabbi from 1967 to 1971. Michelman, who would later become the Executive Vice President of the Synagogue Council of America, was, like his grandfather, a talented musician, composing music for synagogues and churches, writing scores for television films for ABC, A&E, CNBC, and PBS, and serving as Chairman of the American Society of Jewish Music.
The membership decline continued in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as older congregants died and moved away, and dwindled to the point where the congregation could no longer afford to heat the sanctuary, and thought they would have to disband. Nevertheless, in 1972 the congregation established a nursery school and prozdor (high school).
Rebirth: 1980s and 1990s
Changing demographics and new synagogue programs helped the congregation recover from its low point in the 1970s. In 1979, Raymond Scheindlin, a Ph.D. in Arabic literature from Columbia University, and professor of medieval Hebrew poetry at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTSA), became the part-time rabbi of the congregation, replacing Howard Gorin, who had served since 1976. Scheindlin had become a member in 1974, after joining the faculty of the JTSA and moving to Brooklyn Heights, and from that point on read the Torah every week and served as cantor. He also encouraged the re-constitution of a choir, which called itself "the DeRossi Singers" after Salamone DeRossi, the leading Jewish composer of the late Italian Renaissance, whose works the choir sang. Even after leaving the synagogue, Scheindlin continued to return to serve as cantor for the High Holidays every year until 2016.
In 1982 Scheindlin stated that the membership had grown to the point where it again required the services of a full-time rabbi, and the congregation hired Jonathan Ginsburg as its first full-time rabbi since Israel Goldfarb's retirement. Ginsburg developed adult education and young singles programs, and improved standards in the synagogue's children's education programs. Geoffrey Goldberg followed him as rabbi from 1987 to 1988.
In 1994 the buildings' stained glass windows, parapet tower, and brownstone were repaired, landscaping redone, and, with a grant from the Sol Goldman Charitable trust, the bimah and vestibule were refurbished. Membership had increased to almost 200 families by 1995, and in 1996 Samuel H. Weintraub was hired as rabbi.
Increasing involvement of women
In 1961 the synagogue began granting women some pulpit honors, giving the Sisterhood President gelila, and in 1966 granting married couples hagbaha and gelila (the honors of lifting and re-wrapping the Torah after it has been read). In the 1970s, women became more involved in the synagogue's political and religious activities: in 1972, the first woman was elected to the board of trustees, and in 1975, the congregation began calling women to the Torah and counting women in the minyan, the latter just two years after the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly voted nine to four in favor of this innovation.
In 1980, Nancy Fink, a Brooklyn Law School professor, was elected as the congregation's first female president. Fink called a full membership meeting in 1982 to decide whether women could lead the services, blow the shofar (the rams-horn trumpet blown on the High Holidays), and whether daughters of kohanim (hereditary priests) could give the priestly blessing. Advised by Scheindlin, the congregation decided to make the services fully egalitarian, allowing women to perform all three functions.
Baith Israel Anshei Emes' move to egalitarianism culminated in August 1988, when Debra Cantor was hired as its first female rabbi, making it the first synagogue in the Northeastern United States to be led by a woman. Cantor, who was 33 at the time, had been valedictorian of that year's graduating class at the Jewish Theological Seminary. The decision was not accepted by all congregants; the Conservative movement had ordained its first female rabbi, Amy Eilberg, only three years before, in 1985, and following Cantor's appointment a number of families left the synagogue to form B'nai Avraham, an Orthodox congregation in Brooklyn Heights.
21st century
In 2002 Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes received a $1 million grant for building renovations from Lillian Goldman, just weeks before her death; she had previously donated $20 million for the reconstruction and expansion of Yale Law School's library, and $5 million to Manhattan's 92nd Street Y for a family center there. After raising over $2 million more, including a $54,000 grant from the Jewish Communal Fund, in 2003 the congregation began re-building the three story school/community center from the ground up, leaving only the historic facade. In 2004 the building was re-opened as the "Sol and Lillian Goldman Education Center", and a day-time pre-school launched. Though the sanctuary also needed extensive repairs, the renovations of the school/community center were undertaken first because the congregation decided "a venue for social functions is at the heart of every cohesive religious group". The following year, the school received a $25,000 grant from the Edith Glick Shoolman Children's Foundation "[t]o assist in the development of the Kane Street Kids program for preschool age children housed in the Congregation's Early Childhood Center".
Nearly 300 households were members by 2006, and in the same year, the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation awarded the synagogue a grant of $350,000 for exterior restoration of the sanctuary. The grant was part of a million-dollar capital campaign that the membership intended to carry out in 2008, as the synagogue building still required extensive repairs: the roof leaked, causing interior damage, and (along with the gutters) needed to be replaced; interior columns were taped to prevent plaster from falling off them; the sanctuary doors needed to be replaced; and the stained glass windows needed to be removed, the metal holding them repaired, and their wooden framing replaced. In 2007 the New York Landmarks Conservancy's Sacred Sites Program awarded Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes grants totaling $17,500, for copper roof and masonry restoration.
In 2008, the Synagogue filed documents with the New York Department of State, and was approved to officially use the name "Kane Street Synagogue," which had been its commonly-used name for several decades at that point.
The congregation had been supportive of the LGBTQ+ community since at least the early 1990s, and following the late 2006 decision by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards to allow same-sex commitment ceremonies, in 2007 Kane Street Synagogue voted to follow suit. The day before Yom Kippur, 2009, the synagogue was picketed by members of the Westboro Baptist Church, who shouted antisemitic and anti-gay slogans.
The congregation was led by now Rabbi Emeritus, Samuel H. Weintraub from 1996 to 2021. He was succeeded by Interim Senior Rabbi Paul. F. Resnick. Rabbi Michelle Dardashti was elected as head rabbi by the congregation in March 2022, and officially assumed her role on August 1 of that year.
Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes continues to be the oldest continuously operating synagogue in Brooklyn.
Notes
References
Brooklyn Eagle, no byline.
New York Times, no byline.
Synagogue journal, no byline.
Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes website.
Other
External links
Gelfand, Alexander. "A Mosaic of Jewish Music in America", The Forward, May 26, 2006.
1856 establishments in New York (state)
Cobble Hill, Brooklyn
Conservative synagogues in New York City
Religious organizations established in 1856
Romanesque Revival architecture in New York City
Romanesque Revival synagogues
Synagogues completed in 1855
Synagogues in Brooklyn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration%20Watch%20UK
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Migration Watch UK
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Migration Watch UK is a British think-tank and campaign group which argues for lower immigration into the United Kingdom. Founded in 2001, the group believes that international migration places undue demand on limited resources and that the current level of immigration is not sustainable.
The group has been praised for what is seen as improving the quality of debate around immigration while others have suggested that the group is anti-immigration and have criticised what they say are faults in the group's studies.
Lord Green of Deddington, former ambassador to Saudi Arabia, is the founder and president of the group. Alp Mehmet, former ambassador to Iceland, is its current chairman. David Coleman, Professor of Demography at Oxford University, is an honorary consultant.
History
MigrationWatch UK was founded in December 2001 by Sir Andrew Green, former ambassador to Saudi Arabia. In an article in The Independent, Deborah Orr writes that the organisation came into being when, "after reading some of his anti-immigration letters in The Times", the then Sir Andrew approached David Coleman, Professor of Demography at Oxford University, and they subsequently set up MigrationWatch.
The group first came to public attention in 2002 when it stated that immigration, including an estimate of illegal immigrants, was running at two million per decade "and probably more". This claim was challenged at the time by a number of public commentators, with an editorial in The Independent at the time criticising what it called "tendentious projections and the deliberate citing of the vast populations of countries such as India to frighten people and wreck any rational debate". Two years later, Philip Johnston in the Daily Telegraph would argue that Government Actuary's Department forecasts that the UK population would increase by six million people due to immigration over three decades "appear to confirm claims made by Migrationwatch two years ago, when the group first sprang to prominence". A later Telegraph editorial following the 2011 Census would call the group's initial claims "overly cautious".
The group quickly attracted the attention of Home Secretary David Blunkett, who in 2002 set up a unit intended to monitor and rebut the organisation and sought to control the timing of statistical releases to avoid pressure from it.
The organisation has an advisory council, which is chaired by Baron Green and whose members include David Coleman and Caroline Cox, Baroness Cox, Alp Mehmet, former ambassador to Iceland, and Roger Williams.
Outputs
MigrationWatch's website contains a range of briefing papers to support the organisation's perspective on the statistical, legal, economic and historical aspects of migration, and on topics such as the European Union, housing, health and social cohesion, as they relate to immigration. It has also helped to contribute to briefings on immigration for third parties such as the BBC.
MigrationWatch has been frequently cited and seen its spokespeople featured in British newspapers such as the Daily Mail, Daily Telegraph, The Times, The Sunday Times, The Guardian, Daily Express and Daily Star. as well as British broadcast media such as BBC News and ITV News.
In October 2011, the group started a petition on the UK Parliament petitions website calling on the government to take "all necessary steps" to stop the UK's population exceeding 70 million. The petition reached over 100,000 signatures.
Policy stances
Immigration flows
MigrationWatch argues that the growth of the population of the United Kingdom through international migration is a key "factor driving problems around pressure on school places, the NHS, housing and the transport infrastructure". The group in 2018 argued that migration was linked to 82% of population growth between 2001 and 2016, when combining both net migration and children born to immigrant parents. In the same year it predicted that the population of the United Kingdom would exceed 70 million by 2026.
A 2019 report by MigrationWatch condemned the Conservative government's approach to immigration, stating that its policies would increase immigrant numbers by 100 thousand (a claim which was later retracted). It has called Britain's port security "resourced to fail" in stopping illegal immigration, and has opposed the idea of an amnesty for illegal immigrants in Britain, after it was postulated by Prime Minister Boris Johnson. The group criticised the same government for extending the period in which overseas students can stay in the UK from four months to two years, arguing that it would "likely lead to foreign graduates staying on to stack shelves". It has also been critical of proposals by Boris Johnson to scrap the £30,000 salary cap on migrants, warning that abolishing the cap could lead to further rises in migration.
The group has expressed opposition to sham marriages, and in August 2019 called for nationality profiling in an attempt to crack down on the practice.
Asylum seekers
MigrationWatch claims to support the principle of political asylum but argues that many asylum seekers do not have a genuine case for qualifying for refugee status and are instead using the asylum system to gain entry to the UK for economic reasons. The group has also been strongly critical of what it sees as the government's failure to remove many of those whose claims are rejected. In a briefing paper published in January 2009, the group's Honorary Legal Adviser Harry Mitchell, QC stated that while the group supported "asylum for genuine claimants", the "overwhelming majority of asylum seekers" were in fact economic migrants and did not have a "well-founded fear of persecution".
In July 2010, MigrationWatch highlighted what it saw as the potential consequences of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom's unanimous ruling in favour of two homosexual asylum seekers from Iran and Cameroon, allowing them to stay in the UK. The group argued that the decision would "increase by many thousands the numbers of persons who may be eligible for asylum", as well as "generate a large number of claims that will be difficult to determine", such as instances where people smugglers "tell their clients who come from countries where homosexual acts are illegal to claim that they are homosexual". It argued that assessing such claims "can often take many months during which applicants are supported by public funds".
In August 2016, in response to Home Office data showing that over a third of asylum applications were made by migrants who entered the UK illegally or overstayed their visas, MigrationWatch suggested that the data showed that "many of those claiming asylum were in fact economic migrants".
The group has defended the use of the term "illegal immigrant" to describe those who enter a country for the purpose of claiming asylum, against those who associate the term with criminality. The group argues that the term is appropriate, as those who come into a country without permission and outside the law are doing so illegally.
Economic impact of immigration
MigrationWatch has argued that, while limited skilled migration (in both directions) is a natural and beneficial feature of an open economy, very large scale immigration is of little benefit to the indigenous population. MigrationWatch has claimed that migration into the UK has and will tend to hold down the real wages of British citizens. In 2006 it expressed concern that immigration from Eastern Europe was depressing wages. In December 2008, a MigrationWatch report stated that while some immigration results in an increase in the number of people in employment, "it seems an inescapable conclusion that the sudden arrival of a very large number of very capable workers willing to work for low pay has had a negative impact on the employment of British-born workers at the bottom of the pay scale". Will Somerville and Madeleine Sumption of the Washington, D.C.-based Migration Policy Institute state in an Equality and Human Rights Commission report that: "Few serious international or UK economists would agree with this conclusion". Their report did, however, note that "the recent migration may have reduced wages slightly at the bottom end of the labour market, especially for certain groups of vulnerable workers".
MigrationWatch has criticised sectors that lobby for a permissive immigration policy, accusing them of offering "low paying jobs with poor conditions and little flexibility for workers".
In 2014, the group published a report on population growth in London, in which it claimed that immigration trends had put "massive pressure on schools and hospitals and especially housing". It has expressed concerns about the effects of migration rates on the national housing market as a whole, pointing to the discrepancy between migration rates and the number of new houses being built to accommodate a growing population. In 2017 the group claimed that the impact of immigration on future demand for homes in England had been "seriously understated" by the British government.
In 2016, MigrationWatch issued a paper estimating the fiscal impact of immigration for the year 2014/15, which found an overall fiscal cost from immigration with a positive contribution only from migrants of pre-2004 EU states. This was in line with a 2014 study from University College London.
Human rights legislation
MigrationWatch UK in 2003 advocated that the UK government should "'cut loose from the straitjacket' imposed by its obligations under various conventions that made it impossible to operate the system in the country's best interests". In 2007 it called for the British government to withdraw from the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and write its own Human Rights Act.
EU membership
The group has been critical of large-scale migration from the European Union, having in 2013 predicted combined migration inflows from Romania and Bulgaria of approximately 50,000 per annum when free movement restrictions would be lifted the following year.
In January 2016, the group published a report claiming that the UK leaving the European Union could result in a reduction of annual net migration from 180,000 to around 65,000, although added that such a number should not be taken as a "precise estimate" but was "intended to illustrate the scale of the potential reduction under the policy outlined". MigrationWatch stated that they would not take a position on the UK's EU membership referendum held in June 2016. In 2017 the group backed the idea of visa-free travel between the UK and EU after Brexit, adding that EU citizens who would want to work in the UK should need a work permit.
Hong Kong
After the British government reacted to the Hong Kong national security law, announcing that British National (Overseas) passport holders in Hong Kong would be given the right to live, study and work in the UK and would be offered a route to route to citizenship, MigrationWatch published a paper stating that "a Home Office factsheet confirmed that the number who might eventually be able to come is up to 2.9 million – the current number of BNOs residing in Hong Kong". The paper argued that the government had "cast the proposed offer of a pathway to citizenship as part and parcel with the UK honouring its 'historical responsibilities'", suggesting that this set a dangerous precedent. Chris Whitehouse, responding to the MigrationWatch paper in an article for CapX, argued that "the UK's historic duty towards Hong Kong is very different to other former colonies; and the future of Hongkongers is based on China keeping its word, which it is brazenly failing to do". He concluded that "Lord Andrew Green and Migration Watch are out of step with the nation on this one, and they should urgently consult Lord Patten on their route ahead if they are not to lose their way".
Reaction to the group
Praise
Conservative politician Jonathan Aitken has credited MigrationWatch with improving the quality of the British debate on immigration. He argues that "Migrationwatch has changed the administrative practices of the civil service and the policies of the major political parties on asylum seekers, work permit criteria and numerical totals. It has introduced integrity and accuracy into the previously misleading government statistics on immigration. The level of understanding of the subject in all serious newspapers and broadcasting organizations has been improved. Britain may or may not have the right answers to immigration questions, but we certainly now have a far more informed debate on them".
Similarly, an article by Dean Godson of the centre-right think tank Policy Exchange published in The Times in June 2006 states: "The dramatic change in the terms of the immigration debate over recent months is largely down to the determination and courage of a single individual – Sir Andrew Green, the founder and chairman of MigrationWatch UK. Almost single-handedly, he has rescued the national discourse from the twin inanities of saloon-bar bigotry on the Right and politically correct McCarthyism on the Left".
Jay Rayner, writing in The Observer quotes one senior BBC News executive, who stated: "We probably were reluctant and slow to take him seriously to begin with. We probably didn't like what he had to say. But then we were also slow to pick up on immigration as a story, not least because we are a very middle-class organisation and the impact of mass immigration was being felt more in working-class communities. If he's proved himself, it's because he hasn't put a foot wrong on the information he's published".
Peter Oborne, writing as chief political commentator of the Daily Telegraph, has also praised MigrationWatch and the efforts of Lord Green. In 2014 Oborne called Green "one of the most morally courageous people in British public life", and has said that the "liberal media establishment" owe Green "a huge apology" for mocking his predictions about future immigration numbers.
Criticism
While the group describes itself as independent and non-political, it has been characterised as a right-wing lobby or pressure group by some commentators and academics.
It has been argued that MigrationWatch's messages "can be taken advantage of by people with Islamophobia and prejudice". The accuracy of the group's research has also been questioned. David Robinson, Professor of Housing and Public Policy at Sheffield Hallam University, argues that the group's assertion that immigrants are placing strain on social housing lacks evidence. Economist Philippe Legrain has claimed that "MigrationWatch's xenophobic prejudice is causing it to twist the truth" about the impact of immigration on the employment prospects of British people.
Similarly, in February 2013, Migration Matters, an organisation chaired by former Labour MP Barbara Roche and co-chaired by then-Conservative MP Gavin Barwell, criticised the BBC for treating MigrationWatch's analysis as politically neutral.
In 2014, Jonathan Portes of the National Institute of Economic and Social Research complained to the Press Complaints Commission that articles in the Daily Mail and Daily Telegraph about the net amount of tax paid by Eastern European migrants, which were based on MigrationWatch statistics, were inaccurate. The two newspapers amended the articles in response.
Other commentators have criticised what they see as the media uncritically reproducing the findings of MigrationWatch in their own reporting. Academics Nissa Finney and Ludi Simpson in 2009 stated that while they believed the evidence used by MigrationWatch to be questionable, it received prominence in migration debates and had assumed an authority which they considered to be "dangerous if there is no similar authority presenting counterarguments". Bernhard Gross, Kerry Moore and Terry Threadgold of the Cardiff School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies at Cardiff University have criticised the broadcast media's use of MigrationWatch to 'balance' reports on immigration, arguing that the "whole idea of 'balance' in these contexts needs to be re-thought" and that "there are never just two sides to any story". A website launched in February 2011 with the aim of allowing users to identify so-called churnalism revealed the extent to which newspapers such as the Daily Mirror, Daily Mail, Daily Express and The Times copy and paste from MigrationWatch press releases in articles on migration.
Defamation
In 2007, the Daily Mirror paid damages to Andrew Green after columnist Brian Reade likened him and the group to the Ku Klux Klan and Nazi Party, which the paper admitted was "untrue".
In August 2010, Sally Bercow, a Labour Party Prospective Parliamentary Candidate and wife of Conservative MP John Bercow, argued on a Sky News newspaper review that a Daily Express article based on MigrationWatch research was "oversimplifying" and constituted "dangerous propaganda". As a result, MigrationWatch and Andrew Green threatened to take libel action against Bercow. After she instructed the lawyer David Allen Green to defend the threatened action, MigrationWatch dropped its threat. According to a MigrationWatch press release, in the light of an assurance by her lawyer that Mrs Bercow "did not intend to (and did not) allege that Migrationwatch is a fascist or racist organisation", the organisation decided not to take the matter further.
See also
Foreign-born population of the United Kingdom
Immigration to the United Kingdom since 1922
Information Centre about Asylum and Refugees
Notes
External links
Official website
MigrationWatch UK Twitter
MigrationWatch UK YouTube
Political advocacy groups in the United Kingdom
Immigration to the United Kingdom
2001 establishments in the United Kingdom
Think tanks established in 2001
Anti-immigration politics in the United Kingdom
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4973545
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrhyn%20Castle
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Penrhyn Castle
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Penrhyn Castle () is a country house in Llandygai, Bangor, Gwynedd, North Wales, constructed in the style of a Norman castle. The Penrhyn estate was founded by Ednyfed Fychan. In the 15th century his descendent Gwilym ap Griffith built a fortified manor house on the site. In the 18th century, the Penrhyn estate came into the possession of Richard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn, in part from his father, a Liverpool merchant, and in part from his wife, Ann Susannah Pennant née Warburton, the daughter of an army officer. Pennant derived great wealth from his ownership of slave plantations in the West Indies and was a strong opponent of attempts to abolish the slave trade. His wealth was used in part for the development of the slate mining industry on Pennant's Caernarfonshire estates, and also for development of Penrhyn Castle. In the 1780s Pennant commissioned Samuel Wyatt to undertake a reconstruction of the medieval house.
On Pennant's death in 1808, the Penrhyn estate was inherited by his second cousin, George Hay Dawkins, who adopted the surname Dawkins-Pennant. From 1822 to 1837 Dawkins-Pennant engaged the architect Thomas Hopper who rebuilt the house in the form of a Neo-Norman castle. Dawkins-Pennant, who sat as Member of Parliament for Newark and New Romney, followed his cousin as a long-standing opponent of emancipation, serving on the West India Committee, a group of parliamentarians opposed to the abolition of slavery, on which Richard Pennant had served as chairman. Dawkins-Pennant received significant compensation when, in 1833, emancipation of slaves in the British Empire was eventually achieved, through the passing of the Slavery Abolition Act.
In 1840, the Penrhyn estate passed to Edward Gordon Douglas, through his marriage to Dawkins-Pennant's elder daughter, Juliana. Douglas, who assumed the name Douglas-Pennant, was elevated to the peerage as 1st Baron Penrhyn of the second creation in 1866. He, and his son and heir, George Douglas-Pennant, 2nd Baron Penrhyn, continued the development of their slate interests at Penrhyn Quarry, and of the supporting infrastructure throughout North-West Wales. Firmly opposed to trade unionism at their quarries, their tenure saw bitter strikes over union recognition and workers' rights, culminating in the Great Strike of 1900–1903, the longest dispute in British industrial history. Little development took place at the castle, which was not the family's principal residence and was mainly used as a holiday home in the summer months, but the interior was enhanced by Edward Douglas-Pennant's creation of a major collection of paintings. These provided the setting for entertaining guests, who included Queen Victoria, her son the Prince of Wales and William Gladstone. The castle passed from the family to the National Trust via the National Land Fund in 1951.
Penrhyn Castle is a Grade I listed building, recognised as Thomas Hopper's finest work. Built in the Romanesque Revival style, it is considered one of the most important country houses in Wales and as among the best of the Revivalist castles in Britain. Its art collection, including works by Palma Vecchio and Canaletto is of international importance. In the 21st century, the National Trust's attempts to explore the links between their properties and colonialism and historic slavery have seen the castle feature in the ensuing culture wars.
History
Early owners
In the 15th century, the Penrhyn estate was the centre of a large landholding developed by Gwilym ap Griffith. The land had originally been granted to his ancestor Ednyfed Fychan, Seneschal to Llywelyn the Great. Despite losing his lands temporarily during the Glyndŵr Rising, ap Griffith regained them by 1406 and began the construction of a fortified manor house and adjoining chapel at Penrhyn, which became his family's main home.
17th and 18th centuries
The fortunes of the Pennant family were begun in the late-17th century by a former soldier, Gifford Pennant. Settling in Jamaica, he built up one of the largest estates on the island, eventually comprising four or five slave plantations for the cultivation of sugar cane. His son, Edward, rose to become Chief Justice of Jamaica and by the beginning of the late 18th century the family had accumulated sufficient funds to return to England, invest their profits in the development of their English and Welsh estates, and manage their West Indian properties as absentee landlords.
Edward's grandson, Richard Pennant (1737–1808), acquired the Penrhyn estate in the 18th century, in part from his father, John Pennant, a Liverpool merchant, and in part from his wife, Ann Susannah Pennant, the only child of Hugh Warburton, an army officer. Richard expended his sugar profits on the creation and subsequent development of his North Wales estate, centred on Penrhyn. Recognising the potential for the industrialisation of slate production, he greatly expanded the activities of his main slate mine, Penrhyn Quarry, and invested heavily in the development of the transportation infrastructure necessary for the export of his slate products. A major road-building operation culminated in the creation of Port Penrhyn on the North-Wales coast as the fulcrum of his operations that saw the Bethesda quarries become the world's largest producer of slate by the early 19th century. The profits from sugar and slate enabled Pennant to commission Samuel Wyatt to rebuild the medieval house as a "castellated Gothic" castle.
Richard Pennant was elected Member of Parliament for Liverpool and sat for the city until elevated to the Irish peerage as 1st Baron Penrhyn in 1783. Between 1780 and 1790 he made over thirty speeches defending the slave trade against abolitionist attacks, and became so influential that he was made chairman of the West India Committee, an informal alliance of some 50 MPs dedicated to opposing abolition.
19th and 20th centuries
George Hay Dawkins-Pennant (1764–1840) inherited the Penrhyn Estate on Richard Pennant's death in 1808. He continued the approach adopted by his second cousin: developing the Penrhyn Quarry; opposing the abolition of slavery; serving in Parliament; and building at Penrhyn. Dawkins-Pennant's ambitions for his castle, however, far exceeded those of Richard Pennant for his - the building that Thomas Hopper created for him between 1820 and 1837 is one of the largest castles in Britain. The cost of the construction of this vast house is uncertain, and difficult to quantify as many of the materials came from the family's own forests and quarries and much of the labour from their industrial workforce. Cadw's estimation suggests the castle cost the Pennant family around £150,000, equivalent to some £50m in current values.
The German aristocrat and traveller Hermann, Fürst von Pückler-Muskau recorded his visit to Penrhyn in his memoirs, Tour of a German Prince, published in 1831. He noted the ingenious design of the bell pulls; "a pendulum is attached to each which continues to vibrate for ten minutes after the sound has ceased, to remind the sluggish of their duty." He was even more impressed by the scale of Dawkins-Pennant's ambition; reflecting that castle building, which in the time of William the Conqueror could only be carried out by "mighty" kings, was by the early 19th century, "executed, as a plaything, — only with increased size, magnificence and expense, — by a simple country-gentleman, whose father very likely sold cheeses."
The eldest of Dawkins-Pennant's two daughters, Juliana, married an aristocratic Grenadier Guardsman, Edward Gordon Douglas (1800–1886), who, on inheriting the estate in 1840, adopted the hyphenated surname of Douglas-Pennant. Edward, the grandson of the 14th Earl of Morton, was created the 1st Baron Penrhyn (second creation) in the Peerage of the United Kingdom in 1866. In accordance with his father-in-law's wishes, he assembled a major collection of pictures for the castle. He was succeeded by his son, George Douglas-Pennant, 2nd Baron Penrhyn, in 1886. He was, in turn, succeeded by his son, Edward Douglas-Pennant, 3rd Baron Penrhyn, who lost his eldest son, and two half-brothers, as casualties in World War I.
Hugh Douglas-Pennant, 4th Baron Penrhyn, who inherited the title and estates in 1927, died in June 1949, when the castle and estate passed to his niece, Lady Janet Pelham, who, following family tradition, adopted the surname of Douglas-Pennant. In 1951, the castle and 40,000 acres (160 km2) of land were accepted by the treasury in lieu of death duties and ownership was transferred to the National Trust.
21st century
The National Trust has held custodianship of Penrhyn Castle since its transfer by the government in 1951. It has worked to conserve the house and its setting, and develop its attraction to visitors. In 2019/2020 Penrhyn received 139,614 such visitors, an increase over the two previous years (118,833 and 109,395). In the 21st century, the Trust has sought to develop its understanding and coverage of the links between the house and colonialism and slavery (see below). The Trust's 2022 Penrhyn Castle website records: "we are accelerating plans to reinterpret the stories of the painful and challenging histories attached to Penrhyn Castle. This will take time as we want to ensure that changes we make are sustained and underpinned by high quality research." A large collection of Douglas-Pennant family papers is held by Bangor University and was catalogued between 2015 and 2017.
Slavery and slate
Slavery
For much of the 20th century, conservation bodies such as the Trust largely ignored the issues of slavery and colonialism in relation to their properties. This position began to change at the very end of the century. In 1995, Alaistair Hennesey published a pioneering article on Penrhyn and slavery in History Today. Of Penrhyn, Hennesey wrote, "there is no building which illustrates so graphically the role which slave plantation profits played in the growth of British economic power." In 2009 the Trust organised a symposium, Slavery and the British Country House, in conjunction with English Heritage and the University of the West of England, which was held at the London School of Economics. At the conference Nicholas Draper (inaugural director of the Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slavery), discussed the records of the Slave Compensation Commission and their value as a research tool for exploring links between the slave trade and the country house.
In 2020, the Trust published its Interim Report on the Connections between Colonialism and Properties now in the Care of the National Trust, Including Links with Historic Slavery. The appendix to the report recorded that George Hay Dawkins-Pennant was compensated under the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 for being deprived of 764 slaves, being paid £14,683 17s 2d. The report itself provoked a strong reaction. The Common Sense Group of Conservative MPs challenged the Trust's priorities; writing in a joint letter to The Daily Telegraph, "History must neither be sanitised nor rewritten to suit 'snowflake' preoccupations. A clique of powerful, privileged liberals must not be allowed to rewrite our history in their image." The columnist Charles Moore decried the report and stimulated criticism across a range of British media outlets. A complaint against the Trust's report was lodged with the Charity Commission.
Olivette Otele, Professor of Colonial History and the Memory of Slavery at the University of Bristol, explored the dominant narrative presented at Penrhyn after a visit in 2016. She examined the prevalent history of the Pennants as social, industrial and agrarian improvers and noted the absence of discussion of the slave-owning origins of their wealth. In 2020, the naming of a road in Barry as Ffordd Penrhyn provoked protests over the perceived links with Penrhyn Castle, "the capital of slavery in Wales."
Although it had already begun consideration of the links between its properties and the British colonial heritage, the murder of George Floyd and subsequent Black Lives Matter demonstrations, including the toppling of the statue of Edward Colston, led the Trust to acknowledge that these protests had given their efforts a greater impetus. Writing at the time of the interim report's publication, Dr Katie Donnington wrote of the Trust's approach, "Is it scones and tea and a bit of Jane Austen-type fantasy? Does it do critical social history? Or is it a place of escapism where there is a resistance to being confronted with the unsettling realities of empire, race and slavery?"
Slate
The Great Strike of 1900–1903 at the Penrhyn Quarry was the longest labour dispute in British history, and left a legacy of lasting bitterness. Its origins lay in earlier instances of industrial unrest relating to the refusal of Lord Penrhyn and his agent to recognise the North Wales Quarrymen's Union. In 2018 local Plaid Cymru councillors accused the Trust of failing to fully recognise the contribution of slate workers to the castle's history.
The 120th anniversary of the strike saw the opening of a commemorative trail, Slate and Strikes in Bethesda. The BBC reported that some inhabitants of the town still declined to visit Penrhyn Castle and resentment against the Douglas-Pennants remained into the 21st-century.
Art collection
Penrhyn Castle houses one of the finest art collections in Wales, with works by Canaletto, Richard Wilson, Carl Haag, Perino del Vaga, and Bonifazio Veronese. The collection formerly included a Rembrandt, Catrina Hooghsaet. In 2007 the painting was put up for sale. The Dutch Culture Ministry tried to buy the painting for Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum in 2007, but could not meet the £40m asking price. The painting was subsequently sold to an overseas collector after the lifting of an export ban. In 2016 it was placed on loan to the National Museum Wales for a period of three years.
The collection was almost entirely the work of Edward Douglas-Pennant, who began collecting paintings in the middle of the 19th century; the collection was catalogued by his granddaughter, Alice Douglas-Pennant. His interests were predominantly Dutch landscapes, Spanish pictures and Italian Sacra conversazione. During World War II a large number of pictures from the National Gallery were stored at the castle to avoid the Blitz.
Ownership of the art collection at Penrhyn remained with the Douglas-Pennant family after the castle passed into the ownership of the Trust. Elements have passed directly to the Trust over the following seventy years as the family have ceded ownership in lieu of inheritance tax. Ten paintings were transferred in this way in 2008. In 2016 some forty further works were accepted by the Welsh Government and now form part of the permanent collection.
Architecture and description
Overview and architectural style
Penrhyn is among the most admired of the numerous mock castles built in the United Kingdom in the 19th century; Christopher Hussey called it, "the outstanding instance of Norman revival." The castle is a picturesque composition that stretches over from a tall donjon, or keep, containing the family rooms, through the main block built around the earlier house, to the service wing and the stables. Simon Jenkins draws comparisons with Windsor, Arundel and Eastnor. Haslam, Orbach and Voelcker, in their 2009 volume Gwynedd in the Pevsner Buildings of Wales series, describe it as "one of the most enormous houses in Britain" and note its "wholeheartedly Romanesque" style. Coflein records that Hopper and Dawkins-Pennant selected the Neo-Norman, or Romanesque Revival style, as opposed to the increasing fashionable Gothic Revival. Pevsner describes the castle as "a serious work of architecture", noting the "dauntingly fine masonry" construction.
Hopper designed all the principal interiors in a rich but restrained Norman style, with much fine plasterwork and wood and stone carving. The castle also has some specially designed Norman-style furniture, including a one-ton slate bed made for Queen Victoria when she visited in 1859. The diarist Charles Greville recorded his impressions after a visit in 1841: "a vast pile of a building, and certainly very grand, but altogether, though there are some fine things and some good rooms in the house, the most gloomy place I ever saw, and I would not live there if they made me a present of the castle". Some modern critics have been similarly unimpressed; in his study The Architecture of Wales: From the First to the Twenty-First Centuries, John B. Hilling describes the castle as "nightmarishly oppressive, a most uninviting place to live".
Thomas Hopper (1776–1856) made his reputation as architect to the Prince Regent for whom Hopper designed a conservatory in the Gothic style at Carlton House. He was a versatile architect, whose dictum, "it is an architect's business to understand all styles, and to be prejudiced in favour of none", saw him build in the Neo-Norman style, at Penrhyn and at Gosford Castle in Ireland; the cottage orné style at Craven Cottage; Tudor Revival at Margam Castle; Palladianism at Amesbury Abbey; and Jacobethan at Llanover House. Penrhyn Castle is generally considered to be his best work.
Exterior
The castle is arranged in three main parts: the donjon, modelled on Hedingham Castle in Essex, which contained accommodation for the Pennant family; the central block which contains the state rooms; and the service wing and stables. The castle runs on a north–south axis. The scale is immense, its seventy roofs cover an area of over an acre, and its length, at , which makes it impossible to be viewed in its entirety, disguises variations in the plan caused by the Pennants' desire to incorporate, rather than demolish, elements both of the original medieval house, and Wyatt's earlier castle. The main building material is local rubble, lined internally with brick and externally with limestone ashlar. The masonry is of exceptional quality. The main entrance to the castle is by way of a long drive which transverses the length of the castle before doubling back and passing through a gatehouse into a cour d'honneur in front of the central block.
Interior
Grand Hall
The house is entered through a low entrance gallery. This leads into the Grand Hall, which Pevsner considers "a strikingly inventive piece of architecture". Of double height, it resembles the nave or transept of a church. The ceiling forms a triforium supported by compound columns. The hall acts as a junction, to the left entry is to the keep and the family apartments, to the right, the service wing, and ahead stand the state apartments of the main block. A 20th century critic described it as, "about as homely as a railway terminus, admirably suited to house an exhibition of locomotives, or outsize dinosaurs." The stained glass is by Thomas Willement.
Library
Mark Purcell, in his 2019 study, The Country House Library, describes the library at Penrhyn as "not just gargantuan, but exotically and astonishingly opulent." The room is very large and bisected by four, flattened arches. These are plaster, as is the ceiling, but grained and polished to appear as wood. Their decoration, and the design of the arches, draws on that found at the genuinely Norman Church of St Peter at Tickencote in Rutland. The room contains a billiard table constructed entirely of slate and a range of bookcases and furniture designed by Hopper. Haslam, Orbach and Voelcker consider the library the precursor for a long subsequent history of "masculine rooms [for] millionaires". The room still contains the basis of a "good gentleman's library", despite sales of some of the most important and valuable books in the 1950s.
Drawing Room and Ebony Room
The Drawing Room is the reconstructed Great hall of the medieval house, which Samuel Wyatt had previously incorporated into his late 18th-century remodelling. It follows the library in its vaulting and panelling but the decorative style is lighter and more feminine, reflecting its use as a domain for the female members of the Pennant household. Much of the furniture is again by Hopper. The room has large gilt mirrors at either end. The author Catherine Sinclair, who visited in the 1830s, described one as "the largest mirror ever made in this country".
The Ebony Room is named for its ebony panelling and furniture, although much is in fact ebonised rather than real.
Dining Room and Breakfast Room
These two rooms served a range of purposes. Their primary function as rooms for consumption alternated depending on whether the Pennants were receiving guests; the larger and more formal Dining Room was used when they were, the Breakfast Room when the family was alone at the castle. Their secondary function was to serve as picture galleries for much of the large collection of paintings assembled by Edward Douglas-Pennant; the other main reception rooms offering little space for picture hanging due to their design and decoration.
Grand Staircase
Cadw considers the Grand Staircase, "in many ways the greatest architectural achievement at Penrhyn." It took over ten years to construct, rises the full height of the house culminating in a lantern, its only illumination, and is built of a variety of grey stones decorated with "an orgy of fantastic carving". Haslam, Orbach and Voelcker think it Hopper's tour de force and see parallels with the contemporaneous approach in Gothic Literature, "antiquarian and anarchic, intended to play on the emotions as novels and poems were doing in words."
Bedrooms
The keep provided accommodation for the family, and important guests, arranged as a series of suites on each of its four main floors. In one of these is the slate bed, intended to accommodate Queen Victoria on her visit in 1859, but within which she refused to sleep. Many of the rooms are carpeted with high-quality Axminster Carpets and with walls papered in handmade Chinese wallpaper.
Service structures
Even by the standards of large, highly variegated, 19th-century country houses, Penrhyn is exceptionally well provided for through its range of service buildings. Rooms within the house include a butler's pantry, a servants' hall, offices for the estate manager and the housekeeper, and the kitchen, with separate still room, pantry and pastry room. Many functions are allocated their own towers, all designed by Hopper to reinforce the impression of a multi-turreted castle. These include the ice tower, the dung tower and the housemaids' tower. The stables are similarly designed to present the appearance of a fortress gatehouse. On the wider estate are located an extensive Home Farm and a range of gate lodges. Not all of these structures have appealed to architectural critics. Mowl and Earnshaw, in their study of lodges and gatehouses Trumpet at a Distant Gate, are particularly dismissive of Hopper's Grand Lodge, and of Hopper more generally. The lodge is condemned as "misapplied historicism" while Hopper himself is censured as a model for the then-coming generation of Victorian architects, his career demonstrating how to "gain a whole world of rich commissions by eclectic dexterity, and still lose his own soul."
Listing designations
The castle is a Grade I listed building. Its Cadw listing designation describes it as "one of the most important country houses in Wales; a superb example of the relatively short-lived Norman Revival of the early 19th century and generally regarded as the masterpiece of its architect, Thomas Hopper." Other listed structures within the estate, all of which are Grade II with the exception of the Grand Lodge which is designated Grade II*, include: the Grand Lodge itself, the Port Lodge and its walls, the Tal-y-bont Lodge, the walls to the flower garden, the relocated remnants of the original medieval chapel, a bothy and its walled garden, an estate house, the estate manager's house, the estate kennels, nine buildings at the home farm, and the wall surrounding the park.
Gardens and grounds
The castle grounds are an example of the Victorian style of gardening, with specimen trees, rhododenra, and much planting. A conifer was planted by Queen Victoria and another by the Queen of Romania. There is a substantial home farm. The gardens contain a large underground reservoir, constructed in the 1840s and with a capacity of 200,000 gallons. Its purpose is uncertain, it may have been for use by the castle's in-house fire brigade in the event of a fire. The park is listed Grade II* on the Cadw/ICOMOS Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales. The castle and its grounds are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales.
Other
Railway Museum
The Penrhyn Castle Railway Museum is a narrow gauge railway museum. The Pennant's slate quarry at Bethesda was closely associated with the development of industrial narrow-gauge railways, and in particular the Penrhyn Quarry Railway (PQR), one of the earliest industrial railways in the world. In 1951 a museum of railway relics was created in the stable block. The first locomotive donated was Charles, one of the three remaining steam locomotives working on the PQR. A number of other historically significant British narrow-gauge locomotives and other artefacts have since been added to the collection.
Popular culture and events
In 2014, Welsh National Opera used Penrhyn as the location for their filming of Claude Debussy's opera La chute de la maison Usher, based on Edgar Allan Poe's story The Fall of the House of Usher. It has also be used as a television filming location. A parkrun takes place in the grounds of the castle each Saturday morning, starting and finishing at the castle gates. The fee to enter the castle grounds is waived for runners.
Gallery
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in Wales
List of gardens in Wales
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Penrhyn Castle information at the National Trust
Illustrated Guide to Penrhyn Castle
Buildings and structures completed in 1837
Mock castles in Wales
Gardens in Wales
National Trust properties in Wales
Historic house museums in Wales
Railway museums in Wales
Toy museums
Museums in Gwynedd
Castles in Gwynedd
Country houses in Wales
Llandygai
Grade I listed buildings in Gwynedd
Toy museums in Wales
Grade I listed museum buildings
Registered historic parks and gardens in Gwynedd
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4973619
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n%20Ram%C3%ADrez%20%28Dominican%20pitcher%29
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Ramón Ramírez (Dominican pitcher)
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Ramón Emilio Ramírez (born August 31, 1981) is a Dominican former relief pitcher. He pitched for the Hiroshima Toyo Carp in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), and the Colorado Rockies, Kansas City Royals, Boston Red Sox, San Francisco Giants, New York Mets, and Baltimore Orioles of Major League Baseball (MLB).
Ramírez was signed by the Texas Rangers in 1996, as an infielder. After one season in their minor leagues, he was released. He spent the next three years learning how to pitch before joining the Hiroshima Toyo Carp's Dominican academy in 2000. He pitched in two games with the Carp in 2002 and was signed by the New York Yankees in 2003. He spent 2.5 years in their minor leagues before getting traded to the Colorado Rockies in the middle of the 2005 season. Shortly after the 2006 season started, Ramírez was called up by the Rockies, and he went on to have a successful rookie season for them. In 2007, he had an 8.31 ERA with the Rockies and spent time on the disabled list and in the minor leagues. Before the 2008 season, he was traded to the Kansas City Royals. After one season with the Royals, he was traded to the Boston Red Sox. In 2009, his seven wins were tied for third among relief pitchers in the American League. After an inconsistent start to the 2010 season, Ramírez was traded to the San Francisco Giants. He posted a 0.67 ERA with the Giants, helping them reach the playoffs. He gave up runs in 4 of the 5 playoff games he pitched in, but the Giants won their first World Series since 1954. In 2011, Ramírez posted a career-best 2.62 ERA and was traded to the New York Mets after the season.
Professional career
Texas Rangers
On December 27, 1996, the Texas Rangers signed Ramírez as an infielder, believing him to be 16 instead of 15. After one season with their Dominican affiliate, he was released on June 4, 1998.
Hiroshima Toyo Carp
After being released by the Rangers, Ramírez got a job at a Coca-Cola bottling plant while learning how to pitch. In 2000, he attended the Hiroshima Toyo Carp's academy in the Dominican Republic, and he appeared in two games for the Carp in 2002. He gave up one run in three innings while striking out three batters and walking two, and he was posted in 2003. The winning bid was placed by the New York Yankees, who signed him on March 5, 2003, and assigned him to their minor league system.
New York Yankees
Ramírez began his minor league career in 2003 with the Tampa Yankees of the single-A advanced Florida State League. After he had a 2–8 record, a 5.21 earned run average (ERA), 21 strikeouts, and innings pitched in 14 starts, he was promoted to the Trenton Thunder of the Double-A Eastern League. With the Thunder, he had a 1–1 record, a 1.69 ERA, 21 strikeouts, and innings pitched in four games (three starts), and this earned him a promotion to the Columbus Clippers of the triple-A International League. In two games (one start) with Columbus, he had an 0–1 record, a 4.50 ERA, five strikeouts, and six innings pitched. He finished his first minor league season with a 3–10 record, a 4.43 ERA, 96 strikeouts, and innings pitched in 20 games (18 starts).
In 2004, Ramírez began the year with Columbus. After he had an 0–3 record, an 8.50 ERA, 17 strikeouts, and 18 innings pitched in four starts, he was demoted to Trenton on May 1. On August 17, he allowed just two hits in a 4–1 complete game victory over the Norwich Navigators while setting a team record by retiring the last 24 hitters he faced. With Trenton, Ramírez had a 4–6 record, a 4.62 ERA, two complete games, 128 strikeouts, and 115 innings pitched in 18 starts. His combined minor league totals were a 4–9 record, a 5.14 ERA, two complete games, 145 strikeouts, and 133 innings pitched in 22 starts.
Ramírez began the 2005 season with Columbus again. After he had a 1–3 record, a 5.33 ERA, 23 strikeouts, and innings pitched in six starts for the Clippers, he was demoted to Trenton for the second year in a row. At Trenton, he had a 6–5 record, a 3.84 ERA, 82 strikeouts, and 89 innings pitched in 15 starts. On July 28, the Yankees traded Ramírez and Eduardo Sierra to the Colorado Rockies for Shawn Chacón.
Colorado Rockies
After being acquired by the Rockies, Ramírez was assigned to the Tulsa Drillers of the double-A Texas League. He made three starts with the Drillers before getting moved to the bullpen. In 9 games (3 starts) with Tulsa, Ramírez had a 2–1 record, a 5.33 ERA, 23 strikeouts, and innings pitched. His combined minor league totals were a 9–9 record, a 4.39 ERA, 131 strikeouts, and 141 1⁄3 innings pitched.
Ramírez began with the Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the triple-A Pacific Coast League. After throwing a scoreless inning for Colorado Springs, he was called up by the Rockies on April 12 when Mike DeJean was placed on the disabled list. He made his debut on April 14, pitching two scoreless innings in a 10–8 loss to the Philadelphia Phillies. Five days later, he singled against Chan Ho Park in his first major league at bat in a 13–4 loss to the San Diego Padres. On April 25, he pitched scoreless innings and got his first major league win in a 7–6 victory over the Phillies. Ramírez began his career with scoreless innings in 11 games, which set a Rockies record for longest streak by a reliever to begin a career. It was the longest streak by a reliever to start a career since Jeremy Fikac threw 16 scoreless innings to start his career in 2001. Ramírez's streak ended on May 15, when he allowed three runs in of an inning and got his first career loss against the Los Angeles Dodgers, who won 5–4. On August 15, he set a career high with four innings pitched in the longest game in Rockies history, an 18-inning game against the Arizona Diamondbacks. He gave up a run in the 18th and suffered a loss in the 2–1 defeat. He had a 2.88 ERA in his first 47 games, but he posted a 5.09 ERA over his final 14 games, raising his season ERA to 3.46. On September 30, in his final game of the season, he pitched scoreless innings and got the win in a 14-inning, 11–9 victory over the Chicago Cubs. Ramírez finished the season with a 4–3 record, a 3.46 ERA, 61 strikeouts, and innings pitched in 61 games. His 61 games were the third-most by a Rockies' rookie pitcher, behind Steve Reed (64 in 1993) and Javier López (75 in 2003).
Ramírez began the season with seven straight scoreless appearances for the Rockies. On April 21, he was placed on the disabled list (DL) (retroactive to May 18) with a sprained right elbow. He returned from the DL on May 15. After stretching his scoreless start to eight games, he posted a 22.24 ERA over his next seven games. On May 20, he gave up a career-high five runs in innings and got the loss in a 10–5 defeat to the Kansas City Royals. On June 7, he was optioned to Colorado Springs as Josh Fogg came off the disabled list. Ramírez was recalled on July 20 to replace Tom Martin, who was designated for assignment. After six games, he was returned to Colorado Springs as Ryan Speier was called up. A week later, he was recalled when Willy Taveras was placed on the disabled list, but he was returned to the minors two days later after appearing in one game. On September 8, he was called up and placed on the 60-day disabled list with elbow inflammation so the Rockies could put Josh Newman on their roster. Ramírez finished the season with a 2–2 record, an 8.31 ERA, 15 strikeouts, and innings pitched in 22 games. He did not allow an earned run in 11 road games, but he had a 17.28 ERA in 11 games at Coors Field. Although he did not pitch in the playoffs for the Rockies at all (since he was injured), he was still presented with an NL Championship ring. At Colorado Springs, Ramírez had a 4–0 record, a 2.28 ERA, 35 strikeouts, and innings pitched in 25 games.
Kansas City Royals
Ramírez was traded to the Kansas City Royals on March 26, , for a player to be named later (Jorge de la Rosa). He posted a 0.66 ERA through his first 13 games with the Royals, but his ERA rose to 3.49 after he posted a 6.14 ERA in his next 13 games. Over his final 45 games, he had a 2.08 ERA. On June 25, in a 7–3 victory over Colorado (his former team), Ramírez threw two pitches behind Yorvit Torrealba of the Rockies. Ramírez said he was not trying to hit Torrealba, and he was not ejected from the game or disciplined, but some of the Rockies players claimed that Ramírez had thrown at Torrealba intentionally. On July 20, he got his first win since May 21 of the previous year in an 8–7 victory over the Chicago White Sox, despite blowing the lead by giving up two runs in innings. Ten days later, he pitched scoreless innings and was charged with the win in a 4–3 victory over the Oakland Athletics, helping the Royals sweep the Athletics in Oakland for the first time since 1988. By September, he had replaced Ron Mahay as Joakim Soria's setup man. He pitched in 71 games for the Royals with a 2.64 ERA. On September 4, in the second game of a doubleheader, Ramírez notched his first career save against the Athletics in a 9–6 victory. Ramírez finished the year with a 3–2 record, a 2.64 ERA, one save, 70 strikeouts, and innings pitched in 71 games. He was one of three major league pitchers to give up two or fewer home runs in over 70 innings (along with Roy Corcoran and Jason Grilli), and he was one of the American League (AL) pitchers to have an ERA under 3.00 with at least 70 innings pitched and 70 strikeouts (along with Francisco Rodríguez and Matt Thornton).
Boston Red Sox
On November 19, Ramírez was traded to the Boston Red Sox for outfielder Coco Crisp. On April 24, , he pitched a scoreless inning for the Red Sox and earned the win in an 11-inning 5–4 victory over the New York Yankees. He began his Red Sox tenure with 15 straight scoreless innings spanning 13 games from April 8 to May 3. On May 14, he pitched a season-high innings, giving up no runs in a 12-inning, 5–4 loss to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. He struck out a season-high four batters and allowed a run in innings on July 9 in an 8–6 loss to the Royals. Ramírez finished the season with a 7–4 record, a 2.84 ERA, 52 strikeouts, and innings pitched. His seven wins were tied for third among AL relief pitchers and trailed only Alfredo Aceves (10) and Craig Breslow (8). Ramírez reached the playoffs for the first time in his career, as the Red Sox won the Wild Card. In Game 1 of the American League Division Series (ALDS), he gave up two runs without recording an out in his only playoff appearance, a 5–0 loss to the Angels. The Angels went on to sweep the Red Sox in three games.
On April 27, , Ramírez got his first save since 2008 in a 2–1 win over the Baltimore Orioles, since Red Sox manager Terry Francona wanted to rest closer Jonathan Papelbon. He was charged with a loss on July 20 after pitching innings when Michael Bowden allowed an inherited runner to score in the 10th inning of a 5–4 loss to the Athletics. Two days later, he got a save in a 13-inning, 8–6 win over the Seattle Mariners. Ramírez had an 0–3 record, a 4.46 ERA, 2 saves, 31 strikeouts, and innings pitched with the Red Sox through July 31, the trade deadline. That day, he was traded to the San Francisco Giants for Dan Turpen.
San Francisco Giants
Ramírez got his only win of the year by pitching a scoreless inning on September 21 in a 1–0 victory over the Cubs. He got a save against the Diamondbacks on September 30, since Giants' manager Bruce Bochy wanted to rest closer Brian Wilson, in a 4–1 victory. Ramírez posted a 1–0 record, an 0.67 ERA, 15 strikeouts, and 27 innings pitched in 25 games for the Giants as they won the National League (NL) West and reached the playoffs for the first time since 2003. For the entire season, Ramírez had a 1–3 record, a 2.99 ERA, 46 strikeouts, and innings pitched in 69 games. Ramírez's only appearance in the NLDS against the Atlanta Braves came in Game 2 on October 8, when he gave up a home run to Rick Ankiel in the 11th inning and was charged with a loss (the Giants' only loss of the series) in the 5–4 defeat. In Game 2 of the NL Championship Series, Ramírez gave up two runs in of an inning as the Giants lost 6–1 to the Phillies. In Game 5, the Giants' other loss in the series, he gave up a run in innings as the Giants lost 4–2. On October 27, in Game 1 of the World Series, he gave up two runs in inning, but the Giants defeated the Rangers 11–7. He pitched scoreless innings in Game 3 on October 30, but the Giants lost 4–2. However, that was the Giants' only loss of the series, as they defeated Texas in five games and won their first World Series since 1954.
Ramírez earned a save on April 6, , by pitching of an inning to escape a bases-loaded situation in the Giants' 8–4 win over the Padres. On June 18, he pitched a season-high innings, allowing no runs in a 4–2 loss to Oakland. He allowed a season-high four runs in innings and took the loss on June 30 in an 11-inning, 5–2 defeat to the Cubs. On August 5, in an eventual 9–2 loss to Philadelphia, Ramírez hit Shane Victorino with a pitch, and a brawl started. Ramírez was subsequently ejected from the game. Afterwards, Philadelphia talk-show host Tony Bruno sparked controversy by posting on his Twitter account that Ramírez was an illegal alien, although he later removed the post. On September 4, Ramírez struck out four batters but gave up a run in innings in a 4–1 loss to the Diamondbacks. Two days later, he got his final save of the year when he threw a scoreless of an inning in a 6–4 victory over San Diego. In 66 games that season, Ramírez had a 3–3 record, a 2.62 ERA, four saves, 66 strikeouts, and innings pitched.
New York Mets
On December 7, the Giants traded Ramírez and Andrés Torres to the New York Mets for Ángel Pagán. Ramírez avoided arbitration with the Mets by signing a one-year, $2.65 million contract with them on January 17, 2012.
San Francisco Giants (second stint)
Ramírez signed a minor league contract with the Giants in 2013, but he was released on March 22 after posting an 11.25 ERA in spring training. He was re-signed and appeared in 6 games for the Giants before being designated for assignment.
Tampa Bay Rays
On July 1, 2013 Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Tampa Bay Rays organization.
Seattle Mariners
On January 2, 2014, Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Seattle Mariners. On April 29, he was released after allowing 5 runs in less than 5 innings in AAA.
Baltimore Orioles
On May 30, 2014, Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Baltimore Orioles.
On June 30, 2014, Ramirez made his Orioles debut in the ninth inning against the Texas Rangers, relieving Ubaldo Jiménez after pitching 8 innings only allowing 1 run pass. This was not a save opportunity since the Orioles were winning 7-1 in Baltimore. He allowed one walk and had two strikeouts. Ramírez had never met Orioles manager Buck Showalter before his debut with the Orioles. He was designated for assignment on July 6, 2014.
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim
On December 13, 2015, Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Angels.
Tigres de Quintana Roo
He became a free agent from the Tigres de Quintana Roo after the 2016 season.
Sultanes de Monterrey
On June 1, 2017, Ramirez signed with the Sultanes de Monterrey of the Mexican Baseball League. He was released on July 10, 2017.
Vaqueros Unión Laguna
On July 11, 2017, Ramirez signed with the Vaqueros Unión Laguna of the Mexican Baseball League. He was released on February 1, 2018.
Pitching style
Ramírez throws three pitches: a fastball, a changeup, and a slider. His fastball ranges from 92 to 94 mph, and Ramírez considers it his best pitch. His changeup and slider have been described as "above-average" on scouting reports.
Personal life
Ramírez is friends with José Mesa. Mesa helped teach Ramírez English, helped teach him how to pitch, and translated for him in 2006 while both were with the Rockies. After Mesa signed with the Detroit Tigers in 2007, Ramírez still remained in contact with him. Ramírez enjoys Christian music, and he sings it at his house. He often donates baseball equipment to children who need it, and in 2006 the Rockies recognized him for this by making him their Roberto Clemente Award nominee.
References
Bibliography
In-line citations
External links
1981 births
Living people
Baltimore Orioles players
Boston Red Sox players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Charlotte Stone Crabs players
Colorado Rockies players
Colorado Springs Sky Sox players
Columbus Clippers players
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in Japan
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in the United States
Durham Bulls players
Fresno Grizzlies players
Grand Canyon Rafters players
Hiroshima Toyo Carp players
Kansas City Royals players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball players from the Dominican Republic
Mexican League baseball pitchers
New York Mets players
Nippon Professional Baseball pitchers
Norfolk Tides players
Peoria Javelinas players
San Francisco Giants players
St. Lucie Mets players
Sultanes de Monterrey players
Tacoma Rainiers players
Tampa Yankees players
Tigres de Quintana Roo players
Trenton Thunder players
Tulsa Drillers players
Toros de Tijuana players
Vaqueros Unión Laguna players
Gigantes del Cibao players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20SF%20numeric-series%20single%20titles
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List of Ace SF numeric-series single titles
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Ace Books have published hundreds of science fiction titles, starting in 1953. Many of these were Ace Doubles (dos-à-dos format), but they also published many single volumes. Between 1953 and 1968, the books had a letter-series identifier; after that date they were given five digit numeric serial numbers. There are 693 numeric-series sf titles in the list below, but the list is very incomplete.
The list given here gives a date of publication; in all cases this refers to the date of publication by Ace, and not the date of original publication of the novels. For more information about the history of these titles, see Ace Books, which includes a discussion of the serial numbering conventions used and an explanation of the letter-code system.
00075 SF John Jakes When the Star Kings Die
00078 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert
00078 SF R.A. Salvatore The Dragons Dagger
00092 SF John Macklin Dwellers in Darkness
00093 SF Fred Saberhagen The Black Mountains
00094 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump
00104 SF Mack Reynolds Section G: United Planets
00106 SF John Macklin Passport to the Unknown
00107 SF James White The Secret Visitors
00108 SF Roger Zelazny Four For Tomorrow
00109 SF Mark S. Geston Lords of the Starship
00110 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
00111 SF John W. Campbell Invaders from the Infinite
00119 SF William Shatner Teksecret
00125 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
00142 SF Steve Perry The Forever Drug (1995)
00153 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
00265 SF Mack Reynolds Ability Quotient
00275 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Ace Science Fiction Reader (1971)
00289 SF William Shatner Tekpower
00348 SF Greg Bear Blood Music (1996)
00390 SF William Shatner Tekmoney
00950 SF Ron Goulart After Things Fell Apart (1970)
00958 SF Mack Reynolds After Utopia (1977)
01000 SF John Brunner Age of Miracles
01040 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#1: The Flying Saucer Gambit
01041 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#2: The Golden Goddess Gambit
01042 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#3: The Emerald Elephant Gambit
01043 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#4: The Time Trap Gambit
01066 SF Poul Anderson Agent of the Terran Empire
01501 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein
01570 SF Fletcher Pratt Alien Planet
01750 SF Robert E. Howard Almuric
01770 SF Leigh Brackett Alpha Centauri Or Die (1976)
02236 SF Stanley Schmidt (ed.) Analog Yearbook Ii
02268 SF Joanna Russ And Chaos Died (1970)
02274 SF Donald R. Bensen And Having Writ... (1978)
02295 SF Keith Roberts Anita (1970)
02320 SF Alexei Panshin Masque World
02380 SF Tim Powers The Anubis Gates
02935 SF Philip Francis Nowland Armageddon 2419 A.D.
02936 SF Philip Francis Nowland Armageddon 2419 A.D.
02938 SF Philip Francis Nowland Armageddon 2419 A.D.
03297 SF Jack Vance The Asutra
03300 SF John Brunner The Atlantic Abomination (1960)
03322 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core
03325 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core
03326 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1978)
03328 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1985)
04040 SF Joanna Russ Picnic on Paradise
04591 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1966)
04592 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1974)
04636 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back to the Stone Age
04722 SF Samuel R. Delany The Ballad of Beta-2
04760 SF Tom Purdom The Barons of Behavior (1972)
04860 SF A. E. van Vogt The Battle of Forever (1971)
05330 SF Jack London Before Adam
05404 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker
05407 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man
05408 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker's Planet (1980)
05424 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man
05454 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 15th Series (1966)
05455 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 16th Series
05456 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 17th Series
05457 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 18th Series
05458 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 19th Series (1973)
05460 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: A Special 25th Anniversary Anthology
05461 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 22nd Series (1978)
05475 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (1st Annual Collection) (1972)
05476 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (2nd Annual Collection)
05477 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (3rd Annual Collection) (1974)
05478 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (4th Annual Collection) (1977)
05479 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (5th Annual Collection) (1977)
05481 SF Mack Reynolds The Best Ye Breed
05496 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man
05500 SF Robert A. Heinlein Between Planets
05586 SF John Varley The Golden Globe
05655 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond the Farthest Star (1973)
05656 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond the Farthest Star
05785 SF Shepherd Mead The Big Ball of Wax
06061 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump (1976)
06171 SF Jack Vance Big Planet (1978)
06177 SF Keith Laumer The Big Show
06530 SF Michael Moorcock The Black Corridor
06615 SF Fred Saberhagen The Black Mountains
06701 SF John W. Campbell The Black Star Passes
06854 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Bloody Sun
07012 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Catherine Crook De Camp The Bones of Zora
07162 SF John Brunner Born Under Mars
07180 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Brass Dragon
07200 SF Jack Vance The Brave Free Men: Book II of the Durdane Trilogy
07690 SF Murray Leinster The Brain-Stealers
07840 SF Ray Cummings A Brand New World
07895 SF Andre Norton Breed to Come (1973)
08145 SF John Rankine The Bromius Phenomenon
08215 SF Fred Saberhagen Brother Assassin
09022 SF Robert O'Riodan Cadre One
09037 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Crosstime Saloon (1977)
09069 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Crosstime Saloon
09072 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Lady (1989)
09200 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus (1969)
09203 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus
09205 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus (1982)
09265 SF Andre Norton Catseye
09281 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl
09284 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl
10150 SF Walt Richmond Challenge the Hellmaker
10258 SF Margaret St. Clair Change the Sky and Other Stories (1974)
10307 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusions (1967)
10410 SF A. E. van Vogt Children of Tomorrow
10411 SF A. E. van Vogt Children of Tomorrow
10600 SF Robert A. Heinlein Citizen of the Galaxy
10621 SF Clifford D. Simak City
10701 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusions (1967)
10702 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusion
11036 SF Philip K. Dick Clans of the Alphane Moon (1972)
11457 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Freebooter
11467 SF Robert E. Howard, Björn Nyberg, and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Avenger (Conan#10)
11546 SF Leigh Brackett The Coming of the Terrans (1976)
11603 SF Robert E. Howard (edited by L. Sprague de Camp) Conan the Conqueror (Conan#9)
11622 SF Anthony Boucher The Complete Werewolf & Other Stories of Fantasy & Science Fiction (1969)
11630 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan
11633 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan: The Wanderer
11659 SF Andrew J. Offutt Conan: The Mercenary (1981)
11669 SF L. Sprague de Camp (ed.) The Spell of Conan (1980)
11670 SF L. Sprague de Camp (ed.) The Blade of Conan (1979)
11671 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan (1967)
11672 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan of Cimmeria
11673 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Freebooter
11674 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan: The Wanderer
11675 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan: The Adventurer
11676 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan the Buccaneer
11677 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan: The Warrior
11678 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan: The Usurper
11679 SF Robert E. Howard (ed. L. Sprague de Camp) Conan: The Conqueror
11680 SF Robert E. Howard, Björn Nyberg, and L. Sprague de Camp Conan: The Avenger
11681 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan of the Isles
11682 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan of Aquilonia
11684 SF Andrew J. Offutt Conan and the Sorcerer (1979)
11705 SF Robert Silverberg Conquerors from the Darkness
11759 SF H. Beam Piper The Cosmic Computer
11863 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Freebooter
12126 SF Philip K. Dick The Crack in Space (1966)
12311 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time
12313 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1978)
13245 SF Alan Dean Foster Cyber Way
13600 SF Margaret St. Clair The Dancers of Noyo (1973)
13612 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Freebooter
13795 SF Andre Norton Dark Piper
13798 SF A. E. van Vogt The Darkness on Diamondia
13898 SF Robert Silverberg and Randall Garrett (jointly as Robert Randall) The Dawning Light (1982)
13902 SF Barry N. Malzberg The Day of the Burning
13921 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Day of the Minotaur
13960 SF Mack Reynolds Day After Tomorrow
13972 SF Brian M. Stableford Days of Wrath
13994 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A. D.
14000 SF Brian M. Stableford The Days of Glory
14215 SF Greg Benford Deeper Than the Darkness
14235 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents (1978)
14236 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents
14244 SF James Schmitz The Demon Breed (1979)
14249 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents
14250 SF Mack Reynolds Depression Or Bust! and Dawnman's Planet
14251 SF Poul Anderson, Mildred Downey Broxon, Michael Whelan, and Alicia Austin The Demon of Scattery (1979)
14277 SF James Baen (ed.) Destinies Vol. 1, No. 3 (April - June, 1979)
14879 SF Tim Powers Dinner at Deviants Palace
14903 SF Frank Herbert Direct Descent
15238 SF George Warren Dominant Species
15670 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Bloodmoney, Or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1976)
15697 SF Philip K. Dick The Unteleported Man (1972)
16600 SF Fred Saberhagen The Dracula Tape (1972)
16647 SF Andre Norton Dragon Magic
16648 SF Jack Vance The Dragon Masters
16651 SF Jack Vance The Dragon Masters
16668 SF John Brunner The Dramaturges of Yan
16669 SF Andre Norton Dread Companion (1970)
16670 SF Andre Norton Dread Companion (1970)
16701 SF Roger Zelazny The Dream Master
16728 SF Larry Niven and Steven Barnes Dream Park (1983)
17239 SF Ben Bova The Dueling Machine
17625 SF Frank Herbert Dune
18630 SF Gordon Eklund The Eclipse of Dawn (1970)
18770 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Master of Adventure (1968)
19681 SF Samuel R. Delany The Einstein Intersection
19710 SF Bob Shaw A Wreath of Stars
20275 SF Alan Garner Elidor
20563 SF Fred Saberhagen Empire of the East
20565 SF Barrington J. Bayley Empire of Two Worlds
20571 SF Samuel R. Delany The Ballad of Beta-2 and Empire Star
20664 SF Jerry Pournelle Endless Frontier, Volume I
20670 SF Judith Merril (ed.) England Swings Sf: Stories of Speculative Fiction
20724 SF Poul Anderson Ensign Flandry
20730 SF Keith Laumer Envoy To New Worlds
21560 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus (1969)
21561 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus (1969)
21562 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus
21567 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus
21590 SF James White The Escape Orbit (1983)
21599 SF Christopher Stasheff Escape Velocity
21801 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage (July 1969)
21803 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21804 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21806 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21885 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles To Glory (1977)
22215 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles To Glory
22216 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles To Glory
22365 SF Andre Norton Exiles of the Stars
22375 SF Andre Norton Eye of the Monster
22386 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1975)
22387 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1980)
22500 SF Jack Vance The Faceless Man: Book One of the Durdane Trilogy
22577 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Falcons of Narabedla (1979)
22690 SF Barry N. Malzberg The Falling Astronauts
22811 SF A. E. van Vogt The Far-Out Worlds of Van Vogt (1968)
22812 SF A. E. van Vogt The Worlds of A.E. van Vogt
22819 SF Edmund Cooper A Far Sunset
22830 SF D. G. Compton Farewell, Earth's Bliss
23189 SF H. Beam Piper Federation (1982)
23419 SF H. Beam Piper (ed. Michael Kurland) First Cycle (1982)
23929 SF Dennis Schmidt Twilight of the Gods: The First Name
23998 SF Shariann Lewitt First and Final Rites
24035 SF Mack Reynolds Five Way Secret Agent and Mercenary from Tomorrow
24590 SF R. A. Lafferty Fourth Mansions (1969)
24620 SF Andre Norton Forerunner Foray (1973)
24622 SF Andre Norton Forerunner Foray (1980)
24623 SF Andre Norton Forerunner Foray (1982)
24624 SF Andre Norton Forerunner Foray (1984)
24800 SF Jules Verne For the Flag (1961)
24806 SF David C. Smith and Richard Tierney For the Witch of the Mists (1981)
24892 SF H. Beam Piper Four-Day Planet and Lone Star Planet
24903 SF Roger Zelazny Four For Tomorrow
25306 SF Arsen Darnay A Hostage For Hinterland (1976)
25460 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
25461 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
25950 SF Suzette Haden Elgin Furthest (1971)
25980 SF A. E. van Vogt Future Glitter (1973)
26176 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzies and Other People
26181 SF William Tuning Fuzzy Bones
26192 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzy Sapiens
26194 SF H. Beam Piper The Fuzzy Papers
26196 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzy Sapiens
27226 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict
27227 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict
27228 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict
27229 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1978)
27231 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1982)
27232 SF Jack Vance Galactic Effectuator (1981)
27233 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1984)
27234 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1987)
27240 SF Mack Reynolds Galactic Medal of Honor
27310 SF Philip K. Dick The Game-Players of Titan (1972)
27346 SF Philip K. Dick and Ray Nelson The Ganymede Takeover (1977)
27389 SF Philip José Farmer The Gates of Creation (1981)
27419 SF Edmund Cooper A Far Sunset (1977)
27501 SF Samuel R. Delany The Fall of the Towers
27910 SF Howard Fast The General Zapped An Angel
28702 SF James P. Blaylock The Stone Giant (1989)
29400 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Glory That Was (1979)
29525 SF Robert E. Howard The Gods of Bal-Sagoth
30261 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30262 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30263 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30274 SF Lucius Shepard Green Eyes (1984)
30295 SF Charles de Lint Greenmantle (1988)
30301 SF Fritz Leiber The Green Millennium
30590 SF Louis Trimble and Jacquelyn Trimble Guardians of the Gate
30600 SF Edwin L. Arnold Gulliver of Mars (1905)
31557 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
31590 SF Leigh Brackett The Halfling and Other Stories (1973)
31800 SF Robert A. Heinlein Have Space Suit - Will Travel
31801 SF Robert A. Heinlein Have Space Suit - Will Travel
31986 SF David Drake Hammer's Slammers
32800 SF Frank Herbert Heretics of Dune (1987)
33700 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery
33701 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery (1970)
33704 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery
34245 SF Fred Saberhagen The Holmes-Dracula File (1978)
34345 SF Orson Scott Card Hot Sleep: The Worthing Chronicle
34458 SF Glenn Lord (ed.) The Howard Collector
34900 SF Bruce McAllister Humanity Prime
35421 SF Andre Norton Huon of the Horn (1968)
35422 SF Andre Norton Huon of the Horn (1973)
35804 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs I Am a Barbarian
35805 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs I Am a Barbarian (1978)
35840 SF Andre Norton Ice Crown (1970)
35843 SF Andre Norton Ice Crown
35854 SF Kim Stanley Robinson Icehenge (1984)
36321 SF Andre Norton Victory on Janus
37088 SF Walt Richmond The Probability Corner
37090 SF Mark Adlard Interface (1971)
37100 SF Arthur K. Barnes Interplanetary Hunter (1972)
37106 SF Brian M. Stableford In the Kingdom of the Beasts
37217 SF Colin Kapp The Ion War (1978)
37291 SF Andre Norton Iron Cage (1974)
37365 SF Robert E. Howard The Iron Man
37421 SF H.G. Wells The Island of Dr. Moreau (1977)
37425 SF Avram Davidson An Island Under the Earth (1969)
37465 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1969)
37466 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1974)
37468 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1976)
37470 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1982)
37797 SF Esther Friesner Here Be Demons
38120 SF John Brunner The Jagged Orbit (March 1969)
38122 SF John Brunner The Jagged Orbit
38287 SF Jerry Pournelle The Janissaries
38536 SF E. C. Tubb The Jester at Scar: Dumarest of Terra#5 (1982)
38570 SF C. L. Moore Jirel of Joiry
40850 SF Robert Sheckley The Journey of Joenes
41550 SF Andre Norton Judgement on Janus
41551 SF Andre Norton Judgement on Janus
42801 SF E. C. Tubb Kalin
43525 SF Dennis Schmidt Kensho
43672 SF Andre Norton Key Out of Time (1978)
43679 SF Andre Norton Key Out of Time
44470 SF Edgar Wallace and Merian C. Cooper King Kong (1976)
44485 SF Christopher Stasheff King Kobold
44489 SF Christopher Stasheff King Kobold Revived
45000 SF Andre Norton Knave of Dreams (1976)
45001 SF Andre Norton Knave of Dreams
46272 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lad and the Lion (1978)
46850 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Lady of the Bees
46996 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror
46997 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror
47000 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror
47013 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land of Hidden Men
47020 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47022 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47023 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47026 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47042 SF Jack Vance The Languages of Pao
47161 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet
47162 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet
47440 SF Andre Norton Lavender-Green Magic (1977)
47800 SF Ursula K. Le Guin The Left Hand of Darkness (1969)
47805 SF Ursula K. Le Guin The Left Hand of Darkness (1976)
48494 SF H. Beam Piper Little Fuzzy
48520 SF Fred Saberhagen The Berserker Wars
48970 SF Mack Reynolds Looking Backward, From the Year 2000 (1973)
49051 SF H. Beam Piper Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen
49236 SF Andre Norton Lord of Thunder
49291 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lost Continent (September 1969)
49294 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lost Continent
49500 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus (1969)
49501 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49504 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49506 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49507 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49548 SF Fred Saberhagen Love Conquers All
49851 SF Allen Steele Orbital Decay
50485 SF Allen Steele Lunar Descent
50531 SF Jack Vance Madouc
51356 SF Steve Perry The Machiavelli Interface (1986)
51388 SF Michael Moorcock The Mad God's Amulet
51401 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51402 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51403 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51404 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51409 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51544 SF Larry Niven The Magic Goes Away (1978)
51590 SF John Eric Holmes Mahars of Pellucidar
51624 SF Philip José Farmer The Maker of Universes
51647 SF Brian Aldiss The Malacia Tapestry (1976)
51702 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51910 SF Philip K. Dick The Man Who Japed (1975)
51918 SF Steve Perry The Man Who Never Missed (1986)
51943 SF David Alexander Smith Marathon
52075 SF Henry Kuttner, Bob Pepper, and Alicia Austin The Mask of Circe (1971)
52077 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
52078 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
52207 SF Steve Perry Matadora (1986)
52400 SF John Brunner Meeting at Infinity (February 1969)
52470 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Men on the Moon
52560 SF Alan E. Nourse The Mercy Men
52975 SF Gerard F. Conway The Midnight Dancers
53151 SF John W. Campbell The Mightiest Machine
53167 SF Algis Budrys, Charles G. Waugh, and Martin Harry Greenberg (eds.) Space Dogfights (1992)
53183 SF John Varley Millennium
53299 SF Spider Robinson Mindkiller
53355 SF Ian Watson Miracle Visitors
53503 SF Andrew J. Offutt The Mists of Doom
53540 SF George Zebrowski The Monadic Universe
53570 SF D. G. Compton The Missionaries (1972)
53587 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53588 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53591 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53701 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53702 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53703 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53705 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53719 SF Charles de Lint Moonheart (1984)
53753 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men
53756 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men
53780 SF John W. Campbell The Moon is Hell
54101 SF Andre Norton Moon of 3 Rings
54201 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Moondust
54460 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mucker (1974)
54462 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mucker (1914)
54484 SF Charles De Lint Mulengro: A Romany Tale (1985)
54500 SF Mark Adlard Multiface (1975)
55145 SF Fritz Leiber You're All Alone (1973)
55309 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
56010 SF Gordon R. Dickson Naked to the Stars
56940 SF Leigh Brackett The Nemesis from Terra (1976)
57752 SF Andre Norton Night of Masks
58024 SF Mark E. Rogers The Nightmare of God (1988)
58050 SF R. A. Lafferty Nine Hundred Grandmothers (1970)
60563 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Oakdale Affair
60564 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Oakdale Affair
60739 SF Fred Saberhagen Octagon (1981)
62160 SF Fred Saberhagen Old Friend of the Family (1979)
62380 SF George Zebrowski The Omega Point
62938 SF Bob Shaw One Million Tomorrows (1970)
63165 SF Kenneth Bulmer On the Symb-Socket Circuit (1972)
63410 SF Andre Norton Operation Time Search
63590 SF John Rankine Operation Umanaq (1973)
63780 SF Bob Shaw Orbitsville
64146 SF John Dechancie Paradox Alley (1987)
64240 SF Bob Shaw Other Days, Other Eyes
64400 SF Philip K. Dick Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1970)
64401 SF Philip K. Dick Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1977)
64484 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Out of Times Abyss
64514 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn
65050 SF Bob Shaw The Palace of Eternity
65125 SF Jack Williamson The Pandora Effect (1969)
65169 SF H. Beam Piper Paratime (1981)
65316 SF Larry Niven The Patchwork Girl (1981)
65353 SF Fred Saberhagen Octagon
65390 SF Colin Kapp Patterns of Chaos (1978)
65412 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn (1973)
65430 SF Keith Roberts Pavane (1966)
65852 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar
65855 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar
65890 SF Jack Williamson People Machines
65941 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65942 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65946 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65948 SF Mack Reynolds Perchance To Dream
66100 SF Avram Davidson The Phoenix and the Mirror
66141 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Phase 2
66201 SF Joanna Russ Picnic on Paradise
66320 SF Robert E. Howard Pigeons from Hell (1978)
66502 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66503 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66505 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66509 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66833 SF Andre Norton Plague Ship (1973)
66900 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#2: Servants of the Wankh
66901 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#3: The Dirdir (1969)
66902 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#4: The Pnume (1970)
66952 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Planet of Exile
67020 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers
67025 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers and The Sword of Aldones
67060 SF John Jakes The Planet Wizard
67061 SF John Jakes The Planet Wizard
67145 SF Michael Kurland Pluribus
67402 SF Robert A. Heinlein Podkayne of Mars
67555 SF Andre Norton Postmarked the Stars (1969)
67800 SF Philip K. Dick The Preserving Machine (1969)
67801 SF Philip K. Dick The Preserving Machine (1976)
67900 SF Thomas M. Disch The Prisoner (1969)
67901 SF David McDaniel The Prisoner#2
67902 SF Hank Stine The Prisoner#3 (1970)
67937 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Prisoner of Zhamanak
68023 SF Gordon R. Dickson Pro
68305 SF Stephen Robinette Projections
69168 SF Arsen Darnay The Purgatory Zone (1981)
69190 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Purple Pterodactyls: The Adventures of Wilson Newbury, Ensorcelled Financier (1980)
69540 SF D. G. Compton The Quality of Mercy
69658 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Queen of Zamba
69681 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69682 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69683 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69684 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69700 SF A. E. van Vogt Quest for the Future
69770 SF Poul Anderson Question and Answer
69992 SF Jack L. Chalker Quintara Marathon#1: The Demons at Rainbow Bridge
71065 SF Alfred Coppel (as Robert Cham Gilman) The Rebel of Rhada (1968)
71083 SF E. C. Tubb Lallia: Dumarest of Terra#6 (1982)
71100 SF Andre Norton Red Hart Magic (1979)
71140 SF Robert A. Heinlein Red Planet
71156 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney The Ring of Ikribu: Red Sonja#1 (1981)
71157 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Demon Night: Red Sonja#2 (1982)
71158 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney When Hell Laughs: Red Sonja#3 (1982)
71159 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Endithor's Daughter: Red Sonja#4 (1982)
71160 SF D. D. Chapman and Deloris Lehman Tarzan Red Tide
71161 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Against the Prince of Hell: Red Sonja#5 (1983)
71162 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Star of Doom: Red Sonja#6 (1983)
71335 SF Philip José Farmer Behind the Walls of Terra (1970)
71435 SF John T. Sladek Mechasm
71500 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
71502 SF Keith Laumer Retief at Large
71803 SF E. C. Tubb Lallia
72280 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Rider
73293 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Rocannon's World
73330 SF Robert A. Heinlein Rocket Ship Galileo
73438 SF Kenneth Bulmer Roller Coaster World
73440 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Rolling Stones
73441 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Rolling Stones
73450 SF Mack Reynolds Rolltown
73532 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
74860 SF Robert A. Heinlein To Sail Beyond the Sunset
74981 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space
74982 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space
75045 SF Mack Reynolds Satellite City
75131 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75134 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75136 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75441 SF Sam J. Lundwall Science Fiction: What It's All About (1977)
75690 SF George Bamber The Sea Is Boiling Hot
75695 SF Andre Norton Sea Siege
75696 SF Andre Norton Sea Siege
75800 SF George Bamber The Sea Is Boiling Hot (1971)
75830 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75831 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75832 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75833 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race (1978)
75834 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race (1981)
75835 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75836 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75860 SF Mack Reynolds Section G: United Planets
75875 SF Robert Silverberg The Seeds of Earth
75894 SF Eric Frank Russell Sentinels from Space
75940 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Seven from the Stars
76098 SF Bob Shaw Ship of Strangers
76099 SF Robert E. Howard The She Devil (1983)
76219 SF Robert Silverberg and Randall Garrett (jointly as Robert Randall) The Shrouded Planet (1982)
76343 SF Charles Sheffield Sight of Proteus
76385 SF D. G. Compton The Silent Multitude
76390 SF Robert Silverberg The Silent Invaders
76391 SF Robert Silverberg The Silent Invaders (1977)
76500 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76501 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76502 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76701 SF Philip K. Dick The Simulacra (1976)
76801 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman
76802 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman
76836 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Siva! (1979)
76942 SF Harry Harrison Skyfall (1978)
77408 SF Rudy Rucker Software
77410 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1974)
77411 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1975)
77419 SF Gordon R. Dickson Soldier, Ask Not (1982)
77427 SF Brian Herbert (ed.) The Poetry of Frank Herbert: Songs of Muad'dib
77551 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World
77554 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (1968)
77620 SF Robert E. Howard The Sowers of the Thunder (1979)
77730 SF Robert A. Heinlein Space Cadet
77780 SF H. Beam Piper Space Viking
77782 SF Mack Reynolds Space Visitor
77783 SF Mack Reynolds Space Visitor
77791 SF Fred Saberhagen Specimens
77953 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Star of Danger
78000 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Star Beast
78011 SF Andre Norton Star Born
78035 SF Keith Laumer Star Colony
78071 SF Andre Norton Star Gate
78318 SF Pamela Sargent Starshadows
78432 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours!
78477 SF Gerry Turnbull (ed.) A Star Trek Catalog: The Complete Guide to the Fantastic World of Star Trek (1979)
78479 SF Ben Bova Star Watchman
78565 SF John Varley Steel Beach
78575 SF D. G. Compton The Steel Crocodile (1970)
78585 SF Jerry Pournelle A Step Farther Out
78650 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1970)
78651 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1973)
78652 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1975)
78653 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1979)
78654 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1980)
78657 SF Poul Anderson Dominic Flandry: A Stone in Heaven
78741 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock
78742 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1973)
79034 SF Robert A. Heinlein Stranger in a Strange Land
79112 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Survey Ship
79141 SF Leigh Brackett The Sword of Rhiannon
79150 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Death
79157 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Death
79161 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
79165 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
79170 SF Fritz Leiber Swords and Deviltry
79176 SF Fritz Leiber Swords and Deviltry
79181 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
79185 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
79221 SF Fritz Leiber The Swords of Lankhmar
79222 SF Fritz Leiber The Swords of Lankhmar
79431 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours!
79791 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar of Pellucidar
79797 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar of Pellucidar
79854 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan at the Earth's Core
80010 SF William Shatner Teklords
80011 SF William Shatner Teklab
80012 SF William Shatner Tekvengeance
80180 SF James Tiptree, Jr. Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home
80208 SF William Shatner Tekwar
80680 SF Robert Lory The Thirteen Bracelets
80691 SF Roger Zelazny This Immortal
80705 SF Robert E. Howard Tigers of the Sea
80780 SF Robert E. Howard Three-Bladed Doom (1979)
80801 SF Andre Norton Three Against the Witch World
80805 SF Andre Norton Three Against the Witch World (1978)
80855 SF Alexei Panshin The Thurb Revolution (1978)
80933 SF Spider Robinson Time Pressure (1988)
81000 SF Clifford D. Simak Time & Again
81001 SF Clifford D. Simak Time & Again
81012 SF Keith Laumer The Time Bender
81125 SF Robert A. Heinlein Time for the Stars
81126 SF Robert A. Heinlein Time for the Stars
81251 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders
81253 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders
81254 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1984)
81270 SF John Brunner Times Without Number (October 1969)
81277 SF Spider Robinson Time Travelers Strictly Cash (1981)
81656 SF Bob Shaw Tomorrow Lies in Ambush
81670 SF Mack Reynolds Tomorrow Might Be Different
81900 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Tournament of Thorns
81973 SF E. C. Tubb Toyman: Dumarest of Terra#3
82210 SF John Brunner The Traveler in Black
82355 SF Andre Norton Trey of Swords (1978)
82660 SF Robert A. Heinlein Tunnel in the Sky
84000 SF Andre Norton Uncharted Stars
84292 SF H. Beam Piper Uller Uprising
84331 SF John W. Campbell The Ultimate Weapon
84514 SF Andrew Offutt The Undying Wizard
84569 SF Axel Madsen Unisave
84581 SF A. E. van Vogt The Universe Maker
85456 SF Alan E. Nourse The Universe Between (1987)
86050 SF Philip K. Dick The Variable Man and Other Stories (1976)
86064 SF Fred Saberhagen The Veils of Azlaroc
86065 SF Fred Saberhagen The Veils of Azlaroc
86180 SF E. C. Tubb Veruchia
86181 SF E. C. Tubb Veruchia: Dumarest of Terra#8 (1982)
86190 SF Ian Watson Very Slow Time Machine
86607 SF Mark Adlard Volteface (1972)
86608 SF Philip K. Dick Vulcan's Hammer (1972)
86610 SF Andre Norton, Wojciech Siudmak, and Alicia Austin Voorloper (1980)
87060 SF Michael Moorcock The Warlord of the Air (1971)
87180 SF A. E. van Vogt The War Against the Rull
87201 SF Poul Anderson War of the Wing-Men
87269 SF George Zebrowski Ashes & Stars
87300 SF Christopher Shasheff The Warlock in Spite of Himself
87301 SF Christopher Shasheff The Warlock in Spite of Himself
87319 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87321 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87322 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87323 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World (1978)
87325 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87328 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87332 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87625 SF Dennis Schmidt Way-Farer
87631 SF H. G. Wells The War of the Worlds (1988)
87855 SF A. E. van Vogt The Weapon Shops of Isher
87873 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87874 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87875 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87941 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Weirwoods
88065 SF Edmond Hamilton What's It Like Out There? (And Other Stories)
88091 SF H. G. Wells When the Sleeper Wakes
88270 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Where Is the Bird of Fire? (1970)
88564 SF Rudy Rucker White Light
88601 SF Clifford D. Simak Why Call Them Back from Heaven?
89251 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Winds of Darkover
89701 SF Andre Norton Witch World
89702 SF Andre Norton Witch World
89851 SF James H. Schmitz The Witches of Karres
90075 SF Ursula K. Le Guin A Wizard of Earthsea
90190 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus and Pirate Blood
90191 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus (1973)
90194 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus and Pirate Blood
90872 SF R.A. Salvatore The Woods Out Back
90926 SF Frank Herbert The Worlds of Frank Herbert (1971)
90951 SF Philip K. Dick The World Jones Made (1975)
90955 SF Jack Vance The World of Jack Vance
91010 SF Gregory Frost Lyrec (1984)
91052 SF John Carr (ed.) The Worlds of H. Beam Piper
91055 SF Poul Anderson The Worlds of Poul Anderson
91060 SF Theodore Sturgeon The Worlds of Theodore Sturgeon
91170 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The World Wreckers
91352 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1969
91353 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, First Series
91354 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Second Series
91355 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Third Series
91356 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Fourth Series
91357 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1970
91358 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1971
91359 SF Frederik Pohl Best SF for 1972
91502 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein (1973)
91581 SF Keith Laumer Worlds of the Imperium
91640 SF Fritz Leiber The Worlds of Fritz Leiber
91706 SF Poul Anderson World Without Stars
91770 SF Robert E. Howard Worms of the Earth
92551 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
92553 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
94200 SF Wilson Tucker The Year of the Quiet Sun (1970)
94251 SF Andre Norton Year of the Unicorn
94254 SF Andre Norton Year of the Unicorn (1979)
95490 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane (1978)
95941 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane
95960 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone
95961 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone
95964 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone (1981)
References
Ace Image Library. Contains images of most covers for both the singles and doubles.
Tuck, Donald H. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Volume 3, Advent: Publishers, Inc., 1982. . Lists all ACE sf titles, single and double, published through 1968.
Ace SF numeric-series single titles
SF numeric-series single titles
Ace SF numeric-series single titles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20African%20campaign%20%28World%20War%20I%29
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East African campaign (World War I)
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The East African campaign in World War I was a series of battles and guerrilla actions, which started in German East Africa (GEA) and spread to portions of Mozambique, Rhodesia, British East Africa, the Uganda, and the Belgian Congo. The campaign all but ended in German East Africa in November 1917 when the Germans entered Mozambique and continued the campaign living off Portuguese supplies.
The strategy of the German colonial forces, led by Lieutenant Colonel (later Major General) Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, was to divert Allied forces from the Western Front to Africa. His strategy achieved only mixed results after 1916 when he was driven out of German East Africa. The campaign in Africa consumed considerable amounts of money and war material that could have gone to other fronts.
The Germans in East Africa fought for the whole of the war, receiving word of the armistice on 14 November 1918 at 07:30 hours. Both sides waited for confirmation, with the Germans formally surrendering on 25 November. GEA became two League of Nations Class B Mandates, Tanganyika Territory of the United Kingdom and Ruanda-Urundi of Belgium, while the Kionga Triangle was ceded to Portugal.
Background
German East Africa
German East Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika) was colonized by the Germans in 1885. The territory itself spanned and covered the areas of modern-day Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania. The colony's indigenous population numbered seven and a half million and was governed by just 5,300 Europeans. Although the colonial regime was relatively secure, the colony had recently been shaken by the Maji Maji Rebellion of 1904–1905. The German colonial administration could call on a military Schutztruppe ("Protection force") of 260 Europeans and 2,470 Africans, in addition to 2,700 white settlers who were part of the reservist Landsturm, as well as a small paramilitary Gendarmerie.
The outbreak of World War I in Europe led to the increased popularity of German colonial expansion and the creation of a Deutsch-Mittelafrika ("German Central Africa") which would parallel a resurgent German Empire in Europe. Mittelafrika effectively involved the annexation of territory, mostly occupied by the Belgian Congo, in order to link the existing German colonies in East, South-west and West Africa. The territory would dominate central Africa and would make Germany by far the most powerful colonial power on the African continent. Nevertheless, the German colonial military in Africa was weak, poorly equipped and widely dispersed. Although better trained and more experienced than their opponents, many of the German soldiers were reliant on weapons like the Model 1871 rifle which used obsolete black powder. At the same time the militaries of the Allied powers were also encountering similar problems of poor equipment and low numbers; most colonial militaries were intended to serve as local paramilitary police to suppress resistance to colonial rule and were neither equipped nor structured to fight against foreign powers. Even so, the largest military concentration in the German colonial empire was in East Africa.
German strategy
The objective of the German forces in East Africa, led by Lieutenant-Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, was to divert Allied forces and supplies from Europe to Africa. By threatening the important British Uganda Railway, Lettow hoped to force British troops to invade East Africa, where he could fight a defensive campaign. In 1912, the German government had formed a defensive strategy for East Africa in which the military would withdraw to the hinterland and fight a guerilla campaign. The German colony in East Africa was a threat to the neutral Belgian Congo but the Belgian government hoped to continue its neutrality in Africa. The Force Publique was constrained to adopt a defensive strategy until 15 August 1914, when German ships on Lake Tanganyika bombarded the port of Mokolobu and then the Lukuga post a week later. Some Belgian officials viewed hostilities in East Africa as an opportunity to expand Belgian holdings in Africa; the capture of Ruanda and Urundi could increase the bargaining power of the De Broqueville government to ensure the restoration of Belgium after the war. During the post-war negotiation of the Treaty of Versailles, the Colonial Minister, Jules Renkin, sought to trade Belgian territorial gains in German East Africa for the Portuguese allocation in northern Angola, to gain Belgian Congo a longer coast.
Initial fighting, 1914–1915
Outbreak and early German attacks
The governors of the British and German East Africa wanted to avoid war and preferred a neutrality agreement based on the Congo Act of 1885, against the wishes of the local military commanders and their metropolitan governments. The agreement caused confusion in the opening weeks of the conflict. On 31 July, implementing contingency plans, the cruiser sailed from Dar-es-Salaam for operations against British commerce. She narrowly avoided cruisers from the Cape Squadron sent to shadow the ship and be ready to sink it. On 5 August 1914, troops from the Uganda protectorate assaulted German river outposts near Lake Victoria.
On the same day, the British War Cabinet ordered an Indian Expeditionary Force (IEF) to be sent to East Africa to eliminate bases for raiders. On 8 August, the Royal Navy cruiser shelled the wireless station at Dar es Salaam, then agreed a ceasefire, on condition the town remained an open city. This agreement caused discord between Vorbeck and Governor Heinrich Schnee, his nominal superior, who opposed and later ignored the agreement; it also caused the captain of Astraea to be reprimanded for exceeding his authority. Before the Battle of Tanga when the IEF attempted to land at Tanga, the Royal Navy felt obliged to give warning that they were abrogating the agreement, forfeiting surprise.
In August 1914, the military and para-military forces in both colonies were mobilised, despite restrictions imposed by the two governors. The German Schutztruppe in East Africa had of all ranks and equivalent to the two battalions of the King's African Rifles (KAR) in the British East African colonies. On 7 August, German troops at Moshi were informed that the neutrality agreement was at an end and ordered to raid across the border. On 15 August, Askari in the Neu Moshi region engaged in their first offensive operation of the campaign. Taveta on the British side of Kilimanjaro fell, to two companies of Askari (300 men) with the British firing a token volley and retiring in good order. The Askari detachment on Lake Tanganyika raided Belgian facilities seeking to destroy the steamer Commune and gain control of the lake. On 24 August, German troops attacked Portuguese outposts across the Rovuma, unsure of the intentions of Portugal, which was not yet a British ally, which caused a diplomatic incident which was only smoothed over with difficulty.
In September, the Germans began to raid deeper into British Kenya and Uganda. German naval power on Lake Victoria was limited to Hedwig von Wissmann and Kingani a tugboat armed with one pom-pom-gun, causing minor damage and a great deal of noise. The British armed the Uganda Railway lake steamers , , and as improvised gunboats; the tug was trapped and then scuttled by the Germans. The Germans later raised Kingani, dismounted her gun and used the tug as a transport; with the tug disarmed and her "teeth removed, British command of Lake Victoria was no longer in dispute."
British land and naval offensive
To solve the raiding nuisance and to capture the northern, colonised region of the German colony, the British devised a plan for a two-pronged invasion. IEF "B" of in two brigades, would carry out an amphibious landing at Tanga on 2 November 1914, to capture the city and gain control the Indian Ocean terminus of the Usambara Railway. In the Kilimanjaro area, IEF "C" of in one brigade would advance from British East Africa on Neu-Moshi on 3 November 1914, to the western terminus of the railroad (see Battle of Kilimanjaro). After capturing Tanga, IEF "B" would rapidly move north-west, join IEF "C" and mop up the remaining German forces. Although outnumbered Tanga and Longido, the Schutztruppe under Vorbeck prevailed. In the East Africa volume of the British official history (1941), Charles Hordern described the events as one of "the most notable failures in British military history".
Only two British regiments were involved in the East African campaign. The 2nd Battalion, Loyal North Lancashire Regiment arrived with the Indian Army invasion force at Tanga and after this stayed on the border between British and German East Africa. The 25th (Frontiersmen) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers was raised for service in East Africa in early 1915 and served throughout the war. In addition, white contingents were supplied by Rhodesia in 1914-15, the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment, Nyasaland and South Africa including the South African Expeditionary Force which arrived in February 1916.
Königsberg of the Imperial German Navy was in the Indian Ocean when war was declared. In the Battle of Zanzibar, Königsberg sank the old protected cruiser in Zanzibar harbour and then retired into the Rufiji River delta. After being cornered by warships of the British Cape Squadron, including an old pre-dreadnought battleship, two shallow-draught monitors with guns were brought from England and demolished the cruiser on 11 July 1915. The British salvaged and used six guns from Pegasus, which became known as the Peggy guns; the crew of Königsberg and the main battery guns were taken over by the Schutztruppe and were used until the end of hostilities.
Lake Tanganyika expedition
The Germans had controlled the lake since the outbreak of the war, with three armed steamers and two unarmed motor boats. In 1915, two British motorboats, HMS Mimi and Toutou each armed with a 3-pounder and a Maxim gun, were transported by land to the British shore of Lake Tanganyika. They captured the German ship Kingani on 26 December, renaming it and with two Belgian ships under the command of Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, attacked and sank the German ship Hedwig von Wissmann. The Graf von Götzen and the Wami, an unarmed motor boat, became the only German ships left on the lake. In February 1916, the Wami was intercepted and run ashore by the crew and burned. Lettow-Vorbeck then had its Königsberg gun removed and sent by rail to the main fighting front. The ship was scuttled in mid-July after a seaplane bombing attack by the Belgians on Kigoma and before advancing Belgian colonial troops could capture it; Wami was later re-floated and used by the British.
Allied offensives, 1916–1917
British Empire reinforcements, 1916
General Horace Smith-Dorrien was assigned with orders to find and fight the Schutztruppe but he contracted pneumonia during the voyage to South Africa, which prevented him from taking command. In 1916, General Jan Smuts was given the task of defeating Lettow-Vorbeck. Smuts had a large army (for the area), some Africans including Boers, British, Rhodesians and and African troops, a ration strength of There was a Belgian force and a larger but ineffective group of Portuguese military units based in Mozambique. A large Carrier Corps composed of African porters under British command, carried supplies into the interior. Despite the Allied nature of the effort, it was a South African operation of the British Empire. During the previous year, Lettow-Vorbeck had also gained personnel and his army was now
Smuts attacked from several directions, the main attack coming from British East Africa (Kenya) in the north, while substantial forces from the Belgian Congo advanced from the west in two columns, crossing Lake Victoria on the British troop ships and and into the Rift Valley. Another contingent advanced over Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) from the south-east. All these forces failed to capture Lettow-Vorbeck and they all suffered from disease along the march. The 9th South African Infantry, started with 1,135 men in February, and by October its strength was reduced to 116 fit troops, with little fighting. The Germans nearly always retreated from the larger British troop concentrations and by September 1916, the German Central Railway from the coast at Dar es Salaam to Ujiji was fully under British control.
With Lettow-Vorbeck confined to the southern part of German East Africa, Smuts began to withdraw the South African, Rhodesian and Indian troops and replace them with Askari of the King's African Rifles (KAR), which by November 1918 had By the start of 1917, more than half the British Army in the theatre was composed of Africans and by the end of the war, it was nearly all-African. Smuts left the area in January 1917, to join the Imperial War Cabinet at London.
Belgian offensives, 1916–17
The British conscripted to move Belgian supplies and equipment to Kivu (in the east of the Belgian Congo) between late 1915 and early 1916. The lines of communication in the Congo required carriers, who were barred by the Belgian government from crossing into German East Africa; Belgian troops were expected to live off the land. To avoid the plundering of civilians, loss of food stocks and risk of famine, with many farmers already conscripted and moved away from their land, the British set up the Congo Carrier Section of the East India Transport Corps (Carbel) with conscripted from Ugandan civilians and assembled at Mbarara in April 1916. The , started its campaign on 18 April 1916 under the command of General Charles Tombeur, Colonel Philippe Molitor and Colonel Frederik-Valdemar Olsen and captured Kigali in Rwanda on 6 May.
The German Askari in Burundi were forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the and by 17 June, Burundi and Rwanda were occupied. The and the British Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora, an administrative base in central German East Africa. Three columns took Biharamuro, Mwanza, Karema, Kigoma and Ujiji. At the Battle of Tabora on 19 September, the Germans were defeated and the village occupied. During the march, Carbel lost died or missing presumed dead, a rate of occurred despite the presence of two doctors and adequate medical supplies. To prevent Belgian claims on German territory in a post-war settlement, Smuts ordered their forces to return to the Congo, leaving them as occupiers only in Rwanda and Burundi. The British were obliged to recall Belgian troops in 1917 and the two allies coordinated campaign plans.
British offensive, 1917
Major-General Arthur Hoskins (KAR), formerly the commander of the 1st East Africa Division, took over command of the campaign. After four months spent reorganising the lines of communication, he was then replaced by South African Major-General Jacob van Deventer. Deventer began an offensive in July 1917, which by early autumn had pushed the Germans to the south. From 1917, Lettow-Vorbeck fought a costly battle at Mahiwa, with casualties and losses in the Nigerian brigade. After the news of the battle reached Germany, Lettow-Vorbeck was promoted to Generalmajor.
German offensives, 1917–18
Portuguese Mozambique
British units forced the Schutztruppe south and on 23 November, Lettow-Vorbeck crossed into Mozambique to plunder supplies from Portuguese garrisons. Lettow-Vorbeck divided his force into three groups on the march; a detachment of under Hauptmann Theodor Tafel ran out of food and ammunition and was forced to surrender before reaching Mozambique. Lettow and Tafel were unaware they were only one day's march apart. The Germans fought the Battle of Ngomano in which the Portuguese garrison was routed, then marched through Mozambique in caravans of troops, carriers, wives and children for nine months but were unable to gain much strength. In Mozambique, the Schutztruppe won a number of important victories which allowed it to remain active but also came close to destruction during the Battle of Lioma and Battle of Pere Hills.
Northern Rhodesia
The Germans returned to German East Africa and crossed into Rhodesia in August 1918. from early October, news that could be gleaned went from bad to worse. It was rumoured that Hindenburg was dead and that the Allies were about to impose an armistice on Germany and morale amongst the Germans plunged and desertions by carriers increased. On 9 November the German force reached Kasama whose district officer, Hector Croad, had evacuated the town on hearing of the German approach and stripped it of ammunition. The Germans pursued Croad who had lodged the supplies in a rubber factory on the opposite side of the Chambezi River. The Germans began probing attacks on the factory on 12 November, as Lettow-Vorbeck and his column arrived. The Germans captured the factory after a four-hour engagement and the British melted away to the west. A British dispatch rider fell into German hands who told the Germans of the Armistice of 11 November 1918. The information arrived in time to forestall another attack on the rubber factory and Croad met Lettow-Vorbeck, who found it difficult to believe that Germany had lost the war and impossible to accept that the Kaiser had fled to Holland and that Germany had become a republic.
German surrender
The terms of the armistice were a great shock to the Germans but at on 25 November 1918, Lettow-Vorbeck offered his surrender to the British at Abercorn, two weeks after the signing of the armistice in Europe. Brigadier-General William Edwards, Lettow-Vorbeck, Walter Spangenburg, and Captain Anderson, Edwards declining Lettow-Vorbeck's sword. The governor of German East Africa, Heinrich Schnee did not sign the surrender to signify that Germans renounced claims to the colony. Article XVII of the armistice required the evacuation of the German forces from East Africa but the War Office interpreted this as to need unconditional surrender and disarmament, which was carried off "by a judicious mixture of firmness and bluff". Lettow-Vorbeck smelt a rat but was unable to confirm his suspicions with Berlin and gave way under protest. The campaign cost the British at 2007 prices.
Aftermath
Analysis
Nearly 400,000 Allied soldiers, sailors, merchant marine crews, builders, bureaucrats and support personnel participated in the East Africa campaign. They were assisted in the field by 600,000 African bearers. The Allies employed nearly one million people in their fruitless pursuit of Lettow-Vorbeck and his small force. Lettow-Vorbeck was cut off and could entertain no hope of victory. His strategy was to keep as many British forces diverted to his pursuit for as long as possible and to make the British expend the largest amount of resources in men, shipping and supplies against him. Although diverting in excess of and South African troops against his forces and garrison German East Africa in his wake, he could divert no more Allied manpower from the European theatre after 1916. While some shipping was diverted to the African theatre, it was not enough to inflict significant difficulties on the Allied navies.
Soon after the end of World War I, the narrative about the East African campaign became the subject of mythologization and distortions. Upon returning home, the Schutztruppe veterans, most importantly Lettow-Vorbeck, were treated as "heroes" by Germans who "refused to accept the reality of defeat in the field". Lettow-Vorbeck supported the narrative that his force had remained undefeated. By the time of his surrender, he insisted on signing the surrender documents on several conditions, including that his force was recorded as having stayed in the field until the conflict's end. In reality, he agreed to an unconditional surrender, albeit under protest. In the years after the war, German colonial and military literature as well as the Nazi Party pushed the view that Lettow-Vorbeck had been "undefeated in the field" (German: ) as part of the larger stab-in-the-back myth. In Germany, Lettow-Vorbeck and the East African campaign became the subject of songs and glorification. Many Allied commanders also felt great respect for the East African Schutztruppe and Lettow-Vorbeck in particular, further enhancing their military reputation.
Views about Lettow-Vorbeck's campaign vary. A large number of modern historians and other researchers have continued to describe the Germans in East Africa as undefeated by the end of the war. A growing number of German historians have criticised this view since the 1990s, alongside other narratives about Lettow-Vorbeck as outdated, biased and based on post-war legends.
Society and economy
The fighting in East Africa led to an export boom in British East Africa and an increase in the political influence of White Kenyans. In 1914, the Kenyan economy was in decline but because of emergency legislation giving white colonists control over black-owned land in 1915, exports rose from £3.35 million to £5.9 million by 1916. The increase in the value of exports was mostly due to products like raw cotton and tea. White control of the economy rose from 14 per cent to 70 per cent by 1919.
The campaign and recruiting in Nyasaland contributed to the outbreak of the Chilembwe rebellion in January 1915, by John Chilembwe, an American-educated Baptist minister. Chilembwe was motivated by grievances against the colonial system including forced labour and racial discrimination. The revolt broke out in the evening of 23 January 1915 when rebels, incited by Chilembwe, attacked the headquarters of the A. L. Bruce Plantation at Magomero and killed three white colonists. An abortive attack on an armoury in Blantyre followed during the night. By the morning of 24 January the colonial authorities had mobilised the colonial militia and redeployed regular military units from the KAR. After a failed attack by government troops on Mbombwe on 25 January, the rebels attacked a Christian mission at Nguludi and burned it down. Mbombwe was retaken by government forces unopposed on 26 January. Many of the rebels, including Chilembwe, fled towards Portuguese Mozambique but most were captured. About forty rebels were executed in the aftermath and 300 were imprisoned; Chilembwe was shot dead by a police patrol near the border on 3 February. Although the rebellion did not achieve lasting success, it is commonly cited as a watershed in Malawian history.
Casualties
In 2001, Hew Strachan estimated that British losses in the East African campaign were in action, of disease and African porters died. In 2007, Paice recorded casualties in the East African campaign, of whom of the in the campaign. By 1917, the conscription of Africans as carriers, depopulated many districts and porters had died, among them of the Carrier Corps in East Africa. Of the porters who died, Kenyan, amounting to of the male population. The campaign cost the British £70 million, close to the war budget set in 1914. A Colonial Office official wrote that the East African campaign had not become a scandal only "... because the people who suffered most were the carriers - and after all, who cares about native carriers?". The Belgian record of includes killed in action or died of disease but excludes deaths. Portuguese casualties in Africa were killed, missing or captured and an unknown but significant number wounded.
In the German colonies, no records of the number of people conscripted or casualties were kept but in Der Weltkrieg, the German official history, Ludwig Boell (1951) wrote "... of the loss of levies, carriers, and boys (sic) [we could] make no overall count due to the absence of detailed sickness records". Paice wrote of a 1989 estimate of and a death rate of Carriers were rarely paid and food and cattle were requisitioned from civilians; a famine caused by the subsequent food shortage and poor rains in 1917 led to another deaths in German East Africa. The conscription of farm labour in British East Africa and the failure of the 1917–1918 rains, led to famine and in September the 1918 flu pandemic reached sub-Saharan Africa. In Kenya and Uganda died, in South Africa there were and in German East Africa of the population died of famine and disease; in sub-Saharan Africa, died in the flu epidemic. Overall, the German conduct of war directly led to the death of at least 350,000 civilians in East Africa; most German colonial soldiers and officers, including Lettow-Vorbeck, never expressed remorse for these losses.
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
Books
Journals
Websites
Further reading
Books
Journals
Theses
External links
The Evacuation of Kasama in 1918
The German East Africa Campaign 1914–1918
The War with Germany in East Africa
Rutherford, Alan. Kaputala, 2nd edition, Hand Over Fist Press, 2014.
The Zeppelin Airship Era
Digre, Brian : Colonial Warfare and Occupation (Africa), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
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.East Africa
Campaigns and theatres of World War I
East Africa
Belgian Congo in World War I
East Africa Protectorate
German East Africa
Northern Rhodesia
Rhodesia in World War I
Uganda Protectorate
Military history of German East Africa
Military history of Mozambique
Military history of Tanzania
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving South Africa
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War I involving Portugal
Battles of World War I involving Belgium
Battles involving the Force Publique
Jan Smuts
1910s in Africa
1910s in the Belgian Congo
1910s in German East Africa
1910s in Kenya
1910s in Northern Rhodesia
1910s in Uganda
Military history of Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory%20of%20the%20Military%20Commander%20in%20Serbia
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Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia
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The Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia (; ) was the area of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia that was placed under a military government of occupation by the Wehrmacht following the invasion, occupation and dismantling of Yugoslavia in April 1941. The territory included only most of modern central Serbia, with the addition of the northern part of Kosovo (around Kosovska Mitrovica), and the Banat. This territory was the only area of partitioned Yugoslavia in which the German occupants established a military government. This was due to the key rail and the Danube transport routes that passed through it, and its valuable resources, particularly non-ferrous metals. On 22 April 1941, the territory was placed under the supreme authority of the German military commander in Serbia, with the day-to-day administration of the territory under the control of the chief of the military administration staff. The lines of command and control in the occupied territory were never unified, and were made more complex by the appointment of direct representatives of senior Nazi figures such as Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler (for police and security matters), Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring (for the economy), and Reichsminister Joachim von Ribbentrop (for foreign affairs). The Germans used Bulgarian troops to assist in the occupation, but they were at all times under German control. Sources variously describe the territory as a puppet state, a protectorate, a "special administrative province", or describe it as having a puppet government. The military commander in Serbia had very limited German garrison troops and police detachments to maintain order, but could request assistance from a corps of three divisions of poorly-equipped occupation troops.
The German military commander in Serbia appointed two Serbian civil puppet governments to carry out administrative tasks in accordance with German direction and supervision. The first of these was the short-lived Commissioner Government which was established on 30 May 1941. The Commissioner Government was a basic tool of the occupation regime, lacking in any powers. In late July 1941, an uprising began in the occupied territory, which quickly swamped the Serbian gendarmerie, German police and security apparatus, and even the rear area infantry force. To assist in quelling the rebellion, which initially involved both the communist-led Yugoslav Partisans and the monarchist Chetniks, a second puppet government was established. The Government of National Salvation under Milan Nedić replaced the Commissioner Government on 29 August 1941. Although it enjoyed some support, the regime was unpopular with the majority of Serbs. This failed to turn the tide however, and the Germans were forced to bring in front line divisions from France, Greece and even the Eastern Front to suppress the revolt. Commencing from late September 1941, Operation Uzice expelled the Partisans from the occupied territory, and in December, Operation Mihailovic dispersed the Chetniks. Resistance continued at a low level until 1944, accompanied by frequent reprisal killings, which for some time involved the execution of 100 hostages for every German killed.
The Nedić regime had no status under international law, no powers beyond those granted by the Germans, and was simply an instrument of German rule. Although German forces took the leading and guiding role of the Final Solution in Serbia, and the Germans monopolized the killing of Jews, they were actively aided in that role by Serbian collaborators. The Banjica concentration camp in Belgrade was jointly controlled by Nedic's regime and the German army. The one area in which the puppet administration did exercise initiative and achieve success was in the reception and care of hundreds of thousands of Serb refugees from other parts of partitioned Yugoslavia. Throughout the occupation, the Banat was an autonomous region, formally responsible to the puppet governments in Belgrade, but in practice governed by its Volksdeutsche (ethnic German) minority. While the Commissioner Government was limited to the use of gendarmerie, the Nedić government was authorized to raise an armed force, the Serbian State Guard, to impose order, but they were immediately placed under the control of the Higher SS and Police Leader, and essentially functioned as German auxiliaries until the German withdrawal in October 1944. The Germans also raised several other local auxiliary forces for various purposes within the territory. In order to secure the Trepča mines and the Belgrade-Skopje railway, the Germans made an arrangement with Albanian collaborators in the northern tip of present-day Kosovo which resulted in the effective autonomy of the region from the puppet government in Belgrade, which later formalized the German arrangement. The Government of National Salvation remained in place until the German withdrawal in the face of the combined Red Army, Bulgarian People's Army and Partisan Belgrade Offensive. During the occupation, the German authorities killed nearly all Jews residing in the occupied territory, by shooting the men as part of reprisals conducted in 1941, and gassing the women and children in early 1942 using a gas van.
After the war, several of the key German and Serbian leaders in the occupied territory were tried and executed for war crimes.
Names
While the official name of the territory was Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, sources refer to it using a wide variety of terms:
a German-controlled "Serbian Residual State"
a German-controlled territory
a rump Serbian state
a "so-called German protectorate"
a special "German-protected area"
German-occupied Serbia
Nedić's Serbia ()
Serbia
Serbia–Banat
Serbia under German military administration
Serbia under German occupation
History
1941
Invasion and partition
In April 1941, Germany and its allies invaded and occupied the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was then partitioned. Some Yugoslav territory was annexed by its Axis neighbors, Hungary, Bulgaria and Italy. The Germans engineered and supported the creation of the puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH), which roughly comprised most of the pre-war Banovina Croatia, along with the rest of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and some adjacent territory. The Italians, Hungarians and Bulgarians occupied other parts of Yugoslavian territory. Germany did not annex any Yugoslav territory, but occupied northern parts of present-day Slovenia and stationed occupation troops in the northern half of the NDH. The German-occupied part of Slovenia was divided into two administrative areas that were placed under the administration of the Gauleiters of the neighboring Reichsgau Kärnten and Reichsgau Steiermark.
The remaining territory, which consisted of Serbia proper, the northern part of Kosovo (around Kosovska Mitrovica), and the Banat was occupied by the Germans and placed under the administration of a German military government. This was due to the key rail and riverine transport routes that passed through it, and its valuable resources, particularly non-ferrous metals. Some sources describe the territory as a puppet state, or a "special administrative province", with other sources describing it as having a puppet government. A demarcation line, known as the "Vienna Line", ran across Yugoslavia from the Reich border in the west to the point where the boundaries of German-occupied Serbia met the borders of the Bulgarian- and Albanian-annexed Yugoslavian territories. To the north of the line, the Germans held sway, with the Italians having prime responsibility to the south of the line.
Establishment of the military government of occupation
Even before the Yugoslav surrender, the German Army High Command (, or OKH) had issued a proclamation to the population under German occupation, detailing laws that applied to all German-occupied territory. When the Germans withdrew from the Yugoslav territory that was annexed or occupied by their Axis partners, these laws applied only to the part of modern-day Slovenia administered by the two Reichsgau, and the German-occupied territory of Serbia. This latter territory "was occupied outright by German troops and was placed under a military government". The exact boundaries of the occupied territory were fixed in a directive issued by Adolf Hitler on 12 April 1941, which also directed the creation of the military administration. This directive was followed up on 20 April 1941 by orders issued by the Chief of the OKH which established the Military Commander in Serbia as the head of the occupation regime, responsible to the Quartermaster-General of the OKH. In the interim, the staff for the military government had been assembled in Germany and the duties of the Military Commander in Serbia had been detailed. These included "safeguarding the railroad lines between Belgrade and Salonika and the Danube shipping route, executing the economic orders issued [by Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring], and establishing and maintaining peace and order". In the short-term, he was also responsible for guarding the huge numbers of Yugoslav prisoners of war, and safeguarding captured weapons and munitions.
In order to achieve this the military commander's staff was divided into military and administrative branches, and he was allocated personnel to form four area commands and about ten district commands, which reported to the chief of the administrative staff, and the military staff allocated the troops of the four local defence battalions across the area commands. The first military commander in the occupied territory was General der Flieger Helmuth Förster, a Luftwaffe officer, appointed on 20 April 1941, assisted by the chief of the administrative staff, SS-Brigadeführer and State Councillor, Dr. Harald Turner. Outside of the military commander's staff, there were several senior figures in Belgrade who represented key non-military arms of the German government. Prominent among these was NSFK-Obergruppenführer, Franz Neuhausen, who was initially appointed by Göring as plenipotentiary general for economic affairs in the territory on 17 April. Another was Envoy Felix Benzler of the Foreign Office, appointed by Reichsminister Joachim von Ribbentrop who was appointed on 3 May. A further key figure in the initial German administration was SS-Standartenführer Wilhelm Fuchs, who commanded Einsatzgruppe Serbia, consisting of Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service, or SD) and Sicherheitspolizei (Security Police, or SiPo), the 64th Reserve Police Battalion, and a detachment of Gestapo. While he was formally responsible to Turner, Fuchs reported directly to his superiors in Berlin. The proclamations of the Chief of the OKH in April ordered severe punishments for acts of violence or sabotage, the surrender of all weapons and radio transmitters, restrictions on communication, meetings and protests, and the requirement for German currency to be accepted, as well as imposing German criminal law on the territory.
In a sign of things to come, on the day after the capitulation of Yugoslavia, the SS Motorised Infantry Division Reich had executed 36 Serbs in reprisal for the killing of one member of that formation. Three days later, the village of Donji Dobrić just east of the Drina river had been razed in response to the killing of a German officer. The killing of German troops after the capitulation drew a strong reaction from the commander of the German 2nd Army, Generaloberst Maximilian von Weichs, who ordered that whenever an armed group was seen, men of fighting age from that area were to be rounded up and shot, with their bodies hung up in public, unless they were able to prove they had no connection to the armed group. He also directed the taking of hostages. On 19 May, he issued an ominous decree, ordering that from that point on, 100 Serbs were to be shot for every German soldier that was harmed in any Serb attack. Almost as soon as the success of the invasion was assured, all front line German corps and divisions began to be withdrawn from Yugoslavia to be reconditioned or directly allocated to the Eastern Front.
Preparations of the Communist Party
On 10 April, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (, KPJ) had appointed a military committee headed by its secretary-general, Josip Broz Tito. From April, the KPJ had an underground network right across the country, including military committees that were preparing for an opportunity to initiate a revolt. In May, the KPJ outlined its policy of "unity and brotherhood among all peoples of Yugoslavia, [and] relentless struggle against the foreign enemies and their domestic helpers as a matter of sheer survival". On 4 June, the military committee was titled Partisan Chief Headquarters.
Early activities of Draža Mihailović
In late April, Yugoslav Army Colonel Draža Mihailović and a group of about 80 soldiers, who had not followed the orders to surrender, crossed the Drina river into the occupied territory, having marched cross-country from the area of Doboj, in northern Bosnia, which was now part of the NDH. As they passed near Užice on 6 May, the small group was surrounded and almost destroyed by German troops. His force fragmented, and when he reached the isolated mountain plateau of Ravna Gora, his band had shrunk to 34 officers and men. By establishing ties with the local people, and toleration by the gendarmerie in the area, Mihailović created a relatively safe area in which he could consider his future actions. Soon after arriving at Ravna Gora, Mihailović's troops took the name "Chetnik Detachments of the Yugoslav Army". By the end of May, Mihailović had decided that he would adopt a long-term strategy aimed at gaining control over as many armed groups as possible throughout Yugoslavia, in order to be in a position to seize power when the Germans withdrew or were defeated.
Establishment of the Commissioner Government
Hitler had briefly considered erasing all existence of a Serbian state, but this was quickly abandoned and a search began for a suitable Serb to lead a collaborationist regime. Consideration was given to appointing former Yugoslav Prime Minister Dragiša Cvetković, former Yugoslav Foreign Minister Aleksandar Cincar-Marković, former Yugoslav Minister of Internal Affairs Milan Aćimović, the president of the 'quasi-fascist' United Active Labour Organization (, or Zbor) Dimitrije Ljotić, and the Belgrade police chief Dragomir Jovanović. Förster decided on Aćimović, who formed his Commissioner Government () on 30 May 1941, consisting of ten commissioners. He avoided Ljotić as he believed he had a 'dubious reputation among Serbs'. Aćimović was virulently anti-communist and had been in contact with the German police before the war. The other nine commissioners were Steven Ivanić, Momčilo Janković, Risto Jojić, Stanislav Josifović, Lazo M. Kostić, Dušan Letica, Dušan Pantić, Jevrem Protić and Milisav Vasiljević, and one commissioner was in charge of each of the former Yugoslav ministries except the Ministry of Army and Navy which was abolished. Several of the commissioners had held ministerial posts in the pre-war Yugoslav government, and Ivanić and Vasiljević were both closely linked to Zbor. The Commissioner Government was "a low-grade Serbian administration... under the control of Turner and Neuhausen, as a simple instrument of the occupation regime", that "lacked any semblance of power". Soon after the formation of the Aćimović administration, Mihailović sent a junior officer to Belgrade to advise Ljotić of his progress, and to provide assurances that he had no plans to attack the Germans.
One of the first tasks of the administration was to carry out Turner's orders for the registration of all Jews and Romani in the occupied territory and implementation of severe restrictions on their activities. While the implementation of these orders was supervised by the German military government, Aćimović and his interior ministry were responsible for carrying them out. The primary means for the carrying out of such tasks was the Serbian gendarmerie, which was based on elements of the former Yugoslav gendarmerie units remaining in the territory, the Drinski and Dunavski regiments. The acting head of the Serbian gendarmerie was Colonel Jovan Trišić.
During May 1941, Förster issued numerous orders, which included a requirement for the registration of all printing equipment, restrictions on the press, operation of theatres and other places of entertainment, and the resumption of production. He also disestablished the National Bank of Yugoslavia, and established the Serbian National Bank to replace it. In mid-May, Aćimović's administration issued a declaration to the effect that the Serbian people wanted "sincere and loyal cooperation with their great neighbor, the German people". Most of the local administrators in the formerly Yugoslav counties and districts remained in place, and the German military administration placed its own administrators at each level to supervise the local authorities. Förster was subsequently transferred to command Fliegerkorps I, and on 2 June was succeeded by General der Flakartillerie Ludwig von Schröder, another Luftwaffe officer. On 9 June, the commander of the German 12th Army, Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm List, was appointed as the Wehrmacht Commander-in-Chief Southeast Europe. Three territorial commanders reported directly to him; Schröder, the Military Commander in the Saloniki-Aegean Area, and the Military Commander in Southern Greece. After the withdrawal of all front line formations from Yugoslavia, the only front line formations remaining under the control of List's headquarters in Salonika were; the Headquarters of XVIII Army Corps of General der Gebirgstruppe Franz Böhme, the 5th Mountain Division on Crete, the 6th Mountain Division in the Attica region around Athens, and the 164th Infantry Division and 125th Infantry Regiment in Salonika and on the Aegean Islands.
Initial German occupation troops
Military Commander in Serbia
From his headquarters in Belgrade, Schröder directly controlled four poorly-equipped local defence () battalions, consisting of older age men. In late June, they were deployed as follows:
266th Landesschützen Battalion, headquartered at Užice in the west
562nd Landesschützen Battalion, headquartered at Belgrade
592nd Landesschützen Battalion, headquartered at Pančevo in the southern Banat
920th Landesschützen Battalion, headquartered at Niš in the south
These occupation forces were supplemented by a range of force elements, including the 64th Reserve Police Battalion of the Ordnungspolizei (Order Police, Orpo), an engineer regiment consisting of a pioneer battalion, a bridging column and a construction battalion, and several military police units, comprising a Feldgendarmerie (military police) company, a Geheime Feldpolizei (secret field police) group, and a prisoner of war processing unit. The occupation force was also supported by a military hospital and ambulances, veterinary hospital and ambulances, general transport column, and logistic units.
The chief of the military administrative staff was responsible for the staffing of the four area commands and nine district commands in the occupied territory. In late June 1941, these comprised:
Area Commands
Area Command No. 599 Belgrade
Area Command No. 610 Pančevo
Area Command No. 809 Niš
Area Command No. 816 Užice
District Commands
District Command No. 823 Petrovgrad (today Zrenjanin)
District Command No. 832 Kragujevac
District Command No. 833 Kruševac
District Command No. 834 Belgrade
District Command No. 838 Zemun (Semlin in German)
District Command No. 847 Šabac
District Command No. 857 Zaječar
District Command No. 861 Kosovska Mitrovica
District Command No. 867 Leskovac
LXV Corps ZbV
In addition to the occupation troops directly commanded by Schröder, in June 1941 the Wehrmacht deployed the headquarters of the LXV Corps zbV to Belgrade to command four poorly-equipped occupation divisions, under the control of General der Artillerie Paul Bader. The 704th Infantry Division, 714th Infantry Division and 717th Infantry Division were deployed in the occupied territory, and the 718th Infantry Division was deployed in the adjacent parts of the NDH.
The three occupation divisions had been raised during the spring of 1941, as part of the German Army's 15th Wave of conscription. The 704th was raised from the Dresden military district, the 714th from Königsberg, and the 717th from Salzburg. The 15th Wave divisions consisted of just two infantry regiments, one less than front line divisions, with each regiment comprising three battalions of four companies each. Each company was equipped with just one light mortar, rather than the usual three. The supporting arms of these divisions, such as engineer and signals elements, were only of company size, rather than the battalion-strength elements included in front line formations. Their supporting elements did not include medium mortars, medium machine guns, or anti-tank or infantry guns. Even their artillery was limited to a battalion of three batteries of four guns each, rather than a full regiment, and the divisions were short of all aspects of motorized transport, including spare tyres.
The 15th Wave divisions were usually equipped with captured motor vehicles and weapons, and were formed using reservists, usually older men not suitable for front line service, whose training was incomplete. The commanders at battalion and company level were generally veterans of World War I, and platoon commanders usually between 27 and 37 years old. The troops were conscripted from those born between 1907 and 1913, so they ranged from 28 to 34 years of age. The three divisions had been transported to the occupied territory between 7 and 24 May, and were initially tasked with guarding the key railway lines to Bulgaria and Greece.
By late June, Bader's headquarters had been established in Belgrade, and the three divisions in the occupied territory were deployed as follows:
704th Infantry Division, commanded by Generalmajor Heinrich Borowski, headquartered at Valjevo in the west
714th Infantry Division, commanded by Generalmajor Friedrich Stahl, headquartered at Topola roughly in the centre of the territory
717th Infantry Division, commanded by Generalmajor Paul Hoffmann, headquartered at Niš
The status of Bader's command was that the military commander in Serbia could order him to undertake operations against rebels, but he could not otherwise act as Bader's superior. Bader's command also included the 12th Panzer Company zbV, initially equipped with about 30 captured Yugoslav Renault FT tankettes, and a motorized signals battalion. The four Landesschützen battalions fell far short of the numbers needed for guarding tasks throughout the territory, which included; bridges, factories, mines, arms dumps of captured weapons, and shipping on the Danube. Consequently, the battalions of the occupation divisions were given many of these tasks, and were in some cases stationed apart, linked by poor roads and hampered by a lack of transport.
Difficulties of the Aćimović administration
While the commissioners were quite experienced in their portfolio areas or in politics or public administration generally, the Aćimović administration itself was in an extremely difficult position because it lacked any power to actually govern. The three main tasks of the Aćimović administration were to secure the acquiescence of the population to the German occupation, help restore services, and "identify and remove undesirables from public services". Refugees escaping persecution in the Independent State of Croatia, and others fleeing Bulgarian-annexed Macedonia, Kosovo and Hungarian-occupied Bačka and Baranja had begun to flood into the territory.
In late June 1941, the Aćimović administration issued an ordinance regarding the administration of the Banat which essentially made the region a separate civil administrative unit under the control of the local Volksdeutsche under the leadership of Sepp Janko. While the Banat was formally under the jurisdiction of the Aćimović administration, in practical terms it was largely autonomous of Belgrade and under the direction of the military government through the military area command in Pančevo.
Resistance begins
In early July 1941, shortly after the launching of Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union, armed resistance began against both the Germans and the Aćimović authorities. This was a response to appeals from both Joseph Stalin and the Communist International for communist organisations across occupied Europe to draw German troops away from the Eastern Front, and followed a meeting of the Central Committee of the Yugoslav Communist Party in Belgrade on 4 July. This meeting resolved to shift to a general uprising, form Partisan detachments of fighters and commence armed resistance, and call for the populace to rise up against the occupiers throughout Yugoslavia. This also coincided with the departure of the last of the German invasion force that had remained to oversee the transition to occupation. From the appearance of posters and pamphlets urging the population to undertake sabotage, it rapidly turned to attempted and actual sabotage of German propaganda facilities and railway and telephone lines. The first fighting occurred at the village of Bela Crkva on 7 July, when gendarmes tried to disperse a public meeting, and two gendarmes were killed. At the end of the first week in July, List requested the Luftwaffe transfer a training school to the territory, as operational units were not available. Soon after, gendarmerie stations and patrols were being attacked, and German vehicles were fired upon. Armed groups first appeared in the Aranđelovac district, northwest of Topola.
On 10 July, Aćimović's administration was re-organized, with Ranislav Avramović replacing Kostić in the transportation portfolio, Budimir Cvijanović replacing Protić in the food and agriculture area, and Velibor Jonić taking over the education portfolio from Jojić.
In mid-July, Mihailović sent Lieutenant Neško Nedić to meet with a representative of Aćimović's to ensure he was aware that Mihailović's forces had nothing to do with the "communist terror". The Germans then encouraged Aćimović to make an arrangement with Mihailović, but Mihailović refused. Nevertheless, neither the Germans nor Aćimović took effective action against Mihailović during the summer. On 17 July, Einsatzgruppe Serbien personnel were distributed among the four area commands as "security advisors". The following day, Generalmajor Adalbert Lontschar, commander of the 704th Infantry Division's 724th Infantry Regiment was travelling from Valjevo when his staff car was fired on near the village of Razna, wounding one occupant. In response, the district command executed 52 Jews, communists and others, with the assistance of the Serbian gendarmerie and Einsatzgruppe Serbia. Also in July, the German military government ordered the Jewish community representatives to supply 40 hostages each week who would be executed as reprisals for attacks on the Wehrmacht and German police. Subsequently, when reprisal killings of hostages were announced, most referred to the killing of "communists and Jews".
In late July, Schröder died after being injured in an aircraft accident. When the new German Military Commander in Serbia, Luftwaffe General der Flieger Heinrich Danckelmann, was unable to obtain more German troops or police to suppress the revolt, he had to consider every option available. As Danckelmann had been told to utilise available forces as ruthlessly as possible, Turner suggested that Danckelmann strengthen the Aćimović administration so that it might subdue the rebellion itself. The Germans considered the Aćimović administration incompetent and by mid-July were already discussing replacing Aćimović. On 29 July, in reprisal for an arson attack on German transport in Belgrade by a 16-year-old Jewish boy, Einsatzgruppe Serbien executed 100 Jews and 22 communists. By August, around 100,000 Serbs had crossed into the occupied territory from the NDH, fleeing persecution by the Ustaše. They were joined by more than 37,000 refugees from Hungarian-occupied Bačka and Baranja, and 20,000 from Bulgarian-annexed Macedonia. At the end of July, two battalions of the 721st Regiment of the 704th Infantry Division were sent to suppress rebels in the Banat region, who had destroyed large wheat stores in the Petrovgrad district. Such interventions were not successful, as the occupation divisions lacked the mobility and training for counter-insurgency.
On 4 August, Danckelmann requested that the OKW reinforce his administration with two additional police battalions and another 200 SD security personnel. This was rebuffed due to the needs of the Eastern Front, but before he had received a reply, he had made a request for an additional Landesschützen battalion, and had asked List for an additional division. List had supported the requests for more Landesschützen battalions, so on 9 August OKH authorized the raising of two additional companies for the Belgrade-based 562nd Landesschützen Battalion. On 11 August, unable to obtain significant reinforcements from elsewhere, Danckelmann ordered Bader to put down the revolt, and two days later Bader issued orders to that effect.
Appeal to the Serbian Nation
In response to the revolt, the Aćimović administration encouraged 545 or 546 prominent and influential Serbs to sign the Appeal to the Serbian Nation, which was published in the German-authorized Belgrade daily newspaper Novo vreme on 13 and 14 August. Those that signed included three Serbian Orthodox bishops, four archpriests, and at least 81 professors from the University of Belgrade, although according to the historian Stevan K. Pavlowitch, many of the signatories were placed under pressure to sign. The appeal called upon the Serbian population to help the authorities in every way in their struggle against the communist rebels, and called for loyalty to the Nazis, condemning the Partisan-led resistance as unpatriotic. The Serbian Bar Association unanimously supported the Appeal. Aćimović also gave orders that the wives of communists and their sons older than 16 years of age be arrested and held, and the Germans burned their houses and imposed curfews.
Resistance intensifies
On 13 August, Bader reneged on Danckelmann's pledge to allow the Commissioner Government to maintain control the Serbian gendarmerie, and ordered that they be re-organized into units of 50 to 100 men under the direction of local German commanders. He also directed the three divisional commanders to have their battalions form Jagdkommandos, lightly armed and mobile "hunter teams", incorporating elements of Einsatzgruppe Serbien and the gendarmerie. The following day, the Aćimović administration appealed for rebels to return to their homes and announced bounties for the killing of rebels and their leaders.
The Aćimović administration had suffered 246 attacks between 1 July and 15 August, killing 82 rebels for the loss of 26. The Germans began shooting hostages and burning villages in response to attacks. On 17 August, a company of the 704th Infantry Division's 724th Infantry Regiment killed 15 communists in fighting near Užice, then shot another 23 they rounded up on suspicion they were smuggling provisions to interned communists. The bodies of 19 of the executed men were hung at the Užice railway station. At the end of August, the Salonika-based 164th Infantry Division's 433rd Infantry Regiment was ordered to detach a battalion to Bader's command. During August, there were 242 attacks on the Serbian administration and gendarmerie, as well as railway lines, telephone wires, mines and factories. The Belgrade-Užice-Ćuprija-Paraćin-Zaječar railway line was hardest hit. A sign of the rapid escalation of the revolt was that 135 of the attacks occurred in the last 10 days of the month. The German troops themselves had lost 22 killed and 17 wounded. By the end of the month, the number of communists and Jews shot or hanged had reached 1,000. The number of Partisans in the territory had grown to around 14,000 by August.
To strengthen the puppet government, Danckelmann wanted to find a Serb who was both well-known and highly regarded by the population who could raise some sort of Serbian armed force and who would be willing to use it ruthlessly against the rebels whilst remaining under full German control. These ideas ultimately resulted in the replacement of the entire Aćimović administration at the end of August 1941.
Formation of the Government of National Salvation
In response to a request from Benzler, the Foreign Office sent SS-Standartenführer Edmund Veesenmayer to provide assistance in establishing a new puppet government that would meet German requirements. Five months earlier, Veesenmayer had engineered the proclamation of the NDH. Veesenmayer engaged in a series of consultations with German commanders and officials in Belgrade, interviewed a number of possible candidates to lead the new puppet government, then selected former Yugoslav Minister of the Army and Navy General Milan Nedić as the best available. The Germans had to apply significant pressure to Nedić to encourage him to accept the position, including threats to bring Bulgarian and Hungarian troops into the occupied territory and to send him to Germany as a prisoner of war. Unlike most Yugoslav generals, Nedić had not been interned in Germany after the capitulation, but instead had been placed under house arrest in Belgrade.
On 27 August 1941, about seventy-five prominent Serbs convened a meeting in Belgrade where they resolved that Nedić should form a Government of National Salvation (, ) to replace the Commissioner Government, and on the same day, Nedić wrote to Danckelmann agreeing to become the Prime Minister of the new government on the basis of five conditions and some additional concessions. Two days later, the German authorities appointed Nedić and his government, although real power continued to reside with the German occupiers. There is no written record of whether Danckelmann accepted Nedić's conditions, but he did make some of the requested concessions, including allowing the use of Serbian national and state emblems by the Nedić government. The Council of Ministers comprised Nedić, Aćimović, Janković, Ognjen Kuzmanović, Josif Kostić, Panta Draškić, Ljubiša Mikić, Čedomir Marjanović, Miloš Radosavljević, Mihailo Olćan, Miloš Trivunac, and Jovan Mijušković. The ministers fell into three broad groupings; those associated closely with Nedić, allies of Ljotić, and Aćimović. There was no foreign minister or minister for the Army and Navy. The Nedić regime itself "had no status under international law, and no power beyond that delegated by the Germans", and "was simply an auxiliary organ of the German occupation regime".
The Nedić government was appointed at a time when the resistance was escalating quickly. On 31 August alone, there were 18 attacks on railway stations and railway lines across the territory. On 31 August, the town of Loznica was captured by the Jadar Chetnik Detachment as part of a mutual co-operation agreement signed with the Partisans. List was surprised at the appointment of Nedić, as he had not been consulted. The fait accompli was accepted, although he held some reservations. On 1 September, he issued orders to Danckelmann and Bader for the suppression of the revolt, but did not share Danckelmann's optimism about Nedić's capacity to suppress the rebellion.
The Nedić government ostensibly had a policy of keeping Serbia quiet to prevent Serbian blood from being spilled. The regime carried out German demands faithfully, aiming to secure place for Serbia in the New European Order created by the Nazis. The propaganda used by the Nedić regime labeled Nedić as the "father of Serbia", who was rebuilding Serbia and who had accepted his role in order to save the nation. Institutions that were formed by the Nedić government were similar to those in Nazi Germany, while documents signed by Milan Nedić used racist terminology that was taken from national-socialist ideology. The propaganda glorified the Serbian "race", accepting its "aryanhood", and determined what should be Serbian "living space". It urged the youth to follow Nedić in the building of the New Order in Serbia and Europe. Nedić aimed to assure the public that the war was over for Serbia in April 1941. He perceived his time as being "after the war", i.e., as a time of peace, progress and serenity. Nedić claimed that all deeds of his government were enabled by the occupants, to whom people should be grateful for secured life and "honorable place of associates in the building of the new World".
Nedić hoped that his collaboration would save what was left of Serbia and avoid total destruction by German reprisals. He personally kept in contact with Yugoslavia's exiled King Peter, assuring the King that he was not another Pavelić (the leader of the Croatian Ustaše), and Nedić's defenders claimed he was like Philippe Pétain of Vichy France (who was claimed to have defended the French people while accepting the occupation), and denied that he was leading a weak Quisling regime.
Crisis point
Soon after the appointment of the Nedić regime, the insurgency reached a crisis point. At the beginning of September, the area north of Valjevo, between the Drina and Sava rivers, was the centre of activity of well-armed and well-led insurgent groups. Six companies were committed against snipers that were targeting German troops and Serbian gendarmerie in the area. One of the companies was surrounded and cut-off at Koviljača, southwest of Loznica on the banks of the Drina, and had to be evacuated by air. But the German situation took a serious turn for the worse when the garrison of the antimony works at Krupanj were isolated on 1 September. Over the next day, the outlying posts of the 10th and 11th companies of the 704th Infantry Division's 724th Infantry Regiment were pushed into Krupanj by insurgent attacks. The rebels demanded that the garrison surrender, and when the deadline expired, launched a series of attacks on the main positions of both companies between 00:30 and 06:00 on 3 September. By that evening, both companies realized they were in danger of being overrun, and attempted to break out of the encirclement the following day. Of the 10th Company, only 36 men were able to make their way to Valjevo, and 42 men were missing from the 11th Company. In total, despite air support, the two companies suffered nine dead, 30 wounded and 175 missing.
On 4 September, List instructed Böhme to release the rest of the 433rd Infantry Regiment of the 164th Infantry Division to Bader. Ultimately, Böhme transferred the 125th Infantry Regiment and a battalion from the 220th Artillery Regiment instead. Bader had also taken control of the 220th Panzerjaeger (Anti-tank) Battalion from the 164th Infantry Division. The following day, Danckelmann asked that if a front line division was not available to reinforce Bader's troops, that a division from the Replacement Army be provided. In the following week, insurgents carried out 81 attacks on infrastructure, 175 on the Serbian gendarmerie, and 11 on German troops, who suffered another 30 dead, 15 wounded and 11 missing. During that week, List advised OKW that the troops at hand, including those recently transferred from Böhme's command, would not suffice to put down the rebellion. He recommended that at least one powerful division be transferred to Serbia as soon as possible, along with tanks, armoured cars and armoured trains, and asked that a single commander be appointed to direct all operations against the insurgents.
By 9 September, with Danckelmann's approval, Nedić had recruited former Yugoslav Army soldiers into the gendarmerie, and increased its size from 2–3,000 to 5,000. He had also set up an auxiliary police force and a type of militia. Danckelmann had also provided Nedić with 15,000 rifles and a significant number of machine guns to equip his forces. On 15 September, Nedić used a radio address to demand that the insurgents lay down their arms and cease all acts of sabotage. He established special courts, and began a purge of the bureaucracy. The lack of success achieved by this approach was evident when one battalion of gendarmes refused to fight the insurgents and another surrendered to them without firing a shot. When Bader objected to a dispersed deployment of the 125th Infantry Regiment, Danckelmann insisted it was necessary to send a battalion to Šabac to disarm the gendarmerie battalion there, who refused to fight. After the loss at Krupanj, the three occupation divisions were brought closer together and concentrated in greater strength, to reduce the threat of more companies being destroyed piecemeal. The 718th Infantry Division closed up on the west side of the Drina, the 704th near Valjevo, the 714th near Topola, and the 717th near the copper mines at Bor. The dispersal of the 125th Infantry Regiment meant Bader was unable to mount a planned offensive against Valjevo. By this time, the Germans had no effective control of the area west of a line Mitrovica-Šabac-Valjevo-Užice.
Reinforcements arrive
On 14 September, List's request for reinforcement was finally agreed by OKH. The 342nd Infantry Division was ordered to deploy from occupation duties in France, and I Battalion of the 202nd Panzer Regiment of the 100th Panzer Brigade, equipped with captured French SOMUA S35 and Hotchkiss H35 tanks, was also transferred to Bader's command.
Mačva operation
The 342nd Infantry Division commenced its first major operation in late September in the Mačva region west of Šabac between the Drina and Sava. The targeted area was approximately in size. The first phase of the operation was the clearance of Šabac from 24–27 September, for which the division was reinforced by II/750th Infantry Regiment of the 718th Infantry Division, and by a company of the 64th Reserve Police Battalion. The second phase involved clearing of the wider area from 28 September – 9 October, supported by air reconnaissance, with limited dive-bomber support also available.
Mount Cer operation
The Mačva operation was followed immediately by an operation aimed at clearing the insurgents from the Mount Cer area. From 10–15 October, the 342nd Infantry Division conducted a more targeted operation around Mount Cer, where the insurgents targeted in the Mačva operation had withdrawn. During this operation, the division was further reinforced with most of the captured French tanks of I/202nd Panzer Regiment.
Jadar operation
After a few days break, on 19 and 20 October the 342nd Infantry Division conducted its third major operation, aimed at clearing the Jadar region and the main centre of insurgent activity in that area, Krupanj. It retained the support of two Panzer companies, and had fire support available from Hungarian patrol boats from their Danube Flotilla.
Conflicts with the resistance
By late 1941, with each attack by Chetniks and Partisans, brought more reprisal massacres being committed by the German armed forces against Serbs. The largest Chetnik opposition group led by Mihailović decided that it was in the best interests of Serbs to temporarily shut down operations against the Germans until decisively beating the German armed forces looked possible. Mihailović justified this by saying "When it is all over and, with God's help, I was preserved to continue the struggle, I resolved that I would never again bring such misery on the country unless it could result in total liberation". Mihailović then reluctantly decided to allow some Chetniks to join Nedić's regime to launch attacks against Tito's Partisans. Mihailović saw as the main threat to Chetniks and, in his view, Serbs, as the Partisans who refused to back down fighting, which would almost certainly result in more German reprisal massacres of Serbs. With arms provided by the Germans, those Chetniks who joined Nedić's collaborationist armed forces, so they could pursue their civil war against the Partisans without fear of attack by the Germans, whom they intended to later turn against. This resulted in an increase of recruits to the regime's armed forces.
1942
In December 1941 and early January 1942 Chetnik leaders from Eastern Bosnia including Jezdimir Dangić in alliance with the government of Milan Nedić and the German military leadership in Belgrade negotiated about secession of 17 districts of eastern Bosnia and their annexation to Nedić's Serbia. During this negotiations was formed temporary Chetnik administration in eastern Bosnia with intention of establishing autonomy while the area does not united with Serbia. At that time it seems that the Chetnik movement had succeeded in creating initial basis for "Greater Serbia" but with diplomatic activity of the NDH authorities toward Berlin attempt to change state borders of the NDH were prevented.
1943
In January 1943, Nedić proposed a basic law for Serbia, in effect a constitution creating an authoritarian corporative state similar to that long advocated by Dimitrije Ljotić and his pre-war fascist Yugoslav National Movement. Bader asked the various agency heads for their views, and despite some specialists recommending its adoption, Meyszner strongly opposed it, seeing it as a threat to German interests. Passed to Löhr then to Hitler, a response was received in March. Hitler considered it "untimely". Nedić during negotiations with Hitler and Hermann Neubacher was arming and organising Bosnian Chetnik bands with attempt to expand his influence into East Bosnia. One of Mihailović's closest personal friends and collaborators, Pavle Đurišić, simultaneously held a command for Nedić, and in 1943 tried to exterminate the Muslims and pro-Partisans of the Sandžak region. The massacres he carried out were compared to the Croatian Ustashe and Muslim massacres of Serbs in the NDH in 1941. Nedić was received by Hitler and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop at Hitler's Wolf's Lair on 18 September 1943, where Nedić requested the annexation of East Bosnia, Montenegro, the Sanjak, Kosovo-Metohija and Srem but this was rejected.
The Germans soon found mass executions of Serbs to be ineffectual and counterproductive, as they tended to drive the population into the arms of insurgents. The massacres caused Nedić to urge that the arbitrary shooting of Serbs be stopped, Böhme agreed and ordered a halt to the executions until further notice. The ratio of 100 executions for one soldier killed and 50 executions for one soldier wounded was reduced by half in February 1943, and removed altogether later in the year.
1944
The first six months of 1944 were marked by heavy fighting in western and southern parts of the country, as the Yugoslav Partisans made several incursions across the Drina and Lim Rivers. These were made in order to augment the local detachments with veteran forces from Bosnia and Montenegro, defeat the Chetniks, and strengthen the NOVJ positions in anticipation of the arrival of the Soviet forces from the east.
Collapse
By the fall of 1944, the Eastern Front had nearly reached the territory. Most of Serbia was liberated from the Germans over the course of the Belgrade Offensive carried out by the Red Army, Yugoslav Partisans and Bulgarian forces. With the onset of the Belgrade Offensive by the Red Army and the Partisans, the administration was evacuated from Serbia to Vienna in October 1944.
The puppet governments established by the Germans were little more than subsidiary organs of the German occupation authorities, looking after some of the administration of the territory and sharing the blame for the brutal rule of the Germans. They had no international standing, even within the Axis. Their powers, quite limited from the beginning, were further reduced over time, which was frustrating and difficult for Nedić in particular. Despite the ambitions of the Nedić government to establish an independent state, the area remained subordinated to the German military authorities until the end of its existence.
The real power rested with the administration's Military Commanders, who controlled both the German armed forces and Serb collaborationist forces. In 1941, the administration's Military Commander, Franz Böhme, responded to guerrilla attacks on German forces by carrying out the German policy towards partisans that 100 people would be killed for each German killed and 50 people killed for each wounded German. The first set of reprisals were the massacres in Kragujevac and in Kraljevo by the Wehrmacht. These proved to be counterproductive to the German forces in the aftermath, as it ruined any possibility of gaining any substantial numbers of Serbs to support the collaborationist regime of Nedić. Additionally, it was discovered that in Kraljevo, a Serbian workforce group which was building airplanes for the Axis forces had been among the victims. The massacres caused Nedić to urge that the arbitrary shooting of Serbs be stopped, Böhme agreed and ordered a halt to the executions until further notice.
Geography
Rump Serbia
On the day that the Axis invaded Yugoslavia, Hitler issued instructions for the dismemberment of the country, entitled the "Temporary Guidelines for Division of Yugoslavia". These instructions directed that what Hitler considered to be Alt Serbien (Old Serbia, meaning the territory of the Kingdom of Serbia prior to the Balkan Wars), would be placed under German occupation. This decision reflected the anger Hitler felt against Serbs, who he saw as the main instigators of the Belgrade military coup of 27 March 1941 which brought down the Yugoslav government that had acceded to the Tripartite Pact two days earlier. The general approach Hitler took in these instructions was to ensure that Serbia was punished by being reduced to a "rump".
Banat
After discussions with both the Romanian and Hungarian governments, Hitler decided that the Vojvodina region would be divided by the river Tisa, with the eastern portion (the Serbian Banat) being placed under German occupation along with "Old Serbia". The portion of Vojvodina west of the Tisa was occupied and soon annexed by the Hungarians. Romanian-Hungarian rivalry was not the only reason for retaining the Banat under German occupation, as it also contained some 120,000 ethnic Germans (or Volksdeutsche) and was a valuable economic region. In addition to the Tisa, the other borders of the Banat were the Danube to the south, and the post-World War I Yugoslav-Romanian and Yugoslav-Hungarian borders in the north and east.
Syrmia
An area of eastern Syrmia was initially included in the occupied territory for military and economic reasons, especially given Belgrade's airport and radio station were located there. The number of Volksdeutsche living in the area along with its role in providing food for Belgrade were also factors in the original decision. During this early period the border between the occupied territory and the NDH ran between the villages of Slankamen on the Danube and Boljevci on the Sava. However, after pressure from the NDH supported by the German ambassador to Zagreb, Siegfried Kasche it was gradually transferred to NDH control with the approval of the Military Commander in Serbia, and became a formal part of the NDH on 10 October 1941, forming the Zemun and Stara Pazova districts of the Vuka County of the NDH. The local Volksdeutsche soon asked for the area to be returned to German control, but this did not occur. As a result of the transfer of this region, the borders of the NDH then reached to the outskirts of Belgrade.
Western border
Much of the western border between the occupied territory and the NDH had been approved by the Germans and announced by Ante Pavelić on 7 June 1941. However, this approved border only followed the Drina downstream as far as Bajina Bašta, and beyond this point the border had not been finalized. On 5 July 1941 this border was fixed as continuing to follow the Drina until the confluence with the Brusnica tributary east of the village of Zemlica, then east of the Drina following the pre-World War I Bosnia and Herzegovina–Serbia border.
Sandžak
The Sandžak region was initially divided between the Germans in the north and the Italians in the south using an extension of the so-called "Vienna Line" which divided Yugoslavia into German and Italian zones of influence. The border of the occupied territory through the Sandžak was modified several times in quick succession during April and May 1941, eventually settling on the general line of Priboj–Nova Varoš–Sjenica–Novi Pazar, although the towns of Rudo, Priboj, Nova Varoš, Sjenica and Duga Poljana were on the Italian-occupied Montenegrin side of the border. The town of Novi Pazar remained in German hands. The NDH government was unhappy with these arrangements, as they wanted to annex the Sandžak to the NDH and considered it would be easier for them to achieve this if the Germans occupied a larger portion of the region.
Kosovo
The line between the German occupation territory and Italian Albania in the Kosovo region was the cause of a significant clash of interests, mainly due to the important lead and zinc mines at Trepča and the key railway line Kosovska Mitrovica–Pristina–Uroševac–Kačanik–Skopje. Ultimately the Germans prevailed, with the "Vienna Line" extending from Novi Pazar in the Sandžak through Kosovska Mitrovica and Pristina, along the railway between Pristina and Uroševac and then towards Tetovo in modern-day North Macedonia before turning northeast to meet Bulgarian-annexed territory near Orlova Čuka. The Kosovska Mitrovica, Vučitrn and Lab districts, along with part of the Gračanica district were all part of the German-occupied territory. This territory included a number of other important mines, including the lead mine at Belo Brdo, an asbestos mine near Jagnjenica and a magnesite mine at Dubovac near Vučitrn.
Administration
The territory of Serbia was the only area of Yugoslavia in which the Germans imposed a military government of occupation, largely due to the key transport routes and important resources located in the territory. Despite prior agreement with the Italians that they would establish an 'independent Serbia', Serbia in fact had a puppet government, Germany accorded it no status in international law except that of a fully occupied country, and it did not enjoy formal diplomatic status with the Axis powers and their satellites as the NDH did. The occupation arrangements underwent a series of changes between April 1941 and 1944, however throughout the German occupation, the military commander in Serbia was the head of the occupation regime. This position underwent a number of title changes during the occupation. The day-to-day administration of the occupation was conducted by the chief of the military administration branch responsible to the military commander in Serbia. The puppet governments established by the Germans were responsible to the chief of military administration, although multiple and often parallel chains of German command and control meant that the puppet government was responsible to different German functionaries for different aspects of the occupation regime, such as the special plenipotentiary for economic affairs and the Higher SS and Police Leader. For example, the plenipotentiary for economic affairs, Franz Neuhausen, who was Göring's personal representative in the occupied territory, was directly responsible to the Reichsmarshall for aspects of the German Four Year Plan, and had complete control over the Serbian economy.
The territory was administered on a day-to-day basis by the Military Administration in Serbia (). With the economic branch, the Military Administration initially formed one of the two staff branches responsible to the Military Commander in Serbia. In January 1942, with the appointment of a Higher SS and Police Leader in Serbia, a police branch was added. Whilst the heads of the economic and police branches of the staff were theoretically responsible to the Military Commander in Serbia, in practice they were responsible directly to their respective chiefs in Berlin. This created significant rivalry and confusion between the staff branches, but also created overwhelming difficulties for the Nedić puppet government that was responsible to the chief of military administration, who himself had little control or influence with the chiefs of the other staff branches.
The officers serving as military commander of the territory were as follows:
Administrative divisions
The Germans created four military area commands () within the occupied territory, with each area command further divided into one or more district commands (), and about one hundred towns and localities had town or post commands () that were under the control of the district commands. Each area or district command had its own military, administrative, economic, police and other staff depending on local requirements, which allowed the chief of the Military Administration to implement German decrees and policies throughout the occupied territory. In December 1941, the military administration areas were adjusted to conform to corresponding civil areas.
In the Banat, an area command (No. 610) was initially established at Pančevo, with a district command (No. 823) at Veliki Bečkerek. The Pančevo area command was subsequently moved to Kraljevo, but the district command at Veliki Bečkerek remained in place, becoming an independent district command reporting directly to the Military Commander.
From December 1941 until the German withdrawal, the German area commands were located in Belgrade, Niš, Šabac and Kraljevo, with district commands as follows:
Area Command No. 599 Belgrade: District Command No. 378 in Požarevac.
Area Command No. 809 Niš: District Commands No. 857 in Zaječar and No. 867 in Leskovac.
Area Command No. 816 Šabac: District Command No. 861 in Valjevo.
Area Command No. 610 Kraljevo: District Commands No. 832 in Kragujevac, No. 833 in Kruševac, No. 834 in Ćuprija, No. 838 in Kosovska Mitrovica, and No. 847 in Užice.
The German area and district commanders directed and supervised the corresponding representative of the Serbian puppet government.
The puppet government established okruzi and srezovi with the former having identical boundaries with the military districts.
Administration of the Banat
Administration of northern Kosovo
Military
Axis occupation forces
Due to the serious nature of the uprising that started in July 1941, the Germans began sending combat troops back to the territory, starting in September with the 125th Infantry Regiment supported by additional artillery deployed from Greece, and by the end of the month the 342nd Infantry Division began arriving from occupied France. A detachment of the 100th Tank Brigade was also sent to the territory. These troops were used against the resistance in the north-west of the territory, which they pacified by the end of October. Due to stronger resistance in the south-west, the 113th Infantry Division arrived from the Eastern Front in November and this part of the territory was also pacified by early December 1941.
Following the suppression of the uprising, the Germans again withdrew the combat formations from the territory, leaving behind only the weaker garrison divisions. In January 1942, the 113th Infantry Division returned to the Eastern Front, and the 342nd Infantry Division deployed to the NDH to fight the Partisans. To secure the railroads, highways and other infrastructure, the Germans began to make use of Bulgarian occupation troops in large areas of the occupied territory, although these troops were under German command and control. This occurred in three phases, with the Bulgarian 1st Occupation Corps consisting of three divisions moving into the occupied territory on 31 December 1941. This corps was initially responsible for about 40% of the territory (excluding the Banat), bounded by the Ibar river in the west between Kosovska Mitrovica and Kraljevo, the West Morava river between Kraljevo and Čačak, and then a line running roughly east from Čačak through Kragujevac to the border with Bulgaria. They were therefore responsible for large sections of the Belgrade–Niš–Sofia and Niš–Skopje railway lines, as well as the main Belgrade–Niš–Skopje highway.
In January 1943, the Bulgarian area was expanded westwards to include all areas west of the Ibar river and south of a line running roughly west from Čačak to the border with occupied Montenegro and the NDH. This released the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, which had been garrisoning this area over the winter, to deploy into the NDH and take part in Case White against the Partisans. Many members of the Volksdeutsche from Serbia and the Banat were serving in the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen. This division was responsible for war crimes committed against the peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In July 1943, the Bulgarian occupation zone expanded northwards, with a fourth division, the 25th Division taking over from the 297th Infantry Division in the rest of the territory (excluding the Banat) that did not share a border with the NDH. From this point, German forces only directly occupied the immediate area of Belgrade, the northwest region of the territory that shared a border with the NDH, and the Banat.
Collaborationist forces
Aside from the Wehrmacht, which was the dominant Axis military in the territory, and (from January 1942) the Bulgarian armed forces, the Germans relied on local collaborationist formations for the maintenance of order.Local movements were formed nominally as subordinate to the local puppet government, but remained under direct German control throughout the war. The primary collaborationist formation was the Serbian State Guard, which functioned as the "regular army" of the Government of National Salvation of General Nedić (hence their nickname, Nedićevci). By October 1941 German-equipped Serbian forces had, under supervision, become increasingly effective against the resistance.
In addition to the Serbian State Guard regulars, there were three officially organized German auxiliary armed groups formed during the German occupation. These were the Serbian Volunteer Corps, the Russian Corps, and the small Auxiliary Police Troop composed of Russian Volksdeutsche. The Germans also used two other armed groups as auxiliaries, the Chetnik detachments of Kosta Pećanac which started collaborating with the Germans from the time of the Nedić government's appointment in August 1941, and later the 'legalized' Chetnik detachments of Mihailović. Some of these organizations wore the uniform of the Royal Yugoslav Army as well as helmets and uniforms purchased from Italy, while others used uniforms and equipment from Germany.
Foremost among these was the Serbian Volunteer Corps, largely composed of paramilitaries and supporters of the fascist Yugoslav National Movement (ZBOR) of Ljotić (hence the nickname Ljotićevci). Founded in 1941, the formation was initially called "Serbian Volunteer Command", but was reorganized in 1943 and renamed the "Serbian Volunteer Corps", with Kosta Mušicki as the operational leader. At the end of 1944, the Corps and its German liaison staff were transferred to the Waffen-SS as the Serbian SS Corps and comprised a staff from four regiments each with three battalions and a training battalion. The Russian Corps was founded on 12 September 1941 by white Russian emigres, and remained active in Serbia until 1944.
Recruits to the collaborationist forces increased in numbers following joining of Chetnik groups loyal to Pećanac. By their own postwar account, these Chetniks joined with the intention to destroy Tito's Partisans, rather than supporting Nedić and the German occupation forces, whom they later intended to turn against.
In late 1941, the main Chetnik movement of Mihailović ("Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland") was increasingly coming to an understanding with Nedić's government. After being dispersed following conflicts with Partisan and German forces during the First Enemy Offensive, Chetnik troops in the area came to an understanding with Nedić. As "legalized" Chetnik formations, they collaborated with the quisling regime in Belgrade, while nominally remaining part of the Mihailović Chetniks. As military conditions in Serbia deteriorated, Nedić increasingly cooperated with Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović. Over the course of 1944 Chetniks assassinated two high-ranking Serbian military officials who had obstructed their work. Brigadier-general Miloš Masalović was murdered in March, while rival Chetnik leader Pećanac was killed in June.
Police
At the beginning of the occupation, the Military Commander in Serbia was provided with a Security Police Special Employment Squad () consisting of detachments of Gestapo, criminal police and the SD or Security Service (). Initially commanded by SS and Police Leader () Standartenführer und Oberst der Polizei Wilhelm Fuchs, this group was technically under the control of the chief of the Military Administration in Serbia, Harald Turner, but in practice reported direct to Berlin. In January 1942, the status of the police organisation was raised by the appointment of a Higher SS and Police Leader () Obergruppenführer und Generalleutnant der SS August Meyszner. Meyszner was replaced in April 1944 by Generalleutnant der SS Hermann Behrends.
Demographics
The population of the occupied territory was approximately 3,810,000, composed primarily of Serbs (up to 3,000,000) and Germans . Other nationalities of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia have been mostly separated from Serbia and included within their respective ethnic states – e.g., the Croats, Bulgarians, Albanians, Hungarians, etc. Most of the Serbs however ended up outside the Nazi Serbian state, as they were forced to join other states.
By the summer of 1942, is estimated that around 400,000 Serbs had been expelled or had fled from others parts of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and were living in the occupied territory.
The autonomous area of the Banat was a multi-ethnic area with a total population of 640,000, of which 280,000 (43.7%) were Serbs, 130,000 (20.3%) were Germans, 90,000 (14.0%) were Hungarians, 65,000 (10.1%) Romanians, 15,000 (2.3%) Slovaks and 60,000 (9.3%) of other ethnicities.
Of the 16,700 Jewish people in Serbia and the Banat, 15,000 (89.8%) were killed. In total, it is estimated that approximately 80,000 people were killed from 1941 to 1944 in concentration camps the occupied territory. Turner declared in August 1942, that the "Jewish question" in Serbia had been "liquidated" and that Serbia was the first country in Europe to be Judenfrei; free of Jews.
Economy
Banking and currency
After the collapse of Yugoslavia, the National Bank of Yugoslavia was forced into liquidation on 29 May 1941, and two days later a decree was issued by the Military Commander in Serbia creating the Serbian National Bank. The new bank was under the direct control of Franz Neuhausen, the plenipotentiary general for economic affairs, who appointed the governor and board members of the bank, as well as a German commissioner who represented Neuhausen at the bank and had to approve all important transactions. The new bank introduced the Serbian dinar as the only legal currency and called in all Yugoslav dinars for exchange.
The traditional Obrenović coat of arms was found on bills and coins minus the royal crown.
After the war Yugoslavia scrapped the Serbian dinar and other currencies of the Independent State of Croatia and Montenegro in 1945.
German exploitation of the economy
Immediately after the capitulation of Yugoslavia, the Germans confiscated all the assets of the defeated Yugoslav army, including about 2 billion dinars in the occupied territory of Serbia. It also seized all usable raw materials and used occupation currency to purchase goods available in the territory. It then placed under its control all useful military production assets in the country, and although it operated some armament, ammunition and aircraft production factories in situ for a short period of time, after the July 1941 uprising, it dismantled all of them and relocated them outside the territory.
Next, the occupation authorities assumed control of all transportation and communication systems, including riverine transport on the Danube. And finally, it took control of all significant mining, industrial and financial enterprises in the territory that were not already under Axis control prior to the invasion.
In order to coordinate and ensure maximum exploitation of the Serbian economy, the Germans appointed Franz Neuhausen, who was effectively the economic dictator in the territory. Initially the Plenipotentiary General for Economic Affairs in Serbia, he soon became the Plenipotentiary for the Four Year Plan under Göring, Plenipotentiary for Metal Ores Production in South-East Europe, and Plenipotentiary for Labour in Serbia. From October 1943, he became the Chief of Military Administration in Serbia, responsible for the administration of all aspects of the entire territory. Ultimately, he had full control of the Serbian economy and finances, and fully controlled the Serbian National Bank, in order to use all parts of the Serbian economy to support the German war effort.
As part of this, the Germans imposed huge occupation costs on the Serbian territory from the outset, including amounts required to run the military administration of the territory as determined by the Wehrmacht, and an additional annual contribution to the Reich set by the Military Economic and Armaments Office. The occupation costs were paid by the Serbian Ministry of Finance on a monthly basis into a special account with the Serbian National Bank.
Over the entire period of the occupation, the Serbian puppet governments paid the Germans about 33,248 million dinars in occupation costs. Occupation costs amounted to about 40% of the current national income of the territory by mid-1944.
Culture
With the dissolution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, many newspapers went out of print while new papers were formed. Soon after the occupation began, the German occupation authorities issued orders requiring the registration of all printing equipment and restrictions on what could be published. Only those that had been registered and approved by the German authorities could edit such publications. On 16 May 1941 the first new daily, Novo vreme (New Times), was formed. The weekly Naša borba (Our Struggle) was formed by the fascist ZBOR party in 1941, its title echoing Hitler's Mein Kampf (My Struggle). The regime itself released the Službene novine (Official Gazette) which attempted to continue the tradition of the official paper of the same name which was released in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
The state of film in Serbia was somewhat improved compared to the situation in the Yugoslavia. During that time, the number of cinemas in Belgrade was increased to 21, with a daily attendance of between 12,000 and 15,000 people. The two most popular films were 1943's Nevinost bez zaštite and Golden City which were watched by 62,000 and 108,000 respectively.
The German occupation authorities issued special orders regulating the opening of theatres and other places of entertainment which excluded Jews. The Serbian National Theatre in Belgrade remained open during this time. Works performed during this period included La bohème, The Marriage of Figaro, Der Freischütz, Tosca, Dva cvancika and Nesuđeni zetovi.
Racial persecution
Racial laws were introduced in all occupied territories with immediate effects on Jews and Roma people, as well as causing the imprisonment of those opposed to Nazism. Several concentration camps were formed in Serbia and at the 1942 Anti-Freemason Exhibition in Belgrade the city was pronounced to be free of Jews (Judenfrei). On 1 April 1942, a Serbian Gestapo was formed. An estimated 120,000 people were interned in Nazi-run concentration camps in the occupied territory between 1941 and 1944. 50,000 to 80,000 were killed during this period. The Banjica Concentration Camp was jointly run by the German Army and Nedic's regime. Serbia became the second country in Europe, following Estonia, to be proclaimed Judenfrei (free of Jews). Approximately 14,500 Serbian Jews – 90 percent of Serbia's Jewish population of 16,000 – were murdered in World War II.
Collaborationist armed formations forces were involved, either directly or indirectly, in the mass killings of Jews, Roma and those Serbs who sided with any anti-German resistance or were suspects of being a member of such. These forces were also responsible for the killings of many Croats and Muslims; however, some Croats who took refuge in the occupied territory were not discriminated against. After the war, the Serbian involvement in many of these events and the issue of Serbian collaboration were subject to historical revisionism by Serbian leaders.
The following were the concentration camps established in the occupied territory:
Banjica concentration camp (Belgrade)
Crveni krst concentration camp (Niš)
Topovske Šupe (Belgrade)
Šabac concentration camp
Located on the outskirts of Belgrade, Sajmište concentration camp was actually situated on the territory of the Independent State of Croatia.
Post-war trials
The most prominent Serbian collaborators died before they could be tried. Dimitrije Ljotić died in a car accident in Slovenia in April 1945, while Milan Aćimović was killed by Yugoslav Partisans during the Battle of Zelengora. Milan Nedić was extradited to Yugoslavia in early 1946 but died in prison before facing trial. After their arrival in Belgrade the Partisans executed Radoslav Veselinović, Dušan Đorđević, Momčilo Janković, Čedomir Marjanović and Jovan Mijušković on 27 November 1944. A group of ministers in the Nedić government were tried together as part of the same process led against Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović. Kosta Mušicki, Tanasije Dinić, Velibor Jonić, Dragomir Jovanović, and Đura Dokić were subsequently executed on 17 July 1946.
Some of the members of government fled abroad and were never brought to trial. These included Kostić who moved to the United States of America, Borivoje Jonić who went to France, and Miodrag Damjanović who moved to Germany.
Böhme committed suicide before being tried at the Hostages Trial for crimes committed in Serbia. Harald Turner was executed in Belgrade on 9 March 1947. Heinrich Danckelmann and Franz Neuhausen were tried together in October 1947. Danckelmann was subsequently executed while Neuhausen was sentenced to twenty years imprisonment.
Legacy
In 2008, the non-parliamentary Serbian Liberal Party launched a proposal to the County Court in Belgrade to rehabilitate Nedić. This has met no support from any political party and also met opposition from the Jewish community of Serbia.
See also
Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia, the Austro-Hungarian military occupation of the Kingdom of Serbia during World War I.
Notes
Citations
References
Books
Journals
Websites
Further reading
External links
Belgrade's Anti-Masonic exhibition of 1941–42
Jewish Serbian history
The Holocaust in Yugoslavia
Yugoslav Serbia
Yugoslavia in World War II
Serbia
Serbia
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1940s in Kosovo
1941 establishments in Serbia
1944 disestablishments in Serbia
States and territories established in 1941
States and territories disestablished in 1944
Occupation of Serbia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armageddon%20Expo
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Armageddon Expo
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Armageddon Expo is a New Zealand owned and operated pop culture convention that holds multiple events around New Zealand in cities including Auckland, Wellington, Tauranga and Christchurch. The event, run by Beyond Reality Media Premier Event Management, has been running continuously since 1995. It has evolved from its roots of comics and trading cards to showcase computer and video gaming, animation, film and television, cosplay, comics, live wrestling, and retailers selling pop-culture merchandise.
The convention hosts celebrity guests from the worlds of movies, TV shows, animation, cosplay, YouTube, comics and gaming. Event attendees can meet guests, purchase autographs and photo opportunities as well as watch panels featuring the guests. Armageddon Expo is one of the largest public conventions held in New Zealand.
History
Armageddon began in Auckland, New Zealand on the weekend of 2 December 1995, at the Avondale Raceway. In 1997, the expo added a Wellington event; In 1999, Armageddon did their first Melbourne event, Armageddon held events, in Australia sporadically, over several years but stopped hosting events in Australia in 2016. In 2007, the first Christchurch Armageddon event was held; Armageddon has also hosted events in other cities in New Zealand including Hamilton, Manukau, and Dunedin.
2020, will be Armageddon's 25th year of operation with shows in Wellington, Christchurch, Tauranga and Auckland planned.
Highlights
Current show events include:
Celebrity Guest Panels, autograph and photo sessions.
The Cosplay Contest.
Exclusive Screenings
Trivia Contests
Cosplay Parade
E-Sports
Gaming and Card Tournaments
Armageddon hosts a variety of stalls run by companies from around NZ and internationally, with merchandise including comics, gaming, trading cards, anime, steampunk and memorabilia sales. At each event, there are numerous NZ and overseas comic creators and artists also selling their products.
Venues and guest appearances
1995–1997
1995 (2–3 December) – Avondale Raceway, Auckland
1996 (25 August) – Freemans Bay Community Centre, Auckland
1997 (9 March) – Freemans Bay Community Centre, Auckland
1997 (17 August) – Freemans Bay Community Centre, Auckland
1997 (24 August) – Victoria University, Wellington
1998
21–22 March – Alexander Raceway, Auckland
Comic Guests: Kurt Busiek, Mark Waid, Devin Grayson
28–29 March – Wellington Raceway, Wellington
Comic Guests: Kurt Busiek, Mark Waid, Devin Grayson
3–4 October – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests: Joe Kelly, Steven Seagle, Chris Bachalo
1999
29–30 May – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests: Warren Ellis, Grant Morrison
TV/Movie Guests: Claudia Christian (Babylon 5), Chase Masterson (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)
5–6 June – Melbourne Expo Centre, Melbourne, Australia
Comic Guests: Warren Ellis, Grant Morrison
TV/Movie Guests: Claudia Christian (Babylon 5), Chase Masterson (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), Frazer Hines (Doctor Who)
2000
18–19 March – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests: Arthur Adams, Joyce Chin , Jeph Loeb
TV/Movie Guests: Jeremy Bulloch (Star Wars), Lani Tupu (Farscape),
2001
10–11 February – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests: Brian Michael Bendis, Walter Simonson, Louise Simonson, Diana Schutz
Animation Guests: Sean Schemmel & Christopher Sabat (Dragonball Z)
TV/Movie Guests: Teryl Rothery, Don S Davis, Peter Williams (actor) (Stargate SG-1) Virginia Hey (Farscape), Colin Baker, Katy Manning (Doctor Who), Ted Raimi, Kevin Smith (Xena: Warrior Princess)
Invitational event: Buffy The Vampire Slayer – Aotea Centre, Auckland
James Marsters (Spike)
Emma Caulfield (Anya Jenkins)
Brian Thompson (Luke and The Judge)
15–16 September – Michael Fowler Centre, Wellington
Comic Guests: Roy Thomas
Animation Guests: Sean Schemmel (Dragonball Z)
TV/Movie Guests: Wayne Pygram (Farscape), Marjean Holden (Crusade (TV series))
Musical Guests: Che Fu
2002
12–14 April – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests: Mark Millar, Frank Quitely, David W. Mack
Animation Guests: Veronica Taylor (Pokémon), Stephanie Nadolny (Dragonball Z)
TV and Movie Guests: Claudia Black Wayne Pygram, Jonathan Hardy, Lani Tupu (Farscape), J. G. Hertzler, Robert O'Reilly, Tim Russ (Star Trek), Jason Carter (Babylon 5), Yvonne Craig (Batgirl), Peter Mayhew (Star Wars), Robert Leeshock (Earth: Final Conflict), Marjean Holden Steven Grives (Beastmaster).
Musical Guests: Che Fu
23–24 November – Michael Fowler Centre, Wellington
Comic Guests: Bradley Kahl and Christian Gossett (Team Red Star)
Animation Guests: Mariah Martin (Amazing Nurse Nanako), Kyle Hebert (Dragonball Z)
TV and Movie Guests: Sandi Finlay (Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones), Amanda Tapping, Teryl Rothery, Don S. Davis (Stargate SG-1)
Musical Guest: Salmonella Dub
2003
12–14 April – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests: John Cassaday, Mark Bagley, Christian Gossett
Animation Guests: Sean Schemmel (Dragonball Z), Debi Derryberry (Jimmy Neutron)
TV and Movie Guests: Mira Furlan (Babylon 5), Gil Gerard, Erin Gray (Buck Rogers in the 25th Century), Brent Stait (Andromeda), Anthony Simcoe (Farscape), Tony Amendola (Stargate SG1), Kenny Baker (Star Wars), Robert Picardo (Star Trek: Voyager)
20–22 September – Michael Fowler Centre, Wellington
Comic Guests: Mark Bagley, Christian Gossett
Animation Guests: Kazuko Tadano, Hiromi Matushita, Christopher Sabat (Dragonball Z), Veronica Taylor (Pokémon), Darren Dunstan (Yu-Gi-Oh!), Jonathan Ross (Yu-Gi-Oh)
TV and Movie Guests: Peter Mayhew (Star Wars), David Prowse (Star Wars), Garrett Wang (Star Trek: Voyager)
2004
16–18 April – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests: Alex Maleev, Marc Silvestri, Brian Michael Bendis
Animation Guests: Eric Vale (Dragonball Z), Wayne Grayson (Yu-Gi-Oh), Megan Hollingshead (Pokémon), David Kaye (Transformers Armada)
TV and Movie Guests: John Rhys-Davies, Bruce Hopkins (The Lord of the Rings), Mark Ferguson, Lawrence Makoare, George Takei, Anthony Montgomery (Star Trek), Corin Nemec (Stargate SG-1), Xenia Seeberg (Lexx)
25–26 September – Queens Wharf Events Centre, Wellington
Comic Guest: Stuart Immonen, David Finch
Animation Guests: Stephanie Nadolny (Dragonball GT), Dan Green, Wayne Grayson (Yu-Gi-Oh!), Joshua Seth (Duel Masters/Digimon),
TV and Movie Guests: John Rhys-Davies, Sean Astin, Andy Serkis, Thomas Robins, Sarah McLeod, Jed Brophy (The Lord of the Rings), Cirroc Lofton, Penny Johnson Jerald (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)
2005
16–17 April – Queens Wharf Events Centre, Wellington
Comic Guests: Scott Lobdell
Animation Guests: Amy Birnbaum, Jonathan Ross (Yu-Gi-Oh!), Milton Lawrence (Duel Masters), Sean Schemmel (Dragonball Z),
TV and Movie Guests: Connor Trinneer (Star Trek: Enterprise), Ray Park (Star Wars/X-Men), Daniel Logan (Star Wars), Devon Murray (Harry Potter), Raelee Hill, Rebecca Riggs (Farscape)
22–24 October – Aotea Centre, Auckland (10th Anniversary)
Comic Guests:Christian Gossett, Mark Waid, Michael Turner, Francis Manapul
Animation Guests:Joshua Seth (Duel Masters), Dan Green (Yu-Gi-Oh!), Sonny Strait (Dragonball Z)
TV and Movie Guests: Gates McFadden (Star Trek: The Next Generation), John Rhys-Davies (The Lord of the Rings), Richard Hatch (Battlestar Galactica), Torri Higginson, Rainbow Sun Francks (Stargate Atlantis), Cliff Simon (Stargate SG-1), Dean Haglund (The X-Files), Julie Caitlin Brown, Robin Atkin Downes (Babylon 5), Nicole DeBoer (The Dead Zone), Jay Laga'aia (Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones)
2006
29–30 April – Queens Wharf Events Centre, Wellington
Comic Guests: Geoff Johns, Phil Jimenez.
Animation Guests:Mike McFarland, Sean Schemmel (Dragonball Z), Rodger Bumpass (SpongeBob SquarePants), Brian Beacock (Battle B Daman)
TV and Movie Guests:John Schneider (The Dukes of Hazzard / Smallville), John Billingsley (Star Trek: Enterprise), Claudia Christian (Babylon 5), Jewel Staite (Firefly/Serenity)
21–23 October – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests:Arthur Suydam, Gary Frank
Animation Guests:Kevin Conroy(Batman: The Animated Series), Darren Dunstan (Yu-Gi-Oh!), Jennifer Hale (Powerpuff Girls), Vic Mignogna (Fullmetal Alchemist), Steve Blum (Cowboy Bebop)
TV and Movie Guests: Rachel Luttrell(Stargate Atlantis), David Nykl(Stargate Atlantis), Colin Cunningham, Tony Amendola (Stargate SG-1), Summer Glau (Firefly/Serenity), Mira Furlan (Lost), Clare Kramer (Buffy the Vampire Slayer/Bring It On), Tom Lenk (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Kevin Weisman (Alias)
2007
14–15 April – Christchurch Convention Centre, Christchurch
Comic Guests: Brian K. Vaughan, Jimmy Cheung
Animation Guests: Maile Flanagan (Naruto), Susan Eisenberg (Justice League), Crispin Freeman (Hellsing), Carolyn Lawrence (SpongeBob SquarePants)
TV and Movie Guests: Avery Brooks (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), John Rhys-Davies (The Lord of the Rings), Don S. Davis (Stargate SG-1)
21–22 April – TSB Arena – Wellington
Comic Guests: Brian K. Vaughan, Jimmy Cheung
Animation Guests:Susan Eisenberg (Justice League), Crispin Freeman (Hellsing), Carolyn Lawrence (SpongeBob SquarePants), Maile Flanagan, Yuri Lowenthal, Tara Platt (Naruto)
TV and Movie Guests: Billy Dee Williams (Star Wars), Doug Jones (Hellboy/Fantastic 4), Aaron Douglas (Battlestar Galactica), John Rhys-Davies (The Lord of the Rings), Don S. Davis (Stargate SG-1)
19 August – A Day with the Doctor (Doctor Who convention) – Auckland
TV and Movie Guests: Sylvester McCoy (the Seventh Doctor), David Weston, William Gaunt
13–14 October – Melbourne Exhibition Centre, Melbourne, Australia
Comic Guests: Amanda Conner, Jimmy Palmiotti, Gail Simone, Nicola Scott
Animation Guests: Billy West (Futurama), Richard Horvitz (Invader Zim), Stephanie Sheh (Naruto), Neil Kaplan (Transformers), Rodger Bumpass (SpongeBob SquarePants), Rino Romano (Sailor Moon)
TV and Movie Guests: Alan Tudyk (Serenity), John Wesley Shipp (The Flash), Jane Badler (V), Connor Trinneer (Star Trek: Enterprise), Peter Woodward (Crusade), Joe Flanigan (Stargate Atlantis), Chris Rankin (Harry Potter)
Wrestling Guests: Rob Van Dam, Jasmine St. Clair, Sabu (WWE)
20–22 October – Aotea Centre, Auckland
Comic Guests:Amanda Conner, Jimmy Palmiotti, Gail Simone, Nicola Scott
Animation Guests:Billy West (Futurama), Richard Horvitz (Invader Zim), Stephanie Sheh (Naruto), Neil Kaplan (Transformers), Rodger Bumpass (SpongeBob SquarePants), Rino Romano (Sailor Moon)
TV and Movie Guests:Connor Trinneer (Star Trek: Enterprise), Christopher Judge (Stargate SG-1), Ellen Muth (Dead Like Me), Peter Woodward (Crusade), Joe Flanigan (Stargate Atlantis), Chris Rankin (Harry Potter)
Wrestling Guests:Rob Van Dam, Christy Hemme (WWE), Raven (TNA)
2008
19–20 April – TSB Arena – Wellington
Animation Guests: Hynden Walch (Teen Titans)
TV and Movie Guests: Christopher Judge, Alexis Cruz (Stargate SG-1), Matthew John Armstrong (Heroes), Tracy Scoggins (Babylon 5)
26–27 April – Christchurch Convention Centre – Christchurch
Comic Guests: Jim Lee, JJ Kirby , Sandra Hope , Livio Ramondelli , Joel Gomez, Eddie Nunez , Beth Sotelo
Animation Guests: Nalini Krishan (Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones), Johnny Yong Bosch (Bleach), Grey DeLisle (Avatar: The Last Airbender), Dave Wittenberg (Naruto), Crispin Freeman (Hellsing)
TV and Movie Guests: Christopher Judge, Alexis Cruz (Stargate SG-1), Matthew John Armstrong (Heroes), Tracy Scoggins (Babylon 5), David Hewlett, Andee Frizzell, Kavan Smith, Gary Jones (Stargate Atlantis), Doug Jones (Hellboy), Margot Kidder (Superman Film Series) Ernie Hudson (Ghostbusters)
Wrestling Guest: The Sandman
25–27 October – Auckland Armageddon, Aotea Centre
Comic Guests:
Jim Lee, JJ Kirby, Sandra Hope, Livio Ramondelli, Joel Gomez, Eddie Nunez and Beth Sotelo
Animation Guests:(BLEACH) Johnny Bosche AVATAR Grey Delisle NARUTO Dave Wittenberg HELLSING Crispin Freeman
TV/Movie Guests: STARGATE ATLANTIS David Hewlett, Andee Frizzell, Kavan Smith STARGATE SG1 Gary Jones HELLBOY Doug Jones SUPERMAN 1–4 Margot Kidder GHOSTBUSTERS Ernie Hudson
Wrestling Star The Sandman
2009
28–29 March – Christchurch Convention Centre, Christchurch
Darick Robertson (comic book artist), Queenie Chan (manga writer/artist),
Bill Farmer (voice actor/voice of Goofy),
Peter Davison (Doctor Who), Michael Hurst (Hercules), Kevin Sorbo (Hercules/Andromeda/Meet the Spartans), Michael Winslow (Police Academy), Mark Strickson, (Doctor Who – Turlough), Jonny Fairplay (Survivor/Fear Factor/TNA), Sam J. Jones (Flash Gordon), Michelle Deighton (America's Next Top Model),
Colleen Clinkenbeard (voice actor; One Piece/Fullmetal Alchemist), Greg Cipes (voice actor; Ben 10 Alien Force/Teen Titans), Brina Palencia (voice actor; Black Cat/One Piece/Fullmetal Alchemist).
4–5 April – TSB Arena, Wellington
Comics Darick Robertson (comic book artist), Queenie Chan (manga writer/artist),
TV movies Peter Davison (Doctor Who), Michael Hurst (Hercules), Kevin Sorbo (Hercules/Andromeda/Meet the Spartans), Michael Winslow (Police Academy), Mark Strickson, (Doctor Who – Turlough), Jonny Fairplay (Survivor/Fear Factor/TNA), Sam J. Jones (Flash Gordon), Michelle Deighton (America's Next Top Model),
Animation Colleen Clinkenbeard (voice actor; One Piece/Fullmetal Alchemist), Greg Cipes (voice actor; Ben 10 Alien Force/Teen Titans), Brina Palencia (voice actor; Black Cat/One Piece/Fullmetal Alchemist), Bill Farmer (voice actor/voice of Goofy) .
17–18 October – Melbourne Exhibition Centre, Melbourne
Joe Flanigan, Jason Momoa, Paul McGillion (Stargate Atlantis); Noah Grey-Cabey (Heroes); Cameron Bright, Christopher Heyerdahl, Bronson Pelletier (New Moon); Gigi Edgley (Farscape);
Seth Green, Matthew Senreich, Tom Root (Robot Chicken); Greg Cipes (Teen Titans/Ben 10 Alien Force); Travis Willingham (Fullmetal Alchemist); Laura Bailey (Soul Eater); Sean Schemmel (Dragonball Z); Dante Basco, Olivia Hack (Avatar); Peter David (comic book writer), Nicola Scott (comic book artist), Greg Rucka (comic book writer), Matthew Clark, Bill Sienkiewicz (comic book artist)
24–26 October – ASB Showgrounds, Auckland
Joe Flanigan, Jason Momoa, Paul McGillion (Stargate Atlantis); Bronson Pelletier (New Moon); Gigi Edgley (Farscape);
Seth Green, Matthew Senreich, Tom Root (Robot Chicken); Craig Horner, Craig Parker, Tabrett Bethell, Mark Beesley, Bridget Regan (Legend of the Seeker); Michael Winslow (Police Academy); Greg Cipes (Teen Titans/Ben 10 Alien Force); Travis Willingham (Fullmetal Alchemist); Laura Bailey (Soul Eater); Sean Schemmel (Dragonball Z); Dante Basco, Olivia Hack (Avatar); Steve Downes (Halo); Peter David (comic book writer), Greg Rucka (comic book writer), Matthew Clark, Bill Sienkiewicz (comic book artist)
2010
27/28 March 2010, Christchurch Convention Centre
Celebrity guests included Michael Winslow and Marion Ramsey Police Academy, James Kyson Lee (Heroes), Dominic Keating and John Billingsley (Star Trek: Enterprise), Bonita Friedericy (Chuck), Paul McGann (Doctor Who), René Auberjonois (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), Chaske Spencer (The Twilight Saga: New Moon).
Animation Guests included Steve Blum (Wolverine and the X-Men), Tom Gibis (Naruto), Michael McConnohie (Warcraft) and (Vampire Hunter D) and Melodee Spevack (Digimon).
Comic Guests – Christian Gossett, Michael Allred, Francis Manapul and Nicola Scott.
Author Guest – Robert Rankin.
2–4 April 2010, TSB Bank Arena, queens wharf, Wellington
Celebrity guests included Michael Winslow and Marion Ramsey Police Academy, James Kyson Lee (Heroes), Dominic Keating and John Billingsley (Star Trek: Enterprise), Bonita Friedericy (Chuck), Paul McGann (Doctor Who), René Auberjonois (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), Chaske Spencer (The Twilight Saga: New Moon).
Animation Guests included Steve Blum (Wolverine and the X-Men), Tom Gibis (Naruto), Michael McConnohie (Warcraft) and (Vampire Hunter D) and Melodee Spevack (Digimon).
Comic Guests – Christian Gossett, Michael Allred, Francis Manapul and Nicola Scott.
Author Guest – Robert Rankin.
June 2010, Castle Complex Otago University, Dunedin. NZ Anime convention,
Animation guest, Johnny Yong Bosch
16/17 October – Melbourne, Melbourne exhibition centre,
celebrity guests included Ben Browder (Farscape) and (Stargate SG-1), Michael Shanks (Stargate SG-1), Juliet Landau (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Michelle Forbes (Battlestar Galactica and True Blood), Paul McGann, Sylvester McCoy, Sophie Aldred Doctor Who, Jerri Manthey, Jonny Fairplay (Survivor) David Faustino Married... with Children, Michael Biehn The Terminator and Aliens, Torri Higginson (Stargate Atlantis), Claudia Christian (Babylon 5), Lloyd Kaufman TROMA FILMS, Bruce Hopkins *LOTRS and Miracle Laurie DOLLHOUSE.
Animation Guests included Bill Farmer DISNEY, Mela Lee VAMPIRE KNIGHT, Vic Mignogna Fullmetal Alchemist, John DiMaggio FUTURAMA and James Tucker WB ANIMATION.
Comic Guests included Daniel Way, Darick Robertson, Lar Desousa, Rya Sohmer and Georges Jeanty.
23–25 October – Auckland, ASB Showground's (Fifteenth anniversary event!)
Celebrity guests included Michael Shanks (Stargate SG1), Paul McGann, Sylvester McCoy, Sophie Aldred (DOCTOR WHO), Jerri Manthey, Jonny Fairplay (Survivor) David Faustino Married... with Children, Michael Biehn (TERMINATOR)and (ALIENS), Torri Higginson (Stargate Atlantis), Claudia Christian (Babylon 5), Lloyd Kaufman *(TROMA FILMS) and Miracle Laurie (DOLLHOUSE).
Animation Guests included Bill Farmer DISNEY, Mela Lee (VASMPIRE KNIGHT), Vic Mignogna (FULL METAL ALCHEMIST), John DiMaggio (Futurama) and ***James Tucker WB ANIMATION.
Comic Guests – Daniel Way, Darick Robertson, Lar Desousa, Rya Sohmer, Georges Jeanty and Nicola Scott
2011
26/27 February – Sydney showgrounds, the dome, Sydney, Australia
Guests Included Patricia Tallman (Babylon 5); Renee O'Connor, Hudson Leick (Xena: Warrior Princess); David Anders, (Heroes); Lance Henriksen; John Rhys-Davies (The Lord of the Rings); Laura Vandervoort (Smallville); James Clement, Ami Cusack (Survivor); Ryan Robbins; Colin Cunningham (Stargate SG-1); Rainbow Sun Francks, David Hewlett (Stargate Atlantis); Karen Allen; Christopher Heyerdahl
5/6 March – Adelaide, Royal Adelaide Showgrounds, Australia
Guests Included Patricia Tallman (Babylon 5); Renee O'Connor, Hudson Leick (Xena: Warrior Princess); David Anders, (Heroes); Lance Henriksen; John Rhys-Davies (The Lord of the Rings); Laura Vandervoort (Smallville); James Clement, Ami Cusack (Survivor); Ryan Robbins; Colin Cunningham (Stargate SG-1); Rainbow Sun Francks, David Hewlett (Stargate Atlantis); Karen Allen; Christopher Heyerdahl
2/3 April – Christchurch Convention Center, Christchurch, New Zealand
POSTPONED- Due to 2011 Christchurch earthquake – Venue was inside the CBD Red Zone for most of 2011
and was demolished in 2012 due to extensive damage.
9/10 April – TSB Arena, Wellington, New Zealand
Guests Included... John Rhys-Davies (The Lord of the Rings), Colin Baker, John Leeson (Doctor Who), Katee Sackhoff (Battlestar Galactica) Kristanna Loken (Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines).
Comic Guests – Jimmy Palmiotti and Amanda Conner. Animation Guests – Paul Eiding Ben 10, Johnny Yong Bosch (Bleach), Michael Sinterniklaas (The Venture Bros.).
4/5 June – NZ Anime convention – Dunedin, New Zealand
Guests Included animation Guests Kristi Reed and Kari Wahlgren
2/3 July – Christchurch, Addington Raceway (previously Christchurch Convention Center)
Local celebrity guests were the Almighty Johnsons Ben Barrington, Emmett Skilton, Tim Balme and Jared Turner.
22/23 October – Melbourne, Australia
Guests Included Comic Creators Rob Guillory, Fred Van Lente And Frank Cho.
Animation Voice Actors Were Kevin Conroy, Kyle Hebert, Paul Eiding, Scott Mccord And Steve Blum.
Celebrity Guests Were Adrian Paul (Highlander), Agam Darshi (Sanctuary) Alaina Huffman Sg U Amanda Tapping (Stargate/Sanctuary) Callum Blue (Smallville) Jeff Lewis (The Guild) Kelly Donovan (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Lance Guest and Catherine Mary Stewart (The Last Starfighter) Tom Braidwood, Dean Haglund And Bruce Harwood (The Lone Gunmen) Louise Jameson Doctor Who, Mark Ryan (Transformers), Mark Sheppard (Supernatural/Dr Who), W. Morgan Sheppard (Babylon 5 & Doctor Who), Nicholas Brendon (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Robert Picardo (Star Trek: Voyager/Atlantis), Robin Dunne (Sanctuary), Sandeep Parikh (The Guild) And Sylvester McCoy Doctor Who.
28–31 October – Auckland, New Zealand (First Four Day Event)
Guests Included... Comic Creators Rob Guillory, Fred Van Lente And Frank Cho.
Animation Voice Actors Kevin Conroy, Kyle Hebert, Paul Eiding, Scott Mccord And Steve Blum.
Celebrity Guests Adrian Paul (Highlander) Agam Darshi (Sanctuary) Alaina Huffman Sg U Amanda Tapping (Stargate/Sanctuary), Jeff Lewis (The Guild) Kelly Donovan (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Louise Jameson (Dr Who), Mark Ryan (Transformers), Mark Sheppard (Supernatural/Dr Who), W. Morgan Sheppard (Babylon 5/Dr Who), Nicholas Brendon (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Sandeep Parikh (The Guild) And Sylvester McCoy (Doctor Who).
2012
14–15 April Hamilton, New Zealand
Guests included...Comic creators Dave Johnson and Ron Marz.
Animation voice actors Brian Beacock (BATTLE B-DAMAN) Vic Mignogna (FULL METAL ALCHEMIST) and Dave Wittenberg (NARUTO).
Celebrity guests Bronson Pelletier and Tinsel Korey (TWILIGHT), John Levene (DOCTOR WHO), Julie McNiven (SUPERNATURAL), Paul McGillion (STARGATE ATLANTIS) Teryl Rothery (STARGATE SG1) and ALMIGHTY JOHNSON STARS Emmett Skilton (Axl), Jared Turner (Ty) & Ben Barrington (Olaf).
21–22 April Wellington, New Zealand
Guests included...Comic creators Dave Johnson, Carlo Pagulayan and Ron Marz.
Animation voice actors Brian Beacock (BATTLE B-DAMAN) Vic Mignogna (FULL METAL ALCHEMIST) and Dave Wittenberg (NARUTO).
Celebrity guests Bronson Pelletier and Tinsel Korey (TWILIGHT), John Levene (DOCTOR WHO), Julie McNiven (SUPERNATURAL), Paul McGillion (STARGATE ATLANTIS) Teryl Rothery (STARGATE SG1) and ALMIGHTY JOHNSON STARS Emmett Skilton (Axl), Jared Turner (Ty) & Ben Barrington (Olaf) and Dean O'Gorman (Anders)
30 June–1 July – Christchurch, The Stables, Addington Raceway
Guests included Callum Blue (Smallville) Sylvester McCoy (Doctor Who) Christopher Paolini (Author Inheritance Saga) and Colleen Clinkenbeard (Anime guest One Piece)
12–14 October – Melbourne exhibition centre
Guests included, Bob Layton and Ian Churchill,
Animation Guests: Kristi Reed (Anime director), Mela Lee (Vampire Knight) Johnny Yong Bosch(Bleach), Charles Mario (Mario Games), Lex Lang (Multiple anime star), Sandy Fox (Multiple anime star), Susan Eisenberg (JLU), Marianne Miller and Martin Billany (Yugioh Abridged), Yaya Han (Cosplay guest),
Wrestling guest: Bushwhacker Luke,
Acting guests: Aldis Hodge (Leverage), Aron Eisenberg (Star Trek DS9), Bruce Boxleitner (Babylon 5), Christopher Heyerdahl(Hell on Wheels), Christopher Judge (Stargate sg1), Cindy Morgan (TRON), Finn Jones and Miltos Yerolemou (Game of Thrones), George Lazenby (James Bond), Jim Beaver(Supernatural), Karl Urban (Judge Dredd), Mark Pellegrino (Supernatural), Martin Klebba(Pirates of the Caribbean), Rachel Grant (Die Another Day), Sebastian Roche (Vampire Diaries), Terry Molloy (Classic Doctor Who)
19–22 October – Auckland, ASB Showgrounds
Guests included,
Comic Guests – Bob Layton, Harvey Tolibao and Ian Churchill,
Animation Guests – Kristi Reed (Anime director), Mela Lee (Vampire Knight) Johnny Yong Bosch (Bleach), Charles Mario (Mario Games), Lex Lang (Multiple anime star), Sandy Fox (Multiple anime star), Susan Eisenberg (JLU), Marianne Miller and Martin Billany (Yugioh Abridged),
Wrestling guest – Bushwhacker Luke.
Acting guests: Aldis Hodge (Leverage), Aron Eisenberg (Star Trek DS9), Bruce Boxleitner (Babylon 5), Christopher Heyerdahl (Hell on Wheels), Christopher Judge (Stargate sg1), Cindy Morgan (TRON), Finn Jones and Miltos Yerolemou (Game of Thrones), Jim Beaver (Supernatural), Mark Pellegrino (Supernatural), Sebastian Roche (Vampire Diaries), Terry Molloy (Classic Doctor Who) and Temuera Morrison (Fresh Meat)
2013
2–3 March Dunedin, The Edgar Centre
Guests included
animation guest – Greg Cipes (Ben 10: Alien Force, Teen Titans, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles).
Movie guests – Hobbit stars, Dean O'Gorman, Jed Brophy, William Kircher, Peter Hambleton.
9–10 March – Christchurch, The Stables, Addington Raceway
Guests included guest – Dante Basco (Avatar: The Last Airbender, American Dragon: Jake Long, Hook).
Movie guests – Hobbit stars, Dean O'Gorman, Jed Brophy, William Kircher, Peter Hambleton.
25–26 May – Hamilton, Claudelands
Guests included
Animation guest: Yeardley Smith of The Simpsons. TV guest: Mitch Pileggi of The X-Files
1–3 June – Wellington, westpac stadium
Guests include
Animation – Christopher Smith (Monsuno), Janet Varney (Avatar: The legend of Korra) and Meagan Smith (Ben 10)
Comics – Dean Rankine (Bonzo Comics) and Gail Simone (Batgirl)
TV/Media guests – Yeardley Smith (The Simpsons), Jason Momoa (Game of Thrones), Joe Flanigan (Stargate Atlantis), Lance Henriksen (Aliens) Mitch Pileggi (X-Files) and Tony Amendola(Once Upon A Time)
HOBBIT Cast included – Sylvester McCoy (Radagast the Brown), Luke Evans (Bard the Bowman), Adam Brown (Ori), Aidan Turner (Kili), Dean O'Gorman (Fili), Graham McTavish (Dwalin), James Nesbitt (Bofur), Jed Brophy (Nori), John Callen (Oin), Mark Hadlow (Dori), Peter Hambleton (Gloin), Stephen Hunter (Bombur) and William Kircher(Bifur).
19–20 October – Melbourne Showgrounds
Guests included,
Acting guests: Mark Rolston, Corey Feldman, Evanna Lynch, Billy Boyd, Ben Browder, Temuera Morrison, Nell Campbell, Gigi Edgley, Dean Stockwell, Dwight Schultz, Claudia Black, Ty Olsson, Ian McNeice, Catrin Stewart, Dan Starkey, Simon Fisher-Becker, Barry Bostwick, Richard Hatch, Robbie Jarvis, Jason Carter, Kim Rhodes, Norman Lovett, Rick Worthy, Tony Amendola. Star Trek production guest: Richard Arnold. Movie screening of Space Milkshake.
25–28 October – Auckland, ASB Showgrounds
Guests included,
Acting guests: Mark Rolston, Evanna Lynch, Billy Boyd, Ben Browder, Stephen Hunter, John Callen, Gigi Edgley, Dean Stockwell, Dwight Schultz, Ty Olsson, Ian McNeice, Catrin Stewart, Dan Starkey, Simon Fisher-Becker, Barry Bostwick, Robbie Jarvis, Jason Carter, Kim Rhodes, Norman Lovett, Rick Worthy, Tony Amendola. Movie screening of Space Milkshake.
2014
1–2 March – Dunedin, Edgar Centre
Guests included
Animation Guest: Steve Blum.
Acting Guests: Colin Baker, Nicola Bryant, Mark Strickson, Mark Hadlow, John Callen.
8–9 March – Christchurch, The Stables, Addington Raceway
Guests included, Animation Guest: Steve Blum. Acting Guests: Colin Baker, Nicola Bryant, Mark Strickson, Mark Hadlow, John Callen.
24–25 May – Hamilton, Claudelands arena
Guests included
comic guest: Bill Sienkiewicz, Tom Taylor.
Animation Guests: Paul Eiding (Ben 10), William Salyers (Regular Show), Charles Martinet (Mario Games).
TV/Movie guests: Michael Rowe (Arrow), Christopher Judge (Stargate SG1), DJ Qualls, James Patrick Stuart, Jake Abel, Samantha Ferris, Steven Williams (Supernatural), John Callen, Mark Hadlow (The Hobbit). J-Pop performer: Chii Sakurabi.
31 May-2 June – Wellington, Westpac Stadium
Guests included,
Comic guests: Bill Sienkiewicz, Tom Taylor.
Animation Guests: Paul Eiding (Ben 10), William Salyers (Regular Show), Charles Martinet (Mario Games), Jessica DiCicco (Adventure Time).
TV/Movie guests: Michael Rowe, David Ramsey, Manu Bennett (Arrow), Christopher Judge (Stargate SG1), DJ Qualls, James Patrick Stuart, Jake Abel, Samantha Ferris, Steven Williams (Supernatural), John Callen, Mark Hadlow, Peter Hambleton (The Hobbit), Taika Waititi, Jemaine Clement, Jonny Brugh, Ben Fransham (What We Do in the Shadows), Frazer Hines (Doctor Who). J-Pop performer: Chii Sakurabi.
18–19 October – Melbourne, Melbourne Showgrounds
Guests included,
Comic Guests: Kevin Eastman, Alan Robinson, Darick Robertson, James Tynion IV, John Layman, Kyle Higgins, Dean Rankine, Wayne Nichols, Adam Nichols.
Animation Guests: Greg Cipes (Teen Titans), Jason Spisak (Young Justice), Roger Jackson (The Powerpuff Girls), Sean Schemmel(Dragonball Z), William Salyers (The Regular Show). *TV/Movie Guests: Jenna Coleman, Sarah Madison (Doctor Who), AJ Buckley, Travis Wester, Alaina Huffman (Supernatural), Cliff Simon, Peter Williams, Jacqueline Samuda, Suanne Braun, David Hewlett, David Nykl (Stargate), Giancarlo Esposito (Breaking Bad), Helen Slater (Supergirl), Margot Kidder (Superman films), Mira Furlan (Babylon 5), Judson Scott (Star Trek), Michael Hogan (Battlestar Galactica, Teen Wolf), Jim Duggan (WWE), Peter Hambleton (The Hobbit), Matthew J. Doran (The Matrix). Authors: Robert Rankin (British humorous novelist), Terry Brooks (Shannara series)
24–27 October – Auckland, ASB Showgrounds, Greenlane
Guests included,
Comic Guests: Kevin Eastman, Alan Robinson, Darick Robertson, James Tynion IV, John Layman, Kyle Higgins.
Animation Guests: Greg Cipes (Teen Titans), Jason Spisak (Young Justice), Roger Jackson (The Powerpuff Girls), Sean Schemmel (Dragonball Z), William Salyers (The Regular Show). * *TV/Movie Guests: Richard Dean Anderson (SG1, MacGyver), Jenna Coleman, Sarah Madison (Doctor Who), AJ Buckley, Travis Wester, DJ Qualls (Supernatural), Cliff Simon, Peter Williams, Jacqueline Samuda, Suanne Braun, David Hewlett, David Nykl (Stargate), Giancarlo Esposito (Breaking Bad), Helen Slater (Supergirl), Mira Furlan (Babylon 5), Judson Scott (Star Trek), Michael Hogan (Battlestar Galactica, Teen Wolf), Jim Duggan (WWE), William Kircher (The Hobbit), Barry Duffield (Spartacus), Jemaine Clement, Jonny Brugh, Cori Gonzalez-Macuer, Stu Rutherford, Jackie Van Beek, Ben Fransham (What We Do in the Shadows), Lucas Till (X-Men).
Authors: Robert Rankin (British humorous novelist), Terry Brooks (Shannara series).
2015
28 February/1 March – Dunedin, More FM Arena
Guests included,
Comic Guests – Darick Robertson, Dean Rankine.
Animation Guests – Eric Stuart (Pokémon).
TV/Movie Guests – Alaina Huffman (Supernatural), DJ Qualls (Supernatural), Simon Fisher-Becker(Doctor Who).
7–8 March – Christchurch, Horncastle Arena
Guests included,
Comic Guests – Darick Robertson, Dean Rankine.
Animation Guests – Eric Stuart (Pokémon), Colleen O'Shaughnessey (Digimon).
TV/Movie Guests – Karl Urban (Dredd, Star Trek, LOTR), Katee Sackhoff (Battlestar Galactica), Manu Bennett(Arrow, The Hobbit Trilogy), Alaina Huffman (Supernatural), DJ Qualls (Supernatural), Simon Fisher-Becker (Doctor Who), Armin Shimerman (Star Trek: DS9, Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Kitty Swink (Star Trek: DS9), Adam Brown (The Hobbit Trilogy).
14–15 March – Hamilton, Claudelands Arena (4th and last time this event was run in Hamilton).
Guests included,
Comic Guests – Darick Robertson, Dean Rankine
Animation Guests – Eric Stuart (Pokémon), Colleen O'Shaughnessey (Digimon)
TV/Movie Guests – Manu Bennett (Arrow, The Hobbit Trilogy), John Rhys-Davies(LOTR, Indiana Jones), Alaina Huffman (Supernatural), Simon Fisher-Becker (Doctor Who), Armin Shimerman (Star Trek: DS9, Buffy the Vampire Slayer), Kitty Swink(Star Trek: DS9), Adam Brown (The Hobbit Trilogy), Graham McTavish (The Hobbit Trilogy, Outlander TV series), Martin Klebba (The Pirates of the Caribbean).
17–19 July – Wellington, Westpac Stadium
Comic Guest – Stephen Bissette (Swamp Thing)
Animation Guests – Courtenay Taylor (Regular Show), Matthew Mercer (Attack on Titan), Veronica Taylor (Pokémon), Joshua Seth (Digimon)
TV/Movie star Guests – Dean Haglund (X-Files), Jed Brophy and William Kircher (The Hobbit), Jim Beaver, Sebastian Roche (Supernatural), Corin Nemec(Stargate SG1),
Robert Maschio (Scrubs), Karen Gillan (Doctor Who), Rick Mora (Twilight), Saginaw Grant (Lone Ranger)
Wrestling guest – Ted DiBiase (The Million Dollar Man)
Cosplay Guests – Monika Lee and Riddlev
23–26 October – Auckland, ASB Showgrounds
Comic Guest – Christian Gossett (The Red Star), Kevin McGuire (JLI), Zander Cannon(Top 10), Dave Johnson (100 Bullets)
Animation Guests – Christina Vee (Sailor Moon), Chuck Huber (Dragonball Z), Mela Lee (Fate/Stay Night), Hal Rayle (Animation Legend), Maggie Roswell (The Simpsons)
TV/Movie star Guests – Natalia Tena and Keisha Castle-Hughes (Game of Thrones), Alex Heartman and Azim Rizk (Power Rangers), Lou Diamond Phillips (SGU),
Sean Maher (Serenity), Michael Rowe and Manu Bennett (Arrow), John Wesley Shipp (The Flash), Rachel Miner and Nicki Aycox (Supernatural),
Casper Van Dien and Dina Meyer (Starship Troopers), Rainbow Sun Francks (Stargate Atlantis), Richard Franklin (Doctor Who),
Bernie Kophel (Get Smart) and Robert Maschio (Scrubs)
Wrestling guest – Jake 'The Snake' Roberts
Japanese singer – Aimee Blackschleger
2016
5–6 March, Vodafone Events Centre, Manukau Armageddon.
Comic guests: Dean Rankine (Simpsons Comics), Christian Gossett,(The red star), Charles Soule (Letter 44).
Animation voice actors: William Salyers, Mike McFarland, Paul Eiding.
Cosplay guests: Riki Lecotey and Monika Lee.
TV and Movie Stars: Richard Dean Anderson, (Stargate SG-1) and (MacGyver),
Christopher Judge, (Stargate SG-1) and (The dark night rises); Ray Santiago, (Ash VS Evil dead) TV series; Marina Sirtis, (Star Trek Next generation); David Nykl, (Stargate Atlantis); Ruth Connell, (Supernatural) TV series. Wrestling Guest Haku (King Tonga).
12–13 March, Horncastle Arena, Christchurch Armageddon
Comic guests: Christian Gossett,(The red star), Charles Soule (Letter 44). Animation voice actors William Salyers, Mike McFarland, Paul Eiding.
Cosplay guests: Riki Lecotey and Monika Lee.
TV and Movie Stars: Richard Dean Anderson, (Stargate SG-1) and (MacGyver),
Christopher Judge, (Stargate SG-1) and (The dark night rises); Marina Sirtis (Star Trek Next generation); David Nykl, (Stargate Atlantis); Ruth Connell, (Supernatural) TV series. Wrestling Guest Haku (King Tonga).
19–20 March, MoreFM Arena, Dunedin Armageddon
Comic guests: Christian Gossett,(The red star), Charles Soule (Letter 44).
Animation voice actors: William Salyers, Mike McFarland, Paul Eiding.
Cosplay guests: Riki Lecotey and Monika Lee.
TV and Movie Stars: Christopher Judge, (Stargate SG-1) and (The Dark Knight Rises); Marina Sirtis, (Star Trek Next generation); David Nykl, (Stargate Atlantis); Wrestling Guest Haku (King Tonga).
4–6 June, Westpac stadium, Wellington Armageddon
TV and Movie guests:Rose McIver- (izombie & Once Upon a Time), David Giuntoli (Grimm), Bitsie Tulloch – (Grimm), Natalia Tena (Harry Potter films, Game of Thrones),
Robert Picardo (Star Trek: Voyager, Stargate Atlantis), Samuel Anderson Doctor Who, Ray Santiago (Ash Vs Evil Dead), Dana DeLorenzo Ash Vs Evil Dead, Ted Raimi (Xena, Seaquest DSV), Tahmoh Penikett Supernatural, Dollhouse, Battlestar Galactica; Cliff Simon Stargate sg1; Graham McTavish Outlander, Creed, Hobbit films;
Wrestling guest The Honky Tonk Man. Cosplay guests (international) Tine Marie Riis (Norway), Eve Beauregard (Australia). Animation guests Stephanie Sheh Sailor Moon, Naruto, Bleach, Eureka seven; Michael Sinterniklaas – Venture Brothers, Teenage mutant ninja turtles;
Christy Carlson Romano Kim possible. Comic guests Carl Potts Alien Legion, Punisher war journal; Rachael Stott Doctor Who comics, Star Trek/Planet of the Apes; Christian Gossett The Red Star.
2017
11–12 March, Horncastle Arena, Christchurch
Comic Guests: Tom Taylor (Injustice: Gods Among Us), Colin Wilson (Dredd). With Animation Guests:
Veronica Taylor (Pokémon), Christopher Corey Smith (Lego Batman games), Cindy Robinson (Sailor Moon). Also TV/Movie Guests:
Billy Boyd (Lord of the Rings), Ray Fisher (Justice League), Chad Coleman (The Walking Dead), Miltos Yerolemou (Game of Thrones), Ivana Baquero (Shannara, Pan's Labyrinth).
18–19 March, More FM Arena, Dunedin,
Comic Guests: Tom Taylor (Injustice: Gods Among Us), Colin Wilson (Dredd)and animation Guests
Veronica Taylor (Pokémon), Christopher Corey Smith (Lego Batman games), Cindy Robinson (Sailor Moon), Hynden Walch (Teen Titans, Adventure Time) along with TV/Movie Guests
Billy Boyd (Lord of the Rings), Ray Fisher (Justice League), Chad Coleman (The Walking Dead), Miltos Yerolemou (Game of Thrones).
28–29 May, Baypark Arena, Tauranga,
Comic guest was Todd Nauck (Spiderman/Deadpool, Young Justice, Doctor Who) along with Animation Guests
Max Mittelman (One Punch Man), Ray Chase (Final Fantasy XV), Robbie Daymond (Sailor Moon Crystal, Final Fantasy XV), Kyle Hebert (Dragon Ball Z, Naruto) and Cosplay Guests
Elffi and Calssara. With TV/Movie Guests
Jewel Staite (Firefly, Serenity, Stargate Atlantis), Matt Letscher (The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow), Franz Drameh (The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow), Richard Harmon (The 100), Sachin Sahel (The 100), Max Carver & Charlie Carver (Teen Wolf), Paul Amos (Lost Girl, Assassin's Creed Syndicate), Adrian Paul (Highlander), Patricia Tallman (Babylon 5).
3 to 5 June, Westpac Stadium, Wellington
Comic guest was Todd Nauck (Spiderman/Deadpool, Young Justice, Doctor Who) with Animation Guests
Max Mittelman (One Punch Man), Ray Chase (Final Fantasy XV), Robbie Daymond (Sailor Moon Crystal, Final Fantasy XV), Kyle Hebert (Dragon Ball Z, Naruto). Cosplay Guests
Elffi, Calssara along with TV/Movie Guests
Mark Sheppard (Supernatural, Firefly), Alaina Huffman (Supernatural, Stargate Universe), Jewel Staite (Firefly, Serenity, Stargate Atlantis), Jeremy Jordan (Supergirl), Matt Letscher (The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow), Franz Drameh (The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow), Richard Harmon (The 100), Sachin Sahel (The 100), Max Carver & Charlie Carver (Teen Wolf), Paul Amos (Lost Girl, Assassin's Creed Syndicate), Adrian Paul (Highlander), Patricia Tallman (Babylon 5), Ivana Baquero (Pan's Labyrinth, Shannara), Andrew Lees (The Originals), John Levene (Classic Doctor Who), Nathalie Boltt (Riverdale).
21–24 October, ASB Showgrounds, Auckland,
Comic Guests were David Lloyd (V For Vendetta), Jill Thompson (Wonder Woman, Scary Godmother), Troy Little (Powerpuff Girls), Brenda Hickey (My Little Pony) along with
Animation Guests Amber Nash (Archer), Steve Downes, Jen Taylor (Halo), Bryce Papenbrook (Attack on Titan, Sword Art Online), Eric Stuart (Pokémon, Yu-Gi-Oh), John Stocker (Classic Voice Actor and Director). Cosplay Guests were Monika Lee, Jessica Nigri, Ashlynne Dae, Reagan Kathryn. The TV/Movie Guests were
John Barrowman (Doctor Who, Torchwood, Arrow), Tom Felton (Harry Potter, The Flash), Nathan Fillion (Firefly, Castle), Osric Chau (Supernatural), Ricky Whittle (The 100, American Gods), Erica Cerra (The 100), Holland Roden (Teen Wolf), Pom Klementieff (Guardians of the Galaxy 2), Enver Gjokaj (Agent Carter, Dollhouse), Walter Koenig (Star Trek), David Blue (Stargate Universe), Jacqueline Toboni (Grimm).
2018
30 March to 1 April – Westpac Stadium Wellington
TV movie Guests included Jeremy Renner (Marvel's Avengers (film series)); Bonnie Wright from (Harry Potter (film series)), Matt Ryan (actor), Kim Rhodes, DJ Qualls, Christopher Larkin (actor), Christopher Larkin (actor), Chelsey Reist,
Rahul Kohli, Aly Michalka, Cherami Leigh,
Animation Lauren Landa, Mike McFarland, David Sobolov, Mick Wingert,
Ben Fransham, Jonathan Brugh, Al Barrionuevo, Ben Stenbeck,
cosplayers Jessica Nigri and Ashlynne Dae. Armageddon also again hosted fundraisers for child cancer
26 to 27 May – Tauranga Armageddon, ASB Baypark Stadium
Guests included Comic Guest Sloane Leong, Animation Guests Brad Swaile (Death Note, X-Men Evolution), David Sobolov (Guardians of the Galaxy, The Flash). Cosplay Guest Ashlynne Dae, *TV/Movie Guests,
Katie McGrath (Supergirl, Merlin), Lauren German & Lesley-Ann Brandt (Lucifer), Paul Blackthorne, Katrina Law, Echo Kellum & David Nykl (Arrow), Daniel Portman (Game of Thrones), John Shea (Lois & Clark), Garrett Wang (Star Trek: Voyager),
Wrestler'Hacksaw' Jim Duggan (WWE)
2/4 June – Christchurch Armageddon, Horncastle Arena
Guests included Sloane Leong,
Animation Guests Brad Swaile (Death Note, X-Men Evolution), David Sobolov (Guardians of the Galaxy, The Flash).
Cosplay Guest Ashlynne Dae,
TV/Movie Guests, Katie McGrath (Supergirl, Merlin), Mehcad Brooks (supergirl) Lauren German & Lesley-Ann Brandt (Lucifer), Paul Blackthorne, Katrina Law, Echo Kellum & David Nykl (Arrow), Daniel Portman (Game of Thrones), John Shea (Lois & Clark), Garrett Wang (Star Trek: Voyager),
Wrestling'Hacksaw' Jim Duggan (WWE).
19 to 22 October – Auckland Armageddon, ASB Showgrounds
Comic Guests Eduardo Risso, Stephen B Jones, Jeff Johnson,
Animation Guests Arryn Zech, Kara Eberle, Elizabeth Maxwell (RWBY), Jason Liebrecht (My Hero Academia), Mark Meer, Belinda Cornish (Mass Effect), Sara Cravens (Injustice 2), Josh Grelle (Yuri on Ice), Yoshinori Asao (Fukushima Gainax)
Cosplay Guests Jessica Nigri, LeeAnna Vamp, Ashlynne Dae,
YouTube Guests The Hillywood Show,
Music Guests Openside,
TV/Movie Guests Christina Ricci (The Addams Family), Shannen Doherty (Charmed), Michael Shanks (Stargate SG-1), Katie Leung (Harry Potter), Ty Olsson, Osric Chau, Jeffrey Vincent Parise, David Haydn-Jones (Supernatural), Navid Negahban (Legion), Drew Powell (Gotham), Anna Hopkins (Shadowhunters), Jimmy Wong (Mulan 2020), Rhys Darby (Flight of the Conchords), Patricia Tallman (Babylon 5)
2019
Armageddon expo changes cosplay prop rules after mosque attacks in Christchurch New Zealand, 15 March 2019
13 to 15 April – Wellington Armageddon, Westpac Stadium
Comic Guests Babs Tarr, Andrew Griffith, Ryan K Lindsey. Animation Guests Veronica Taylor (Pokémon, Dragon Ball Super, Sailor Moon), Trina Nishimura (Attack on Titan).
And TV/Movie Guests Nicholas Hoult (X-Men films, Warm Bodies), Tom Welling (Smallville, Lucifer), Amy Acker (The Gifted, Person of Interest, Angel), James Carpinello (Gotham), Julian Richings (Supernatural, 12 Monkeys), Amber Midthunder (Legion, Roswell, New Mexico), Tati Gabrielle, Adeline Rudolph, Abigail Cowen (Chilling Adventures of Sabrina), Aimee Garcia (Lucifer), Ray Wise (Reaper, Twin Peaks), Officers Mike Minogue and Karen O'Leary (Wellington Paranormal).
1 to 3 June – Christchurch Armageddon, Horncastle Arena
Comic Guests Nick Dragotta, Jeff Johnson, Stephen B Jones. Animation Guests Yuri Lowenthal, William Salyers, Tara Platt Spider-Man (2017 TV series).TV/Movie Guests
Katherine McNamara, Luke Baines (Shadowhunters), Tricia Helfer (Lucifer, Battlestar Galactica), Graham McTavish, Lotte Verbeek (Outlander (TV series)), Amber Nash (Archer), Connor Trinneer, Dominic Keating (Star Trek: Voyager), Andrew Matarazzo (Teen Wolf), Officers Mike Minogue and Karen O'Leary (Wellington Paranormal).
8 to 9 June – Tauranga Armageddon, ASB Baypark Stadium
Comic Guests Nick Dragotta, Jeff Johnson, Stephen B Jones. Animation Guests Yuri Lowenthal, William Salyers, Tara Platt (Spider-Man (2017 TV series)).TV/Movie Guests
Katherine McNamara, Luke Baines (Shadowhunters), Tricia Helfer (Lucifer, Battlestar Galactica), Graham McTavish, Lotte Verbeek (Outlander (TV series)), Amber Nash (Archer), Connor Trinneer, Dominic Keating (Star Trek: Voyager), Andrew Matarazzo (Teen Wolf), Officers Mike Minogue and Karen O'Leary (Wellington Paranormal).
25 to 28 October – Auckland Armageddon, ASB Showgrounds
Comic Guests Dean Rankine. Animation Guests Steve Blum, Mary Elizabeth McGlynn (Cowboy Bebop, Star Wars Rebels), Patricia Summersett (Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild), Leah Clark (My Hero Academia), Rikki Simons (Invader Zim). Cosplay Guests Yaya Han. YouTube Guests Mega64, Viva La Dirt League. TV/Movie Guests
Jason Isaacs (Harry Potter Films), Jon Heder (Napoleon Dynamite), Sean Gunn (Guardians of the Galaxy), Ruth Connell (Supernatural), Sam Witwer (Battlestar Galactica), Inbar Lavi (Lucifer), Adam Croasdell (Preacher), Jodelle Ferland (Silent Hill), Natalia Cordova-Buckley (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.), Gregg Sulkin (Marvel's Runaways), Patricia Tallman (Babylon 5), Paul Amos (Lost Girl), Antonia Prebble (Westside), Wellington Paranormal. Wrestling Guests
Lita, The Honky Tonk Man. E-Sports and Cosplay presence at the Auckland event continues to grow.
Future dates
2020
10 to 12 April – Wellington Armageddon, Sky Stadium
postponed this event to August 1/2 2020 still at the same venue Sky Stadium.
30 May to 1 June – Christchurch Armageddon, Horncastle Arena
6 to 7 June – Tauranga Armageddon, Baypark Arena
1 to 2 August – Wellington Armageddon, Sky Stadium
23 to 26 October – Auckland Armageddon, ASB Showgrounds
2021
2022
June 10/12th - Auckland Armageddon Winter, Auckland Showgrounds
In-Person Guests
Osric Chau (Supernatural, The Flash), Colleen O'Shaughnessey (Sonic the Hedgehog), Miles Luna, Samantha Ireland (RWBY), Cris George (My Hero Academia), Bryson Baugus (Attack on Titan), Viva La Dirt League (Adam, Alan, Rowan, Ben, Britt & Ellie)
Virtual Guests
Lauren Tom (Futurama, Supernatural), Meng'er Zhang (Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings), Giancarlo Esposito (Better Call Saul, Far Cry 6, The Mandalorian), Teresa Palmer (Discovery of Witches), Javicia Leslie (Batwoman), Veronica Taylor, Rachael Lillis (Pokémon), Jim Byrnes (Highlander)
July 23/24th - Tauranga Armageddon, Baypark Arena
In-Person Guests
Grace Van Dien (Stranger Things), Mike McFarland (Dragonball Z, Attack on Titan), Joe Zieja (Fire Emblem)
Virtual Guests
Melanie Scrofano (Wynonna Earp), Jon McLaren, Kimberly-Sue Murray, Alex Weiner, Jason Cavalier, Robert Montcalm (Guardians of the Galaxy game), Veronica Taylor, Rachel Lillis (Pokemon), Meng'er Zhang (Shang-Chi), Javicia Leslie (Batwoman), Michael Shanks (Stargate SG-1), Juliana Harkavy, Rick Gonzalez (Arrow)
August 06/7th - Palmerston North Armageddon, Central Energy Trust Arena
Past events
2023 - 108 - June 03/5th - Auckland Armageddon Winter, Auckland Showgrounds
TV&Movie Guests
Caity Lotz – Arrow, Legends of Tomorrow
Sacha Dhawan – Doctor Who, Iron Fist, The Great
Michelle Gomez - Doctor Who, Chilling Adventures of Sabrina, Doom Patrol
Clive Standen – Vikings, Taken (TV), Camelot
Lucy Martin - Vikings
Jack Gleeson – Game of Thrones
Afshan Azad – Harry Potter
David Anders – iZombie, Heroes, Once Upon A Time
Georgina Haig – Fringe, Once Upon A Time, Archive 81, Snowpiercer
Emilie de Ravin – Lost, Roswell, Once Upon a Time
Keisha Castle-Hughes – Game of Thrones, Whale Rider, Star Wars ROTS (Sun/Mon Only)
John Noble – Fringe, LOTR, Sleepy Hollow, Elementary
Landon McDonald – Anime/Game Guest - DEMON SLAYER, JOJO'S BIZARRE ADVENTURE, BUNGO STRAY DOGS, JUJUTSU KAISEN
Justine Huxley – Anime/Game Guest – Apex Legends, Kipo, Sword Art Online
Nicolas Roye – Anime/Game Guest – Apex Legends, Bungo, Tokyo Revengers, Jujutsu Kaisen
SpicyThaiDesign – Cosplay Guest
2023 - 107 - April 29/30th - Christchurch Armageddon,
TV & Movie Guests
Freema Agyeman, Sophie Aldred, Eric Roberts (Doctor Who), Lee Majdoub (Sonic the Hedgehog, The 100) Katy O'Brian (Ant-Man, The Mandalorian), Kevin Sussman (The Big Bang Theory)
Animation Guests
Molly Searcy (Akame Ga Kill), Aaron Campbell (One Piece)
Comic Guest
Freddie E Williams
Cosplay Guest
SpicyThaiDesign
2023 - 106 - April 22/23rd - Wellington Armageddon,
TV & Movie Guests , Sophie Aldred, Eric Roberts (Doctor Who), Richard Harmon, Lee Majdoub (The 100)
Animation Guests
Molly Searcy (Akame Ga Kill), Aaron Campbell (One Piece)
Comic Guest
Freddie E Williams
Cosplay Guests
SpicyThaiDesign, Danielle DeNicola, K8sarkissian, Mineralblu
2023 - 105 - March 25/26th - Tauranga Armageddon, Baypark Arena
Special Guests
Jamie Campbell Bower (Stranger Things and so much more), Amie Donald (M3GAN, Sweet Tooth), Brian Beacock (Digimon Tamers, Bleach)
2022 - 104 - December 10/11th - Christchurch Armageddon, Te Pae Christchurch Convention Centre
TV and Film Guests
Vico Ortiz (Our Flag Means Death), Summer Glau (Firefly), Hale Appleman (The Magicians), Graham McTavish (House of the Dragon), Liam McIntyre (Spartacus), Evan Evagora (Star Trek: Picard)
Animation Guests
Veronica Taylor (Pokemon), Leah Clark (My Hero Academia), Austin Tindle (Tokyo Ghoul)
Cosplay Guest
CutiePieSensei
2022 - 103 - December 03/4th - Wellington Armageddon, Sky Stadium
TV and Film Guests
Cary Elwes (The Princess Bride), Summer Glau (Firefly), Hale Appleman (The Magicians), Graham McTavish (House of the Dragon), Liam McIntyre (Spartacus), Evan Evagora (Star Trek: Picard)
Animation Guests
Veronica Taylor (Pokemon), Leah Clark (My Hero Academia), Austin Tindle (Tokyo Ghoul)
2022 - 102 - August 06/7th - Palmerston North Armageddon, Central Energy Trust Arena
In-Person Guests
Mike McFarland (Dragonball Z, Attack on Titan), Joe Zieja (Fire Emblem)
Virtual Guests
Ross Marquand (The Walking Dead), Holland Roden, Colton Haynes (Teen Wolf), Jim Beaver (Supernatural), Veronica Taylor, Rachel Lillis (Pokemon), Michael Shanks (Stargate SG-1), Juliana Harkavy, Rick Gonzalez (Arrow)
2023:
New Zealand Comic Con
2015– 17–19 July Wellington, New Zealand Armageddon Expo expanded the traditional event by creating a citywide festival called NZ Comic Con. Armageddon Expo is running for three full days but incorporated these additional elements throughout the weekend and evenings. A 3-day Scavenger Hunt, Pub Crawls, quiz nights, art exhibitions, a house of horrors, cosplay photoshoots, opening party and a closing party. The event was very successful and provided for a full 96 hours of almost non-stop entertainment.
2016 – 4 to 6 June – Wellington, New Zealand citywide events include a 3-day Scavenger hunt; Pub quiz night art exhibitions. House of horrors. Cosplay photo shoots. Opening party and shindig party. Art master class
Studio Ghibli screenings.
Wellycon. Au Contraire. Wellington Zinefest.
2017 – 3 to 5 June NZCC returned to wellington for another fun fill four days for geeks to enjoy being themselves
NZ Anime Convention (Dunedin Anime Experience)
NZ Anime Convention (also known as the Dunedin Anime Experience) was a commercial anime and manga convention held in Dunedin, New Zealand. It was first held in 2009 in a growing response to include Dunedin into the Armageddon Expo family. The first event was held in the Dunedin Town Hall and from 2010 onwards at Castle Lecture Complex in the University of Otago. This event ceased after two years and was replaced by the Armageddon Expo Dunedin Show in 2012.
References
External links
Beyond Reality Media official site
Comics conventions
Anime conventions in New Zealand
Science fiction conventions in New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Ohio%20Transit%20Authority
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Central Ohio Transit Authority
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The Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA ) is a public transit agency serving the Columbus metropolitan area, headquartered in Columbus, Ohio. It operates fixed-route buses, bus rapid transit, microtransit, and paratransit services.
COTA's headquarters are located in the William J. Lhota Building in downtown Columbus. The agency is managed by President and CEO Joanna Pinkerton along with a 13-member board of trustees. COTA is funded by a permanent 0.25% sales tax as well as another 10-year 0.25% sales tax.
The agency was founded in 1971, replacing the private Columbus Transit Company. Mass transit service in the city dates to 1863, progressively with horsecars, streetcars, and buses. The Central Ohio Transit Authority began operating in 1974 and has made gradual improvements to its fleet and network. Its first bus network redesign took place in 2017.
The 2010s have also seen noted service improvements, with the addition of the CBUS free downtown circulator, which ran from 2014 until 2020, its AirConnect airport service in 2016, and the CMAX bus rapid transit service in 2018. Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the agency dealt with declining ridership and staffing, and cut services in response. COTA nevertheless plans to operate several bus rapid transit lines in development in the near future.
History
Prior to COTA's founding, bus service in the area was managed by the privately owned Columbus Transit Company (CTC). In 1971 the CTC was in the midst of budget problems, so in order to maintain bus service in the area, the local governments of central Ohio created COTA. COTA acquired the assets from the CTC on January 1, 1974 and began operations the same day. COTA acquired the CTC bus service for $4.8 million. In mid-1974 COTA established its Park & Ride program and sets up the first routes at area shopping centers. At that time, cash fares were 50 cents.
In 1975, COTA launched the Key Card program, which provided a discount fare for those passengers with disabilities. By the summer of 1976, COTA had established 50 bus shelters. In 1977, COTA started the Commuter Club that offered unlimited riding for $20 a month. One of the first express bus services, the Beeline, was introduced in 1979 giving passengers a speedy ride up and down High Street. That same year, planning began on COTA's operations center on McKinley Ave. In 1992, a 24-hour pass was introduced to allow riders unlimited trips to local and crosstown routes provided by COTA's new lift-equipped buses. From 2007 to 2008, the agency removed all exterior advertisements from its buses, citing diminishing ad revenue and desiring a clean, neat look to the buses.
The agency purchased its downtown office, the William J. Lhota Building, in 2008. Also in 2008, the city of Dublin was added into COTA service areas. In 2016, COTA introduced 4G connectivity in its buses, giving passengers better internet access and allowing for real-time bus tracking to improve communication and efficiency. Real-time bus tracking for passengers began in May 2016 through the Transit app.
On May 1, 2017, the agency overhauled its bus network, the first redesign since COTA's establishment in 1971. The effort simplified routes, increased bus frequency, connected more locations, and reduced bus congestion in downtown Columbus. The redesign doubled the agency's number of frequent lines (from four to eight) and significantly increased weekend service. The project caused a 3.6 percent increase in ridership by May 2018. In August 2017, COTA became the third large transit agency with fleet-wide passenger WiFi. On June 1, 2018, COTA began the C-Pass program, giving employees of certain companies downtown free rides on COTA buses. By 2019, the program enrolled about 420 companies. C-Pass is scheduled to be discontinued on December 31, 2020; property owners will decide whether to fund the program further.
In July 2019, the agency's customer service center at its headquarters closed for renovations. The project involved creating a larger, more inviting space, installing new ticket machines and a large display with transit information, and redesigning part of the building's exterior. The agency opened the new Customer Experience Center in November 2019. In the first "tactical urbanism" project COTA and the City of Columbus operated a temporary busway on Third Street in downtown Columbus from July 22 to August 2, 2019 in an area heavily congested during rush hour. The results were significantly decreased travel times, the average dropping over two minutes from Long Street to Noble Street. The project was inspired by the city of Boston converting a bike lane and on-street parking into a temporary busway. Also in 2019, COTA introduced the COTA Connector system for fare payments. The system includes a smart card that is available for purchase and refills, and a digital wallet through a smartphone app, allowing the use of displayed QR codes to pay when boarding buses.
In 2020, COTA reported 19.1 million riders in 2019, the system's highest ridership since 1988. Ridership had been steadily increasing over several decades, due to rising gas prices, COTA's bus network redesign, and other improvements. In March 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic began affecting Ohio, ridership dropped approximately 40 percent. COTA introduced several measures in mid-March, including thorough cleaning measures, suspending fare collection, reducing all rush hour lines, and suspending its AirConnect and Night Owl services. On March 20, the agency recommended only using its services for essential travel; two days later it shut down several rush hour services and reduced frequencies of nine crosstown lines. On March 24, it stopped all rush hour services until further notice. On March 26, the agency began "dynamic service" to pick up customers left at bus stops by too-full buses; the agency's current policy is for a maximum of 20 passengers per bus. On March 28, a COTA bus operator tested positive for the virus. On March 30, COTA suspended service on routes 21, 25, and 35. On April 7, a second driver tested positive for the disease. On the 11th, the agency announced it will require passengers to wear face masks. On April 27, following further route reductions and a third COTA worker testing positive, it announced all late-night and early hours would be cut, making all services only run from 7 a.m. to 9 p.m. Ridership is down about 65 percent from before the virus. On May 2, as a portion of businesses began to reopen, COTA announced it will resume some early-morning services on May 5.
From May 30 to June 8, COTA rerouted service around downtown Columbus due to the city's George Floyd protests. On June 3, the agency gave a statement regarding its police transport activities during the protests. It had been criticized on social media, and responded that it is committed to breaking down institutional racism, and that its police transport role has been longstanding as part of its emergency service roles. The agency noted that it is not transporting arrested protesters as some agencies have been.
In 2021, COTA introduced a new fare system, based on the Transit app, which caps fares at $4.50 per day or $62 per month. The agency is also transitioning to cash-free fares, though it added about 400 retailers in Central Ohio into a network, allowing riders to add cash to their accounts at the retail stores.
In 2023, COTA staff presented their five-year plan to the agency's board. The plan will cost $1.2 billion and will include new rapid transit corridors, regional funding for sidewalks, bike infrastructure, greenways and other related upgrades, new bus routes, additional electric buses, 60-foot-long buses, higher frequency, longer service hours, and additional transit shelters and facilities. Also in 2023, COTA's board approved resolutions advancing the LinkUS project for bus rapid transit corridors.
Services
Special services
CMAX
CMAX, a bus rapid transit service, runs along Cleveland Avenue from downtown to Westerville. The limited-stop service is estimated to be 20 percent faster than conventional service, using dedicated bus lanes during rush hours, and utilizing transit signal priority. The buses have USB charging ports; the stops have real-time information screens and some feature local art. The service began operation on January 1, 2018.
CMAX was created with $50 million in funding, primarily from the federal government. It was created to help reduce traffic congestion on Cleveland Avenue and bring economic activity to the area in and around Linden, a low-income neighborhood. The BRT line is the most modern in the transit system, with low-floor CNG buses painted red and blue, each with USB ports, and with bus shelters at each stop, many with local art and real-time countdown clocks, displaying the next buses to arrive.
CBUS
The CBUS was a free downtown circulator traveled along High Street between the Brewery District and German Village north through the Short North. The service had uniquely branded 30-foot buses stopping at round "CBUS" signs. The service operated every 10–15 minutes, seven days per week. The service began operation on May 5, 2014, and was ended in March 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. In August 2021, COTA announced that the service will not return.
COTA Plus
COTA Plus, stylized as COTA//PLUS, is a microtransit service in Grove City and northeast Franklin County. The service enables people to use a mobile app or call COTA's customer service to arrange a trip within service zones created for Grove City and northeast Franklin County. Fares are different than fixed-route COTA services, with single fares at $3, day passes at $6, and weekly passes at $20. C-Pass holders, university students, children, and those with discount IDs receive free or reduced fares relative to their eligibility for other COTA services.
The service was first launched in Grove City in July 2019, and expanded with a three-month pilot to the northeast portion of Columbus and Franklin County in May 2020, following service reductions due to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic.
Other revenue services
AirConnect offers airport service between John Glenn Columbus International Airport and downtown Columbus every 30 minutes, seven days a week.
COTA Mainstream is an on-demand shared-ride program for riders with disabilities.
Seasonal or event-based services include the summertime "Zoo Bus" to the Columbus Zoo, the "Bus it to the Buckeyes" service for Ohio State University football games at the Ohio Stadium, and the "Zoom to Boom" service to the city's July 4 fireworks show Red, White & Boom.
Emergency services
COTA is directed by the Franklin County Emergency Management & Homeland Security agency to act as the county's primary transportation agency during emergencies. Through this longstanding agreement, on direction from the Franklin County Emergency Operations Center, COTA provides transit for emergency services workers like Columbus police and firefighters, evacuating victims of flooding, fires, and other emergencies, and as a cooling center and warming center for firefighters in emergencies. Recent emergency actions have included transport of police during the George Floyd protests and transit service as an essential operation during the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2012, the agency purchased its first mobile emergency operations center, allowing it to operate alongside and coordinate with other mobile operations centers during crises.
Operation
The agency is headquartered in the William J. Lhota Building in downtown Columbus. COTA purchased the building in 2008, and named it for Lhota, its former CEO, in 2012. The building holds administrative offices, a bus operator check-in, pass sales offices, and ticket machines. The building is part of the High and Gay Streets Historic District, on the National Register of Historic Places.
COTA's CEO and President is Joanna Pinkerton; the board chair is Craig P. Treneff. The agency is staffed with about 1,120 employees, including about 700 operators (bus drivers).
Bus stops, stations, and facilities
The Central Ohio Transit Authority operates 3,500 bus stops, 350 of which have shelters.
The agency operates four transit centers: Easton Transit Center, Linden Transit Center, Northland Transit Center, and Near East Transit Center. It operates two downtown bus terminals: Spring Street (North) Terminal and the COTA Transit (South) Terminal. The agency also operates 25 park and ride facilities.
COTA's Mobility Services Facility is located at 1330 Fields Avenue in Columbus. COTA's Mainstream demand-response program moved into the then-new, sustainable facility in January 2011. The paratransit facility houses all of its operations, maintenance, and administration in a single location. The facility cost $21.7 million, with 85 percent of the cost federally funded. The Mobility Services Facility holds 110 paratransit vehicles, 6 vehicle maintenance bays, administrative offices, an eligibility assessment center, one bus wash, and two fueling islands. The building relies heavily on natural light, reducing its dependence on artificial lighting. The building also contains a rainwater harvesting system which captures and stores the water for use by the bus wash and toilets. The landscape was also designed to be low maintenance and to not require an irrigation system. Additionally, the HVAC system was built below-floor providing both heat and air conditioning, which reduces the heat or cool air lost when traveling through typical air ducts.
Gallery
Fares
Payment is available on board with exact change, purchased bus passes, a refillable smart card, or through COTA's Connector app. Passes can be purchased at COTA's downtown office, the Spring Street Terminal, John Glenn International Airport, the Columbus State Community College Bookstore, or at supermarkets throughout Central Ohio.
In 2021, COTA is transitioning to a cash-free system, based on the Transit app. About 400 retail stores in Central Ohio are or will be available to add cash to customer accounts. The Transit app has fare capping, so users will not pay over $4.50 per day or $62 per calendar month.
Discounted pricing
Users of the C-Pass employee program can use a mobile app or dedicated swipe card to board free.
Riders eligible to receive special IDs giving them discount fares include people over the age of 65, people with certain disabilities, Medicare cardholders, and qualified veterans. Children under the age of 12 who are 4 feet tall or taller are eligible for discount pricing. Children below ride for free with fare-paying rider; limit three children.
Students of Ohio State University, Capital University, Columbus College of Art and Design, and Columbus City Schools can swipe their student ID cards to board for free. COTA's summer youth pass is another fare option for people under the age of 17, allowing access to COTA services for the months of June, July, and August for a single $62 fee.
Bus service is free during or after severe snowstorms for the duration of the day, announced when the Franklin County Sheriff declares level 2 or level 3 snow emergencies. COTA bus service has also been made temporarily free during other emergencies, including at the beginning and height of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Fleet
A variety of buses make up COTA's fleet. there are 492 vehicles in operation: 212 hybrid or CNG buses, 109 diesel-fueled buses, 12 COTA Plus vehicles, 74 COTA Mainstream vehicles, and 85 COTA Mainstream On-Demand vehicles.
In June 2010 COTA introduced six hybrid buses, which offered a 48 percent increase in fuel efficiency over its diesel buses, a battery-powered electric motor and regenerative brakes that power the battery when pressed, an LED lighting system used inside and outside of the vehicle, and a smoother ride for passengers since the electric motors do not require shifting. Due to rising gas prices at the time, COTA was concerned with reducing fuel emissions, which sparked the addition of the hybrid-electric buses. In 2011, COTA conducted a study to consider the potential benefits of switching to compressed natural gas (CNG) to power its fixed-route bus fleet. The study compared costs of CNG versus diesel fuel, operational and maintenance expenses, market forces, and infrastructure costs. In keeping with COTA's "Going Green" program, environmental impacts, particularly emissions, were also evaluated. COTA officials also visited and studied other public transit systems operating CNG fleets. In late 2011, COTA made the decision to move forward with the transition to CNG and updated existing plans for the renovation of the McKinley Operations facility to include CNG compatible modifications. COTA completed a $76 million renovation of its McKinley Avenue Fixed-Route Bus Operations and Maintenance Facility. The facility is the larger and older (completed in 1974) of its two fixed-route operations facilities.
In May 2013, COTA began operating its first set of CNG buses. The transition to a completely CNG fleet will be a 12-year process that will occur as coaches are retired and replaced, and additional coaches are purchased as part of COTA's ongoing service expansion program. The transition required remodeling with upgrades for CNG at several COTA facilities including a second CNG fueling station at its Fields Avenue Fixed-Route Bus Facility.
Current buses in service
The current fleet includes:
See also
List of bus transit systems in the United States
Ohio Department of Transportation
LinkUS
Smart Columbus
References
External links
Transit agencies in Ohio
Bus transportation in Ohio
Transportation in Franklin County, Ohio
Transportation in Columbus, Ohio
1971 establishments in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovetsky%20Soyuz-class%20battleship
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Sovetsky Soyuz-class battleship
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The Sovetsky Soyuz-class battleships (Project 23, , "Soviet Union"), also known as "Stalin's Republics", were a class of battleships begun by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s but never brought into service. They were designed in response to the s being built by Germany. Only four hulls of the fifteen originally planned had been laid down by 1940, when the decision was made to cut the program to only three ships to divert resources to an expanded army rearmament program.
These ships would have rivaled the Imperial Japanese and America's planned in size if any had been completed, although with significantly weaker firepower: nine guns compared to the nine guns of the Japanese ships and a dozen on the Montanas. The failure of the Soviet armor plate industry to build cemented armor plates thicker than would have negated any advantages from the Sovetsky Soyuz class's thicker armor in combat.
Construction of the first four ships was plagued with difficulties as the Soviet shipbuilding and related industries were not prepared to build such large ships. One battleship, Sovetskaya Belorussiya, was cancelled on 19 October 1940 after serious construction flaws were found. Construction of the other three ships was suspended shortly after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, and never resumed. All three of the surviving hulls were scrapped in the late 1940s.
Design and development
Design work began in 1935 on new battleships in response to the existing and planned German battleships, and the Soviets made extensive efforts in Italy and the United States to purchase either drawings or the ships themselves in the late 1930s. The Italian firm of Gio. Ansaldo & C. proposed a ship of standard displacement with nine 16-inch (406 mm) guns, in size and appearance similar to the then under construction by the company. The U.S. firm of Gibbs & Cox provided four designs; one for a conventional battleship, and three hybrid designs which combined battleship main armament with a raised flight deck on the central superstructure capable of operating up to 30 aircraft. While these projects proved useful to the Soviets, they decided to proceed with their own designs.
The first Tactical-Technical Requirement (abbreviated in Russian as ТТZ) for the large battleship design was issued on 21 February 1936 but proved too ambitious, specifying nine 460 mm guns and a speed of on a displacement of 55,000 tons. The TTZ was revised in May 1936 by Admiral Orlov, Commander of the Soviet Navy, reducing speed to , and weakening the secondary and anti-aircraft batteries. A few months later Admiral Orlov further reduced the size of the battleship to 45,000 tons and set the size of the main guns at 406 mm. Shortly afterward, the Soviet Union signed the Anglo-Soviet Quantitative Naval Agreement of 1937 and agreed to follow the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty that limited battleships to a displacement of 35,560 metric tons (35,000 long tons), although they did add a proviso that allowed them to build ships of unlimited size to face the Imperial Japanese Navy if they notified the British. Yet another TTZ was approved by Orlov on 3 August for ships of 41,500 tons with an armament of nine 406-millimeter, twelve , twelve , and forty guns, a maximum armor thickness of and a speed of 30 knots.
The design of KB-4, the surface ship design bureau of the Baltic Shipyard, was selected for further development although the lead designers were convinced that only a larger ship could fulfill the ambitious requirements. They did manage to get agreement on 22 November 1936 for a thickening of the deck armor that raised the displacement to about 47,000 tons. Design work continued on this basis and technical work was completed for a ship of 47,700 tons in April 1937, but the designers continued to press their case for larger ships. The issue was resolved by General Secretary Stalin at a meeting on 4 July when he agreed to increase displacement to about 56,000 tons. This forced the project to begin again.
The timing of the redesign proved to be inauspicious as the Great Purge was spreading through the ranks of the military and related industries. The original deadline for completion of design work by 15 October was missed, and an incomplete version was presented to the navy's Shipbuilding Administration the next month. A number of details remained to be worked out, including the final design of the machinery plant, the 152 mm guns and the 100 mm gun mounts. In the meantime, extensive and expensive testing was conducted on the ship's hull form, deck armor and torpedo protection; 27 million rubles were spent on experimental work in 1938 alone. Over 100 models of the hull were tested in a ship model basin to find the best hull form and two one-tenth-scale launches were built at Sevastopol to test the hull's maneuverability. An old steamship was fitted with a replica of the design's armor decks and tested against bombs, proving that such ordnance would generally penetrate both the upper and middle decks before exploding on the armored deck. The main armor deck was raised one deck in consequence and a splinter deck added underneath it to stop any bomb or shell fragments that might penetrate the armor deck. The underwater protection system was tested on fifteen one-fifth scale models and two full-sized experimental barges. These tests proved that the torpedo belt system of multiple bulkheads was superior to the Pugliese system of a large tube filled with smaller sealed tubes, but it was too late to incorporate these test results into the design as construction was well underway by the time they were completed in late 1939.
A revised design was approved on 28 February 1938 and the first ship was to be laid down on 15 July, but even this design was incomplete and would be revised later. Trials with similarly shaped motor launches suggested that the hull's propulsive efficiency would be less than planned, and this was accepted in the November 1938 revision as a maximum speed of . However, a new propeller design proved to be more efficient and was predicted to increase speed to . Another change was the deletion of the centerline rudder when tests showed that the two wing rudders would not be able to counteract its effects if it jammed. The weight toward the stern of the boat was calculated to be too great, producing a substantial stern-down trim. To remedy this, the two 100 mm turrets mounted on the quarterdeck were deleted and the height of the armor belt abreast the rear turret was lowered, but this decision was reversed and they were restored by a decision of the State Defense Committee on 14 January 1941. This forced a revision of the aircraft arrangements as the aircraft catapult had to be removed from the centerline of the quarterdeck; two catapults were added to the sides of the quarterdeck instead.
General characteristics
As designed, the Project 23-class ships, as Sovetsky Soyuz and her sisters were designated, were long overall. They had a beam of and a draft of at deep load. They displaced at standard load and at full load, although weight estimates made in 1940 show that they would have exceeded standard and at full load.
The hull form was very full-bodied, especially at the forward magazines, where the torpedo protection system added width to the beam. Coupled with the relatively low length-to-beam ratio of 7.14:1, this meant that very powerful turbines were necessary to achieve even modest speeds. Stalin's decision that the Project 23-class ships would use three shafts instead of four increased the load on each shaft and reduced propulsive efficiency, although it did shorten the length of the armored citadel and thus overall displacement. Metacentric height was designed at and the tactical diameter was estimated at about .
The Sovetsky Soyuz-class ships were provided with facilities to handle two to four KOR-2 flying boats which would be launched by the two catapults mounted on the stern. Two hangars were built into the after end of the forecastle deck to house two of them and cranes were provided at the forward end of the quarterdeck to hoist them out of the water.
Machinery
The machinery arrangement "provided good dispersal of the machinery spaces, but at the cost of very long runs for the wing shafts (ca. ). The turbine compartments for the wing shafts were located forward of boiler room No. 1 and aft of the No. 2 turret magazines. The engine room for the center shaft's turbine was between boiler room No. 2 and No. 3. This meant that the wing propeller shafts had to run underneath the boilers.
The steam turbines, and a license to build them, were originally going to be ordered from Cammell Laird in the United Kingdom, but their £700,000 cost was more than the Soviets wanted to pay. Instead they bought them from Brown Boveri, using the technical information acquired from Cammell Laird in the process, for £400,000. Four single-reduction, impulse-reduction geared turbines were ordered from the Swiss firm, three to equip Sovetskaya Rossiya and one to serve as a pattern for the factory in Kharkov that was to build the remainder. The three produced a total of . Six triangle-type water-tube boilers—two in each boiler room—powered the turbines at a working pressure of and a temperature of .
Maximum speed was estimated at 28 knots, using the revised propeller design, although forcing the machinery would yield an extra knot. The normal fuel oil capacity was , giving an estimated endurance of at and at full speed. Maximum fuel capacity was which gave a range of at 14.5 knots and at full speed.
Armament
The main armament consisted of three electrically powered MK-1 triple turrets, each with three 50-caliber 406 mm B-37 guns. The guns could be depressed to −2° and elevated to 45°. They had a fixed loading angle of 6° and their rate of fire varied with the time required to re-aim the guns. It ranged from 2.0 to 2.6 rounds per minute depending on the elevation. The turrets could elevate at a rate of 6.2 degrees per second and traverse at 4.55 degrees per second. 100 rounds per gun were carried. The guns fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of ; this provided a maximum range of .
The secondary armament consisted of twelve 57-caliber B-38 152 mm guns mounted in six twin-gun MK-4 turrets. Their elevation limits were −5° to +45° with a fixed loading angle of 8°. Their rate of fire also varied with the elevation from 7.5 to 4.8 rounds per minute. They were provided with 170 rounds per gun. The turrets could elevate at a rate of 13 degrees per second and traverse at 6 degrees per second. They had a maximum range of about with a shell at a muzzle velocity of .
Heavy anti-aircraft (AA) fire was provided by a dozen 56-caliber 100 mm B-34 dual-purpose guns in six twin-gun MZ-14 turrets with 400 rounds per gun. The ships began construction with only four turrets, but two additional turrets were restored to the quarterdeck in January 1941. They could elevate to a maximum of 85° and depress to −8°. They could traverse at a rate of 12° per second and elevate at 10° per second. They fired high explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of ; this provided a maximum range of against surface targets, but their maximum range against aerial targets was , the limit of their time fuse.
Light AA defense was handled by ten quadruple, water-cooled, 46-K mounts fitted with 70-K guns with 1800 rounds per gun. Initially only eight mounts were planned when the ships began construction, but two more were added later, probably in January 1941, one on each side of the forward superstructure. Each mount was fully enclosed to protect the crew from the muzzle blast of the larger guns and against splinters. The guns fired shells at a muzzle velocity of . Their effective anti-aircraft range was .
Fire control
Each main gun turret was given a DM-12 rangefinder for use in local control, but they were generally controlled by one of three KDP-8 fire-control directors. These had two stereoscopic rangefinders, one to track the target and the other to measure the range to the ship's own shell splashes. Two of these were protected by of armor and were mounted atop the rear superstructure and the tower-mast. The other was mounted on top of the conning tower and was protected by 50 mm of armor. They used a TsAS-0 mechanical computer to generate firing solutions. Four KDP-4t-II directors, with two rangefinders each, controlled the secondary armament. One pair was on either side of the tower-mast and the aft pair was on each side of the aft funnel. Three SPN-300 stabilized directors, each with a 4-meter rangefinder, controlled the heavy anti-aircraft guns. There was one on each side of the forward funnel while the other was atop the rear superstructure.
Protection
Soviet armor plate plants proved incapable of producing plates of cemented armor thicker than which forced the decision to replace cemented plates thicker than with face-hardened ones with less resistance in November 1940. The plants tended to compensate by making the thicker plates harder, but this often made them more brittle and large numbers did not pass the acceptance tests. This would have significantly reduced the level of protection enjoyed by the Sovetsky Soyuz-class ships in combat.
The Sovetsky Soyuz-class ships devoted a total weight of to armor protection, a slightly greater weight than that of the larger Japanese Yamato class (). Their armor was intended to resist 406 mm shells and 500 kg bombs, specifically shells fired from forward bearings between 35° and 50° from the centerline. This led to the very unusual situation where the armor belt thickened toward the bow to compensate for the narrowing of the ship near the forward magazines, which had to be compensated for by thicker armor. The belt was long and covered 57% of the total waterline length. It was inclined 5° to increase its resistance to flat-trajectory shells. Over the machinery spaces it was thick and increased in steps until it was thick over the forward magazines. It was over the rear magazine. The belt armor was carried forward of the magazines at a thickness of and terminated in a steeply sloped (30°) transverse bulkhead that reduced to at the lower deck where it was continued down to the inner bottom by a bulkhead. Forward of this bulkhead was a 20 mm splinter belt that continued all the way to the bow. The main armor belt dropped down to the main deck from the upper deck abreast the aft turret to reduce weight. This "step" was protected by plates. A transverse bulkhead separated the rear turret and the ship's sides. The main part of the armored citadel was closed off by a 230 mm forward bulkhead and a 180 mm rear bulkhead, both of homogeneous armor. Splinter armor thick covered the upper portion of the citadel.
The forecastle deck was 25 mm thick while the upper deck was over the citadel. Below it, the 50 mm middle deck acted as a splinter deck. The upper deck was 100 mm thick above the 220 mm waterline belt extension. The bottom edge of the forward splinter belt met with a arched deck. Another arched deck of the same thickness covered the stern aft of the rear transverse bulkhead.
The main gun turrets had faces thick with sides and roofs 230 mm thick. thick plates protected the gun ports and bulkheads separated each gun. The barbettes were thick above the upper deck. The MK-4 turrets had 100 mm faces and 65 mm sides. Their barbettes were 100 mm in thickness, but reduced to 65 mm on their inboard sides. 100 mm of armor protected the faces, sides and backs of the MZ-14 turrets for the 100 mm guns, but their roofs and barbettes were 100 mm thick. The forward conning tower had walls 425 mm thick while the rear conning tower had only . The flag bridge in the tower-mast had of protection.
The torpedo defense system was designed to withstand torpedoes with warheads equivalent to of TNT. The ships were intended to be able to remain afloat with any five adjacent compartments flooded or with three torpedo hits and the destruction of the unarmored above-water side. The Pugliese system protected of the ships' midsection. At the aft end was a multi-bulkhead protection system that extended another to the rear from the Pugliese system. The depth of the system was amidships, but it reduced to fore and aft. The outer plating ranged from in thickness while the inner bottom was thick. The cylinder of the Pugliese system was also 7 mm thick while the semi-circular main bulkhead was thick with a flat bulkhead behind it. The diameter cylinder was intended to be immersed in fuel oil or water.
Construction
The August 1938 shipbuilding plan envisioned a total of 15 Project 23-class battleships, and this grandiose scheme was only slightly revised downward to 14 ships in the August 1939 plan. Eight of these were to be laid down before 1942 and the remaining six before 1947. However, only four were actually laid down before the outbreak of World War II forced the Soviets to reassess their ambitious plans. On 19 October 1940 an order was issued, signed by Stalin and Molotov, that no new battleships would be laid down in order to concentrate on smaller ships' building (and also, probably, because more resources were required for the Army), one ship was to be scrapped, and priority should be given to only one of the three remaining battleships.
The Soviet shipbuilding and related industries proved to be incapable of supporting the construction of so many large ships at the same time. The largest warships built in the Soviet Union prior to 1938 were the s, and even they had suffered from a number of production problems, but the Soviet leadership appeared to ignore the difficulties encountered in the construction of the Kirov class when ordering 14 much more ambitious ships. Construction of two more ships planned for Leningrad and Nikolayev had to move to the brand-new Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk because the existing shipyards could not be expanded to handle so many large ships. Components for these two ships had to be manufactured at Leningrad and shipped via the White Sea – Baltic Canal to Molotovsk. Also, the turret shop at Nikolaev proved to be too poorly equipped to assemble the 406 mm mountings and the propeller shafts had to be ordered in 1940 from Germany and the Netherlands as the domestic plants were already overburdened with orders. Shipbuilding steel proved to be in short supply in 1940, and a number of batches were rejected because they did not meet specifications. Armor plate production was even more problematic as only of the anticipated were delivered in 1939, and more than half of that was rejected. Furthermore, the armor plants proved to be incapable of making cemented plates over 230 mm, and inferior face-hardened plates had to substitute for all thicknesses over 200 mm.
Machinery problems were likely to delay the ships well past their intended delivery dates of 1943–1944. Three turbines were delivered by Brown Boveri in 1939 to Arkhangelsk for Sovetskaya Rossiya, but the Kharkhovskii Turbogenerator Works never completed a single turbine before the German invasion in June 1941. A prototype boiler was supposed to have been built ashore for evaluation, but it was not completed until early 1941, which further complicated the production plan.
Construction of all three ships was ordered halted on 10 July 1941, and Sovetsky Soyuz was placed into long-term conservation as the most advanced ship. However, all three were officially stricken from the Navy List on 10 September 1941.
Sovetsky Soyuz
Sovetsky Soyuz (–Soviet Union) was formally laid down 15 July 1938 in Shipyard Nr. 189 (Ordzhonikidze) in Leningrad, although evidence suggests that construction actually began in January 1939 after her slipway was completed, the necessary cranes were in place, and working drawings had been completed. When the war began she was estimated to be 21.19% complete, with of steel assembled on the slip. She was only lightly damaged by German air attacks and bombardments, and, as some material had been used during the siege of Leningrad, she was estimated to be 19.5% complete after the end of the war. Some thought was given to completing her, but this was opposed as she was regarded as obsolete in light of the experience gained during the war. Stalin's expressed desire to see one of the Project 23-class ships completed only delayed the decision to scrap her; this was ordered on 29 May 1948 and was well underway by April 1949.
Sovetskaya Ukraina
Sovetskaya Ukraina (–Soviet Ukraine) was laid down 31 October 1938 at Shipyard Nr. 198 (Marti South) in Nikolayev. When the war began she was 17.98% complete, with assembled on the slipway. Some effort was made to launch the hull, but little work had been done to dredge the river at the foot of the slipway, and she was captured on 18 August 1941, although retreating Soviet troops slightly damaged her hull. The Germans dismantled of her bow and of her stern for use in fortifications. They were forced to evacuate Nikolayev on 17 March 1944 and demolished the supporting blocks under her port side before they left, which gave her a list between 5 and 10 degrees and made her a total loss. She was ordered scrapped on 27 March 1947.
Sovetskaya Rossiya
Sovetskaya Rossiya (–Soviet Russia) was laid down on 22 July 1940 in Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk. After the end of the war she was only 0.97% complete, with of steel assembled. She was ordered scrapped on 27 March 1947.
Sovetskaya Belorussiya
Sovetskaya Belorussiya (–Soviet Belorussia) was laid down 21 December 1939 at Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk, but construction was suspended in mid-1940 when it was discovered that 70,000 rivets used in her hull plating were of inferior quality. This fact probably influenced the decision to cancel her on 19 October 1940. Material intended for her construction was used to construct a floating battery for the defense of Leningrad.
Sovetskaya Gruziya
Sovetskaya Gruziya () was planned to be laid down in 1941 at the Baltic Works, but this was cancelled due to the invasion of the Soviet Union.
Notes
References
Bibliography
See also
K-1000 battleship, a purported class of Soviet battleships to succeed Sovetsky Soyuz, promulgated hoax of the Soviet government.
External links
Class specifications
Article from ship.bsu.by
Article from www.battleships.spb.ru
Battleship classes
World War II battleships of the Soviet Union
Abandoned military projects of the Soviet Union
Proposed ships
Cancelled ships
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-sex%20friendship
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Cross-sex friendship
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A cross-sex friendship is a platonic relationship between two unrelated people of differing sexes or gender. There are multiple types of cross-sex friendships, all defined by whether or not each party has a romantic attraction to each other, or perceives that the other is interested. A few theories have been developed to explain the existence of such friendships. Research has been done on why men and women initiate these relationships, how they are perceived by others, implications for children with cross-sex friendships, among others. Cross-sex friendships can also create problems for those involved if either or both have or ever had any romantic feelings for the other.
Background
Cross-sex friendships play a large role in social relations of both men and women. They can be a cause of complications because of the potential for romance or sexual interactions. Monsour defines a cross-sex friendship as a “voluntary, non-familial, non-romantic, relationship between a female and a male in which both individuals label their association as a friendship”. However, just because these friendships are labeled as “non-romantic,” one cannot assume that there are no romantic or sexual undertones.
Guerrero and Chavez suggest that there are four types of cross-sex friendships: mutual romance, strictly platonic, desires romance, and rejects romance. In a “mutual romance” cross-sex friendship, one of the participants wants a romantic relationship with the other individual and believes that the other individual wants the same. In “strictly platonic” relationships, the individual believes that the other simply wants to be just platonic friends with no thought of romance. In a "desires romance" cross-sex friendship, one individual wants the friendship to become a romantic relationship but does not believe the other individual wants a romantic relationship. In a “rejects romance” cross-sex relationship, one individual does not want the relationship to turn romantic, but believes that their friend does. Each of these friendship styles are based on the goals and viewpoint of the individual. Other theories and research discuss the causes and benefits of cross-sex friendships.
Major theories
Evolutionary theory
Bleske-Rechek et al. theorize that cross-sex friendships are a part of humans’ evolved mating strategies. Current mating strategies unconsciously motivate individuals to enter into cross-sex friendships because it gives them more opportunities to mate. As a result, individuals within these cross-sex friendships often develop attraction to the other individual, even when that attraction is completely unintended. This evolutionary theory predicts that cross-sex friendships are formed by males for sexual access and by females for protection. This demonstrates one way in which cross-sex friendships serve, in part, as a long term mating acquisition strategy. Having more opportunities to mate is an evolutionary advantage, however, being attracted to a cross-sex friend creates negative social consequences. This is especially true for younger adults who are attracted to a cross-sex friend, because these people report less satisfaction in their current romantic relationship. Also, middle-aged adults tend to nominate attraction to their cross-sex friends as more of a negative than a positive.
Social learning theory
In addition, social learning theory predicts that if cross-sex friendships are a result of the desire for sexual access and protection, this is because they are imitating other cross-sex friendships. Most popular television shows and movies suggest that the goal of forming cross-sex friendships is a romantic relationship. People learn from the friendships they see in popular culture and model their behavior after them.
Preference for same sex relationships is a societal norm that is taught to children from a young age. This homosocial norm encourages same sex friendships early on that shape how adolescents view and measure cross-sex friendships. Culturally supported rules about friendships and gender influence the formation of interpersonal relationships. For this reason, ideas of cross-sex friendship can vary from place to place. While diverse cultures view relationships across genders differently, studies have shown that similar ideals for friendship seem to exist around the world in areas such as the United States, Europe, and East Asia. Additionally, adolescent definitions of cross-sex friendships closely match definitions given by adults, suggesting that children develop perceptions on the matter by imitating the opinions of adults in their lives.
During adolescence, a distinction starts to form between romantic relationships and platonic friendships, which is influenced by personal experience as well as exposure to media and popular culture. Teenagers learn from portrayals of romance on television and base their own relationships on these representations. Popular media romanticizes and sexualizes interactions between people of opposite sexes, leading to a cultural expectation of sexual attraction in cross-sex friendships. This common conception leads a small percentage of the population to believe that men and women cannot exist in solely platonic friendships.
The glass partition
Kim Elsesser and Letitia Anne Peplau found that the professional workplace environment and heightened sexual harassment awareness can hinder cross-sex friendship formation. The barrier between men and women forming cross-sex friendships in the professional workplace is called the "glass partition" because of its similarities to the glass ceiling, which prevents women from reaching the top levels of leadership of corporations. The glass partition disadvantages women who work in predominantly male workplaces because women have fewer opportunities for networking. The glass partition results from fearing that friendliness toward a cross-sex friend will be misinterpreted by the friend and by co-workers as romantic or sexual interest, that humor may be perceived as sexual harassment by cross-sex friends, and that conversational topics might be perceived as offensive by cross-sex friends.
When coworkers or other third parties see a cross-sex friendship in the workplace as romantic, this relationship is often viewed negatively, hurting both the male and female worker. This concern becomes specifically prevalent when dealing with cross-sex friendships between superiors and subordinates. It is more likely that this relationship can be misconstrued as often the subordinate, usually a female, might be seen as trying to make advances in order to further their career.
Sexual harassment can hinder the development of cross-sex friendships as well. It is typical practice in companies and organizations to have policies against sexual harassment and to conduct trainings regarding sexual harassment. Due to this heightened awareness of sexual harassment occurrences, many individuals will step back from cross-sex friendships as they can sometimes be misinterpreted by the opposite sex individual or bystanders as sexual harassment. In the study conducted by Elsesser and Peplau, it was stated that most men interviewed in their study often think over conversation topics before initiating conversation with women coworkers, in fear that their comments would be misinterpreted as sexual harassment. In the cases of such wrong accusations, many would rather avoid the possibility of such a situation through avoiding the development of cross-sex friendships as opposed to deal with the possible misconceptions.
Furthermore, it has been reported that oftentimes for men, there is a fear of offending the opposite sex regarding certain conversation topics. For instance, a male management consultant interviewed by Elsesser and Peplau stated that he commonly segregates by gender what type of jokes or humor he expresses in the workplace in fear that it might offend a female coworker. On the contrary, women often say that while they do not feel as though they censor their conversation as much, they can often sense such reservations and unwillingness to relax in men, making friendships awkward and harder to develop.
The fear to create cross-sex friendships in the workplace becomes a problem as friendships amongst coworkers can be specifically important for career development. Friendships can provide information access, networking and emotional support to any individual all of which are valuable for job performance. Hence, when one is limited to forming friendships with those of the same sex, certainly, they are being deprived of advancement in the workplace.
Major empirical findings
Research has been done in the areas of attraction, protection, perception, cross-sex friendships throughout development, and touch and sexual activity between cross-sex friends. These studies find that there are some evolutionary and social benefits to cross-sex friendships. However, there are also some negative social consequences.
Attraction
Within cross-sex friendships, men judge sexual attraction and the desire for sex as a more important reason than do women for initiating their friendship. Additionally, men are more sexually attracted to their opposite-sex friends and have more frequent desires to have sexual intercourse with their opposite-sex friends than women are. Bleske-Rechek et al. found that men overestimate how much their female friends are attracted to them. Women are less likely to want to date their male friends if he is in a committed relationship, but men have the same desire to date their female friend whether or not she is dating someone. Bleske-Rechek et al. hypothesize that a man's desire to date his female friend is not changed by whether or not their female friend is in a relationship. This is due to males’ mating strategies that focus around acquiring short term mates. Furthermore, Bleske-Rechek et al. suggest that men would pursue cross-sex friendships both when single and in a relationship, while women would be less likely to pursue cross-sex friends while dating someone.
Attraction within these friendships can cause challenges. Sexual attraction can arise for a variety of reasons in cross-sex friendships. In a study by Halatsis and Christakis, participants cited social pressures and emotional vulnerability as reasons for sexual attraction arising in a cross-sex friendship. A social pressure that may prompt sexual attraction between cross-sex friends is the perceptions other friends have of their relationship and emotional vulnerability coupled with closeness may provoke sexual attraction between cross-sex friends. When sexual attraction develops in a friendship, it can corrupt the friendship and individuals state that behavior often changes. Sexual attraction in cross-sex friendships is often dealt with in one of three ways: management of this attraction through communication or an internal decision not to pursue the attraction in order to preserve the friendship, a sexual relationship forms then dissipates, or sex becomes a part of the friendship. When participants in the study by Halatsis and Christakis were asked about their experience with sexual attraction in cross-sex friendships, over 50% had experienced attraction, and over 50% of that group had expressed or acted on their sexual attraction. However, men had a tendency to be more attracted to their cross-sex friends, and a higher tendency to act on that attraction. Only 16% of individuals who had acted on their sexual attraction claimed that their friendship ended as a result, otherwise the friendship remained intact or transformed into a romantic relationship.
Reeder found that there are four types of attraction within cross-sex friendships: subjective physical/sexual attraction, objective physical/sexual attraction, romantic attraction, and friendship attraction. Subjective physical/sexual attraction occurs when one of the individuals in the friendship is physically attracted to the other. Objective physical/sexual attraction happens when one individual thinks that the other is attractive in general, yet they are not attracted to the person. Romantic attraction within the cross-sex friendship occurs when one of the individuals within the friendship desires to turn the friendship into a romantic relationship because they believe he or she would make a good girlfriend or boyfriend. Friendship attraction is simply when an individual feels very platonically connected to his or her friend. The four types can coexist together within a friendship or can occur separately. Furthermore, the type of attraction that an individual feels within a cross-sex friendship can change over time. Within Reeder's sample, friendship attraction is the most prevalent type of attraction within cross-sex friendships. Even when participants felt other types of attraction within their cross-sex friendships, they prioritized their friendship attraction so that the relationship would not be ruined.
Protection
Historically, women are more vulnerable due to their smaller stature and lesser strength, on average, compared with men. Thus, women have consistently needed to secure protection for themselves. Seeking protection from men would have been an evolutionary advantage as women who do so increase their reproductive success, which has caused an evolved preference for men who are willing and able to offer protection. Therefore, it is not surprising that Bleske-Rechek & Buss found that women judged physical protection as a more important reason for initiating an opposite-sex friendship than did men and that opposite-sex friendship is a strategy women use for gaining physical protection.
In this regard, males have historically been perceived as having an advantage in cross-sex friendships because the number of resources they have to offer in the relationship exceeds those of females (Monsour et al. 57). In terms of exchange principles within the friendship, women would benefit more than men (Monsour et al. 57). While women may enter into cross-sex friendships for protection, men may enter them for the possibility of sexual encounters (Akbulut and Weger 100). These interactions are desirable because men get to spread their genes through potential offspring (Akbulut and Weger 100). In return, females can benefit from this type of cross-sex friendship through their friend's interest in potential offspring (Akbulut and Weger 101). In this regard, the men within these cross-sex friendships would devote time and energy to caring for and protecting their potential children, which would be beneficial to the females in these relationships (Akbulut and Weger 101). Therefore, in cross-sex friendships, it has been discovered that males are commonly the ones more interested in initiating romantic relationships due to their potential benefits, as observed in a survey of male and female college students (Akbulut and Weger 110).
Perception
The way in which other individuals perceive cross-sex friends can affect the friendship itself. Cross-sex friends sometimes face the audience challenge within their social groups, which occurs when other people assume that they are in a romantic or sexual relationship and the cross-sex friends have to present themselves as just friends in response. Schoonover and McEwan state that since male-female romantic relationships are the norm, people often assume that cross-sex friendships have the potential to develop into a more intimate relationship. The different types of cross-sex friendships will experience the audience challenge in different ways. Strictly platonic friends are least likely to bring about the audience challenge, while mutual romance are the most likely to face the audience challenge. The number of cross-sex friends an individual has also plays a role in how their cross-sex friendships are perceived. When an individual has numerous cross-sex friendships, they are much less likely to face the audience challenge.
Regardless of the severity of the audience challenge, those in cross-sex friendships have been found to spend a considerable amount of time thinking about how their relationship is perceived by others, according to the results of a study that surveyed young adults in cross-sex friendships (Schoonover and McEwan 399). If the peers within their social network of friends want or believe that the cross-sex friendship is romantic, issues could potentially arise in other relationships (Schoonover and McEwan 389). For example, if either member of the friendship has a romantic partner, that person could become jealous or suspicious, which could create tension and destroy the cross-sex friendship (Schoonover and McEwan 389). Therefore, the surrounding social network's opinions of the cross-sex friendship can change the degree that the friends have to worry about the audience challenge (Schoonover and McEwan 391). In other words, as the network's support of the cross-sex friendship as a strictly platonic relationship increases, the audience challenge decreases (Schoonover and McEwan 401). However, while the audience challenge can be a problematic issue for certain types of cross-sex friendships, it has found to not be commonly experienced within cross-sex friendships at large (Schoonover and McEwan 394). One of the main attributes to this finding was that members of the cross-sex friendships were able to effectively communicate with each other as well as their social network about the nature of their relationship and how they were being perceived (Monsour et al. 75).
Children’s and adolescent’s cross-sex friendships
Cross-sex friendships in childhood and adolescence often have an immense impact on adult cross-sex friendships. Successfully forming cross-sex friendships in childhood is often an indication that these individuals will be able to form positive cross-sex friendships later in life. Thus, early cross-sex friendships act as a blueprint for further social interactions. Children's social skills and behavior can be altered based on whether or not they have predominantly same-sex friends or cross-sex friends. One study by Kovacs, Parker, and Hoffman, they found that children who primarily had friends of the opposite sex were perceived to be more aggressive, yet less shy by others. Furthermore, teachers said that the children with primarily friends of the opposite sex had lower academic performance and social skills, but faced less stereotyping in regards to gender roles and were better adjusted to their social atmosphere than children with few friends in general. Results from Kovacs, Parker, and Hoffman's study show that children who have a best friend that is the opposite sex have poorer social functioning abilities. Yet, when children have friends primarily of the same sex, but some cross-sex friendships, they tend to be more well-adjusted and have stronger social skills. Additional studies conducted by Bell and Kalmijn oppose these negative observations behind cross-sex friendships in children, concluding that cross-sex friendships help children overcome communication barriers with the opposite sex, granting them an advantage with their social and communication skills later on. Their studies also observed that cross-sex friendships in children incorporate stronger senses of nurturance and intimacy that lack in same-sex friendships.
Cross-sex friendships in adolescence are very different than in childhood. In adolescence, cross-sex friendships are not only more accepted by peers, but also can increase an individual's social status among same-sex peers. A study on adolescents in 6th through 8th grade conducted by Malow-Iroff discovered that adolescents often use the creation of cross-sex friends as a road to popularity because children with both cross-sex and same-sex friends are more accepted by both sexes. Adolescents mainly look for cross-sex friends who are sociable, as they expect less from these friendships as they do from same-sex friends. Another study by Ami Flam Kuttler, Annette M. La Greca, and Mitchell J Prinstein surveyed 223 students from grades 10 through 12. The study concluded that although the number of cross-sex friendships in adolescents increase with age, both girls and boys felt a sense of stronger companionship and prosocial support with their friends of the same sex. However, adolescent boys claimed they felt as if their female companions provide support in regards to self-esteem more so than males. In addition to these findings, the study concluded that adolescents with predominately cross-sex friendships at these ages is perceived in relation to a lower social acceptance, rather than attaining to social or behavioral complications as observed in children through middle childhood.
Touch and sexual activity in cross-sex friendships
In cross-sex friendships, Miller, Denes, Diaz, and Ranjit found that when men believe the friendship to be strictly platonic, they are more open to touching their friend. However, when they think intimacy may be increasing in the relationship, they are less likely to desire casual touching. In contrast, the opposite was discovered to be true when it comes to women. Miller et al., found that women report being more uncomfortable if touched by their cross-sex friend in a public situation than men did. When there is touch between cross-sex friends, no matter how much intimacy is involved in the friendship, men tend to be more aroused by the touch than women are. The researchers hypothesize that the research results may have been confounded by a social desirability bias because women may be less likely to admit arousal from the touch of a cross-sex friend out of fear of being negatively labeled by others.
Afifi and Faulkner investigated instances in which individuals had sexual interactions with their platonic cross-sex friends. 51% of their sample had sex with their friend when they had no intention of pursuing a romantic relationship with them, and 34% of participants noted having sexual relations with their friend on multiple occasions. Within Afifi & Faulkner's study, of those who had sex with their friend, two-thirds stated that it improved their relationship and 56% stated that the relationship did not develop into something romantic.
Sexual interactions are recognized as a possible outcome of cross-sex friendships (Monsour et al. 56). In the face of these sexual overtones, some welcome the sexual tension in their cross-sex friendship while others note that the potential intimacy could destroy their relationship (Monsour et al. 57). With the sexual component, some friends are hesitant to enter into romantic relationships due to the anticipated disapproval of their social network of peers (Akbulut and Weger 109). Cross-sex friends often have overlapping social circles (Akbulut and Weger 109). Each member in the cross-sex friendship depends on their social network for support and other emotional needs (Akbulut and Weger 109). Thus, potentially falling out of touch with members of one's own social network if the romantic relationship did not work out, is too costly for some cross-sex friends, even if they have engaged in sexual interactions (Akbulut and Weger 109).
Nature/nurture
The biological basis for cross-sex relationships cannot be found in ancient human history, because the way humans conducted their lives is different from the way current humans do now. Up until 10,000 years ago, or for over 99% of human history, humans’ ancestors lived their lives in a nomadic fashion, foraging in groups structured by reproductive partners and offspring — not unlike the way families are organized current-day. Females began reproducing at an early age, and males practiced behaviors that showcased ownership over their female partners in order to safeguard them from other males. There have only been scattered ethnographic references to cross-sex friendships across cultures. Therefore, for much of ancient human history, cross-sex friendships were not common. Today, men and women interact in non-romantic, supportive ways in all types of contexts: work, sports, education, and hobbies, yet these unions are not based on sexual intentions. Evolved mating strategies were mentioned earlier and can be dovetailed with this biological history.
Controversies
Participants in cross-sex friendships face many challenges, including learning how to navigate the particular type of friendship. The four types of cross-sex friendship as defined by Guerrero and Chavez referenced earlier are: strictly platonic, mutual romance, desires romance, and rejects romance. In addition, O’Meara originally stated that the four essential challenges cross-sex friends face are: 1) determining the type of emotional bond experienced in the relationship, 2) confronting the issue of sexuality, 3) dealing with the issue of relationship equality within a cultural context of gender inequality, and 4) the challenge of public relationships — presenting the relationship as authentic to relevant audiences. Schnoonover built research upon O’Meara's audience challenge and found that members of Guerrero and Chavez's different friendship types may experience challenges differently. For example, for “mutual romance” couples, members may be approaching the preliminary romantic stage of the relationship and if their romantic feelings feed into their behaviors toward each other, then they will be the most likely to be mistaken for a romantic couple. In contrast, “strictly platonic” friends should be the least likely to prompt the audience challenge. “Desires romance” and “rejects romance” couples may also be subject to the audience challenge — if observers of the friendship see the member acting in a romantic manner or admitting romantic intent, the observers might be more likely to regard the cross-sex friendship as a growing romantic relationship more so than a friendship.
Another controversial question surrounding cross-sex friendships that is often raised is - after two romantic partners end their relationship — or more colloquially, “break up” — can they still be platonic friends? Kenny and Schneider found three major conclusions about cross-sex friendship with a romantic history. First, rebranding a discontinued romantic relationship as a friendship is common in modern American culture. Second, there are particular predictors of whether a friendship will occur after romance. One critical factor is whether there was a platonic friendship before the romantic relationship existed. Because the partners knew how to navigate friendship with each other before romance, they were more likely to be friends afterwards. Third, the atmosphere in which the breakup occurred determined the likelihood of a post-friendship. Kenny and Schneider cited evidence noting that a more significant indicator of an upcoming friendship is the communication in which the breakup occurred, not the individual who first initiated the breakup.
When looking at how men and women's same-sex relationships work, men tend to talk about more of their problems and open up more with women, rather than their other male friendships which tends to facilitate a bit of a gray area of what is expected when a man and a woman are friends. Cross-sex friendship can exist after marriage when the married couple transition out of the passionate phase. Original feelings while dating are feelings of passion and what many describe as love, however as the relationship progresses through the years and into marriage, studies have found these feelings to be diminished and transition into more of a friendship. This is a topic of controversy as some argue it cannot be labeled as a cross sex “friendship” but rather a romantic relationship, however a study by Alan Booth and Elaine Hess dictates that almost all cross sex friendships can have some sexual/romantic influence, however it does not discount the friendship.
The “friend zone” has also focused on the argument that two people of opposite sexes can never be friends, and many saying that no friendship can occur after one party has made it evident that they have romantic feelings for the other. This coincides with questions on if the parties involved can have had or currently have romantic feelings for one another, or if a friendship must be based on solely feelings of platonic friendship for the duration of the friendship. The definition of a cross-sex friendship that J. Donald O'Meara gives is a relationship between a man and a woman that is not primarily focused on romance, but is not always void of romantic feelings, meaning that once one party had been in the “friend zone” as long as the relationship is primarily aimed towards a friendship, it is still a cross-sex friendship.
Researchers in child development psychology, more specifically a study done by Donna M. Kovacs, Jeffrey G. Parker and Lois W. Hoffman looked into children's cross sex friendships, and found an absence of these types of friendships at younger ages. This raised cause for concern within the study as the researchers discussed how this could be due to a greater separation of genders at younger ages, which can reinforce societal defined gender roles, and prevent these types of friendships, which can be beneficial to development, from occurring.
See also
Human bonding
Heterosociality
Romantic friendship
References
Friendship
Interpersonal relationships
Gender and society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism%20in%20China
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Anarchism in China
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Anarchism in China was a strong intellectual force in the reform and revolutionary movements in the early 20th century. In the years before and just after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty Chinese anarchists insisted that a true revolution could not be political, replacing one government with another, but had to overthrow traditional culture and create new social practices, especially in the family. "Anarchism" was translated into Chinese as () literally, "the doctrine of no government."
Chinese students in Japan and France eagerly sought out anarchist doctrines to first understand their home country and then to change it. These groups relied on education to create a culture in which strong government would not be needed because men and women were humane in their relations with each other in the family and in society. Groups in Paris and Tokyo published journals and translations that were eagerly read in China and the Paris group organized the Work-Study Programs to bring students to France. The late 19th and early 20th century Nihilist movement and anarchist communism in Russia were a major influence. The use of assassination as a tool was promoted by groups like the Chinese Assassination Corps, similar to the suicidal terror attacks by Russian anti-czarist groups. By the 1920s, however, the Chinese Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party offered organizational strength and political change which drained support from anarchists.
Origins
Chinese anarchism has its origins in philosophical Taoism, which first developed in ancient China during the Spring and Autumn Period and has been embraced by some anarchists as a source of anarchistic attitudes. The Taoist sages Lao Tzu and Zhuang Zhou whose philosophy was rather based on an "anti-polity" stance and rejection of any kind of involvement in political movements or organisations and developed a philosophy of "non-rule" in the Zhuang Zhou and Tao Te Ching, and many Taoists in response lived an anarchic lifestyle. There is an ongoing debate whether exhorting rulers not to rule belongs to the sphere of anarchism. A new generation of Taoist thinkers with anarchic leanings appeared during the chaotic Wei-Jin period. Taoist principles were more akin to philosophical anarchism, trying to delegitimate the state and question its morality. Taoism and neo-Taoism were pacifist schools of thought, in contrast with many of their Western anarchist counterparts some centuries later.
Throughout its history, Chinese civilization has gone through a cycle of rise and decline marked by the continued centralization of power by ruling dynasties, collapse of centralized rule and then the eventual rise of a new dynasty. In 1839, the Qing dynasty entered a period of decline, beginning with its defeat by foreign powers during the Opium Wars and continuing with a string of revolts and rebellions, which severely weakened the empire's centralized rule. Chinese dissidents started to flee abroad where, outside of the authority of the Qing dynasty, they were able to freely spread the revolutionary ideas of republicanism, nationalism, socialism and anarchism.
Beginnings of the reformist and revolutionary movements
During the Self-Strengthening Movement, Chinese intellectuals making direct contact with Europeans started to take an interest in the political and economic institutions of European powers. A national consciousness and a sense of cosmopolitanism began to develop, advocating the transformation of China from an empire into a nation-state, in order to secure its future existence in the face of foreign aggression. This rise in Chinese nationalism, which advocated for a form of popular sovereignty, was poorly received by the governing Confucianists, whose conservative desire to preserve the inherited institutions of the empire led them to oust many nationalists from office during the 1880s. This caused much of the nationalist movement to reconstitute itself around revolutionary republican ideals, calling for an end to Qing rule.
Inspired by early Qing thinkers that condemned rulers who prioritized private interests over the public good, the goal of the first generation of Chinese nationalists was to organically integrate Chinese society and the state, with reformers like Liang Qichao advocating for greater political participation through the institution of democracy. Contrary to the nationalists' intentions, by probing the relationship between society and the state, they had raised the question of opposition between society and the state, as well as the question of oppsition between individual autonomy and the political collective, laying the foundations for the emergence of Chinese anarchist thought. These growing anarchic tendencies were even seen in Liang's own words, when he posed that his conception of nationalism "does not allow other people to infringe my freedom, nor does it let me impose on other people" and advocated for the cultivation of autonomous individuals by removing all political and social restrictions from them.
The collapse of the Self-Strengthening Movement because of the Chinese defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War gave rise to a number of new revolutionary nationalist organizations such as the Revive China Society, as well as organized political reform movements such as the Gongche Shangshu movement. From Hong Kong, the Revive China Society planned to launch an uprising in Guangzhou, but their plans were leaked and dozens of members were captured and executed by the Qing government. Meanwhile, the Guangxu Emperor had undertaken the Hundred Days' Reform, but this too was defeated in a coup d'état by the conservative faction led by Empress Dowager Cixi, who placed the reform-minded Guangxu Emperor under house arrest and ordered the public execution of the reform's chief advocates.
After the defeat of the Qing-backed Boxer Rebellion, the Qing government was finally forced to begin implementing reforms, in order to attempt to keep the dynasty in power. At the time, because of the activities of European anarchists in the late 19th century, they were frequently reported in the newspapers, but the translation used at the time was inaccurate, either phonetically as "Ya-Na-Ji-Si-De Party" (鴨那雞撕德黨) or as "Monarchless Party" (無君黨). In 1901, influenced by the Japanese translation, Liang Qichao, who was exiled in Japan, first called the American anarchist Leon Czolgosz a member of "Anarchist Party" (無政府黨) when he reported the assassination of President William McKinley in the Qing Yi Bao; because the Qing Yi Bao had great influence among intellectuals at the time, this translation soon became the most common one, however, it is generally believed that the first systematic introduction to anarchism was published much later, in a 1902 book called The Great Tide in Russia (), which was translated and expanded by Ma Junwu based on a chapter from Thomas Kirkup's A History of Socialism. Ma Junwu, Zhang Ji and the intellectuals of the time had already discussed the relationship between the Russian nihilist movement, the socialist movement in Europe and anarchism. These connections, especially with the nihilist movement, were also the general impression that anarchism left on the Chinese people at the beginning.
Early growth of anarchism
Although the emergence of anarchism as a distinct, formal political current did not occur until 1906, there were many people interested in anarchism as early as 1903. The organized Chinese anarchist groups presence appeared first in France and Japan when the sons of wealthy families went abroad for study after the failed Boxer Rebellion. By 1906 national and provincial programs sent between five and six hundred students to Europe and about 10,000 to Japan. Japan, especially Tokyo, was the most popular destination because of its geographic proximity to China, its relatively affordable cost, and certain affinities between the two cultures. The Japanese language use of Chinese characters made it somewhat easier to learn. In Europe, Paris was particularly popular. Living in the city was relatively cheap, the French government subsidized the students, and France was seen as the center of Western civilization.
The Chinese government officials may also have wanted to get radical students out of the country. The most radical students went to Europe and the more moderate students to Japan. That policy was to prove remarkably short-sighted as these foreign-educated students would use the methods and ideologies of European socialism and anarchism to completely transform Chinese society. In both locations of study, anarchism quickly became the most dominant of the western ideologies adopted by the students. In 1906, within a few months of each other, two separate anarchist student groups would form, one in Tokyo and one in Paris. The different locations, and perhaps also the different inclinations of the students being sent to each location, would result in two very different kinds of anarchism.
Paris group
Having fled the Boxer Uprising in 1900, Li Shizeng returned to Beijing the following year, where he met Zhang Renjie during a banquet at the home of a government official. The pair bonded over their mutual dissatisfaction with Chinese politics and society and discovered that they shared ideas for its reform. In 1902, the pair were appointed as attaches to the Chinese embassy in Paris, although they promptly resigned their positions so that Li should pursue an education in chemistry and biology, while Zhang founded a company to import Chinese goods. After making an acquaintance with the French anarchist geographer Élisée Reclus, Li introduced Zhang to the ideas of anarchism and they quickly began to analyze the situation in China through an anarchist lens. In 1903, Wu Zhihui fled China after having published an article in the revolutionary newspaper Su Bao, in which he criticized the Qing government and insulted the Empress Dowager. Having previously met Zhang and Li in Shanghai, Wu joined the pair in Paris, where he introduced them to his friend Cai Yuanpei, who had just published his short story the New Year's Dream, which predicted the great changes in the world with the passage of time.
In 1906 Zhang, Li, Wu and Cai founded the first Chinese anarchist organization, the World Society (), sometimes translated as New World Society. Shortly afterwards Zhang met Sun Yat-sen and was impressed by his revolutionary program, leading Zhang, Li, Wu and Cai to join the Revolutionary Alliance. But unlike their comrades in the Revolutionary Alliance, who desired a political revolution from above first-and-foremost, the Paris anarchists advocated for a social revolution from below to totally reorganize society. While the Paris anarchists tacitly supported the republican project, as they believed it would move China closer to socialism, they remained critical of republicanism and constitutionalism. According to the Paris group, political revolution was liable to bring new and more extreme inequalities, with more freedom and equality for the wealthy, while the conditions of the poor would remain the same. They observed that, in Europe, the institution of democratic and republican ideals through political revolutions had been utilized to further capitalist interests and impoverish the working classes, instead taking on a fundamentally anti-state and anti-capitalist conception for a social revolution in China. To the Paris anarchists, the goals of an anarchist revolution were the abolition of authority, laws, class distinctions and private property, for the establishment of humanitarianism, freedom, equality and communism in their respective places. The revolutionary methods they proposed to achieve these goals included propaganda, mass associations, mass uprisings, popular resistance and assassination.
This opposition to political revolution drew criticism from nationalists, who saw anarchism as a threat to a strong, unified, centralized modern nation that could stand up to Western imperialism. As one reader wrote in a letter to Xin Shiji (新世紀週報; The New World or New Century; titled La Novaj Tempaj in Esperanto), the anarchist newspaper published by the Paris group:
Nationalists also argued that only by building a popular front could the revolutionary movement defeat the Manchus and the Qing Dynasty, and that in the long run if anarchism was to succeed it must be preceded by a Republican system that would make China secure.
The response of the Xin Shiji editors, written by Li Shizeng, was threefold. First, the revolution that the anarchists advocated would be global, simultaneous, decentralized, and spontaneous. Thus, foreign imperialists would be too occupied with the revolutions in their home countries to bother invading or harassing China. Secondly, they argued that having a strong centralized coercive government had not prevented China's enemies from attacking her in the past anyway, and that a decentralized "people's militia" would be more effective than a standing army in defending the country. Finally, there was the moral point that in the long run, tyranny is tyranny, regardless of whether it is native or foreign. Therefore, the only logical approach for people who want freedom must be to oppose all authority be it Manchu, Han, foreign, or native.
Critics then and later asked how the Chinese anarchists could expect a global spontaneous revolution to come about. Li and the Paris group assumed, as did many radicals of all stripes all over the globe at that time, that Revolution was something akin to a force of nature. Within the context of their thinking, Revolution would come because it was obviously needed, and their role was simply to prepare people for it and help them see the obvious necessity of social change. This perspective provides important insight into the fundamentally evolutionary nature of the movement, and explains the movement's focus on education instead of organization building.
While the Paris group advocated the destruction of hierarchical society through violence, they also held education as fundamental to constructing an anarchist society, believing that education was not only a means but an end of revolution. They declared that education was the most important activity revolutionaries could be involved in, and that only through educating the people could anarchism be achieved. According to the Paris group, anarchist education was geared towards teaching morality, truth and public-mindedness, rather than government-sponsored education which taught obedience to authority. Accordingly, they geared their activities towards education instead of assassination or grass roots organizing (the other two forms of activism which they condoned in theory). To these ends the Paris group set up a variety of businesses, including a soy products factory, which employed worker-students from China who wanted an education abroad. The students worked part-time and studied part-time, thus gaining a European education for a fraction of what it would cost otherwise. Many also gained first-hand experience on what it might mean to live, work, and study in an anarchist society. This study-abroad program played a critical role in infusing anarchist language and ideas into the broader nationalist and revolutionary movements as hundreds of students participated in the program. The approach demonstrated that anarchist organizational models based on mutual aid and cooperation were viable alternatives to profit-driven capitalist ventures.
In 1908, the World Society started a weekly journal, Xin Shiji, to introduce Chinese students in France, Japan, and China to the history of European radicalism. The journal, funded by Zhang and edited by Wu, translated the works of William Godwin, Peter Kropotkin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Élisée Reclus into the Chinese language. Other contributors included Wang Jingwei, Zhang Ji, and Chu Minyi, a student from Zhejiang who accompanied Zhang Renjie back from China and would be his assistant in the years to come. But after three years and over one hundred issues, the journal ceased publication, as Zhang did not have enough money to finance both its publication and the activities of the Revolutionary Alliance.
Li wrote that the influences of the Paris group could be divided into 3 main fields: radical libertarianism and anarchism; Darwinism and Social Darwinism; and the classical Chinese philosophers. While the Paris group was more reluctant than their counterparts in Tokyo to equate the teachings of Lao Tzu or the ancient well-field system with the anarchist communism they advocated, Li describes the group as consisting of young men who had received excellent educations in the Chinese classical tradition. He admits that the old thinking influenced them. The clear trend with the Paris group, however, was to dismiss and even actively oppose any association of anarchism with traditional culture. For the Paris group, as the historian Peter Zarrow puts it, "science was truth and truth was science." The Paris anarchists favored science and rationality, advocating for a revolutionary anarchist future through the abolition of Confucian family structures and private property, the liberation of women, the promotion of individual morality and the creation of equitable social organizations.
Tokyo group
In 1903, Liu Shipei and He Zhen married and moved to Shanghai. Here the newlywed couple joined the anti-Qing Restoration Society, in which Liu developed the doctrine of guocui and edited the journal National Essence, while the Society's founder Cai Yuanpei oversaw He Zhen's education at the Patriotic Women's School. The Society's activities in Shanghai quickly attracted government suppression and the couple were forced to flee into exile in Tokyo, where they joined a group of revolutionaries that introduced them to the ideas of anarchism. The pair went on to establish the Society for the Study of Socialism, began to promote an anti-modernist and agrarianist take on anarchism. The Tokyo anarchists drew greatly from ancient Chinese philosophers such as Laozi, who the group held to be the founding father of Chinese anarchism, and Xu Xing, whose agriculturalist philosophy deeply inspired the group's agrarian utopianism. While from the works of western anarchists, the Tokyo group found inspiration in the literature of Leo Tolstoy, whose idealization of agrarianism and opposition to commercialism aligned closely with their own philosophy.
Liu Shipei argued that the Confuscianist and Taoist advocacy of laissez-faire government had curtailed wider imperial intervention in society, which made China more able to achieve anarchism in the short-term than countries which had undergone the establishment of a centralized nation-state. Therefore, Liu held that the retention of the old regime was preferable to instituting a new one as, in his view, modern capitalism and parliamentarism would only contribute to a rise in economic and political inequality respectively.
In 1907, the Society began publication of the journal Natural Justice, with its stated objective being "to destroy national and racial boundaries to institute internationalism; resist all authority; overthrow all existing forms of government; institute communism; institute absolute equality of men and women." The journal became instrumental in publicizing reports on the oppressive conditions endured by women and the peasantry in Chinese society, presenting these conditions as a consequence of the rise of patriarchal family structures and urban civilization. From this position, He Zhen established the Women's Rights Recovery Association, an anarcha-feminist organization dedicated to the forceful implementation of gender equality and an end to the economic exploitation of women, proposals which were elaborated on in the article On the Question of Women's Liberation. The following year, the Society also began publication of another journal Balance, under the direction of Zhang Ji, which published some of the earliest discussions on the role of the peasantry in a social revolution. Articles in the journal called for a peasants' revolution and, inspired by the works of Peter Kropotkin, advocated for the integration of agriculture with industry.
Liu Shipei and He Zhen eventually split from the programs of Zhang Binglin and other Tokyo leaders and returned to Shanghai. When it became public that the couple had been informers working for the Manchu official Duanfang, they were shunned.
Assassination corps
While neither the Paris nor the Tokyo groups actively engaged in assassinations, they looked favorably on those that did. Inspired by the theory of propaganda of the deed, Chinese anarchists of the time believed that assassinations that were undertaken through self-sacrifice furthered the revolutionary cause.
In 1905, Liu Shaobin joined the Revolutionary Alliance and began to engage in assassination activities, with one failed attempt against the naval commander Li Zhun costing Liu a hand and landing him in prison for about three years. After his release, Liu began to read the anarchist literature coming from abroad and also became interested in Buddhism.
The Paris anarchist and left-wing nationalist Wang Jingwei, influenced by Russian anarchism, himself planned to assassinate the Prince-Regent, but his plan failed and he was arrested in Beijing in March 1910. In response to the failure of Wang's plan, Liu and Chen Jiongming established the Chinese Assassination Corps, which was itself influenced by foreign movements such as the People's Will and the Black Hand.
The Assassination corps was particularly active in Guangzhou, participating in the various uprisings that the city experienced at the turn of the 20th century. In the aftermath of the Second Guangzhou Uprising, one of the Qing commanders Li Chun became a target of the Chinese Assassination Corps, and was wounded in an explosive attack by the assassin Lin Kuan-tz'u.
Anarchism in the Xinhai Revolution
Starting in Guangzhou in 1895, uprisings led by the Revolutionary Alliance and its precursor Revive China Society against the Qing dynasty began to sweep throughout China, all of which failed. Chinese anarchists were generally supportive of the uprisings, believing that violence was justified if it was for moral purposes, necessary under despotic conditions, and effective if it aroused mass support for the revolutionary cause.
In reaction to the Qing government's suppression of the Railway Protection Movement, on 10 October 1911 elements of the New Army, under the influence of the Revolutionary Alliance, launched an armed rebellion against the Qing in Wuchang, deposing the local viceroy and taking control of the city. This successful uprising ignited the Xinhai Revolution, during which revolutionary republicans took up arms all around China to overthrow the Qing dynasty.
When the revolution arrived in Guangzhou on 25 October, the Qing general Feng-shan was assassinated within minutes of arriving in the city by members of the Assassination Corps. Local militias were subsequently organized by the anarchist Chen Jiongming, who launched an uprising throughout Guangdong, capturing Huizhou and proclaiming the independence of the province from the Qing Empire. Many other provinces followed suit, eventually culminating in the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor and the establishment of the Republic of China.
Anarchist ideas had already been introduced to China through the literature of the Paris and Tokyo groups, enough so that Chinese radicals were able to easily distinguish between anarchism and other political philosophies. But following the Revolution and the victory of the Revolutionary Alliance, which counted several prominent anarchists as movement elders, anarchists in China took advantage of the new political openness to begin applying anarchism in practice.
By this time the Paris group had rendered their anarchism into a genuine philosophy that was more concerned with the place of the peaceful individual within society than with the day-to-day grind of government coercion against working people. The revolution allowed the Paris anarchists to return home, where they started to take a particular focus on the provision of education. When the Provisional Government was established, Cai Yuanpei was even appointed as Minister of Education. In April 1912, the Paris anarchists together founded the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement, in order to make education more accessible for working class students." They opened a school in Beijing to teach students the French language, in order to prepare them for study in France. When the students arrived in France, Li Shizeng arranged their admission to college and opened a workers' school near his factory, where worker-students were taught languages and science. More than 120 students were brought to France by the program, before it was closed down by Yuan Shikai. Perceiving anarchism as primarily a way to transform behavior, the Paris anarchists also established the Promote Virtue Society, which advocated for self-improvement, forbidding members from engaging in prostitution, gambling, eating meat, drinking alcohol and smoking. Although they opposed political participation and claimed to intend the overthrow of the state, the Paris anarchists were often willing to function within the state system in order to pursue their goals. Their tendency toward peace lead to increased friction between them and those comrades supportive of government coercion in Guangzhou.
In August 1912, the Revolutionary Alliance and five other small revolutionary parties were merged and reformed into the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) and saw a victory in the first National Assembly election, with the Tokyo anarchists and Zhang Ji being elected. The decision of these anarchists to enter parliamentary politics was criticized by Liu Shifu for compromising anarchists principles, although it was also defended by Wu Zhihui. Shifu opposed political participation, believing that politics was a force imposed on society from above and seeing the social realm as separate from it.
However, the implementation of Nationalist rule was by no means a guarantee of freedom to organize for anti-authoritarians, and government persecution was ongoing. Meanwhile, the main ideological opposition to anarchism came from self-described Socialists, including the Chinese Socialist Society (CSS) and the left-wing nationalist movement.
The emergence of Socialism
With Nationalist political revolution having achieved its goals of overthrowing the Manchu Qing dynasty, the continued perpetuation of oppressive structures under the new Republican government generated a rise of interest in socialism, as people began to advocate for a social revolution to transform society and bring about the social ownership the means of production. Initially defined by anarchism, socialist tendencies quickly began to diversify, taking on both statist and libertarian trends.
The Tokyo anarchist Jing Meijiu was among the first to introduce socialism to China, lecturing on the subject at Shanxi University, where he advanced anarchism as the most extreme form of socialism. Inspired by the Tokyo group's abolition of distinctions between mental and manual labor, as well as the advocacy for gender equality, Jing established a worker-run women's factory in Taiyuan with the intention of providing them economic independence and fair compensation for their work, in addition to an education provided by leading Chinese anarcha-feminists.
Upon his return to China in 1910, the Paris anarchist Jiang Kanghu also began to promote socialism, which he had learnt of during his time as a contributor to the New Era. He advocated for women's education alongside socialism, which attracted the attention of Imperial authorities, although he managed to escape punishment. Shortly after the uprising against the Qing began, Jiang established the Chinese Socialist Party, the country's first socialist organization. The party had a program which advocated the abolition of racial boundaries, inheritance and all taxes except the land tax. The party grew quickly, eventually coming to claim 200 branches with 400,000 members across the country, made up of a largely heterogeneous membership which included both anarchists and social democrats. In a lecture given at a party meeting, Sun Yat-sen declared his commitment to a socialist program, which would utilize a single-tax policy and controls on monopolies, holding the ideas of Henry George alongside that of Karl Marx. Sun and Jiang were both criticised by the anarchist Liu Shifu for their claims to the leadership of the Chinese socialist movement, as well as their inclinations towards reformism, the retention of private property and state socialism. Shifu also pointed out how their socialist positions were unclear about what differentiated them from capitalism, sometimes blending the two, and often confused many different conflicting concepts for each other.
The broad socialist positions promoted by Jiang, vaguely defined by humanitarianism and utilitarianism, were often contradictory, which generated a great deal of confusion over the means and ends of socialism. While Jiang advocated for a social revolution, he also emphasized the moderate nature of his socialist ideology and rejected political violence. His socialism shared a lot in common with that of the Kuomintang, particularly in his insistence that socialism could more be easily achieved in China than in Western societies, due to the relative lack of exploitation and social divisions, and belief that socialism represented the actualization of republicanism in China, rather than presenting a threat to the existing government. He thus argued for the strengthening of republican institutions with socialism, defending that his party existed to serve the state and economic development. His aims of "absolute equality, absolute freedom, absolute love" shared a lot in common with the anarchist ideas he had picked up in the Paris group, but he believed this ideal society lay in the future, and proposed a transitional stage until Chinese workers were ready for its institution. The Socialist Party program particularly advanced policies such as the institution of public education and the abolition of inheritance, which Jiang viewed as instrumental to the achievement of socialism.
Jiang's socialism was shaped by an individualism which saw the benefitting of the self as tied together with the benefitting of others, arguing that the way to maximize the security and happiness of individuals lay in the abolition of "obstacles" such as religion, the state and the family. He blamed traditional family structures, in particular, for the oppression of women, and advocated providing women with education and work in order for them to gain independence from and equality with men. He also opposed communism, as he believed there would be those that did not contribute "from each according to their ability" that would take advantage of the communist system and that absolute equality would cause the stagnation of society. Instead he promoted equal opportunity, defending private property and different levels of payment.
The desire to retain market relations but supplement them with a broad social safety net escalated into the main source of conflict within the party. Other sources of friction had to do with the party's focus on building the revolution in China first, and using elected office as a tool to do so – both significant deviations from classical anarchism. Jiang did not call himself an anarchist, so his party was generally perceived as being outside the movement, despite the similarities. In 1912 Jiang's party split into two factions, the Pure Socialists, led by Sha Gan and Tai Xu, and the remains of the party led by Jiang.
The Buddhist anarchist monk Taixu, who had joined the Socialist Party along with many other radical monks, led the libertarian socialist faction of the party known as the "Pure Socialists". The "pure socialists" stood in opposition to Jiang's state socialism, culminating in late 1912, when the group broke entirely with the party. The program of the pure socialists sought to abolish class distinctions and eliminate all social divisions among people, seeing anarchism not just as opposition to government but as the abolition of all forms of power. The Pure Socialists revised platform included the complete abolition of property and an anarchist-communist economic system. Shifu criticized the Pure Socialists' tendencies towards nativism and nationalism, as well as for retaining the name "Socialist". As their platform was clearly of an anarchist orientation, Shifu stated that they should as such have called themselves anarchists.
Guangzhou group
Following his release from prison, Liu Shaobin began to increasingly gravitate towards anarchism and socialism, having read the materials published by the Paris and Tokyo groups, as well as the publication of the Revolutionary Alliance. As part of his activities in the Assassination Corps, he took a trip to Shanghai, in which he intended to assassinate the new head of state Yuan Shikai. However, upon arriving at a Buddhist monastery near West Lake, he renounced assassination and converted fully to anarchism, changing his name to Liu Shifu. At a meeting in Hangzhou, Shifu established the Conscience Society, an anarchist self-improvement group which took up many of the same practices as the Promote Virtue Society established by the Paris Group.
When Shifu returned to Guangzhou, he founded the Cock-Crow Society, which initially consisted largely of Shifu's family members and close friends, living together in a common household which operated as a commune. The Society spearheaded the propagation of anarchist ideas in China through the distribution of its journal the People's Voice, as well as the Paris Group's New Era and the Tokyo Group's Natural Justice. It began the teaching of Esperanto in China, which was spread by the Guangzhou anarchists to other parts of the country, driven by the internationalist program of the constructed language. The Society also initiated the labor movement in South China, with the Guangzhou anarchists becoming the first organizers of trade unions in the country and developing a strong syndicalist tendency, having particular success in organizing workers in the service industry. The city of Guangzhou quickly developed into the main base of anarchist activity in mainland China.
Shifu propagated a form of anarcho-communism that was far more radical than that of the Paris and Tokyo groups. The Guangzhou anarchists consolidated the anarchist identity by clearly distinguishing it from and formulating a number of critiques of the other forms of socialism present in China at the time. Unlike Jiang Kanghu's Socialist Party, which called for a political revolution, the Guangzhou group emphasized social revolution and advocated for the abolition of politics, drawing from the arguments of the Paris Group a decade before. Despite once remarking on the immediacy of the social revolution, Shifu noted that only a small number of people were educated on anarchism and that it would take time for people to be educated and organized before a revolution could occur. The Guangzhou group was thus chiefly tasked with distributing anarchist propaganda, in order to educate common people on the subject. In order to accelerate agitation, they also advocated for resistance to taxation and military service, labor strikes, assassinations and other forms of political violence. Eventually, they believed, propaganda would reach a saturation point and the social revolution would take place, with the common people overthrowing the state and capitalism in order to build a new anarcho-communist society.
By this time there was an extreme diffusion of anarchist ideas to the point where it was becoming difficult to define exactly who was and who was not an anarchist. Shifu set out to remedy that situation in a series of articles in Peoples Voice, which criticized Jiang Kanghu, Sun Yat-Sen, and the Pure Socialists. The letters directed at Sun Yet-Sen and the Nationalists were aimed at exposing the ambiguities of their use of the word "socialism" to describe their goals, which were clearly not socialist according to any contemporary definition. The criticisms of Jiang and the Socialist Party portrayed their vision of revolution and socialism as too narrow because it was focused on a single country, and opposed their retention of market relations as part of their platform. Meanwhile, the main criticisms of the Pure Socialists were that if they were anarchists then they should call themselves anarchists and not socialists. The Guangzhou anarchists' inclinations towards communism further differentiated them from the socialist movements of Jiang and Sun and Shifu went to great lengths to clarify the differences between anarchist and socialist currents, drawing their history back to the split in the International Workingmen's Association. Although he acknowledged Marxist contributions to socialism, he held anarchism to be more scientific than the "scientific socialism" of the Marxists, given the contributions of Peter Kropotkin to the field. He also claimed that anarchism had a broader scope than socialism, as anarchism concerned itself with society as a whole, whereas socialism was concerned chiefly with economics.
The Guangzhou group eventually went on to establish the Society of Anarcho-Communist Comrades, which advocated "absolute freedom in economic and political life" through the abolition of capitalism and establishment of a communist society, without using the state. In the Goals and Methods of the Anarchist-Communist Party, the Society called for abolition of class distinctions, the state, marriage, religion and borders, as well as the institution of common ownership of the means of production, formation of democratic public associations to coordinate the economy, universal free education, the eight-hour day, the cultivation of mutual aid and an international language. But after the death of the young Liu Shifu, the Chinese anarchist movement went through a difficult period, as reactionary forces began to gain more power.
Counterrevolution and the rise of the Warlords
In March 1913, the KMT leader Song Jiaoren was assassinated by order of the Beiyang government. In retaliation, Sun Yat-sen called for a Second Revolution to overthrow Yuan Shikai, organizing revolutionary forces of the southern provinces against the Beiyang government in an armed conflict, but the revolt was unsuccessful. Yuan subsequently dissolved parliament, abolished the constitution and reorganized provincial governments, effectively transforming the Republic of China into a dictatorship. The failure of the revolution forced Sun to flee to Japan, where he continued to receive support from Zhang Renjie, who was now making money on the Shanghai Stock Exchange.
In the political oppression that followed, many anarchist groups were forced into exile. The Guangzhou group evacuated the city, fleeing first to Macao and then on to Shanghai, where Shifu established the Society of Anarcho-Communist Comrades. A number of members of the Paris Group, including Li Shizeng, Wu Zhihui and Wang Jingwei, returned to France and relaunched the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement. The outbreak of World War I had seen the establishment of the Chinese Labour Corps, in which the Entente Powers recruited hundreds of thousands of Chinese workers to their factories, to which the Paris Group responded by providing these migrant workers with education and training.
In December 1915, Yuan Shikai declared himself Emperor of a new Empire of China. This was opposed by almost all the generals and officers in the Beiyang Army, with many of the Southern Provinces once again rebelling against the imperial government, beginning the National Protection War. By March 1916, the situation forced Yuan to abdicate and he died not long after. This implosion of the Beiyang government's centralized authority led to the beginning of the Warlord Era, during which the Beiyang Army fragmented into a number of regional military cliques that began to vie for control of the country.
In the aftermath, the leading KMT politician Chen Qimei was assassinated in Shanghai by the Fengtian warlord Zhang Zongchang, leading Zhang Renjie to take Chen's protégé Chiang Kai-shek under his wing, providing Chiang with financial assistance, personal advice and political backing.
Anarchism during the Third Revolution
Following the death of Yuan Shikai, a number of dissident political figures returned to China. Sun Yat-sen moved to Guangzhou, where he convened a military government with the intention of protecting provisional constitution and reuniting China, beginning the Third Revolution.
During this period, anarchists in Guangzhou initiated the Chinese syndicalist movement, organizing China's first trade unions among the city's barbers and tea-house clerks. The Guangzhou anarchists went on to lead China's first May Day celebrations, published the country's first workers' journal Labor and during the time of the Third Revolution came to have organized over forty trade unions in Guangzhou alone. Anarcho-syndicalist activity even spread as far as Hunan and Shanghai, with anarchists spearheading the education of the working classes and insisting on workers' self-organization as the backbone of the labor movement. Anarchism became a genuine popular movement in China as increasing numbers of people from peasants and factory workers to intellectuals and students became disillusioned with the national government and its inability to realize the peace and prosperity it had promised.
However, the First Constitutional Protection Movement was soon defeated by the Beiyang government and the Guangxi clique subsequently seized control of the military government in Guangzhou. Some of the Guangzhou anarchists subsequently fled to the , under the protection of the anarchist military leader Chen Jiongming, who oversaw the propagation of anarchism in the city. Under Chen's leadership, Zhangzhou became a model anarchist city, where anarchists could operate and publish their literature freely. The large anarchist presence in the province led Fujian to become known as the "Soviet Russia of Southern China", with the city's anarchist publications serving as a major source of information on the progress of the Russian Revolution.
New Culture Movement
Meanwhile, in North China, Cai Yuanpei had also returned and took a position as President of Peking University, where he resumed his support for the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement and recruited famous thinkers such as the early Chinese communists Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao to teach at the university. One of Li Dazhao's students was a young Mao Zedong who, initially influenced by the anarcho-communism of Peter Kropotkin, began to rapidly develop towards Marxism as part of Li's study group. The Paris Group also began to establish feeder schools throughout North China, obtaining financial support from the new Beiyang government in order to provide transport for students to France, which attracted many new students to the program.
From his position at Peking University, Cai Yuanpei became a leader of the New Culture Movement, which arose out of disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture after the restored Republican government had failed to address many of the country's problems. Many of China's prominent scholars began to openly revolt against Confucianism, instead promoting a society based on individual freedom, complete with women's liberation from the patriarchy, democratic and egalitarian values, as well as a forward-looking orientation.
Many of these discussions were published in Chen Duxiu's New Youth magazine, which became a leading forum for debate on the weaknesses present in the Republic of China. The anarchist arguments for a Social Revolution that had originated a decade earlier with the original Paris group found broader acceptance in the New Culture Movement, to which anarchists introduced the first visions of socialism in China.
The movement itself was not specifically anarchist, but in its glorification of science and extreme disdain for Confucianism and traditional culture, the proliferation of anarchist thought during this period can be seen as a confirmation of the influence anarchists had on the movement from its foundation on. Anarchism, as a mass movement, was another manifestation of modernity and the most thorough criticism of empires and nation-states. At the same time, it was part of the process of modernization and globalization that swept the world before 1914. However, anarchism at this time was externally positioned as a continuum between liberalism and state socialism. The participants saw it as a conscious attempt to create a Chinese renaissance, and consciously sought to create and live the new culture that they espoused.
The New Culture Movement saw a surge in anarchist activity, with anarchist groups such as the Truth Society playing an important role in the movement at Peking University. Other pillars of the Chinese anarchist movement at the time included the Conscience Society in Guangzhou and the Masses Society in Nanjing, which later merged with the Beijing-based Truth Society to establish the Evolution Society, a nationwide anarchist umbrella organization.
May Fourth Movement
In 1919, a wave of student protests broke out throughout the country in response to the Beiyang government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, which had allowed the Empire of Japan to retain the territories in Shandong that it had captured from the German Empire. After student leaders of the demonstrations were arrested and imprisoned, Cai Yuanpei briefly resigned from his post as Dean of Peking University in protest, leading to a mass mobilization. News from the Russian Revolution, which Chinese radicals initially viewed as an anarcho-communist revolution, brought with it a new-found interest in socialism. Anarchists greatly benefited from the new interest in socialism, as anarchism was the most popular and widespread variant of socialism at the time.
The Beiyang government became increasingly concerned with the surge in anarchist activity and began to identify extremism closely with anarchism, counterintuitively giving more publicity to the anarchist movement. Anarchist societies began to spring up across China and anarchist ideas became central to Chinese radicalism, with the New Life Movement bringing anarchist principles into everyday life, through the creation of agrarian communes. According to Zhou Zuoren, a leading figure in the movement, the main goal of these new villages was conceived as being the promotion of labor, which anarchists of the time held to be the foundation of future society. The anarchist conceptions of mutualism and education were also fundamental aspects in these experiments to reorganize social life. Anarchists of the May Fourth Movement refused to distinguish between means and ends, holding that the process of revolution lay in the creation of the future society in the present. However, these communal experiments quickly failed, with the groups involved falling victim to financial difficulties, as the situation had made economic enterprise and employment more difficult. But these short-lived communal experiments still provided inspiration for China's left-leaning intellectuals, who saw them as the beginning of a new era in human society.
The newfound interest in socialism brought on by the movement also brought with it a surge in Marxism. It was at this time that the first Bolsheviks started organizing in China and began contacting anarchist groups for aid and support. The anarchists, unaware that Bolsheviks had taken control in the Soviets and would suppress anarchism, helped them set up communist study groups – many of which were originally majority anarchist – and introduced Bolshevism into the Chinese labor and student movements. Chen Duxiu, a vocal opponent of anarchism, became more interested in Marxism during this period and went on to found the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP was itself founded on the basis of student associations that had been inspired by anarchism during the May Fourth Movement, particularly by the principles of mutual aid and the practice of labor that had been foundational to the organization of collective living in rural areas. Some of the student activists that had arrived at Communism through their association with anarchism included the agrarian movement pioneer Peng Pai and the future CCP leader Mao Zedong.
Suppression of the anarchist movement by Beiyang government
After the Xinhai Revolution, the main target of anarchist opposition shifted from the original autocratic empire to warlord politics, and thus was again suppressed by the Beiyang government. A large number of publications were banned or prohibited from circulation by the Beiyang government, and No. 1165 Document of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications of the Beiyang government stated that "Anarchism is not tolerated in all countries of the world, and since there are such secret societies in Shanghai, they are bound to secretly collude with each other and spread more and more. The printed materials [of these societies] should be banned from circulation to avoid the harm."
The Beiyang government also sent government agents to monitor the actions of the anarchists. From February to April 1921, the Beijing government sent secret agents disguised as students seven times to infiltrate and sabotage the anarchist groups. Anarchism, anarcho-communism, and communism were all suppressed as "extreme" ideas during this period.
Second Constitutional Protection Movement
In 1920, the anarchist military leader Chen Jiongming launched an attack on the Guangxi clique, which had taken over the Constitutional Protection Junta in Guangzhou. Chen recaptured Guangdong for the KMT and even went on to occupy Guangxi, seeing the ultimate dissolution of the Guangxi clique. Chen subsequently invited Sun Yat-sen to return to Guangzhou, where a parliament was reconvened and a new government was established, beginning the Second Constitutional Protection Movement. But as the government was unrecognized and lacking in numbers, Chen invited anarchists, communists and federalists to join the movement, to the chagrin of Sun. Chen also became instrumental in organizing the labour movement of South China, securing workers with the right to collective bargaining. During the Guangzhou seamen's strike, Chen helped to settle the strike, with the employers capitulating to the demands of wage increases.
Sun Yat-sen proposed to forcibly unify China under centralized one-party rule, whereas Chen Jiongming opposed this idea, instead advocating for the establishment of a multi-party federal China through the implementation of inter-provincial autonomy. This split hit its apex when Li Yuanhong was reinstated as President of China, with Chen Jiongming declaring the success of the constitutional protection movement and calling for Sun Yat-sen to step down. When Sun refused, Chen organized a military revolt against the Guangzhou government, forcing Sun Yat-sen to flee once again to Shanghai. But Tang Jiyao eventually retook Guangzhou for the KMT, forcing Chen to flee himself, first to Huizhou then to Hong Kong. Sun Yat-sen himself returned to Guangzhou, where he re-established the military government.
Anarchists in the First United Front
By 1923, Sun Yat-sen was beginning to put into practice his plans for the military conquest of North China. In order to speed up the process, he signed an agreement to cooperate with the Soviet Union, and subsequently formed an alliance with the newly established Chinese Communist Party (CCP), establishing the First United Front. In his lectures on the Three Principles of the People, Sun even began to downplay the differences between the differences between the socialist ideology of the Kuomintang and that of the anarchists and communists, going as far as to state that the ultimate goal of the Three Principles was the establishment of anarchist communism. To Sun, the principle of People's Livelihood was the realization of communism, clarifying that he advocated the methods proposed by Proudhon and Bakunin, while considering that Marxism was not "real communism".
While these statements accelerated the Chinese anarchist effort to appropriate the Three Principles, it also opened the door for the appropriation of anarchism by the Kuomintang. Anarchists saw their loyalties divided and their anarchist goals subordinated to that of the party. The Central Supervisory Committee of the KMT even came under the influence of veteran anarchists, such as the Paris anarchists Li Shizeng, Wu Zhihui and Zhang Renjie, who fiercely criticized the KMT's alliance with the CCP. Wu argued that the anarchist involvement in the KMT was necessary to counter the warlords and justified his support for the party due to its commitment to revolution, pointing to Peter Kropotkin's support for the Entente in World War I as an example of anarchists supporting progressive causes that were not their own. But few anarchists looked favorably on this collaboration with the KMT, with some even calling the party counter-revolutionary and criticizing what they saw as opportunism among the KMT anarchists, ultimately causing a division within the anarchist movement which led to the beginning of its downfall. The actual result of such collaboration was that the anarchists, not the Nationalists, compromised their positions since doing so allowed them to gain access to power positions in the Nationalist government that they theoretically opposed.
With the exception of in Guangzhou, the Chinese anarchist movement largely lost ground to the Communist Party. When it was suggested that the Communist Party headquarters be moved from Shanghai to Sun's base in Guangzhou, Chen Duxiu responded by saying "Anarchists are all over this place, spreading slanderous rumors about us. How can we move to Guangzhou?" The tension with communists was increased by anarchist criticisms of the Soviet Union. Reports from disillusioned anarchists had a big impact, such as Emma Goldman, who had many friends in China, and the wife of Kropotkin, who circulated first-hand reports of the failures of Bolshevism. By this time, more than seventy Chinese anarchist publications were in active distribution, both inside and outside of mainland China, which became increasingly focused on the criticism of Bolshevism and the Soviet Union. In their critiques of Bolshevism, anarchists even went as far as to reject class conflict as a means of resolving class oppression, regarding it as a selfish way of perpetuating the same social relations under a different guise, holding instead that the abolition of authority was the means of achieving a classless society. Expressions of anarchism also beginning to take on a more radical and violent character, influenced by the theory of propaganda of the deed. The Manifesto of Hunan anarchists even included a declaration that "one bomb is better than a thousand books."
Succession crisis
With the death of Sun Yat-sen in March 1925, a power struggle emerged within the Kuomintang, with the left-wing Wang Jingwei, the centrist Chiang Kai-shek and the right-wing Hu Hanmin all vying for control of the party apparatus. Suspected of having assassinated the KMT chairman Liao Zhongkai for supporting the continuation of the United Front, Hu Hanmin was arrested and exiled by Wang and Chiang, which resulted in the right-wing faction of the KMT losing power. Meanwhile, the Yunnan clique had revolted against the KMT's acting executive, claiming Tang Jiyao to be the rightful leader of the KMT. But Tang's forces were routed by the New Guangxi clique and he fled to San Francisco, where Tang joined with Chen Jiongming to found the Public Interest Party, a political party that advocated for federalism and multi-party democracy.
May Thirtieth Movement
On 30 May 1925, Chinese students gathered at the Shanghai International Settlement and held a demonstration against foreign intervention in China. Supported by the KMT, they called for a boycott of foreign goods and an end to the Settlement. The British-operated Shanghai Municipal Police opened fire on the crowd of demonstrators, killing at least nine. This incident sparked outrage throughout China, which culminated in a strike in Guangdong and proved a fertile recruiting ground for the CCP. The aftermath of the May Thirtieth Movement brought on a massive surge in the influence of the Communist Party, growing from having about one thousand members to over fifty thousand and establishing their supremacy over the Chinese labor movement, displacing the existing anarcho-syndicalist leadership. As well as the loss of their influence in the labor movement, anarchists were also losing influence among the youth, who were becoming increasingly attracted to nationalism.
In the self-criticism that the anarchist movement undertook in the ensuing years, anarchists identified their failings in their inability to organize a national revolutionary movement, instead having largely focused on local struggles, as well as their refusal to engage in non-anarchist revolutionary activity. This led many anarchists, who had previously been critical of anarchist collaboration with the Kuomintang, to raise questions on whether or not to participate in the party. Some anarchists such as Ba Jin were opposed to direct collaboration with the revolutionary parties, but instead obliged anarchists to participate in the popular revolution itself and guide people toward anarchism. Others were willing to collaborate with the KMT, on the condition that they retain their anarchist identity and push the party towards anarchist revolutionary goals, which was a perspective encouraged by the Paris anarchists.
Rise of the Kuomintang and the decline of anarchism
The rising power of the left-wing brought increased tensions within the United Front as Chiang Kai-shek began to consolidate power in preparation for the Northern Expedition. The former leaders of the Paris anarchist group Zhang Renjie, Li Shizeng, Wu Zhihui and Cai Yuanpei had become known as the Four Elders of the Kuomintang, holding strong influence over the party and supporting Chiang Kai-shek's candidacy for the leadership. The Four Elders took a hardline stance against the communists as well as the left-wing of the KMT, who perceived their activities as threatening an anarchist takeover of the party.
Division of the United Front
On 20 March 1926, Chiang Kai-shek launched the Canton Coup, purging hardline communists who opposed the proposed Northern Expedition. In an attempt to balance the need for communist assistance with his concerns about growing communist influence, After Zhang Renjie counseled Chiang against identifying himself too closely with the right, Chiang negotiated the removal of hardline members of the KMT's right-wing faction from their posts in compensation for the purged leftists. Soviet aid to the KMT government continued, as did co-operation with the CCP, holding together the United Front long enough to lay the groundwork for the Northern Expedition.
The first phase of the expedition began in July 1926, capturing the provinces of Hunan, Hubei and Henan from the forces of Wu Peifu, and the provinces of Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Anhui and Jiangsu from the forces of Sun Chuanfang, eliminating the Zhili clique in the process. The headquarters of the nationalist government subsequently moved from Guangzhou to Wuhan, while Communist-led trade unions began establishing parallel structures in the areas that had been captured by the National Revolutionary Army. Independent peasant rebels also began to take control of large swaths of land and started to govern themselves, which in response alienated much of the KMT's military leadership, who were generally opposed to peasant self-rule.
The Wuhan government, which was controlled by Wang Jingwei's leftist faction of the KMT, aided by the CCP, as well as widespread grassroots support, transformed Wuhan into "a seedbed for revolution", while portraying themselves as the sole legitimate leadership of the KMT. Controlling much of Hunan, Hubei, Guangdong and Jiangxi, the Wuhan government began challenging Chiang's authority, nominally stripping him of much of his military authority, though refrained from deposing him as commander-in-chief. The CCP also became an equal partner in the Wuhan government, sharing power with the KMT leftists. In response to these developments, Chiang started to rally anti-communist elements in the KMT and NRA around him.
When the Northern Expedition arrived in Nanjing, a series of anti-foreigner riots broke out in the city, with the ensuing chaos bringing the expedition's advance to a halt as Chiang blamed the Communists for instigating the incident. In April 1927, the Four Elders determined that the actions of the CCP were counter-revolutionary and urged Chiang Kai-shek to initiate a purge of the leftists, culminating in the Shanghai massacre, during which thousands of communists were arrested and killed, effectively ending the First United Front. Despite this causing a split between Chiang's right-wing government in Najing and Wang Jingwei's left-wing government in Wuhan, further unrest between the two parties and Soviet interference in the Wuhan government caused Wang to himself initiate a purge of communists from his own ranks. The Wuhan government subsequently re-unified with the Nationalist government in Nanjing, on the condition that Chiang resigned from his post. However, following the suppression of a number of communist uprisings in Nanchang, Hunan and Guangzhou, Chiang Kai-shek retook power from Wang Jingwei, who went into exile in Europe.
The National Labor University
In the aftermath of the Shanghai Massacre, the Four Elders convinced several prominent anarcho-syndicalists in the Shanghai labor movement to join them in the KMT, bringing together a significant anarchist presence within the party. One of the projects these anarchists proposed was the establishment of a workers' university, which would train and educate a new kind of "worker-intellectual" in order to transform the nation as a whole. The KMT anarchists also published a new periodical called Revolution Weekly, to propagate anarchist ideas that were appropriate for continued collaboration between anarchists and the KMT, taking the Three Principles of the People as a means to achieve the goal of anarchism.
In late 1927, the National Labor University was established in Shanghai, with the goal of realizing the anarchist ideal of combining labor with education, by turning "schools into fields and factories, fields and factories into schools." The anarchists believed that this would be a means to peacefully abolish class distinctions and achieve a social revolution, bringing China further towards anarchism. Faculty at the university criticized contemporary Chinese education for its emphasis on reading "dead books", advocating instead for a "living education" which came through the practice of labor.
The formation of the university was overseen by Cai Yuanpei, who had experience as head of Peking University and was busy supervising the broader restructuring of the education system in the Republic of China, with Yi Pei Chi being appointed as the university's president. It was decided that the university would follow the model of public education, with students recruited from working-class backgrounds, in order to end the monopolization of education by the rich. Initially an institution of higher education, elementary and middle schools were eventually added to the university, transforming it into a truly comprehensive educational institution. The university comprised an Industrial Labor College, an Agricultural Labor College and a Social Sciences College, along with a library that held an inventory of over forty thousand books.
Students generally attended classes in the morning, while doing manual labor in the fields and factories during the afternoon. Industrial Labor students worked on machines or setting type in print shops, Agricultural Labor students worked the fields or on irrigation, successfully cultivating tomatoes and cauliflower, while Social Sciences students conducted surveys on social problems and labor strikes in nearby villages. Students were also encouraged to engage in a variety of extracurricular activities, with each college having its own theater group, such that classwork and manual labor did not preclude their leisure time.
However, the number of students that enrolled did not meet the planned numbers, due in part to the university's de-emphasis of strictly academic work, the stigma still attached to manual labor and the effort to recruit students from working-class backgrounds. The Nationalist government was also increasingly replacing the decentralized socialist education system of Cai Yuanpei with a centralized education system. Access to resources were curtailed and the Labor University eventually ceased operations altogether, due to the conditions created by the January 28 incident.
Suppression of the anarchist movement by KMT and CCP
The Second phase of the Northern Expedition finally forced the dissolution of the Beiyang government, with the Northeast Flag Replacement marking the achievement of the Nationalist government's supremacy over the Republic of China. Chiang Kai-shek subsequently centralized authority under the Kuomintang, quickly transforming the country into a one-party state and resolving to terminate mass movements, which he concluded were no longer necessary now that a revolutionary party held state power. In particular, the continuing existence of the anarchist movement presented a clear and present threat to the authoritarian rule of the KMT, which resolved to undertake the suppression of anarchism in China.
When the KMT initiated a second wave of repression against the few remaining mass movements, anarchists left the organization en masse and were forced underground as hostilities between the KMT and CCP – both of whom were hostile towards anti-authoritarians – escalated. Previously sympathetic to the KMT, articles in the anarchist periodical Revolution Weekly began to question the party's revolutionary credentials, citing its murder of striking workers in Shanghai and the prevalence of warlords in the KMT's ranks, leading it to conclude that there had been a continuation of collusion between capitalists and the new regime. Anarchists argued that the revolution had been a solely political revolution and that the KMT had abandoned its previously held promises of social revolution, holding instead that the revolution's success rested in the proliferation of the KMT in power and labeling any people that called for freedom or the improvement of their own lives as "counterrevolutionaries".
The Four Elders were among the targets of criticism by anarchists, identifying Wu Zhihui in particular as an enabler of Chiang Kai-shek and calling for the KMT anarchists to resign their posts and cease their activities within the party and the government. The left-wing faction of the KMT was blamed for the attacks on the Four Elders and, as the criticisms of the party continued, Revolution Weekly was proscribed throughout China and shut down in September 1929. In its final issue, an editorial stated that anarchists "had survived the Communists and the Northern Expedition" but "finally succumbed to the Kuomintang, which had promised free speech to all." Anarchists themselves started to be hunted down by the authorities, charged with conspiring to take over the party or even being labelled as communists. By the end of the 1920s, the anarchists, betrayed by the Kuomintang in their struggle against Marxism, exhausted their utility and slowly disappeared as a force in the Chinese revolutionary movement.
Nevertheless, some anarchists continued to collaborate with the Kuomintang, although they were now being sidelined by Chiang Kai-shek. Zhang Renjie took a position as governor of Zhejiang, where he oversaw a number of public infrastructure projects, before they were eventually sold to private firms, after which he broke with Chiang and resigned, later retiring from politics altogether. Despite initially denying any government office, Wu Zhihui was eventually elected to the National Assembly, where he helped to draft a new constitution and administered the oath of office to Chiang. Cai Yuanpei took a more combative approach, founding the China League for Civil Rights which openly criticized Chiang's government for abuse of power and political repression, though he soon retired from public view after the league's co-founder was murdered in front of the organization's offices in Shanghai.
Insurgent communism and the rise of Maoism
Following the suppression of the anarchist movement and the capitulation of the left-wing nationalists in the Kuomintang, the Chinese Communist Party became the de facto leader of the left-wing opposition to the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek. The Communists themselves had been driven underground and forced to flee to the countryside by nationalist persecution, leading them to begin building a base among the rural peasantry.
To fight back against the Nationalists, the Communists established the Chinese Red Army, launching their first uprising against the government in Nanchang and beginning the Chinese Civil War. Initially successful, the Red Army was forced to retreat by a nationalist counter-offensive, withdrawing to the mountains of south-western Jiangxi. Another uprising in Changsha, but this was defeated and the survivors retreated to the Jinggang Mountains, where Mao Zedong established a base, uniting five villages into a self-governing territory and implementing a policy of confiscating lands from rich landowners. It was here that Mao began to advocate for a peasant-based revolution, contrary to the Communist Party's favor towards urban cadres, in order to overthrow the "four systems of authority" (state, clan, religion and patriarchy). However, after a number of KMT attacks against their base, Mao's forces were eventually forced to evacuate south. Despite coming into conflict with the new leadership of the CCP for his agrarianist position, initiating a purge of dissenters and repressing a rebellion against him, Mao was able to establish the Chinese Soviet Republic with the Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet as his revolutionary base area and was able to defeat both the first and second encirclement campaigns against it through the use of guerrilla tactics.
The KMT was eventually forced to retreat in order to deal with Japanese incursions into China, which allowed the Soviet Republic to expand its influence, with Mao initiating a wide-ranging program of land reform, education and increased gender equality. However, the KMT eventually returned to Jiangxi, viewing the Communists as a greater threat than the Japanese, and initiated a fifth encirclement campaign, bringing about the dissolution of the Jiangxi Soviet and forcing the Red Army into a retreat. After a year on the run and having survived numerous attacks, Mao's army eventually arrived at the Shaanxi Soviet, establishing Yan'an as their revolutionary base area. It was here that Mao developed the concept of the "mass line", which attempted to overcome the centralizing and bureaucratic tendencies of Marxism-Leninism by consulting the masses and carrying out the perceived will of the majority.
China at war
Despite centralizing power over the Yangtze Delta region, the Nationalist government did not hold complete control over China, as a number of regional warlords still remained. In the wake of the assassination of the Fengtian warlord Zhang Zuolin, a power vacuum left behind in Manchuria presented an opportunity for the numerous Korean anarchists that were organized in the region. The Korean People's Association in Manchuria (KPAM) subsequently established an autonomous anarchist zone in Mudanjiang, organized along anarcho-communist lines around the principles of individual freedom and mutual aid. However, the Korean anarchists soon fell victim to attacks by the Empire of Japan, culminating in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, which dissolved the KPAM and established a puppet state known as Manchukuo. From Hong Kong, Chen Jiongming responded to the invasion by attacking Chiang Kai-shek's regime for its appeasement policy and organizing boycotts of Japanese products.
The Empire of Japan continued to conquer more and more regions of China, including Shanghai in 1932 and Rehe in 1933, while also setting up zones of influence throughout North China, establishing puppet states in the Hebei, Chahar and Mengjiang. Despite attempts by volunteers to resist the Japanese incursions in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, by 1937 the Empire of Japan had launched a full-scale invasion of China, beginning the Second Sino-Japanese War.
The Nationalist government had previously been engaging in a number of encirclement campaigns, in an attempt to isolate and destroy the Chinese Soviet Republic, rather than focusing on the threat posed by the Empire of Japan. But following the Xi'an Incident, during which Chiang Kai-shek was detained by two of his subordinates, the Second United Front was established to resist the Japanese invasion. The CCP and KMT fought together in the Battle of Taiyuan and the Battle of Wuhan, losing both to the Empire of Japan, but the two operated largely independently of each other, with the communists favoring guerrilla warfare over conventional battles. In January 1941, a clash between the two parties known as the New Fourth Army incident brought the Second United Front to an end, after which they resumed hostilities.
When a number of attempts to form a series of anti-Chiang Kai-shek governments were suppressed, Wang Jingwei went into exile in Europe, where he began to form relations with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, marking a shift to the far-right for the once left-wing KMT leader. As Chiang began to argue for a rapprochement with the Soviet Union, Wang argued for bringing China into an alliance with the Axis Powers. After an assassination attempt by the KMT, Wang fled to Japanese-held territory, where he negotiated the establishment of a Reorganized National Government under his control. Among the figures in the collaborationist government were the Chief of the Education Yuan Jiang Kanghu, the founder of the Socialist Party, and the Foreign Minister Chu Minyi, who had met Wang when they were both members of the Paris anarchist group. In a massive reversal of his previously held views, Wang blamed communism, anarchism and internationalism for the decadence of Modern China, arguing for the necessity of promoting Confucianism in a return to traditional values.
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Allies began to support the Republic of China against the Empire of Japan, turning the tide of the war. Eventually the surrender of Japan saw China recover all the territories that it had lost to the Empire of Japan since the Treaty of Shimonoseki, including Taiwan. After the war, the Chinese Communist Revolution commenced, during which the CCP took control of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China, forcing the leadership of the KMT to retreat to Taiwan. After 1949, there were few visible signs of anarchist activity in neighboring countries or among overseas Chinese, and the post-revolutionary revival of interest in anarchism was short-lived.
Anarchism in the People's Republic
At the advent of the Chinese Communist Revolution, many Chinese anarchists fled abroad to Hong Kong or Taiwan, with some even going as far as France or the United States, although others also chose to remain in mainland China. One of those that remained was the anarchist writer Ba Jin, who was obliged to join the China Writers Association, saw his works censored to remove any mentions of anarchism and largely ceased writing. During the Anti-Rightist Campaign, Ba Jin denounced writers that were accused of right-wing deviationism.
With the beginning of the Great Leap Forward, the people's communes were established with the intention of "performing the functions of state power" and taking on a vital role in the transition from socialism to communism, being treated as the first step in the "withering away of the state". This promise of an end to statism was particularly appealing to many Chinese peasants, who were attracted to the communes by their aspirations of freedom from state officials and party bureaucrats. According to Maurice Meisner, "[h]ad the people's communes actually developed in the manner Maoists originally envisioned, centralized political power in China would have been fundamentally undermined."
Following a series of strike actions by the peasantry, party officials implemented a "rectification campaign" in order to combat the rising egalitarianism in the communes. Mao himself commented on the state of the communes that: "there is now semi-anarchism [...] We should now emphasize unified leadership and centralization of powers. Powers granted should be properly retracted. There should be proper control over the lower level." After a series of party meetings, bureaucratic authority was reasserted over the rural cadres and centralized state control of the communes was established, reintroducing private ownership and resolving to distribute resources based on work output rather than individual needs. The subsequent bureaucratic mismanagement, combined with other factors, led to tens of millions dying in the Great Chinese Famine from 1959 to 1961.
Anarchic tendencies within the Cultural Revolution
During the Cultural Revolution, a number of anarchistic tendencies began to spread throughout China, advocating for a popular "revolution from below" in opposition to the bureaucratic tendencies of the Communist Party and inspired by the Maoist slogan "Dare to rebel". In the early months of the revolution, the city of Shanghai was targeted by Maoists for the seizure of power from local communist party officials. On 5 January 1967, the "Worker's Headquarters" issued a call for the unity of Shanghai's workers, students, intellectuals and cadres, deposed the city's officials and established the Shanghai People's Commune. After Yao Wenyuan, Zhang Chunqiao and Wang Hongwen took power as the leaders of the commune, various workers' organizations began to challenge the newly appointed city government and organized around the slogan of "All power to the Commune". However, Maoist leaders in Beijing had begun to favor the model of the revolutionary committee for the reorganization of political society. During a meeting with Zhang and Yao, after hearing that many Shanghai Communards were now demanding the abolition of political authority in the commune, Mao himself expressed his opinion on the communards' demands: "This is extreme anarchism, it is most reactionary... In reality there will always be heads."
After the suppression of the Shanghai People's Commune and the institution of a revolutionary committee in the city, Mao turned his attention towards eliminating the anarchistic tendencies that had been unleashed by the Cultural Revolution. He declared that the revolutionary slogan "doubt everything and overthrow everything" was "reactionary", banned radical workers' organizations for being "counter-revolutionary" and instituted strict punishments for attacks against the party and the state. The ultra-left May Sixteenth elements, which had been blamed for much of the chaos by Maoist leaders, were outlawed on charges of "anarchism" and a nationwide campaign was carried out to liquidate the organization.
Out of these struggles between the grassroots and the leadership of the revolution, the radical Maoist group Shengwulian (Hunan Provincial Proletarian Revolutionary Great Alliance Committee) was formed in Hunan province during late 1967. The group took on a staunchly anti-bureaucratic line against what they saw as the "Red capitalist class", which had retained control of the state through the newly established revolutionary committees. In its manifesto Whither China?, the Shengwulian declared its goal was a mass revolution to "smash the old state machinery" and establish in its place the "People's Commune of China", a new society without bureaucrats where the masses would be in control. Despite the Shengwulian pledging its fealty to Mao and the Cultural Revolution Group, the group was denounced as "anarchists" and violently suppressed by the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and the Ministry of State Security (MSS).
By the end of 1968, the last vestiges of the radical popular uprising had been suppressed by the PLA, with revolutionary committees finally coming to dominate the country, restoring managerial rule over the workers who "in the name of rebellion and opposing slavishness [...] in reality stir up anarchism." In its wake, Mao Zedong's cult of personality grew to a more totalizing position and the Cleansing the Class Ranks campaign consolidated the power of the Communist Party over China. During the early 1970s, many of the radical changes brought by the Cultural Revolution were rolled back. China–United States relations were normalized, party officials that had been attacked during the revolution were rehabilitated and managerial authority was strengthened, with calls for labor discipline, further rules and regulations, as well as an industrial struggle against the forces of "anarchism" and "ultra-leftism".
A power struggle broke out thereafter, with the Maoist elements of the leadership around the Gang of Four coming into conflict with those who they called "capitalist roaders", such as Liu Shaoqi and Lin Biao. When the Maoists launched a campaign to criticise these right-wing elements, numerous dissident trade unionists in the city of Hangzhou resumed their struggle to seize power from the local elites, mobilizing workers' militia against the state for the first time since the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. The Maoist Wang Hongwen attempted to repeat his earlier taming of the revolution in Shanghai, but was unsuccessful, with the "capitalist roader" Deng Xiaoping stepping in to provide a line against those elements that had "stirred up anarchism", leading to the imposition of martial law on the city and the PLA being sent in to put down the rebellion. After the death of Mao Zedong and the end of the first generation of Chinese leadership, it was Deng Xiaoping that established himself as the country's paramount leader and began to repress the leftist elements of the Cultural Revolution, such as the Gang of Four.
In recent years, critics of the Cultural Revolution have argued that it was inspired by anarchist ideas. These ideas entered the Chinese Communist Party in the early 1920s and survived many years of revolution. There are some similarities between the themes of the Cultural Revolution and those of the Chinese revolution first proposed by the anarchists.
The Democracy Movement and the New Left
The end of the Cultural Revolution had also brought the advent of the Democracy Movement, which spearheaded a political liberalization process known as the Beijing Spring. The anti-authoritarian character of the Democracy Movement rejected the communist party's political monopoly and revived the anti-bureaucratic ideals of the early Cultural Revolution. In early 1979, Deng denounced the movement as anarchists and set about repressing them, arresting and imprisoning many of the movement's members, including the pro-democracy leader Wei Jingsheng. By early 1981, many pro-democracy activists were forced underground and the movement ceased to exist in the public sphere. Deng continued this authoritarian turn by abolishing the "four great freedoms" of the Cultural Revolution (including freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of association), replacing them with the "Four Cardinal Principles". Throughout the 1980s, Deng implemented a series of economic reforms, introducing a market economy under the theory of "Socialism with Chinese characteristics". Although this period initially saw a rise in living standards, it also brought an increase in cronyism and inflation, leading many workers to consider themselves "losers in the decade of economic reform" and began to respond with slowdowns and wildcat strikes.
In response to increasing debates on the question of social alienation in the PRC, the Communist Party launched the Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign, which targeted the Marxist humanists of the "alienation school". Wang Ruoshui, a prominent proponent of the theory of alienation, argued that alienation continued to exist even after the socialist revolution, stating that "when the government turns into an overlord, refusing to accept the people's control and turning into an alien force, this is alienation." He even went as far as to propose that "to overcome alienation, one should take anarchism into account" and called for the institution of universal suffrage with the right to recall elected officials, which led him to be purged from his post at the People's Daily newspaper. The conservative party official Hu Qiaomu extensively criticized the humanism of Wang, claiming that the recognition of alienation could lead to people "abolish all social political powers, social economic organizations, ideological authority, and centralism and discipline". When the intensifying campaign threatened to undermine the continuing economic reforms, Deng Xiaoping ordered it to be wound down, although Wang would later be purged from the Communist Party ranks altogether.
In spite of the repression against the democracy movement, pro-democratic ideas continued to spread throughout the 1980s, becoming increasingly popular among China's student movement. Towards the end of 1986, student demonstrations began to take place in a number of Chinese cities calling for political reforms, including the ability for citizens to nominate their own candidates for the National People's Congress rather than choosing from a government-approved list, as well as an end to political corruption and cronyism. With none of the students' demands being met by the government, the party responded by initiating a campaign against "bourgeois liberalization", stopping student protests and restricting political activity, with the reformer Hu Yaobang being removed from his post as General Secretary.
Yaobang's death in April 1989 became the catalyst for the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, during which people called for democratic reforms, an end to corruption, and the reinstitution of the "four freedoms". The protests were led by the Beijing Workers' Autonomous Federation (BWAF), a labour union independent from Communist Party control, and the Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation (BSAF), a self-governing student organization, which together called for the advancement of democracy and the end of dictatorship. After dialogue between the protestors and the government broke down, the government declared martial law and mobilized the People's Liberation Army to violently put down the demonstrations, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of protestors. In the aftermath of the protests, many of its leaders were imprisoned or went into exile, reforms were halted, a renewed political purge was undertaken and basic freedoms were further restricted. But it also resulted in the end of the second generation of Chinese leadership, with Deng Xiaoping handing power over to Jiang Zemin.
During the third generation, various strands of thought started to emerge that criticized the policy of marketization and its consequences, concerned particularly with the rising social inequality, converging to become what is now known as the Chinese New Left. Sections of the New Left began to radicalize further during the fourth generation, as the advent of the internet brought together a number of new leftists on websites such as Utopia, cultivating a rise in democratic socialism, neo-Maoism and anarchism, which attacked Communist Party policy from the far-left. The Hongkongese political scientist Chris Man-kong Li criticized the "statist apologism" displayed by sections of the New Left, particularly focusing on the work of Wang Hui, whom he accused of whitewashing state oppression and justifying authoritarianism.
Cultural movements with anarchist elements
Meng Jinghui, an avant-garde director has introduced the adaptation of Accidental Death of an Anarchist to China and gained popularity.
At the turn of the 21st century, the Chinese punk subculture began to emerge underground in Wuhan, born from youth frustration with mainstream society in mainland China, particularly with patriarchal family structures and the strict schooling system. Anarchist tendencies developed within the punk scene, opening the window to concepts of anti-authoritarianism, direct democracy and anti-globalization, which were written about and distributed in DIY zines. The Wuhan punk scene brought about the production of the Chaos magazine, the first anarchist publication to be published in mainland China since the establishment of the People's Republic, which issued articles about the Situationists and green anarchism, as well as translations of the works of Peter Kropotkin and CrimethInc. A group of anarcho-punks even established an autonomous social center called "Our Home", containing an infoshop, conference center, concert space and a guest house, emblazoned with a red and black star on the outer wall. One of the actions organized from the center was a "garbage concert" held to raise money in order to clean up trash in the village where the center is located. They also participated in a restoration project of East Lake, collectively managed by residents of the village. By 2016, "Our Home" was shut down, due in part to the rental requirements and personal reasons.
See also
Anarchism in Hong Kong
Anarchism in Indonesia
Anarchism in Malaysia
Anarchism in the Philippines
Anarchism in Singapore
Left communism in China
Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang
Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas
References
Bibliography
.
External links
Anarchists and the May 4 Movement in China by Nohara Shirõ (translated by Philip Billingsley).
China section - The Anarchist Library
Chinese Anarchism section - The Anarchist Library
Chinese Revolution section - The Anarchist Library
China
Political history of China
China
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodstock%20Slammers
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Woodstock Slammers
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The Woodstock Slammers were a junior "A" hockey team based in Woodstock, New Brunswick. They played as part of the Maritime Junior Hockey League (MHL). The team played their home games at the Carleton Civic Centre, formally known to fans as "Slammerland" or "Slammertown, Canada". The Slammers were a relatively successful team in their 18 year history, winning a NB Junior B League title and Don Johnson Cup (2000), three Kent Cups (2006, 2010, 2012), one Fred Page Cup (2012) and a silver medal at the RBC Cup (2012). In 2018, the franchise relocated to Grand Falls, New Brunswick, changing their name to the Grand Falls Rapids.
History
The junior B years
Prior to 2003, the Slammers were a junior B team in the New Brunswick Junior B Hockey League. In 2000, they won their only league championship against the Richibucto Bears and moved on to the Don Johnson Cup, the Maritime Junior B Championships. Even if they had lost the NBJBHL finals, the Slammers would have attended as they were granted the hosting rights. They played against the Cape Breton Alpines of the Nova Scotia Junior Hockey League, the Summerside Red Wings of the Island Junior Hockey League, the Conception Bay North Jr. Stars of the St. John's Junior Hockey League, and their rivals from Richibucto. The Slammers made the finals and defeated Cape Breton 4–1 to win their only Don Johnson Cup as Maritime Junior B Champions. The Slammers are the second of only three New Brunswick teams to have won the Don Johnson Cup, the first being the Richibucto Bears the year before and the latest being the Moncton Jr. Vitos in 2012.
Move to junior A
Entering the Maritime Junior A Hockey League in the 2003–04 season, the Slammers performed poorly as the newest members of the League. In both of their first two seasons, the Slammers finished 11th in the league and did not qualify for the playoffs. The community support made the new move to the "A" league work during the hard years.
The Tatarnic era
Following the first two seasons in the MJAHL, Jason Tatarnic was hired as the new head coach of the team. That same season the Slammers went from last in the League to finishing first, capturing their first ever President's Cup as the first place team at the end of the season. They then went on to capture their first ever Kent Cup championship and headed for the 2006 Fred Page Cup hosted in Pembroke, Ontario. They finished 0–3–0, losing to the Hawkesbury Hawks 3–0, Pembroke Lumber Kings 4–3 and the Joliette Action (the eventual Fred Page Champions) 7–6. However, this season was the best the Slammers had seen in many years and Tatarnic had cemented his place as coach and his place in Slammers' history.
In the 2007–08 season, the Slammers finished third in the league and made it to the Kent Cup finals for the second time in three years, losing to the Yarmouth Mariners.
The 2009–10 season saw the Slammers set two MJAHL records, first for most points in a season (92) and second for the longest undefeated streak (26 straight wins). Both records had previously been held by the now defunct Charlottetown Abbies. After finishing first in the regular season for their second President's Cup the Slammers moved on to the playoffs, defeating their Meek division rivals Summerside to move on to the finals. They defeated the Weeks Crushers to win their second MHL title under coach "Tarts".
The Slammers travelled to Brockville, Ontario, for their second Fred Page Cup tournament in team history. They faced the host Brockville Braves and lost 6–0, then lost to the Terrebonne Cobras 6–2 and the Pembroke Lumber Kings 7–4 to finish the tournament once again with a 0–3–0 record.
Following another banner year in 2010–11, the Slammers again finished first in the newly renamed Maritime Junior Hockey League (MHL) to claim their third President's Cup. This year, Summerside played the spoiler, defeating the Slammers in the seventh and final game of their Meek division final, further entrenching their divisional rivalry. The 2010–11 season was also the inaugural year for the Slammers' military night, a game night devoted to honouring the soldiers from the Canadian military. During the night of the game, soldiers from CFB Gagetown in Oromocto, New Brunswick, are bussed to the Carleton Civic Centre for the game.
In the 2011–12 season the Slammers once again made history. Going 13–0–0 to start their season, the Slammers set another MHL record, becoming the first team in the league to be ranked as the number one team in the country (Canadian Junior Hockey League) by points starting on October 24, 2011. The Slammers eventually reached 23 games without a loss before finally falling to the Amherst Ramblers 4–1 in regulation on November 26, 2011. Despite this loss, the Slammers remained the number one junior "A" team in the country until January 9, 2012, when they lost two games due to injuries and suspensions and were overtaken by the Penticton Vees of the British Columbia Hockey League, ending an 11-week reign.
On February 4, the Slammers clinched the MHL President's Cup championship as the best team in the regular season, defeating the Miramichi Timberwolves 5–2 in Miramichi. This President's Cup was the third straight for the Slammers, setting a franchise record and giving them home ice advantage throughout the playoffs. The Slammers then went on through the first two rounds, sweeping both the Campbellton Tigers and Summerside Western Capitals in four straight games each to win the Meek Division for the fourth time since 2005. They then took on the Yarmouth Mariners in the Kent Cup finals. The Slammers took a three to one lead in the series, then lost the next two games, leading to game seven in Woodstock's Carleton Civic Centre. The capacity crowd watched as the team honoured former captain Justin Bowers by retiring his #9 jersey, the third number to be retired by the team since 2003. They then watched their team lose a one-goal lead at the end of the third period, leading to a 3–3 tie and overtime. Just 2:57 into the third overtime period, assistant captain Robert Visca beat Mariner's goalie Charles Grant (the eventual playoff MVP) with a wrap around to win the game and the Slammers' third Kent Cup championship.
From April 25 to 29, the Slammers joined the Nepean Raiders, Titan de Princeville and host Kanata Stallions in Kanata for the 2012 Fred Page Cup. On April 25, the Slammers won their first Fred Page tournament game in franchise history, beating the host team 4–3 with the game winner being scored with only 3:00 remaining in the third. The Slammers then beat the Titan de Princeville 5–3 and the Nepean Raiders 3–2 to finish the round-robin in first place (3–0–0) and advanced straight to the finals. Facing Nepean in the finals, the Slammers finished the first 40 minutes of the game in a tie with the Raiders. 2:19 into the third period Sam Caldwell beat Matt Zawadzki to give the Slammers the 3–2 lead. The Slammers then killed three penalties thanks in large part to shot blocking and the outstanding performance of goaltender Matt Murphy (who stopped 42 of 44 shots) to win the game and their first ever Fred Page Cup.
Arriving in Humboldt, Saskatchewan for the Royal Bank Cup, the Slammers lost their first game 4–1 to the host Humboldt Broncos with their lone goal coming from defenceman Andrew Schriver at 11:74 of the third period — the first Slammers goal at a national championship. The Slammers followed this milestone with another, getting their first ever victory at the Royal Bank Cup, beating the Portage Terriers 4–1. This achievement was overshadowed however by a check from behind on Andrew Schriver, the Slammers' game one goal scorer, which resulted in a season-ending injury.
The Slammers went on to lose 2–1 to the Penticton Vees and 7–4 to the Soo Thunderbirds, finishing the preliminary round with a 1–3–0 record, tied with the Portage Terriers. Woodstock's victory over the Terriers earlier in the week, along with more goals scored and a higher plus-minus allowed the Slammers to reach the semifinals for the first time at the Royal Bank Cup. In the semifinals, the Slammers faced the host Humboldt Broncos. Down 2–0 early the Slammers rallied behind defenceman Tim Campbell's two goals to repeatedly tie the game. Their work paid off just 35 seconds into overtime when Ben MacSwain beat Humboldt's Matt Hrynkiw for the win. This upset moved the Slammers into the Canadian Junior "A" National Championship finals for the first time in their history and made them only the second team to make the finals in their first appearance at the Royal Bank Cup tournament.
Playing against the Penticton Vees in the finals, the Slammers came back from another 2–0 deficit and took a 3–2 lead into the third period. However, after receiving three straight penalties in the third period the Slammers lost the lead and the game 4–3, ending their season as the number two team in Canadian junior "A" hockey, their best finish in franchise history.
During the 2011–12 season the Slammers expanded the military night tradition to include a game on Remembrance Day which paid homage to Canadian Service personnel who fought and died in the line of duty throughout the history of Canada, as well as another game in February, bringing the total to three games per season.
In the same year, the Slammers welcomed their own incarnation of the now famous Green Men, the main difference between the two being the Woodstock group's addition of a third member. They attended most home games at the Civic Centre and, as with their Vancouverite predecessors, sat near the visitor's penalty box, where they could taunt the penalized players within.
In the 2012–13 season, the Slammers finished fifth in the MHL and second in the Meek division. In the playoffs, the Slammers made it to the Meek division finals before being ousted in four games by the Summerside Western Capitals.
The summer of 2013 brought major changes for the Slammers. For nearly a month following the season rumors began to circulate that the Slammers would be folding. On May 29, president McCain made an announcement stating that there would be changes over the next three seasons. McCain stated that he would be stepping down over the next three years with the town of Woodstock stepping into a greater role with the team.
However, the biggest change for the team was the dismissal of the coaching staff. Jason Tatarnic ended his tenure with the team with a record of 371 wins and 194 losses, three Kent Cups and a Fred Page Cup championship. President McCain stated the dismissal was not for a performance reason, but simply due to budgetary reasons.
Relocation to Grand Falls
On March 23, 2018, the team announced that they would be taking a one year leave of absence from the Maritime Hockey League for the 2018–19 season. However, on May 16, 2018, the league announced franchise's relocation to Grand Falls, New Brunswick, for the start of the 2018–19 MHL season. On June 6, 2018, the team announced they would be called the Grand Falls Rapids.
Rivalries
Richibucto Bears (NBJBHL)
The earliest rivalry for the Slammers was with the Richibucto Bears of the New Brunswick Junior B Hockey League. In the 2000 NBJBHL playoffs, the Slammers defeated the defending Don Johnson Cup champion Bears to go to the championship tournament themselves. The Slammers won the Don Johnson Cup and, three years later, left the defunct NBJBHL to join the MJAHL, while their rivals moved to the New Brunswick Junior C Hockey League.
Provincial rivalries – Miramichi • Campbellton • Dieppe
Beginning with their first season in the Roger Meek Division, the Slammers have built up healthy rivalries between themselves and the Miramichi Timberwolves, Campbellton Tigers and Dieppe Commandos within New Brunswick. Their close proximity and competition for prominence in their division has evolved into three of the toughest rivalries in the MHL. The Slammers-Commandos rivalry became particularly intense in the 2011–12 season due to the rivalry between Slammer's captain Andrew Langan and his brother Ryan Langan playing in Dieppe.
Summerside Western Capitals
Possibly the best known and most fierce rivalry in Maritime Junior A Hockey, the Summerside Western Capitals – Woodstock Slammers rivalry has its roots in the 2009–10 Championship. That year, the Slammers and Capitals met in the Meek Division Final which the Slammers won, ending Summerside's hopes of repeating as League and Fred Page Champions. The next year (2010–11), the two teams met once again in the Meek Division Final, with the Capitals taking the series in seven games.
During these past three seasons, the Capitals and Slammers have fought hard for Meek Division supremacy (both figuratively and literally), leading to numerous on-ice altercations at almost every game. The most notorious fight took place on September 26, 2008, in Woodstock. A fight broke out at center ice in the final minutes of the third period in a 4–3 game in favour of Summerside. While the combatants fought, no one else seemed interested in fighting, instead shouting at each other from a short distance. Then, a Summerside player approached the Woodstock bench, where he speared a player on the bench. This produced a bench-clearing brawl, which resulted in nine suspensions (totaling 28 games) between the two teams, as well as fines for both head coaches and both teams.
Another major episode of the rivalry took place on December 16, 2011, in Woodstock. Following a goal by the Slammers, a fight broke out in front of the Summerside net. The fighting then escalated to include all the players on the ice (even the goalies) and a player from each bench who jumped the boards to enter the fray. In total, the two teams combined for 170 penalty minutes, with 15 minor penalties, 6 major penalties, two ten-minute misconducts and 9 game misconducts being handed out by the official. Furthermore, suspensions were given to three Summerside players (totaling 18 games), two Woodstock players (one totaling 10 games, the other 8 games) and both teams' head coaches (Summerside 5 games, Woodstock 2 games).
Weeks Crushers
The Crushers – Slammers rivalry goes back to the Slammers undefeated streak in 2009–10. It was the Weeks Crushers who handed the Slammers their first overtime loss of the season, which, although it did not technically end their streak, was a blemish on an otherwise excellent record to that date. That same season, the Slammers and Crushers met in the MJAHL finals with the Slammers winning the series and the Kent Cup (their second). The rivalry with the Crushers has continued ever since.
Bay State Breakers
The Bay State Breakers and Woodstock Slammers rivalry began in 2007 after the Slammers defeated the Breakers at the Woodchuck Classic in Burlington, Vermont. The Breakers, originating in Rockland, Massachusetts, and playing out of the Eastern Junior Hockey League were a strong American team and attended an annual fall exhibition series hosted by the Slammers. The Bay State Breakers lead the series of exhibition matches by one victory, gained on November 30, 2012.
Jerseys
When the Slammers joined the MJAHL in 2003 they brought their old junior B sweaters with them. These sweaters were copies of the 1998–2007 Dallas Stars jerseys, with the stripes of gold and green forming a star shape. These earliest jerseys had the original Slammers logo (the hammer-wielding Thor above the word "Slammers") on them.
Following the 2005–06 Fred Page Cup, the Slammers changed their jerseys. Their home jersey became white with a green band on the arms from shoulder to elbow. Below this band were three stripes, a thick gold one between two thinner black stripes. At the bottom of the jersey was the same three stripe configuration with a band of green below it. The away jersey was green with black bands from shoulder to elbow. The two stripes below the black band were gold above white, each of equal width. At the bottom of the jersey, there were a gold and white pair of stripes with a black band below them. These jerseys also had the original Slammers logo on them.
On January 16, 2009, the Slammers unveiled their first third jersey. It was an all-black sweater with white and green stripes on the collar, green, black, white stripes at the bottom of the sleeves with a green band below and the same configuration at the bottom of the jersey. The logo was replaced with the current main logo, depicting Thor's face and head from the front. This was the Slammers main logo beginning in the 2010–11 season up until the present.
The third jersey from the 2009–10 season was tweaked for use as the regular jersey beginning in the 2010-11 season until the present. The home jersey was made white with a thick green stripe across the center of the jersey and the elbow of both arms. Above and below this thick stripe are thin stripes of black. The bottom of the jersey has a black stripe above a green stripe above a white stripe. A green maple leaf was added to each shoulder to denote the team's location in Canada. The away jerseys is inverted, the black stripes being replaced with white ones, the jersey itself going from white to black.
In the 2011–12 season the Slammers joined numerous sports teams across the world in unveiling their own vintage-style third jersey. It is a green jersey with white stripes running down the arms. Outside these stripes are a series of stripes coloured black, green, white, black, green, white, black and green starting at the collar. The collar itself has laces (in keeping with the vintage design) and the bottom of the jersey has a white then black stripe (in descending order) to the bottom of the jersey. The logo is a circle containing the team name around the Slammer's Head logo, with extending tabs that proclaim the teams establishing year as 2003.
At the start of the 2012–13 season, the Slammers introduced yet another alternate jersey, this one identical to the regular away jersey. However, the logo was changed from a forward facing head to a head in profile. This brought the Slammers total up to two regular jerseys and two alternates.
Season-by-season record
Regular season
Legend: OTL=Overtime loss, SOL=Shootout loss
Playoffs
Fred Page Cup
Eastern Canada Junior A ChampionshipsThe Eastern Canadian Junior A Hockey Championship is played annually between the winners of the MHL, QJHL, CCHL, and a Host team. It consists of round-robin play with the 2nd and 3rd place teams playing off in a semi-final to advance to a final against the 1st place team. Below are the results of the games in which the Slammers played.
RBC Cup
Canadian Junior A National ChampionshipThe RBC Cup is the Annual National Junior A Hockey Championship, played between the winners of the Fred Page Cup (Eastern Champions), Dudley Hewitt Cup (Central Champions), ANAVET Cup (Western Champions), the Doyle Cup (Pacific Champions) and a host team. It consists of round-robin play with the top four teams playing off in semi-finals, followed by a final played between the winners. Below are the results of the games in which the Slammers played.
Team captains
There is no information currently available to the public regarding the captains of the Woodstock Slammers prior to joining the MJAHL.
Jeff Wilson, 2003–04
Justin Bowers, 2005–06
Jeff Conrad, 2006
Dan Dooley, 2006–08
Brad Jackson, 2008–09
Brogan Bailey, 2009–10
Robert Zandbeek, 2010–11
Andrew Langan, 2011–12
Ryan Purvis, 2012–13
Brett MacLean, 2013–14
Matthew Bursey, 2014–15
Mackenzie Brown, 2015–16
Jonny Erbs, 2016–17
Jarred Toole, 2016–17
Brendan Bornstein, 2017–18
Retired numbers
See also
List of ice hockey teams in New Brunswick
Don Johnson Cup
Maritime Junior Hockey League
Fred Page Cup
Canadian Junior Hockey League
References
External links
Maritime Junior Hockey League website
Canadian Junior Hockey League website
Maritime Junior Hockey League teams
Ice hockey teams in New Brunswick
Woodstock, New Brunswick
2000 establishments in New Brunswick
2018 disestablishments in New Brunswick
Ice hockey clubs established in 2000
Ice hockey clubs disestablished in 2018
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm%20Thorgerson
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Storm Thorgerson
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Storm Elvin Thorgerson (28 February 1944 – 18 April 2013) was an English graphic designer and music video director. He is best known for closely working with the group Pink Floyd through most of their career, and also created album or other art for Led Zeppelin, Phish, Black Sabbath, Def Leppard, Al Stewart, Scorpions, UFO, Peter Gabriel, the Alan Parsons Project, Genesis, Yes, Kansas, Dream Theater, Muse, Audioslave, the Mars Volta, The Cranberries, Helloween, Ween, Shpongle and Catherine Wheel.
Early life
Thorgerson, who was of Norwegian descent, was born in Potters Bar, Middlesex (now part of Hertfordshire). He attended Summerhill School, Brunswick Primary School in Cambridge, and the Cambridgeshire High School for Boys with Pink Floyd founders Syd Barrett, who was in the year below him, and Roger Waters, who was in the year above him. Thorgerson and Waters played rugby together at school, while Thorgerson's mother Vanji and Waters' mother Mary were close friends. He studied English and Philosophy at the University of Leicester, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, before studying Film and Television at the Royal College of Art, where he graduated with a Master of Arts degree.
He was a teenage friend of Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour and best man at Gilmour's wedding to Polly Samson in 1994.
Career
In 1968, along with Aubrey Powell, he founded the graphic art group Hipgnosis, and between them they designed many famous single and album covers, with Peter Christopherson joining them for their later commissions. In 1983, following the dissolution of Hipgnosis, Thorgerson and Powell formed Greenback Films, producing music videos.
In the early nineties, Thorgerson inaugurated Storm Studios along with Peter Curzon—a loose group of freelancers. The line up included Rupert Truman (photographer), Finlay Cowan (designer and illustrator), Daniel Abbott (designer and artist), Lee Baker (creative retoucher and designer), and Jerry Sweet (designer) along with Thorgerson's personal assistants, Laura Truman (prints), and Charlotte Barnes.
Perhaps Thorgerson's most famous designs are those for Pink Floyd. His design for The Dark Side of the Moon has been called one of the greatest album covers of all time. Designed by Thorgerson and Hipgnosis, the artwork for the cover itself was drawn by George Hardie, a designer at NTA Studios. Many of Thorgerson's designs are notable for their surreal elements. He often places objects out of their traditional contexts, especially with vast spaces around them, to give them an awkward appearance while highlighting their beauty. To quote Thorgerson, "I like photography because it is a reality medium, unlike drawing which is unreal. I like to mess with reality ... to bend reality. Some of my works beg the question of is it real or not?"
Over the years, Thorgerson and his team designed and released several books about their work. The first, published in 1989, was titled Classic Album Covers of 60s. The Gathering Storm – A Quartet in Several Parts was the final book Thorgerson worked on with his team and it was completed just before his death in April 2013. The book was released in September 2013 and includes album covers artwork, photographs, and anecdotes, spanning five decades from his early work with Hipgnosis through to StormStudios.
In 2013, Prog Magazine renamed its Grand Design Award after Thorgerson. It is now known as the Storm Thorgerson Grand Design Award and will be given to the designer of the year's best-packaged product. Thorgerson had won the 2012 award for his continued work with Pink Floyd.
In 2015 a film documentary, Taken By Storm, was released on DVD and web streaming.
Health problems and death
In 2003, Thorgerson suffered a stroke, from which he was partially paralysed. He was later diagnosed with an undisclosed form of cancer which eventually led to his death in London on 18 April 2013, at the age of 69. After Thorgerson's death, David Gilmour released a statement describing him as "a constant force in my life, both at work and in private, a shoulder to cry on, and a great friend". A post on the official Pink Floyd website called him a "graphic genius". Pink Floyd drummer Nick Mason said that he was a "tireless worker right up to the end". He is buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery.
Works
Album cover designs (1968–2014)
10cc
Sheet Music (1974)
The Original Soundtrack (1975)
How Dare You! (1976)
Deceptive Bends (1977)
Bloody Tourists (1978)
Greatest Hits 1972–1978 (1979)
Look Hear? (1980)
Windows in the Jungle (1983)
Mirror Mirror (1994)
Clever Clogs (2008)
Tenology (2012)
AC/DC
Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap (1976) (international edition)
Airwaves
Next Stop (1979)
Alan Parsons
Try Anything Once (1993)
On Air (1996)
The Time Machine (1999)
A Valid Path (2004)
The Alan Parsons Project
Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976)
I Robot (1977)
Pyramid (1978)
Eve (1979)
Eye in the Sky (1982)
Ammonia Avenue (1984)
The Almighty
Just Add Life (1996)
Al Stewart
Past, Present and Future (1973)
Modern Times (1975)
Year of the Cat (1976)
The Early Years (1977)
Time Passages (1978)
Amazulu
"Mony Mony" (single) (1987)
"Wonderful World, Beautiful People" (single) (1987)
The Amplifetes
Where Is the Light (2013)
Another Animal
Another Animal (2007)
The Answer
New Horizon (2013)
Anthrax
Stomp 442 (1995)
A.P. and the Heath
Bleak Future (EP) (2013)
Argent
Ring of Hands (1971)
In Deep (1973)
Ashra
Correlations (1979)
Audience
The House on the Hill (1971)
Lunch (1972)
You Can't Beat 'em (1973)
Audioslave
Audioslave (2002)
The Aynsley Dunbar Retaliation
The Aynsley Dunbar Retaliation (1968)
Doctor Dunbar's Prescription (1969)
To Mum, From Aynsley & the Boys (1969)
Remains to Be Heard (1970)
Bad Company
Bad Company (1974)
Straight Shooter (1975)
Burnin' Sky (1977)
Desolation Angels (1979)
Rough Diamonds (1982)
Barclay James Harvest
Welcome to the Show (1990)
Be-Bop Deluxe
Drastic Plastic (1978)
Biffy Clyro
Puzzle (2007)
"Saturday Superhouse" (2007)
"Living is a Problem Because Everything Dies" (2007)
"Folding Stars" (2007)
"Machines" (2007)
Only Revolutions (2009)
"That Golden Rule" (2009)
"The Captain" (2009)
"Lonely Revolutions" (2010)
Opposites (2013)
"Black Chandelier" (2013)
"Biblical" (2013)
"Opposite" (2013)
"Victory Over the Sun" (2013)
"Similarities" (2014)
Black Sabbath
Technical Ecstasy (1976)
Never Say Die! (1978)
Blinker the Star
August Everywhere (1999)
Blue Mink
A Time of Change (1972)
Fruity (1974)
Brand XUnorthodox Behaviour (1976)Moroccan Roll (1977)Livestock (1977)Product (1979)Do They Hurt? (1980)
Bruce DickinsonSkunkworks (1996)
Bunk DoggerFirst Offence (1978)
Catherine Wheel
Chrome (1993)
Happy Days (1995)
Like Cats and Dogs (compilation) (1996)
Adam And Eve (1997)
Wishville (2000)
CaravanCunning Stunts (1975)
Cozy PowellTilt (1981)
The CranberriesBury the Hatchet (1999)Beneath the Skin – Live in Paris DVD (2001)Wake Up and Smell the Coffee (2001)Stars: The Best of 1992–2002 (2002)
The CultElectric (1987) (credited on the picture sleeve as "Art Direction by Storm Thorgerson")
CochiseCochise (1970)
Danny WilsonBebop Moptop (1989)
David GilmourDavid Gilmour (1978)About Face (1984)David Gilmour in Concert DVD (2002)
De BlancDe Blanc (1983)
Def LeppardHigh 'n' Dry (1981)
Deepest BlueLate September (2004)
Disco BiscuitsPlanet Anthem (2010)
Dream TheaterFalling into Infinity (1997)
"Once in a LIVEtime" (1998)
"5 Years in a Livetime" (1998)
The DukesThe Dukes (1979)
Edgar Broughton BandEdgar Broughton Band (1971)Inside Out (1972)Oora (1973)A Bunch of 45s (1975)Parlez-Vous English (1979)
Electric Light OrchestraThe Electric Light Orchestra (1971)ELO 2 (1973)On the Third Day (1973)The Light Shines On (1977)
Ellis, Beggs, & HowardHomelands (1989)
EthnixYour Way (2001)13 (2002)
EuropeSecret Society (2006)
Fabulous PoodlesMirror Stars (1978)
FlashFlash (1972)Out of Our Hands (1973)
Foreigner4 (Labels only) (1981)
FoxBlue Hotel (1977)
Gary BrookerNo More Fear of Flying (1979)
Godley & CremeFreeze Frame (1979)
The GodsGenesis (1968)To Samuel a Son (1969)
GenesisThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974)A Trick of the Tail (1976)Wind & Wuthering (1976)...And Then There Were Three... (1978)
Gentlemen Without WeaponsTransmissions (1988)
The Greatest Show on EarthHorizons (1970)The Going's Easy (1970)The Greatest Show on Earth (1975)
Greg FriedmanCan't Talk Now (2013)
GunGun Sight (1969)
goodbyemotelIf (2014)
GooseSynrise (2012)
Healing SixesEnormosound (2002)
Heavy Metal KidsKitsch (1977)
HelloweenPink Bubbles Go Ape (1991)
Herman Rarebell Nip in the Bud (1981)
Humble PieTown and Country (1969)Thunderbox (1974)
Human Sexual ResponseFig. 14 (1980)
Ian Dury and The BlockheadsMr. Love Pants (1998)
John WettonCaught in the Crossfire (1980)
Jon AndersonOlias of Sunhillow (1976)
KansasIn the Spirit of Things (1988)
Katia and Marielle LabèqueGladrags (1983)
KennedyKreisler (1998) (Unused artwork)
Korda MarshallNow We Breathe (2015)
Led ZeppelinPresence (1976)The Song Remains the Same (1976)In Through the Out Door (1979)Coda (1982)
Leisure CruiseLeisure Cruise (2014)
Leo SayerLiving in a Fantasy (1980)
LifeLife After Death (1974)
London Posse"London Posse" (single) (1987)
MachineriMachineri (2012)
The Mars VoltaDe-Loused in the Comatorium (2003)
"Inertiatic ESP" single (2003)
"Televators" single (2003)Frances the Mute (2005)
"The Widow" single (2005)Amputechture (2006) (original artwork)
Marvin, Welch & FarrarMarvin, Welch & Farrar (1971)Second Opinion (1971)
MegadethRude Awakening DVD (2002)
Mick Taylor
Mick Taylor (1979)
Midnight Flyer
Midnight Flyer (1981)
Mike Oldfield
Earth Moving (1989)
Earth Moving single (1989)
Mike Rutherford
Smallcreep's Day (1980)
Moodswings
Psychedelicatessen (1997)
The Moody Blues
Caught Live + 5 (1977)
Muse
Absolution (2003)
"Hysteria" single (2003)
"Butterflies and Hurricanes" single (2004)
Black Holes and Revelations (2006)
"Uprising" single (2009)
Nazareth
Rampant (1974)
Hair of the Dog (1975)
Close Enough for Rock 'n' Roll (1976)
Neil Ardley
Harmony of the Spheres (1978)
The Nice
Five Bridges (1970)
Elegy (1971)
Autumn '67 – Spring '68 (1972)
Nick Mason
Fictitious Sports (1981)
O.A.R.
Stories of a Stranger (2005)
The Offspring
Splinter (2003)
Paul McCartney
Tug of War (1982)
Peter Gabriel
Peter Gabriel (1977) ("Car")
Peter Gabriel (1978) ("Scratch")
Peter Gabriel (1980) ("Melt")
Pendulum
Immersion (2010)
Phish
Slip Stitch and Pass (1997)
The Pineapple Thief
Someone Here Is Missing (2010)
Pink Floyd
A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
More (1969)
Ummagumma (1969)
Atom Heart Mother (1970)
Meddle (1971)
Obscured by Clouds (1972)
The Dark Side of the Moon (1973)
A Nice Pair (1973)
Wish You Were Here (1975)
Animals (1977)
A Collection of Great Dance Songs (1981)
A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987)
Delicate Sound of Thunder (1988)
Shine On (1992)
The Division Bell (1994)
P*U*L*S*E (1995), including the blinking LED light that was featured in early CD packaging.
Relics re-release (1996)
Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81 (2000)
Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd (2001)
Oh, by the Way (2007)
The Best of Pink Floyd: A Foot in the Door (2011)
The Plea
The Dreamers Stadium (2012)
The Police
"De Do Do Do, De Da Da Da" (single) (1980)
Powderfinger
Golden Rule (2009)
Pretty Things
Parachute (1970)
Freeway Madness (1972)
Silk Torpedo (1974)
Savage Eye (1976)
Cross Talk (1980)
Program the Dead
Program The Dead (2005)
Quatermass
Quatermass (1970)
Queen
Greatest Hits (1981) (Unused artwork)
"Las Palabras de Amor (The Words of Love)" (single) (1982)
Rainbow
Difficult to Cure (1981)
Straight Between the Eyes (1982)
Bent Out of Shape (1983)
Ragga and the Jack Magic Orchestra
Ragga and the Jack Magic Orchestra (1997)
Ralph McTell
Slide Away the Screen (1979)
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Stadium Arcadium (2006) (unused)
Renaissance
Prologue (1972)
Ashes Are Burning (1973)
Turn of the Cards (1974)
Scheherazade and Other Stories (1975)
A Song for All Seasons (1978)
Rick Wakeman
1984 (1981)
Rick Wright
Wet Dream (1978)
Broken China (1996)
Rival Sons
Pressure & Time (2011)
Robert Plant
The Principle of Moments (1983)
"Big Log" (single) (1983)
Roger Chapman
"The Drum" (single) (1987)
Roger Taylor
Fun in Space (1981)
Roy Harper
Lifemask (1973)
Valentine (1974)
Flashes from the Archives of Oblivion (1974)
HQ (1975)
Bullinamingvase (1977)
Sammy Hagar
Sammy Hagar (1977)
Musical Chairs (1977)
Saxon
Destiny (1988)
Scorpions
Lovedrive (1979)
Animal Magnetism (1980)
Blackout (1982) (Unused artwork)
The Shadows
Rockin' with Curly Leads (1973)
Specs Appeal (1975)
Shpongle
Ineffable Mysteries from Shpongleland (2009)
Live in Concert at the Roundhouse London 2008 (2009)
Slow Earth
Latitude and 023 (2013)
Steve Hillage
Green (1978)
Live Herald (1979)
Steve Miller Band
Bingo! (2010)
Let Your Hair Down (2011)
Strawbs
Deadlines (1977)
Styx
Pieces of Eight (1978)
Cyclorama (2003)
Syd Barrett
The Madcap Laughs (1970)
Barrett (1970)
Syd Barrett (1974)
An Introduction to Syd Barrett (2010)
Toe Fat
Toe Fat (1970)
Toe Fat 2 (1971)
Tony Carey
Some Tough City (1984)
Thornley
Come Again (2004)
Tiny Pictures (2009)
Throbbing Gristle
20 Jazz Funk Greats (1979)
Heathen Earth (1980)
Thunder
Laughing on Judgement Day (1992)
Behind Closed Doors (1995)
T. Rex
Electric Warrior (1971)
Twink
Think Pink (1970)
UFO
Phenomenon (1974)
Force It (1975)
No Heavy Petting (1976)
Lights Out (1977)
Obsession (1978)
Strangers in the Night (1979)
No Place to Run (1980)
The Wild, the Willing and the Innocent (1981)
Making Contact (1983)
Headstone: The Best Of UFO (1983)
UK
Danger Money (1979)
Umphrey's McGee
Safety in Numbers (2006)
The Bottom Half (2007)
Uno
Uno (1974)
Villainy
Mode. Set. Clear. (2012)
Voyager
Halfway Hotel (1979)
Act of Love (1980)
Wax
American English (1987)
A Hundred Thousand in Fresh Notes (1989)
Ween
The Mollusk (1997)
Wishbone Ash
Pilgrimage (1971)
Argus (1972)
Wishbone Four (1973)
Live Dates (1973)
There's the Rub (1974)
New England (1976)
Classic Ash (1977)
Front Page News (1977)
No Smoke Without Fire (1978)
Just Testing (1980)
Live Dates 2 (1980)
Wings
Band on the Run (1973)
Venus and Mars (1975)
Wings at the Speed of Sound (1976)
Wings over America (1976)
London Town (1978)
Wings Greatest (1978)
Back to the Egg (1979)
The Wombats
This Modern Glitch (2011)
XTC
Go 2 (1978)
Yes
Going for the One (1977)
Tormato (1978)
Yumi Matsutoya
Sakuban Oaisimashō (1981)
Voyager (1983)
Train Of Thought (VHS film) (1984)
"Setsugekka" (single) (2003)
Younger Brother
Last Days of Gravity (2007)
Vaccine (2011)
Yourcodenameis:milo
Rapt. Dept. (2005)
17 (2005)
Ignoto (2005)
Music videos
10cc – "The Power of Love" (1982)
Paul Young – "Wherever I Lay My Hat (That's My Home)" (1983)
Rainbow – "Street of Dreams" (1983)
Robert Plant – "Big Log" (1983)
Yes – "Owner of a Lonely Heart" (1983)
Intaferon - "Get Out of London" (1983)
Kevin Kitchen – "Tight Spot" (1984)
Nik Kershaw – "Wouldn't It Be Good" (1984)
David Gilmour – "Blue Light" (1984)
David Gilmour – "All Lovers Are Deranged" (1984)
Nik Kershaw – "The Riddle" (1984)
Nik Kershaw – "Wide Boy (1984)
Nik Kershaw – "Don Quixote" (1985)
Barry Gibb – "Now Voyager" (1985)
Belouis Some – "Imagination" (1985)
Belouis Some – "Some People" (1985)
Glass Tiger – "Thin Red Line" (1985)
Glass Tiger – "Someday" (1985)
Ministry – "Over the Shoulder" (1985)
The Cult – "Love Removal Machine" (1987)
Pink Floyd – "Learning to Fly" (1987)
Pink Floyd – "The Dogs of War" (1987)
Wax – "Bridge to Your Heart" (1987)
Wax – "American English" (1987)
Wax – "In Some Other World" (1988)
Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe – "Brother of Mine" (1989)
Bruce Dickinson – "Tattooed Millionaire" (1990)
Bruce Dickinson – "All the Young Dudes" (1990)
Helloween – "Kids of the Century" (1991)
Alan Parsons – "Turn It Up" (1993)
Pink Floyd – "High Hopes" (1994)
Richard Wright – "Night Of a Thousand Furry Toys" (1996)
Books
Thorgerson, S. and Dean, R. (eds), Album Cover Album. A&W Visual Library, New York & Dragon's World, Limpsfield, 1977. . Republished by Harper Design / Collins Design and Ilex Publishing, 2008. .
Dean, R. and Howells, D. (compilers) and Thorgerson, S. (ed.), Album Cover Album, Volume 2. A&W Visual Library, New York & Dragon's World, Limpsfield, 1982. .
Dean, R. and Thorgerson, S. (compilers), Album Cover Album, Volume 5. Dragon's World / Paper Tiger, Limpsfield, 1989. .
Oliver, V., Thorgerson, S. and Dean, R. (compilers), Album Cover Album, Volume 6. Paper Tiger, Limpsfield, 1992. .
Thorgerson, S. and Christopherson, P. (eds), "Hands Across The Water" - Wings Tour USA. Photographs by Hipgnosis. Dragon's World, Limpsfield and Reed Books, Los Angeles, 1978. .
Thorgerson, S., compiled by Hipgnosis and George Hardie. The Work of Hipgnosis - "Walk Away René". Paper Tiger / Dragon's World, Limpsfield, 1978. .
Thorgerson, S. et al., The Photo Designs of Hipgnosis: The Goodbye Look. Vermilion, London, 1982. .
Thorgerson, S., Classic Album Covers of the 60s. Paper Tiger, London, 1989. .
Thorgerson, S. and Powell, A., 100 Best Album Covers - The Stories Behind The Sleeves. Dorling Kindersley, London, 1999. .
Mind Over Matter: The Images of Pink FLoyd:
Thorgerson, S. and Curzon, P., 1st ed., Sanctuary Publishing, London, 1997. .
Thorgerson, S. and Curzon, P., 2nd ed., Sanctuary Publishing, London, 2000. .
Thorgerson, S. and Curzon, P., 3rd ed., Sanctuary Publishing, London, 2003. .
Thorgerson, S. and Curzon, P., 4th ed., Omnibus Press, London, 2007. .
Thorgerson, S., 5th ed., Omnibus Press, London, 2015. .
Thorgerson, S., Curzon, P. and Crossland, J., Eye Of The Storm: The Album Graphics of Storm Thorgerson. Sanctuary, London, 1999. .
Thorgerson, S. and Curzon, P., Taken By Storm: The Album Art of Storm Thorgerson: A Retrospective. Omnibus Press, London, 2007. .
Thorgerson, S. and Powell, A., For The Love of Vinyl: The Album Art of Hipgnosis. PictureBox, New York, 2008. .
Curzon, P. and Thorgerson, S., The Raging Storm - The Album Graphics of StormStudios. De Milo and StormStudios, 2011. .
Truman, R. and Thorgerson, S., Riding Along in my Automobile: The American Cars of Cuba. De Milo and StormStudios, London, 2012. .
Thorgerson, S., The Gathering Storm - A Quartet in Several Parts: The Album Art of Storm Thorgerson. De Milo and StormStudios, London, 2013. .
Powell, A., Hipgnosis Portraits. Thames & Hudson, 2014. .
Powell, A. (foreword by P. Gabriel), Vinyl. Album. Cover. Art - The Complete Hipgnosis Catalogue. Thames & Hudson, 2017. .
References
External links
Interview with "Floydian Slip" host Craig Bailey, September 1997
BBC Feature and audio interview
BBC Article on Thorgerson's work: Audio slideshow: Storm's sleeves
TateShots: Storm Thorgerson on Magritte The artist talks about the influence of Magritte on his work. 21 July 2011
by Younger Brother (video, 8 mins, 2010)
Album-cover and concert-poster artists
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
Alumni of the University of Leicester
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Deaths from cancer in England
English film directors
English graphic designers
English music video directors
English people of Norwegian descent
People educated at Summerhill School
People from Potters Bar
1944 births
2013 deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia%20von%20Buhler
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Cynthia von Buhler
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Cynthia von Buhler (; born Cynthia Carrozza, 1964) is an American artist, author, playwright, performer, and producer.
Early life
Cynthia von Buhler was born Cynthia Carrozza and raised in the Berkshires of Massachusetts, the middle child in an artistic family with six children. Of her childhood, she says "As soon as we could hold a scissor, we learned every kind of craft imaginable, and worked in three dimensions, not just two." Creative from the start, she created large-scale papier-mâché floats for her hometown Halloween parades, and won her first art award while she was still in grammar school. Growing up in the Berkshires, surrounded by world-class theater, von Buhler staged, performed and sang in plays at school and camp. Her high school graduation was held at Tanglewood in Lenox, Massachusetts.
Von Buhler studied art and children's books at The Art Institute of Boston. After graduating she continued her studies at Richmond, The American International University in London.
Royalty connection
Von Buhler claims her family is rumored to descend from the royal Italian Sforza family through an illegitimate child. This Sforza line was given the title of "Count" by the Pope to give them legitimacy. An Italian diplomat and anti-Fascist politician of this line is Count Carlo Sforza. In a manifesto von Buhler wrote in 2001 she explains why she has a title. "My grandmother's maiden name is Sforza, and the rumor in the family is that we are related to the infamous Francesco Sforza of Milan, known for treachery, hiring Leonardo da Vinci as his plumber, beautiful mistresses, and a delicious Italian nougat candy called Torrone." A friend began referring to the gothic Victorian house as Castle von Buhler and the name stuck—the press dubbed the artist Countess Cynthia von Buhler.
Immersive theater
Speakeasy Dollhouse by von Buhler is a true tale of New York City Prohibition-era bootlegging, mafia, infidelity, and murder. Von Buhler had been haunted by a shocking family mystery for years. Her grandparents Frank and Mary Spano owned two speakeasies in the Bronx during Prohibition: one that masqueraded as a bakery, the other a secret nightclub. Shortly after Prohibition ended, her grandfather was shot and killed on the street in Manhattan. Her grandmother was pregnant with her mother at the time, and upon hearing the news of the murder she went into labor. Von Buhler's grandfather's body was laid out in one room of their small Bronx apartment while her mother was born in the room next to it. "Nobody still living in my family knows why my grandfather was shot. Nothing was known about the killer, his motive, or a trial. My grandmother took these secrets to her grave. And so, over the past two years, I have been dusting off a complicated, historically significant story," explains von Buhler. To more thoroughly explore her grandfather's murder and events leading up to it, von Buhler created an elaborate speakeasy dollhouse set complete with handmade dolls in her art studio. The set includes a plush secret nightclub, a bakery, a pre-war apartment, a bootlegging bathroom, a morgue, and even Ellis Island. The set contains crime scene details that can be examined from every angle. Von Buhler was featured in the "Gurney For Grandpa" episode of Oddities discussing this project.
Taking it one step further, the artist created an immersive theatrical experience to go along with the sets and her own investigation. Speakeasy Dollhouse stages these events in a historic Lower East Side speakeasy elaborately set up to mirror the dollhouse sets. The actors aren't visually distinguished from the audience, making the audience as key to the show as the performers. The play's tagline is "The speakeasy is my dollhouse and you are my dolls." A limited-edition graphic novel book, The Bloody Beginning, and initial performances in 2011 were paid through Kickstarter, a crowdfunding site. The play will continue into 2015 with tickets available to the general public. Of Dolls and Murder, directed by Susan Marks and narrated by John Waters, is a documentary about Francis Glessner Lee's crime scene investigation dollhouse dioramas. Marks created an Of Dolls and Murder sequel based on Speakeasy Dollhouse.
Speakeasy Dollhouse became the brand name for all of Cynthia von Buhler's immersive theater productions. The original show was renamed The Bloody Beginning.
Immersive theater productions
October 2017 – February 2018, The Illuminati Ball, Weylin formerly Williamsburgh Savings Bank, Brooklyn, NY
March 2016 – August 2018, The Illuminati Ball, An Immersive Excursion, A Secret Estate, NY, NY
June 2016 – August 2016, The Bloody Beginning, Weylin, Brooklyn, NY
March 2015 – November 2015, Ziegfeld Midnight Frolic, Liberty Theater, NY, NY
March 2014 – April 2014, The Brothers Booth, The Players, NY, NY
March 2011 – April 2015, The Bloody Beginning, The Back Room, NY, NY
Graphic novels
The Girl Who Handcuffed Houdini follows private investigator Minky Woodcock as she uncovers secrets surrounding the final days of the world-famous escape artist, Harry Houdini. Woodcock's investigation leads her to cross paths with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who believes Houdini is not merely a magician but has supernatural powers, and Bess Houdini, who suspects her husband is cheating on her. Von Buhler investigated the death of Houdini and based her story on true crime evidence.
Evelyn Evelyn are a musical duo formed by Amanda Palmer (of The Dresden Dolls) and Jason Webley. According to the fictional backstory described by Palmer and Webley, the duo consists of conjoined twin sisters (aka "Eva" and "Lyn"), Evelyn and Evelyn Neville, who were discovered in 2007 by Palmer and Webley. The twins are actually portrayed by Palmer and Webley,[5] dressed in connected garments. Dark Horse Comics published a two book graphic novel encased in a hardcover sleeve, written by Amanda Palmer and Jason Webley and illustrated by von Buhler. The book had an afterword written by Neil Gaiman.
Graphic novel bibliography
2019, The Illuminati Ball written and illustrated by von Buhler, Titan Comics, Distributed by Random House
2018, Minky Woodcock: The Girl Who Handcuffed Houdini written and illustrated by von Buhler, Hard Case Crime/Titan Comics, Distributed by Random House
2012, Evelyn Evelyn: A Terrible Tale in Two Tomes written by Amanda Palmer and Jason Webley, illustrated by Cynthia von Buhler, Dark Horse Comics, Distributed by Diamond Comic Distributors
Children's books
In 2001 von Buhler was asked by Steven Spielberg to illustrate Martha Stewart's story for Once Upon A Fairy Tale (Viking), a book produced to benefit The Starbright Foundation for seriously ill children. In 2002, New York Public Library selected the "handsomely illustrated" (The New York Times) They Called Her Molly Pitcher, written by Anne Rockwell and illustrated by von Buhler, as one of One Hundred Titles for Reading and Sharing. In 2004, von Buhler went on to illustrate Nicolaus Copernicus: The Earth is a Planet. Reviews called her "dramatic oil-on-gesso artwork" (School Library Journal) "handsome and effective" (Booklist). Publishers Weekly offered high praise for her work on the book: "Von Buhler's paintings exert a gravitational pull of their own."
In 2006 von Buhler wrote and illustrated The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside with dual credits as author and illustrator. The book, based on a true story, featured painted clay characters in detailed architectural sets. Book Sense named the book as a Children's Pick for Winter/Spring 2006/2007 for its "beautiful story" and "extremely detailed sets." Kirkus Reviews called the illustrations "unique" and "eye-popping," providing "a glimpse of a world beyond the frame" and pronounced the book "a sheer delight." Publishers Weekly thought "readers ... may well be entranced" by the "considerable magic" of von Buhler's illustrations, while Time Out New York called the book "beautifully ornate," and "the cat's meow." The book was also chosen as Teacher's Picks: Best of 2006 by Parent & Child magazine.
In 2009, von Buhler took a second turn as author and illustrator with But Who Will Bell The Cats?. The book's illustrations feature handmade architectural sets, cinematic lighting, and paper doll oil paintings of the characters in action. Kirkus Reviews stated that "young readers will pore over this one again and again," and School Library Journal agreed that "children will find a lot to discover in the details, even after repeated readings." The Nassau County Museum of Art in New York exhibited the book's elaborate miniature sets in a solo exhibition between September 20, 2009 and January 3, 2010. During the summer of 2010 Von Buhler exhibited the miniature sets in an animatronic window display that she created for Books of Wonder in Manhattan. Time Out Kid's did a feature article on the window along with a slideshow showing von Buhler creating it. Elizabeth Bird, a New York Public Librarian, posted a lengthy review of the book on her School Library Journal blog, "Is it wrong that I sometimes want to blow a four-year-old's mind? I've come to the decision that Cynthia von Buhler's But Who Will Bell the Cats? is going to be my library's secret weapon from here on in."
Von Buhler has also illustrated dozens of young adult book covers including Queen's Own Fool by Jane Yolen, The Road to Damietta by Scott O'Dell, and two Newbery medal winners, The Bronze Bow by Elizabeth George Speare and The Perilous Guard by Elizabeth Marie Pope.
Children's book bibliography
2009, But Who Will Bell The Cats? written and illustrated by von Buhler, Houghton Mifflin,
2006, The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside written and illustrated by von Buhler, Houghton Mifflin,
2002 (reprinted in paperback in 2006), They Called Her Molly Pitcher, written by Anne Rockwell, illustrated by von Buhler, Knopf,
2004, Nicolaus Copernicus: The Earth Is A Planet, written by Dennis Brindell Fradin, illustrated by von Buhler, Mondo Books,
2001, Once Upon A Fairytale, partially written by Martha Stewart, partially illustrated by von Buhler, 21 celebrity authors, 21 award-winning illustrators, a Steven Spielberg benefit project, Viking,
1998, Little Girl in Red Dress With Cat and Dog, written by Nicholas B.A. Nicholson, illustrated by von Buhler, Viking,
Children's book awards and honors
2009-10, Cybil Award nomination, Fiction Picture Book, But Who Will Bell the Cats?
2006 Teacher's Picks: Best of 2006, Parent & Child," The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside
2006/07 Children's Pick for Winter/Spring 2006/2007, Book Sense, The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside
2002One Hundred Titles for Reading and Sharing,They Called Her Molly Pitcher, The New York Public Library
1998 Exceptional Book of the Year, Little Girl in a Red Dress with Cat and Dog, Bookman Review Syndicate.
Fine art
In August 2001 she held an event at Castle von Buhler dubbed "The Great Purge" where she sold off most of her possessions. Von Buhler separated from Adam Buhler and moved to New York City's Meatpacking District. Farewell articles were published in The Boston Globe, The Improper Bostonian and The Boston Phoenix citing her as producing "some of the most sensuous, humorous, ridiculous, outlandish, and inspired art and entertainment in Boston." At this point von Buhler began utilizing unconventional media in her art: video projection, living fauna, found objects, human detritus, and electronic audio. By combining these media, often enhanced with text and electronics, von Buhler's canvasses frequently became kinetic installations. "Regardless of medium, all of von Buhler's pieces require the viewer to get involved: sometimes physically, by feeding a caged animal or inserting a coin to operate a machine. For example, "Sir Repetitious," a man's transparent insides reveal two live rats, hungry for the food and attention of onlookers – feed the rodents with the supplied seed, and you are satisfying "Sir Repetitious" on physical and metaphorical levels. Miss Ann Thrope is a life-sized painting of a woman with two doves perched inside. When the birds move in the piece, they change its equilibrium and alter its intended meaning. A velvet-curtained puppet theater sets the stage for Show and Tell, a multimedia painting that explores the use of word versus action with hidden visual and auditory messages. "Please Don't Look Up My Skirt" is a commentary on date-rape in which a Botticelli-esque girl without arms or legs tries modestly to cover herself, imploring the viewer not to violate her; those who disregard the plea see what they have become when they look up her skirt. Cynth-O-Matic offers various plastic capsules containing actual samples of the artist's body hair and fluids from a vending machine. The piece is von Buhler's critique of those who attend art openings to chat with the artist and scarf hors d'oeuvres without buying any art. For only 25 cents they can buy a piece of the artist. Von Buhler's work provides commentary on morality, vanity, politics, and the art world itself". From 2001 - 2007, von Buhler's work appeared on the covers of New York's Gallery Guide, Communication Arts, Step by Step Graphics,[64] and NY Arts. A photograph of von Buhler taken at her New York loft for The Boston Globe was enlarged and used on billboards advertising the publication. Inspired by lying politicians, von Buhler altered and old carnival machine for "Shake Hands With Uncle Sam." For 25 cents, viewers shake Uncle Sam's hand, the dial spins, and lands on audio samples of "Weapon of mass destruction," "Iran Contra," "No New Taxes," or one of seven other bipartisan audio clips. The piece was created for "The Presidency" exhibit at Exit Art in Manhattan. In 2005, von Buhler created a video for another exhibit at Exit Art, "The Studio Visit". Her video was singled out by New York Times art critic Roberta Smith as one of the best. She also was chosen by the art space to move her art studio to the gallery for a few months where she had to create her work in the window while people watched her through Exit Art's windows. Her fine art appeared on TV in Law & Order SVU as the artwork of a serial killer, and in a fight scene of the show Kidnapped. In March 2006, Art & Antiques named von Buhler as "one of the top contemporary surrealists."
However, she has also been linked to the Lowbrow, and Fluxus movements. Her art has been displayed in galleries and museums around the world, and her work is in the collections of Howard Stern, Jann Wenner, The Nassau County Museum of Art, The Staten Island Museum, The University of Toronto, The Opera Company of Philadelphia, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, and hundreds of personal collections.
Solo exhibits
October 2012 - January 2013, "The Countess and Her Cats", The Mark Twain House and Museum, Hartford, CT
September 20, 2009 - Jan 3, 2010, But Who Will Bell The Cats?, The Nassau County Museum of Art, Long Island, NY
April 2007 - September 2007, Show and Tell, The Staten Island Museum, Staten Island, NYC
February 2006, Cynth-O-Matic: Documented, Studio D'Ars, Milan, Italy
October 2005, Cynth-O-Matic, CVB Space, New York, NY
June–July 2005, Cynth-O-Matic, CVB Space, New York, NY
April–May 2004, Cynth-O-Matic, 301 Gallery, Montserrat College of Art, Beverly, MA
October 2004, Cynth-O-Matic, The Dollhaus Gallery, Williamsburg, Brooklyn, NY
September 2001, Inside/Out, New England School of Art and Design, Boston, MA
Spring 1999, Through the Looking-Glass, Darkly, National Boston Video Center, Boston, MA
The Carrozzini von Buhler Gallery
The Carrozzini von Buhler Gallery, also known as CvB Space, an art gallery, film location, and event space in New York City's Meatpacking district was owned and directed by von Buhler from 2003 - 2008. Stefania Carrozzini was the director of International Exhibition Projects at The Carrozzini von Buhler Gallery. In February, 2007, von Buhler curated an exhibit titled Andy Warhol: In His Wake featuring Warhol's superstars, Ultra Violet, Taylor Mead, Billy Name, and Ivy Nicholson along with artists such as Anton Perich and Amy Cohen Banker who were influenced by Warhol. For this exhibit von Buhler created The Great Warhola, an interactive, fortune-telling machine. Von Buhler claims that Warhol was a fortune teller, "with reality television and YouTube everyone has the 15 minutes of fame that Warhol predicted for them". This popular exhibit was featured on television in Japan, Switzerland and Germany. CVB Space and the historic, industrial building it is housed in has been featured in Sex and the City, Law & Order SVU, and Someone Like You (starring Ashley Judd, Hugh Jackman, and Greg Kinnear) and will be appearing in No Reservations (starring Catherine Zeta-Jones). CvB Space has become CvB Spaces, a location leasing agency for film and photography shoots. Von Buhler is the president of CvB Spaces
Illustration
In the mid-nineties, she and Adam Buhler a.k.a. Adam von Buhler bought a large purple Victorian house in the Allston neighborhood of Boston. She painted the walls in jewel tones with patterns of climbing vines. "It was a creative turning point for me. When I moved into my house, I needed art for the walls. So, I started making these paintings that were much different than the style I had been working in. That is when I decided not to make any artwork that I did not want to put on my wall." Von Buhler's three-dimensional paintings have been reproduced and featured in a diverse variety of books, magazines, and newspapers from Rolling Stone to The New Yorker. Her work has appeared in more than a thousand magazines, books, publications, billboards, and CDs. In 1995 she was interviewed about her art in Mary Magdalen: An Intimate Portrait on the Lifetime Network. The expose was narrated by Penelope Ann Miller and also featured interviews with Martin Scorsese and Arch Bishop Rembert Weakland. In addition, a von Buhler portrait of Mary Magdalen which had been commissioned by The New Yorker was featured in the show's introductory graphics. In 1998, she was hired by Viking Publishing to illustrate a children's book, Nicholas Nicholson's Little Girl in Red Dress With Cat and Dog. This book garnered von Buhler a starred review in Publishers Weekly, which praised the "imaginative debut" and her "distinct sense of time and place." A tarot deck based upon the writings of William Shakespeare, "The Shakespeare Oracle: Let the Bard Predict Your Future," written by A. Bronwyn Llewellyn, was illustrated by von Buhler and released in 2003. In 2004 von Buhler's portraits of Madonna and Jimi Hendrix accompanied essays by Britney Spears and John Mayer in the "50th Anniversary of Rock and Roll" issue of Rolling Stone. The painting of Jimi Hendrix was built with a Stratocaster guitar as the singer's spine and the piece was set on fire. Both paintings are now in the collection of Jann Wenner.
Illustration awards and honors
1996 Gold Medal, Society of Illustrators of Los Angeles
1995 Gold Medal, The Visual Club, New York
American Illustration, 39, 33, 25, 23, 21, 20, 18, 17, 14
Society of Illustrators, 49, 46, 45, 42, 40, 38, 37
Society of Illustrators of Los Angeles, 41, 36, 35
Communication Arts magazine Illustration Annuals, 45, 43, 42, 41, 40, 39, 38, 37; Design Annual, 38
Music
At the same time she changed her name, von Buhler became involved in the music industry. She started a performance art band, Women of Sodom, which won a Best Music Poll Award from the Boston Phoenix in 1997 and became a Boston sensation. Women of Sodom headlined clubs across the country and opened for Gwar, Voivod, God Lives Underwater and Psychotica. The band performed at New York City's Roseland Ballroom and Boston's Avalon as part of the Sextacy Ball, with My Life With The Thrill Kill Kult and Lords of Acid also on the bill. Their album, Boots, featured vocals and lyrics by von Buhler and music by Xavier Dietrich II, and was released in 1997 on Pussykitty Records. At this time von Buhler and her husband started a record label named after their house with the award-winning designer Clifford Stoltze. "In the 1990s, it was impossible to walk into an Allston club or Cambridge bar without tripping over one of Cynthia von Buhler's paintings, music projects, or a band signed to her record label. If there was ever a queen of the Boston scene, it was von Buhler." Castle von Buhler also released a series of art and music CD compilations titled Soon, Anon, and Nigh. The artist explains the titles this way: "Soon there will be a cure for AIDS...and then we came up with Anon and Nigh which means the same thing." In honor of von Buhler's close college friend, William Lincoln Tisdale, who had died from the disease, proceeds from these compilations were donated to various AIDS charities. The CDs won various design awards and many of the young illustrators who created the artwork flourished. Von Buhler contributed musically and artistically to the compilations and her first work (which incorporated a live dove) was honored by Society of Illustrators in New York City. Curators began approaching von Buhler, offering her exhibits in Boston and New York City. She was chosen by Boston Magazine as one of the "40 Bostonians We Love" in their June 2002 cover feature article. Von Buhler was frequently featured on the covers of The Boston Globe, The Boston Phoenix, The Improper Bostonian, and many other Boston-based art and music publications. She appeared so frequently in The Boston Phoenix they named her "their unofficial mascot." She also appeared twice on MTV; as Bettie Page in an MTV music video for the band The Amazing Crowns (which was previewed on Beavis and Butthead) and in a sitcom called Apt 3F. Von Buhler formed and managed her husband's band Splashdown, and helped them get signed with Capitol Records. In 2001, after Splashdown angrily left Capitol Records, von Buhler's band Countess released a rock opera record about the evils of pop stardom and the music industry. Ironically, the project was funded through a demo deal from MCA Records. Countess was nominated for a Boston Music Award. They opened for Karen Finley at Royally F***ed, a three-day event featuring visual and performance art in at The Boston Institute of Contemporary Art and the Paradise Rock Club. In 2001, the last year that von Buhler lived at Castle von Buhler, she turned the second floor into The Dietrich von Buhler Gallery "for artists who want to do things that aren't market-driven, that aren't necessarily for sale, that are cutting-edge. Art that you probably wouldn't want to put in your house but is really interesting to view, and opens your mind to new ideas.", A curator from The Whitney Museum in New York City stopped by looking for artists to be featured in their Whitney Biennial exhibit., The house became well known for von Buhler's unique parties and art exhibits.
Discography
2001 Shooting Star, Countess, Castle von Buhler Records (Funded by MCA Records)
1999 Nigh, art and music compilation, AIDS benefit, producer and contributor
1997 Anon, art and music compilation, AIDS Action Committee benefit, producer and contributor
1997 Boots, Women of Sodom, PussyKitty Records/Castle von Buhler Records
1996 Soon, art and music compilation, AIDS Action Committee benefit, producer and contributor
Awards
2002 Countess, Best Club Act (nomination), Boston Music Awards
1997 Women of Sodom, Most Deviant Act, Boston Phoenix Best Music Poll
Parties
Von Buhler is renowned for throwing lavish, circus-themed parties. These parties started in Boston and have continued in Connecticut and New York City. In 2010 von Buhler illustrated a graphic novel entitled Evelyn Evelyn: A Terrible Tale in Two Tomes (Dark Horse), about conjoined twins. The book was a collaboration with musicians Amanda Palmer and Jason Webley, and the foreword was written by Neil Gaiman. To celebrate the completion of the artwork for the two-set book, Palmer and Gaiman's marriage engagement, and her own birthday, von Buhler's held a lavish, 'Freaks'-themed birthday party at a Manhattan penthouse loft. Von Buhler was dressed in a custom-made latex mermaid tail and greeted her guests from a claw foot bathtub filled with water. In homage to the BP Oil Spill victims von Buhler created an oil-slick mermaid installation featuring live models. The party was attended by many literary luminaries: Lemony Snicket, Neil Gaiman, Jonathan Ames, Michael Chabon, Adele Griffin and others. Scenes from the rooftop merry-go-round, von Buhler's art, and Empire Snafu Restoration Project art were used in Salman Rushdie's book trailer for Luka and the Fire of Life. A few of the party guests were also chosen as actors for the trailer.
References
External links
Cynthia von Buhler's Official Website
Cynthia Von Buhler on the Super Hero Speak podcast from NYCC 2019
Cynthia von Buhler's animatronic window from Books of Wonder in NYC
Theater productions web sites
The Girl Who Handcuffed Houdini Website
Speakeasy Dollhouse Official Website
Ziegfeld Midnight Frolic Website
The Bloody Beginning Website
Graphic novels web sites
The Girl Who Handcuffed Houdini Website
Evelyn Evelyn: A Terrible Tale in Two Tomes Website
Children's books web sites
But Who Will Bell The Cats? Official Website
The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside Official Website
Book News Blog
Book Tour Blog
Living people
American children's writers
American producers
American people of Italian descent
American women rock singers
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Artists from New York City
Fluxus
American surrealist artists
House of Sforza
Lesley University
Writers from Pittsfield, Massachusetts
Sculptors from New York (state)
1964 births
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valediction
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Valediction
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A valediction (derivation from Latin vale dicere, "to say farewell"), or complimentary close in American English, is an expression used to say farewell, especially a word or phrase used to end a letter or message, or a speech made at a farewell.
Valediction's counterpart is a greeting called a salutation.
English
Valedictions normally immediately precede the signature in written correspondence. The word or words used express respect, esteem, or regard for the person to whom the correspondence is directed, and the exact form used depends on a number of factors.
In British English, valedictions have largely been replaced by the use of "Yours sincerely" or "Yours faithfully". "Yours sincerely" is typically employed in English when the recipient is addressed by name (e.g. "Dear John") and is known to the sender to some degree, whereas "Yours faithfully" is used when the recipient is not addressed by name (i.e., the recipient is addressed by a phrase such as "Dear Sir/Madam") or when the recipient is not known personally by the sender.
Formal usage
Historically, valedictions were often elaborate and formal. Vestiges of such formality remain in various cases. The examples below are subject to some variation but generally follow the pattern described.
United Kingdom
Letters to the King of the United Kingdom should end, "I have the honour to remain, Sir, Your Majesty’s most humble and obedient servant." Alternatively, "I remain, with the profoundest veneration, your Majesty's most faithful subject and dutiful servant."
Letters to other members of the royal family should end, "I have the honour to remain, Sir/Madam, Your Royal Highness’s most humble and obedient servant."
Letters to ambassadors should end, "I have the honour to be, with the highest consideration, Your Excellency’s obedient servant."
Letters to high commissioners should end, "I have the honour to be Your Excellency’s obedient servant."
Letters to the pope should end, "I have the honour to be, Your Holiness’s most devoted and obedient child." (substituting "obedient servant" if not a Roman Catholic).
Letters to a cardinal should end, "I have the honour to be, My Lord Cardinal, Your Eminence's devoted and obedient child." (substituting "obedient servant" if not a Roman Catholic).
Letters to an archbishop should end, "I have the honour to be Your Grace's devoted and obedient child." (substituting "obedient servant" if not a Roman Catholic).
Letters to a bishop should end, "I have the honour to be Your Lordship's obedient child." (substituting "obedient servant" if not a Roman Catholic).
Letters to an abbot should end, "I beg to remain, my Lord Abbot, your devoted and obedient servant."
Business usage in the United States
The following table contains complimentary closings as recommended for business hard-letter use by two American authorities: Barron's Educational Series and American Management Association.
Diplomatic usage
A diplomatic note verbale always ends with an elaborate valediction, most commonly "[Sender] avails itself of this opportunity to renew to [recipient] the assurances of its highest consideration".
Valedictions in e-mail
Valedictions in formal e-mail are similar to valedictions in letters; on the whole, they are variations of "regards" and "yours". However, a wide range of popular valedictions are used in casual e-mail but very rarely in letters.
Other forms
"Yours aye" is a Scottish expression meaning "Yours always", still commonly used as a valediction to end written correspondence in the Royal Navy and British Army, and occasionally used by sailors or people working in a maritime context. It is commonly used in the Royal Australian Navy as a sign-off in written communication such as emails.
"Yours, etc." is used historically for abbreviated endings. It can be found in older newspaper letters to the editor, and often in US legal correspondence. "&c." may be seen as an alternative abbreviation of et cetera, the ampersand functioning as a ligature form of "et". "I am, etc." and "I remain, etc." are also used.
"Yours hopefully" is occasionally used in letters of respect or complaint.
United States military usage
Current regulations of the United States Department of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Army, and the U.S. Navy call for two complimentary closings for letters: "Respectfully yours" and "Sincerely". "Respectfully yours" is reserved for the president (and, for the Army only, the president's spouse) and the president-elect. "Sincerely" is used in all other cases.
For more informal (but still professional) correspondence among military service members, "Respectfully" and "Very Respectfully" are used. These are often abbreviated as "R" and "V/R." "Respectfully" is addressed to those of lower rank and "Very Respectfully" is addressed to those of the same rank or above.
The Commander of the Navy's school in the military's Mustang University stated his preference, in 2014, that the older "Very respectfully" be used in letters to someone senior in pay-grade or positional authority. However, the commander acknowledged that current regulations call for "Sincerely" and told students they were free to follow that practice.
Bengali
In written form, valediction is very important in Bengali. When writing official letters, general customs are:
() .
() .
In oral form, various forms are used
(), from Persian, literal meaning: 'May God be your Guardian' (primarily Bengali Muslims).
(), from Persian, literal meaning: 'May Allah be your Guardian' (primarily among Bengali Muslims).
(), from Sanskrit, literal meaning: 'I bow to the divine in you' (primarily among Bengali Hindus).
Chinese
Valedictions in Chinese are highly variable and reflect the relative social status of the sender and recipient. Salutation () is traditionally placed after valediction () and the closing of the main body of the letter, as opposed to its typical location in English. Traditional valediction include:
To social seniors: (prostrating [to you], delivering up)、 (respectfully, speedily reporting)、 (especially prostrating, respectfully reporting)、 (prostrating [to you])、 (respectfully)、 (reverently)。
To social equals: (especially, respectfully delivering)、 ([apologetically] quickly, relaying [my] estimations)、 (especially relaying [for your] information)、 ([apologetically] simply, respectfully delivering)、 (simply)、 (especially)。
For replications especially:
For congratulations or commemoration:
To or from mourning persons:
For expression of gratitude:
French
Standard French language valedictions tend to be much more complex than standard English ones, more akin to older English valedictions. They show a fair degree of variation, for example:
"Please accept, Madam, Sir, the expression of my distinguished sentiments."
Or:
"Please receive, Madam, my sincere salutations."
Or:
"I beg you to believe, Sir, in my best sentiments."
In the latter case of a formula beginning with the first person, the valediction is often enhanced with a participial phrase concluding the sense of the letter (since traditionally it is not considered appropriate to begin a paragraph with the first person singular in a letter):
"Hoping for a favourable answer, I beg you to allow, Madam…"
A number of rules concern the use of these formulae:
the title used in the salutation of the letter must be reproduced in the valediction; so a letter addressing would conclude, .
the wording should be used in a letter from a hierarchical superior to an inferior, whereas the wording should be used in a letter from a hierarchical inferior to a superior, and not conversely.
in a letter from a man to a woman or from a woman to a man, the writer must not send if they are not close family relatives (i.e. mother and son, father and daughter, brother and sister, or possibly close cousins).
Such formulae may be used even in more friendly letters, often with the adjective or for the recipient. Letters to dignitaries may use even more grandiose styles, such as:
"Deign, Mr. Prime Minister, to allow the expression of my most distinguished consideration."
or more commonly:
"Please accept, Mr. Prime Minister, the expression of my highest consideration."
According to French typographic rules, the proper capitalization for the official title is "Premier ministre" although people who mimic English titles or fear that they might appear disrespectful often use more capitals than the rules commend.
"Please allow, Madam Ambassador, the expression of my most respectful salutations."
Another French typographic rule states that when addressing someone, styles like , , , should never be abbreviated, even if followed by a title (hence, writing or would be considered clumsy).
Much shorter styles may be used in brief notes (), and informal letters (such as between intimates) may use expressions such as (with approximate English equivalents – not literal translations):
("In friendship")
("Your friend")
("See you soon")
("Hope to see you again soon")
("In Good Friendship")
("Sincerely yours")
("Cordially")
("Best Salutations")
("With Distinguished Salutations")
Unlike in English, when the letter writer has a title that is unique in his or her organization, it is placed before, not after, the name:
German
Valedictions in German, while a lot less complex than those in French, are similarly flexible. The highly formal form (lit. 'highly respectfully') has been practically obsolete for many years and is very rarely used in modern German, except for highly formal correspondence from authorities or in letters with a highly negative connotation where "friendliness" would not be appropriate.
The standard business valediction is (lit. 'with friendly regards') and is equivalent to Yours sincerely or Yours faithfully in English. A more seldom used variant of this is , which is as above but in the singular form. Other semi-formal alternatives include (roughly in descending order of formality) (lit. 'with best regards'), , (lit. 'with cordial regards'), (lit. 'many regards'), (lit. 'nice regards').
German valedictions also offer the possibility of adding your location, e.g. to added effect. While this is no less formal, it does have a more "relaxed" feel to it. Other less formal location-centric variations are also possible, such as (lit. 'many regards from sunny Barcelona').
These valedictions are also often adapted to specific professions, states or political views. For example, it is common to use ("with regards in solidarity") among socialist and communist groups, (lit. 'with union regards') or (lit. 'with cooperative regards') among labour union members, (lit. 'with comradely regards') among military personnel, ("with sporting regards") among sportspeople, and ("with gesture-friendly regards", implying sign language gestures) among persons hard of hearing.
More familiar valedictions in German follow the same formula. or are common in German for friends or family. Friends or close colleagues among each other may use simply .
It is possible in informal and rapid e-mail communication to sometimes use abbreviations of the forms, unlike in English. In this way, may be shortened to and may be shortened to . A popular form in Germany in recent years, (, lit. 'am fond of you') and (, lit. 'am very fond of you', for somewhere between "I like you" and "I love you") has found increased usage in SMS text messaging and e-mails in more intimate relationships.
Judges have deemed that Section 86a of the German Criminal Code forbids the use of (lit. 'with German regards'), as it has National Socialist overtones; refers to the Nazi salute.
Hebrew
Formal letters in Israeli Hebrew often end with (; lit., with blessing). A strictly formal ending is (; with great honor, or respect). Slightly less formal forms, used between individuals, are (; all the best), as well as () or (; we shall hear from each other), which are in essence somewhat dated equivalents of (; we shall see each other, or simply, see you).
Jews in the United States often use 'B'shalom' or 'shalom' () within Jewish circles, for example, from a Rabbi to his congregation. This is an American Jewish usage, rarely heard from native speakers of modern Israeli Hebrew. 'B'shalom' is incorrect, as it is religiously tantamount to wishing death on someone. Indeed, the Talmud says: "In bidding farewell to the living one should not say, 'Go with peace' [lech b'shalom], but 'Go to peace' [lech l'shalom], because [King] David said to [his son] Absalom, 'Go with peace', and he went and was hanged; whereas Jethro said to Moses, 'Go to peace', and he went and succeeded." [Talmud, Moed Katan 29a]
Hungarian
: Very formal and now dated, means "I respectfully remain (your servant)".
: Very formal, means "With regards". This is the equivalent of the English "Yours sincerely/faithfully/truly".
: Somewhat formal, assumes existing relationship. Often used between colleagues. It literally means "Greetings".
: An abbreviated and informal form of . Very frequently used in e-mails among colleagues.
: Informal and somewhat intimate, means "kiss on the cheek". Often used within family and among friends, between or toward women.
: Intimate, it means "kiss (on the mouth)". Mostly used between couples.
Hungarian valedictions are extendable, which makes a number of variations on the above expressions possible, such as ("With sincere appreciation") or ("With cordial regards").
Japanese
( – Sincerely)
( – With great humility)
Portuguese
Formal valedictions should end with a comma followed by a paragraph where the valedictor's name (and optionally his status) is identified. Depending on the occasion, different degrees of formality are adequate, ranging from highly formal (e.g. solemn occasions) to totally informal (e.g. a conversation among friends). Some formal valedictions can be used at different formality degrees, but almost never in informal situations.
Highly formal valedictions
("With the best compliments")
("Respectfully")
("Reverently")
("With protestations of the highest esteem and consideration")
Formal valedictions
("Graciously")
("Attentively")
("Academic salutations", very common within Portuguese universities)
Semi-formal valedictions
("Cordially")
("With friendship")
("Regards")
("Cordial salutations")
Informal valedictions
("a hug", usually between men), also ("hugs"). Some common variants include ("Strong hug") and ("Big hug")
("see you soon"), also and ("see you later")
("a kiss", usually between women or between woman and man), also ("kisses") and ("big kiss")
(literally "a kisslet", very common especially between female and male friends), also (literally "kisslets")
("I miss you verily")
/ ("Yours": male/female valedictor)
("All the best")
Abbreviated valedictions (informal)
abbreviated form of ("hug") or ("hugs")
, abbreviated forms of ("kiss") or ("kisslet"), also ("many kisses/kiss")
abbreviated form of ("Regards")
Russian
((Very) respectfully yours) – most often used
(Best regards) – allowed between long-time partners, otherwise sounds condescending
(Sincerely yours) – a bit affectionate, e.g. a younger colleague addressing a senior one
(yours)
(Your obedient servant) – ironic; the least possible degree of formality between people not being close friends or socially equal
(Please accept the assurances of my sincerest regards and respect) – diplomatic etiquette
(See you soon) – informal
Slovak
(Sincerely)
(Yours truly) - very formal
(Cordial greetings)
(Take care)
Spanish
(Regards)
(literally "attentively", a very common business valediction similar to "respectfully")
("cordially")
(literally "amiably", similar to "kindly")
("lovingly", not commonly used in Spain)
("tenderly", not commonly used in Spain)
("cordial greetings")
("receive cordial greetings")
("a hug", very common between male friends and male family members)
("hugs")
("a kiss", very common to and from female friends and family members)
("kisses")
Swedish
(Highly respectfully – Old style and very formal, no longer in common use)
(With friendly regard – Common in business letters)
or: (With friendly regards)
in informal emails often written:
or: (Kindly)
(Cordially – somewhat formal among friends, informal in business letters)
(Hug – informal, between friends)
Turkish
(yours faithfully)
(yours sincerely, or kind/best regards)
(respectfully yours, or regards)
See also
Business letter
Salutation
References
External links
AskOxford: French valedictions for English speakers
Writing
Parting traditions
fr:Politesse#Formules de politesse épistolaires
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20banned%20from%20Major%20League%20Baseball
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List of people banned from Major League Baseball
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A ban from Major League Baseball is a form of punishment levied by the Office of the Commissioner of Major League Baseball (MLB) against a player, manager, executive, or other person connected with the league as a denunciation of some action that person committed that violated or tarnished the integrity of the game. A banned person is forbidden from employment with MLB or its affiliated minor leagues, and is forbidden from other professional involvement with MLB such as acting as a sports agent for an MLB player. Since 1991, all banned people–whether living or deceased–have been barred from induction to the Baseball Hall of Fame.
Major League Baseball has maintained an official list of "permanently ineligible" people since Kenesaw Mountain Landis was installed as the first Commissioner of Baseball in 1920. Although the majority of banned persons were banned after the establishment of the Commissioner's office, some were formally banned prior to that time while a few others were informally "blacklisted" by the Major League clubs. Most persons who have been banned (including many who have been reinstated) were banned due to association with gambling or otherwise conspiring to fix the outcomes of games; others have been banned for a multitude of reasons including illegal activities off the field, violating some term of their playing contract, or making disparaging remarks that brought the game into disrepute.
History
Prior to 1920, players were banned by the decision of a committee. There were 14 players banned from 1865 to 1920; of those, 12 were banned for association with gambling or attempting to fix games, one was banned for violating the reserve clause, and one was banned for making disparaging remarks.
In 1920, team owners established the Office of the Commissioner of Baseball, ostensibly to keep the players in line and out of corruption's way. Kenesaw Mountain Landis, a federal judge, was the owners' ideal candidate for the job and was given unlimited power over the game, including the authority to ban people from the game.
He banned many players and various others, often for seemingly small offenses, and at times almost indiscriminately. In his 24 years as commissioner, Landis banned more people than all of his successors combined. The last person banned by Landis to remain alive was William D. Cox, who died in 1989.
As of 2021, no one has died while still ineligible after being banned by one of Landis' successors. In 1991, the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum voted to bar banned players from induction. The oldest living person on the ineligible list is Pete Rose, who is years old as of . Rose's banishment remains among the most bitterly debated of any imposed after Landis' tenure. While Rose eventually admitted to betting on his team (which under the rules then and now in force are grounds for permanent ineligibility), his supporters argue that a lifetime ban is unjust due to a lack of conclusive evidence that his gambling directly affected the outcome of any games, and also due to modern society's more relaxed attitude towards gambling.
By the 21st century, the use of performance enhancing drugs had replaced the possible influence of gambling as the greatest perceived threat to the integrity of the game.
Subsequently, both the Commissioner of Baseball and the Major League Baseball Players Association came under intense pressure from fans, owners, current and former players, team officials, and the United States Congress to take decisive action against PED use in baseball. In 2005, as a result of the findings of the Mitchell Report, the owners and the MLBPA reached a new Basic Agreement which stipulated that multiple violations of the overhauled Major League Baseball drug policy would result in a lifetime ban.
Punishment
Prohibited
A person who has been banned from Major League Baseball is barred from:
employment with MLB, one of its affiliated minor leagues, or any Major League or Minor League Club, whether as a player, coach, or manager, or in the front office;
acting as a sports agent for any Major League or Minor League player, coach, or manager;
maintaining business ties with MLB or with any Major League or Minor League Club;
The exception to this is that MLB or any Major League or Minor League Club may invite banned persons to participate in events where said participation will not put the banned person(s) in a position where they could influence play (for example, an appearance at a public recognition ceremony). All such participation is subject to the approval of the Commissioner, who has the authority to deal with such requests on a case-by-case basis. The exact privileges that will be afforded for each special event is determined by the Commissioner–invariably, access to the clubhouse and related facilities by banned people will not be permitted. (This exception has evolved over the decades following the banishment of MLB's all-time hit leader Pete Rose in 1989. In the early years of Rose's ban, dispensations for special events were rarely granted. In recent years, especially since incumbent Rob Manfred's assumption of the office, special event dispensations for Rose have become considerably more frequent.)
induction to the Hall of Fame, whether the person is living or deceased.
This prohibition is not the result of any MLB rule or policy (since the Hall of Fame falls outside the jurisdiction of the Commissioner's Office), but is a policy enforced by the Hall itself. Prior to the late 1980s, the Baseball Writers' Association of America and Veterans Committee each had an unwritten rule excluding banned people from consideration for election to the Hall. (The banishment of Rose necessitated a formalization of this policy prior to 1991 when Rose would otherwise have become eligible for election to the Hall.) Although Commissioner Bart Giamatti had stated at the time of Rose's ban that their agreement did not directly affect his Hall eligibility, he died before he could elaborate on the issue. Nevertheless, the Hall soon voted to formally exclude banned people from induction, a position that was endorsed by Giamatti's successor Fay Vincent. On the other hand, in his most recent statement affirming Rose's ban, Commissioner Manfred stated "It is not a part of my authority... to make any determination concerning Mr. Rose's eligibility as a candidate for election to the (Hall of Fame)... in my view, the considerations that should drive a decision on whether an individual should be allowed to work in Baseball are not the same as those that should drive a decision on Hall of Fame eligibility... any debate over Mr. Rose's eligibility for the Hall of Fame is one that must take place in a different forum." Notwithstanding Manfred's statements, the Hall of Fame's policies remain unchanged.) How a ban imposed on an existing member of the Hall of Fame would affect that member in light of official Hall policy is not clear. Prior to Rose's ban, two members of the Hall of Fame (Willie Mays and Mickey Mantle) were banned from baseball for associating with licensed casinos (with duties unrelated to sports betting). The Hall took no action as a result of these bans, which in any event were extremely controversial while they were in effect and rescinded long before the Hall policy was formalized. Since that time, Roberto Alomar has become the first Hall member to be banned from Major League Baseball. , Alomar remains enshrined in the Hall.
Terms such as "lifetime ban" and "permanent ban" are misnomers, as a banned person may be reinstated (i.e., have the ban removed) whether by the decision of the Commissioner of Major League Baseball or (in the case of players banned since the establishment of the Major League Baseball Players Association) following an appeal by the MLBPA on behalf of a banned player to an independent arbitrator empowered to hear and adjudicate such appeals. Furthermore, in the case of Hall of Fame induction, bans have typically extended beyond a person's lifetime.
Non-prohibited
Among the activities that a banned person is not precluded from participating (as of 2016) in include:
Participating in baseball leagues that are not affiliated with MLB;
This was not the case for players banned by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis. Early on in Landis' tenure, the new Commissioner made it clear that anyone who knowingly played with or against any banned player would himself be banned from MLB for life. Landis' tenure was before the advent of the modern Minor League farm system, meaning that unlike his successors he lacked any formal jurisdiction outside the then-16 MLB clubs, moreover as Commissioner Landis repeatedly blocked the establishment of what would come to be known as the minor league system. Nevertheless, while Landis took actions which appeared to recognize and/or protect the independence of other leagues his uncompromising stance against banned players compelled every other professional league to honor MLB bans, and in effect gave Commissioner Landis the de facto power to completely exclude personnel from the game. However, some players banned by Landis are believed to have continued playing under assumed identities at the minor league or semi-professional level.
Working for employers that themselves have business relationships with MLB and/or with a Major League or Minor League Club, provided the relationship does not result in a direct association with any Major League or Minor League Club and/or put the banned person in a position to influence baseball operations (for example, working for a national broadcaster that owns rights to MLB games);
During Landis' tenure, it was universally known that MLB would have immediately severed any relationship with an entity that employed personnel banned by MLB, and (at least until very recently), most such organizations have been extremely reluctant to offer employment to banned people for fear of generating negative publicity and/or out of concern that such employment might endanger their relationship with MLB. (MLB policy was articulated by Commissioner Manfred when, in reference to Rose, he stated "Major League Rules... do not cover relationships with third parties who do business with Major League Baseball. Any future relationship Mr. Rose may contemplate with any such party is a matter between him and the party, unless it involves any association with a Major League Club...")
Working for an MLB or MiLB ownership group in an arrangement that keeps the banned person outside the organizational structure and uninvolved in the baseball operations of the Major League or Minor League Club in question (for example, working as an in-studio analyst for a broadcaster that owns the Major League club it holds the broadcasting rights for would be permitted);
Entering any Major League or Minor League ballpark in the capacity of (and with only the privileges of) an ordinary spectator. However, MLB rules define the granting free entry to a game or any other event with paid admission as a "business relationship" that, subject to Commissioner-granted dispensations for special events as described above, would not be permitted. This means, among other things, that a banned person must normally purchase a ticket (or have one given to him by a party not affiliated with MLB) in order to attend a game.
List of banned people
Bans that are in effect and/or that were still in effect at the time of the banned person's death are denoted in bold. Living persons are denoted in italics. No banned person has ever been posthumously reinstated by Major League Baseball.
Pre-1920
These players were banned from baseball prior to the creation of the office of Commissioner of Baseball.
Thomas Devyr, Ed Duffy and William Wansley of the New York Mutuals were banned in 1865 for associating with known gamblers. Devyr was reinstated later that year, and Duffy and Wansley were reinstated in 1870.
John Radcliff of the Chicago White Stockings was banned in 1874 after attempting to bribe umpire Billy McLean with $175 to help the White Stockings win. He was blacklisted but ultimately was reinstated and played the next year.
George Bechtel of the Louisville Grays was banned in 1876 for conspiring with his teammates to intentionally lose a game for $500, equal to $ today. He was never reinstated.
Jim Devlin, George Hall, Al Nichols and Bill Craver of the Louisville Grays were banned in 1877 for conspiring to throw two games in the Louisville Grays scandal. No evidence was ever found to suggest that Craver actually had anything to do with the conspiracy, but he refused to cooperate with the investigators. The four banned players were never reinstated.
Oscar Walker was banned in 1877 for "contract jumping" by signing a contract to play for another team while still under contract to the team he left. This was 98 years prior to the advent of free agency in sports; Walker was reinstated in 1879.
Lip Pike's play for Worcester in 1881 was so poor as to arouse suspicions, and Pike found himself the first professional player banned from the National League that September. He was added to the National League blacklist in 1881, and reinstated in 1883.
Umpire and former outfielder Richard "Dick" Higham was banned in 1882 for conspiring to help throw a Detroit Wolverines game after Detroit's owner hired a private investigator to check out Higham's background and found that he was an associate of a known gambler. To date, Higham is the only umpire banned for life.
Joseph Marie Creamer III, New York Giants team physician, was banned in 1908 for attempting to bribe umpire Bill Klem $2,500 (equal to $ today) to conspire against the Chicago Cubs during a playoff game against the Giants.
Jack O'Connor and Harry Howell, manager and coach of the St. Louis Browns, were banned in 1910 for attempting to fix the outcome of the 1910 American League batting title for Cleveland Indians player Nap Lajoie against Ty Cobb.
Horace Fogel, Philadelphia Phillies owner, was banned in 1912 for publicly asserting that the umpires favored the New York Giants and were making unfair calls against his team.
Unofficial-turned-official bans
These players were unofficially banned from baseball before the creation of the office of Commissioner of Baseball. They later had their bans made official by baseball's first Commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis.
Joe Harris of the Cleveland Indians was banned in 1920 after he chose to play for an independent team rather than the Indians. Harris was reinstated by Landis in 1922 due to, in part, his service during World War I.
Hal Chase of the New York Giants was banned in 1921 for consorting with gamblers and betting on his teams, among other disallowed practices. Chase had previously been accused of fixing games as early as 1910 and was reportedly passed over for managerial opportunities due to the allegations. In 1918, Reds manager Christy Mathewson suspended Chase mid-season for fixing games, and John McGraw persuaded Mathewson to trade him to the Giants. At the end of the 1919 season, National League president John Heydler found evidence that Chase bribed players on other teams. Heydler forced his immediate release, and no other National League team would sign him. Since no American League team would sign him either, Chase was blackballed from the major leagues. Landis' declaration after the Black Sox trial that no one who bet on baseball would ever be allowed to play is recognized as formalizing the ban.
Heinie Zimmerman of the New York Giants was banned in 1921 for encouraging his teammates to fix games. He had been benched by McGraw and later sent home during the 1919 season and had been informally banned from the majors. During the 1917 World Series, he chased the winning run across the plate and found himself having to deny having helped throw the Series. Despite some of these allegations, McGraw would not turn him in, not wanting to be the one responsible for having one of his players banned for life and suspended indefinitely. Later, McGraw testified in court that Zimmerman conspired to fix games. As with Chase, Landis' declaration after the Black Sox trial is also seen as formalizing Zimmerman's ban.
Banned under Commissioner Landis
Landis banned a total of nineteen people during his tenure, more than all of his successors combined. Of the nineteen, two were re-instated by Landis, one was re-instated by a successor and sixteen remain banned. As a condition of accepting the Commissioner's post, Landis demanded and got nearly unlimited power to sanction every person employed in the major leagues, from owners to batboys. In practice, Landis only meted out punishment for serious off-field transgressions he believed were a threat to the image and/or integrity of the game. Disciplinary action for the on-field behavior of players, coaches and managers remained the responsibility of the respective league presidents, as it had been prior to the creation of the Commissioner's office.
Eight players from the Chicago White Sox were banned in 1921 for conspiring with gamblers to throw the 1919 World Series in the Black Sox scandal:
Eddie Cicotte. One story says that Cicotte had been promised a $10,000 bonus–equal to $ today–if he won 30 games; he was denied five starts towards the end of the season by team owner Charles Comiskey, who had manager Kid Gleason bench him to "save his arm for the World Series". However, the story remains unsubstantiated. Cicotte went 29–7 for the season.
Lefty Williams lost all three of his starts in the World Series, setting a record that has never been matched. The only other pitcher to have lost three games in a single World Series, George Frazier in , lost all three of his appearances in relief.
Chick Gandil was the mastermind and ringleader of the scandal. In a 1956 article in Sports Illustrated, he admitted his role in the fix and expressed remorse for having done so, saying that he and his co-conspirators deserved to be thrown out of baseball just for talking to the gamblers.
Fred McMullin was only a backup infielder. However, he overheard teammates discussing the fix and threatened to report them unless he was included.
Swede Risberg was one of the ringleaders of the scandal.
Happy Felsch hit and fielded poorly in the series.
"Shoeless" Joe Jackson. (The precise extent of Jackson's involvement is controversial.)
Buck Weaver, like Jackson, was controversially banned. Weaver refused to accept any money and played to the best of his ability in the Series, but was banned nevertheless because he knew of the conspiracy but did not report it to MLB authorities and team ownership. Weaver successfully sued White Sox owner Charles Comiskey for his 1921 salary.
Joe Gedeon of the St. Louis Browns was banned in 1921 for allegedly conspiring with the gamblers behind the Black Sox scandal.
Eugene Paulette of the Philadelphia Phillies was banned in 1921 for associating with known gamblers.
Benny Kauff of the New York Giants was banned in 1921 for selling stolen cars. Commissioner Landis considered him "no longer a fit companion for other ball players", despite Kauff being acquitted of the charges against him in court.
Lee Magee of the Chicago Cubs was released just before the season began. Magee sued the Cubs for his 1920 salary and lost; after court testimony proved he had been involved in throwing games and collecting on bets, Landis banned him for life in 1921.
Heinie Groh of the Cincinnati Reds was banned for two days in 1921 while he held out for a higher salary, and Landis gave Groh an ultimatum: play for the Reds in 1921, or face lifetime banishment. Groh chose the former option and played out the 1921 season; he retired in 1927.
Ray Fisher of the Cincinnati Reds was banned in 1921 after he left his contract with the Reds to accept a coaching position at the University of Michigan before the start of the MLB season. Fisher believed his status would be voluntarily retired, but he later learned he had been declared ineligible. When Fisher appealed to Commissioner Landis, Landis banned him for violation of his contract. Fisher was reinstated by Commissioner Bowie Kuhn in 1980; he died in 1982.
Dickie Kerr of the Chicago White Sox was banned from organized baseball in 1922 for violating the reserve clause in his contract. During the aforementioned 1919 Series Kerr, as one of the "Clean Sox" with no knowledge of the fix, had won both of his starts. Kerr was reinstated in 1925.
Phil Douglas of the New York Giants was banned in 1922 after notifying an acquaintance on the St. Louis Cardinals that he planned to jump the Giants for the pennant stretch run to spite McGraw, with whom Douglas had had a severe falling out during the regular season.
Jimmy O'Connell of the New York Giants and Giants coach Cozy Dolan were banned in 1924 for offering Philadelphia Phillies shortstop Heinie Sand $500 (equal to $ today) to throw a game between the two teams for the financial gain of O'Connell himself and his gambler backers.
William D. Cox, Philadelphia Phillies owner, was banned in 1943 for betting on his team's games. Cox and one of the predecessor Phillies owners, Horace Fogel, are the only owners to be banned for life.
Banned under Commissioner Kuhn
After Landis died in 1944, there was a long lull before the next banishment. During the tenures of Commissioners Happy Chandler (1945–1951), Ford Frick (1951–1965), Spike Eckert (1965–1968), Bowie Kuhn (1969–1984) and Peter Ueberroth (1984–1989), only three players (or former players) were banned for life.
All three were banned by Kuhn, and all three were later reinstated. By the time of Kuhn's tenure, players had organized the Major League Baseball Players Association and negotiated the first Basic Agreement with the owners. Among other things the Agreement provided, for the first time, an independent process through which active players could appeal disciplinary decisions (up to and including lifetime bans) by League presidents or the Commissioner. As of , no such process exists for personnel who are not members of the MLBPA.
Ferguson Jenkins of the Texas Rangers was banned in 1980 after a customs search in Toronto, Ontario, found of cocaine, of hashish, and of marijuana on his person. Jenkins missed the rest of the 1980 season, but was reinstated by an independent arbiter, and retired following the 1983 season. He was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1991.
Willie Mays and Mickey Mantle, both retired and both in no way involved in baseball anymore, were banned in 1980 and 1983 respectively after they were hired by casinos in Atlantic City, New Jersey, as greeters and autograph signers. The bans were very controversial, especially since the casinos involved did not offer sports betting, which at the time was illegal in New Jersey. Nevertheless, Kuhn opined that a casino was "no place for a baseball hero and Hall of Famer." The bans took place prior to the Hall formalizing its policy against inducting banned persons, and the Hall took no action as a result of Kuhn's decision. Mantle and Mays were reinstated by Peter Ueberroth in 1985, and Mantle died in 1995.
Banned under Commissioner Giamatti
A. Bartlett Giamatti served only five months as Commissioner of Baseball before he died of a heart attack on September 1, 1989.
Pete Rose, manager of the Cincinnati Reds and MLB's all-time leader in base hits, was investigated by lawyer John M. Dowd in 1989 for his alleged ties to gamblers and illegal bookmakers; when new information on Rose's gambling habits (including, among other things, betting on but not against the Reds) came to light, Giamatti and Rose reached a legal settlement that resulted in Rose's placement on the ineligible list on August 24, 1989.
Whereas all other banned MLB personnel were involuntarily rendered ineligible pursuant to a unilateral decision by the Commissioner, Rose is the only person to be placed on the MLB ineligible list as a result of a mutual agreement. As part of their agreement, Rose accepted that there was a factual reason for his banishment. In return, Giamatti agreed that MLB would not make a formal finding of guilt or innocence with respect to the allegations against Rose. In addition, Rose is permitted to apply for reinstatement once a year indefinitely. Notwithstanding their agreement, the Commissioner stated in his press conference that "I have concluded that (Rose) bet on baseball" and described his sanction as "banishment for life" and "lifetime ineligibility," although he also made clear he was open to the possibility of reinstatement provided Rose could provide evidence of a "redirected, reconfigured, rehabilitated life." Giamatti died eight days later–his sudden demise immediately following Rose's banishment has been seen by some, including Rose himself, as an impediment to reinstatement. After years of denial, Rose admitted to betting on baseball (and on the Reds) in early 2004. He later acknowledged that "everything" the Dowd Report contained was the complete, unadulterated truth. Since admitting to his gambling infractions, Rose has maintained that he never bet against the Reds, never avoided betting on a particular starting pitcher and never bet on baseball until after he retired as a player–assertions that Dowd has disputed. No credible evidence has emerged to suggest Rose bet against his own team or systematically avoided betting on any pitchers in his starting rotations; however, some evidence has come to light suggesting Rose started betting on baseball while still a player-manager in Cincinnati. Rose has applied for reinstatement four times, all of which have been either ignored or denied, in large part due to Rose's acknowledgement that he continues to (legally) bet on baseball. Current commissioner Rob Manfred rejected his most recent request specifically citing his continued betting, saying that it was evidence that allowing his return would be "an unacceptable risk" to baseball.
Banned under Commissioner Vincent
Fay Vincent became commissioner upon the death of Giamatti.
George Steinbrenner, New York Yankees owner, was banned in 1990 for hiring a private investigator to "dig up dirt" on Yankees player Dave Winfield in order to discredit him; much of the information Steinbrenner received was from small-time gambler and rackets-runner Howard Spira, who had once worked for Winfield's charitable foundation. In Steinbrenner's absence, Robert Nederlander, a limited partner, took control of the Yankees, and Joe Molloy, Steinbrenner's son-in-law, took control after Nederlander resigned. Molloy relinquished the team back to Steinbrenner when Bud Selig reinstated him in 1993; Steinbrenner retired as owner in 2006, passing control to his sons permanently, and died in 2010.
Steve Howe of the New York Yankees was banned in 1992 after receiving seven suspensions related to drug use, particularly cocaine and alcohol. An independent arbiter reinstated Howe shortly after; Howe retired in 1996 and died in 2006.
Banned under Commissioner Selig
Bud Selig became Commissioner after Fay Vincent's resignation; he was Acting Commissioner between 1992 and 1998, and was elected to the Office of Commissioner in 1998. In 1999, Selig oversaw the disbandment of the American and National League offices and took over all but a few ceremonial duties formerly performed by the League Presidents, including the discipline of personnel for on-field behavior.
Cincinnati Reds owner Marge Schott was banned in 1996 for bringing Major League Baseball into disrepute by repeatedly making slurs against African-Americans, Jews, Asians and homosexuals. Schott had previously been fined $25,000, , and banned from day-to-day operations of the Reds for the 1993 season for similar offending. She was the first, and to date only, woman to be banned; she was reinstated in 1998, sold a majority stake in her franchise in 1999 and died in 2004.
Banned under Commissioner Manfred
Rob Manfred succeeded Bud Selig as the Commissioner of Baseball after Selig's retirement on January 25, 2015. To date, he has banned more people than his three immediate predecessors combined, and is second only to Landis for most people placed on the permanent ineligibility list.
Jenrry Mejía, New York Mets pitcher, was banned on February 12, 2016, for testing positive for performance-enhancing drugs three times in less than a year. He sought and was granted reinstatement in July 2018, and was allowed to join the Dominican Summer League Mets in August. Subject to conditions set by Manfred, all restrictions were lifted at the beginning of spring training in 2019, by which point Mejía had been released by the Mets and signed to a minor league contract with the Boston Red Sox.
Chris Correa, former St. Louis Cardinals scouting director, was permanently banned on January 30, 2017, for his role in hacking the Houston Astros' scouting database to provide the Cardinals with a competitive edge in scouting. The Cardinals were also ordered to pay the Astros $2 million in restitution, and forfeited their top two picks in the 2017 draft to the Astros. Correa was later sentenced to 46 months in prison for unauthorized access of a protected computer, thus becoming the first person to be incarcerated for activities that resulted in a ban from the game.
John Coppolella, former Atlanta Braves general manager, was permanently banned on November 21, 2017, for his role in the Braves' circumvention of MLB rules regarding the signing of international free agents. The Braves were also required to release 12 prospects signed as international free agents, most notably Kevin Maitán, and MLB voided the contract of Ji-hwan Bae. Coppolella was reinstated in January 2023.
Brandon Taubman, former Houston Astros assistant general manager, was added to the list on November 15, 2019, for his inappropriate comments toward female reporters in the Astros clubhouse in October 2019, pending further investigation into sign stealing by the Astros during the 2017 and 2018 seasons. On January 13, 2020, following an investigation into sign stealing by the Astros, Manfred announced that Taubman would remain on the ineligible list through at least the end of the 2020 season. Although Taubman was interviewed for the sign stealing investigation, Manfred said that his clubhouse comments were egregious enough to merit significant discipline. Taubman was eligible to apply for reinstatement after the 2020 World Series, though there is no record of him doing so as of the start of the 2021 season. If he is reinstated, he will be permanently banned if he commits another "material violation" of baseball rules.
Roberto Alomar, who was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2011 as a player, was banned on April 30, 2021, following an independent investigation into claims he had harassed a female Toronto Blue Jays staffer in 2014. The Blue Jays subsequently announced they would remove a banner honoring Alomar from the Rogers Centre and sever all ties with him. However, he will remain enshrined in the Hall of Fame.
Mickey Callaway, former pitching coach of the Los Angeles Angels, was banned on May 26, 2021, following an investigation of allegations of sexual harassment spanning much of his career as manager of the New York Mets, pitching coach of the Cleveland Indians, and Angels pitching coach. The investigation started when The Athletic released an article that detailed the allegations. Callaway was eligible to apply for reinstatement after the 2022 season, though there is no record of him doing so as of the start of the 2023 season.
See also
List of Major League Baseball players suspended for performance-enhancing drugs
List of people banned or suspended by the NBA
References
External links
Baseball Rules Menu on Baseball Almanac
Baseball Steroid Suspensions
Major League Baseball's "permanently ineligible" list
Banned for life
Figures that have been banned for life
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya%20religion
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Maya religion
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The traditional Maya or Mayan religion of the extant Maya peoples of Guatemala, Belize, western Honduras, and the Tabasco, Chiapas, Quintana Roo, Campeche and Yucatán states of Mexico is part of the wider frame of Mesoamerican religion. As is the case with many other contemporary Mesoamerican religions, it results from centuries of symbiosis with Roman Catholicism. When its pre-Hispanic antecedents are taken into account, however, traditional Maya religion has already existed for more than two and a half millennia as a recognizably distinct phenomenon. Before the advent of Christianity, it was spread over many indigenous kingdoms, all with their own local traditions. Today, it coexists and interacts with pan-Mayan syncretism, the 're-invention of tradition' by the Pan-Maya movement, and Christianity in its various denominations.
Sources of traditional Mayan religion
The most important source on traditional Maya religion is the Mayas themselves: the incumbents of positions within the religious hierarchy, diviners, and tellers of tales.
More generally, all those persons who shared their knowledge with outsiders in the past, as well as anthropologists and historians who studied them and continue to do so.
What is known of pre-Hispanic Maya religion stems from heterogeneous sources (the primary ones being of Maya origin):
Primary sources from pre-Hispanic times: the three surviving Maya hieroglyphic books (the Maya codices of Dresden, Madrid and Paris) plus the Maya-Toltec Grolier Codex, all dating from the Postclassic period (after 900 AD); the 'ceramic codex' (the corpus of pottery scenes and texts) and mural paintings; the inscriptions in stone from the Classic (200–900 AD) and Late Preclassic (200 BC-200 AD) periods
Primary sources from the early-colonial (16th-century) period, such as the Popol Vuh, the Ritual of the Bacabs, and (at least in part) the various Chilam Balam books
Secondary sources, chiefly Spanish treatises from the colonial period, such as those of Landa for the Lowland Mayas and Las Casas for the Highland Mayas, but also lexicons such as the early-colonial Motul (Yucatec) and Coto (Kaqchikel) dictionaries
Archaeological, epigraphic, and iconographic studies
Anthropological reports published since the late 19th century, used in combination with the sources above
Fundamentals of ritual
Traditional Maya religion, though also representing a belief system, is often referred to as costumbre, the 'custom' or habitual religious practice, in contradistinction to orthodox Roman Catholic ritual. To a large extent, Maya religion is indeed a complex of ritual practices; and it is, therefore, fitting that the indigenous Yucatec village priest is simply called jmen ("practitioner"). Among the main concepts relating to Maya ritual are the following ones.
Ritual topography and calendrical mapping
The Maya landscape is a ritual topography, with landmarks such as mountains, wells and caves being assigned to specific ancestors and deities (see also Maya cave sites). Thus, the Tzotzil town of Zinacantan is surrounded by seven 'bathing places' of mountain-dwelling ancestors, with one of these sacred waterholes serving as the residence of the ancestors' 'nursemaids and laundresses'. As in the Pre-Hispanic past, an important part of ritual behavior takes place in or near such landmarks, in Yucatán also around karstic sinkholes (cenotes).
Ritual was governed not only by the geographical lay-out of shrines and temples (see also Maya architecture), but also by the projection of calendrical models onto the landscape. In contemporary Quichean Momostenango, for example, specific combinations of day-names and numbers are ascribed to specialized shrines in the mountains, signalling the appropriate times for their ritual use. In the northwestern Maya highlands, the four days, or 'Day Lords', that can start a year are assigned to four mountains. In early colonial Yucatán, the thirteen Katun periods and their deities, mapped onto a landscape conceived as a 'wheel', are said to be successively 'established' in specific towns.
Pilgrimage
Through pilgrimages, which create networks connecting places regionally as well as over larger distances, Maya religion transcends the limits of the local community. Nowadays, pilgrimages often involve reciprocal visits of the village saints (as represented by their statues), but also visits to farther-removed sanctuaries, as exemplified by the Q'eqchi' pilgrimages to their thirteen sacred mountains. Around 1500, Chichen Itza used to attract pilgrims from all the surrounding kingdoms to its large cenote; other pilgrims visited local shrines, such as those of Ix Chel and other goddesses on the islands off Yucatán's east coast. Eight centuries earlier, noblemen from sundry Classic kingdoms went on pilgrimage to the caves of Naj Tunich and had their visits recorded on the sanctuary's walls.
Offerings and sacrifices
Offerings serve to establish and renew relations ('contracts', 'pacts', or 'covenants') with the other world, and the choice, number, preparation, and arrangement of the offered items (such as special maize breads, maize and cacao drinks and honey liquor, flowers, incense nodules, rubber figures, and also, cigars) obey to stringent rules. In the same way, a drink made of exactly 415 grains of parched maize was to be offered to participants in a pre-Hispanic New Year ritual, and on another occasion, the precise number of 49 grains of maize mixed with copal (incense) was to be burnt. A well-known example of a ritual meal is the "Holy Mass of the maize farmer" (misa milpera) celebrated at an improvised altar for the Yucatec rain deities. Particularly Lacandon ritual was entirely focused on the 'feeding' of the deities, as represented by their incense burners.
In the ancient Maya cities, all sorts of offertory items (including sacrificial implements) were also stored and buried in deposits (caches) below architectural features such as floors, stelae, and altars; in these cases, the intention may often have been a dedication to a specific religious purpose, rather than an offering to a divine recipient.
The forms of sacrifice might take vary considerably. In contemporary sacrificial rites, there is an overall emphasis on the sprinkling of blood, especially that of turkeys. In the pre-Hispanic past, sacrifice usually consisted of animals such as deer, dog, quail, turkey, and fish, but on exceptional occasions (such as accession to the throne, severe illness of the ruler, royal burial, or drought and famine) also came to include human beings, adults as well as children. The sacrificed child may have served as a 'substitute', a concept known from curing ritual. Partaking of the sacrifice was common, but ritual cannibalism appears to have been exceedingly rare. A characteristic feature of ancient Mayan ritual (though not exclusive to the Mayas) were the "bloodletting" sessions held by high officials and members of the royal families, during which the earlobes, tongues, and foreskins were cut with razor-sharp small knives and stingray spines; the blood fell on paper strips that were possibly burnt afterwards.
Purification
Purificatory measures such as fasting, sexual abstention, bathing, and (especially in the pre-Hispanic past) confession generally precede major ritual events. In 16th-century Yucatán, purification (exorcism of evil spirits) often represented a ritual's initial phase. The bloodletting-rituals (see below) may also have had a purificatory function. More generally, purification is needed before entering areas inhabited by deities. In present-day Yucatán, for example, it is customary to drink standing water from a rock depression at the first opportunity upon entering the forest. The water is then spat on the ground, and thus renders the individual 'virginal', free to carry out the business of humankind in the sacred forest.
Prayer
Maya prayer almost invariably accompanies acts of offering and sacrifice. It often takes the form of long litanies, in which the names of personified days, saints, angels (rain and lightning deities), features of the landscape connected with historical or mythical events, and mountains are particularly prominent. Its importance is highlighted by the fact that Maya communities in the northwestern highlands of Guatemala have a specialized group of 'Prayermakers'. Prayers, with their hypnotizing scansion, often show a parallel (dyadic) couplet structure which has also been recognized in Classic period texts. The earliest prayers recorded in European script are in Quiché, and are embedded in the creation myths of the Popol Vuh.
Priesthood
The traditional Maya have their own religious functionaries, often hierarchically organized, and charged with the duties of praying and sacrificing on behalf of lineages, local groups, or the entire community. In many places, they operate within the Catholic brotherhoods (or 'cofradías') and the so-called civil-religious hierarchy (or 'cargo system'), organizations which have played a crucial role in the preservation of pre-Spanish religious traditions. The two most important male deities (Martín and Maximón) of the Tz'utujil Mayas of Santiago Atitlán, for example, have their own brotherhoods and priests. Public ritual focusing on agriculture and rain is led by the 'godfathers of the wet season' (padrinos del invierno) among the Ch'orti's – in a particularly rich and complex system – and by the village priests (jmenob) in Yucatán. In the private realm, nearly everywhere diviners ('seers', 'daykeepers') are active, together with curers. The performance of many of the indigenous priests, but especially of the curers, shows features also associated with shamanism.
Knowledge of the earlier Maya priesthood is almost entirely based on what their Spanish missionary colleagues have to say about them (Landa for Yucatán, Las Casas and others for the Guatemalan Highlands). The upper echelon of the priesthood was a repository of learning, also in the field of history and genealogical knowledge. Around 1500, the Yucatec priesthood was hierarchically organized, from the high priest living at the court down to the priests in the towns, and the priestly books were distributed along these lines. The role model for the high priest is likely to have been the upper god Itzamna, first priest and inventor of the art of writing. The most general word for priest, including the Yucatec high priest, appears to have been ah k'in 'calendrical priest'. Some priests were ordinary diviners, while others had specialized knowledge of the kingly katun cycle. Aside from calendrical learning, however, priests had multiple tasks, running from performing life crisis rituals to managing the monthly feast cycle, and held special offices, such as that of oracle (chilan), astrologer, and sacrificer of human beings (nacom). In the K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj, the most important deities (Tohil, Awilix, Jacawitz and Gukumatz) had their own high priests. At all levels, access to late Postclassic priesthood seems to have been restricted to the nobility.
Little is known with certainty concerning the Classic Maya priesthood. Iconographically, there can be no serious doubt but that the aged, ascetic figures depicted as writing and reading books, aspersing and inaugurating dignitaries and kings, and overseeing human sacrifice, represent professional priests and high priests at court. Certain hieroglyphic titles of noblemen have been interpreted as priestly ones (e.g., ajk'uhuun, possibly 'worshipper', yajaw k'ahk 'master of fire'). The king (k'uhul ajaw or 'holy lord'), too, acted ex officio as a priest.
Dramatic performance and impersonation
Feasts would include dramatic performances and the impersonation of deities, especially by the king.
Feasting and dramatic performance
In recent times, feasts are usually organized by religious brotherhoods, with the greatest expenses being for the higher charges. Similarly, in the pre-Hispanic kingdom of Maní, some religious feasts seem to have been sponsored by wealthy and preeminent men, perhaps reflecting a general practice in Postclassic and earlier kingdoms. Through the feasts, capital could be redistributed in food and drink. The continual and obligatory drinking, negatively commented on by early as well as contemporary outsiders, establishes community, not only among the human participants, but also between these and the deities.
Both in recent times and in the Classic period, more complex rituals would include music and dance, processions, and theatrical play. Nowadays, the performance of important dances and dance dramas (not always religious ones) often takes place on the feast of the patron saint of the village and on certain set occasions dictated by the Catholic calendar (such as Corpus Christi and the 'May Cross'). For the late Postclassic period, Landa mentions specific dances executed during either the New Year rituals (e.g., the Xibalba okot 'dance of Xibalba') or the monthly feasts (e.g., the holkan okot 'dance of the war chiefs'). The god most often shown dancing during the Classic period is the Tonsured Maize God, a patron of feasting.
Impersonation
The theatrical impersonation of deities and animals, a general Mesoamerican practice, also characterized pre-Hispanic Mayan performances and included the wayob (were-animals). Ritual humor (a vehicle for social criticism) could be part of these events, involving such actors as opossums, spider monkeys, and the aged Bacabs, with women sometimes being cast in erotic roles. Often, impersonation meant ritual representation on a state level, particularly as depicted on stelae and ball game panels. On the royal stelae – that is, at five-tun or k'atun celebrations – the king wears the heads of important deities and forces of nature for a headdress or a mask, while carrying a sceptre in the form of the lightning deity. The heads are frequently those of the rain deity (Chaac) and of an aquatic serpent. On the other hand, the reigning queen, or queen consort, usually represents the principal maize goddess, that is, a female Tonsured Maize God. Young men, perhaps princes, can impersonate the four deities carrying the earth (Bacabs) while holding the four associated Year Bearer days in their hands or carrying a throne; they may also substitute for the principal rain deity (Chaac). Hieroglyphic expressions of the concept of impersonation involve many other deities as well. In some cases, impersonation may relate to the individual's identity with, or transformation into, a phenomenon of nature.
Ritual domains
The only extensive treatment of pre-Hispanic Maya ritual by a near-contemporary concerns Yucatán, particularly the kingdom of Mani, and was written by friar Diego de Landa (ca. 1566). However, major ritual domains, such as those of agriculture and kingship, are hardly touched upon by Landa.
Calendar
The Maya calendar, connected to networks of sacrificial shrines, is fundamental for ritual life. The rites of the 260-day cycle are treated below ('Sciences of Destiny'). Among the highland Maya, the calendrical rites of the community as a whole relate to the succession of the 365-day years, and to the so-called 'Year Bearers' in particular, that is, the four named days that can serve as new year days. Conceived as divine lords, these Year Bearers were welcomed on the mountain (one of four) which was to be their seat of power, and worshipped at each recurrence of their day in the course of the year.
The calendrical rites include the five-day marginal period at the end of the year. In 16th-century Yucatán, a straw puppet called 'grandfather' (mam) was set up and venerated, only to be discarded at the end of the marginal period, or Uayeb (Cogolludo). In this same interval, the incoming patron deity of the year was installed and the outgoing one removed. Through annually shifting procession routes, the calendrical model of the four 'Year Bearers' (New Year days) was projected onto the four quarters of the town. Landa's detailed treatment of the New Year rites – the most important description of a pre-Hispanic Maya ritual complex to have come down to us – corresponds on essential points to the schematic depiction of these rites in the much earlier Dresden Codex.
Like the Year Bearers, the thirteen twenty-year periods (katuns) of the Short Count were viewed as divine lords in their own right and worshipped accordingly. The katuns had specific divine patrons (as mentioned in the Chilam Balam books) and their own priests.
Occupational groups
The 18 months had festivals, dedicated to specific deities, which were largely celebrated by occupational groups (in particular hunters and fishermen, bee-keepers, cacao planters, curers, and warriors). It is not known if and to what extent this festival cycle of the kingdom of Maní was shared by the other Yucatec kingdoms, and if it was also valid for the earlier Mayan kingdoms, both in Yucatán and elsewhere.
Life cycle
Life cycle rituals (or rites of passage) demarcate the various stages of life. Landa details one of these rituals, destined for making young boys and girls marriageable (caput sihil 'second birth'). The Yucatec Maya continue the ritual (Hetz mek) which marks a child's movement from cradling or carrying to the mother's hip. It is performed at about three months and has godparents of the ceremony. The child is offered implements appropriate to its gender, tools for boys and cloth or thread for girls. If the children grasp them, this is considered a foretelling. All children are offered pencils and paper.
Health
Contemporary healing rituals focus on the retrieval and reincorporation of the lost souls or soul particles imprisoned somewhere by specific deities or ancestors. The procedures can include the sacrifice of fowl treated as the patient's 'substitute' (Tzotzil k'exolil-helolil). The main collection of ancient Yucatec curing rituals is the so-called Ritual of the Bacabs. In these texts, the world with its four trees and four carriers of earth and sky (Bacabs) located at the corners is the theatre of shamanic curing sessions, during which "the four Bacabs" are often addressed to assist the curer in his struggle with disease-causing agents. Many of the features of shamanic curing found in the 'Ritual of the Bacabs' still characterize contemporary curing ritual. Not represented amongst these early ritual texts is black sorcery.
Weather and agriculture
Influencing the weather is the main purpose of the rain-making rituals – sometimes of a secretive character – that are found all over the Maya area and also of such rituals as 'Imprisoning the winds' and 'Sealing the frost' just before the sowing season. The officiating priests of the rain-making rituals are sometimes believed to ascend into the clouds and there to act like rain deities themselves. Influencing the weather can also mean deflecting the rain clouds from neighboring areas, and thus imply black sorcery.
The principal focus of the agricultural rites is the sowing and harvesting of the maize. Particularly the rituals of the Yucatec and Ch'orti' Mayas have been described in great detail. For eastern Yucatán, a whole taxonomy of ritual sequences has been established, including variable rituals for protecting an area against evil influences (loh), thanksgiving (uhanlikol 'dinner of the maize field'), and imploring the rain deities (ch'a cháak).
An important sanctuary for Terminal Classic rain and maize rituals was the large cave of Balankanche near Chichén Itzá, with its numerous Tlaloc censers and miniature metates.
Hunt
In one of the 16th-century Yucatec month feasts, hunters danced with arrows and deer skulls painted blue. The focus on animal skulls is significant, since even today, traditional Maya hunters have the duty to preserve the skulls and bones of their booty, deposit these periodically in hunting shrines, and thus restore them to their supernatural Owners for regeneration. They should also respect certain hunting taboos, such as those on adultery and unnecessarily wounding the game, on penalty of supernatural sanction; for this same reason, in another month of the 16th-century Yucatec feast cycle, a rite of contrition was held by the hunters.
Territory
The claims on territory by social groups of varying dimensions were expressed in rituals such as those for the waterholes, ancestral lands, and the boundaries of the entire community. The focus of these rituals were often crosses, or rather, 'cross shrines', and prayers were directed at rain and earth deities. For earlier periods, such crosses and shrines can, perhaps, be thought of as being connected to the central 'cross', or world tree of the center, best exemplified by the arboreal crosses in the temple shrines of the Cross Group in Palenque. The king was the prime embodiment of the central cross or world tree.
Warfare
In Maya narrative, warfare includes the warriors' transformation into animals (wayob) and the use of black magic by sorcerers. In the pre-Hispanic period, war rituals focused on the war leaders and the weapons. The jaguar-spotted War Twin Xbalanque counted as a war deity in the Alta Verapaz; preceding a campaign, rituals were held for him during thirty days, so that he might imbue the weapons with his power. The Yucatec ritual for the war chief (nakom) was connected to the cult of a puma war god, and included a five-day residence of the war leader in the temple, "where they burned incense to him as to an idol." In Classic war rituals, the Maya jaguar gods were prominent, particularly the jaguar deity associated with fire (and patron of the number Seven), whose face commonly adorns the king's war shield. The Palenque Temple of the Sun, dedicated to war, shows in its sanctuary the emblem of such a shield, held up by two crossed spears.
Kingship
The early Spanish writers have little to say about the king's (or, as the case might be, queen's) ritual duties. Nonetheless, one finds the Yucatec king (halach uinic) referred to as 'bishop', so that, in virtue of his office, the king appears to have had a leading role in major public rituals. In the Classic period, the rituals of kingship were the most important rituals of the Maya court. The term 'theatre state' (Geertz), originally coined for the Hindu kingdoms of Bali, could also be used for describing the Classic Maya kingdoms; it suggests the cohesion of the state to be dependent on elaborate royal rituals through which status differences between aristocratic families could find expression. On monuments, the king sometimes assumes a dancing posture suggestive of his participation in the rituals that were staged on the large plazas where the royal stelae stood. On important occasions, the royal impersonator would be shown to the crowd while being within a shrine erected on a large palanquin (as on a wooden lintel from Tikal's Temple IV).
The specific rituals engaged in by the king are only rudimentarily known. The Postclassic Kʻicheʻ king together with his dignitaries regularly visited the temples to burn offerings and pray for the prosperity of his people, while fasting and guarding sexual abstinence. As to the Classic Period king, he appears at times (often period-ending dates) to be scattering blood, incense or, perhaps, maize. At other times, the king, represented by the hero Hunahpu, is sacrificing his own blood in front of directional trees (murals of San Bartolo), or he is officiating in front of such a tree (Cross temple sanctuaries of Palenque).
The king not only took a leading part in ritual, but ritual is likely to have focused on his office as well. The erection of stelae showing the king and dedicated to the day 'King' (Ahaw), which concluded intervals of five 360-day years, constituted a royal ritual by itself. It appears to implicate the king as the divine lord of his own day. Inversely, at San Bartolo, the divine hero of the day 'King', Hunahpu, substitutes for the real king. Setting up a stela may additionally have involved the notion of the king as a protective 'tree of life'. Moreover, in the Classic period, the king is commonly depicted holding a cosmic serpent from whose jaws deities (often those of rain, lightning and fire) emerge; the king's raising and balancing of this serpent, accompanied by his 'conjuring' of the emerging deities, may well have been expressed and supported by ritual.
Ancestor worship
During the Classic period, Tikal's North Acropolis consisted of nucleated royal burial temples and is even referred to as a 'necropolis'. In Classic-period royal courts, tombs are generally found integrated in the residences of the nobility. Apart from the ancestral remains themselves, sacred bundles left by the ancestors were also an object of veneration. Reliefs from the Classic-period kingdom of Yaxchilan also show that royal ancestors were sometimes approached during bloodletting rituals and then appeared to their descendants, emerging from the mouth of a terrestrial serpent (which has been nicknamed 'Vision Serpent').
The monthly feast cycle of the Postclassic kingdom of Maní included a commemorative festival for an ancestral hero viewed as the founder of Yucatec kingship, Kukulcan (a name corresponding to Quichean Gucumatz and Aztec Quetzalcoatl). Around 1500, the incinerated remains of the (male) members of notable Yucatec families were enclosed in wooden images which, together with the 'idols', were placed on the house altar, and ritually fed on all festive occasions; alternatively, they were placed in an urn, and a temple was built over it (Landa). In the Verapaz, a statue of the dead king was placed on his burial mound, which then became a place of worship.
Sciences of destiny
Numerology and calendrics
Apart from writing, the fundamental priestly sciences were arithmetics and calendrics. Within the social group of the priests at court, it had by Classical times become customary to deify the numbers as well as the basic day-unit, and – particularly in the south-eastern kingdoms of Copan and Quirigua – to conceive the mechanism of time as a sort of relay or estafette in which the 'burden' of the time-units was passed on from one divine numerical 'bearer' to the next one. The numbers were personified not by distinctive numerical deities, but by some of the principal general deities, who were thus seen to be responsible for the ongoing 'march of time'. The day-units (k'in) were often depicted as the patrons of the priestly scribes and diviners (ah k'in) themselves, that is, as Howler Monkey Gods, who seem to have been conceived as creator deities in their own right. In the Postclassic period, the time-unit of the katun was imagined as a divine king, as the 20 named days still are among the traditional 'day-keepers' of the Guatemalan Highlands. On a more abstract level, the world was assumed to be governed by certain fundamental numbers, first of all the numbers 13 and 20 that, multiplied, defined both the mantic day count and, on a vast scale, the amount of time elapsed before the first day (5 Imix 9 Kumk'u) of the Long Count.
Divination
Like all other cultures of Mesoamerica, the Maya used a 260-day calendar, usually referred to as tzolkin. The length of this calendar coincides with the average duration of human gestation. Its basic purpose was (and still is) to provide guidance in life through a consideration of the combined aspects of the 20 named days and 13 numbers, and to indicate the days on which sacrifice at specific 'number shrines' (recalling the number deities of Classic times) might lead to the desired results. The days were commonly deified and invoked as 'Lordships'. The crucial importance of divination is suggested by the fact that the general Yucatec word for 'priest' (ah k'in) referred more specifically to the counting of the days.
K'iche' daykeepers use puns to help remember and inform the meanings of the days. Divinatory techniques include the throwing and counting of seeds, crystals, and beans, and in the past also – apart from the count – gazing in a magical mirror (scrying), and reading the signs given by birds (auguries); in the Late-Classic period, pictures of such birds were used as logograms for the larger time periods.
The mantic calendar has proven to be particularly resistant to the onslaughts of time. Nowadays, a daykeeper, or divinatory priest, may stand in front of a fire, and pray in Maya to entities such as the 260 days; the cardinal directions; the ancestors of those present; important Mayan towns and archaeological sites; lakes, caves, or volcanoes; and deities taken from published editions of the Popol Vuh. People also come to these daykeepers to know about baby names, wedding dates and other special occasions.
In the pre-Hispanic past, important divinatory dates relating to the prospects of the entire kingdom were sometimes given a mythological pedigree. At Palenque, for example, the auspicious day 9 Ik', chosen for the enthronement of one of its kings, is also stated to have witnessed, in a distant, mythical past, the enthronement of some of the patron deities of the kingdom.
Astrology
What is often called Maya 'astronomy' is really astrology: that is, a priestly science resting on the assumption of an influence exerted on earthly events by the movements of heavenly bodies and constellations. The observation of sky and horizon by present-day Mayas relates chiefly to celestial signs of seasonal change relevant to agriculture; stars connected to the hunt and specific hunting animals; and stars sending certain illnesses. With but few exceptions, the names of stars and constellations are all that have been preserved, and the influence of star lore on social and professional activities beyond agriculture and on individual destiny can no longer be traced. In this respect, other Mesoamerican groups (such as Totonacs and Oaxacan Chontals) have fared better. The far more sophisticated pre-Hispanic Mayan astrology is mainly found in the Early Post-Classic Dresden Codex, and concerns lunar and solar eclipses and the varying aspects of Venus in the course of its cycles; animals and deities symbolize the social groups negatively affected by Venus during its heliacal rising as the Morning Star. The Paris Codex contains what some consider to be a zodiac. In the Classic period, references to specific stars are not rare; in dynastic texts, a star glyph with rain symbols seems to signal a decisive war ("star war"). Some of the Books of Chilam Balam testify to the great interest the colonial Maya had for the astrology of their conquerors.
Cosmology
Earth, sky, underworld
Horizontally, the earth is conceived in various ways: as a square with its four directional or, perhaps, solstice points, or as a circle without such fixed points. The square earth is sometimes imagined as a maize field, the circular earth as a turtle floating on the waters. Each direction has its own tree, bird, deity, color, and aspect, in the highlands also its own mountain. Vertically, the sky is divided into thirteen layers, and Classic period deities are sometimes linked to one of the thirteen skies. By analogy with the 'Nine-God' mentioned together with the 'Thirteen-God' in the Chilam Balam book of Chumayel, the underworld is often assumed to have consisted of nine layers. However, the Popol Vuh does not know such a ninefold division, and Classic period references to layers of the underworld have not been identified.
In the world's centre is a tree of life (the yaxche 'ceiba') that serves as a means of communication between the various spheres. In Palenque, the tree of life is a maize tree, just as the central world tree in the Borgia Codex; a curving bicephalic serpent hovers around it, which some believe to embody the ecliptic. The king was probably identified with the tree of the centre and is usually shown to carry the bicephalic serpent as a ceremonial bar. Besides worshipping a central maize tree, the king commonly sits or stands on a mountain containing the maize, perhaps as a guardian of the kingdom's maize supplies.
In the Classic period, earth and sky are visualized as horizontally extended serpents and dragons (often bicephalic, more rarely feathered) which serve as vehicles for deities and ancestors, and make these appear from their maws. Other serpents, shown as vertically rising, seem to connect the various spheres, perhaps to transport the subterranean or terrestrial waters to the sky. Dragons combine features of serpent, crocodile, and deer, and may show 'star' signs; they have been variously identified as the nocturnal sky and as the Milky Way.
World endings and beginnings
Within the framework of the post-Classic cycle of thirteen katuns (the so-called 'Short Count'), some of the Yucatec Books of Chilam Balam present a deluge myth describing the collapse of the sky, the subsequent flood, and the re-establishment of the world and its five world trees upon the cycle's conclusion and resumption. The lightning deity (Bolon Dzacab), the divine carriers of sky and earth (the Bacabs), and the earth crocodile (Itzam Cab Ain) all have a role to play in this cosmic drama, to which a much earlier, hieroglyphic text from Palenque's Temple XIX seems to allude. The Quichean Popol Vuh does not mention the collapse of the sky and the establishment of the five trees, but focuses instead on a succession of previous mankinds, the last of which was destroyed by a flood.
For the Classic Mayas, the base date of the Long Count (4 Ahau 8 Cumku), following upon the completion of thirteen previous baktun eras, is thought to have been the focus of specific acts of creation. Through the figures of two so-called 'Paddler Gods', the mythology of the Maya maize god appears to have been involved. References to 4 Ahau 8 Cumku events are few in number (the most important one occurring on Quirigua stela C), seemingly incoherent, and hard to interpret. They include an obscure conclave of seven deities in the underworld (among whom the deity Bolonyokte') and a concept of 'three stones' usually taken to refer to a cosmic hearth.
Humanity
Soul and 'co-essence'
The traditional Mayas believe in the existence, within each individual, of various souls, usually described in quasi-material terms (such as 'shadow', 'breath', 'blood', and 'bone'). The loss of one or more souls results in specific diseases (generically called 'soul-loss', 'fright', or susto). In Classic Maya texts, certain glyphs are read as references to the soul. Much more is known about the so-called 'co-essences', that is, animals or other natural phenomena (comets, lightning) linked with the individual (usually a male) and protecting him. In some cases (often connected to black sorcery), one can change into co-essences acting like a sort of 'werewolves' (see also nagual). The Classic Maya grandees had a whole array of such soul companions, which were called wayob, and carried distinct hieroglyphic names. Among them were spook-like creatures, but also violent stars.
Afterlife: Underworld, paradise and the sea
In the pre-Spanish past, there may never have existed a unified concept of the afterlife. Among the Pokoman Maya of the Verapaz, Xbalanque was to accompany the dead king, which suggests a descent into the underworld (called xibalba 'place of fright') like that described in the Popol Vuh Twin myth. The Yucatec Maya had a double concept of the afterlife: Evildoers descended into an underworld (metnal) to be tormented there (a view still held by the 20th-century Lacandons), while others, such as those led by the goddess Ixtab, went to a sort of paradise. The ancestors of Maya kings (Palenque tomb of Pakal, Berlin pot) are shown sprouting from the earth like fruit trees which, together, constitute a blissful orchard. The so-called 'Flower Mountain' has more specifically been interpreted as a reference to an aquatic and solar paradise. To judge by the marine faunal remains found in Classic tombs and by the accompanying aquatic imagery, this sea paradise may have been the Maya variant of the rain god's paradise (Tlalocan) in Central Mexican religion.
Powers of the Other World
Ancestors
The traditional Maya live in the continual presence of the '(grand)fathers and (grand)mothers', the usually anonymous, bilateral ancestors, who, in the highlands, are often conceived of as inhabiting specific mountains, where they expect the offerings of their descendants. In the past, too, the ancestors had an important role to play, with the difference that, among the nobility, genealogical memory and patrilineal descent were much more emphasized. Thus, the Popol Vuh lists three genealogies of upper lords descending from three ancestors and their wives. These first male ancestors – ritually defined as 'bloodletters and sacrificers' – had received their private deities in a legendary land of origins called 'The Seven Caves and Seven Canyons' (Nahua Chicomoztoc), and on their disappearance, left a sacred bundle. Already during the Classic period, ancestral deities (the three 'patron deities' of Palenque) and ancestral bundles (Yaxchilan) are in evidence. In Chiapas at the time of the Spanish conquest, lineage ancestors were believed to have emerged from the roots of a ceiba tree; comparable beliefs still exist amongst the Tz'utujiles.
Heroes
Within the group of the ancestors, a special category is constituted by the heroes, best known through the sixteenth-century Quichean epic of the Maya hero twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque. In the Classic period, the adventures of these two heroes – only partly coinciding with those of the Popol Vuh – were known all over the Mayan area. Specific ancestral heroes occur among various traditional Maya groups, such as the dwarfish Ez among the Yucatec Mayas; Juan K'anil among the Jacaltecs of the northwestern highlands; Ohoroxtotil, the jaguar slayer, among the Tzotziles of Chiapas; and Kumix among the Ch'orti' Mayas. The heroes' actions can belong to a relatively recent past, and be semi-historical, or have occurred in the deep past, and be primeval; but in principle, the heroes can be addressed in prayer, and receive some form of worship. Sometimes, they have merged with specific military saints.
Deities
The ancient Maya concept of 'deity', or 'divinity' (k'u in Yucatec, ch'u in Ch'ol, and qabuvil in ancient Quiché) is insufficiently understood, but can by no means be reduced to a mere personification of natural phenomena. The life-cycle of the maize, for instance, lies at the heart of Maya belief, but the role of the principal Maya maize god transcends the sphere of agriculture to embrace basic aspects of civilized life in general (such as writing). Deities have all sorts of social functions, related to such human activities as agriculture, midwifery, trade, and warfare. Moreover, they can be the patrons of large kin-based, ethnic or localized segments of society, as shown by the four deities presiding over the four wards of the town of Itzamkanac; the Popol Vuh Triad of lineage gods (Tohil, Hacavitz, Avilix); and probably also by the Palenque Triad (G[God] I, II, and III) and its Classic Period analogues elsewhere. Such patron deities - who may be either place-specific, or instances of a general deity - tend to have an intimate relationship with the associated community and its representative (in Classic inscriptions usually the king), by whom they are bathed, dressed, and fed.
From the multitude of deity names occurring in early-colonial sources (and especially in the medical 'Rituals of the Bacabs'), about twenty have been linked to deity figures from the three Postclassic hieroglyphic books and their correspondences in the corpus of Classic ceramic representations; these have been assigned letter names (Schellhas-Zimmermann-Taube classification). The codices demonstrate that deities were permanently being arranged and rearranged according to cultic criteria which usually are not immediately accessible to us. Moreover, Maya deities typically operate within various fields, changing attributes accordingly. With the provisos formulated above, the main deities depicted in the codices can be roughly divided into the following groups (the names given are 16th-century Yucatec):
The principal creator god (Itzamna);
sky gods, particularly the sun god (Kinich Ahau), the Maya moon goddess, and the patrons of the Venus cycle;
gods of the weather and the crops, particularly the rain god (Chaac), the lightning god (Bolon Dzacab), the aged deities of the underground, terrestrial water, and thunder (Bacabs), the Maya maize god (God E), and a related young deity of flowers and foodstuffs (God H);
gods guarding natural resources, such as the Owner of the deer and god of the hunt, the Sip (God Y);
occupational gods, particularly those of merchants (Ek Chuah, god L), black sorcerers (god L), midwives (goddess O, Ixchel), hunters with snares (Tabay);
a young goddess of eroticism and marriage (Goddess I);
death gods (God A and God A'); and
the deified Hero Twins.
Whereas, within the three hieroglyphic codices, the group of male deities is highly differentiated, the female functions seem largely to have been concentrated in the young goddess I (the 'White Woman') and the old goddess O (the 'Red Woman'). The Postclassic Maya deity Kukulcan ('Feathered Serpent'), tutelary deity of the Toltec invaders and of the Maya kings deriving their legitimacy from them, is nearly absent from the codices. Although the Classic Hero Twins are among the codical deities, the associated Classic Maize Hero (or Tonsured Maize God) seems to be absent. Entirely missing from the codices, but important in Classic iconography are, amongst others, an ocean deity characterized by a shark tooth set in the mouth (who is also the 'God I' of the Palenque Triad) and some of the Maya jaguar gods associated with warfare. In the framework of the Classic period, the omnipresent lightning deity is usually referred to as K'awiil ('Powerful One').
In Maya folk religion, the members of the Catholic Trinity, the Virgin Mary, a number of saints, the archangels and the devil have usually merged with traditional deities, patron deities, and ancestral heroes. Angels, for example, generally represent rain deities. The complex figure of the Mam ('Grandfather') Maximón venerated in Santiago Atitlan is another example of such syncretism. The deities governing the wild vegetation, the game animals, and the fishes are often referred to as 'Owners' or 'Masters' (Dueños), like the 'Mountain-Valley' deities (or mountain spirits) of the highlands. More generally, the living Earth and its male personification is often called 'World' (Mundo).
Animal persons
Animal persons (usually mammals and birds, but including insects) appear to enjoy a relative autonomy which is lacking in the case of the animal 'co-essences'. Perhaps representing the transformed human beings of a former creation, they mirror human society in playing varying social roles. In the Popol Vuh, for example, grandfather 'Great White Peccary' and grandmother 'Great White Coati' act as healers, whereas the owl messengers of the lords of the underworld wear military titles. Turning to the 'ceramic codex', one finds that animal persons are often dressing and acting like persons at court, especially that of the upper god, Itzamna. The howler monkey, for example, is commonly depicted in the social role of a writer and sculptor, and functions as a divine patron of these arts. Other mammals function as musicians in a kind of 'orchestra'. In the Dresden Codex, certain animals (dog, jaguar, vulture, owl, parrot, frog), most of them clothed as human beings, are seated in between deities, and seem thus to be treated on a par with the latter, while other animals, again acting as human beings, fulfill important ritual roles. In the New Year rites, for example, an opossum traveler introduces the patron of the incoming year. Similarly, in the Paris Codex, a turkey person alternates with deities in offering the head of the lightning deity (god K) to the new king. Animal persons are repeatedly shown interacting with Goddess I.
Spooks, demons, and bush spirits
The power exercised by a deity is legitimate, and this legitimacy justifies offerings and sacrifice. Unlike the gods of disease and death, spooks (apparitions) and demons have no such legitimacy. Whereas spooks – like the specters of the dead – only frighten (and in that way, can also cause disease), demons are devourers; in practice, however, the borderline can be thin. One of the best-known spooks is an attractive woman maddening the men who give in to her lures (known in Yucatec as the xtabay 'Female Ensnarer'). Spooks of the Tzotziles include such figures as the 'charcoal-cruncher', the 'one who drops his own flesh', and 'white-bundle'. The boundary between spooks like these and the wayob of the Classic period is not always entirely clear. The principal demon of the Tzotzil area is the 'Black-man' (h?ik'al), a kidnapper and rapist. An ancient Mesoamerican bird demon, which the Popol Vuh calls Vucub Caquix, severed the limbs of his victims, and was already known in Preclassic Izapa. In order to terrorize their enemies, kings would at times assume the shapes of spooks and demons. Bush spirits (such as the 'Wild Man' or Salvaje) belong to the frightening denizens of uninhabited areas, without, however, being apparitions.
Goblins and dwarfs
According to Yucatec belief, the indigenous priests can create goblins (aluxob) who, if properly attended, will assist the farmer in his work by protecting his field, having the rain deities visit it, and thus making the maize grow. In the same area, dwarfs, and also hunchbacks, are associated with antediluvial times; they perished in the flood when their stone boats sank. The childlike dwarfs and hunchbacks of Classic iconography often accompany the king and the Tonsured Maize God. They repeatedly show aquatic features and may, in such cases, be identical to the dwarfish assistants of the deities of rain, lightning, and thunder already mentioned in Aztec sources (the Tlaloqueh).
Mythology
There is considerable diversity in recent religious narrative, which embraces stereotypical, moralizing stories about encounters with mountain spirits and supernatural 'Owners', as well as myths concerning heroes and deities. Particularly in tales concerned with the creation of the earth and the origin of useful plants, a reworking of Catholic imagery is often noticeable. Among the best-known myths are those about the opening of the Maize Mountain by the Lightning deities, the struggle of Sun and his Elder Brethren, and the marriage of Sun and Moon. The early-colonial Quichean Twin myth, set out in the Popol Vuh, has not been transmitted, although fragments are recognizable in recent narrative; the name of one of its heroes, Xbalanque, was around the turn of the 20th century still known in the Alta Verapaz. Early creation mythology is found in the Popol Vuh and in some of the Books of Chilam Balam.
Notwithstanding the progress in hieroglyphic decipherment, the most important sources for Classic mythology are still scenes painted on pottery (the so-called 'ceramic codex') and monumental iconography. The two principal narratives recognized thus far are about demigods close to humanity (the Hero Twins and the principal Maya maize god), and have to be reconstructed from scenes in which often, narrative and ritual concerns are intertwined.
Religious mobilization
Like other Mesoamerican populations, Maya societies since the Spanish conquest have known a series of religious 'revitalization' movements, of a more or less violent character, and in response to intolerable exploitation. These movements usually followed the appearances of supernatural beings. In Chiapas (early 18th and late 19th century), the ensuing cults focused on female saints such as the Virgin Mary in the Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712 and Saint Rose of Lima, whereas in eastern Yucatán during the late 19th-century 'Caste War', crosses, dressed as women, and especially a 'Talking Cross', played the main roles. In the Alta Verapaz, the role of saints and crosses was assumed by male mountain deities demanding the destruction of the coffee plantations and a return to the ancient ways. In each case, certain individuals were recognized as mouthpieces of the supernatural entities involved.
Ethics
As ethical systems, polytheistic religions like those of the Maya are difficult to compare with the monotheistic world religions. However, the idea of 'covenants' between deities and human beings is common to both. Fulfilling the ritual requirements of the 'covenants' should ideally lead to a state of harmony. The archaic practice of human sacrifice should first of all be viewed within this framework.
See also
List of Maya gods and supernatural beings
Aztec religion
Olmec religion
References
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External links
Maya Religion by David Stuart (2005)
Maya Religion and Gods: Relevance and Relatedness in the Animic Cosmos by Eleanor Harrison-Buck (2015)
Maya civilization
Mesoamerican mythology and religion
Religion in North America
Religion in Central America
Religion in Mexico
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Robert Goff, Baron Goff of Chieveley
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Robert Lionel Archibald Goff, Baron Goff of Chieveley, (12 November 1926 – 14 August 2016) was an English barrister and judge who was Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary, the equivalent of today's President of the Supreme Court. Best known for establishing unjust enrichment as a branch of English law, he has been described by Andrew Burrows as "the greatest judge of modern times". Goff was the original co-author of Goff & Jones, the leading English law textbook on restitution and unjust enrichment, first published in 1966. He practised as a commercial barrister from 1951 to 1975, following which he began his career as a judge. He was appointed to the Judicial Committee of the House of Lords in 1986.
Goff was born in his mother's family home in Perthshire, Scotland, and was raised in Hampshire, England. He obtained a place at New College, Oxford, but was called up in December 1944 and served in the Scots Guards in Italy until going to Oxford in October 1948. He earned a first-class degree in Jurisprudence there, and three weeks after receiving his examination results was offered a fellowship at Oxford. He accepted this on condition that he could be called to the Bar first. He was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1951, and appointed fellow and tutor at Lincoln College, Oxford, and a university lecturer in Jurisprudence in 1952. He was High Steward of the University of Oxford from 1991 to 2001.
As one of the few early academics-turned-judges, Goff long advocated a complementary view of the role of the legal academic and judge. In this respect, the former Lord Justice of Appeal Sir Stephen Tomlinson said that "no judge has done more than Robert to ensure that the views of legal academic commentators now regularly inform the decision-making in our higher courts".
Towards the later part of his life, he developed an interest in sharing perspectives with foreign lawyers and judges. For building bridges between judges in the United Kingdom and Germany, Goff was awarded the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (First Class).
Early life and education
Robert Goff was born in Perthshire, Scotland, on 12 November 1926, as the second child and only son of Lionel Trevor Goff (1877–1953) and Isobel Jane Higgon (née Denroche-Smith). Lionel studied at Eton College and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and was commissioned in the Royal Artillery in 1897. As a young officer, Lionel fought in the Second Boer War, was wounded in the siege of Ladysmith and was mentioned in dispatches. He also served in the First World War, and was wounded in 1917 and again mentioned in dispatches. He remained hospitalised for his wounds until 1921. In 1923, he married Isabel Higgon, née Denroche-Smith, a widow of Archie Higgon, who had been killed in action in 1915. Isobel's family home was near Alyth, North Perthshire, and her father had been a civil servant in Bengal.
Robert was brought up at the Goff home in Monk Sherborne, Hampshire. He had a closer relationship with his mother than his father. Lionel's principal interests were in fishing, hunting, shooting and riding, and he did not share his son's passion for music. Likewise, Robert did not share his father's interests, and gave up shooting after he turned eighteen.
Goff attended a dame school in Basingstoke until he was eight. Thereafter, he attended St Aubyns School, Rottingdean, and started at Eton College in September 1939, at the beginning of the Second World War. While at Eton, he focused on classical languages and history, preferring these to science subjects. There, Henry Ley, an organist who had played at the coronation of King George VI, encouraged his love for the piano and taught him to play. He left Eton in December 1944, having received a deferred offer of admission to New College, Oxford, for after he completed his military service.
Military service
In December 1944, towards the end of the Second World War, Goff was called up for service with the British Army and was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Scots Guards. His service number was 354970. He trained for battle in the Far East, having been told that he would be deployed there in September 1945. Following the surrender of Japan in August 1945, these plans were cancelled.
Instead, Goff spent some time on guard duty at Windsor Castle, and then volunteered to serve in the force being sent to Italy to counter Marshal Tito, where he remained until July 1948. During this period, he spent his leave travelling and exploring northern Italy, skiing, and pursuing cultural interests, while introducing the men under his command to them.
On occasion, he would combine setting up communications posts with visits with his men to see Italian art, including Michelangelo's David and Piero della Francesca's Polyptych of Perugia.
University education
In 1948, Goff took up his place at Oxford for a two-year "shortened" Final Honour Schools course for ex-servicemen. Having been given a choice between reading Jurisprudence, Greats or History, he chose Jurisprudence, with the aim of practising as a barrister after graduating.
At New College, his tutors included Jack Butterworth and Wilfrid Bourne. He graduated with a first class degree in 1950, having served as steward of the Junior Common Room.
Career
Academic career
Although Goff had intended to go straight to the Bar after graduation, these plans changed shortly after his examination results were released. Keith Murray, the Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford, telephoned him to invite him to a meeting. At this meeting, Murray indicated that a fellowship and tutorship in law had become vacant following Harold Hanbury's appointment as Vinerian Professor of English Law, and that he wished to offer it to Goff. Goff, astonished, asked for half an hour to consider the proposal. In apparent surprise that Goff needed to think about the offer, Murray granted the time, following which Goff accepted the offer, on condition that he could first sit the Bar exams and be called to the Bar. Murray agreed to this and Goff was called by Inner Temple in 1951. In October 1951, he began teaching at Lincoln College, and remained there until the end of the 1954–55 academic year. Alongside his teaching, he served on various committees and briefly as dean in 1952–53 when the incumbent was on leave. His students included Swinton Thomas, who would become a judge of the Court of Appeal.
Aware that he had done a shortened two-year course in law, in which he only studied six subjects in limited depth, Goff did "some pretty hectic and thorough preparation for tutorials". He taught a range of subjects, including Criminal Law and Roman Law. His schedule was hectic, teaching nearly 50 students in a single year, some of whom required multiple tutorials a week. To share the workload, the College permitted him to recruit a weekender.
This role was fulfilled by Pat Neill, who was then a Prize Fellow at All Souls College. He gave joint classes with Tony Honoré, where it is suggested that he met A. W. B. Simpson, his successor at Lincoln College. When he left full-time academia for the Bar, Sir Walter Oakeshott, Rector of Lincoln College, said that "there was widespread hope of his being content to go on as an academic lawyer, and by his departure law studies at Oxford, as well as the College, will suffer greatly".
Goff & Jones on the Law of Unjust Enrichment
In 1952, Goff was appointed to a Common University Fund lectureship in law, to take effect in 1953. In this capacity, he was required to give a series of lectures on any area of interest to him. When exploring texts for inspiration, he chanced upon "quasi-contracts", a concept traceable to Roman law, but which was at that point unrecognised in English law.
Together with Ronald Maudsley, then the law tutor at Brasenose College, he set up a series of seminars in Restitution, also described as "Unjustifiable Enrichment" and "Quasi Contract". The lectures were not on the syllabus and not many students attended. They did attract academic attendees, some of whom, such as Peter North, went on to be distinguished academic lawyers.On the basis of these lectures, Goff and Maudsley jointly began work on the book that would later become Goff and Jones on the Law of Restitution (today published as Goff and Jones on the Law of Unjust Enrichment). Goff had continued drafting the textbook after leaving academia for the Commercial Bar. At the time, work for junior barristers was limited, and so he spent considerable time working on the book at the Inner Temple library. During this period, Maudsley spent long stretches of time in the United States, and did not respond to Goff's communications.
In 1959, Goff was reading a Law Quarterly Review and came across an article written by Maudsley, which he believed to be based heavily on the material they had prepared in their joint lectures. Goff wrote to Maudsley once again, but upon not receiving a reply, concluded that Maudsley "was signing off and didn't feel able to tell me". As a junior barrister with a growing practice, Goff realised that if his book was to be completed, he would need a collaborator. A. W. B. Simpson introduced him to Gareth Jones, then fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge, and later Downing Professor of the Laws of England, with whom he would eventually publish the book. Goff would later describe Jones as "the ideal co-author" and "beyond doubt, one of the finest teachers in the common law world".
The book publication took much longer than either Goff or Jones anticipated. The manuscript was submitted in late 1964. The page proofs, which arrived in 1965, had so many mistakes and required so many alterations that the publishers, Sweet & Maxwell, made the authors pay for a second set of proofs. As a result, Goff and Jones made practically no money from the first edition of the book, and Goff complained that Sweet & Maxwell "appeared to understand nothing about writing pioneering books". The book was finally published in 1966.
Upon its release, the book was quickly recognised as a significant work, and was largely favourably reviewed. Lord Denning reflected positively on it, calling it "a creative work" and comparing it to Sir Frederick Pollock's treatise on torts and the seminal textbook Anson's Law of Contract. Edmund Davies, then a judge of the High Court of Justice, described it as "admirable". The book's propositions caused some confusion in academic circles. Not knowing where it fitted, a university library classified it as Criminal Law, and a library of one of the Inns of Court refused to take the book in at all. The book's propositions were not unanimously welcomed. For example, they were resisted by Lord Diplock, who as late as in 1977 continued to declare judicially that "there is no general doctrine of unjust enrichment recognised in English law".
Goff submitted the textbook to the University of Oxford for the consideration of a higher degree, and he was awarded a Doctor of Civil Law in 1971. He would later receive honorary degrees from the universities of London, Bristol, Reading, Buckingham and City, University of London. In 1975, Goff was appointed to the High Court. Goff and Jones jointly wrote two further editions of the textbook, which were published in 1978 and 1986, respectively. In the latter year, Goff was appointed to the House of Lords.
He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1987, and would go on to hold Honorary Fellowships at three Oxford colleges: New, Lincoln, and Wolfson.
Career at the Bar
Goff left academia to join the Commercial Bar in 1955, at a time when the prevailing belief was that there was a sharp difference between the academic lawyer and the practicing lawyer. He joined the chambers of Ashton Roskill QC, then known as 5, King's Bench Walk (but which later amalgamated with 6, King's Bench Walk to form what is today known as 7, King's Bench Walk, or 7KBW). He described his time as a junior barrister as "lean", because at that time, the bulk of cases went to senior barristers, who tended to have almost permanent junior barristers assisting them. Goff was led by Roskill twice when his usual junior had pneumonia, but was hardly led by anyone else. He took this as an opportunity to teach at Inner Temple and on weekends at Lincoln College, and to continue writing his book on the law of restitution.
Goff believed the publication of Goff and Jones on the Law of Restitution in 1966 to be one of the reasons he was appointed Queen's Counsel (QC) the following year. After this, his practice grew significantly. He appeared in significant and technically difficult commercial cases such as The Mihalis Angelos, and The Brimnes. His choice of junior was Brian Davenport, a close friend whom he described as "exceptionally gifted", but who was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in his early thirties. Over the course of his practice, he led many juniors, some of whom went on to hold high judicial office, such as Andrew Longmore, Mark Saville, Nick Phillips, and John Hobhouse.
Since 2018, 7KBW has commemorated Goff's contributions through the annual The Lords Goff and Hobhouse Memorial Lectures.
Judicial career
In 1974, Goff was appointed Recorder of the Crown Court. In October 1975, after eight years as a QC, Goff was appointed to the High Court, and received the customary knighthood. He spent seven years at the High Court, two of which he spent as the Judge-in-Charge of the Commercial Court. In 1982, he was made a Lord Justice of Appeal and sworn in as a Privy Councillor, becoming judicially known as Lord Justice Robert Goff (not to be confused with Sir Reginald Goff, known as Goff LJ). On 6 February 1986, Goff was made a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and a life peer as Baron Goff of Chieveley, of Chieveley in the Royal County of Berkshire. On 1 October 1996, The Lord Keith of Kinkel retired as Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and Goff succeeded him. He retired in 1998, but continued to sit on cases occasionally until his 75th birthday. He was succeeded as Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary by Lord Browne-Wilkinson, and his vacant seat on the House of Lords bench was taken over by his former junior Lord Hobhouse. Over those 12 years, he participated in over 300 cases at the House of Lords and 160 cases at the Privy Council.
As an academic-turned-judge, Goff believed that the two professions were different, yet complementary. Upon his appointment to the House of Lords, he was appalled to find poor library and research facilities available, and wrote a paper to the House of Lords authorities, arguing for the provision of a better equipped library for the Law Lords' use. In his Maccabean Lecture to the British Academy in 1983, he described the judge and jurist as on a shared "search for principle", saying that it was the fusion of their work that led to the development of the common law. Three years after the lecture, he said that "it is difficult to overestimate the influence of the jurist in England today". In Spiliada Maritime Corp v Cansulex Ltd in 1986, Goff used elevated language, describing jurists as “pilgrims with [judges] on the endless road to unattainable perfection”. In 1987, Goff wrote an article titled Judge, Jurist and Legislature, in which he detailed his views on the roles of these players in the legal system. In 1999, he said that he did not know how far he had succeeded in promoting an appropriate recognition of academia's contribution to the development of English law, but that, if he had, "that alone will give me great satisfaction." Goff's views influenced others to think about the role of judges and jurists, inspiring the later Lord of Appeal in Ordinary Alan Rodger's first article in 1994, and lectures given by then President of the Supreme Court David Neuberger and Lord Justice of Appeal Jack Beatson. In his obituary, the former Lord Justice of Appeal Stephen Tomlinson said that "no judge has done more than Robert to ensure that the views of legal academic commentators now regularly inform the decision-making in our higher courts".
Goff was a strong believer in the common law as a legal system. This came with a preference for the common law's characteristic incremental development of the law by judges, and a suspicion of codes and legislation, which carried greater weight in civil legal systems. Nevertheless, he supported the work of the Law Commission enthusiastically. This was despite the disapproval of some of his colleagues, according to whom Goff had broken the unspoken rule that no judicial reference was to be made to the work of the Law Commission. In line with his belief in the complementarity of the academic lawyer and judge, he worked to dispel the hostility towards them in the House of Lords. Among the Law Commissioners he supported were his former junior barrister Brian Davenport QC, Jack Beatson and Andrew Burrows. Since then, several Law Commissioners have been appointed to the Supreme Court, marking a significant change in judicial attitudes towards the Law Commission.
As Law Lord, he furthered the cause of restitution that he had developed academically. In Lipkin Gorman v Karpnale Ltd, he gave judicial recognition to the proposition that unjust enrichment is an independent branch of private law. Graham Virgo, who has disagreed with the reasoning in Lipkin Gorman, nevertheless described it as "probably the most important dictum in the modern law of restitution". His judgment in Kleinwort Benson Ltd v Lincoln CC was described by Lord Hoffmann as "one of the most distinguished of his luminous contributions to this branch of the law" and by Lord Browne-Wilkinson, who dissented, as containing "yet another major contribution to the law of restitution". Andrew Burrows would later describe him as "the greatest judge of modern times".
Over the course of his judicial career, he presided over a number of other key cases, including:
Leading cases of national significance
BP Exploration Co (Libya) Ltd v Hunt (No 2)
This case caught national attention as part of the litigation flowing from Libya's nationalisation of its oilfields. Two years after British Petroleum had purchased a half-share of the Sarir oilfield from Nelson Bunker Hunt, Libya nationalised it. British Petroleum claimed that the contract had been frustrated, which would entitle it to compensation under the Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943. The legal historian John Baker described the case as legally complex, "involving such vast fortunes that millions of dollars turned upon every nuance of meaning in the 1943 Act". Goff presided over the case in the High Court, holding that the contract had been frustrated and that British Petroleum was entitled to damages. Notably, Goff wrote the headnote himself, setting a precedent in law reporting. He also reworked parts of Goff and Jones on the Law of Unjust Enrichment to accommodate the judgment.
Airedale NHS Trust v Bland
Anthony Bland was a 17-year-old Liverpool supporter who had travelled with two friends to Hillsborough Stadium for an FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest on 15 April 1989. A fatal human crush occurred, causing Bland serious injury and leaving him in a persistent vegetative state. Goff issued a legal ruling allowing doctors to withdraw his treatment at the request of his family, since there had been no sign of improvement in his condition, there was no reasonable possibility that he would ever emerge from his persistent vegetative state, and was unlikely to survive more than five years. The case provoked significant public discussion over the moral, social and ethical issues of withdrawing life support from an insensate patient.
The Spycatcher case
In 1985, former spy Peter Wright attempted to publish Spycatcher, a memoir detailing his work in British intelligence, in violation of the Official Secrets Act 1911. Following the British government's attempts to ban it, it saw a dramatic increase in popularity, selling nearly two million copies worldwide by October 1988. The case in the House of Lords raised important questions relating to the law on breach of confidence, public policy and freedom of expression.
Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd
Several hundred people filed a claim against the builders of the skyscraper One Canada Square in the tort of private nuisance, because it interfered with their television signal. The court held, controversially, that the plaintiffs did not have a legal right to television signal.
Re Pinochet (No. 3)
A Spanish court requested the extradition of the former president of Chile, Augusto Pinochet, who was accused of murder, torture and conspiracy to murder. Although Goff had retired by the time this case was heard, he returned on an ad-hoc basis to hear it. The case gained attention because of its implications for the law on immunities and extradition.
Attorney General v Blake
This case concerned the MI5 double agent George Blake. Following his escape from prison and flight to the Soviet Union, he wrote a book about his experiences and work in British intelligence, which was published by Jonathan Cape. The government sought to force the publishers to give up all earnings from the sale of the book, arguing that it had harmed the public interest and that the author and publisher should not be allowed to profit from it. Goff joined the majority opinion, ruling in favour of the government.
Leading cases of legal importance
Barclays Bank Ltd v W J Simms, Son and Cooke (Southern) Ltd
Collins v Wilcock
Spiliada Maritime Corp v Cansulex Ltd
Société Nationale Industrielle Aérospatiale v Lee Kui Jak
Lipkin Gorman v Karpnale Ltd
Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc
Henderson v Merrett Syndicates Ltd
White v Jones
Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington LBC
Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd
Kleinwort Benson Ltd v Lincoln CC
Public service and engagement
Fostering links with foreign jurisdictions
Goff gave many public lectures around the world, partly motivated by his belief that the common law was a uniquely adaptable system which deserved better understanding in civil law jurisdictions. He led judicial exchanges with Germany, France and Italy, in recognition for which he was awarded the Grand Cross (First Class) of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. At the invitation of the Indian jurist and diplomat Laxmi Mall Singhvi, he conducted two three-week lecture tours in India in 1984 and 1986 (the year he was appointed to the House of Lords). These lectures were delivered in four cities. He also delivered the inaugural G S Pathak Memorial Lecture in New Delhi, where he remarked that the difference between Germany and England was that in Germany, "the Professor is God, but in England, the Judge is God". In 1990, Goff delivered the first of the annual Lord Goff lectures at the City University of Hong Kong. He delivered lectures in Jerusalem, Chicago and Stockholm.
Work with the Inns of Court
When Goff left academia for the Bar, he brought with him a strong interest in the welfare of students and young barristers. At the time, Inner Temple (his Inn of Court) provided almost no educational support. Shortly after moving to the Bar, he and a fellow barrister arranged for lectures to be delivered to Bar students at Inner Temple. Lecturers included Rupert Cross, C. H. S. Fifoot, Peter Carter, Robert Heuston, and Marjorie Reeves (who had been his wife Sarah Cousins's tutor at Oxford).
In 1987, when the Inner Temple was going through a time of economic difficulty, Goff was asked by the Treasurer to chair an appeal to boost its Scholarship Fund. This fund evolved into the Pegasus Trust, which supports the exchange of young lawyers in many common law countries, and which was one of Goff's key contributions as a member of Inner Temple. To fund it, Goff assembled a committee of Benchers, including Lord Mackay of Clashfern (Lord Chancellor) and James Callaghan (a former Prime Minister), who was able to secure the support of the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust. He entertained John King, then Chairman of British Airways, to lunch, a meeting which resulted in British Airways providing free flights for Pegasus Scholars. According to Stephen Tomlinson, the Pegasus Trust was a "valuable and lasting legacy", which represented Goff's belief in the importance of linking different jurisdictions, as well as his interest in the welfare of young barristers. It subsequently evolved into a collaborative effort between the four Inns of Court, supporting his belief that the Inns should work more closely.
In establishing it, Goff said that:"The common law is one of the greatest forces for good in the world. For many, the common law means the rule of law and the absolute independence of the judiciary. It is of paramount importance for the future of the common law that bridges should be built between the legal professions in the many countries of the world which live under this system."
Appointments
Goff's other appointments included:
High Steward of the University of Oxford (1991–2001)
Chairman (1986–2000) and President (2000–2008) of the British Institute of International and Comparative Law
President of the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (1986–1991)
Patron of the Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal
Chairman of the Council of Legal Education, which oversaw the teaching and examination of the Bar Final examinations.
Personal life
Goff first met his wife Sarah Cousins in autumn 1952, at a birthday party in Hampshire. She had just graduated from St Anne's College, Oxford, having read History, and was starting a BLitt. They were married in July 1953, and lived in Oxford until 1955, when Goff went to the Bar. As a young academic couple, they became good friends with various academics, including Jack Butterworth, Maurice Platnauer, and Tom Boase. They shared a love for opera, which Goff encouraged in their children. They had four children, one of whom died young. The family lived in London until 1975, and then moved to Chieveley House in Berkshire.
Goff was an accomplished pianist; he began his days with a Mozart sonata and spent considerable time transposing and arranging pieces of music for the family collection of instruments. His love of music remained with him into the later years of his life, when his health was failing. He described music as what "fed his soul and relaxed him". He was particularly fond of the countryside and gardening.
Goff was described as giving off a first impression of remoteness, reticence and formidable formality, as a result of his distinction as a lawyer or having inherited a military bearing from his father. He was also described as warm, kind and passionate about his students.
In 2004, Goff's health began to decline. In 2006, he and his wife moved from Chieveley House to Cambridge to live near their daughter Juliet, where he remained until his death in 2016.
Arms
References
1926 births
2016 deaths
Scottish military personnel
Alumni of New College, Oxford
English King's Counsel
Chancery Division judges
20th-century English judges
Fellows of Lincoln College, Oxford
Fellows of New College, Oxford
Fellows of the British Academy
Knights Bachelor
Goff of Chieveley, Robert Goff, Baron
Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
People educated at Eton College
People from Chieveley
20th-century King's Counsel
Goff of Chieveley, Robert Goff, Baron
British Army personnel of World War II
Scots Guards officers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese%20War
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Dutch–Portuguese War
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The Dutch–Portuguese War (; ) was a global armed conflict involving Dutch forces, in the form of the Dutch East India Company, the Dutch West India Company, and their allies, against the Iberian Union, and after 1640, the Portuguese Empire. Beginning in 1598, the conflict primarily involved the Dutch companies and fleet invading Portuguese colonies in the Americas, Africa, and the East Indies. The war can be thought of as an extension of the Eighty Years' War being fought in Europe at the time between Spain and the Netherlands, as Portugal was in a dynastic union with Spain after the War of the Portuguese Succession, for most of the conflict.
However, the conflict had little to do with the war in Europe and served mainly as a way for the Dutch to gain an overseas empire and control trade at the cost of the Portuguese. English forces also assisted the Dutch at certain points in the war (though in later decades, the English and Dutch would become fierce rivals). Because of the commodity at the center of the conflict, this war would be nicknamed the Spice War.
The outcome was that Portugal successfully repelled Dutch attempts to secure Brazil and Angola while the Dutch were the victors in the Cape of Good Hope and in the East Indies, where they captured Malacca, Ceylon, the Malabar Coast, and the Moluccas, though the Portuguese retained Macau. English ambitions also greatly benefited from the long-standing war between their two main rivals in the Far East (Malacca, Ceylon, and Malabar would become British possessions in the late 18th to early 19th century).
Portuguese resentment at Spain, which was perceived as having prioritized its own colonies and neglected the defense of the Portuguese, the weaker member of the union, was a major contributing factor to Portugal shaking off Spanish rule in the Portuguese Restoration War, conducted simultaneously with the later stages of the war with the Dutch. Moreover, the Portuguese claimed that the Iberian Union was a reason for the attacks on their colonies by the Dutch.
Introduction
The war lasted from 1598 to 1663, and the main participants were the Kingdom of Portugal and the Dutch Republic.
Following the 1580 Iberian Union, Portugal was throughout most of the period under Habsburg rule, and the Habsburg Philip II of Spain was battling the Dutch Revolt. Prior to the union of the Portuguese and Spanish Crowns, Portuguese merchants used the Low Countries as a base for the sale of their spices in Northern Europe. After the Spaniards gained control of the Portuguese Empire though, they declared an embargo on all trade with the rebellious provinces (see Union of Utrecht). In his efforts to subdue the rebelling provinces, Philip II cut off the Netherlands from the spice markets of Lisbon, making it necessary for the Dutch to send their own expeditions to the sources of these commodities and to take control of the Indies spice trade. This followed the capture of Recife in which the Dutch assisted the English in capturing the Portuguese colony.
Like the French and English, the Dutch worked to create a global trade network at the expense of the Iberian kingdoms. The Dutch Empire attacked many territories in Asia under the rule of the Portuguese and Spanish including Formosa, Ceylon, the Philippines, and commercial interests in Japan, Africa (Mina), and South America.
Background
In 1592, during the war with Spain, an English fleet had captured a large Portuguese galleon off the Azores, the Madre de Deus, loaded with 900 tons of merchandise from India and China, worth an estimated half a million pounds (nearly half the size of English treasury at the time). This foretaste of the riches of the East galvanized interest in the region. That same year, Dutch merchants sent Cornelis de Houtman to Lisbon, to gather as much information as he could about the Spice Islands. In 1595, merchant and explorer Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, having traveled widely in the Indian Ocean in the service of the Portuguese, published a travel report in Amsterdam, the "Reys-gheschrift vande navigatien der Portugaloysers in Orienten" ("Report of a journey through the navigations of the Portuguese in the East"). The published report included vast directions on how to navigate ships between Portugal and the East Indies and to Japan. Dutch and British interest fed by new information led to a movement of commercial expansion, and the foundation of the English East India Company in 1600, and Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC) in 1602, allowing the entry of chartered companies in the so-called East Indies.
In 1602, the VOC was founded, with the goal of sharing the costs of the exploration of the East Indies and ultimately re-establishing the spice trade, which generated high profits in the new Dutch Republic and other European countries if the spices were bought at source and their supply could be controlled by a monopoly.
The need of founding the VOC arose because, with the war with Spain and Portugal being united to Spain, the trade would now be directed through the southern Low Countries (roughly present-day Belgium), which according to the Union of Arras (or Union of Atrecht) were pledged to the Spanish monarch and were Catholic, as opposed to the Dutch Protestant north. This also meant that the Dutch had lost their most profitable trade partner and their most important source of financing the war against Spain. Additionally, the Dutch would lose their distribution monopoly with France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Northern Europe.
The Portuguese Empire in the Indian Ocean was a traditional thalassocracy that had extended its reach to every major choke point in the ocean. Trade in the area corresponded also to a traditional triangular model whereupon small manufactures would be brought from Europe and traded in Africa for gold and several items, then these would serve to purchase spices in India proper which were then brought back to Europe and traded at immense profit which would be reinvested into ships and troops, to be sent eastwards.
The Portuguese State of India, headquartered in Goa, was a network of key cities which controlled the maritime trade in the Indian Ocean: Sofala was the base for Portuguese operations in East Africa and was supported by Kilwa to better control the Mozambique Channel; from here, the routes took the trade to Goa which was the hub for the rest of the operations and where the India convoy ships out of Europe arrived; from Goa, going northwards, the trade would be protected by the North and Adventurers Fleets all the way to Daman and Diu which oversaw the northern trade and the Gulf of Cambay; while the Fleet of the North escorted merchant ships the Adventurers Fleet would also seek to disrupt the Mecca trade between northern India's Muslims and the Arabian Peninsula; the Diu fleet would then connect the trade to Hormuz which controlled the Persian Gulf routes and interrupted the Basra-Suez trade; southwards from Goa, the Cape Comorin fleet would escort the Goa merchants to Calicut and Cochin on the Malabar Coast and to Ceylon and the connection to the Bay of Bengal; in the Bay of Bengal, the most lucrative trade was on the Coromandel Coast where such settlements as São Tomé of Mylapore and Pulicat served as hubs; it was in the Coromandel and Ceylon settlements where the ships out of the Malacca route often laid anchor because they connected the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea; the Malacca fleet patrolled the Singapore Strait and the routes diverted to Celebes and what is now Indonesia at large in the south, and northwards to China and Japan; China provided silk and china to Macau from where the "Silver Carrack" connected to Japan where several products were exchanged for Japanese silver.
Casus belli
At dawn on 25 February 1603, three ships of the VOC seized the Santa Catarina, a Portuguese galleon. It was such a rich prize that its sale proceeds doubled the capital of the VOC. The legality of keeping the prize was questionable under Dutch statute and the Portuguese demanded the return of their cargo. The scandal led to a public judicial hearing and a wider campaign to sway public (and international) opinion. As a result, Hugo Grotius in The Free Sea (Mare Liberum, published 1609) formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory, against the Portuguese mare clausum policy, and all nations were free to use it for seafaring trade. The 'free seas' provided suitable ideological justification for the Dutch to break the Portuguese monopoly through its formidable naval power.
Incursion into the East Indies: Batavia challenges Goa
The Portuguese relied on four strategic bases in the East Indies: Goa, Bombay, Malacca, and Macau. The first connected India with Portugal proper (Ceuta), Malacca connected Goa to the Indian Ocean trade via Cape Comorin and Ceylon; and Macau was the hub for the trade routes stretching from the South China Sea to the Sea of Japan and to the Spice Islands, east of New Guinea in Melanesia. The other locations were important but not crucial: including Diu along with Bombay (until the English acquisition). These Indian cities controlled the approaches to the smaller Gulf of Cambay and to the larger Arabian Sea as well. Hormuz was Portugal's protectorate for a short time, during which it was the keystone of the Persian Gulf trade between Persia, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and rest of Asia and Africa. If both Diu and Hormuz would fall, that would prevent the Middle Eastern markets from being taxed by Portugal, which would deny Lisbon the revenue from the southernmost course of the silk route. It was a lucrative trade but not as essential to the Indian Ocean spice trade network at large. After the fall of Qeshm and Hormuz to the Persians and English, the Portuguese struck out of their Muscat and Goa bases, which led to a destructive campaign against Persia's coastline and an alliance with Basra. Eventually, after a naval battle off Hormuz in 1625, Persia vied for a cease-fire with the Portuguese to be able to reestablish trade and provided Portugal with a trading post in Kong. Together with the reestablished Basra route, this temporarily made up for the loss of Hormuz. The pioneers of the destruction of the Portuguese and Spanish mare clausum doctrine were the Dutch in portions of the East Indies.
However, the VOC suffered from the same weakness as Portugal: lack of manpower. Thus, a Spanish-style colonization effort was never feasible and only dominion of the seas would allow it to compete. The Portuguese had a century head start in the region and their empire allowed them access to converted and loyal local populations, which shored up inland, what naval power could not ensure at sea. Hence, the Dutch directed their efforts to the periphery of the Portuguese Empire. Avoiding the Indian coasts, they set up their own headquarters in Southeast Asia, in the city of Batavia (modern-day Jakarta). This put them safely distant from Goa but opportunistically close to Malacca and the sea lanes connecting the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Many battles were fought but the most decisive ones fatally injured the Portuguese Indian empire. The Dutch blockade of Goa between 1604 and 1645 deprived Portuguese India from a safe connection to Lisbon – and Europe – for the remainder of the war.
In 1615, a battle off the coast of Malacca destroyed Portuguese naval power in Southeast Asia. The Portuguese lost their naval supremacy to the Dutch in the crucial route between Goa and Macau. The sieges of Qeshm and Hormuz by the combined forces of Persia and England have largely dislodged the Portuguese from the Middle East. The 1639 expulsion of the Jesuits (sakoku) and subsequently the Portuguese, from Nagasaki, also doomed the economic viability of Macau. The siege of Malacca of 1641, after many attempts, delivered the city to the Dutch and their regional allies, crucially breaking the spinal cord between Goa and the Orient.
Portuguese establishments were isolated and prone to being picked off one by one, but nevertheless the Dutch only enjoyed mixed success in doing so. Amboina was captured from the Portuguese in 1605, but an attack on Malacca, the Battle of Cape Rachado, the following year narrowly failed in its objective to provide a more strategically located base in the East Indies with favourable monsoon winds. In 1607 and 1608, the Dutch twice failed to subdue the Portuguese stronghold on the Island of Mozambique, due to the close cooperation between the locals and the Portuguese.
The Dutch found what they were looking for in Batavia, conquered by Jan Pieterszoon Coen in 1619. The city would become the capital of the Dutch East Indies.
For the next forty-four years, the two cities of Goa and Batavia would fight relentlessly, since they stood as the capital of Portuguese India and the VOC's base of operations. With the assistance of the Sultanate of Bijapur the Dutch would even attempt to conquer Goa itself, but Portuguese diplomacy defeated this plan.
In fact, Goa had been under intermittent blockade since 1603. Most of the fighting took place in west India, where the Dutch campaign in Malabar sought to replace the Portuguese monopoly on the spice trade. Dutch and Portuguese fleets faced off for control of the sea lanes as was the case with the action of 30 September 1639, while on mainland India the war involved more and more Indian kingdoms and principalities as the Dutch capitalised on local resentment of Portuguese conquests in the early 16th century. In 1624, Fernándo de Silva led a Spanish fleet to sack a Dutch ship near the Siamese shoreline. This enraged King Songtham of Siam, who held the Dutch in great preference and ordered attacks on the Spaniards.
War between Philip's possessions and other countries led to a deterioration of the Portuguese Empire, as the loss of Hormuz to Persia, aided by England, but the Dutch Republic was the main beneficiary.
In 1640, the Portuguese took advantage of the Catalan Revolt and themselves revolted from the Spanish-dominated Iberian Union. From this point onwards the English decided instead to re-establish their alliance with Portugal.
VOC gains ground
Despite the Portuguese proclaiming themselves as hostile to the Spanish crown, the VOC nevertheless took the opportunity to wrench away the string of coastal fortresses that comprised the Portuguese Empire. Malacca finally succumbed in 1641.
Important battles also took place in the South China Sea, initially with combined fleets of Dutch and English vessels, and subsequently exclusively Dutch ships assaulting Macau. Dutch attempts to capture Macau, to force China to replace the Portuguese or to settle the Pescadores failed, in part because of the long-standing diplomacy between the Portuguese and the Ming, but the Dutch were ultimately successful in acquiring the monopoly of trade with Japan. Meanwhile, the Dutch were unable in four attempts to capture Macau from where Portugal monopolised the lucrative China–Japan trade.
The Dutch established a colony at Tayouan in 1624, present-day Anping in the south of Taiwan, known to the Portuguese as Formosa and in 1642 the Dutch took northern Formosa from the Spanish by force.
The Dutch intervened in the Sinhalese–Portuguese War on Ceylon from 1638 onwards, initially as allies of the Kingdom of Kandy against Portugal. The Dutch conquered Batticaloa in 1639 and Galle in 1640 before the alliance broke down. After a period of triangular warfare between the Dutch, Portuguese, and Kandyans, the alliance was remade in 1649. After exploiting and then double-crossing their Kandyan allies, the Dutch were able to capture Colombo in 1656 and drove the last Portuguese from Ceylon in 1658. Sporadic warfare with Kandy continued for over a century.
In the aftermath of the destruction of the Tordesillas system, Portugal had managed to retain Diu but not Hormuz. Goa and Macau had also survived but not Malacca. Nevertheless, the downfall of the Portuguese Indian empire was not territorial but economic: the competition of other European powers whose demographics were more numerous, access to capital easier, and access to markets more direct than Portugal's. Lisbon's distributive monopoly had been stolen from the Islamic world and accrued of more direct competition, it crumbled quickly.
In all, and also because the Dutch were kept busy with their expansion in Indonesia, the conquests made at the expense of the Portuguese were modest: some Indonesian possessions and a few cities and fortresses in South India. The most important blow to the Portuguese eastern empire would be the conquest of Malacca in 1641 (depriving them of the control over these straits), Ceylon in 1658, and the Malabar Coast in 1663, even after the signing of the Treaty of The Hague in 1661.
Brazil: Governorate General vs. GWC
Surprised by such easy gains in the East, the Republic quickly decided to exploit Portugal's weakness in the Americas. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company (Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie or GWC) as created to take control of the sugar trade and colonize America (the New Netherland project). The GWC benefited from a large investment in capital, drawing on the enthusiasm of the best financiers and capitalists of the Republic. However, the GWC would not be as successful as its eastern counterpart.
The Dutch invasion began in 1624 with the conquest of the then capital of the Governorate General of Brazil, the city of São Salvador da Bahia, but the Dutch conquest was short lived. In 1625, a joint Spanish–Portuguese fleet of 52 ships and 12,000 men rapidly recaptured Salvador.
In 1630 the Dutch returned, and captured Olinda and then Recife, renamed Mauritsstadt, thus establishing the colony of New Holland. The Portuguese commander Matias de Albuquerque retreated his forces inland, to establish a camp dubbed Arraial do Bom Jesus. Until 1635, the Dutch were unable to harvest sugar due to Portuguese guerrilla attacks, and were virtually confined to the walled perimeter of the cities. Eventually, the Dutch evicted the Portuguese with the assistance of a local landlord named Domingos Fernandes Calabar, but on his retreat to Bahia, Matias de Albuquerque captured Calabar at Porto Calvo, and had him hung for treason.
The Portuguese fought back two Dutch attacks on Bahia in 1638. Nonetheless, by 1641 the Dutch captured São Luís, leaving them in control of northwestern Brazil between Maranhão and Sergipe in the south
Insurrection of Pernambuco
John Maurice of Nassau was recalled from the governorship of New Holland in 1644 because of excessive expenditure and under suspicion of corruption. Mutual hostility between the Catholic Portuguese and Protestant Dutch, and harsh measures to collect from indebted land-owners who had their estates ravaged in the war, ensured that Portuguese settlers came to resent the authority of the new Dutch administration.
In 1645, most of Dutch Brazil revolted under the leadership of mulatto landowner João Fernandes Vieira, who proclaimed himself loyal to the Portuguese Crown. GWC forces were defeated at the Battle of Tabocas, virtually confining the Dutch to the fortified urban perimeters of coastal cities, defended by contingents of German and Flemish mercenaries. Still in that year, the Dutch abandoned São Luís. The Second Battle of Guararapes, in 1649, marked the beginning of the end of Dutch occupation of Portuguese Brazil, until their final expulsion from Recife in 1654.
West Africa and Angola
At the same time, the Dutch organized incursions against the Portuguese possessions in Africa in order to take control of the Atlantic slave trade and complete the triangular trade that would ensure the economic prosperity of New Netherland.
In 1626, a Dutch expedition to take Elmina was almost wiped out in an ambush by the Portuguese, but in 1637, Elmina fell to the Dutch. In 1641, (after a truce between Portugal and the Netherlands had been signed), the Dutch captured the island of São Tomé and before the end of 1642, the rest of Portuguese Gold Coast followed.
In August 1641, the Dutch formed a three-way alliance with the Kingdom of Kongo and Queen Nzinga of Ndongo, and with their assistance captured Luanda and Benguela, though without preventing the Portuguese from retreating inland into strongholds like Massangano, Ambaca, and Muxima. With a steady source of slaves now secure, the Dutch abstained from further action, presuming that their allies would suffice against the Portuguese. Nonetheless, lacking firearms and artillery, Queen Nzinga and the Kongo proved unable to decisively defeat the Portuguese and their cannibalistic Imbangala allies.
The recapture of Luanda and São Tomé
In 1648, the Portuguese governor of the captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador Correia de Sá, organized a military expedition to retake Luanda from the Dutch, directly from Brazil. This is because the Portuguese were unable to send sufficient reinforcements to their colonies due to the ongoing Restoration War in mainland Portugal.
In early August, the fleet reached Luanda, where de Sá communicated to the Dutch garrison that since the Dutch would not respect the terms of the truce, the Portuguese felt no obligation to do so either. Although the Portuguese were outnumbered, a swift display of force achieved on 15 August the surrender of Luanda and all Dutch forces in Angola. Upon hearing of the fall of Luanda, Queen Nzinga retreated to Matamba, while the Dutch in São Tomé abandoned the island, which was reoccupied by the Portuguese later that year.
Treaty of The Hague
The Dutch, determined to recover or retain their territories, postponed the end of the conflict. However, they Dutch eventually decided to offer terms due to having to contend with the English at the same time.
See also
Portuguese Empire
Dutch Republic
History of Portugal
History of the Netherlands
Dutch Brazil
Dutch Loango-Angola
Colonialism
Dutch East India Company
Dutch West India Company
Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations
Anglo-Turkish piracy—Protestant sailors, including Dutchmen like Jan Janszoon or Sulayman Reis, joined the Barbary pirates during this period in order to raid ships of the Iberian Union.
Liever Turks dan Paaps
Ottoman embassy to Aceh - in response to the presence of Europeans in the Indian Ocean after the voyages of Vasco da Gama and others, the Ottoman Empire undertook a series of naval operations to project power, and protect the Sunni caliphate's merchants and pilgrims from Dutch and Portuguese privateers.
Black Legend (Spain)
Notes
References
External links
Dutch and Portuguese colonial legacy throughout Africa and Asia
Wars Directory
Naval Battles of Portugal (Portuguese)
Portuguese Armada's history of naval battles (Portuguese)
17th century in Angola
17th century in Brazil
17th century in Portugal
17th century in Spain
17th-century conflicts
Colonial Brazil
Colonial India
Dutch East India Company
Dutch–Portuguese War
Geopolitical rivalry
History of Malacca
Kandyan period
Kingdom of Kandy
Maritime history of Portugal
Military history of Brazil
Military history of Indonesia
Netherlands–Portugal relations
Portuguese Empire
Wars involving England
Wars involving Portugal
Wars involving Spain
Wars involving Sri Lanka
Wars involving the Dutch Republic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Beauregard%2C%20Loire%20Valley
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Château de Beauregard, Loire Valley
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The Château de Beauregard is a Renaissance château in the Loire Valley in France. It is located on the territory of the commune of Cellettes, a little south of the city of Blois and a few miles from other famous Loire châteaux such as Cheverny. Although still inhabited, it can be visited by tourists. The château is renowned for its gallery of portraits decorated in the 17th century with 327 portraits of famous people.
History
Most of the château was built around 1545, when it was bought by Jean du Thiers, Lord of Menars, and Secretary of State to Henri II. The commissioned interior included frescoes on the fireplace of the royal chamber, which have survived. In the Great Gallery there is a fireplace in Italian style from this period. However its main feature was commissioned by Paul Ardier, Comptroller of Wars and Treasurer, who bought the château in 1617. He added further interior decorations over the next few decades, including a gallery of portraits.
The château is built on the edge of the Russy Forest.
The ruins of a chapel, prior to the fifteenth century, are still visible in the park. It shows, in stone, shell of the pilgrims of Saint Jacques de Compostela and the motto of the crusaders "God wills it."
The original manor house was built in the late fifteenth century by the family Doulcet. Jean Doulcet, Master of the House of Coins of Duke Charles of Orleans. In 1495, Louis of Orleans (future Louis XII), erected in the land of Beauregard lordship, was authorized by Edict build a dovecote.
The son of John Doulcet Francis, Master of the House of Deniers of Louis XII, was dismissed for defrauding the Crown during the Italian campaigns, and Beauregard then confiscated and incorporated into the royal domain.
In 1521, Francis I, who used until the château as a hunting rendezvous, offered it to his uncle René de Savoie, who died at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, and the area fell to his widow.
In 1545, at a price of 2000 gold crowns, the estate was purchased by John Thier, Secretary of State for Finance for Henry II and a great humanist, protector of poets Joachim du Bellay and Pierre Ronsard.
Jean Thier was the real builder of the château. He incorporated the old house into the new building, built in the Renaissance style, the central gallery that connected the two residential building body. The architect is unknown. From 1553, Jean du Thier appealed to many foreign artists who were working for King Henry II to undertake the interior decoration. The painter Niccolò dell'Abbate decorated with frescoes in the destruction of the north wing of the nineteenth century.
Joiner King Francisque Scibec Carpi carved woodwork of the study, the Cabinet of Bells. At the foot of the windows of the south wing, Jean du Thier created a typical Renaissance garden, strictly scheduled. He presented collections of rare plants meet the owner of the botanical tastes.
The château was designed and described in the book of Androuet Hoop, The most excellent buildings of France (Second Volume, 1579).
Florimond Robertet took over Beauregard in 1566. On the death of Jean Thier in 1559, Catherine de' Medici appointed Robertet as Secretary of State for Finance. He undertook no developments to Beauregard, then being absorbed by the construction of his castle of Bury.
The heirs of Florimond Robertet gave way to Paul Beauregard Ardier in 1617. The new owner of the château had to withdraw from the service of Louis XIII after 55 years spent with the kings Henry III, Henry IV and Louis XIII.
Controller General of War, Grand Treasurer of the savings, he was 72 years old when he devoted himself to embellish his new domain. He destroyed the old house to surround the central gallery of modern two symmetrical wings. It also gave the public their current appearance. The major work of Paul Ardier was the setting for the Portrait Gallery which also occupied the next two generations. His son, Paul Ardier, President of the Chamber of Accounts and the husband of his granddaughter, Gaspard de Fieubet, Chancellor of the Queen Mother Anne of Austria, continued his work. The land of Beauregard was built by Viscount Louis XIV.
The domain of Beauregard left the Ardier wealth in 1816 to be sold to the Viscount of Préval.
The Comtesse de Sainte Aldegonde, born Adelaide Josephine Bourlon Chavagne, widow of the Duke of Castiglione, succeeded him to the château.
On 8 October 1839, his daughter, Marie-Josephine Valentine (1820-1891), married to Alexandre-Edmond de Talleyrand-Périgord castle, Duke of Dino and son of the Duke of Talleyrand; she became the mistress of wealthy Russian subject Anatole Demidoff, made Prince of San Donato in 1840 by ducal decree and ephemeral husband of Mathilde-Laetizia Bonaparte, daughter of Jerome prince and cousin of Napoleon III.
In 1837 Virginia St. Aldegonde, Duchess of Mortemart, inherited from Tourzel Henriette, Duchess of Charost Castle Meillant (Cher), she was restored from 1842.
In 1850, Jules, Comte de Cholet (1798-1884), new owner, entrusted the restoration of the château at the Jules Morandière, and in 1864 it was classified a historic monument by Prosper Mérimée and remained in his family for seventy-two years.
In 1912, Louis Thillier launched a major modernization and restoration.
The domain belongs since 1925 to the family of Gosselin from which the Count Guy of Cheyron Pavilion, which today continues the restoration of the château and the gallery of portraits with his wife.
Description
The main building has two floors of the gallery: the ground floor is a covered porch gallery with seven arches and the first floor is a gallery. In the 16th century, the galleries were designed to connect the two residential buildings. On the south of it, at the right angles, there are advanced wings with two floors and a chimney that's tall and narrow decorated with stale inclusions. You would have to imagine the other side of the court, another wing, probably the body of the primitive home of the 15th century, including Jean du Thier during the constructing duration of the château. This wing, visible on the plans of Androuet du Cerceau, was destroyed in the seventeenth century to make way for a more modern building that has disappeared in the 19th century. The rear facade overlooking the park was changed in the 19th century. It was abolished by the court of the tennis court to double the central building. Thus, the residential wings are no longer front and the back cover is decidedly more massive.
The gallery of portraits
The gallery of portraits (Galeries des Illustres in French), the largest in Europe to have survived to our days, is the masterpiece of the château : built during the first half of the 17th century at the request of Paul Ardier, it is 26 meters long, its pavement is entirely made of 5 500 Delftware tiles and its walls are decorated with 327 portraits of famous people having lived between 1328 (date of the beginning of the reign of Philippe VI of France) and 1643 (death of Louis XIII). The French kings are depicted accompanied by portraits of their queens, ministers, marshals, diplomats, etc. Apart from French personalities, other important historical people of 25 nationalities are represented. Marie Ardier, daughter of Paul Ardier, committed the decoration of the ceiling to the painter Jean Mosnier and its family. The blue color which dominates has been obtained by the use of lapis lazuli, one of the most precious and expensive mineral stones in the 17th century.
Paul Ardier, owner of Beauregard in 1617, realized in the whole gallery of his château, a historian dream tell through a collection of portraits 315 years of history of France. 3 generations of his family have run for 60 years to design this exceptional piece.
Presentation
Located on the "noble floor", the gallery is 26 meters long by 6 meters wide. The collection, which is right around the room, includes 327 portraits on 3 levels in 12 panels.
Each portrait painted on the canvas measures on average 55 cm by 45 cm. The characteristics are represented by 2 exceptions and . The large equestrian portrait of Henri IV de France is placed on the fireplace dated in the 16th century.
The portraits of the 14 characters that surround it are significantly smaller than the entire collection.
The ceremonial portrait of covers three levels of portraits.
The number of portraits was variable depending on the king which they are associated. For example, the reign of Philippe IV has six portraits. Charles VIII has 21 portraits and Louis XIII de France has 40 portraits.
The dates of the reigns concerned as well as the emblem and motto of King are painted on wood located between the ground and portraits.
Portrait Galleries, an Italian inspiration
The first collections of historical portraits appeared in Italy in the 17th century. Through the intellectual current of humanism revived the ancient interest to men who played a dominant role in the course of history. Many people who fascinated by the life and actions and also by the characteristics of the illustrious we tried to reflect closely as possible.
The most famous Italian collection was that of Paul Jove bishop of Nocera gathers in his villa by Lake Como, set consisting of 240 paintings of political and artistic personalities who enjoyed a considerable impact in Europe. A copy of this collection, commissioned by the Medici, is now visible at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence.
In the late sixteenth century, the taste for portrait galleries spread in France. These collections have been dispersed or permanently lost the galleries such as Henry IV ordered the Louvre Richelieu in his Cardinal's palace (Palais Royal) . Both collections gathered political figures and announced the theme which was chosen for the Hall of Beauregard Illustrious.
Beauregard Gallery is by no means an isolated initiative, it must be understood within a mode.
However, since the seventeenth century, this collection was distinguished by his contemporaries: we find an admiring mention in the memoirs of the Grande Mademoiselle when he came to the château in 1655. The excess of the project and the care taken in the realization of the book rendered the famous gallery since its creation, which remains today the largest collection of historical portraits of characters known in Europe .
Visiting the Chateau de Richelieu (1630-1642) in early September 1663, Jean de La Fontaine noticed there a place he said
"Lined with portraits For most about major / Like toilet mirrors ; / If we had had more time / Less haste , another interpreter, I would tell you what people . You can judge that it is not ye of little stuff : Richelieu Cardinal , Duke ( his nephew Armand -Jean Vignerot ) who inherited his name ; Admiral fire Breze (...) . The rest is full of kings and queens,lords, the great figures of France , then that is the history of the nation that cabinet. One guard had to forget all the people who have triumphed over kings ; it is the Mona Lisas , beautiful Agnes and those illustrious conquerors without Henri fourth that would have been invincible prince."
- Jean de La Fontaine
Another collection of portraits are visible in France, but its theme and scale are very different; this is that which was gathered in the seventeenth century, the castle of Bussy- Rabutin in Burgund.
Ernest de Ganay tells the Neuville castle in Gambais in 1939 a "curious royal portrait gallery", some attributed to students Clouet; consists of 192 leading figures in the history of France from François I to the 1789 Revolution, it would have been created in the eighteenth century by Francis Nyert.
In the nineteenth century, in his château of Azay-le-Rideau the Marquis of Biencourt contitua from 1830 a collection of 300 ancient effigies, which was promptly shown to the public; a notable part, acquired in a public auction of the furniture of the house (1898) by one of their descendants, Montaigne Viscountess de Poncins, was bequeathed by her in 1939 at Musée Condé Chantilly, where it is stored.
The portrait achievements
Between 1620 and 1638, Paul Ardier passed the command of the 327 portraits from a Paris art school. Some portraits of leaving groups have a unity of style to think they are the work of one artist. But no table signature or trademark holders to identify the painter or the painting school in charge of the order. Following the tradition of portrait collections of Italian Renaissance, the picture is designed as a genuine historical document. The search of the safest iconographic sources was a key aspect of the work of Paul Ardier and its painters.
The paintings are mostly copies made in other French and European galleries. Copyists Ardier Paul worked in various existing collections, for instance, that the Chateau de Selles-sur-Cher, near Beauregard where Philippe de Bethune had gathered a collection of historical portraits.
It was in the Richelieu Gallery at Palais Cardinal in 1635, the painting of Louis XIII was copied from the painting of Philippe de Champaigne. We recognize famous works such as Charles VII by Jean Fouquet, Marie de' Medici by Van Dyck or the Count of Olivares by Velasquez.
Regarding the characters of the oldest kingdoms, when pictorial representations did not exist, paint school students worked after medals, drawings but also by observing, in churches, funeral effigies and stained glass.
This concern for fidelity to the physical resemblance was completed by careful identification of the characters. In the upper part of each portrait is the name and function of the illustrious.
Choice of chronology and characters
Paul Ardier formed his collection following a rigorous logic. As a statesman, he Axa his work on political history. Beauregard 's Famous are the characters who, by their actions, have influenced the political history of the kingdom of France.
The temporal boundaries were strictly fixed: the timeline begins at the throne of Philip VI of France in 1328 and ends with the death of Louis XIII in 1643.
Geographically, the project was not limited to domestic politics, France is systematically replaced in its European policy .
The choice of characters depicted was the fruit of a long reflection for Paul Ardier. This was to illustrate the political life of the most comprehensive and representative as possible way. European dimension he gave to his gallery did not facilitate its task.
French and European Politics
Philip VI of France begins this history of France in 1328 when he ascended the throne following the so-called "cursed" Kings, marking the advent of the Valois dynasty and the beginning of the Hundred Years' War. Fourteen kings of France succeeded him, surrounded by influential politicians of their reign. Louis XIII completes the collection. He was the last king knew that Paul Ardier.
In this unique course, we recognize the great counselors and ministers of the kings of France. In the panel dedicated to Louis XIII, Cardinal Mazarin succeeded Richelieu. The major warlords, as the constable and Joan of Arc, appear surrounded by their comrades.
According to the alliances and wars throughout the European story unfolds. Kings and queens, emperors, popes, generals and ministers of Europe punctuate the gallery. 26 countries are well represented at the turn of the 327 portraits. Edward III of England is the first of seven rulers of England present. For feats, their generals, as the Black Prince and Talbot, take place in the gallery. In the Hundred Years' War succeeded the Italian countryside. It is then the kings and dukes of Naples, Milan and Florence that appear near Charles VIII, Louis XII and Francis. Europe's sovereign draw three centuries of French diplomatic history: Spain, Austria, Hungary, Sweden ... Until the Turkish sultans of Murad I in Suleymaniye, testify to the Ottoman power.
Twenty-one women are present in the collection. Queens of England or Spain, countries where women could exercise the power only six queens of France. Very few of them could get out of their role as mothers to exercise real political power. They appear in the gallery in their role as regent queens, only official political function accessible to women in France. Isabeau of Bavaria we can cross that ruled during the madness of Charles VI, Catherine de' Medici, Marie de' Medici and Anne of Austria. Mary appears to her young husband Francis II. It is identified as "Queen of France and Scotland."
Room decor
The portrait collection is embedded in a true decorative casket; the decor of the room was to the extent of the collection.
Delftware
Paul Ardier the Younger, oversaw the laying of some 5,500 Delft tiles adorning the floor of the gallery. Ordered from the famous Dutch earthenware from Delft, the 150 square meters of tiles represent an entire army in working order. There are 17 body regiments in costume inspired Louis XIII engraving Jacques De Gheyn. This delft earthenware pavement is the largest in the world.
The painted decoration
For the realization of the painted decoration, Ardier Marie and her husband Gaspard Fieubet, grandchildren Paul Ardier, spoke to Mosnier family, which you can admire the works at the Luxembourg Palace and the château of Cheverny. Peter, son of Jean Monier represented the currencies and the emblems of the kings of France on the woodwork beneath portraits. The dominant color of the ceiling to the French, the blue was obtained with powdered lapis lazuli, one of the gems of the old regime . We then estimated the price to seven times that of gold.
Collection through the centuries
Paul Ardier son continued the work begun in the gallery by decorating a room adjoining tables corresponding to the reign of Louis XIV, but this collection, there is nothing left; only the entablature of the ceiling still bears the name and dates of the Sun King.
The vigilance of the various owners of the château and the celebrity of the gallery prevented the dispersion and alteration of the main collection.
In 1834, Louis -Philippe I at Versailles created a historical museum " dedicated to all the glories of France." On his orders, 89 paintings were copied to the Beauregard gallery to enrich the museum's collections to the glories of France.
The restoration of all the paintings began in 1986 and continues to this day.
The cabinet of bells
This small room, fully sheeted oak woodwork, is in the tradition of Italian Studiolo. Originally, the workroom was connected to the Gallery through a small door sacrificed in the seventeenth century at the time of the establishment of the portrait collection.
Jean Thier commanded the paneling of his study to the cabinetmaker Francisque Scibec Carpi. The Italian artist worked for Francis I at Fontainebleau, to the Louvre Henri II and Diane de Poitiers the Château d'Anet. The order date of 1554, the price remains unknown. Achieving the woodwork necessitated six months of work only.
The coffered ceiling, pegged, is considered one of the finest in France. It consists of a large octagon surrounded by eight small hexagons finely carved. In its center, the ceiling carries the coat of arms of Jean Thier: "Azure three bells placed two on one" (three gold bells on a blue background).
Jean Thier commanded indeed a very personal decor. The elements of its image are the major decorative features of the room. The friezes of bells that adorn the walls gave his nickname to the firm.
In the upper part of the woodwork are embedded paintings by local artists from cartons Niccolò dell'Abbate. Jean Thier surrounded himself in his study, his favorite activities: arts (painting, sculpture, literature, music and silverware) and more physical disciplines (art of war, hunting and tennis court).
In the seventeenth century, Paul Ardier had busted the original fireplace. The coats of arms of his family adorn the amounts.
A painting of Louis XIII on horseback adorned the fireplace until the early twentieth century. To overcome her disappearance in 1925, the family Gosselin commanded at the Louvre, a copy of the huntress Diana Francois Clouet.
The park
The walled château park has 70 hectares; 40 hectares are the flower garden, the rest of the property is occupied by wood.
The Renaissance
Castle Jean Thier was a pleasure castle, remains a country facing its gardens. In 1551 Henry II gave to his minister and friend 1500 trees (oak, elm, beech, holly and hazel) to take in the royal forests.
Jean Thier was known to his contemporaries as a lover and collector of rare plants. Beauregard garden was greeted in the sixteenth century, Androuet Hoop get echoed. In his book, The most excellent buildings in France, he spent three prints the castle and its grounds. The largest pavilion of the house looked a learned audience. It was a geometrically ordered garden, with many species of rare plants. He had the characteristics of the Renaissance garden: wooden galleries ending with small temples, a fountain in the center, using the box to delimit the parterres.
Beauregard garden had a utilitarian purpose. From Jean Thier and plans of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, we note the presence of a significant amount of fruit trees (cherry, plum, almond, walnut). The acres of vineyards were located along the south side. The vegetable garden was deep in the park, at the site of the current Jardin des Portraits. Everything remained embellished with architectural elements and alleys to combine business with pleasure.
The modern era
In 1617, the château came into the heritage of the Ardier family. Paul Ardier The interest focused on interior design.
He did not neglect the park either. Two years after his arrival in 1619, he closed the park walls. Buying new land, it radically changed the perspective of the château. On the plans of Androuet Hoop, we see that the château entrance was on the west side of the château. Paul Ardier ordered the construction of a new driveway centered on the gallery. Along this line, the current path of honor, were planted fruit trees.
The walled garden of Jean Thier was preserved, he adapted to the new gardens in the French fashion.
In 1661, the documents attest to the existence of a building reserved for orange and in 1718, was raised in a large body of which he remains today only half. An inventory of the early eighteenth century counted 74 orange and lemon reflecting the real interest of Beauregard lords for their orangery.
The 19th century
Fashion landscaped gardens arrived in France in the late eighteenth century. In England, landowners were enthusiastic about all landscaping that preserved the natural appearance of sites. In France, one of the most successful examples of these gardens are landscaped gardens of the Petit Trianon at Versailles created for Queen Marie Antoinette . The eighteenth century also saw the appearance in France previously unknown species brought back from scientific expeditions in North America and the Middle East .
Some of these rare species will enrich the Beauregard gardens like a cedar of Lebanon, the tulip tree magnolia grandiflora or.
The author of the park to Beauregard Castle English is unfortunately not known. In the eighteenth century or the Empire, the English tradition supplanted the garden "to the French."
The rehabilitation in the 20th century
In 1992, the park was listed as a historical monument. A major restoration work was then undertaken. Inspired by a Gilles Clément project, the Beauregard gardens evidence a concern to ensure the link between the past centuries and modern times. The various collections of trees and plants (oak, cedar, bamboo, decorative barks) are the direct descendants of the botanical likes of Jean Thier. Portraits of the garden or the recent renovation of the cooler demonstrate continuous innovation.
Portraits of the garden was created in 1992 by Gilles Clément. Portraits of the garden consists of 12 portraits gardens recalling the 12 groups in the château gallery. Protected by its high walls plant, garden or each "room" is a variation on a dominant color and a scholarly exercise of landscape gardening. More than 400 species of perennials and shrubs seem to evolve without any constraints. The color of the rooms can be symbolically associated with a character or an event recounted in the great gallery of the château. For example, a red room is associated with blood of St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre.
The château's ice room was renovated during the winter 2007/2008. Dating from the seventeenth century, it shows an unknown technical heritage of the general public. These vessels were designed for ice storage and conservation throughout the year.
The park has been designated as a "Remarkable Garden".
Expositions
Since 2010, this takes place every year, the Portrait of the International Exhibition, the third edition guest of honor Jean -Pierre Alaux.
See also
Liste des châteaux de la région Centre
Notes and references
Coordonnées vérifiées sur Géoportail et Google Maps
« Notice no PA00098404 » [archive], base Mérimée, ministère français de la Culture
Lettres à Mme de La Fontaine, dans Oeuvres complètes de La Fontaine, tome VI, Paris, P. Durand, 1826, pp. 243 à 245.
Céramiques de Delft, Hans van Lemmen, Anthèse, Paris, 1997
Comité des Parc et Jardins de France [archive]
Sources
Châteaux of the Loire Valley, Polidori & de Montclos (Könemann).
External links
Château de Beauregard
Images:
Houses completed in 1545
Châteaux of the Loire Valley
Gardens in Loir-et-Cher
Châteaux in Loir-et-Cher
Historic house museums in Centre-Val de Loire
Museums in Loir-et-Cher
1545 establishments in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemalto
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Gemalto
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Gemalto was an international digital security company providing software applications, secure personal devices such as smart cards and tokens, e-wallets and managed services. It was formed in June 2006 by the merger of two companies, Axalto and Gemplus International. Gemalto N.V.'s revenue in 2018 was €2.969 billion.
The company was purchased by Thales Group in April 2019 and is now operating as Thales DIS (Digital Identity and Security). Gemalto was until its acquisition the world's largest manufacturer of SIM cards.
Thales DIS is headquartered in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and has subsidiaries and group companies in several countries. It has approximately 15,000 employees in 110 offices along with 24 production sites, 47 personalization centers, and 35 R&D centers in 47 countries.
History
In June 2006, smart card providers Gemplus and Axalto merged to become Gemalto (a portmanteau of the original company names.) Axalto was a Schlumberger IPO spin-off in 2004.
Between the merger and 2015, Gemalto completed a series of acquisitions: the Leigh Mardon's personalization center (Taiwan), Multos International, NamITech in South Africa, NXP mobile services business, the mobile software solution provider O3SIS, Trusted Logic (the secure software platform provider), Serverside (personalization of bank cards with digital images generated by end users), XIRING's banking activity, Netsize (a mobile communications service and commerce enabler), Valimo Wireless, a provider in mobile authentication, the internet banking security specialist Todos AB in Sweden, Cinterion the German specialist of machine-to-machine (M2M), SensorLogic (an M2M service delivery platform provider), Plastkart in Turkey, Ericsson’s mobile payment platform IPX, the information security company SafeNet and Buzzinbees, the automatic SIM activation expert.
Axalto and Schlumberger
Schlumberger began its chip card activities in February 1979 when it licensed and marketed certain chip card technologies developed and patented by Roland Moreno, who is generally credited with the invention of the chip card.
Schlumberger developed the first telephone chip cards for France Telecom and the Swedish telecommunications operator Telia in the early 1980s. The company developed ties with telecommunications operators in several countries, and played a role in industry-wide efforts to develop new digital mobile communication standards, particularly the GSM transmission standard (Global System for Mobile Communication). Schlumberger designed its first SIM card in the early 1990s for the launch of GSM in Europe, and this led to the use of microprocessor card technology as an access and security solution for mobile telephony worldwide, in 3 billion handsets today.
In the early 1980s, the French banking sector decided to migrate from the magnetic stripe card-based payment system to a more modern and secure microprocessor card-based system. Schlumberger received its first contract in June 1981 to provide GIE Cartes Bancaires, the French credit/debit card issuers’ association, with 5,000 microprocessor cards and 200 associated POS terminals. The microprocessor card-based payment system subsequently became standard in France and eventually led to a global standard known as EMV, set up by Europay, MasterCard and Visa.
Schlumberger experienced internal and external growth since the launch of its chip card operations in the early 1980s through the 1990s and 2000s, both in terms of revenue and product portfolio, particularly with the substantial growth in GSM-based mobile telecommunications. Acquisitions of regional companies in card production and personalization included Cowells (United Kingdom), Malco (United States), Printer (Mexico) and Cardtech (Brazil), followed by Solaic in 1996 and Bull-CP8 from Bull in 2001, in France and China.
In 2003, Schlumberger created Axalto as a division to consolidate into one company all of its card and POS terminal activities, which until then had been managed by several subsidiaries and joint ventures of the Schlumberger group. Subsequently, Axalto was listed on the Euronext Paris market on May 18, 2004.
Gemplus
Founded by Marc Lassus, Daniel Le Gal, Philippe Maes, Jean-Pierre Gloton and Gilles Lisimaque, Gemplus started its operations in 1988 as a supplier of prepaid phonecards. Because of its presence in the market of the prepaid phonecards during the 1990s, the company developed ties with the telecommunications industry along with Schlumberger.
Prior to 1999, the business was conducted through Gemplus S.C.A., a French limited partnership. In December 1999, Gemplus Associates, the general partner of Gemplus S.C.A., merged into Gemplus S.C.A., which became a joint stock company, Gemplus SA. In February 2000, the corporate structure was reorganized and a new holding company, Gemplus International SA, a Luxembourg corporation, was created. Texas Pacific Group became a shareholder of Gemplus at the time of its equity contribution in February 2000.
In December 2000, the company completed an initial public offering of its capital stock, in the form of ordinary shares traded on the Eurolist of Euronext Paris, and ADSs traded on the U.S. NASDAQ exchange. In 2004, the company completed the planned reorganization of its corporate structure by transferring most of the subsidiaries of Gemplus SA to Gemplus International SA.
In April 2005, Gemplus acquired Setec Oy, a company headquartered in Finland that, among other things, supplies conventional and electronic travel passports to various government agencies and products involving secure printing.
In June 2006, smart card providers Axalto and Gemplus merged to become Gemalto.
Android patent lawsuit
In October 2010, Gemalto filed a lawsuit against Google, Samsung, HTC and Motorola over the Android operating system in the Eastern District of Texas. Gemalto said that Android phones had memory-utilization features that it had first developed and patented, and accused the defendant companies of infringing three of its patents. Ars Technica quoted ING analysts who estimated that winning this lawsuit could potentially bring the company royalty receipts amounting to 30-50 million Euros per annum. However, in June 2014, a panel of judges in the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled in favor of the defendants that Android phones don't infringe on those patents.
Acquisition by Thales
In December 2017, Gemalto was the subject of a bid from the Thales Group for €4.8 billion. This was subsequently approved by the board of directors subject to international clearance. The acquisition was completed in April 2019 not before Thales had to offload the Thales General Purpose HSM unit to Entrust Datacard . This was as part of the agreement with EU competition commission for the necessary regulatory clearance to the acquisition.
Corruption
In February 2023, Gemalto was the subject of a judicial investigation for "corruption" and "criminal association" concerning a dozen government contracts in six countries on the African continent..
Structure
Gemalto N.V. is the holding company of the Group. The Company's authorized share capital amounts to €150 million and is divided into 150 million ordinary shares, with a nominal value of €1 per share. As of October 2012, out of these 150 million shares that are authorized to be issued by the Board, 88,015,844 shares were actually issued and in circulation. Since 2006, Gemalto comprises three market-focused divisions—Telecommunications, secure transactions and Security, as well as functional organizations for marketing; operations including both production and research and development; finance; human resources and legal.
Acquisition by Thales
In April 2019, Thales finished their acquisition of Gemalto for €4.8bn. Gemalto will become Thales' 7th global division which will be named Digital Identity and Security (DIS).
Telecommunications
Gemalto provides software solutions, subscriber identity modules (SIM) and managed services to more than 700 million subscribers in the telecommunications market. Gemalto has more than 400 mobile telecom operator customers worldwide.
In 2007, Gemalto organized the telecom business into four lines—secure operated services, advanced products and data services, value-added products and service deployment, and SIM cards.
Every year since 2000, Axalto and then Gemalto organized the "SIMagine" contest, the Worldwide Mobile Communication & Java Card Developers Contest, aimed at stimulating innovations using SIM-based solutions. Sponsors include Samsung Semiconductor Europe and Sun Microsystems.
In 2016, following the Buzzinbees acquisition, it introduced the concept of SIM reactivation whereby operators can let users reuse expired SIM cards instead of purchasing new ones when they wish to re-subscribe to that operator.
Near field communications (NFC) and mobile payment
On October 30, 2008, Royal Bank of Canada, Visa and Rogers Wireless jointly announced that they were working together on the next phase of the mobile phone payment pilot, testing wireless delivery of mobile payment software and credit card information to a customer's mobile phone. The companies announced that Gemalto would provide this capability by acting as the trusted service manager to bridge banking with mobile phones. Gemalto's role is to manage the transfer of credit card information from RBC to the secure SIM card in the Rogers Wireless NFC-enabled mobile phone.
Gemalto has played the TSM role in other NFC pilots in several countries, including France and Taiwan. In November 2007, Gemalto partnered with Taiwan's Far EasTone Telecommunications Ltd. to start Asia's first mobile contactless SIM-based NFC trial, as part of the GSM Association’s "Pay-Buy Mobile" initiative.
Mobile signatures
In November 2008, Turkcell, a mobile operator in Turkey, began using Gemalto's SIM-based mobile signature solution. The solution allows the 30 million Turkcell subscribers to access services that require strong authentication, such as internet banking or e-government services using their mobile phones to generate a legally binding electronic signature.
Banking & Payment
Gemalto supplies contact, hybrid, dual interface and contactless cards, EMV chip cards, payment terminals, and user authentication solutions for secure online banking. Via Gemplus Associates, it also invested in tokenization and Mondex, including Mondex in South Korea.
According to the Nilson report, Gemalto is the largest provider of chip cards, selling 1.5 billion chip cards, representing 49 percent of the market. At the start of 2010 in Germany 20 million ATM cards and 3.5 million credit cards were hit by an end-of-the-decade programming glitch which prevented them working.
Gemalto's customers include 300 banks.
Gemalto worldwide banking and retail customers include Santander UK, ABN AMRO Netherlands, Aktia, Finland, American Express, Banque Accord (France), Accord Italia (Italy), Caisse d'Épargne (France), La Caixa (Spain), Crédit Agricole (France), Diners Club Croatia, Findomestic Italy, Fortis Belgium. Hansabank Estonia, HBOS UK, HSBC UK, ING Belgium, JCB, LHV Pank Estonia, National Bank of Greece, OpBank, Parex Bank (Latvia), Sampo (Finland), Société Générale, Agip France, Arena Netherlands, BMW, B.P., Esso, Sodexo, and Total France.
EMV cards
Gemalto delivered EMV cards to numerous financial institutions worldwide.
In September 2008, Garanti Bank in Turkey began rolling out 300,000 Gemalto EMV contactless bankcards.
In April 2016, National Commercial Bank (NCB) of Saudi Arabia appointed Gemalto as its supplier for dual-interface EMV cards.
Instant Issuance
As of November 2008, Gemalto's Instant Issuance service has been installed in over 300 shopping malls worldwide, enabling one million credit cards to be issued on the spot per year.
CardLikeMe
In July 2008, Gemalto began providing its CardLikeMe service to PlasticNow in Canada, giving consumers the ability to customize their card with the photo of their choice.
eBanking and eCommerce security
Following its acquisition of Swedish security firm Todos AB in April 2010, Gemalto eBanking provides a range of eBanking and eCommerce security solutions under the Ezio brand name. The Ezio Suite includes:
The Ezio Server that supports multiple authentication techniques, including two-factor authentication, one-time passwords, challenge–response, dynamic signatures and sign-what-you-see.
Authentication devices including smart card readers and tokens
Mobile phone authentication using SIM, apps or SMS
Gemalto eBanking supports the Ezio Suite with services including implementation, security audit, design and consulting, training, fulfilment and support.
Ezio technology is in use in banks such as ABN AMRO, Barclays and Nordea.
Barclays
As of July 2008, more than one million Barclays customers are using Gemalto's cryptographic smart card reader, called PINsentry by Barclays for strong authentication for online banking.
FINO PayTech Limited
In June 2007, The Financial Information Network and Operations Ltd. (FINO PayTech Limited) in India began deploying Gemalto smart cards with biometric authentication. to enable microbanking and the underbanked population in rural India.
Biometric cards
Starting from 2018, Gemalto introduced a range of biometric cards including fingerprint sensors.
In October 2019, biometric cards, equipped with fingerprint sensors, were delivered to NatWest in the UK in a project in partnership with Mastercard.
In November 2019, biometric cards, equipped with fingerprint sensors, were delivered to Cornèrcard in Switzerland in a project in partnership with Visa.
Security, public sector (e-Government)
e-Passports
Gemalto supplies electronic passport (e-passport) solutions to Australia, Colombia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, India, Italy, Latvia, Morocco, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Singapore, Slovenia, Sweden, Turkey, Peru, Malaysia, United States and the United Kingdom among other countries.
As of March 2007, Gemalto has provided technology to more than 10 million e-passports, making them the largest provider of e-passport solutions with an estimated 30 percent market share.
In the United States, Gemalto is one of two vendors picked by the Government Printing Office to supply their e-passport program in 2007.
In September 2017, Gemalto announced that its biometric ePassport technology is currently being used in more than 30 different countries, including Algeria, Denmark, Finland, Hong Kong, France, Italy, Korea, Morocco, Norway, Peru, Portugal, Singapore, Sweden and the United States.
e-Driver’s licenses
Mexico’s licensing authority (ICV) used Gemalto's smart card platform to issue the first e-driver's licenses to the city of Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico, in 2007. Gemalto expects to deliver more than 900,000 licenses to ICV over a three-year period. Gemalto secured a new contract to supply electronic card driver's license to three additional Mexican states in April 2008.
In December 2007, Gemalto began supplying Sweden with e-driver's licenses that contain a transparent window in the polycarbonate structure, aimed at enhanced physical security. Gemalto will supply Sweden with 600,000 e-driver's licenses per year for three years.
e-ID Citizen cards
In February 2007, the Portuguese Mint and National Printing Office (INCM) picked Gemalto to provide their national e-ID Citizen Card. Gemalto provides the operating system, the personalization system and applications, the middleware and associated helpdesk services. All Portuguese citizens will ultimately carry these cards as their national ID document.
e-Healthcare cards
In September 2007, Gemalto delivered its 100 millionth e-healthcare card. Gemalto has delivered e-healthcare cards in Algeria, Belgium, China, Finland, France, Germany Mexico, Puerto Rico, Slovenia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
In July, Allgemeine Ortskrankenkasse (AOK), a German health insurer, also picked Gemalto to supply and personalize 35 million e-health insurance cards. The cards contain emergency data such as blood group, allergy alerts and ongoing treatments, and e-prescriptions.
e-Government ID
As of December 2009, Gemalto has provided 25 million Common Access Cards to the United States Department of Defense for employee and contractor use.
ID cards issued by the Swedish Tax Agency since September 2017 have electronic identification provided by AB Svenska Pass, a subsidiary of Gemalto.
Transportation
Gemalto has provided contactless payment technology to a nationwide transport project in the Netherlands, and citywide projects in Boston, Paris, London, São Paulo and Santiago.
Gemalto has delivered more than 100 million transit cards internationally.
Security and enterprise
Gemalto supplies its enterprise services through value-added resellers (VARs) and systems integrators. The company's customers include Barclays, Shell, Chevron, Pfizer, Boeing, Telia Sonera, Schlumberger and Microsoft.
In April 2008, Alternative Technology began offering Gemalto's on-demand Device Administration Service (DAS) through its network of 3,000 resellers in the United States and Canada.
In April 2008, Envoy Data Corporation began offering Gemalto's on-demand Device
Administration Service (DAS) through its network of IT security specialized VARs.
Pfizer
At Pfizer, 100,000 employees use Gemalto smart cards as badges.
Virchow Krause
In July 2008, Gemalto began deploying Protiva .NET Dual tokens at Virchow Krause & Company LLP (VK), the 15th largest accounting firm in the United States.
Microsoft partnership
Microsoft employees worldwide use Gemalto .NET smart card technology embedded in their corporate badge to enable access to Microsoft's own information systems.
In June 2008, Gemalto announced that Instant Badge Issuance (IBI), a solution that works directly with Microsoft Active Directory and Identity Lifecycle Manager (ILM) to load digital certificates directly onto the smart card.
At Microsoft's "Heroes Happen Here" event in February 2008, Gemalto and Microsoft demonstrated the only .NET smart card technology with support built into Microsoft Windows Server 2008.
In November 2007, Gemalto made its .NET smart card, Protiva Strong Authentication Server and related Protiva credential devices, and other Windows Smart Card Framework-compatible products available for live simulation at the Microsoft Partner Solutions Center on Microsoft Corp.’s Redmond, Washington, campus.
In November 2007, Gemalto attained Gold Certified Partner status in the Microsoft Partner Program.
In 2006, Gemalto organized a Microsoft-sponsored contest, SecureTheWeb, for the best new development in secure personal devices for Web services, such as smart cards and one-time passwords (OTPs).
Citrix Systems partnership
In December 2007, Gemalto announced that its Protiva platform were recognized by Citrix Systems as compatible with the Citrix Access Gateway. This followed a previous announcement earlier in January 2007 that Gemalto’s .NET and Protiva solutions were recognized by Citrix Systems as compatible with its products.
In January 2007, Gemalto was named a finalist for 2006 Solution Partner of the Year by Citrix Systems.
Verisign
In February 2007, Gemalto announced that its Network Identity Manager (NIM) for online security would support the VeriSign Identity Protection (VIP) Network.
Security breaches
3G/4G SIM card encryption key leak allegations
According to documents leaked by Edward Snowden, NSA's and GCHQ's Mobile Handset Exploitation Team infiltrated Gemalto's infrastructure to steal SIM authentication keys, allowing them to secretly monitor mobile communications. GCHQ codenamed the program "DAPINO GAMMA". The secret GCHQ document leaked by Snowden also claimed the ability to manipulate billing records to conceal their own activity and having access to authentication servers to decrypt voice calls and text messages. Snowden stated that "When the NSA and GCHQ compromised the security of potentially billions of phones (3g/4g encryption relies on the shared secret resident on the sim), they not only screwed the manufacturer, they screwed all of us, because the only way to address the security compromise is to recall and replace every SIM sold by Gemalto."
The breach subsequently refueled suspicions against Gemalto chairman Alex J. Mandl, given his role in the CIA venture capital firm In-Q-Tel.
GCHQ and NSA declined to comment on the matter. Gemalto issued a press release on February 25, 2015 saying there were "reasonable grounds to believe that an operation by NSA and GCHQ probably happened", but denying that the government agencies gained access to any authentication keys.
Smart card weak key vulnerability
In October 2017, it was reported that Gemalto's IDPrime.NET smart cards, which are used internally by Microsoft and many other companies, were affected by the Infineon weak key vulnerability, leaving their private keys deducible to attackers.
Partnerships
Key partners of Gemalto include Wipro, Prodapt, Maya, Sendum, Unique Computing Solutions, Symphony Teleca, Bing, Kore, West, etc.
In 2017, OnKöl, a home care hub device started using Gemalto's M2M Module.
See also
CharlieCard
De La Rue
Estonian id-card and ROCA vulnerability (Estonian Police and Border Guard Board is going to court against Gemalto)
Gemalto M2M
References
Electronics companies established in 2006
Smart cards
Cryptography companies
Manufacturing companies based in Amsterdam
Electronics companies of France
Electronics companies of the Netherlands
Companies formerly listed on Euronext Amsterdam
2019 mergers and acquisitions
Thales Group divisions and subsidiaries
Dutch companies established in 2006
2019 disestablishments in the Netherlands
Electronics companies disestablished in 2019
Defunct companies of the Netherlands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental%20disorders%20and%20gender
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Mental disorders and gender
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Gender is correlated with the prevalence of certain mental disorders, including depression, anxiety and somatic complaints. For example, women are more likely to be diagnosed with major depression, while men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder. There are no marked gender differences in the diagnosis rates of disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Men are at risk to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to past violent experiences such as accidents, wars and witnessing death, and women are diagnosed with PTSD at higher rates due to experiences with sexual assault, rape and child sexual abuse. Nonbinary or genderqueer identification describes people who do not identify as either male or female. People who identify as nonbinary or gender queer show increased risk for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. People who identify as transgender demonstrate increased risk for depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Sigmund Freud postulated that women were more prone to neurosis because they experienced aggression towards the self, which stemmed from developmental issues. Freud's postulation is countered by the idea that societal factors, such as gender roles, may play a major role in the development of mental illness. When considering gender and mental illness, one must look to both biology and social/cultural factors to explain areas in which men and women are more likely to develop different mental illnesses. A patriarchal society, gender roles, personal identity, social media, and exposure to other mental health risk factors have adverse effects on the psychological perceptions of both men and women.
Gender differences in mental health
Gender-specific risk factors
Gender-specific risk factors increase the likelihood of getting a particular mental disorder based on one's gender. Some gender-specific risk factors that disproportionately affect women are income inequality, low social ranking, unrelenting child care, gender-based violence, and socioeconomic disadvantages.
Anxiety
Women experience a higher rate of General Anxiety Disorder (GAD) than men. Women are around 15% more likely to experience comorbidities with GAD than men. Anxiety disorders in women are more likely to be comorbid with other anxiety disorders, bulimia, or depression. Women are two and a half times more likely to experience Panic Disorder (PD) than men, and are also twice as likely to develop specific phobias. Additionally, Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) occurs among women more frequently than men.
Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD) is present among both men and women at similar rates, though men tend to have an earlier onset of symptoms. Men are more likely to experience more aggressive, sexual, religious, and social impairments while women are more likely to experience fear of contamination.
Gender is not a significant factor in predicting the effectiveness of pharmacological interventions or cognitive behavioral therapy in treating GAD.
Depression
Major depressive disorder is twice as common in women compared to men. This increased rate is partially related to women's increased likelihood to experience sexual violence, poverty, and higher workloads. Depression in women is more likely to be comorbid with anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders, and eating disorders. Men are less likely to seek treatment for or discuss their experiences with depression. Men are more likely to have depressive symptoms relating to aggression than women. Women are more likely to attempt suicide than men however, more men die from suicide due to the different methods used. In 2019, the suicide rate in the United States was 3.7 times higher for men than women.
The presence of a gender bias results in an increased diagnosis of depression in women than men.
Postpartum depression
Both men and women experience postpartum depression. Maternal postpartum depression affects around 15% of women in the United States, and around 8-10% of American fathers experience paternal postpartum depression (PPPD). Postpartum depression is under-diagnosed. Women experiencing PPD have trouble seeking treatment due to the difficulties of accessing therapy and not being able to take some psychiatric medications due to breastfeeding. Risk factors for paternal PPD include a history of depression, poverty, and hormonal changes.
Eating disorders
In the United States, women constitute 85-95% of people with anorexia nervosa and bulimia and 65% of those with a binge-eating disorder. Factors that contribute to the gender disproportionality of eating disorders are perceptions surrounding "thinness" in relation to success and sexual attractiveness and social pressures from mass media that are largely targeted towards women. Between males and females, the symptoms experienced by those with eating disorders are very similar such as a distorted body image.
Contrary to the stereotype of eating disorders' association with females, men also experience eating disorders. However, gender bias, stigma, and shame lead men to be underreported, underdiagnosed, and undertreated for eating disorders. It has been found that clinicians are not well-trained and lack sufficient resources to treat men with eating disorders. Men with eating disorders are likely to experience muscle dysmorphia.
Gender differences in adolescence and mental health
Adolescents experience mental illness differently than adults, as the brains of children are still developing and will continue to develop until around the age of twenty-five. Children also approach goals differently, which in turn can cause different reactions to stressors such as bullying.
Bullying
Status enhancement is a main driver of bullying. A bully's gender and the gender of their target can impact whether they are accepted or rejected by a gender group. A study by René Veenstra et al. reported that bullies were more likely to be rejected by peer groups who saw them as a possible threat. The study cited an example of a male elementary school bully who was rejected by his female classmates for targeting a female student, whereas a male bully who only targeted other males was accepted by females but rejected by his male classmates.
Eating disorders
The fashion industry and media have been cited as potential factors in the development of eating disorders in adolescents and pre-adolescents. Eating disorders have been found to be most common in developed countries and per scholars such as Anne Becker, the introduction of television has prompted an increase of eating disorders in media-naïve populations. Females are more likely to have an eating disorder than males and scholars have stated that this has become more common "during the latter half of the twentieth century, during a period when icons of American beauty (Miss America contestants and Playboy centerfolds) have become thinner and women’s magazines have published significantly more articles on methods for weight loss". Other potential reasons for eating disorders among adolescents and pre-adolescents can include anxiety, food avoidance emotional disorder, food refusal, selective eating, pervasive refusal, or appetite loss as a result of depression.
Suicide
Data has shown that suicide is the third leading cause of death in adolescents and that gender has an impact on the avenue an adolescent may use when attempting suicide. Males are known more to use guns in their suicide attempts, whereas females are more likely to cut their wrists or take an overdose of pills. Triggers for suicide among adolescents can include poor grades and relationship issues with significant others or family members. Research has reported that while adolescents share common risk factors such as interpersonal violence, existing mental disorders and substance abuse, gender specific risk factors for suicide attempts can include eating disorders, dating violence, and interpersonal problems for females and disruptive behavior/conduct problems, homelessness, and access to means. They also reported that females are more likely to attempt suicide than their male counterparts, whereas males are more likely to succeed in their attempts.
Effects of Social Media on Body Image
During early adolescence, one's perception of physical appearance becomes increasingly important, having a significant impact on one's self-worth. Studies have shown that social media use among adolescents is associated with poor body image. This is due to the fact that social media use increases body surveillance. This means that adolescents regularly compare themselves to the idealized bodies they see on social media causing them to develop self-deprecating attitudes. Both adolescent boys and girls are impacted by the objectifying nature of social media, however young girls are more likely to body surveil due to society's tendency to overvalue and objectify women. A study published in the Journal of Early Adolescence found that there is a significantly stronger correlation between self-objectified social media use, body surveillance, and body shame among young girls than young boys. The same studied emphasized that adolescence is an important psychological development period; therefore, opinions formed about oneself during this time can have a significant impact on self-confidence and self-worth. Consequently, low self-esteem can increase one's risk of developing an eating disorder, depression, and/or anxiety.
Gender differences following a traumatic event
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is among the most common reactions in response to a traumatic event. Research has found that women have higher rates of PTSD compared to men. According to epidemiological studies, women are two to three times more likely to develop PTSD than men. The lifetime prevalence of PTSD is about 10-12% in women and 5-6% in men. Women are also four times more likely to develop chronic PTSD compared to men. There are observed differences in the types of symptoms experienced by men and women. Women are more likely to experience specific sub-clusters of symptoms, such as re-experiencing symptoms (e.g. flashbacks), hypervigilance, feeling depressed and numbness. These differences are found to be persistent across cultures. A significant risk factor or trigger of PTSD is rape. In the United States, 65% of men and 45.9% of women who are raped develop PTSD.
Epidemiological studies have found that men are more likely to have PTSD as a result of experiencing combat, war, accidents, nonsexual assaults, natural disaster, and witnessing death or injury. Meanwhile, women are more likely to have PTSD attributed to rape, sexual assault, sexual molestation, and childhood sexual abuse. However, despite the theorized explanation that gender differences were due to different rates of exposure to high impact traumas such as sexual assaults, a meta-analysis found that when excluding instances of sexual assault or abuse, women remained at a greater risk for developing PTSD. Additionally, it has been found that when looking at those who have only experienced sexual assaults, women remained approximately twice as likely as men to develop PTSD. Thus, it is likely that exposure to specific traumatic events such as sexual assault only partially accounts for the observed gender differences in PTSD.
Depression
While PTSD is perhaps the most well-known psychological response to a trauma, depression can also develop following exposure to traumatic events. Under the definition of sexual assault as pressured or forced into unwanted sexual contact, women encounter two times the rate of sexual assault as men. A history of sexual assault is related to increased rates of depression. For example, studies of survivors of childhood sexual assault found that the rates of childhood sexual assault ranged from 7-19% for women and 3-7% for men. This gender discrepancy in childhood sexual assault contributes to 35% of the gender difference in adult depression. Increased likelihood of adverse traumatic experiences in childhood also explains the observed gender difference in major depression. Studies show that women have an increased risk of experiencing traumatic events in childhood, especially childhood sexual abuse. This risk has been associated with an increased risk of developing depression.
As with PTSD, evidence of a biological difference between men and women may contribute to the observed gender difference. However, research on the biological differences of men and women who have experienced traumatic events is yet to be conclusive.
Causes of gender disparities in mental disorders
Intimate partner violence
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a particularly gendered issue. Data collected from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS) of women and men aged 18–65 found that women were significantly more likely than men to experience physical and sexual IPV. According to The National Domestic Violence Hotline, "From 1994 to 2010, about 4 in 5 victims of intimate partner violence were female." The United Nations estimates that "35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or sexual violence by a non-partner (not including sexual harassment) at some point in their lives."
There have been numerous studies conducted linking the experience of being a survivor of domestic violence to a number of mental health issues, including post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, substance dependence, and suicidal attempts. Humphreys and Thiara (2003) assert that the body of existing research evidence shows a direct link between the experience of IPV and higher rates of self-harm, depression, and trauma symptoms. The NVAWS survey found that physical IPV was associated with an increased risk of depressive symptoms, substance dependence problems, and chronic mental illness.
A study conducted in 1995 of 171 women reporting a history of domestic violence and 175 reporting no history of domestic violence confirmed these hypotheses. The study found that the women with a history of domestic violence were 11.4 times more likely to experience dissociation, 4.7 times more likely to have anxiety, 3 times as likely to have depression, and 2.3 times more likely to have a substance abuse problem. The same study noted that several of the women interviewed stated that they only began having mental health issues when they began to experience violence in their intimate relationships.
Another study found that in a group of women in a psychiatric inpatient hospital ward, women who were survivors of domestic violence were twice as likely to have depression as those were not. All twenty of the women interviewed fit into a pattern of symptoms associated with trauma-based mental health disorders. Six of the women had attempted suicide. Moreover, the women spoke openly of a direct connection between the IPV they suffered and their resulting mental disorders.
In a similar study, 191 women who reported at least one event of IPV in their lifetime were tested for PTSD. 33% of the women tested positively were lifetime PTSD, and 11.4% tested positive for current PTSD.
As far as males are concerned, it is estimated that 1 in 9 men experience severe IPV. For men as well, domestic violence is correlated with a higher risk of depression and suicidal behavior.
Sexual violence
Global estimates published by the World Health Organization indicate that about 1 in 3 (35%) of women worldwide have experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence in their lifetime.
Sexual violence increasingly impact adolescent girls who are subjected to forced sex, rape and sexual assault. Approximately 15 million adolescent girls (aged 15 to 19) worldwide have experienced forced sex (forced sexual intercourse or other sexual acts) at some point in their life.
Sexual assault, rape and sexual abuse are likely to impact a women's mental health on a short and long-term basis. Many survivors are "mentally marked by this trauma and report flashbacks of their assault, and feelings of shame, isolation, shock, confusion, and guilt." Additionally, survivors of rape or sexual assault are at a higher risk for developing PTSD, with the lifetime prevalence being 50% compared to the average prevalence of 7.8%. Sexual assault is also associated with higher rates of depression, self harm, suicide, and disordered eating.
Social Media Pressures and Criticism
Social media is highly prevalent and influential among the current generation of adolescents and young adults. Approximately 90% of young adults in the United States have and use a social media platform on a regular basis. In terms of social media use and body image, boys experience social media as a higher positive influence on their body image than girls, who report social media causing more negative effects on their body image. Indeed, social media use has a connection to increased risk for eating disorders in women. Women receive greater amounts of pressure and criticism surrounding their physical appearance, making them more likely to internalize the body ideals that are glorified on social media.
Furthermore, Pro-anorexia communities are widespread among social media platforms which creates an environment that encourages disordered eating behaviors, and uses primarily photos of young women to spread unhealthy messages promoting thinness. Women are more likely to be involved with pro-anorexia communities.
Gender bias in medicine
The World Health Organization notes gender differentials in both the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. Gender bias observed in diagnostic and healthcare systems (including as related to under-diagnosis, over-diagnosis, and misdiagnosis) is detrimental to the treatment and health of people of all genders.
The difference in diagnosis emerges at an early age, with diagnostic rates for children diverging on the basis of gender once children reach school age. These gendered differentials have been attributed to a variety of factors, including gendered socialization to internalize or externalize symptoms of distress, particularly in youth; clinician bias to perceive men as mentally healthy; gendered stereotypes regarding the types of disorders men and women are expected to experience, with emotional issues attributed to women and substance abuse issues to men; and stereotypes and allocation of resources based on, and reifying, these differences. Differential diagnosis rates are also related to differences in help-seeking or disclosure along gendered lines.
Diagnostic processes may be influenced by knowledge of a patient's sex or gender alone, and male and female patients may receive different diagnoses even when presenting the same symptoms. For instance, even with the same symptomology or scores according to diagnostic criteria, women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression than men.
Misogynistic Bias in Medicine
Misogynistic bias has impacted diagnosis and treatment of men and women alike throughout the history of psychiatry, and those disparities persist today.
Hysteria is one example of a medical diagnosis which bears a long history as a "feminine" disorder, whether associated with biological features or with "feminine" psychology or personality. For hundred of years in Western Europe, hysteria was seen as an excess of emotion and a lack of self-control, that would mostly impact women. The diagnosis was used as a form of social labeling to discourage women from venturing outside of their role, that is a tool to take control over the increasing emancipation of women.
Another instance in which such disparities emerged is in the use of lobotomies, popularized in the 1940s to treat a variety of psychiatric diagnoses including insomnia, nervousness, and more. Studies have found that US asylums disproportionately lobotomized women in spite of the fact that men made up the majority of asylum patients.
Cisheteronormative Bias in Medicine
Implicit bias in medicine also affects the way lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBTQ+) patients are diagnosed by mental health physicians. Due to internalized societal and medical bias, physicians are more likely to diagnose LGBTQ+ patients with anxiety, depression and suicidality.
Gender Normativity and Bias in Medicine
It has also been observed that mental health professionals may pathologize the behaviors of individuals who do not conform to the practitioner's gender ideals. Gender ideals have been found to influence the understanding of mental health and illness at the stages of diagnosis, treatment, and evaluation of symptomology or of treatment.
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Socioeconomic Status is a global term which refers to a person's income level, education and position in society. Most social science research agrees upon the fact that there is a negative relationship between socioeconomic status and mental illness, that is lower socio-economic status is correlated with higher level of mental illness. "Researchers have found this relationship to hold constant for almost any mental illness, from rare conditions like schizophrenia to more common mental illnesses like depression."
Gender disparities in socioeconomic status (SES)
SES is a key factor in determining one's opportunities and quality of life. Inequities in wealth and quality of life for women are known to exist both locally and globally. According to a 2015 survey of the U.S. Census Bureau, in the United States, women's poverty rates are higher than men's. Indeed, "more than 1 in 7 women (nearly 18.4 million) lived in poverty in 2014."
When it comes to income and earning ability in the United States, women are once again at an economic disadvantage. Indeed, for a same level of education and an equivalent field of occupation, men earn a higher wage than women. Though the pay-gap has narrowed over time, according U.S Census Bureau Survey, it was still 21% in 2014. Additionally, pregnancy negatively affects professional and educational opportunities for women since "an unplanned pregnancies can prevent women from finishing their education or sustaining employment (Cawthorne, 2008)".
The impact of gender disparities in SES on women's mental health
Increasing evidence tend to show a positive correlation between lower SES and negative mental health outcomes for women. Firstly, "Pregnant women with low SES report significantly more depressive symptoms, which suggests that the third trimester may be more stressful for low-income women (Goyal et al., 2010)." Accordingly, postpartum depression has proven to be more prevalent among lower-income mothers. (Goyal et al., 2010).
Secondly, women are often the primary care-taker for their families. As a result, women with insecure job and housing experience higher stress and anxiety since their precarious economic situation places them and their children at higher risk of poverty and violent victimization (World Health Organization, 2013).
Finally, a low socioeconomic status puts women at higher risk of domestic and sexual violence, therefore increasing their exposure to all the mental disorder associated with this trauma. Indeed, "statistics show that poverty increases people's vulnerabilities to sexual exploitation in the workplace, schools, and in prostitution, sex trafficking, and the drug trade and that people with the lowest socioeconomic status are at greater risk for violence" (Jewkes, Sen, Garcia-Moreno, 2002).
Biological differences
Research have been made on the effect of biological differences between male and female on the exposure to both Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Depression.
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Biological differences is a proposed mechanism contributing to observed gender differences in PTSD. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has been proposed for both men and women. The HPA helps to regulate an individual's stress response by changing the amount of stress hormones released into the body, such as cortisol. However, a meta-analysis found that women have greater dysregulation than men; women have been found to have lower circulating cortisol concentrations compared to healthy controls, where men did not have this difference in cortisol. It is also thought that gender differences in threat appraisal might contribute to observed gender differences in PTSD as well by contributing to HPA dysregulation. Women are reported to be more likely to appraise events as stressful and to report higher perceived distress in response to traumatic events compared to men, potentially leading to an increased dysregulation of the HPA in women than in men. Recent research demonstrates a potential link between female hormones and the acquisition and extinction of fear responses. Studies suggest that higher levels of progesterone in women are associated with increased glucocorticoid availability, which may enhance consolidation and recall of distressful visual memories and intrusive thoughts. One important challenge for future researchers is navigating fluctuations hormones throughout the menstrual cycle to further isolate the unique effects of estradiol and progesterone on PTSD.
Depression
Expanding on the research concerning the HPA and PTSD, one existing hypothesis is that women are more likely than men to have a dysregulated HPA in response to a traumatic event, like in PTSD. This dysregulation may occur as a result of the increased likelihood of women experiencing a traumatic event, as traumatic events have been known to contribute to HPA dysregulation. Differences in stress hormone levels can influence moods due to the negative effect of high cortisol concentrations on biochemicals that regular mood such as serotonin. Research has found that people with MDD have elevated cortisol levels in response to stress and that low serotonin levels are related to the development of depression. Thus, it is possible that a dysregulation in the HPA, when combined with the increased history of traumatic events, may contribute to the gender differences seen in depression.
Coping mechanisms in PTSD
For PTSD, genders differences in coping mechanisms has been proposed as a potential explanation for observed gender differences in PTSD prevalence rates. Though PTSD is a common diagnosis associated with abuse and trauma for men and women, the "most common mental health problem for women who are trauma survivors is depression". Studies have found that women tend to respond differently to stressful situations than men. For example, men are more likely than women to react using the fight-or-flight response. Additionally, men are more likely to use problem-focused coping, which is known to decrease the risk of developing PTSD when a stressor is perceived to be within an individual's control. Women, meanwhile, are thought to use emotion-focused, defensive, and palliative coping strategies. As well, women are more likely to engage in strategies such as wishful thinking, mental disengagement, and the suppression of traumatic memories. These coping strategies have been found in research to correlate with an increased likelihood of developing PTSD. Women are more likely to blame themselves following a traumatic event than men, which has been found to increase an individual's risk of PTSD. In addition, women have been found to be more sensitive to a loss of social support following a traumatic event than men. A variety of differences in coping mechanisms and use of coping mechanisms may likely play a role in observed gender differences in PTSD.
These described differences in coping mechanisms are in line with a preliminary model of sex-specific pathways to PTSD. The model, proposed by Christiansen and Elklit, suggests that there are sex differences in the physiological stress response. In this model, variables such as dissociation, social support, and use of emotion-focused coping may be involved in the development and maintenance of PTSD in women, whereas physiological arousal, anxiety, avoidant coping, and use of problem-focused coping may be more likely to be related to the development and maintenance of PTSD in men. However, this model is only preliminary and further research is needed.
For more about gender differences in coping mechanisms, see the Coping (psychology) page.
See also
Gender bias in psychological diagnosis
Gender differences in coping
Gender in individual mental disorders
Sex differences in autism
Sex differences in schizophrenia
Healthcare and the LGBT community
Minority stress
Mental disorders and LGBT
References
94. Mental Disorders
Further reading
External links
"Study Finds Sex Differences in Mental Illness", American Psychological Association
Gender and society
Mental disorders
Women and psychology
Sex differences in humans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get%20a%20Mac
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Get a Mac
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The "Get a Mac" campaign is a television advertising campaign created for Apple Inc. (Apple Computer, Inc. at the start of the campaign) by TBWA\Media Arts Lab, the company's advertising agency, that ran from 2006 to 2009. The advertising campaign ran worldwide in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, and Germany.
Synopsis
The Get a Mac advertisements follow a standard template. They open to a plain white background, and a man dressed in casual clothes introduces himself as an Apple Macintosh computer ("Hello, I'm a Mac."), while a man in a more formal suit-and-tie combination introduces himself as a Microsoft Windows personal computer ("And I'm a PC.").
The two then act out a brief vignette, in which the capabilities and attributes of Mac and PC are compared, with PC—characterized as formal and somewhat polite, though uninteresting and overly concerned with work—often being frustrated by the more laid-back Mac's abilities. The earlier commercials in the campaign involved a general comparison of the two computers, whereas the later ones mainly concerned Windows Vista and Windows 7.
The original American advertisements star actor Justin Long as the Mac, and author and humorist John Hodgman as the PC, and were directed by Phil Morrison. The American advertisements also aired on Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand television, and at least 24 of them were dubbed into Spanish, French, German, and Italian. The British campaign stars comedic duo Robert Webb as Mac and David Mitchell as PC, while the Japanese campaign features the comedic duo Rahmens. Several of the British and Japanese advertisements, although based on the originals, were slightly altered to better target the new audiences. Both the British and Japanese campaigns also feature several original ads not seen in the American campaign.
The Get a Mac campaign is the successor to the Switch ads which were first broadcast in 2002. Both campaigns were filmed against a plain white background. Apple's former CEO, Steve Jobs, introduced the campaign during a shareholder's meeting the week before the campaign started. The campaign also coincided with a change of signage and employee apparel at Apple retail stores detailing reasons to switch to Macs.
The Get a Mac campaign received the Grand Effie Award in 2007. The song in the commercial is called "Having Trouble Sneezing" by Mark Mothersbaugh.
Advertisements
The advertisements play on perceived weaknesses of non-Mac personal computers, especially those running Microsoft Windows, of which PC is clearly intended to be a parody, and corresponding strengths possessed by the Mac OS (such as immunity to circulating viruses and spyware targeted at Microsoft Windows). The target audience of these ads is not devoted PC users but rather, those who are more likely to "swing" towards Apple. Apple realizes that many consumers who choose PCs do so because of their lack of knowledge of the Apple brand. With this campaign, Apple was targeting those users who may not consider Macs when purchasing but may be persuaded to when they view these ads. Each of the ads is about 30 seconds in length and is accompanied by a song called "Having Trouble Sneezing," which was composed by Mark Mothersbaugh.
North American campaign
The following is an alphabetical list of the ads that appeared in the campaign shown in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
Accident—PC, who is sitting in a wheelchair and wearing casts on his arms, explains that he fell off his desk when someone tripped over his power cord, thus prompting Mac to point out that the MacBook's and MacBook Pro's magnetic power cord prevents such an occurrence. The Macbook featured at the end demonstrates the feature.
Angel/Devil—Mac gives PC an iPhoto book to view. Suddenly, angel and devil versions of PC appear behind him. The angel encourages PC to compliment Mac, while the devil prods PC to destroy the book. In the end, PC says the book is good and then turns around, feeling the air where the angel and devil versions of himself were.
Bake Sale—When Mac questions PC regarding a bake sale he has set up, PC replies that he is trying to raise money by himself in order to fix Vista's problems. Mac decides to contribute by buying a cupcake, but as soon as he takes a bite, PC asks him to pay ten million dollars for it.
Bean Counter—PC is trying to balance his budget, admitting that Vista's problems are frustrating PC users and it's time to take drastic action: spending almost all of the money on advertising. When Mac asks PC if he thinks the small amount of money left will fix Vista, PC reallocates all of it to advertising. This ad coincided with the introduction of Microsoft's "I'm a PC" campaign.
Better—Mac praises PC's ability with spreadsheets but explains that he is better with life-related activities such as music, pictures, and movies. PC defensively asks what Mac means by "better," only to sheepishly claim a different definition when Mac tells him.
Better Results—PC and Mac discuss making home movies and show each other their efforts. Supermodel Gisele Bündchen enters, representing Mac's movie, while PC's movie is represented by a man with a hairy chest wearing a blonde wig and a dress similar to Bündchen's. PC states that his movie is a "work-in-progress."
Biohazard Suit—PC first appears wearing a biohazard suit to protect himself from PC viruses and malware, of which PC says there are 20,000 discovered every day. Mac asks PC if he is going to live in the suit for the rest of his life, but PC cannot hear him because he is too protected by his virus-proof mask, and takes it off. PC then shrieks and struggles to place it on again.
Boxer—PC is introduced by a ring announcer as if he were in a boxing match, stating that he's not going down without a fight. Mac explains that the issue is not a competition but, rather, people switching to a computer that's simpler and more intuitive. The announcer admits his brother-in-law recently purchased a Mac and loves it. This is also the first ad to show Mac OS X Leopard.
Breakthrough—Mac and PC's therapist (played by Corinne Bohrer, see "Counselor" below) suggest that PC's problems are simply a result of software and hardware coming from various sources, whereas Mac gets all his hardware and software from one place. PC keeps repeating "It's not my fault!" with the support of Mac and the therapist before concluding, "It's Mac's fault! It's Mac's fault!" Mac and the therapist are disappointed in PC's conclusion, but PC nevertheless ends with the comment "What a Breakthrough!"
Broken Promises—PC tells Mac how excited he is about the launch of Windows 7 and assures him it won't have the same problems as Vista. However, Mac feels like he has heard this before and has a series of flashbacks with past versions of PC assuring him about Windows Vista, XP, ME, 98, 95, and 2.0. In the last flashback, PC says, "Trust me." Back in the present, he explains this time it's going to be different and says, "Trust me," in an almost identical way to his flashback counterparts.
Calming Teas—PC announces calming teas and bath salts to make Vista's annoyances easier to live with, such as "Crashy-time Chamomile", "Missing Driver Mint", "Pomegranate Patience", and "Raspberry Restart". He runs out of time before he can talk about his bath salts.
Choose a Vista—Confused about which of the six versions of Windows Vista to get, PC spins a large game show wheel. PC lands on Lose a Turn, and Mac questions why PC put that space on the wheel.
Computer Cart—PC and three other men in suits are on a computer cart. When Mac asks why, PC says that he gets an error with a Windows Media Player Dynamic-link library file (WMP.DLL), and that the others suffer from similar errors. The man in the beige suit represents error 692, the man in the grey suit represents a Syntax error, and the man in the bottom of the cart represents a fatal system error (PC whispers, "He's a goner," at the commercial's end). Mac explains that Macs don't get cryptic error messages.
Counselor—PC and Mac visit a psychotherapist (played by Corinne Bohrer) to resolve their differences. While Mac finds it easy to compliment PC ("You are a wizard with numbers and you dress like a gentleman."), PC's resentment is too deep for him to reciprocate ("I guess you are better at creating stuff, even though it's completely juvenile and a waste of time."). The counselor suggests that they come twice a week.
Customer Care—Mac is seen with a Mac Genius from an Apple Retail Store's Genius Bar, who can fix Mac problems. PC then has a short montage of endless automated customer-support messages, never reaching a real person, much to his disappointment. PC then says that his source of help is "the same" as a Mac Genius.
Elimination—PC attempts to find Megan, a new laptop hunter, the perfect PC. He starts by eliminating from a lineup of fellow PCs all those who have too-small screens and too-slow processors. However, none of the PCs is "immune" to viruses, which is Megan's #1 concern, so PC leaves her with Mac.
Flashback—Mac asks PC if he would like to see the website and home movie that he made. This prompts PC to remember a time when both he and Mac were children: when the younger Mac asks the younger PC if he would like to see some artwork he did, the younger PC takes out a calculator and calculates the time they have just wasted (This may be a reference to the time when PC's were text-based, while Macs were slower but had GUIs). Returning from the flashback, PC does the same thing.
Genius—Mac introduces PC to one of the Mac Geniuses from the Apple Retail Store's Genius Bar. PC tests the Genius, starting with math questions, which culminates in asking her, on a scale of one to ten, how much does he loathe Mac, to which she answers "Eleven." Surprised, PC says "She's good. Very good."
Gift Exchange—Mac and PC exchange gifts for Christmas. PC, who is hoping for a C++ GUI programming guide, is disappointed to receive a photo album of previous Get a Mac ads made on iPhoto. In contrast, he gives Mac a C++ GUI programming guide.
Goodwill—Mac and PC agree to put aside their differences because of the Christmas season. Although PC momentarily slips and states that Mac wastes his time with frivolous pursuits like home movies and blogs, the two agree, as Mac says, to "Pull it into hug harbor," and they wish each other a good holiday.
Group—PC is at a support group for PCs living with Vista. The other PCs there tell him to take it one day at a time and that he is facing the biggest fact of all—that Vista isn't working as it should. They all wish the Vista problems will go away sooner and a lot easier. One of them says pleasingly that he has been error-free for a week, but he starts to repeat himself uncontrollably, discouraging the others.
iLife—PC listens to an iPod and praises iTunes. Mac replies that the rest of iLife works just as well and comes on every Mac. PC defensively responds by listing the cool apps that he comes with, but he can only identify a calculator and a clock.
I Can Do Anything—In this animated commercial designed for the holiday season, PC asks Mac why the former loves the holidays so much. Mac asks if it's the season for peace on earth, but PC replies that they get to be animated and can do anything. PC demonstrates by floating in the air, building a snowman in fast motion, and asking a hopping bunny where he is going. The bunny, who can speak, says he's going to the Apple Store for some last-minute gifts. PC then purposely tips off the snowman's head, making it fall on the bunny, and sarcastically apologizes to him, calling himself clumsy. The animation style for this ad mimics the Rankin/Bass animation style seen in a number of classic Christmas specials.
Legal Copy—Every time PC says something positive about himself, the legal copy that appears on the screen bottom increases. He finally states that PCs are now "100% trouble-free", and the legal copy covers the whole screen.
Meant for Work—PC, looking haggard and covered in stickers, complains about the children who use him and their activities, such as making movies and blogging, which are wearing him out. He also says he cries himself to sleep mode every night, complaining that, unlike Mac, he is meant more for office work. PC is then alerted because his user wants to listen to some emo music and, with a loud groan, trudges off, showing an Anarchy sticker on his back.
Misprint—PC is on the phone with PC World, attempting to report a misprint. He explains how the print said, "The fastest Windows Vista notebook we tested this year is a Mac." PC argues how impossible it is for a Mac to run Vista faster than a PC, while Mac tries to explain that it is true. While arguing with PCWorld over the phone, PC says that he'll put Mac on the line to set things straight. However, he instead impersonates Mac, saying that PCs are faster.
Network—Mac and PC are holding hands to demonstrate their ability to network with each other. A Japanese woman representing a new digital camera enters and takes Mac's free hand. While Mac and the camera are perfectly compatible and speak to each other fluently, PC—who cannot speak Japanese—is utterly confused and unable to communicate, representing that Windows PCs need a driver installation with virtually all new hardware.
Now What—PC begins by showing off his new, long book, I Want to Buy a Computer — Now What? to help customers deal with all the difficult computer-buying decisions if they have no one to help. Mac then explains that, at Apple Stores, personal shoppers help customers find the perfect Mac, even offering workshops to teach people about using the computers. Upon hearing this, PC brings out his book's companion volume, I Just Bought a Computer — Now What?
Office Stress—Mac's new Microsoft Office 2008 has just been released. In the box that PC gives Mac is a stress toy for him to use when he gets overwhelmed from doing lots more work. However, PC begins using the toy, complaining that Microsoft Office is also compatible with Mac, that he wants to switch his files over, and that he is getting less work than Mac, eventually breaking the toy.
Off the Air—Mac and PC appear with a Mac Genius, who announces it is now easier than ever to switch to a Mac and that a Mac Genius can switch over PC files to a new Mac for free. PC then protests that fear is what keeps people from switching, and people don't need to hear about the Mac Genius. In protest, he pulls a cover over the camera, which has a test card drawn on it, and declares that they are off the air.
Out of the Box—Mac (in a white box) and PC (in a brown box doing some exercises) are discussing what they will do when they are unpacked. Mac says that he can get started right away, but PC is held up by the numerous activities that he must complete before being useful. Mac eventually leaves to get right to work, but PC is forced to wait for parts that are still in other boxes.
Party is Over—PC unhappily throws a party celebrating the release of Windows Vista. He complains to Mac that he had to upgrade his hardware and now can't use some of his old software and peripherals. He then talks with one of the party members about throwing another party in five years, which turns into five years and a day, and so on.
PC Choice Chat—PC has his own radio talk show called PC Choice Chat, and people begin to call in asking for advice on which computer to get. All the callers ask for advice on a computer that would qualify as a Mac but not as a PC. One caller asks for a computer for people who hate getting viruses, another caller asks for PC help like Mac Geniuses, and a third caller wants to switch to Mac altogether. PC ignores these calls.
PC Innovations Lab—PC introduces himself and then starts talking about the PC Innovations Lab he has set up. When Mac questions him about it, he tells Mac that in response to the Mac's magnetic power cord, he wrapped another PC in bubble wrap, and in response to Mac's all-day battery life, he made an extremely long power cord. Mac tells PC that innovations should make people's lives easier, to which PC shows Mac another PC with cupholders on its shoulders. PC then takes the cup and says "Cheers to innovation!"
PC News—PC is sitting at a news desk and turns it over to a correspondent at what seems to be a launch party for Windows 7. A person being interviewed reveals that he is switching to a Mac. PC is surprised by this and asks why, but more people speak of how Mac is #1 with customer satisfaction until PC finally says to cut the feed. He then suggests going to commercial, but Mac acknowledges that they are in a commercial, so PC instead suggests going to another commercial.
Pep Rally—PC is introduced by a cheerleading squad. When asked, PC explains Mac's number-one status on college campuses with a built-in iSight camera, a stable operating system, and an ability to run Microsoft Office so well, so he wants to win students back with a pep rally. The cheerleaders cheer, "Mac's Number One!" and upon PC's complaint, they cheer, "PC's Number Two!"
Pizza Box—PC tries to attract college students by posing as a free box of pizza. This ad was aired during Apple's 2008 back-to-school promotion.
Podium—PC, in the style of a political candidate, is standing at a podium making declarations about Windows Vista, urging those who are having compatibility problems with existing hardware to simply replace them and to ignore the new features of Mac OS X Leopard. However, he privately admits to Mac that he himself has downgraded to Windows XP three weeks ago. His key slogan is: "It's not about what Vista can do for you; it's what you can buy for Vista."
PR Lady—Mac and PC are joined by a public relations representative (played by Mary Chris Wall), who has been hired by PC to place a positive spin on the reaction to Windows Vista and claims that many people are even downgrading back to Windows XP. Her response to claims that more people are switching to Mac instead is a sheepish "No comment."
Referee—A referee is present, according to PC, to make sure that Mac doesn't go on saying that Leopard is better and faster than Vista. When Mac defends himself, saying it was The Wall Street Journal that compared the two, PC complains, and the referee sides with Mac. Upon insulting the referee, PC is ejected, but PC rebuts, saying that he has nowhere to go (in the ad's area).
Restarting—Mac and PC explain how they both have a lot in common, but their discussion is hampered by PC's unfortunate habit of freezing and restarting.
Sabotage—PC is present, but a different actor (Robert Webb in UK version) appears in Mac's place, obviously reciting poorly memorized lines to flatter PC. The real Mac arrives soon after, and, while PC denies anything is happening, the impostor Mac tells the real Mac that he is a big fan of his.
Sad Song—PC sings a short country-and-Western-style song to express his grievances about people leaving PCs for Macs and Vista's technical issues. A hound-dog then howls, which Mac says is a "nice touch." A longer version ends with Mac asking PC if the dog is his, which it isn't.
Sales Pitch—Although Mac introduces himself, as usual, PC says, "And buy a PC." He explains that Mac's increasing popularity is forcing him to be more forward in his self-promotion, so he is reduced to holding up red signs depicting various pitches.
Santa Claus—Another animated Get a Mac commercial featuring Santa Claus and Christmas caroling by both PC and Mac. PC spoils the group's singing of "Santa Claus is Coming to Town" by inserting "Buy a PC and not a Mac this holiday season or any other time for goodness sake," and claims, "That's how I learned it." The animation style is similar to the Rankin/Bass television specials Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer and Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town.
Security—In a reference to criticisms of Windows Vista's security features, PC is a joined by a tall United States Secret Service-style bodyguard who represents Vista's new security feature. The guard intrusively demands PC's decisions to cancel or allow every incoming or outgoing interaction he has with Mac.
Self Pity—Mac, for once, is wearing a suit. He explains that he "does work stuff, too," and has been running Microsoft Office for years. Upon hearing this, PC becomes despondent and collapses on the floor, begging to be left alone to depreciate.
Stuffed—PC enters slowly with a ballooned torso, explaining that all the trial software is slowing him down. Mac replies that Macs only come with the specific software for which customers ask (namely, the iLife package). As PC finally gets on his mark, Mac begins his intro again, but PC realizes that he has forgotten something and begins to slowly leave.
Stacks—PC is searching through all of his pictures, trying to find a photograph of his friend. He searches one picture at a time, but Mac states that iPhoto has a feature called Faces, in which iPhoto can tag the face of a person and find other pictures of the same person, putting them all into the same folder and saving search time. PC responds to the facial-recognition technology as expensive and tells Mac to sort the pictures instead because he has the technology to make it easier.
Surgery—PC appears in the garb of a patient awaiting surgery and explains that he is upgrading to Windows Vista but requires surgery to upgrade (specifically, upgrading such items as graphics cards, processors, memory, etc.). In reference to perceived difficulties in upgrading, PC admits that he is worried about going through it and bequeaths his peripherals to Mac should he not survive. Mac asks PC if, like him, his upgrade could be straightforward.
Surprise—Mac appears alongside a customer (Andrée Vermeulen) with PC notably absent. Mac tries to convince the customer, who wants to buy an effective computer, that she should get a PC, telling her that they're much better and more stable. The customer seems skeptical, tells Mac she will "think about it", and leaves. A frustrated Mac pulls off a mask and his clothes, revealing himself to be PC in disguise. The real Mac then appears, sees PC's discarded mask and clothes, and says, "I don't even want to ask."
Tech Support—A technician (Brian Huskey) is present to install a webcam on PC (using masking tape to attach it to his head). PC is extremely pleased by his new upgrade, but upon hearing from the technician that Mac has a built-in webcam, he storms off without waiting for the camera to be fully installed.
Teeter Tottering—A woman who had a PC has a box of things that were in her PC and says she's switching to Mac. PC tries to convince her to stay while she goes over to Mac every time.
Throne—PC appears in a king's robe and on a throne saying, even though switching computers can be difficult, his subjects won't leave him and that he's still the "king" of computers. Mac then begins talking about how PC's subjects can bring their PC into an Apple Store wherein all PC files can be transferred over to a new Mac, at which point PC declares Mac banished.
Time Machine—Mac appears with nine clones of himself behind him, who all introduce themselves at once. PC is shocked, so the various Macs explain that it is simply Time Machine, a feature in Leopard that makes regular backups of a user's hard drive. PC admits that he likes the feature, and the Mac clones thank him one at a time.
Time Traveler—PC uses a time machine to travel to the year 2150 to see if any major issues such as freezing and crashing have been removed from the PC and to see if PCs will eventually be as hassle-free as Macs are. Promptly after PC arrives in 2150, his future self freezes, which answers the question.
Top of the Line—PC and Mac appear with a customer who is looking for a new computer. PC introduces her to the "top-of-the-line" PC (Patrick Warburton), a handsome and overly slick PC in a suit. She asks him about screen size and speed, to which the top-of-the-line PC says he's the best. However, he balks when she says she doesn't want to deal with any viruses or hassle. She decides to go with Mac, so the top-of-the-line PC hands her his business card and tells her, "When you're ready to compromise...you call me."
Touché—Right after PC introduces himself, Mac replies, "And I'm a PC, too." Mac explains to the confused PC that he can run both Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows, calling himself "the only computer you'll ever need." PC mutters, "Oh...touché." Mac explains, referring to the rules of fencing, that one only says touché after he or she makes a point and someone else makes a counterpoint, but PC continues to misuse the word. A similar conversation occurred in Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story, a film in which Justin Long (Mac) appeared.
Trainer—The commercial starts off traditionally, but PC is doing sit-ups with a trainer in a striped shirt (Robert Loggia), whose fierce coaching style discourages PC. PC suggests the trainer try some "positive reinforcement," but the trainer compliments Mac instead, and PC is offended. This is the first commercial to show the Mac OS X Snow Leopard.
Tree Trimming—In another animated Get a Mac commercial for the holiday season, Mac and PC set aside their disagreements and decide to trim a Christmas tree by hanging ornaments and stringing lights. Mac tells PC that they are good friends, while PC gets nervous. When they are finished, PC does not want to light the lights on the tree, but Mac persuades him to do so. PC plugs in the tree's lights, but, when illuminated, the lights spell: "PC RULES." He apologizes to Mac and says that it "just sort of happened."
Trust Mac—PC, in an attempt to hide from spyware, is wearing a trench coat, a fedora, dark glasses, and a false mustache. PC offers Mac a disguise, but Mac declines, saying he does not have to worry about the normal PC spyware and viruses with Mac OS X Leopard.
V Word—PC declares that people should to stop referring to his operating system (Vista) by name. He says using the word "doesn't sit well with frustrated PC users. From now on, we're going to use a word with a lot less baggage:'Windows.'" During the scene, he holds a black box with a large red button that sounds a buzzer when pressed. PC presses the button whenever Mac says Vista. After pointing out that not using the word isn't the same as fixing the operating system's problems, Mac ends the ad by saying Vista several times in rapid succession, thwarting PC's attempts to sound the buzzer.
Viruses—PC has caught a new virus (represented as a cold) and warns Mac to stay away from him, citing the 114,000 known viruses for PCs. Mac states the viruses that affect PCs do not affect him, and PC announces that he will crash before collapsing onto the floor in a faint.
Work vs. Home—Mac describes how he enjoys doing fun activities such as podcasts and movies, which leads PC to claim that he also does fun activities such as timesheets, spreadsheets, and pie charts. After Mac states that it's difficult to capture a family vacation using a pie chart, PC rebuts by showing a pie chart representing "hanging-out time" and "just kicking it" with different shades of gray. Mac replies, "I feel like I was there."
Wall Street Journal—Mac is reading a favorable review of himself by Walt Mossberg in The Wall Street Journal. Jealous, PC claims he also received a great review but is caught off-guard when Mac asks for specific details. This ad is currently not available on the Apple website but can be found on YouTube.
Yoga—Mac is watching PC have a yoga session in which the yoga instructor (Judy Greer) is coaching PC in expelling bad Vista energy and forgetting Vista's problems. When the yoga instructor goes on to complain that Vista caused errors in her yoga billing and then storms off, PC considers switching to pilates.
Web-exclusive campaign
Several advertisements have been shown exclusively in Flash ad campaigns running on numerous websites. Unlike the ads shown on television, these advertisements have not been posted as high-quality QuickTime videos on Apple's website. These ads run for approximately 20 seconds each and reference specific online advertising features (such as banner ads), making it unlikely they will ever appear on television.
The titles are taken from the Flash-video file names.
Banging—PC expresses his regret for upgrading to Windows Vista because it is causing him various problems. Mac tries to comfort him, but PC continues to bang his head on the side of the banner advertisement.
Booby Trap— PC and Mac are at PCMag. PC is angry that they put up a banner ad saying that iLife '09 is the best office suite. PC hooks some cables up to the banner claiming that whoever clicks that will get shocked. PC proves it himself by clicking it.
Claw—In a skyscraper ad, PC is using a grabber claw to try to grab a boxed copy of Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac that is sitting in the top banner ad. He claims that if people see that Office 08 is on the Mac, that they will ask questions regarding what a PC can do that the Mac can't. Mac points out that Office has been on the Mac for years, and that this is simply the latest version. PC knocks over the Office box, which causes an alarm to go off. PC hands the grabber claw to Mac, saying "He did it!"
Cramped—In the only known UK web-exclusive ad, PC and Mac (portrayed by Mitchell and Webb) are lying head-to-head in a banner ad, complaining about the size and format of the banner ad, and encouraging the user to click the ad quicker.
Customer Experience—A banner ad shows that Mac is rated #1 among customers experience. PC is frustrated and goes to more opinions from a before and after hair ad. Both say that the Mac is better.
Customer Satisfaction—A "Mac Customer Satisfaction Score" meter appears in a banner ad above Mac and PC. The meter's needle is hovering at about 85 out of 100. PC excuses himself and climbs up to the upper banner ad, and pulls on the needle. He accidentally breaks off the tip of the meter, and then waves it at the 20 mark, saying "Customer satisfaction is dropping..."
Easy as 1–23—In a Web banner, PC shows Mac his new slogan. Mac assumes it means "PC. Easy as 1-2-3," but PC corrects him by stating it means "Easy as 1 through 23". He then pulls out 23 steps for using a PC.
Editorial—PC drags his own op-ed column into the banner ad (since these ads appeared on news sites, such as cnn.com, it "blends" in with the rest of the site). The op-ed headline says "Stop Switching to Mac!" PC explains that people are switching to Macs more than ever, and that they need to know how much it is hurting PC. He makes a couple of anguished poses in the photo box to illustrate how frustrated he is.
Hiding—PC peeks in from the left side of the screen. When Mac asks what PC is doing, PC explains that he is hiding from viruses and spyware. PC then leaves, saying that he has to run a scan. There are two versions of this ad: a 300x250 square ad and a 160x600 vertical banner ad. PC is identical in both versions, but Mac's performance features a different take in each.
Knocking—PC panics about needing to search for new drivers for his hardware now that he's upgraded to Windows Vista. He tries to force his way off the left side of the screen so he can leave to find the new drivers but repeatedly runs into a wall. When he finally succeeds in breaking through the left side of the screen, he finds himself jumping back in from the right side of the screen.
Newswire—PC, jealous of Mac's good press, gets his own newswire ticker above the ad. Unfortunately, the newswire displays unflattering headlines such as "Vista Users Upset Over Glitches" and "Users Downgrade to XP." PC says he hates his stupid newswire and then the next headline on the newswire is "PC Hates His Stupid Newswire."
Not—A banner ad on the top of the page reads, "Leopard is better and faster than Vista." —Wall Street Journal. On the side, Mac introduces himself while PC climbs a ladder. Mac asks what PC is doing and he says that he is fixing an embarrassing typo. He then climbs all the way to the top and staples a piece of paper that says NOT at the end of the quotation. He then tells Mac that they have the whole Internet to correct and asks Mac to grab the ladder.
PC Turf (PCMag and PCWorld exclusive)—PC welcomes Web surfers to his turf, PCWorld.com, and remarks that Mac must feel out of place there. Mac points out that they said some great things about Macs, so PC asks security to remove Mac because he's going to be a problem. The PCMag version is identical, except PC's voice is re-dubbed to say "PCMag.com."
Refresh—A banner ad on the top of the page reads, "Vista...one of the biggest blunders in technology?" —CNET.com. Off to the side, PC sees the banner and realizes its another bad review of Vista and decides to do an emergency refresh. He walks over and opens a compartment door that says, "Emergency Banner Refresh." PC flips the switch, and the banner is replaced by another banner that reads, "It's time for a Vista do-over" —PC Magazine. PC, frustrated about this review, flips the switch again. The banner is replaced by another that reads, "Mac OS X Leopard: A Perfect 10" —InfoWorld. PC sees this positive review and is relieved until he realizes it's about Leopard. PC angrily flips the switch again to end the ad.
Sign—In a skyscraper ad, Mac asks PC about an unlit sign in a separate banner ad that reads, "DON'T GIVE UP ON VISTA." PC replies that it will stop the problem of frustrated Windows Vista users downgrading to XP or switching to Macs. He presses a button, lighting up only the GIVE UP part of the sign. He presses it again, lighting up ON VISTA. Frustrated, PC presses the button repeatedly, causing GIVE UP and ON VISTA to light up alternately.
Switcher Cams—A banner ad at the top of the page displays a bank of 5 security camera screens which show users walking into Apple Stores; as users walk past each camera "PC SWITCHER" lights up in red beneath each screen. On the side, PC sees the switchers and is disappointed they are upgrading to Mac instead of to Windows 7. Mac says he thought Windows 7 was "supposed to be an improvement", to which PC responds that Macs are still #1 in customer satisfaction and that people will have to move their files over anyway. Still observing the switchers, PC leaves the side and appears on one of the video screens, managing to stop one switcher from going into the Apple Store but says there are still "thousands and thousands to go".
UK campaign
For the British market, the ads were recast with the popular British comedy double act Mitchell and Webb in the lead roles; David Mitchell as PC and Robert Webb as Mac. As well as original ads, several ads from the American campaign were reshot with new dialogue and slightly altered scenes. These ads are about 40 seconds long, which is slightly longer than the US advertisements.
The following ads are exclusive to the UK:
Art Language—In an effort to relate to the creative artistic types whom he assumes own Macs, PC, dressed in a stereotypically bohemian fashion, begins speaking to Mac using unnecessarily pretentious language. Despite Mac's insistence that he enables anyone to be creative, PC continues using big words, eventually confusing even himself.
Court—PC, dressed in a barrister's outfit, questions Mac on how long it takes to make an iPhoto photo book that Mac claims to have made in a few minutes. Doubting Mac's claim, PC eventually resorts to cutting off Mac whenever he tries to speak.
Magic—Exchanging an average 50k Word document in a file to Mac, PC makes out that the process is much harder than it actually is through the use of a drum roll and a magician's assistant, and shouting "Amazing!" at the end of the transfer. Bemused, Mac points out that he is compatible with PC and effortlessly passes him back a photo, at the end of which PC shouts "Amazing!".
Naughty Step—PC unveils his naughty step: the ultimate deterrent to an unruly errant child (similar to the technique used by Jo Frost in the UK and US series Supernanny). He goes on to explain that children should not be making pictures, movies, and websites on a "proper, grown-up PC". Mac points out that these are activities children like to do, resulting in his own banishment to the naughty step.
Office at Home—PC is proud of his role in both the office and the home, but Mac retaliates by stating that homes are not run like offices, and thus shouldn't have office computers. PC eagerly begins to describe the ways in which homes can be run like offices, with his increasing authoritarianism prompting Mac to sarcastically comment that PC's home "sounds like a fun place".
Office Posse—PC wonders why Microsoft Office (Excel, PowerPoint, Word and Entourage) are standing with Mac and is surprised when Mac says that he runs Office also. PC attempts to order and then entice the Office members to join him, but they refuse, resulting in what Mac calls an awkward moment.
Tentacle—PC praises Britain's work ethic, chastising Mac's insistence on the need for fun in life. In attempting to persuade Mac of his point of view, PC employs the use of several animal metaphors, but becomes sidetracked through his increasingly eager musing about the practical applications of octopus tentacles in an office.
Several American ads were modified for the UK market. In some of these ads, the events that occur in the narrative differ significantly from the original American campaign. Others follow the original ads more closely, with only minor differences (many based on the differences in characterization from the actors involved or language differences between American English and British English). These ads are also performed by Mitchell and Webb.
The adapted ads are
Accident—The ad follows the same narrative, with a different ending: PC, on heavy pain medication, requests to be pushed over to the window so he can look at the pigeons, only for Mac to point out that there are no pigeons nor a window. PC responds with a dreamy "You're funny...".
Network—The ad follows the same narrative, but in the British version Mac connects with a Japanese printer instead of a digital camera. PC is also more involved in the dialogue, attempting to communicate in Japanese with the printer, only to mangle his words, first declaring that he is a rice cake before asking, "Where is the train station?". This larger involvement of PC, when compared to PC in the American ad, is also shown by the appearance of subtitles whenever PC, Mac, or the printer speak in Japanese; in the American ad, there are no subtitles translating Mac and the camera's dialogue, further evidencing that PC is lost in the conversation.
Out of the Box—The ad is almost exactly the same as the American version. However, Mac doesn't mention his built-in camera. Also, at the end, PC pulls out an extremely thick user manual and starts reading it.
Pie Chart—The ad is based on the American Work vs. Home. The light-grey area of PC's family holiday pie chart now represents "shenanigans and tomfoolery" and the dark-grey area represents "hijinks". Also, PC further divides hijinks into "capers", "monkey business", and "just larking about".
Restarting—The ad follows much the same narrative as the American ad, with the only major difference being that, after Mac has left to get someone from IT, PC awakens and wonders where everyone has gone.
Stuffed—This ad contains no significant changes from the American version.
Trust Mac—The ad follows the same narrative as the American version, but at the end, PC yells out that there is nobody present but two Macs having fun.
Virus—Based on the American ad Viruses, it contains the dialogue "This one's a humdinger" instead of "a doozy" but otherwise contains no significant changes.
Japanese campaign
On December 12, 2006, Apple began to release ads in Japan that were similar in style to the US Get a Mac ads. The Mac and PC are played by the Rahmens, a Japanese comedy duo. The ads used to be viewable at Apple's Japan website.
The following ads are exclusive to Japan:
Nengajo—Mac shows PC the New Year's Card he made using iPhoto. PC then looks at it, remarking about the picture of the wild boar on the card.
Nicknames—PC is confused as to why Mac is not called a PC. Mac then explains that more people use him at home, and PC counters that he is more business-oriented. PC then asks for a nickname for himself; Mac then names him Wāku (work).
Practice Drawing—PC says he can create pictures, but they are all graphs. For example, what Mac thinks is Manhattan is a bar graph and what Mac thinks is a mountain view is a line graph. Mac catches on, correctly identifying a pie chart, but PC responds that it is a pizza, chiding Mac for having no artistic sense. This is similar to Art Language, in that PC is trying to connect with artsy people like Mac.
Steps—Mac tells PC that he has made his own webpage using iWeb. PC then asks for the steps to make his own. Mac gives them, finishing after step three. PC then pesters Mac for step four, which Mac finally explains is to have a cup of coffee.
Several American ads were modified for the Japanese market. In some of these ads, the events that occur in the narrative differ significantly from the original American campaign. Others follow the original ads more closely, with only minor differences (many based on the differences in characterization from the actors involved).
The adapted ads are
Bloated—This ad is similar to Stuffed, but in this ad, PC makes no reference to bloatware (limited or useless versions of programs loaded onto new PCs), instead complaining about how much space installing a new operating system takes. Mac expresses his hopes that PC didn't have to delete any important data.
iLife—This ad is almost exactly the same as the American version, except that PC is listening to Eurobeat on his iPod rather than slow jams, and Mac gives a pregnant pause instead of complimenting PC on his pre-loaded calculator and clock.
iMovie—This ad with Miki Nakatani, is nearly identical to the American ad Better Results, except that PC actually thinks that his home movie is comparable to the Mac home movie.
Microsoft Office—Based on the UK ad Office Posse, the ad contains only minor differences. At the end of the ad, PC tries to entice Office by chanting, "Overtime! Overtime! All together now!"
Pie Chart—This ad is based on the American ad Work vs. Home. The narrative is largely the same, with the only significant differences being that Mac is blogging rather than working with movies, music, and podcasts, and the names of the divisions of the pie chart each represent Sightseeing and Relaxing at a Café.
Restart—This ad is identical to the American ad Restarting, except that PC doesn't restart again after Mac goes off to get IT.
Security—This ad is based on the American ad Trust Mac, but contains some significant changes. Rather than disguising himself to hide from viruses, PC dons protective gear to fight viruses. PC demands that any virus out there come and fight him. After Mac points out a virus, PC slowly moves behind Mac to protect himself.
Virus—The ad contains no significant changes from the American ad Viruses.
Keynote videos
While not strictly a part of the ad campaign, Hodgman and Long appeared in videos during Steve Jobs's keynote addresses at the 2006, 2007, and 2009 Worldwide Developers Conference and the 2008 MacWorld Expo. Hodgman alone appeared in the November 2020 Apple Event.
WWDC 2006—In an attempt to stall Mac development, PC claims to have a message from Steve Jobs that says that the developers should take the rest of the year off, and that Microsoft could use some help with Vista. He starts to go off-topic about his vacation with Jobs, but when Mac arrives he says he's just preparing for their next commercial and starts to sing the Meow Mix theme song off-key.
WWDC 2007—PC dresses up as Steve Jobs, and announces that he is quitting and shutting down Apple. He claims that Vista did so well, selling tens of dozens of copies, that there's no need for Leopard, and that he got his iPod-killer, a brown Zune. He tells the developers to just go home because they're no longer needed. Mac arrives and chides PC for trying to mislead the developers again like last year. He asks if PC really thinks the audience will believe he is Jobs. PC then claims he is Phil Schiller.
MacWorld Expo 2008—PC and Mac stand under a Happy New Year sign, and PC talks about what a terrible year 2007 has been for him, referring to Windows Vista as a failure while Apple Inc. experienced success with Mac OS X Leopard, iPod Touch, and iPhone. Despite this, PC says he is optimistic for the future, claiming it to be the Year of the PC. When asked what his plans are for 2008, PC states he is "just going to copy everything [Mac] did in 2007."
WWDC 2009—PC comes out and greets the crowd and says that he wants them to have a great conference with "incredible innovations that will keep Apple at the forefront..." He stops, then says, "I think I can do that better." Now it's take 2. He wishes them a "week with some innovation, but not a lot, please. Yeah, I like that." Then he says some stuff about the 1 Billion App Countdown. He asks for apps and ideas. He says, "I hope you're thinking of some great ideas because I'm thinking of some great ideas too!...What are your ideas?" Eventually at Take 16, PC gives up and Mac tells everyone to have a great conference.
Apple Event November 2020—PC criticizes the upgrades made to the MacBook Air earlier in the event.
Effectiveness
Before the campaign's launch, Apple had seen lower sales in 2005–06. One month after the start of the "Get a Mac" campaign, Apple saw an increase of 200,000 Macs sold, and at the end of July 2006, Apple announced that it had sold 1.3 million Macs. Apple had an overall increase in sales of 39% for the fiscal year ending September 2006.
Criticism
In an article for Slate magazine, Seth Stevenson criticized the campaign as being too "mean spirited", suggesting, "isn't smug superiority (no matter how affable and casually dressed) a bit off-putting as a brand strategy?".
Writing in The Guardian, Charlie Brooker criticized the casting of comedians Mitchell and Webb in the UK campaign, noting that in the sitcom they were then starring in together, Peep Show, "Mitchell plays a repressed, neurotic underdog, and Webb plays a selfish, self-regarding poseur... So when you see the ads, you think, 'PCs are a bit rubbish yet ultimately lovable, whereas Macs are just smug, preening tossers.'"
PC Magazine Editor in Chief Lance Ulanoff criticized the campaign's use of the term "PC" to refer specifically to IBM PC compatible, or Wintel, computers, noting that this usage, though common, is incorrect, as the Macintosh is also a personal computer. In a 2008 column, he recommended that the characters instead introduce themselves as "a Mac PC" and "a Windows PC", adding, "Of course, the ads would then be far less effective, because consumers might realize that the differences Apple is trying to tout aren't quite as huge as Apple would like you to believe."
I'm a PC
Microsoft responded to the Get a Mac advertising campaign in late 2008 by releasing the I'm a PC campaign, featuring Microsoft employee Sean Siler as a John Hodgman look-alike. While Apple's ads show personifications of both Mac and PC systems, the Microsoft ads show PC users instead proudly defining themselves as PCs.
Justin Gets Real
In the wake of the Mac transition to Apple silicon, in March 2021, Intel made a similar advertising campaign, known as Justin Gets Real, featuring Justin Long as himself promoting Intel PCs over Macs. These commercials typically start with Long stating, "Hello, I'm a..." against the familiar plain white background before he suddenly says, "Justin, just a real person doing a real comparison between Mac and PC.". He is then seen interacting with the computers in a realistic setting and/or with others using them.
In popular culture/parodies
Videos parodying the Get a Mac campaign have been published online by Novell, to promote Linux, represented by a young and fashionable woman. A different set of videos parodying the campaign have been produced, but with Linux portrayed as a typical male nerd.
To promote Steam on Mac, Valve made a parody with Portal and Team Fortress 2 sentry guns.
After the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, the cast and crew of the American television show Numb3rs decided to parody the "Get a Mac" commercials to promote the return of the show on Friday, April 4, 2008. In the ad, brothers Don Eppes (Rob Morrow) and Dr. Charlie Eppes (David Krumholtz) debate the merits of being an FBI agent versus being a mathematician. The cast and crew used two hours of production time to film the 34-second ad.
The Get a Mac campaign became the basis for the long running YouTube series Hi, I'm a Marvel...and I'm a DC by ItsJustSomeRandomGuy. The series took the classic superhero characters from Marvel Comics and DC Comics and compared their film adaptations. In this case Marvel was constantly touted as being superior due to having more successful film adaptations of their characters than DC who have notoriously not only have had fewer adaptations, but also many of them being critically or commercially panned.
Late Show with David Letterman made parodies of the Get a Mac campaign, from Mac's wig being taken off by PC to reveal baldness, to Mac as David Hasselhoff eating a cheeseburger drunk.
On an episode of Air Farce Live, aired around the time of the Canadian federal election, had a sketch where one of the comedians was introduced as a Liberal, and the other as a PC (Progressive Conservative Party of Canada). The sketch was split into separate parts during the episode.
City of Heroes offered a series of online video parodies with a commercial featuring dialog centered around two machinima characters. They all start the same: one proclaiming "I'm a hero" and the other proclaiming "I'm a villain." The video was made to promote their new Mac edition of the game for OS X computers, released in February 2009.
Instant Star and Degrassi: The Next Generation were in a parody where they would describe their own shows. Alexz Johnson portrayed Instant Star (Johnson portrays Jude Harrison in the show) and Miriam McDonald portrayed Degrassi (McDonald portrays Emma Nelson in the show).
SuperNews! made 2 shorts based on the "Get a Mac" ads, which features Bill Gates and Steve Jobs fighting each other. Before all videos were removed from Current's YouTube Channel by Al Jazeera Media Network, the first one was the highest viewed video in said channel with over 3,000,000 views.
A Funny or Die promo video for the release of John Hodgman's book That Is All includes a segment in which Hodgman walks through a 'void' room in his deranged millionaire mansion. Justin Long sits alone in the white open space from the Get A Mac ads, happy to see Hodgman again and eager to make another commercial.
T-Mobile also created their own version in 2011 featuring Carly Foulkes. The advertisements followed the same structure as the Mac ads, but comparing T-Mobile to AT&T.
See also
Apple Switch ad campaign
Apple evangelist
Cola Wars
Comparative advertising
Apple Inc. advertising
References
Apple Inc. advertising
American television commercials
Advertising campaigns
2006 introductions
American advertising slogans
2006 neologisms
2000s television commercials
Computing comparisons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trams%20in%20Europe
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Trams in Europe
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Europe has an extensive number of tramway networks. Some of these networks have been upgraded to light rail standards, called Stadtbahn in Germany, premetros in Belgium, sneltram in the Netherlands, trem ligeiro in Portugal and fast trams in some other countries.
Overview
The introduction of trams in all the major cities of the late 19th century forced users and non-users alike to adjust to this intrusive, but clean and efficient form of transportation. Many early trams were horse-drawn, but electric trams followed. By the mid-1910s, the urban population were fully accustomed to trams as a fashionable mode of transport for work and leisure, and as a very positive and visual sign of the prosperity and prestige of the city. Visitors from the farms, villages and small towns sometimes made a trip on the tram a high priority when they came to the big city. A number of cities have retained - but also expanded - their original 19th century tram network, notably Warsaw (1866), Lisbon (1872), Gothenburg (1879), Budapest (1887), Prague (1891), Kyiv (1892), Milan and Genoa (1893), Rome, Bucharest and Belgrade (1894), Porto (1895), Vienna (1897), Helsinki (1899), and Gdańsk and Sarajevo (1895).
After World War 2, trams were seen as advantageous in many countries because, unlike buses, they did not use scarce petrol resources. However many tramways closed in the mid 20th century, as they were seen as less effective in terms of costs and use of the roadway than other forms of street transport. However, in recent decades tram networks in many countries in Europe have grown considerably. The Netherlands, which already makes extensive use of trams, has plans to expand tram services to two additional cities.
In Germany, many cities retain their original tram networks. In some places, tram networks have been added or expanded through the introduction of hybrid tram-train or stadtbahn systems which may combine standard railway, on-street and underground operations. Notable examples are the systems in Cologne and Karlsruhe. In Frankfurt-am-Main, many tram lines were transferred to U-Bahn operation.
In the United Kingdom, investment in public transport in the late 1980s turned to light rail as an alternative to more costly underground railway solutions, with the opening of the Tyne & Wear Metro in Newcastle (1980) and the Docklands Light Railway in London (1987) systems. However, the first British city to reintroduce on-street trams was Manchester, with the opening of its Metrolink network in 1992. Several other UK cities followed with their own modern tram systems, including Sheffield (Supertram, opened 1994), Birmingham and Wolverhampton (West Midlands Metro, opened 1999), London (Tramlink, opened 2000, albeit in a small part of Greater London), Nottingham (Nottingham Express Transit, opened 2004) and Edinburgh (Edinburgh Trams, opened 2014). Cardiff is currently building a system of 4 Light Rail Lines due to open in 2024. Many of these cities are planning or building network extensions.
Paris reintroduced trams with line T1 in 1992, and many French cities have seen a similar revival, for example the Tramway de Grenoble and the Montpellier trams.
The Czech capital Prague had planned one new line and the extension of eight others between 2007 and 2016, with an official of the Prague Public Transport Company stating that "In Europe in the past 10 years, tram transportation is the preferred way of transit; we can say that tram transportation is going through its renaissance period".
In Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, trams were reintroduced in December 2017, after being replaced by buses in 1964.
All the former communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, excluding Lithuania, Northern Macedonia, Montenegro, Moldova and Slovenia, have extensive tram infrastructure. Industrial freight use of city tram lines was a widespread practice until the 1960s but has since mostly disappeared. Another factor is an increasing replacement of trams with trolleybuses as cities face a rapid increase in traffic, and such replacement often allows more of the roadway to be used by cars. One of the exceptions is Warsaw, Poland, where the last trolleybus line was closed in the year 1995 due to high maintenance costs, and replaced with buses. Czech ČKD Tatra and the Hungarian Ganz factories were notable manufacturers of trams.
Austria
In Austria, Gmunden, Graz, Innsbruck, Linz and Vienna all have tramway systems. With 173.4 km of track, Vienna's network is one of the largest in the world. The cars have been constantly modernised over the years and many are now ultra low-floored. Many of the Austrian tramlines have been in constant operation since they were first opened. Vienna started with horse trams in 1865 and electrification followed in 1897. Graz had horse trams in 1878 and electric cars in 1898 while Linz goes back to 1880 with electrification in 1897. The Gmunden Tramway, only 2.3 km long, is currently one of the shortest in the world, and with gradients of up to 9.6%, it is also one of the steepest and has become a popular tourist attraction. Innsbruck, which traditionally used second-hand trams from other cities, replaced its whole fleet with 32 Bombardier low-floor cars in Summer 2009. The Pöstlingbergbahn, in Linz, an unusual "mountain tramway", has a gradient of 10.6%, which makes it one of the world's steepest gradients on a surviving adhesion-only railway. The tramway now reaches the city centre via the tracks of the urban tram system.
Belarus
There are four tram systems in Belarus currently: Minsk, Mazyr, Novopolotsk and Vitebsk.
Belgium
In Belgium an extensive prewar system of tram-like local railways called Vicinal or Buurtspoorweg lines used to exist, which had a greater total route kilometre length than the main-line railway system. The only survivors of the Vicinal system are the Kusttram, the longest tram line in the world, which almost reaches France at one end of the line and the Netherlands at the other, and two short lines that form part of the Charleroi Pre-metro.
Urban tram networks exist in Antwerp, Ghent and Brussels, and are gradually being extended. In Liège a new tram line is currently under construction.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
The electric tram started in Sarajevo in 1895.
Several trams were badly damaged during the Bosnian war. Several European countries donated out of use trams to Sarajevo in the years after the war.
Recently, more modern vehicles have arrived to upgrade and expand the fleet.
Bulgaria
Sofia is the only city that currently has a tram system. It had its first horse-drawn tram in operation in 1898. On 1 January 1901 the electric tram system was inaugurated and had 25 cars and 10 carriages and the total length of the lines was 25 km. Currently Sofia's extensive tram network consists of 15 routes, 3 of which are operated on the standard gauge of 1435mm, while the others use a narrow gauge of 1009mm. Due to the construction of the Sofia Metro there were some closures and retracing, but the system continues to be one of the largest in Europe. According to the official website, as of 2006 there are 308 km of track, with 190 trams in service on any given weekday.
Croatia
Zagreb has had a tram service since 5 September 1891; it is now an extensive tram network with 15 day lines and 4 night lines covering over 116 km (72 mi) of tracks through 255 stations. ZET, the major transit authority in Zagreb, ordered 210 new, 100% low-floor trams from Croatian consortium Crotram. As of 2010, all of these locally produced, low-floor Crotram trams have been delivered, with a mixture of vehicle types in operation, including Czech Tatra Cars and various locally produced trams. Zagreb is one of the few tram networks in the world where most of the operations run at the kerb.
The only other Croatian city with trams still in operation is Osijek. The first tram route commenced in 1884 (connecting the railway station and city square) and trams have been running since. Between 2006 and 2007, the trams were refurbished and modernised. Two lines presently exist, with another two extensions planned, doubling the network length.
Dubrovnik, Opatija, Pula, Rijeka and Velika Gorica previously also operated trams.
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is well known for its extensive tram infrastructure, with trams often being present even in small cities. The largest network is in Prague, with 144 kilometres of track and 35 lines, including 9 night lines. Other cities with tram systems are Brno, Ostrava, Plzeň, Olomouc, Most and Litvínov (common network), Liberec (including intercity line to Jablonec). Tram networks in nine other cities were closed down mainly during the 1960s and replaced with trolleybuses or buses.
Before changes in 1989, ČKD Tatra in Prague was the largest tram producer in the world, mainly exporting its trams to Soviet Bloc countries. Production was definitely stopped in 2001, after ČKD was sold to Siemens AG. The tradition of tram production is continuing with Škoda Transportation, Inekon and PRAGOIMEX.
Denmark
In Aarhus, Denmark the Aarhus Letbane a new tramway is combined with converted local railways, operating since December 2017.
In Odense, Denmark the Odense Letbane a new tramway, operating since 28 May 2022.
In Copenhagen, Denmark construction has started on a new tramway, expected to start operation in 2025.
Estonia
In Estonia, trams are used only in the capital, Tallinn. There has been a growing tram network in Tallinn since 1888, when traffic was started by horse-powered trams. The first line was electrified on 28 October 1925. Estonian-built electric trams were also used, with some gas-powered trams having been used in the 1920s and 1930s. The last part of the system to be electrified was the spur to Kopli in 1951, which was also converted to double track at the time, and was connected to the rest of the network in 1953.
From 1955 to 1988, German-built trams were used. The first Czechoslovakian-built tram arrived in 1973. In 2007, 56 Tatra KT4SUs, 12 KTNF6s (rebuilt KT4SUs) and 23 second-hand KT4Ds trams were in use. There are four lines, with total length of tramlines 39 km. Plans have been in the works since the late 1970s to open a light rail line from one of the suburbs, Lasnamäe, to the city centre.
In 2017, an extension was opened to Tallinn Airport. This is the first extension to the network since 1955, when the stretch to Ülemiste district was lengthened.
The track and electrical systems have also undergone major work to enable the system to accommodate 20 new vehicles delivered by CAF in 2016.
Finland
In Finland, there have been four cities with trams: Helsinki, Turku, Viipuri and Tampere. Of the three older systems only Helsinki has retained its tram network. The system has operated continuously since 1891 and it was fully electrified by 1901. Currently there are 10 tram lines on 89.5 kilometres of track. Around 200,000 passengers use the tram network each weekday and within the inner city of Helsinki trams have established a position as the main form of public transport. The network is being actively developed, with a new line opened in 2008 and more lines planned to connect new residential areas to be built in 2009–2015. In 2009, the city invited bids for manufacturers to produce 40 new low-floor trams, with an option for further 50 available.
The City of Tampere begun construction of a tram network in early 2017, with phase 1 from the city centre to Hervanta, and the University Hospital. The first phase of the tram system was opened in 2021. Construction of phase 2, from the city centre to Lentävänniemi in the west, begun in 2021 and is expected to be completed in 2024.
The cities of Oulu and Turku have started the planning of tram networks. Turku has accepted The Light Rail Network of Turku's principal plan as obeyed normatively. Even though Oulu's vice mayor rejected the idea, the city included it in The Zoning Scheme of New Oulu as "normative" and "necessary".
France
Despite the closure of most of France's tram systems in previous decades, a rapidly growing number of France's major cities boast new tram networks, including Paris (the largest French network), Lyon, Marseille, Nantes, Strasbourg, Grenoble, Montpellier, Saint-Étienne and Besançon. Since the 1990s, tram systems have been introduced, or expanded, in twenty-seven towns and cities. Many experiments, such as ground level power supply in Bordeaux, avoiding the need for overhead line equipment, or trolleybus-tram-BRT hybrids in Nancy and Caen with Bombardier Guided Light Transit. Smaller cities like Avignon are now running tram lines too.
Germany
Tramways in Germany served as the primary means of urban transport until the early 1960s when they were systematically replaced by buses. Tramways begun to reappear in the 1980s, before once again becoming a modern means of public transport in the 1990s. Popular notions of fashion have been used by scholars to explain this cycle of acceptance, rejection and restoration.
Germany (where tramways are called Straßenbahn, meaning street railway) is notable for its large numbers of extensive tram systems, although even in this country many systems were closed after the Second World War, such as the tramway in Hamburg which last ran in 1978. Following the renaissance of trams in France and positive experience with tram-train and similar concepts (e.g. the Karlsruhe model), most German tramways are expanding, including new systems in cities that had previously abandoned them or entirely new systems in cities without any tram history.
Light rail in Germany
Stadtbahn, literally city railway in the German language, is the term for light rail in Germany and is the predecessor of the North American light rail. Most German light rail systems were started in the 1960s and 1970s with the intention of establishing full-scale underground, or U-Bahn (short for Untergrundbahn) systems. By the 1980s virtually all cities had abandoned these plans due to the high costs of converting tramways, and the most common systems are a mixture of tramway-like operations in suburban areas, with U-Bahn style operation, featuring underground stations, in the city centre areas.
Greece
Trams were the main mode of mass transportation in Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras, Volos, Kalamata and Piraeus before World War II but were ripped out due to the cars and busses rapidly rising popularity.
The first trams in Athens began operating in 1882. They were light vehicles drawn by three horses running on an extensive network throughout the city centre and a line reaching the suburb of Faliro. After the German occupation, the tramways began to decline, with lines gradually abandoned and replaced by trolleybuses, considered more appropriate and agile for the urban environment at that time. It is frequently mentioned somehow poetically that "The last bell of the Athens Tram rang on the midnight of October 16, 1960". The tram had been a trademark of Athens until that date, and it is still viewed nostalgically. One tram line was left in Perama, which remained in operation until April 1977. A modern tram line was installed for the 2004 Summer Olympics, with vehicles designed by the famous Ferrari designer Sergio Pininfarina. There are three routes and 24 km of tramlines, running from Syntagma Square to Eden Station, and from Peace & Friendship Stadium in Piraeus to Glyfada along the coast. Routes were extended by 0.7 km from Glyfada to Voula in 2007, and was expanded 2.5 km further from Peace & Friendship Stadium to Piraeus centre in 2021.
Hungary
The Hungarian cities of Budapest, Debrecen, Hódmezővásárhely, Miskolc and Szeged currently have tramways. The Budapest network, at 149 km, is the backbone of the capital's transit system and is by far the most extensive in the country.
Historically, Hungary has had tramways in Sopron until 1923, Pécs until 1960, Nyíregyháza until 1969 and Szombathely until 1974.
Ireland
Replacing a once-extensive network of Dublin tramways which closed in 1949, in 2004 the Irish capital Dublin opened the first two lines of a new light-rail system known as Luas, Irish for "speed". It features on-street running in the city centre, but is considered a light-rail system as it runs along a dedicated right-of-way for much of its suburban route. Two light-metro lines fully segregated from traffic were planned to be built by 2014, but were cancelled due to the economic downturn.
Plans also exist for light-rail systems in the cities of Cork, which had a modest system until the early 20th century, and Galway. In January 2007, the Green Party promised that, if it formed part of the next government in 2007, it would have light rail systems built in those two cities. A smaller campaign was also ongoing for the construction of a light rail system in Limerick.
Italy
Trams in Italy have been in constant operation since the mid-19th century. The first horse-drawn line opened in Turin in 1871, whilst the first electric line was opened in 1893 in Milan.
Current tramways in Italy are:
Bergamo – since 2009 with 1 suburban light rail line running over 12.5 km of track, operated by TEB Bergamo.
Cagliari – since 2008 with 2 suburban light rail lines running over 12 km of track, operated by ARST.
Florence – since 2010 with 2 urban lines running over16.8 km of track, operated by a joint venture GEST between municipal transport company ATAF Firenze and RATP Paris.
Messina – since 2003 with 1 urban line running over 7.7 km of track, operated by ATM Messina.
Mestre/Venice – since 2010 with 1 urban line running over 7.7 km of track, operated by ACTV.
Milan – since 1881 with 17 urban lines and 1 interurban line, running over 181 km of track, operated by ATM.
Naples – since 1875 with 3 urban lines running over 11.8 km of track, operated by ANM Napoli.
Padua – since 2007 with 1 Translohr urban line running over 10.3 km of track, operated by APS Padova.
Palermo – since 2015 with 4 urban lines.
Rome – since 1877 with 6 urban lines running over 40 km of track, operated by ATAC Roma.
Sassari – since 2006 with 1 tram-train line running over 4.3 km of track, operated by ARST.
Trieste – since 1902 with 1 hybrid tramway-funicular railway line running over 5.2 km of track, operated by Trieste Trasporti.
Turin – since 1871 with 9 urban lines running over 84 km of track, operated by GTT Torino.
Latvia
There are currently three tram systems in Latvia, in Riga, Daugavpils and Liepāja.
Luxembourg
Trams began serving Luxembourg City in 1875, and in Esch-sur-Alzette in 1927. First generation trams in the country ended with the closure of the Esch-sur-Alzette network in 1956, and the Luxembourg City network in 1964. A second generation of trams began service in December 2017, along a new route that will, by 2021, run from Luxembourg Airport to the Cloche d'Or business district.
Malta
A tram service was inaugurated in Malta on 23 February 1905, linking the capital Valletta with Floriana, Ħamrun, Birkirkara, the Three Cities, Qormi and Żebbuġ. The service competed with the Malta Railway and later the Malta buses. Service eventually ceased on 15 December 1929.
The Ministry of Transport has considered the reintroduction of trams in Malta.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands many local light railways were referred to as trams, even where the steam locomotives did not have enclosed motion. Today, extensive tram networks exist in:
Amsterdam (GVB)
Rotterdam (RET)
The Hague (HTM)
Utrecht (Qbuzz)
Norway
There are three tramways () in Norway; the Oslo Tramway that operates as a hybrid between a light rail and a street tram with six lines, and the suburban line of Trondheim Tramway, the Gråkall Line. The Bergen Tramway was closed in 1965, but the new Bergen Light Rail opened in 2010.
Poland
Trams currently operate in 15 Polish cities/metropolises: Bydgoszcz, Częstochowa, Elbląg, Gdańsk, Gorzów Wielkopolski, Grudziądz, Katowice/Metropolis GZM, Kraków, Łódź, Olsztyn , Poznań, Szczecin, Toruń, Warsaw and Wrocław. The largest system is Silesian Interurbans in Metropolis GZM with 255 km of track and 35 lines, followed by Warsaw with 150 km of route length and 34 lines and Łódź with 124 km of route length and 28 lines. A system in Płock was planned but the construction was postponed indefinitely in 2011.
Portugal
The Lisbon tramway network has been managed by the Companhia Carris de Ferro de Lisboa, or Carris for short, for over a century. Since 1995, the fleet includes authentic vintage cars, units made from vintage bodies powered by modern engines, and fully modern articulated trams.
In Porto, a tram network has been in operation since 12 September 1895, making it the first electric tramway in the Iberian Peninsula. Many routes closed in the 1970s and 1980s, but one survived and some closed sections have reopened in the 2000s, and four routes are currently in operation.
A heritage tram line operates seasonally in Sintra. Reductions in the network's original service started in 1954, until closure in 1975. It was re-opened in 1980 using a section of the former line and surviving trams.
Almada has a light rail network, the Metro Sul do Tejo, which opened in 2007, following two decades of planning. Extensions to Seixal and Barreiro are currently planned.
Romania
There are currently 11 tram systems in Romania, in Arad, Botoşani, Brăila, Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Craiova, Galaţi, Iaşi, Oradea, Ploieşti, Timișoara.
Serbia
Belgrade has a large tram network with 12 lines on 127.3 km of track. The system is operated with around 250 units and with ČKD Tatra KT4 and Duewag Be 4/6 trams. The first horse-drawn tram line was introduced in October 1892 and the first electric one in 1894. There are long-term plans to build a new track to the Mirijevo neighbourhood, in the east of the city.
Previously the cities of Niš, Novi Sad, and Subotica also had tram networks, but these closed in Novi Sad and Niš in the 1950s, and in Subotica in 1974.
Slovakia
There are tram networks in both Bratislava and Košice.
The first trams in Bratislava started operation in 1895, and there are currently 5 lines in service with a track length of 41.5 km. A newest tram line was built across the river Danube to the Petrzalka suburb on the right bank. There are multiple plans for expanding the network, but funding is currently unclear.
Košice started operating trams in 1914, after wagons pulled by horses and a steam tramway. Trams currently run over 34 km of tracks and run on 7 lines within the city and 8 fast tram lines to U. S. Steel Košice.
Spain
In Spain, modern tram networks have been opened in Alicante, Barcelona (Trambaix and Trambesòs), Bilbao, Madrid, Murcia, Parla, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Seville, Valencia, Vélez-Málaga, Vitoria-Gasteiz and Zaragoza. Jaén had built a tram network in 2011, but it only operated for a short period.
Sweden
The most extensive network in Sweden is in Gothenburg with a total track length of 90 km double track. Gothenburg started with the Horse Tramway in 1879 and over the years the tramway has expanded into the Nordic region's largest tramway system.
Stockholm had horse-drawn trams from 1877; however, the large tram system began to be abandoned and removed in 1957, with the last tram running in September 1967. Presently Stockholm has four lines on three non-connected systems owned by Storstockholms Lokaltrafik: Spårväg City; Lidingöbanan; Nockebybanan and Tvärbanan. There are plans for future extensions and two projects are in active development.
Norrköping has an 18.7 km tram network consisting of two radial lines, which was extended by 5 kilometres in 2006–2011.
Lund inaugurated its first ever tram line on the 12th of December 2020. At a length of 5.5 kilometers, it connects Lund Central Station with the new urban development at Brunnshög and the research facilities MAX IV and ESS.
A single-track heritage line has operated in Malmö since 1987, after the last "real" tram line closed in 1973. City officials decided in October 2008 that the city should have at least one light rail line operating before 2020, and up to six lines after that.
A combined tramway museum and heritage tramway is located at Malmköping, Södermanland County, maintained by Svenska Spårvägssällskapet, the Swedish Tramway Society.
Switzerland
The first tram in Switzerland began operations in 1862 in Geneva. The tram, which was initially horse-drawn, got converted to steam in 1877. In 1888 the second electric tram system in the world was inaugurated in Vevey, linking the city to Montreux and Château de Chillon. By 1923, a total of 29 towns and cities in the country operated tram networks, and at 170 km in extension and operating beyond the country's borders into France, Geneva's tram network became Europe's largest system
After WW2 and the introduction of buses and trolleybuses, many of the networks shrunk. Geneva lost all but one of its lines, and some cities closed their trams, including Fribourg, Lausanne, Lugano, Biel/Bienne, Luzern, Vevey, Montreux, St. Gallen, Schaffhausen, or Zug.
However, Switzerland is remarkable in that a few major cities kept their networks mostly intact until today. For example, although some of the tram lines extending beyond the city of Zurich closed down, the vast majority of lines within the city did not suffer any closures. Similarly, Bern and Basel kept most of their tram lines intact.
Because, with the exception of Geneva and Lausanne, the country's major cities have not lost their tram systems, Switzerland has not witnessed a major re-construction of trams as happened in the rest of Europe in the decades following the 1990s. The major exception is Geneva, where the system has been growing back again from the one line and 8 km that was left out of its original network, to 5 lines and 36 km. By the end of 2019, with the opening of line 17, the network had once again extended over the border to the French city of Annemasse, with planned future extensions to over 50 km by 2026.
Turkey
The first tram line in Istanbul was constructed by Konstantin Karapano Efendi, and started operating on 31 July 1871 between the districts of Azapkapi and Ortaköy. In 1869, the tram company "Dersaadet Tramvay Şirketi" was established. 430 horses were used to draw the 45 carriages, including 15 summer-type and some double-deckers, on meter gauge track. In 1912, the horse-drawn tram had to cease to operate for one year because the Ministry of Defence sent all the horses to the front during the Balkan War. The tram network was electrified by overhead contact wire on 2 February 1914. The tram began to run on the Anatolian part of Istanbul on 8 June 1928 between Üsküdar and Kisikli. By the 1950s, the length of the tram lines reached 130 km. Trams were in service on the European part until 12 August 1961 and on the Anatolian part until 14 November 1966.
Heritage trams returned to Istiklal Caddesi in 1990 and in Moda in 2003. Modern trams began service on the European side in 1992 and have since been expanded. The latest addition to the system, as of 2021 was the T5 line running along the Golden Horn.
Istanbul is the only city in European Turkey with operating trams. In Anatolia, there are operating trams in Adana, Antalya, Bursa, Eskişehir, Gaziantep, Kayseri, Kocaeli, Konya, Samsun and Izmir.
United Kingdom and Crown dependencies
Until 1935 there was a large and comprehensive network of tram systems. For example, one could travel by tram across northwest England, from Liverpool to Ashton-under-Lyne (approx. 43 miles) using connecting systems. Most UK systems were municipally owned. These had often been inherited from private sector operators, who had been granted limited-term leases and did not maintain their networks beyond bare necessities as the time for a forced handover approached. When councils acquired these dilapidated systems, it was almost always cheaper to replace them with buses. The 1931 Royal Commission on traffic argued that trams held up cars.
There was some public reaction against tramway abandonment, but seemingly less than the similarly unsuccessful reaction against Beeching cuts in the 1960s. Some people, particularly motorists, welcomed the removal of trams, which were perceived as obstructing the highway. Not all passengers transferred to replacement buses, and car ownership continued to increase.
Britain's tram systems were mainly dismantled between 1920 and 1960, and after the closure of Glasgow's once extensive GCT network in 1962, only Blackpool's trams survived, although the Great Orme Tramway funicular line continued to operate up the Great Orme in Llandudno.
Since the 1990s, a second generation of tram networks have been built and have started operating in Manchester in 1992, Sheffield in 1994, the West Midlands in 1999, South London in 2000, Nottingham in 2004 and Edinburgh in 2014, whilst the original trams in Blackpool were upgraded to second generation vehicles in 2012.
There have been numerous other proposals for tramways in other cities and extensions to existing systems the UK, whilst the system in the West Midlands is currently having extensions built.
On the Isle of Man, electric tram cars have run almost continuously since the late 19th century (albeit mainly as summer tourist attractions) on the Manx Electric Railway (Douglas to Ramsey) and the Snaefell Mountain Railway (Laxey to Snaefell summit), as well as horse trams along Douglas Promenade.
Former USSR/Russia and CIS
In many cities of Russia, Ukraine, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan tramways have been facing difficulties since the disintegration of the USSR. Tramways of Shakhty, Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan, Grozny, Tbilisi, Baku, Yerevan, Almaty, Sumqayit, Gandja and Tashkent have been abandoned. Some tramway systems have suffered extensive closures of vital parts of network (including Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv) and some are facing threats of closures (Nizhniy Novgorod) or even total abandonment (Voronezh).
The tramway network in Saint Petersburg is the largest in Europe, and was once the second-largest in the world, surpassed only by Pacific Electric's 160 km network in Los Angeles. The network in Melbourne, Australia, is now larger.
See also
List of light-rail and tramway systems in Europe
List of town tramway systems in Europe
Bucharest Articulated Tramcar
Tram
Light rail
References
Tram transport in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20LTV%20A-7%20Corsair%20II%20operators
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List of LTV A-7 Corsair II operators
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The following is a list of operators of the LTV A-7 Corsair II attack aircraft.
Operators
Greece
The Hellenic Air Force acquired 60 A-7Hs and five TA-7Hs from LTV between 1975-1980 and then 50 A-7Es and 18 TA-7Cs from the US Navy's inventory in 1993–1994.
Greece operated the Corsair IIs, in the form of the A-7E and TA-7C variants, and used these aircraft in the traditional tactical strike and ground attack roles for which it was designed. Greek A-7s were upgraded with many improvements, such as greater thrust from their Allison TF-41 engines, upgraded avionics, radar, and full day/night capabilities. All Greek A-7s were programmed to be retired on October 17, 2014.
Hellenic Air Force (Elliniki Polemiki Aeroporia)
110th Combat Wing, Larissa Air Base
345th Bomber Squadron, with A-7H (1976–2002)
347th Bomber Squadron, with A-7H (1977–1992)
115th Combat Wing, Souda Air Base
340th Bomber Squadron, with A-7H (1975–2001)
116th Combat Wing, Araxos Air Base
335th Bomber Squadron, with A-7E (1993–2008)
336th Bomber Squadron, with A-7E (1993–2014)
Portugal
Portugal's A-7s (designated A-7P, TA-7P) were 20 converted ex-United States Navy (USN) A-7A airframes powered by the Pratt & Whitney TF30-P408 engine and were equipped with A-7D and A-7E avionics. These aircraft were purchased through the V-519 contract of May 5, 1980, and initially 28 A-7A airframes were to be converted to the A-7P standard, but only the best 20 airframes were approved for the conversion. Deliveries to Portugal against this contract began on December 24, 1981, with the arrival of the first nine aircraft, and were completed by September 29, 1982.
In May, 1983, Portugal renegotiated the contract and placed an order for an additional 24 A-7Ps and six A-7As converted to two-seaters as TA-7P standard. Delivery of the aircraft of this second order took place between October 8, 1984, and April 30, 1986. However, one A-7P (PoAF s/n 15540) of the 24 ordered was lost in an accident in the United States prior to its delivery.
As part of the second order, the United States Navy leased one TA-7C (s/n 154404; c/n B-044) to Portugal between April 1982 and June 1985 for operational conversion of fighter pilots. This aircraft, a A-7B-1-CV Corsair II converted to TA-7C tandem-seat trainer, was nicknamed "Pomba Branca" (white dove) due to the original USN white paint that was kept. It was later returned to the United States Navy.
On June 10, 1999, the last operational Corsair II conducted the last flight of the aircraft fleet in service with the PoAF, with 64,000 logged flight hours.
Portuguese Air Force (Força Aérea Portuguesa)
Attack Squadron 302 "Águias Reais" based at Air Base No. 5, in Monte Real, between 1981 and 1996.
Attack Squadron 304 "Magníficos" based at Air Base No. 5, in Monte Real, between 1984 and 1999.
Thailand
Thailand purchased 14 A-7Es and 4 TA-7Cs for coastal defense and sea patrol duties. The aircraft were delivered during the summer of 1995 and were in service with the 104th "White Shark" squadron, 1st Wing at U-Tapao Air Base. These aircraft were not operational as of July 20, 2007. However, the Royal Thai Navy continues to maintain the operability of the aircraft with the necessary maintenance and by starting them up and taxiing them on the airport's tarmac.
Royal Thai Naval Air Division (Ratchanavee Thai or Kong Tup Rua Thai)
104th "White Shark" squadron, 1st Wing, U-Tapao Air Base; operated A-7E and TA-7C aircraft.
United States
United States Air Force
In response to the Army's need for a ground attack aircraft in South Vietnam, the Vought A-7 seemed to be a relatively quick and inexpensive way to satisfy this need. The USAF version of the aircraft was designated A-7D, and was customized with a different engine, a new avionics package, and an M61 rotary cannon, and a computerized navigation/weapons delivery system.
Support Commands
The first YA-7D and some early production A-7D aircraft were received from LTV by Air Force Systems Command at Edwards AFB, California (Tail code: ED) and Eglin AFB, Florida (EG) in early 1968. Edwards aircraft were used for the initial Flight Testing (FT) of the new aircraft, and were later retained for ongoing flight testing of aircraft modifications over its years in operational service. An A-7D was also used at the USAF Test Pilot School. In 1979, the prototype A-7K two-seat trainer was tested at Edwards, and in 1988, the YA-7F Strike fighter was also tested there. Edlin Aircraft were used for Operational Testing (OT) and weapons tests of ordnance.
Tinker AFB, Oklahoma (FLZ) was designated the prime depot support facility for the A-7D. All newly manufactured aircraft were delivered there from LTV for acceptance inspection by Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) prior to delivery to operational units. Tinker also provided ongoing depot-level maintenance and IRAN inspections of operational aircraft until its retirement in 1992.
6510th Test Wing Edwards Air Force Base California
YA-7D-1-CV s/n 67-14582 (1968-1992) First Y-A7D flight 4/6/1968
YA-7D-1-CV s/n 67-14583 (1968-1992) First USAF Fly-By-Wire (DIGITAC) aircraft
A-7D-2-CV s/n 68-8221 (1968-1972) (crashed)
A-7D-2-CV s/n 68-8222 (1968-1992)
A-7D-2-CV s/n 68-8223 (1968-1978)
A-7D-3-CV s/n 69-6191 (1978-1991)
A-7D-3-CV s/n 69-6194 (1969-1990)
A-7D-5-CV s/n 69-6217 (1983-1992)
A-7D-15-CV s/n 73-1008 (1979-1982) Converted to A-7K Prototype
A-7D-11-CV s/n 71-0344 (1989-1990) Converted to YA-7F first prototype
A-7D-9-CV s/n 70-1039 (1989-1990) Converted to YA-7F second prototype
3246th Test Wing Eglin Air Force Base, Florida (AD).
YA-7D-1-CV s/n 67-14585 (1968-1973) (Eglin) Crashed
YA-7D-1-CV s/n 67-14586 (1968-1975) (Eglin)
A-7D-2-CV s/n 68-8224 (1968-1976) (Edwards/Eglin)
Operational use
The first production A-7Ds were delivered to the Tactical Air Command USAF Tactical Fighter Weapons School at Nellis AFB, Nevada in September 1969 for advanced air combat evaluations. Approximately 12 aircraft were assigned to the 66th Fighter Weapons Squadron, 4525th Fighter Weapons Wing at any one time.
57th Fighter Weapons Wing, Nellis AFB, Nevada 1969–1981 (WA)
4525th FWW, Det. 1 - Received a/c 9/1969. Transferred a/c to 66th FWS 6/1972.
66th Fighter Weapons Squadron - Received a/c 6/72 from 4525th FWW - Transferred a/c to ANG 1981.
Aircraft used for advanced air combat evaluations.
Luke AFB, Arizona, was the second Tactical Air Command base to receive the aircraft. In 1969, the 310th Tactical Fighter Training Squadron, 58th Tactical Fighter Training Wing began Fighter Lead-In training for USAF pilots to transition to the A-7D. This training was conducted until July 1971, when the training was transferred to Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona with the establishment of the 333d Tactical Fighter Training Squadron/355th TFW. Subsequently, all A-7D aircraft, personnel and support equipment was reassigned.
58th Tactical Fighter Training Wing Luke AFB Arizona 1969–1971 (LA)
310th Tactical Fighter Training Squadron - Received a/c 12/1969. Transferred a/c to 333d TFS/355th TFW 7/1971
The first operational aircraft for TAC were received at Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina (MB) and Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona (DM) in 1971, becoming operational in 1972. England AFB, Louisiana (EL) was equipped in 1972 and made operational in 1973.
354th Tactical Fighter Wing, Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina 1970–1978 (MB)***
353d Tactical Fighter Squadron (MR/MB) - Received a/c 7/1971 from inactivated 511th TFS. Additional a/c received during 1973/1974 after deployed assets transferred to 3d TFS/388th TFW. Transferred a/c to ANG 1976
355th Tactical Fighter Squadron (MB) - Received a/c 12/1970. Transferred a/c to ANG 1977
356th Tactical Fighter Squadron (MN/MB) - Received a/c 5/1971. Transferred a/c to ANG 1977.
511th Tactical Fighter Squadron (MR) - Received a/c 6/1970. Transferred a/c to 353d TFS 7/1971 and inactivated.
4554th Tactical Fighter Replacement Squadron (MB) - Received a/c 5/1972. Transferred a/c to ANG 1974/75.
355th Tactical Fighter Wing, Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona 1971–1979 (DM)***
333d Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (DM) - Transferred from 310 TFTS/58th TFTW 7/1971. - Transferred a/c to ANG 1976.
354th Tactical Fighter Squadron (DA/DM) - Received a/c 7/1971. Transferred a/c to ANG 1979.
357th Tactical Fighter Squadron (DC/DM) - Received a/c 5/1971. Transferred a/c to ANG 1976.
358th Tactical Fighter Squadron (DD/DM) - Received a/c 10/1971. Transferred a/c to ANG 1978.
23d Tactical Fighter Wing, England Air Force Base Louisiana 1972–1981 (EL)
74th Tactical Fighter Squadron - Received a/c 7/1972. Transferred a/c to ANG 1981.
75th Tactical Fighter Squadron - Received a/c 7/1972. Transferred a/c to ANG 1981.
76th Tactical Fighter Squadron - Received a/c 10/1972. Transferred a/c to ANG 1981.
A-7D Corsair II aircraft arrived at Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand in October 1972 during the Vietnam War. The aircraft were deployed primarily from the 353d and 356th Tactical Fighter Squadrons, 354th Tactical Fighter Wing at Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina. Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) activated the 3d Tactical Fighter Squadron/388th TFW at Korat and most of the Myrtle Beach A-7Ds were transferred to the new permanent squadron. 3d TFS aircraft were tail-coded "JH". This was the only A-7D unit assigned outside of the United States on a permanent basis.
388th Tactical Fighter Wing, Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand 1973–1975 (JH)
3d Tactical Fighter Squadron - Received a/c 3/1973 from deployed 353d TFS/354th TFW. Transferred a/c to ANG 1975.
Beginning in 1979, A-7Ds and A-7K trainers were used by the 4451st Tactical Squadron, 4450th Tactical Group at Nellis AFB. Although assigned to Nellis AFB, the aircraft operated from Tonopah Test Range Airport, Nevada (LV) as part of the F-117A Stealth Fighter program. In 1989, the aircraft were transferred to the Air National Guard when the F-117A became operational.
The 4451st TS was the last USAF active-duty A-7D Corsair II squadron.
4450th Tactical Group, Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada 1981–1989 (LV) **
4451st Tactical Squadron (Formerly 4450TG (P) Unit) - Received eight A-7Ds from retiring 23d TFW a/c 6/1981, and two A-7K a/c (73-1008, 79-0469) in late 1981. Transferred a/c to ANG 1989.
Note:*** Prior to June 1972, Squadron Tail Codes were used on Myrtle Beach and Davis-Monthan aircraft. These were standardized to MB for 354th TFW and DM for 355th TFW IAW AFM 66–1 in June 1972.
United States Air National Guard
With the end of the Vietnam War, Air National Guard (ANG) units began receiving active-duty A-7D aircraft in 1974, beginning with the Colorado, New Mexico and Ohio ANG. South Carolina and Puerto Rico received aircraft in 1975. New production aircraft (1974, 1975 serial numbers) began to be received by ANG units in 1975.
As Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft were received by Tactical Air Command, additional A-7Ds were transferred to Iowa and South Dakota in 1977, along with Arizona and Michigan in 1978. The last Air National Guard squadrons equipped were units of the Pennsylvania ANG in 1980; and of the Oklahoma and Virginia ANGs in 1981.
The A-7K Corsair II was a two-seat trainer version of the A-7D for Air National Guard, The aircraft was a fully combat capable A-7D but with two seats in tandem. The first A-7Ks were delivered in 1982.
In the early 1990s, the A-7D was phased out of the ANG inventory, with the aircraft being sent to AMARC. In 1993 the last units to retire the A-7D were the ANG units at Rickenbacker ANGB (Ohio) in January, Des Moines (Iowa) in September, with the last unit being the 125th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Tulsa (Oklahoma) in October 1993.
112th Tactical Fighter Group Pennsylvania ANG (PT)
146th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Pittsburgh IAP Air Reserve Station, Pittsburgh Received A-7D in 1980 and A-7K in 1983.Re-designated as 146th Air Refueling Squadron with KC-135s on October 16, 1991.
114th Tactical Fighter Group South Dakota ANG (SD)
175th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Sioux Falls (Joe Foss Field Air National Guard Station) Received A-7D in 1977 and A-7K in 1982.Converted to Block 30 F-16C/Ds on March 16, 1992.
121st Tactical Fighter Wing Ohio ANG (OH)
162d Tactical Fighter Squadron, Springfield Received A-7D in 1978 and A-7K in 1982.Converted to Block 30 F-16C/Ds in May 1993.
112th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Toledo Air National Guard Base, Toledo Received A-7D in 1979 and A-7K in 1980.Converted to Block 25 F-16C/Ds in April 1992.
166th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base, Columbus Received A-7D in 1974 and A-7K in 1983. Re-designated as 166th Air Refueling Squadron and equipped with KC-135Rs on January 16, 1993.
127th Tactical Fighter Wing Michigan ANG (MI)
107th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Selfridge Air National Guard Base, Detroit Received A-7D in 1978 and A-7K in 1983.Converted to Block 10 F-16A/B on April 1, 1990.
132d Tactical Fighter Wing Iowa ANG (IA)
124th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Des Moines Air National Guard Base, Des Moines Received A-7D in 1977 and A-7K in 1981.Converted to Block 42 F-16C/Ds in September 1993.
185th Tactical Fighter Group (1976) (HA)
174th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Sioux City Air National Guard Base, Sioux City Received A-7D in 1976 and A-7K in 1983. Converted to F-16C/Ds on March 16, 1992
138th Tactical Fighter Group Oklahoma ANG (TL/OK)
125th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Tulsa Air National Guard Base, Tulsa Received A-7D in 1981 and A-7K in 1983.Converted to Block 42 F-16C/Ds in October 1993.
140th Tactical Fighter Wing Colorado ANG (CO)
120th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Buckley Air Force Base, Aurora Received A-7D in 1974 and A-7K in 1983.Converted to Block 30 F-16C/Ds on March 15, 1992
150th Tactical Fighter Wing, New Mexico Air National Guard (NM)
188th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Kirtland Air Force Base, Albuquerque
Received A-7D in 1974
Converted to Block 40 F-16C/Ds on 11 May 1992
156th Tactical Fighter Wing Puerto Rico ANG (PR)
198th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Muñiz Air National Guard Base, San Juan Received A-7D in 1975 and A-7K in 1983.Converted to Block 15 ADF (Air Defense) F-16A/Bs on March 16, 1992.
162d Tactical Fighter Group Arizona ANG (AZ)
152d Tactical Fighter Squadron, Tucson Air National Guard Base, Tucson Received A-7D in 1978, A-7K in 1983.Converted to Block 10/15 F-16A/Bs on May 29, 1986, upgraded to Block 42 F-16C/D in 1995.
195th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Tucson Air National Guard Base, Tucson Received A-7D and A-7K in 1983.Converted to Block 15 F-16A/Bs on March 16, 1992.
169th Tactical Fighter Group South Carolina ANG (SC)
157th Tactical Fighter Squadron, McEntire Joint National Guard Base, Columbia Received A-7D in 1975 and A-7K in 1982.Converted to F-16A/Bs in 1983.
192d Tactical Fighter Group Virginia ANG (VA)
149th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Richmond International Airport, Richmond Received A-7D in 1981 and A-7K in 1982.Converted to Block 30 F-16C/Ds on March 15, 1992.
United States Navy
The A-7 Corsair II made its initial military service and combat debut with the United States Navy in 1967 and, over time, became its most prolific user. It was gradually phased out in the 1980s with the introduction of its replacement, the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. Eventually the US Navy retired its last Corsair IIs in May 1991.
Currently active-duty squadrons or units that were former A-7 operators
VA-15 "Valions" (now VFA-15)
VA-22 "Fighting Redcocks" (now VFA-22)
Transitioned from A-4F Skyhawk to A-7E January 1971. Two combat cruises to Vietnam. Nine cruises to Mediterranean. Re designated VFA-22 May 4, 1990 and re-equipped with F/A-18C Hornet.
VA-25 "Fists of the Fleet" (now VFA-25)
Transitioned from A-1H Skyraider to A-7B April 1968. Transitioned from A-7B to A-7E in 1970. 3 combat cruises to Vietnam, 5 cruises to Pacific. Re designated VFA-25 July 1983 and re-equipped with F/A-18A Hornet.
VA-27 "Royal Maces" (now VFA-27)
Activated September 1,1 967 and equipped with A-7A. Transitioned to A-7E in 1970. 4 combat cruises to Vietnam, 10 cruises to Pacific. Re designated VFA-27 January 24, 1991 and equipped with F/A-18C Hornet.
VA-37 "Ragin Bulls" (now VFA-37)
Activated July 1, 1967, with A-7A. Transitioned to A-7E December 1973. 2 combat cruises to Vietnam, 10 cruises to Mediterranean. Re designated VFA-37 November 1990 and reequipped with F/A-18C Hornet.
VA-81 "Sunliners" (now VFA-81)
Transitioned from A-4C to A-7E in 1970. Nine cruises to Mediterranean. Participated in action against Libya. Re designated VFA-81 and reequipped with F/A-18C February 1988.
VA-83 "Rampagers" (now VFA-83)
Transitioned from A-4E to A-73 in December 1969. 12 cruises to Mediterranean. Action against Libya and Lebanon.
VA-86 "Sidewinders" (now VFA-86)
Transitioned from A-4E to A-7A March 1967. Became first A-7 operational squadron June 1, 1967. Transitioned to A-7B 1970, to A-7C 1972, and to A-7E March 1975. 4 combat cruises to Tonkin Gulf. 7 cruises to Mediterranean, 2 to North Atlantic., one world cruise. Re designated VFA-86 July 15, 1987 and re-equipped with F/A-18C.
VA-87 "Golden Warriors" (now VFA-87)
Established February 1, 1968 as first A-7B squadron. Transitioned to A-7E 1975. One combat cruise to Tonkin Gulf. 8 cruises to Mediterranean (2 of these to Indian Ocean as well) Participated in Grenada operation and in Lebanon. Re designated VFA-87 May 1, 1986 and re-equipped with F/A-18A.
VA-94 "Mighty Shrikes" (now VFA-94)
Transitioned from A-4E to A-7E 1971. 2 combat cruises to Tonkin Gulf. 8 cruises to Western Pacific (5 of these to Indian Ocean as well) 2 cruises to Western Pacific, One to North Pacific, and one world cruise. Re designated VFA-94 June 28, 1990 and re-equipped with F/A-18C.
VA-97 "Warhawks" (now VFA-97)
Established June 1, 1967, with A-7A. Transitioned to A-7E 1970. 4 combat cruises to Tonkin Gulf. 8 cruises to Western Pacific and Indian Ocean. One cruise to North Pacific and one world cruise. Re designated VFA-97 January 24, 1991 and re-equipped with F/A-18C.
VA-105 "Gunslingers" (now VFA-105)
Established March 4, 1968, with A-7A. Transitioned to A-7E 1973. 2 combat cruises to Tonkin Gulf. 10 cruises to Mediterranean (2 of these to Indian Ocean as well), one world cruise. Re designated VFA-105 December 17, 1990 and re-equipped with F/A-18C.
VA-113 "Stingers" (now VFA-113)
Transitioned from A-4F to A-7B 1968. Transitioned to A-7E 1970. 2 combat cruises to Tonkin Gulf. One cruise to Mediterranean, 5 cruises to Western Pacific. Re designated VFA-113 March 25, 1983 and re-equipped with F/A-18A.
VA-146 "Blue Diamonds" (now VFA-146)
Transitioned from A-4B/E to A-7B 1968. Transitioned to A-7E 1969. 4 combat cruises to Tonkin Gulf, 7 cruises to Western Pacific and Indian Ocean. One world cruise, one cruise to Northern Pacific. Predesignated VFA-146 July 21, 1989 and equipped with F/A-18C.
VA-147 "Argonauts" (now VFA-147)
Established February 1, 1967, with A-7A, becoming first fleet squadron to receive Corsair II. Received first combat-ready A-7As September 11, 1972. Received first operational A-7E September 17, 1969. 5 combat cruises to Tonking Gulf (with diversion to Korea). 8 cruises to Western Pacific.
VA-192 "Golden Dragons" (now VFA-192)
Transitioned from A-4E to A-7E February 1970. 2 cruises to Tonkin Gulf, 4 to Western Pacific, 1 to Mediterranean, and 2 to Indian Ocean. Re designated VFA-192 January 10, 1985 and re-equipped with F/A-18A.
VA-195 "Dambusters" (now VFA-195)
Transitioned from A-4E to A-7E 1970. 2 cruises to Tonkin Gulf, 4 to Western Pacific, 1 to Mediterranean, 1 to Indian Ocean. Re designated VFA-195 April 1, 1985 and equipped with F/A-18A.
Current Naval Reserve squadrons or units that were former A-7 operators
VA-204 "River Rattlers" (now VFA-204)
Disestablished or deactivated squadrons or units, that had operationally used the A-7 Corsair II
VA-12 "Flying Ubangis"
Transformed from A-4C Skyhawk to A-7E December 1970. Seven cruises to Mediterranean. Disestablished October 1, 1986.
VA-46 "Clansmen"
Transitioned from A-4E to A-7A in 1968, from A-7A to A-7B June 1970, and to A-7E in 1977. 11 cruises to Mediterranean. Disestablished June 30, 1991
VA-55 "Warhorses"
VA-56 "Champions"
Transitioned from A-4E to A-7B in 1968, to A-7A in 1973, to A-7E in March 1977. 3 combat cruises to Vietnam. Disestablished Aug 31, 1986.
VA-66 "The Waldos"
Transitioned from A-4C to A-7E in 1971. Nine cruises to Mediterranean. Disestablished October 1, 1986.
VA-67 Established August 1967 with A-7B. Redesignated VA-15(2nd) June 1, 1969
VA-72 "Blue Hawks"
Transitioned from A-4B to A-7B September 1969. Transitioned to A-7E in 1977. 12 cruises to Mediterranean. Participated in action in Lebanon and Persian Gulf. Disestablished June 30, 1991.
VA-82 "Marauders" (later became VFA-82. Disestablished September 30, 2005)
Activated with A-7A May 1, 1967. Transitioned to A-7E 1970 and to A-7C in 1971, to A-7E Mar 1975. Three combat cruises to Vietnam. Re designated VFA-82 July 15, 1987 and re-equipped with F/A-18C
VA-93 "Blue Blazers"
Transitioned from A-4F to A-7B 1969. Transitioned to A-7A 1973, to A-7E May 1977. 3 combat cruises to Tonkin Gulf. Transferred to Yokosuka, Japan for deployment aboard USS Midway in 1973. Disestablished August 31, 1986.
VA-122 "Flying Eagles"
Received first A-7A November 15, 1966 as Pacific Fleet Fleet Readiness Squadron. To A-7B in 1967. Received first fleet A-7E July 1969. Received first TA-7C May 23, 1978. Disestablished May 31, 1991.
VA-125 "Rough Raiders"
Equipped with A-7A and A-7B 1970. A-7A a training discontinued 1975, A-7B training discontinued 1977. Disestablished October 1977.
VA-153 "Blue Tail Flies"
Transitioned from A-4F to A-7A in 1969. To A-7B in 1973. 3 cruises to Tonkin Gulf, 2 to Western Pacific, one to Indian Ocean, one to Mediterranean. Disestablished September 30, 1977.
VA-155 "Silver Foxes"
Transitioned from A-4E to A-7B 1969. 3 cruises to Tonkin Gulf, 2 to Western Pacific, 1 to Indian Ocean, and one to Mediterranean. Disestablished September 30, 1977.
VA-174 "The Hellrazors"
VF-174 re designated VA-174 July 1, 1966 as Fleet Readiness Squadron for A-7. Received A-7A Oct 1966, A-7E Dec 1969, TA-7C July 1978. Disestablished June 30, 1988.
VA-203 "Blue Dolphins" (later became VFA-203. Deactivated June 30, 2004)
VA-205 "Green Falcons"
VA-215 "Barn Owls"
Established March 1, 1968, with A-7B. 3 cruises to Tonkin Gulf, 2 to Mediterranean, 2 to West Pacific. Disestablished September 30, 1977.
VA-303 "Golden Hawks" (later became VFA-303. Disestablished December 31, 1994)
VA-304 "Firebirds"
VA-305 "Hackers", later "Lobos" (Later became VFA-305. Disestablished December 31, 1994)
Other Squadrons or Units
VAQ-33 "Firebirds" (EA-7L)
VAQ-34 "The Flashbacks / EW Agressors" (EA-7L)
VX-5 "Vampires"
The Naval Strike Warfare Center
Notes
References
Hill & Campbell (2001), Tactical Air Command: An Illustrated History, 1946–1992, Schiffer,
External links
Air Base 5 - Monte Real entry at the official Portuguese Air Force website
USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to Present
Lists of military units and formations by aircraft
A-7 Corsair II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20administration%20theory
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Public administration theory
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Public administration theory is a mixture of history, organizational theory, social theory, political theory, and other related subject focusing on the meaning, structure, and function of public service under all circumstances. form. It often describes the main historical underpinnings of bureaucracy research as well as epistemological issues related to public service as a profession and an education field.
In general, there are three common approaches to appreciation of public administration: Classical Public Administration Theory, New Public Management Theory, and Postmodern Public Administration Theory, each of which offers a different perspective on how an administrator practices public administration.
Important figures of study include: Max Weber, Frederick Winslow Taylor, Luther Gulick, Mary Parker Follett, Chester Barnard, Herbert A. Simon, and Dwight Waldo. Herbert Simon advanced a public administration theory that was informed by positivism. The influence of positivism today can be seen in journals such as the Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory and the Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. Notable public administration theorist such as Max Weber expressed the importance of values in the development of public administration theory. But theories are not simply derived from empirical observations of facts, but must be constructed using value judgments that guide empirical observations and guide interpretations of those observations. Values are essential to the construction of administrative theory because they take into account the culture's wise ethical principles and philosophies that ensure proper theoretical practice. Public administration theories are put into practice or considered through a few distinct strategies: Parallel, Transfer, or Collaboration also known as the theory-gap practice. This practice is used to transfer knowledge between practitioners and scholars.
Types of Public Administration Theory
Three branches exist within the field of public administration theory. Classical public administration theory, New Public Management theory, and Postmodern Public Administration Theory are the three branches. Each strategy is predicated on a unique set of beliefs about how people behave in organizational settings.
Classical Public Administration Theory
Woodrow Wilson and Max Weber are frequently linked to classical public administration. Woodrow Wilson is regarded as "The Father of Public Administration" in the United States. He wrote "The Study of Administration" in 1887 and made the case that a bureaucracy should be managed similarly to a business. Wilson advocated for concepts like professionalization, a non-political system, and merit-based promotions (since the spoil system was already in place). Since sympathy can bring down an administration, bureaucracy should be practical.
New Public Management theory
A body of theory, a consulting interest, and a set of administrative methods known as "New Public Management" are used to analyze current changes in public administration. There is a strong case made by many academics that the new public management is more of a theory than a passing trend. [3] The new public administration is an integral part of the widespread infiltration of free market values into public life that threatens the complete eradication of political values. In this way, the idea of bringing political principles into the "private" space to better democratize society is the exact opposite of modern public administration.
Postmodern Public Administration theory
The internal operations of almost all existing government organizations are referred to as post-modern public administration. Even members of Congress in Washington, D.C. or Department of Public Safety staff members who handle paperwork for applicants seeking a driver's license at any DPS location. Public administration is a broad concept to include all functions in the executive branch that have an impact on the general public.. Members of public administration come in different forms and quantities. When understanding the theory of postmodern public administration, it is important to make a differentiation between postmodern theory and the postmodern era as well as being able to differentiate between post-modernity (period of time) and postmodernism (theory/philosophy).
Postmodern theory evolves out of the postmodern era. Chuck Fox and Hugh Miller are two of the main contributors to postmodern theory because they were able to recognize the postmodern condition and how it was playing out in public administration and public policy. Fox and Miller argue that the traditional approach to public administration "robs public administration theorists of the independence required to imagine more emancipating conditions of work and governance." Miller proposes a network model based on economic utility which would explain events better than traditional approach to public administration. Miller states that "policy networks provide a way of processing dissension, articulating values, and airing possible policy implementation strategies. Maneuvering on behalf of the public interest in this complex politically subtle network is the task of post-progressive public administration." This theory began in the 1990s, even though this theory had been around in other disciplines for a while. An estimation of time could date back to Plato and his ideas of a public and communal government where there are policy making actions and steps through levels of democracy. This theory has since been revisited and changed through three intellectual movements, interrogating the loop model of democracy, which many have argued that it is largely a myth, showing the symbolic nature of policy and politics in the United States, and discourse theory. One of the downsides of this theory is that it is based on the slippery slope of relativism. This theory also provides people with the tools to rebuild our infrastructures of symbolic and social order. This theory addresses big questions of what is right and wrong and tries to address the issue to find antidotes for anomie and relativity.
The founding father of postmodern public administration is commonly referred to as Woodrow Wilson, while many can find his roots of inspiration from the works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Using Woodrow Wilson as a reference point, it can be shown that in his essay The Study of Administration, is it “traditionally accepted that with his study, Wilson applied positivist principles to public administration…based on the belief that social reality would be objectively known with the separation of positivist traditional values from facts.” (Traces of Postmodernism in the New Public Management Paradigm, Kerim Ozcan-Veysel Agca).
Public Administration theory development
Public Administration theory is derived from several contemporary theory building tools such as Max Weber's Ideal type method. Theories are also derived from studies of evolving governments around the world, such as China's expanding bureaucracy. Different aspects to take into account are: accountability, state-citizen relations, and services for all in times of fiscal scarcity. When developing theories, the most effective theories are the ones tailored for a particular country taking aspects such as values into account. When empirical evidence is the only aspect taken into account it leads to an ineffective policy because the theory will not reflect the values of the citizens, resulting in bad citizen- state relationships. The Theory-Gap Practice is used to analyze the correlations between Public Administration theory and practice. The three fields of the theory gap-practice that describe the relationship between scholars and practitioners are: Parallel, Transfer, and Collaboration strategy.
Max Weber's ideal-type method
The ideal-type method developed by Max Weber is a useful tool in contemporary public administration theory development because the method takes into account the culture of a society that is then integrated into a theory. Weber referred to it as cultural science or interpretive sociology, which, is to understand ideas and practices from within their own intellectual and cultural horizon and on the basis of categories that are grounded in a meaningful social and historical context. According to Margaret Stout, Ideal-type methods are used to frame observation and analysis and to evaluate what is found. Weber's method must be developed using value judgments that direct our empirical observations and then guide our interpretation of those observations. Through this theory building method, Weber insisted that all interpretations of meaning must remain at best "a peculiarly plausible hypothesis", as opposed to a claim of relevance of a theory. Weber's purpose for using this method is to clarify the importance of values in sense making, but how they are also extremely important for the conduct of meaningful social science. Weber’s interpretive sociology employs a type of functional analysis that begins with the whole, proceeds to the parts, and then goes back from the parts to the whole. His ideal-type method is thereby simultaneously useful in both the study of social structure and social action. Social action is linked to subjective meaning at the individual level of analysis, and structural forms are a consequence or construction of social action. This combination is particularly valuable to public administration because the manner in which administrative action and the social structures of governance interrelate requires an approach that considers both. On the one hand, ideal-types enable consideration of things like alternative meanings of important concepts or alternative motivations held by social actors. On the other hand, they enable analysis of associated or resulting social structures. In this way, an ideal-type can concurrently help interpret the meaning of the administrative role as well as critique the institutions of governance.
Theory-gap practice
Parallel- Proponents of this strategy of relating theory and practice believe that practical knowledge cannot be derived from theories. For the practitioners of this strategy, practice and theory remain separate components of knowledge. Practical knowledge aims to how to handle problems in particular situations while theory aims at handling a specific situation in a general set of principles. Advocates for the parallel strategy claim there can be a complementary relationship between practical and theoretical knowledge or that they can substitute each other in certain situations because particular situations will require practice and theory to work together. Thus advocates that champion parallel strategy argue that it is essential for management studies to maintain an autonomous communication system.
Transfer- This second strategy frames the theory-practice problem as one of translating and diffusing research knowledge into management. This strategy confronts the issue of public managers lack of interest or studying of the work of scholars. This is the result of the scholarly work not being easily applicable to practice, and the complexity of the journals, thus knowledge is not being transferred from theory to practice. The transfer strategy proponents claim the popularizing the scholarly work, and making it more relevant to current issues faced in public administration would enhance the transfer of knowledge from scholars to street level bureaucrats and public managers. However, some argue this approach falls short of expectations because many practitioners of public administration have little influence on the content of knowledge offered by scholars.
Collaboration- This strategy aims to enhance communication between scholars and practitioners before the theory is developed in order to build a dialectic method of inquiry, building on the idea that communication is necessary throughout the whole theory building process in order to have a well development practical theory. Scholars Van de Ven and P.E. Johnson put it as:
"Engagement is relationship that involves negotiation and collaboration between researchers and practitioners in a learning community; such a community jointly produces knowledge that can both advance the scientific enterprise and enlighten a community of practitioners."
Important figures in public administration theory
Max Weber
Max Weber was a German political economist, social scientist, and renowned Philosopher is an important father to the theory of Public Administration and the bureaucratic side of it. He did extensive research studying ancient and modern states to gather a better perspective of bureaucracies in multiple eras for his Magnum Opus Economy and Society published in 1922. That piece of work has contributed countless insight into the Public Administration Theory. Max Weber considered bureaucracy to be the most rational form of administration yet devised by man. In his writings he asserts that domination is exerted through administration and that for legal domination to take place bureaucracy is required.
Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson defined public administration as a detailed and systematic execution of public law, he divided government institutions into two separate sectors, administration and politics. According to him politics is dealt with policy formulation and questions regarding such, whereas administration is equipped with carrying said policies out. In his own words in his early essay, "The Study of Administration" he said "it is getting to be harder to run a constitution than to frame one." Wilson very much so tried to establish a distinction between politics and administration; he saw administration as a field of business which lies outside politics. He thought the theory of public administration existed simply because of technicalities and was around for the behind the scenes business aspect of politics.
Frederick Winslow Taylor
Frederick Taylor was an engineer by profession who saw much of life from a scientific aspect. He is a popular less conservative contributor to the Theory of Public Administration in that he produced his own, very popular, theory of traditional public administration, The Scientific Management Theory. He was concerned with finding the best and most efficient way to complete a task for a particular job, reducing the overall labor a worker had to exert with the least amount of movements. Frederick Taylors work approached motivation with a very authoritative, cold, scientific motivator which weighed heavy over any sort of humane aspect to scientific management. Overall many intricacies in Public Administration such as management, control and accounting are subject to scientific principles and Taylor draws on these to find his own, efficient theory approach to Public Administration Theory.
Public administration theory in practice
Classical public administration- United States
Often considered the best way for organizing public sector work, it was used highly in the western world in the 19th and early 20th century. A differing proponent between America and Europe is the transferring of effective management methods between large private and public organizations. The first effective theory in America was Scientific Theory coined by Frederick W. Taylor in 1911. His work "Principles and Methods of Scientific Management" was used to implement ideas that would increase the efficiency of American government. Taylor's ideas of standardizing work, systematic control, and a hierarchical organization were perfect fits for the public sector of the 1940s.[5]
New public management - United Kingdom
New Public Management was the prominent theory that inspired health care reforms for the United Kingdom. Its application to health care coincided with the growing expenditures that were being made due to the progress of technology and an aging population. The difference between the private and public sectors in terms of budget process and ideology provided a clash of interests. 1990 saw the National Health Service create an internal market of separate care providers and hospitals. This creation of markets in turn stopped the state from being the funder and service provider simultaneously, but just primarily the funder. Although not privatized, these markets became competitive in nature. The assumption that the competition would lead to more empowerment, efficiency, and equity became rampant. Soon, the publicly owned hospitals were granted quasi-autonomous status by the district health authorities, leading to competition for patients and funds. Their status has led to little, if any, interference in everyday operations.
Postmodern public administration - United States
Postmodern Public Administration is linked to the capitalist model of the late 20th and 21st century. It relates to globalization, consumerism, and the fragmentation of authority and state. The concepts of science and reason are de-centered and viewed as the defining truths. It tends to negate any faith based actions.[7]
See also
Lean Government
References
Brownlow, Louis. "Woodrow Wilson and Public Administration." Jstor. American Society for Public Administration, n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2015.
External links
The Northcote-Trevelyan Report
Similarities between public and private administration
Political science theories
Public administration
Administrative theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20%28fruit%29
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Orange (fruit)
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An orange is a fruit of various citrus species in the family Rutaceae (see list of plants known as orange); it primarily refers to Citrus × sinensis, which is also called sweet orange, to distinguish it from the related Citrus × aurantium, referred to as bitter orange. The sweet orange reproduces asexually (apomixis through nucellar embryony); varieties of the sweet orange arise through mutations.
The orange is a hybrid between pomelo (Citrus maxima) and mandarin (Citrus reticulata). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced.
The orange originated in a region encompassing Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, and the earliest mention of the sweet orange was in Chinese literature in 314 BC. , orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world. Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. , sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production.
In 2019, 79 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India.
Taxonomy
All citrus trees are angiosperms, belong to the single genus Citrus, and remain almost entirely interfertile. This includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. As the interfertility of oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids and cultivars, and bud mutations have also been selected, citrus taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing, or inconsistent. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry; it is covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the ovary wall.
History
The sweet orange is not a wild fruit, having arisen in domestication from a cross between a non-pure mandarin orange and a hybrid pomelo that had a substantial mandarin component. Since its chloroplast DNA is that of pomelo, it was likely the hybrid pomelo, perhaps a BC1 pomelo backcross, that was the maternal parent of the first orange. Based on genomic analysis, the relative proportions of the ancestral species in the sweet orange are approximately 42% pomelo and 58% mandarin. All varieties of the sweet orange descend from this prototype cross, differing only by mutations selected for during agricultural propagation. Sweet oranges have a distinct origin from the bitter orange, which arose independently, perhaps in the wild, from a cross between pure mandarin and pomelo parents. The earliest mention of the sweet orange in Chinese literature dates from 314 BC.
In Europe, the Moors introduced the orange to the Iberian Peninsula, which was known as Al-Andalus, with large-scale cultivation starting in the 10th century, as evidenced by complex irrigation techniques specifically adapted to support orange orchards. Citrus fruits—among them the bitter orange—were introduced to Sicily in the 9th century during the period of the Emirate of Sicily, but the sweet orange was unknown until the late 15th century or the beginnings of the 16th century, when Italian and Portuguese merchants brought orange trees into the Mediterranean area. Shortly afterward, the sweet orange quickly was adopted as an edible fruit. It was considered a luxury food grown by wealthy people in private conservatories, called orangeries. By 1646, the sweet orange was well known throughout Europe. Louis XIV of France had a great love of orange trees and built the grandest of all royal Orangeries at the Palace of Versailles. At Versailles, potted orange trees in solid silver tubs were placed throughout the rooms of the palace, while the Orangerie allowed year-round cultivation of the fruit to supply the court. When Louis condemned his finance minister, Nicolas Fouquet, in 1664, part of the treasures that he confiscated were over 1,000 orange trees from Fouquet's estate at Vaux-le-Vicomte.
Spanish travelers introduced the sweet orange to the American continent. On his second voyage in 1493, Christopher Columbus may have planted the fruit on Hispaniola. Subsequent expeditions in the mid-1500s brought sweet oranges to South America and Mexico, and to Florida in 1565, when Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded St Augustine. Spanish missionaries brought orange trees to Arizona between 1707 and 1710, while the Franciscans did the same in San Diego, California, in 1769. An orchard was planted at the San Gabriel Mission around 1804, and a commercial orchard was established in 1841 near present-day Los Angeles. In Louisiana, oranges were probably introduced by French explorers.
Archibald Menzies, the botanist and naturalist on the Vancouver Expedition, collected orange seeds in South Africa, raised the seedlings onboard, and gave them to several Hawaiian chiefs in 1792. Eventually, the sweet orange was grown in wide areas of the Hawaiian Islands, but its cultivation stopped after the arrival of the Mediterranean fruit fly in the early 1900s.
As oranges are rich in vitamin C and do not spoil easily, during the Age of Discovery, Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch sailors planted citrus trees along trade routes to prevent scurvy.
Florida farmers obtained seeds from New Orleans around 1872, after which orange groves were established by grafting the sweet orange on to sour orange rootstocks.
Etymology
The word ultimately derives from Proto-Dravidian or Tamil (). From there the word entered Sanskrit ( or ), meaning 'orange tree'. The Sanskrit word reached European languages through Persian () and its Arabic derivative ().
The word entered Late Middle English in the 14th century via Old French (in the phrase ). The French word, in turn, comes from Old Provençal , based on the Arabic word. In several languages, the initial n present in earlier forms of the word dropped off because it may have been mistaken as part of an indefinite article ending in an n sound. In French, for example, may have been heard as . This linguistic change is called juncture loss. The color was named after the fruit, and the first recorded use of orange as a color name in English was in 1512.
Terminology
Different names have been given to the many varieties of the species. Orange applies primarily to the sweet orange—Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck. The orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of , although some very old specimens can reach . Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are long and have crenulate margins. Sweet oranges grow in a range of different sizes, and shapes varying from spherical to oblong. Inside and attached to the rind is a porous white tissue, the white, bitter mesocarp or albedo (pith). The orange contains a number of distinct carpels (segments) inside, typically about ten, each delimited by a membrane, and containing many juice-filled vesicles and usually a few seeds (pips). When unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the ripe fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange, but frequently retains green patches or, under warm climate conditions, remains entirely green. Like all other citrus fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The Citrus sinensis group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics: common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, and acidless oranges.
Other citrus groups also known as oranges are:
Bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia Risso), grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid of bitter orange x lemon.
Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium), also known as Seville orange, sour orange (especially when used as rootstock for a sweet orange tree), bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, but arose from a distinct hybridization event.
Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) is an original species of citrus, and is a progenitor of the common orange.
Trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata), sometimes included in the genus (classified as Citrus trifoliata). It often serves as a rootstock for sweet orange trees and other Citrus cultivars.
An enormous number of cultivars have, like the sweet orange, a mix of pomelo and mandarin ancestry. Some cultivars are mandarin-pomelo hybrids, bred from the same parents as the sweet orange (e.g. the tangor and ponkan tangerine). Other cultivars are sweet orange x mandarin hybrids (e.g. clementines). Mandarin traits generally include being smaller and oblate, easier to peel, and less acidic. Pomelo traits include a thick white albedo (rind pith, mesocarp) that is more closely attached to the segments.
Orange trees generally are grafted. The bottom of the tree, including the roots and trunk, is called rootstock, while the fruit-bearing top has two different names: budwood (when referring to the process of grafting) and scion (when mentioning the variety of orange).
Composition
Nutrition
Orange flesh is 87% water, 12% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (see table). As a 100 gram reference amount, orange flesh provides 47 calories, and is a rich source of vitamin C, providing 64% of the Daily Value. The vitamin C content depends on the cultivar and the production mode. Fruits produced in organic farming have higher levels of vitamin C than oranges from conventional farming. No other micronutrients are present in significant amounts (see table).
Phytochemicals
Oranges contain diverse phytochemicals, including carotenoids (beta-carotene, lutein and beta-cryptoxanthin), flavonoids (e.g. naringenin) and numerous volatile organic compounds producing orange aroma, including aldehydes, esters, terpenes, alcohols, and ketones.
Orange juice contains only about one-fifth the citric acid of lime or lemon juice (which contain about 47 g/L).
Cultivars
Common
Common oranges (also called "white", "round", or "blond" oranges) constitute about two-thirds of all the orange production. The majority of this crop is used for juice extraction.
Valencia Late
The Valencia orange is a late-season fruit, and therefore a popular variety when navel oranges are out of season. This is why an anthropomorphic orange was chosen as the mascot for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, held in Spain. The mascot was named Naranjito ("little orange") and wore the colors of the Spanish national football team.
Thomas Rivers, an English nurseryman, imported this variety from the Azores Islands and catalogued it in 1865 under the name Excelsior. Around 1870, he provided trees to S. B. Parsons, a Long Island nurseryman, who in turn sold them to E. H. Hart of Federal Point, Florida.
'Valencia Late' fruits have higher levels of vitamin C than most other cultivars, including navel oranges.
Hamlin
This cultivar was discovered by A. G. Hamlin near Glenwood, Florida, in 1879. The fruit is small, smooth, not highly colored, and juicy, with a pale yellow colored juice, especially in fruits that come from lemon rootstock. The fruit may be seedless, or may contain a number of small seeds. The tree is high-yielding and cold-tolerant and it produces good quality fruit, which is harvested from October to December. It thrives in humid subtropical climates. In cooler, more arid areas, the trees produce edible fruit, but too small for commercial use.
Trees from groves in hammocks or areas covered with pine forest are budded on sour orange trees, a method that gives a high solids content. On sand, they are grafted on rough lemon rootstock. The Hamlin orange is one of the most popular juice oranges in Florida and replaces the Parson Brown variety as the principal early-season juice orange. This cultivar is now the leading early orange in Florida and, possibly, in the rest of the world.
Other valencias
Bahia: grown in Brazil and Uruguay
Bali: grown in Bali, Indonesia. Larger than other orange
Belladonna: grown in Italy
Berna: grown mainly in Spain
Biondo Comune ("ordinary blond"): widely grown in the Mediterranean basin, especially in North Africa, Egypt, Greece (where it is called "koines"), Italy (where it is also known as "Liscio"), and Spain; it also is called "Beledi" and "Nostrale"; in Italy, this variety ripens in December, earlier than the competing Tarocco variety
Biondo Riccio: grown in Italy
Byeonggyul: grown in Jeju Island, South Korea
Cadanera: a seedless orange of excellent flavor grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain; it begins to ripen in November and is known by a wide variety of trade names, such as Cadena Fina, Cadena sin Jueso, Precoce de Valence ("early from Valencia"), Precoce des Canaries, and Valence san Pepins ("seedless Valencia"); it was first grown in Spain in 1870
Calabrese or Calabrese Ovale: grown in Italy
Carvalhal: grown in Portugal
Castellana: grown in Spain
Charmute: grown in Brazil
Cherry Orange: grown in southern China and Japan
Clanor: grown in South Africa
Dom João: grown in Portugal
Fukuhara: grown in Japan
Gardner: grown in Florida, this mid-season orange ripens around the beginning of February, approximately the same time as the Midsweet variety; Gardner is about as hardy as Sunstar and Midsweet
Homosassa: grown in Florida
Jaffa orange: grown in the Middle East, also known as "Shamouti"
Jincheng: the most popular orange in China
Joppa: grown in South Africa and Texas
Khettmali: grown in Israel and Lebanon
Kona: a type of Valencia orange introduced in Hawaii in 1792 by Captain George Vancouver; for many decades in the nineteenth century, these oranges were the leading export from the Kona district on the Big Island of Hawaii; in Kailua-Kona, some of the original stock still bears fruit
Lima: grown in Brazil
Lue Gim Gong: grown in Florida, is an early scion developed by Lue Gim Gong, a Chinese immigrant known as the "Citrus Genius"; in 1888, Lue cross-pollinated two orange varieties—the Hart's late Valencia and the Mediterranean Sweet—and obtained a fruit both sweet and frost-tolerant; this variety was propagated at the Glen St. Mary Nursery, which in 1911 received the Silver Wilder Medal by the American Pomological Society; originally considered a hybrid, the Lue Gim Gong orange was later found to be a nucellar seedling of the Valencia type, which is properly called Lue Gim Gong; since 2006, the Lue Gim Gong variety is grown in Florida, although sold under the general name Valencia
Macetera: grown in Spain, it is known for its unique flavor
Malta: grown in Pakistan
Maltaise Blonde: grown in north Africa
Maltaise Ovale: grown in South Africa and in California under the names of Garey's or California Mediterranean Sweet
Marrs: grown in Texas, California and Iran, it is relatively low in acid
Medan: grown in Medan, Indonesia
Midsweet: grown in Florida, it is a newer scion similar to the Hamlin and Pineapple varieties, it is hardier than Pineapple and ripens later; the fruit production and quality are similar to those of the Hamlin, but the juice has a deeper color
Moro Tarocco: grown in Italy, it is oval, resembles a tangelo, and has a distinctive caramel-colored endocarp; this color is the result of a pigment called anthocarpium, not usually found in citruses, but common in red fruits and flowers; the original mutation occurred in Sicily in the seventeenth century
Narinja: grown in Andhra, South India
Parson Brown: grown in Florida, Mexico, and Turkey, it once was a widely grown Florida juice orange, its popularity has declined since new varieties with more juice, better yield, and higher acid and sugar content have been developed; it originated as a chance seedling in Florida in 1865; its fruits are round, medium large, have a thick, pebbly peel and contain 10 to 30 seeds; it still is grown because it is the earliest maturing fruit in the United States, usually maturing in early September in the Valley district of Texas, and from early October to January in Florida; its peel and juice color are poor, as is the quality of its juice
Pera: grown in Brazil, it is very popular in the Brazilian citrus industry and yielded 7.5 million metric tons in 2005
Pera Coroa: grown in Brazil
Pera Natal: grown in Brazil
Pera Rio: grown in Brazil
Pineapple: grown in North and South America and India
Pontianak: oval-shaped orange grown especially in Pontianak, Indonesia
Premier: grown in South Africa
Rhode Red: is a mutation of the Valencia orange, but the color of its flesh is more intense; it has more juice, and less acidity and vitamin C than the Valencia; it was discovered by Paul Rhode in 1955 in a grove near Sebring, Florida
Roble: it was first shipped from Spain in 1851 by Joseph Roble to his homestead in what is now Roble's Park in Tampa, Florida; it is known for its high sugar content
Queen: grown in South Africa
Salustiana: grown in North Africa
Sathgudi: grown in Tamil Nadu, South India
Seleta, Selecta: grown in Australia and Brazil, it is high in acid
Shamouti Masry: grown in Egypt; it is a richer variety of Shamouti
Sunstar: grown in Florida, this newer cultivar ripens in mid-season (December to March) and it is more resistant to cold and fruit-drop than the competing Pineapple variety; the color of its juice is darker than that of the competing Hamlin
Tomango: grown in South Africa
Verna: grown in Algeria, Mexico, Morocco, and Spain
Vicieda: grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain
Westin: grown in Brazil
Xã Đoài orange: grown in Vietnam
Navel
Navel oranges are characterized by the growth of a second fruit at the apex, which protrudes slightly and resembles a human navel. They are primarily grown for human consumption for various reasons: their thicker skin makes them easy to peel, they are less juicy and their bitterness—a result of the high concentrations of limonin and other limonoids—renders them less suitable for juice. Their widespread distribution and long harvest period have made navel oranges very popular. In the United States, they are available from November to April, with peak supplies in January, February, and March.
According to a 1917 study by Palemon Dorsett, Archibald Dixon Shamel and Wilson Popenoe of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a single mutation in a Selecta orange tree planted on the grounds of a monastery in Bahia, Brazil, probably yielded the first navel orange between 1810 and 1820. Nevertheless, a researcher at the University of California, Riverside, has suggested that the parent variety was more likely the Portuguese navel orange (Umbigo), described by Antoine Risso and Pierre Antoine Poiteau in their book Histoire naturelle des orangers ("Natural History of Orange Trees", 1818–1822). The mutation caused the orange to develop a second fruit at its base, opposite the stem, embedded within the peel of the primary orange. Navel oranges were introduced in Australia in 1824 and in Florida in 1835. In 1873, Eliza Tibbets planted two cuttings of the original tree in Riverside, California, where the fruit became known as "Washington". This cultivar was very successful, and rapidly spread to other countries. Because the mutation left the fruit seedless, therefore sterile, the only method to cultivate navel oranges was to graft cuttings onto other varieties of citrus trees. The California Citrus State Historic Park and the Orcutt Ranch Horticulture Center preserve the history of navel oranges in Riverside.
Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all navel oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly 200-year-old tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless banana, the Cavendish, or that of the Granny Smith apple. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties.
Cara cara
Cara cara oranges (also called "red navel") are a type of navel orange grown mainly in Venezuela, South Africa and in California's San Joaquin Valley. They are sweet and comparatively low in acid, with a bright orange rind similar to that of other navels, but their flesh is distinctively pinkish red. It is believed that they have originated as a cross between the Washington navel and the Brazilian Bahia navel, and they were discovered at the Hacienda Cara Cara in Valencia, Venezuela, in 1976.
South African cara caras are ready for market in early August, while Venezuelan fruits arrive in October and Californian fruits in late November.
Other navels
Bahianinha or Bahia
Dream Navel
Late Navel
Washington or California Navel
Blood
Blood oranges are a natural mutation of C. sinensis, although today the majority of them are hybrids. High concentrations of anthocyanin give the rind, flesh, and juice of the fruit their characteristic dark red color. Blood oranges were first discovered and cultivated in Sicily in the fifteenth century. Since then they have spread worldwide, but are grown especially in Spain and Italy under the names of sanguina and sanguinella, respectively.
The blood orange, with its distinct color and flavor, is generally considered favorably as a juice, and has found a niche as an ingredient variation in traditional Seville marmalade.
Maltese: a small and highly colored variety, generally thought to have originated in Italy as a mutation and cultivated there for centuries. It also is grown extensively in southern Spain and Malta. It is used in sorbets and other desserts due to its rich burgundy color. Moro, originally from Sicily, it is common throughout Italy. This medium-sized fruit has a relatively long harvest, which lasts from December to April. Sanguinelli, a mutant of the Doble Fina, was discovered in 1929 in Almenara, in the Castellón province of Spain. It is cultivated in Sicily. Tarocco is relatively new variety developed in Italy. It begins to ripen in late January.
Acidless
Acidless oranges are an early-season fruit with very low levels of acid. They also are called "sweet" oranges in the United States, with similar names in other countries: douce in France, sucrena in Spain, dolce or maltese in Italy, meski in North Africa and the Near East (where they are especially popular), şeker portakal ("sugar orange") in Turkey, succari in Egypt, and lima in Brazil.
The lack of acid, which protects orange juice against spoilage in other groups, renders them generally unfit for processing as juice, so they are primarily eaten. They remain profitable in areas of local consumption, but rapid spoilage renders them unsuitable for export to major population centres of Europe, Asia, or the United States.
Hybrid
Sweet oranges have also given rise to a range of hybrids, notably the grapefruit, which arose from a sweet orange x pomelo backcross. A spontaneous backcross of the grapefruit and sweet orange then resulted in the orangelo. Spontaneous and engineered backcrosses between the sweet orange and mandarin oranges or tangerines has produced a group collectively known as tangors, which includes the clementine and Murcott. More complex crosses have also been produced. The so-called Ambersweet orange is actually a complex sweet orange x (Orlando tangelo x clementine) hybrid, legally designated a sweet orange in the United States so it can be used in orange juices. The citranges are a group of intergeneric sweet orange x trifoliate orange hybrids.
Attributes
Sensory factors
The taste of oranges is determined mainly by the relative ratios of sugars and acids, whereas orange aroma derives from volatile organic compounds, including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, terpenes, and esters. Bitter limonoid compounds, such as limonin, decrease gradually during development, whereas volatile aroma compounds tend to peak in mid– to late–season development. Taste quality tends to improve later in harvests when there is a higher sugar/acid ratio with less bitterness. As a citrus fruit, the orange is acidic, with pH levels ranging from 2.9 to 4.0.
Sensory qualities vary according to genetic background, environmental conditions during development, ripeness at harvest, postharvest conditions, and storage duration.
Grading
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has established the following grades for Florida oranges, which primarily apply to oranges sold as fresh fruit: US Fancy, US No. 1 Bright, US No. 1, US No. 1 Golden, US No. 1 Bronze, US No. 1 Russet, US No. 2 Bright, US No. 2, US No. 2 Russet, and US No. 3. The general characteristics graded are color (both hue and uniformity), firmness, maturity, varietal characteristics, texture, and shape. Fancy, the highest grade, requires the highest grade of color and an absence of blemishes, while the terms Bright, Golden, Bronze, and Russet concern solely discoloration.
Grade numbers are determined by the amount of unsightly blemishes on the skin and firmness of the fruit that do not affect consumer safety. The USDA separates blemishes into three categories:
General blemishes: ammoniation, buckskin, caked melanose, creasing, decay, scab, split navels, sprayburn, undeveloped segments, unhealed segments, and wormy fruit
Injuries to fruit: bruises, green spots, oil spots, rough, wide, or protruding navels, scale, scars, skin breakdown, and thorn scratches
Damage caused by dirt or other foreign material, disease, dryness, or mushy condition, hail, insects, riciness or woodiness, and sunburn.
The USDA uses a separate grading system for oranges used for juice because appearance and texture are irrelevant in this case. There are only two grades: US Grade AA Juice and US Grade A Juice, which are given to the oranges before processing. Juice grades are determined by three factors:
The juiciness of the orange
The amount of solids in the juice (at least 10% solids are required for the AA grade)
The proportion of anhydric citric acid in fruit solids
Cultivation
Climate
Like most citrus plants, oranges do well under moderate temperatures—between —and require considerable amounts of sunshine and water. It has been suggested that the use of water resources by the citrus industry in the Middle East is a contributing factor to the desiccation of the region, notably in the documentary series H2O: The Molecule That Made Us (2020). Another significant element in the full development of the fruit is the temperature variation between summer and winter and between day and night. In cooler climates, oranges can be grown indoors.
As oranges are sensitive to frost, there are different methods to prevent frost damage to crops and trees when subfreezing temperatures are expected. A common process is to spray the trees with water so as to cover them with a thin layer of ice that will stay just at the freezing point, insulating them even if air temperatures drop far lower. This is because water continues to lose heat as long as the environment is colder than it is, and so the water turning to ice in the environment cannot damage the trees. This practice, however, offers protection only for a very short time. Another procedure involves burning fuel oil in smudge pots put between the trees. These devices burn with a great deal of particulate emission, so condensation of water vapour on the particulate soot prevents condensation on plants and raises the air temperature very slightly. Smudge pots were developed for the first time after a disastrous freeze in Southern California in January 1913 destroyed a whole crop.
Propagation
It is possible to grow orange trees directly from seeds, but they may be infertile or produce fruit that may be different from its parent. For the seed of a commercial orange to grow, it must be kept moist at all times. One approach is placing the seeds between two sheets of damp paper towel until they germinate and then planting them, although many cultivators just set the seeds straight into the soil.
Commercially grown orange trees are propagated asexually by grafting a mature cultivar onto a suitable seedling rootstock to ensure the same yield, identical fruit characteristics, and resistance to diseases throughout the years. Propagation involves two stages: first, a rootstock is grown from seed. Then, when it is approximately one year old, the leafy top is cut off and a bud taken from a specific scion variety, is grafted into its bark. The scion is what determines the variety of orange, while the rootstock makes the tree resistant to pests and diseases and adaptable to specific soil and climatic conditions. Thus, rootstocks influence the rate of growth and have an effect on fruit yield and quality.
Rootstocks must be compatible with the variety inserted into them because otherwise, the tree may decline, be less productive, or die.
Among the several advantages to grafting are that trees mature uniformly and begin to bear fruit earlier than those reproduced by seeds (3 to 4 years in contrast with 6 to 7 years), and that it makes it possible to combine the best attributes of a scion with those of a rootstock.
Harvest
Canopy-shaking mechanical harvesters are being used increasingly in Florida to harvest oranges. Current canopy shaker machines use a series of six-to-seven-foot-long tines to shake the tree canopy at a relatively constant stroke and frequency.
Normally, oranges are picked once they are pale orange.
Degreening
Oranges must be mature when harvested. In the United States, laws forbid harvesting immature fruit for human consumption in Texas, Arizona, California and Florida. Ripe oranges, however, often have some green or yellow-green color in the skin. Ethylene gas is used to turn green skin to orange. This process is known as "degreening", also called "gassing", "sweating", or "curing". Oranges are non-climacteric fruits and cannot post-harvest ripen internally in response to ethylene gas, though they will de-green externally.
Storage
Commercially, oranges can be stored by refrigeration in controlled-atmosphere chambers for up to twelve weeks after harvest. Storage life ultimately depends on cultivar, maturity, pre-harvest conditions, and handling. In stores and markets, however, oranges should be displayed on non-refrigerated shelves.
At home, oranges have a shelf life of about one month. In either case, optimally, they are stored loosely in an open or perforated plastic bag.
Pests and diseases
Cottony cushion scale
The first major pest that attacked orange trees in the United States was the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), imported from Australia to California in 1868. Within 20 years, it wiped out the citrus orchards around Los Angeles, and limited orange growth throughout California. In 1888, the USDA sent Alfred Koebele to Australia to study this scale insect in its native habitat. He brought back with him specimens of Novius cardinalis, an Australian ladybird beetle, and within a decade the pest was controlled.
Citrus greening disease
The citrus greening disease, caused by the bacterium Liberobacter asiaticum, has been the most serious threat to orange production since 2010. It is characterized by streaks of different shades on the leaves, and deformed, poorly colored, unsavory fruit. In areas where the disease is endemic, citrus trees live for only five to eight years and never bear fruit suitable for consumption. In the western hemisphere, the disease was discovered in Florida in 1998, where it has attacked nearly all the trees ever since. It was reported in Brazil by Fundecitrus Brasil in 2004. As from 2009, 0.87% of the trees in Brazil's main orange growing areas (São Paulo and Minas Gerais) showed symptoms of greening, an increase of 49% over 2008.
The disease is spread primarily by two species of psyllid insects. One of them is the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama), an efficient vector of the Liberobacter asiaticum. Generalist predators such as the ladybird beetles Curinus coeruleus, Olla v-nigrum, Harmonia axyridis, and Cycloneda sanguinea, and the lacewings Ceraeochrysa spp. and Chrysoperla spp. make significant contribution to the mortality of the Asian citrus psyllid, which results in 80–100% reduction in psyllid populations. In contrast, parasitism by Tamarixia radiata, a species-specific parasitoid of the Asian citrus psyllid, is variable and generally low in southwest Florida: in 2006, it amounted to a reduction of less than 12% from May to September and 50% in November.
In 2007, foliar applications of insecticides reduced psyllid populations for a short time, but also suppressed the populations of predatory ladybird beetles. Soil application of aldicarb provided limited control of Asian citrus psyllid, while drenches of imidacloprid to young trees were effective for two months or more.
Management of citrus greening disease is difficult and requires an integrated approach that includes use of clean stock, elimination of inoculum via voluntary and regulatory means, use of pesticides to control psyllid vectors in the citrus crop, and biological control of psyllid vectors in non-crop reservoirs. Citrus greening disease is not under completely successful management.
Greasy spot
Greasy spot, a fungal disease caused by the Mycosphaerella citri, produces leaf spots and premature defoliation, thus reducing the tree's vigour and yield. Ascospores of M. citri are generated in pseudothecia in decomposing fallen leaves. Once mature, ascospores are ejected and subsequently dispersed by air currents.
Uses
Culinary
Fruit
Oranges, whose flavor may vary from sweet to sour, are commonly peeled and eaten fresh raw or squeezed for juice. Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a juicer or squeezer) and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the United States, where it is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade. Frozen orange juice concentrate is made from freshly squeezed and filtered orange juice.
Rind
The thick bitter rind is usually discarded, but can be processed into animal feed by desiccation, using pressure and heat. It also is used in certain recipes as a food flavoring or garnish. The outermost layer of the rind can be thinly grated with a zester to produce orange zest. Zest is popular in cooking because it contains oils and has a strong flavor similar to that of the orange pulp. The white part of the rind, including the pith, is a source of pectin and has nearly the same amount of vitamin C as the flesh and other nutrients.
Peel
Although not as juicy or tasty as the flesh, orange peel is edible and has significant contents of vitamin C, dietary fiber, total polyphenols, carotenoids, limonene and dietary minerals, such as potassium and magnesium.
Extracts
Sweet orange oil is a by-product of the juice industry produced by pressing the peel. It is used for flavoring food and drinks and also in the perfume industry and aromatherapy for its fragrance. Sweet orange oil consists of approximately 90% D-limonene, a solvent used in various household chemicals, such as wood conditioners for furniture and—along with other citrus oils—detergents and hand cleansers. It is an efficient cleaning agent with a pleasant smell, promoted for being environmentally friendly and therefore, preferable to petrochemicals. D-limonene is, however, classified as irritating to the skin and as very toxic to aquatic life in different countries.
Preserves
Marmalade preserves are traditionally made with Seville oranges, which are less sweet. All parts of the fruit are used: the pith and pips (separated and placed in a muslin bag) are boiled in a mixture of juice, slivered peel, sliced-up flesh, sugar, and water to extract their pectin, which helps the conserve to set.
Manufacturing
Production
In 2021, world production of oranges was 76 million tonnes, led by Brazil with 21% of the total, followed by India, China, Mexico and the United States as other major producers (table).
In the United States, groves are located mainly in Florida, California, and Texas. The majority of California's crop is sold as fresh fruit, whereas Florida's oranges are destined to juice products. The Indian River area of Florida is known for the high quality of its juice, which often is sold fresh in the United States and frequently blended with juice produced in other regions because Indian River trees yield very sweet oranges, but in relatively small quantities.
Orange juice is traded internationally as frozen, concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used so that storage and transportation costs are lower.
See also
Eliza Tibbets (for the history of orange groves in California, United States)
List of citrus fruits
List of culinary fruits
References
External links
Citrus sinensis List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases), USDA, Agricultural Research Service.
Oranges: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve, and Enjoy. (2006). University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources. Accessed May 23, 2014.
Articles containing video clips
Cocktail garnishes
Crops originating from China
Fruits originating in Asia
Symbols of California
Symbols of Florida
Tropical agriculture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie%20Fleeting
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Julie Fleeting
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Julie Stewart MBE (; born 18 December 1980) is a Scottish former footballer who played as a forward. She spent nine years at English club Arsenal and was the first Scot to play as a full-time professional in the WUSA playing for San Diego Spirit. She won the Scottish Women's League title with Ayr and seventeen major trophies with Arsenal.
According to the Scottish Football Association, Fleeting has a record of 116 goals (a national record by some distance) and 121 caps for Scotland between her debut in 1996 and retirement in 2015, although those figures appear to include unofficial internationals. Fleeting also captained her country for eight years.
According to UEFA, she has a record of 28 goals in 22 games in UEFA competitions for national teams, and 22 goals in 32 games in UEFA club competitions.
She was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2008 Birthday Honours. She has also represented Scotland in the sport of basketball.
Early and personal life
Fleeting's father is ex-professional player and current Scottish Football Association Director of Football Development Jim Fleeting. Former Kilmarnock owner Bobby Fleeting is her uncle. She also has a brother named Barry who played football at Junior level.
Fleeting attended St Winning's Primary School in Kilwinning, Ayrshire for her primary education and St Michael's Academy in Kilwinning, Ayrshire for her secondary education. While still at school, Fleeting showed talent in basketball (she played for Cunninghame Basketball Club and represented her country in the sport) and field hockey (she played for Eglinton Ladies Hockey Club and had a trial for the national side) as well as football.
A teacher by profession, she has taught Physical Education in St Michael's Academy in Kilwinning in North Ayrshire; St Matthew's Academy in Saltcoats, North Ayrshire; Charleston Academy, Inverness and—since 2008—Auchenharvie Academy in Stevenston, North Ayrshire. Fleeting married goalkeeper Colin Stewart in June 2005. They became a couple when Fleeting was playing for Ayr United and Stewart was coming through the youth ranks at Kilmarnock, having met through Jim Fleeting's friendship with Colin's father Jim Stewart. The wedding at St Mary's Church in Irvine was attended by Scottish football notables including Tommy Burns, Jim Leighton and Ian Durrant. Fleeting, known to teammates as Fleets, retained her maiden name for football purposes. On 23 December 2008, Fleeting announced she was pregnant with her first child and ruled herself out of participation in the remainder of the football season. She gave birth to a daughter, Ella, on 27 July 2009. In February 2012 it was reported that Fleeting and husband Colin were expecting their second child. Sophia Jane, a girl weighing 7lbs 3ozs arrived at 11:03pm on 28 April 2012. Fleeting had a third child, Matilda was born in 2017.
In 2007, Fleeting was named as Scotland's Sports Personality of the Year. She was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2008 Birthday Honours, collecting the medal in November of that year in a Buckingham Palace ceremony hosted by Prince Charles.
In June 2009, Fleeting was inducted into the University of Edinburgh's Sports Hall of Fame alongside Graeme Randall, Gregor Townsend and Chris Hoy. In 2011, Fleeting became an ambassador of Street Soccer for women's football in 2011.
Club career
Early career
Fleeting began her football career aged nine with Cunninghame Boys under-10s. Fleeting, the only girl playing in the entire league, also helped St Winning's Primary School beat 1,000 other schools to the 1992 national championship. The competition was sponsored by Tudor Crisps and Fleeting's school prevailed 1–0 in the final at Ibrox Stadium. She joined Prestwick Girls when SFA rules barred her from mixed football at age 12. In April 1995, Fleeting scored twice as Prestwick beat Cumbernauld Cosmos 7–5 in the final of the Under-16 Scottish Cup. The following season Prestwick came under the auspices of Ayr United, and the Sunday Mail newspaper was already describing Fleeting as: "the most gifted young footballer in Scotland." After finishing school in 1998 she resisted overtures from American Universities to continue playing for Ayr while training to become a PE teacher at Moray House School of Education. Fleeting explained that: "I was only young when I had to decide which university to go to, and at the time, Edinburgh was far enough away from home. But when I graduate I will still only be 21 and young enough to go abroad if I want to."
In the 2001 Scottish Women's Cup final at Almondvale Stadium, Fleeting scored a hat-trick but Ayr lost on penalties to local rivals Kilmarnock after a 3–3 draw. Having already won the league championship, Ayr manager Hugh Flynn consoled his players with the prospect of participation in the following season's inaugural UEFA Women's Cup. In November 2001 Ayr hosted the group stage mini tournament after original hosts Toulouse had their ground damaged by an explosion at a factory. Fleeting found the net in draws with Osijek and Chernihiv but Ayr were eliminated after a third draw with Toulouse.
As the 2001–02 season progressed and graduation neared, Fleeting began to consider her options: "I'm considering America but as it's the top league in the world the competition will be fierce. Italy or England are possibilities although it's a shame I must leave Scotland to make a career in football." When an offer came to join San Diego Spirit in June 2002, Fleeting departed Ayr United after nine years, as the club captain and with around 300 goals to her credit. She did so with the blessing of national team coach Vera Pauw, who had encouraged Fleeting to turn professional and make a living from the sport.
United States
In moving to California Fleeting signed a one-year contract, with an option for a further three years. She arrived mid-season, with San Diego Spirit languishing near the foot of the WUSA table. The move had been called into question when the coach who signed Fleeting was sacked, but general manager and interim coach Kevin Crow sanctioned the deal. On 10 July 2002 Fleeting made her professional debut, setting up San Diego's first goal in a 3–2 defeat at Boston Breakers four minutes after entering play as a 54th-minute substitute. Four days later she played her second match and scored her first goal, driving Shannon MacMillan's centre off the underside of the crossbar from 18 yards to put San Diego 2–1 ahead in a 2–2 draw at home to San Jose CyberRays. In Fleeting's third game on 20 July 2002 she scored a last-minute winner from close range as San Diego beat New York Power 1–0 at Mitchel Athletic Complex. She started a single-goal defeat to Washington Freedom, before bringing her goal tally to three in five games by putting San Diego ahead at home to Atlanta Beat. Unfortunately for Fleeting, Homare Sawa then scored twice as the Beat won 4–1 and extinguished the Spirit's hopes of making the play-offs.
Fleeting finished the campaign with three goals and one assist from eight games including seven starts. Of San Diego's four allotted foreign players Fleeting was the only one regularly starting games by the end of the season as the club finished seventh. She returned to Scotland during the off-season but expressed delight at the whole experience and was keen to return for more the following season: "I got to live near the beach on the California coast and play football as my job – it was amazing and I'd be delighted to go back." The Daily Record newspaper contrasted the poor performances of Scotland's male footballers with Fleeting's exploits in "setting the biggest women's football league in the world alight".
Fleeting's American teammates had initially named her Shrek, on account of her accent. An unimpressed Fleeting joked that she would prefer Fat Bastard, since the latter was actually Scottish. During the 2003 WUSA season she acquired a new nickname of Air Scotland after scoring a number of goals with her head. She had missed most of Spirit's pre-season while playing for Scotland but managed a 20-minute substitute appearance in an opening day defeat to Boston Breakers. The squad was much changed from the previous season and Fleeting now paired with Canadian striker Christine Latham in attack. Fleeting scored in the next four consecutive games, equalling the club record as San Diego began a seven-match unbeaten run. The team then hit a slump when Shannon MacMillan, the main supplier of Fleeting's goals, tore her anterior cruciate ligament. After scoring her ninth goal of the season, the equaliser in a 1–1 home draw with New York Power, Fleeting controversially mimicked a urinating dog whilst celebrating.
In the 2003 regular season Fleeting scored 11 goals from her 17 starts and single substitute appearance. San Diego finished third and qualified for the play-offs, where Aly Wagner put them ahead against Atlanta Beat, only for Conny Pohlers to level the match in the 90th minute. Charmaine Hooper won the semi-final tie for Atlanta with a golden goal in extra-time. Fleeting was named the team MVP at the end of year dinner, while her 11 goals and four assists were enough to clinch the club Golden Boot. In addition Fleeting was named to the All-WUSA Second Team.
Return to Scotland
Following the season Fleeting's next stop was the Scottish Highlands where partner Colin Stewart had transferred from Kilmarnock to Ross County. Fleeting had several Premier League outfits vying for her signature upon her return to Scotland. She signed on loan for Ross County's women's section and scored twice in a 5–3 win over Raith Rovers two days later. She explained: "I'm just happy to play anywhere. But I was going to be spending a lot of time up there seeing Colin anyway so it makes sense." Later in September 2003 WUSA collapsed with reported debts of $100m. Fleeting had also arrived back in Scotland just as her old club Ayr United folded. In December she was forced to miss some Ross County games in order to rest, but was still hopeful that the American professional league could be resurrected in some form: "I'm really hoping something comes of this. It will be great if it does all go ahead but I'm just waiting to see what happens at the moment. The target seems to be a restart of the full league in 2005 but with a series of exhibition games this year, which will still involve the foreign players."
Arsenal
In January 2004 Fleeting signed for English club Arsenal Ladies. Under the terms of the agreement, Fleeting would continue to work as a PE teacher in Scotland from Monday to Friday and would train twice a week with the Under-21 section of local men's club Kilwinning Rangers. On Sunday mornings Fleeting was to catch a budget airline flight to London, where she would be met by Arsenal manager Vic Akers. After being briefed by Akers during the journey, Fleeting would then play in the match for Arsenal before flying back to Scotland late on Sunday evening. It was an arrangement which was to continue throughout Fleeting's time at Arsenal, despite the extensive travelling involved. In 2007 Fleeting said: "I can understand that people raise eyebrows about playing but not training with Arsenal. But when I arrive, they always give me a good briefing and, if there's something special that they've been working on during the week, it's explained to me before the game. It hasn't been a problem so far!"
2003–04
Fleeting bagged a brace on her Arsenal debut, in a 6–1 FA Women's Cup fifth round win over Middlesbrough played on 25 January 2004. In the next round of the Cup, played on 7 February, she scored a hat-trick in Arsenal's 11–1 demolition of Cardiff City, being substituted during the second half in order to catch an early flight home.
Fleeting continued to score regularly and hit the winner in 2–1 league victory at Leeds United on 7 March. Two weeks later, Fleeting scored in a 4–0 win at home to the same opponents. On the intervening weekend, she had scored the opening goal in a 2–0 semi final win over Bristol Rovers in the FA Cup. In April, Fleeting scored the only goal of the game against Charlton Athletic to leave the Gunners only two points behind Charlton in the league with a game in hand. Fleeting hit a hat-trick in an 8–0 destruction of relegated Aston Villa at home on 18 April, bringing her tally to 12 goals in eight appearances.
On 3 May, Fleeting scored a hat-trick for Arsenal in their FA Women's Cup Final win over Charlton Athletic, just a day after suffering a calf injury while playing the full game for Scotland and scoring against reigning World Champions Germany. It took her record to fifteen goals in nine games for Arsenal since joining in January. Arsenal sealed the league title on 15 May, as Fleeting scored the second goal in a 3–1 victory over Fulham before 5,000 fans at Highbury Stadium. Fleeting finished the season with sixteen goals from ten appearances.
2004–05
In November 2004, Fleeting scored in the UEFA Women's Cup quarter final second leg victory over Torres. She fired the decisive goal in a 3–2 win, with only eight minutes remaining. In December, Fleeting scored all three goals in Arsenal's Premier League Cup semi-final victory against Birmingham City.
In February 2005, Fleeting netted twice in a 3–0 over Birmingham City in the quarter-finals of the FA Cup.
Fleeting hit a total of 24 goals for Arsenal over the course of the season, while she was the recipient of the FA Women's Players' Player of the Year at the end of season annual FA awards for women's football in England.
2005–06
In January 2006, Fleeting scored twice in a 4–1 defeat of Cardiff City in an FA Cup fourth round match. In January, she followed this up by scoring the opener and winning the penalty that made it 2–0 in a 3–0 victory over Aston Villa in a fifth round match of the FA Cup.
In February, Fleeting netted the first goal for Arsenal in a 6–1 defeat of Sunderland.
On 1 May, Fleeting scored in a 5–0 FA Cup final win against Leeds United. Fleeting hit a total of 17 goals in 15 appearances for Arsenal throughout the season, before spending the summer of 2006 on a month's loan in Iceland with Valur. Husband Colin was also in Iceland at the time, playing for Grindavík. Fleeting netted four times in three games for Valur before returning to the UK.
2006–07
Fleeting was an integral part of the all-conquering Arsenal side that won an unprecedented six trophies; Premier League, FA Cup, Premier League Cup, Community Shield, London FA Cup and UEFA Women's Cup. Fleeting went on to play the full 180 minutes of the two-legged final as Arsenal overcame Umeå 1–0 on aggregate.
In September 2006, Fleeting hit five out of the 11 goals scored by Arsenal in their first two UEFA Women's Cup second round group stage matches in wins over Rossiyanka and Budapest
In October, in the UEFA Women's Cup quarter finals, Fleeting notched a double in the 5–0 first leg home win on the 12th and the opener in the 4–1 second leg victory on the 19th against Breiðablik. In domestic competition, Fleeting broke the deadlock against Everton as Arsenal prevailed 4–1. She scored in the semi-final return leg in the UEFA Women's Cup against Brondby in a 3–0 victory in December.
2007–08
In October 2007, Fleeting netted three times for Arsenal in the second round group stages of the UEFA Women's Cup. On 13 October, Fleeting bagged a brace in a 7–0 win over Neulengbach and on 16 October, she hit the opener in the final group game; a 3–3 draw against Bardolino Verona.
In February 2008, Fleeting scored twice in a 5–2 win over Liverpool. Later that month she played as Arsenal were shocked 1–0 by Everton in the FA Women's Premier League Cup Final. It was Arsenal's first defeat in 58 domestic matches, stretching back two years. In the 2008 FA Women's Cup Final against Leeds United, Fleeting entered play as a 75th-minute substitute. Her shot which hit the post was turned in by teammate Kelly Smith for Arsenal's final goal in their 4–1 win.
2008–09 to 2012
In November 2008, Fleeting scored against Umeå at home in the UEFA Women's Cup quarter final first leg to make it 2–2, before a late goal from Kim Little won the game for Arsenal. Fleeting watched the return leg from the substitutes' bench, as Arsenal were thrashed 6–0.
In December 2008, Fleeting announced she would be taking time out from the game on the advice of Arsenal's medical team, after discovering she was pregnant with her first child. With her due date at some point in July 2009, it meant she would be unavailable until the following summer at the earliest.
In April 2010, a few days after appearing in her first matches for Scotland since taking time out from the game, she scored the first goal in Arsenal's FA Cup semi-final win over Chelsea. Fleeting who had just returned to regular action, having not played a full ninety minutes all season, was identified by Arsenal manager Laura Harvey as the player who could "inspire" Arsenal to a fifth successive Premier League and FA Cup double. In May's FA Women's Cup Final, Fleeting scored Arsenal's second equaliser of the match to level the scores at 2–2 against Everton but Arsenal lost 3–2 in extra time.
Fleeting scored the second goal in Arsenal's 2–0 win over Bristol Academy in the 2011 FA Women's Cup Final in May. In the inaugural 2011 FA WSL, Fleeting scored twice in her 11 appearances for champions Arsenal.
Return to Scotland
2013
On 1 March 2013, SWPL newcomers Kilwinning SC announced they had signed Fleeting. Her debut resulted in a 10–0 SWPL Cup defeat at Celtic two days later. It was her first competitive match after 18 months away from football. Kilwinning manager Craig Hamilton stated Fleeting could be the difference between survival and relegation for the club. She made her league debut in the club's first ever top flight fixture, registering an assist for the first goal, in a 3–2 defeat at Hutchison Vale on 17 March 2013. Her first goal for the club came, when she opened the scoring, in a 2–1 home league defeat to Aberdeen two weeks later. Fleeting returned to the team, in a 2–1 league defeat at Hamilton Academical on 12 May 2013, winning the resulting free-kick, which made 1–1. She scored twice inside the last five minutes, having previously won a penalty as well, to help Kilwinning recover from 4–2 down to win 5–4 in a home defeat of Falkirk one week later, which secured the club's first league win of the season. Fleeting left Kilwinning in June 2013, when she had her registration with the club cancelled.
It was reported in The Scotsman newspaper on 24 July 2013 that Fleeting had made a high-profile summer transfer to Kilwinning's SWPL rivals Celtic. Fleeting hit a hat-trick on her Celtic debut, in a 9–0 friendly victory over Piedmont College two days later. She marked her competitive Celtic debut with a goal, in a 3–0 home league win over Spartans two days later again. Fleeting opened the scoring, in a 2–2 league draw at Aberdeen on 4 August 2013. Two weeks later, Fleeting scored her first competitive hat-trick for Celtic, in a 9–1 Scottish Women's Cup home defeat of Queen's Park. This included a clever tight-angled overhead kick and a perfectly executed volley. She netted twice to help Celtic recover from 1–0 down and put them 2–1 up, in a 4–1 league win at Glasgow rivals Rangers on 1 September 2013. Fleeting netted fives times, in a 10–0 Scottish Women's Cup victory over Viewfield Rovers at home one week later. She scored the decisive goal, in a 2–1 home league win over Aberdeen on 29 September 2013. Fleeting also played in the Scottish Women's Cup semi-final defeat to Glasgow City, which Celtic lost 3–0 on 6 October 2013. Her last appearance of the season came as a second-half substitute in the last SWPL match of the season, in a 2–1 win against Rangers, a result which secured a third-place finish for Celtic. Fleeting was earmarked as the catalyst for a resurgent Celtic side, who had a slow first half of the season, since signing in July 2013. She was integral as Celtic secured a top three finish and reached the Scottish Women's Cup semi-finals.
2014
Fleeting began the new SWPL season with a goal in a 5–0 victory at Aberdeen in Celtic's opening game. Fleeting made it 3–0, after slotting home from an acute angle. The following week, two Fleeting headers, either side of half-time gave Celtic a 2–0 home win over Hutchison Vale. In a 4–0 home defeat of Hamilton Academical in the SWPL Cup on 13 April, Fleeting converted all four of Celtic's second half goals. In a 10–0 home demolition of bottom team Buchan on 27 April, Fleeting made it back-to-back hat-tricks in matches, taking her early season tally to ten goals in four matches. Fleeting netted twice in an 8–1 home thrashing of Queen's Park on 18 May. Flagged grabbed an obligatory goal in a 3–1 victory at Hamilton Academical on 23 May. She opened the scoring with a volley, after only three minutes. In a 3–2 defeat at Hibernian on 10 August, Fleeting broke the deadlock after rounding off a well-worked team move. Fleeting scored the winner in 3–2 home win over Spartans on 24 August. Fleeting would miss the second half of the season with injury.
It was reported that Celtic were looking to cut back their involvement in women's football. And as a result of this, a mass exodus of the first team squad left the club, with a number of players' citing their frustration at the club's lack of ambition. It is understood Fleeting was one of those that had not yet committed for the 2015 season. and is possibly considering a move to another club, but has not officially left the club yet.
2015
It was announced on 19 March 2015 that Fleeting had joined SWPL champions Glasgow City. Fleeting finally made her debut, playing the first 45 minutes, in a 4–1 win at Aberdeen in the Scottish Women's Cup on 9 August 2015. Prior to her debut she had been out with a number of niggling injuries, with only one week of proper training under her belt, but had received a call-up to a Scotland training camp in early August. She made her league debut, again playing the first 45 minutes and setting-up the opening goal, in a 3–3 home draw with Hibernian one week later. Fleeting scored her first goals for the club, with a second half brace, in a 7–0 home league win over Rangers on 30 August 2015. She grabbed her first hat-trick for City, with a second half treble, in a 6–0 league win at former club Celtic six days later. Fleeting opened the scoring for City, in an 11–0 Scottish Women's Cup home win against Kilmarnock on 13 September 2015.
2016
Fleeting gave City a 1–0 half-time lead, in a 2–1 defeat to Hibernian, in the 2016 SWPL Cup final on 16 June 2016. She registered two more league goals, in an 8–0 home win over Forfar Farmington on 31 July 2016.
Fleeting scored a brace, in a 4–0 league win at Hibernian on 14 August 2016. She notched another brace a week later, in a 7–0 home league defeat of Rangers.
International career
Fleeting was called up to the national under-16 team at the age of 14. She made her senior Scotland debut, aged 15, against Wales at Somerset Park in November 1996. In January 1997 Fleeting was part of a youthful Scotland squad who toured Brazil; suffering three straight friendly defeats to their hosts. When Scotland played an Auld Enemy fixture in August 1997 it was reported that the Scots had been "pinning their hopes of an upset" on the teenaged Fleeting.
Fleeting represented Scotland in the 1999 World Cup qualifiers. Starting with away games in Estonia and Lithuania, Fleeting scored four in Scotland's 7–1 win in Tallinn and three in a 5–0 win in Vilnius. In May 1998 she scored twice in a 7–0 win over Estonia at Somerset Park, then headed the equalising goal in a 1–1 draw with the Czech Republic in Inverness. With Scotland competing at the 'B' level of UEFA competition—and ineligible to qualify—they needed a final win over Lithuania and a 16–goal swing to overhaul the Czech Republic and win the group. Fleeting hit four goals, including a decisive injury time header, as Scotland won 17–0 to top the group and secure a play-off against Spain for promotion to the 'A' grade. She was unable to make an impression as Spain consigned the Scots (coached by Julie's father Jim) to further participation at 'B' level.
In September 2000 Fleeting scored 16 goals in one match; a 27–0 win over the Isle of Man in the Celt Cup, a quadrangular tournament held in Carryduff and also featuring Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. She continued to score at a prolific rate during the 2001 UEFA Women's Championship qualification campaign, scoring one and setting up the others as Ireland were beaten 3–0 at Broadwood in the opening fixture. She added two more in the return match in Dublin, another 3–0 win. Fleeting also netted twice in a fractious 4–1 win over Croatia at Forthbank Stadium.
Fleeting was handed the captaincy by Vera Pauw in early 2001. October 2001, Fleeting marked the occasion of her fiftieth cap with a four-goal haul in Scotland's 5–1 win over Wales at Almondvale. Fleeting was part of the Scotland team that took on the Auld Enemy in a friendly at Prenton Park in April 2005. Fleeting's first goal against England, was the equaliser, but it couldn't prevent Scotland losing an own goal in the dying minutes as they lost 2–1. The previous night Fleeting had scored the winner in a 2–1 victory over England in a behind closed doors training match.
In a 2009 European Championship qualifier in October 2007, Fleeting scored her one hundredth goal for Scotland in a 3–0 victory in Slovakia. She was later presented with a specially designed Scotland top from sponsors, Tennent's and a pair of golden boots by her boot Sponsor, Nomis, in celebration of achieving such a phenomenal feat. The SFA announced their own plans to commemorate her "momentous" achievement with a special presentation before Scotland's home game against Italy in November. A few days later, Fleeting reached another milestone, when she won her one hundredth cap against Denmark at McDiarmid Park in another qualification match. SFA Chief Executive Gordon Smith made a special presentation prior to the match in her honour.
In 2009, Gemma Fay took over the captain's armband on permanent basis from Fleeting, who was awaiting the birth of her first child. Fleeting would still occasionally captain her country when she returned. In March 2010, Fleeting made her long-awaited Scotland return in 3–1 win in Georgia in a 2011 World Cup qualifier. It was her first game back in Scotland colours, since returning from time out of the game. Five days later, Fleeting returned to her goalscoring exploits by bagging four goals in an 8–1 hammering of Bulgaria at the Falkirk Stadium in another World Cup qualifier. After that match her international record stood at 111 goals in 111 caps for Scotland.
In June 2011, Scotland's record goalscorer, ruled herself out of contention for being picked for Great Britain women's team at the 2012 Summer Olympics. She concurred with the opinion of her father, the Scottish FA's director of football development, Jim Fleeting that participation may "jeopardise" the Scottish national team.
The 1–0 friendly victory against Belgium in August 2011, in which Fleeting scored the solitary goal, proved to be her last involvement with her country for more than three years. In that time, Fleeting missed two major championship qualifying campaigns and gave birth to her second daughter in 2012. The reason Fleeting missed Scotland's 2013 UEFA Women's Championship qualifiers was due to the pregnancy and birth of her second daughter. Her then record stood at 116 goals in 120 caps.
Fleeting returned to the international fold in January 2015, when Anna Signeul included her in the Scotland squad for an upcoming training camp. Signeul stated Fleeting may yet play a pivotal role in Scotland's 2017 UEFA Women's Championship qualifiers. Fleeting finally won her 121st cap in a 4–0 friendly victory against Northern Ireland in Belfast, coming on as a second-half substitute in February 2015.
Style of play
Fleeting was a striker, mainly deployed as a centre-forward, which was undoubtedly her strongest position because of her ability to "play through the middle". Referred to as "big" and "very strong", she was also cited for being a "fantastic target player" and someone who "wins everything in the air".
Fleeting, most known for her prolific goalscoring ability, was often praised for her ability to score a goal out of nothing. When asked, "What does she add? Arsenal manager Vic Akers replied of Fleeting: Goals." She is also known for being a "great finisher" and an "extremely good header of the ball".
When finally recalled to the Scotland squad in January 2015, manager Anna Signeul referred to Fleeting as a "special player" and "tactically very knowledgeable". Signeul said of her "We don't have a player like that in the squad, and have not had one since she was last in the side."
Career statistics
Official caps and goals
Scores and results list Scotland's goal tally first.
Unofficial caps and goals
Scores and results list Scotland's goal tally first.
International goals
Honours
Ayr United Ladies
Scottish Women's League: 2000–01
Scottish Women's Cup runner-up: 2000–01
Arsenal Ladies
UEFA Women's Cup: 2006–07
FA WSL: 2011
FA Women's Premier League (7): 2003–04, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2009–10
FA Women's Cup: 2003–04, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2010–11; runner-up: 2009–10
FA Women's Premier League Cup: 2004–05, 2006–07, 2008–09; runner-up: 2005–06, 2007–08
FA Community Shield runner-up: 2004
Glasgow City
SWPL: 2015, 2016
Scottish Women's Cup: 2015
SWPL Cup runner-up: 2016
Scotland
Albena Cup runner-up: 1999
Individual
1998–99 Eva Baily Cup
1999 Albena Cup: Player of the Tournament
2003 San Diego Spirit: Most Valuable Player
2003 San Diego Spirit: Golden Boot
2003 All-WUSA Second Team
2003 Soccer America WUSA XI
2004–05 FA Women's Players' Player of the Year
2007 Daily Record Sporting Hero of the Year
2008 FIT Scotland Sports Personality of the Year
2008 Evening Times Sportswoman of the Year
2004 Nominated for BBC Scotland Sports Personality of the Year
Awards
MBE (Awarded in 2008)
University of Edinburgh's Sports Hall of Fame (Inducted in 2009)
Scottish Football Hall of Fame (Inducted in 2018)
Scottish FA Women's International Roll of Honour (Inaugural inductee in 2017)
See also
List of women's footballers with 100 or more international goals
List of footballers with 100 or more caps
Scottish FA Women's International Roll of Honour
Notes
References
External links
SFA Hall of Fame profile
UOE Hall of Fame profile
UEFA.com profile
St Michael's College and Academy Alumni profile
1980 births
Living people
Scottish women's footballers
Scotland women's international footballers
Scotland women's youth international footballers
Women's Super League players
Arsenal W.F.C. players
Celtic F.C. Women players
Glasgow City F.C. players
Women's United Soccer Association players
San Diego Spirit players
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Footballers from Kilwinning
FA Women's National League players
Scottish Women's Premier League players
Julie Fleeting
Expatriate women's soccer players in the United States
FIFA Women's Century Club
People educated at St Michaels Academy
Scottish expatriate women's footballers
Expatriate women's footballers in Iceland
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Women's association football forwards
Scottish Football Hall of Fame inductees
Scottish expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Wives and girlfriends of association football players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylaeus%20%28bee%29
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Hylaeus (bee)
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Hylaeus is a large (over 500 species) and diverse cosmopolitan genus within the bee family Colletidae. This genus is also known as the yellow-faced bees or masked bees. This genus is the only truly globally distributed colletid, occurring on all continents except Antarctica.
Description
The genus of bees consists of generally small, black and yellow/white wasp-like species. The resemblance to wasps is enhanced by the absence of a scopa, which is atypical among bees. The body form of this genus is described as hylaeiform - slender, the hairs inconspicuous without magnification; scopa inconspicuous or absent.
Males have an intermediate glossal shape with a small to distinct median apical glossal point.
Hylaeus carry pollen in the crop, rather than externally, and regurgitate it into the cell where it will be used as larval food. Like most colletids, the liquid provisions are sealed inside a membranous cellophane-like cell lining.
Nests are typically in dead twigs or plant stems, or other similarly small natural cavities, rather than constructing or excavating their own nests as in many other bees.
Some species of Hylaeus have been associated with strong scents. In particular, European species such as Hylaeus prosopis are characterised by having a strong "lemon-like" scent. Further investigation has attributed this scent to a substance generated by the manibular glands of both males and females, composed of neral and geranial. It is believed this substance is used as a defensive secretion and/or a social pheromone.
Hylaeus Subgenera
At least 44 subgenera of Hylaeus are known in the world. These have been categorized geographically as follows by Ikudome (1989):
Australasian Region (19 subgenera): Analastoroides, Edriohylaeus, Euprosopellus, Euprosopis, Euprosopoides, Gnathoprosopis, Gnathoprosopoides, Hylaeorhiza, Hylaeteron, Laccohylaeus, Macrohylaeus, Meghylaeus, Planihylaeus, Prosopisteroides, Prosopisteron, Pseudhylaeus, Rhodohylaeus, Spearhylaeus and Xenohylaeus.
Palearctic Region (12 subgenera): Abrupta, Dentigera, Hylaeus, Koptogaster, Lambdopsis, Mehelyana, Nesohylaeus, Nesoprosopis, Paraprosopis, Patagiata, Prosopis and Spatulariella.
Nearctic Region (7 subgenera): Cephalylaeus, Hylaeana, Hylaeus, Metziella, Paraprosopis, Prosopella and Prosopis.
Holarctic Region (3 subgenera): Hylaeus, Paraprosopis and Prosopis.
Oriental Region (5 subgenera): Gnathlaeus, Hoploprosopis, Nesoprosopis, Nesylaeus and Paraprosopis.
Ethiopian Region (4 subgenera): Alfkenylaeus, Cornylaeus, Deranchylaeus and Metylaeus.
Neotropical Region (4 subgenera): Gongyloprosopis, Hylaeana, Hylaeopsis and Prosopis.
Distribution and status
A significant diversity of Hylaeus is found in Hawai'i — approximately sixty species are recorded as living there. Hylaeus are the only bees considered native to the islands and most of those are unique to the island chain; the diversity of this genus is far greater in Hawai'i than in all of mainland North America. Many of them are species of concern, and some recorded there are possibly extinct. For example, H. finitimus was last collected 100 years ago, and only ever seen on the island of Kauai.
The Hawaiian bee population and diversity is somewhat fluid — within the past ten to twenty years several Hylaeus species have been found and identified on the islands as new to science. In October 2016, seven species were officially listed as endangered by U. S. Fish & Wildlife, the first bees to ever be placed on the endangered species list.
North America
America
There are currently an estimated 130 species of Hylaeus in America.
Several species have been accidentally introduced to the country. This includes: Hylaeus leptocephalus found throughout the country; Hylaeus hyalinatus found in urban New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania; Hylaeus punctatus found in central California, Mid-Atlantic states, the Chicago region and Denver area; and Hylaeus (Prosopis) variegates in the greater New York city region.
One masked bee of interest in the country is Hylaeus lunicraterius. This bee is only recorded at the Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho. Little is known about its biology, however it is believed to nest in the crevices and holes in the lava flows.
Hawaiian Islands
A single clade of 60 known Hylaeus spp. are native to Hawaii.
Phylogenetic evidence suggests that the first Hylaeus species arrived on the island of Hawaii between 0.5 and 0.4 million years ago. From here, it is believed that descendants of the initial (presumed ground-nesting) colonist separated in order to specialize in the different ecological niches available. This included coastal and dry forest strands (H. longiceps and H. anthracinus); mid-elevation and montane dry shrubland strands (H. difficilis); cleptoparasite strands (H. inquilina); and wet and mesic forest wood-nesters. After this divergence, it is believed dispersal to other Hawaiian Islands occurred.
It is likely that the rapid speciation of Hylaeus occurred due to open expansion into open niches in novel habitat. Using an equation (r=lnN/t) developed by other studies into the evolution of Hawaiian groups, it can be calculated that the minimum speciation rate for Hylaeus on the island of Hawaii is 9.23 species per million years.
In terms of nesting biology, those that inhabit wet areas nest in stems or wood, while those inhabiting dry areas nest in the ground. Some ground-nesting species are also known to nest in crevices under rocks or within rock walls. Cleptoparasitic species appear to only attack ground or crevice nesters. Hylaeus species lack features required for digging or excavation; instead, it is likely that the holes they inhabit were initiated by other insects (such as Plagithmysus beetles or Ectemnius wasps).
Hawaiian Hylaeus species include five known cleptoparasitic species. These are the only known cleptoparasitic colletids.
Canada
There are 20 recorded species of Hylaeus in Canada, and an estimated 30 different species based on DNA barcoding. There are multiple reasons that extra species may not currently be recorded: colour markings and variations have been traditional identifiers leading to multiple junior synonyms, this genus is easily established outside of its native range, and heteroplasmy is known in some Hylaeus species which can lead to difficulties with specimen identification.
Australasia
New Zealand
8 species of Hylaeus are known in New Zealand. All of these species belong to the subgenus Prosopisteron. 6 of these species are endemic.
Endemic species of Hylaeus are divided into two groups based on a distinctive feature: the form of the apex of the 8th metasomal sternum of males. Hylaeus agilis and H. capitosus have a rounded apex, while H. kermadecensis, H. matamoko, H. murihiku and H. relegatus have a bifid (deeply notched) apex. Two species are adventive from Australia: Hylaeus asperithorax and H. perhumilis.
H. agilis has been recorded nesting in a wide variety of pre-made holes in stems and wood, for example in Muhlenbeckia australis and Ripogonum scandens, as well as introduced blackberry. Widespread throughout the three main islands, females are known to be aggressive pollen and/or nectar seekers, and have been observed on yellow mistletoe (Alepis flavida) and red mistletoe (Peraxilla tetrapetala).
H. asperithorax is found on the three main islands of New Zealand, as well as the Three Kings Islands and the Chicken Islands, Somes Island, and the Chatham Islands. Host plants are a mix of native plants (for example, Wahlenbergia pygmaea and Veronica speciosa) and introduced plants such as the common dandelion.
H. kermadecensis is restricted to the Kermadec Islands. H. kermadecensis has two known host plants: the native Scaevola gracilis and the introduced flossflower (Ageratum houstonianum). This species is also known to nest in previously excavated holes in wood and stems, and has been found using anobiid tunnels. It has been observing nesting in the trunk of Myrsine kermadecensis.
H. matamoko is a South Island species, found in mid- to southern montane areas. Host plants associated with these species include native Hebe spp., Epilobium spp. and Myosotis spp.
H. murihiku is also a South Island species, with specimens being collected from Fiordland. Little is currently known about biological behaviour and habits of the species.
H. perhumilis inhabits both the North and South Island. This species once again occupies pre-made holes to nest, and have been collected from both borer holes as well as those found in structures such as buildings and benches. Their host plants are known to be introduced Banksia spp and Eucalyptus regnans.
H. relegatus is widespread throughout the 3 main islands of New Zealand, and also the Chatham Islands and Three Kings Islands. They are known to utilise a wide range of both native and introduced plants across their range. They also utilise pre-excavated holes in wood and stems to nest, including those found in weatherboards and planking. Nests have been known to be parasitized by Gasteruption spp and Coelopencyrtus australis. Prepupae have also been recorded being attacked by Melittobia spp, and immature bees have been recorded as being killed by mould mites (Tyrophagus putrescentiae).
Australia
There are 173 species of Hylaeus found in Australia. 14 out of 16 sugenera of Hylaeus found in Australia are endemic.
Phylogenetic data currently suggests that Hylaeus originates from Australia, arising around 30 million years ago. One dispersal event would have led to the species found in New Zealand, and another separate dispersal event leading to the worldwide distribution of species found outside Australasia, with both these events having occurred between 22 and 23 million years ago.
Subgenera found in Australia
The Australian Faunal Directory lists 20 subgenera as being found in Australia:
Hylaeus (Analastoroides) Rayment, 1950: Hylaeus foveatus (Rayment, 1950)
Hylaeus (Edriohylaeus) Michener, 1965: Hylaeus ofarrelli Michener, 1965
Hylaeus (Euprosopellus) Michener, 1965: Hylaeus certus (Cockerell, 1921); Hylaeus chrysaspis (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus dromedarius (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus pergibbosus Cockerell, 1926
Hylaeus (Euprosopis) Perkins, 1912: Hylaeus disjunctus (Cockerell, 1905); Hylaeus elegans (Smith, 1853); Hylaeus honestus (Smith, 1879); Hylaeus husela (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus violaceus (Smith, 1853)
Hylaeus (Euprosopoides) Michener, 1965: Hylaeus amatus (Cockerell, 1909); Hylaeus cyanurus (W. Kirby, 1802); Hylaeus lubbocki (Cockerell, 1905); Hylaeus musgravei Cockerell, 1929; Hylaeus obtusatus (Smith, 1879); Hylaeus perplexus (Smith, 1854); Hylaeus rotundiceps (Smith, 1879); Hylaeus ruficeps (Smith, 1853)
Hylaeus (Gephyrohylaeus) Michener, 1965: Hylaeus sculptus (Cockerell, 1911)
Hylaeus (Gnathoprosopis) Perkins, 1912: Hylaeus albonitens (Cockerell, 1905); Hylaeus amiculiformis (Cockerell, 1909); Hylaeus amiculinus (Cockerell, 1922); Hylaeus amiculus (Smith, 1879); Hylaeus chromaticus (Cockerell, 1912); Hylaeus euxanthus (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus theodorei (Perkins, 1912)
Hylaeus (Gnathoprosopoides) Michener, 1965: Hylaeus bituberculatus (Smith, 1879); Hylaeus philoleucus (Cockerell, 1910)
Hylaeus (Heterapoides) Sandhouse, 1943: Hylaeus bacillarius (Cockerell, 1914); Hylaeus delicatus (Cockerell, 1911); Hylaeus digitatus (Houston, 1975); Hylaeus exleyae (Houston, 1975); Hylaeus extensus (Cockerell, 1916); Hylaeus halictiformis (Perkins, 1912); Hylaeus leviceps (Houston, 1975); Hylaeus nigriconcavus (Houston, 1975)
Hylaeus (Hylaeorhiza) Michener, 1965: Hylaeus nubilosus (Smith, 1853)
Hylaeus (Hylaeteron) Michener, 1965: Hylaeus douglasi Michener, 1965; Hylaeus hemirhodus Michener, 1965; Hylaeus murrumbidgeanus Houston, 1981; Hylaeus riekianus Houston, 1981; Hylaeus semirufus (Cockerell, 1914)
Hylaeus (Laccohylaeus) Houston, 1981: Hylaeus cyanophilus (Cockerell, 1910)
Hylaeus (Macrohylaeus) Michener, 1965: Hylaeus alcyoneus (Erichson, 1842)
Hylaeus (Meghylaeus) Cockerell, 1929: Hylaeus fijiensis (Cockerell, 1909)
Hylaeus (Planihylaeus) Houston, 1981: Hylaeus daviesiae Houston, 1981; Hylaeus jacksoniae Houston, 1981; Hylaeus probligenatus Houston, 1981; Hylaeus quadriceps (Smith, 1879); Hylaeus trilobatus (Cockerell, 1910)
Hylaeus (Prosopisteron) Cockerell, 1906: Hylaeus accipitris (Cockerell, 1914); Hylaeus albozebratus Michener, 1965; Hylaeus amatulus (Cockerell, 1922); Hylaeus aralis (Cockerell, 1916); Hylaeus asperithorax (Rayment, 1927); Hylaeus auriferus (Cockerell, 1918); Hylaeus basilautus (Rayment, 1953); Hylaeus baudinensis (Cockerell, 1905); Hylaeus bicoloratus (Smith, 1853); Hylaeus bicuneatus (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus bidentatus (Smith, 1853); Hylaeus blanchae Rayment, 1953; Hylaeus brevior (Cockerell, 1918); Hylaeus burnsi (Michener, 1965); Hylaeus chlorosomus (Cockerell, 1913); Hylaeus cliffordiellus Rayment, 1953; Hylaeus crassifemoratus (Cockerell, 1922); Hylaeus cyaneomicans (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus distractus (Cockerell, 1914); Hylaeus elongatus (Smith, 1879); Hylaeus eugeniellus (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus flavojugatus (Cockerell, 1912); Hylaeus frederici (Cockerell, 1905); Hylaeus greavesi (Rayment, 1935); Hylaeus hobartiellus Cockerell, 1929; Hylaeus infans (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus leai (Cockerell, 1912); Hylaeus littleri (Cockerell, 1918); Hylaeus mediovirens (Cockerell, 1913); Hylaeus microphenax (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus minusculus (Cockerell, 1913); Hylaeus murrayensis Rayment, 1935; Hylaeus nigrescens (Cockerell, 1918); Hylaeus perhumilis (Cockerell, 1914); Hylaeus perpictus Rayment, 1935; Hylaeus pictulus Michener, 1965; Hylaeus primulipictus (Cockerell, 1905); Hylaeus procurvus (Rayment, 1939); Hylaeus quadratus (Smith, 1853); Hylaeus sanguinipictus (Cockerell, 1914); Hylaeus scintillans (Cockerell, 1922); Hylaeus scintilliformis (Cockerell, 1913); Hylaeus scintillus (Cockerell, 1912); Hylaeus semipersonatus Cockerell, 1929; Hylaeus serotinellus (Cockerell, 1906); Hylaeus simplus Houston, 1993; Hylaeus subcoronatus Rayment, 1935; Hylaeus trimerops (Cockerell, 1916); Hylaeus turgicollaris Michener, 1965; Hylaeus vittatifrons (Cockerell, 1913); Hylaeus wilsoni (Rayment, 1928); Hylaeus woyensis Rayment, 1939; Hylaeus wynyardensis Cockerell, 1929; Hylaeus xanthaspis (Cockerell, 1910); Hylaeus xanthognathus Rayment, 1935; Hylaeus xanthopsyche (Cockerell, 1922)
Hylaeus (Pseudhylaeus) Cockerell, 1929: Hylaeus albocuneatus (Cockerell, 1913); Hylaeus albomaculatus (Smith, 1879); Hylaeus hypoleucus (Cockerell, 1918); Hylaeus mirandus (Rayment, 1930); Hylaeus multigibbosus Michener, 1965;
Hylaeus (Rhodohylaeus) Michener, 1965
Hylaeus (Sphaerhylaeus) Cockerell, 1929
Hylaeus (Xenohylaeus) Michener, 1965
Asia
China
21 species have been formally identified and described in China. These are as follows: Hylaeus (Dentigera) luna, Hylaeus asiaticus, Hylaeus difformis, Hylaeus dolichocephalus, Hylaeus dorni, Hylaeus fuliginosus, Hylaeus mongolicus, Hylaeus niger, Hylaeus paulus, Hylaeus perforatus, Hylaeus potanini, Hylaeus przewalskyi, Hylaeus sibiricus, Hylaeus sinensis, Hylaeus medialis, Hylaeus pfankuchi, Hylaeus floralis, Hylaeus concinnus, Hylaeus nigricallosus, Hylaeus confusus and Hylaeus variegatus.
Japan
23 species of Hylaeus are formally identified in Japan.
Saudi Arabia
Only one species of Hylaeus has been formally recorded in Saudi Arabia - Hylaeus (Paraprosopis) albonotatus. Further surveying of bee fauna is likely to result in further groups being recorded, due to the close proximity of numerous other species and subgenera of Hylaeus.
Ecology
Nesting Biology
Hylaeus nests in premade holes and prefers to nest in wood, but will nest in dead stems, rocks, and earthworm burrows.
When a suitable premade hole is found, it is then divided by transverse partitions of clear cellophane-like material. The inner most cell is the one farthest from the nest entrance, and is characterised by a round distal end in order to fit the hole. Cell volumes are more or less constant. Lateral burrows are not constructed in this genus, but cells are placed end to end in the main nest.
Hylaeus lines their nest with a waterproof and contaminant proof clear cellophane substance that does not melt or dissolve with strong chemicals. They also secrete a substance that protects the nest from fungi and bacteria. This substance is secreted from the mandibles.
Food mass placed in cells is liquid, even watery in some cases. It fills the bottom part of the water-proof cells. This liquid state is due a relatively small amount of pollen deposited in it from the crop. This pollen is then placed in a nectar admixture.
Diet and Feeding
Females gather large amounts of nectar for their semi-liquid provisions, and males feed on nectar. Observations suggest that Hylaeus are specialized in terms of pollen they collect, and near exclusively line their cells with pollen from plants they are specially adapted to. Pollen is carried internally in the crop.
Pollen-grooming movements by this genus to get pollen to the mouth only take pollen from the head and forelegs, with pollen on other parts of the body being lost. It is thought that the internal method of carrying pollen via the crop is an ancestral trait compared to scopal transport that other bees perform.
Pollination
The genus does not possess the same external structures as most other bee species and therefore instead transports pollen and nectar in the crop whilst foraging instead of externally. This makes for an interesting question of whether the species is an effective pollinator as the relative importance of their role as pollinators is unknown.
Hylaeus are considered generalist species, foraging on multiple species but have been documented to frequently visit specific plants within their established area. They forage at a high rate of visitation on many plant species and are considered to be an important contributor to pollination.
As this species lacks the external features to collect pollen, they pollinate other flowers when they insert their heads into deep throated flowers to harvest pollen and nectar. This results in excess pollen gathering around their head and thorax on their plumose hairs in which they transport to other flowers. These physical attributes raise concerns regarding their effectiveness as pollinators as they are unable to carry the same amount of pollen as other bee species and have been observed not coming into contact with the stigmas to effectively pollinate flowers, thus resulting in pollen theft. Additionally, the Hylaeus forage within short distances of their burrows ultimately resulting in pollen limitations within their environment. To alleviate this issue and increase their foraging efficiency, they specialise with particular species of plants for short periods of time however, when comparing their pollination effectiveness to other pollinator species like the ant, the Hylaeus is not as effective.
Contrastingly, a study involving pollination rates within the species Hylaeus matamoko in alpine areas of New Zealand, depicted a significant increase in pollination rate per visit when comparing to other invertebrate pollinators. It is estimated that the species performs 90-95% of the pollination within the alpine area studied with the Hylaeus also making up approximately 90% of foraging activities within their local environment.
Multiple literary sources indicate that further studies regarding their pollination effectiveness should be performed for each individual species and their respective global locations to determine if pollination rates change within species and to investigate the effectiveness of the genus as a pollinator.
Conservation
Nearly half of the Hylaeus species found in Hawaii are under threat, primarily due to loss and alteration of habitats. An estimated 10 species of Hylaeus may already be extinct in the Hawaiian Islands.
Hylaeus hirsutulus from Kaua‘i; H. angustulus from Maui Nui; H. kukui from Maui and Hawai‘i; H. crabronoides, H. filicum, H. muranus (= insignis), and H. rugulosus from Hawai‘i; and H. specularis from Hawai‘i, Moloka‘i, O‘ahu, and Kaua‘i (and presumedly Maui) all have only been collected and recorded in low numbers. These populations may potentially be under threat, however also exist in relatively large areas, and so may exist in larger populations than currently known. These species require further investigation to conclusively determine their status.
In the past 30 years, only three specimens of Hylaeus facilis have been collected from the Hawaiian Islands - one from O‘ahu in 1975, one from Maui in 1993, and one from Moloka‘i in 2005. Previous to 1930, this species had been described as widespread and abundant. It remains uncertain why these populations have decreased significantly while substantial habitat remains and closely related species remain abundant.
Hawaiian species H. anthracinus is known to be affected by the presence of invasive ant species, decreasing both nest success and the number of adults produced per successful nest. The black household ant (Ochetellus glaber) has been observed depredating nests, removing pollen, eggs, larvae and pupae. The African big-headed ant (Pheidole megacephala) can co-exist with H. anthracinus at low densities, however excludes them from ground-nesting opportunities when populations rise. In contrast, the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) is known to expand rapidly and remove this species from its range.
In Australia, the presence of commercial honey bees has been found to reduce the fecundity of the endemic Hylaeus alcyoneus, with 23% less nests being made when honey bees were present.
Selected species
Species of Hylaeus include:
Hylaeus agilis
Hylaeus alcyoneus - Banksia bee
Hylaeus anthracinus – anthricinan yellow-faced bee
Hylaeus assimulans – assimulans yellow-faced bee
Hylaeus facilis – easy yellow-faced bee
Hylaeus globuliferus
Hylaeus hilaris – hilaris yellow-faced bee
Hylaeus krombeini
Hylaeus kuakea
Hylaeus longiceps - longhead yellow-faced bee
Hylaeus mana
Hylaeus nigritus
Hylaeus punctatus
Hylaeus sanguinipictus
Hylaeus sedens
Hylaeus signatus
See also
List of Hylaeus species
References
External links
Worldwide Hylaeus species Distribution Map
List of Hylaeus Species
Female Hylaeus Identification Guide
Male Hylaeus Identification Guide
Bee genera
Colletidae
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4985373
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckskin%20Frank%20Leslie
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Buckskin Frank Leslie
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Buckskin Franklyn Leslie (March 18, 1842 – after 1920) was a U.S. Army scout, gambler, bartender, rancher, miner, gunfighter, and con-man. He was known for his fringed buckskin jacket. He became famous in Tombstone, Arizona, for killing two men in self-defense. He married the widow of one of his victims eight days after killing her husband. Following their divorce, Leslie later shot and killed a woman he lived with at his ranch while drunk and in a fit of jealousy. He was sentenced to life in prison, but only served six years before he was pardoned. He was last listed in the U.S. Federal Census on January 27, 1920 in Sausalito, California. No public records of him have been found after this date, and it is not known when he died.
Early life
Born in Texas
Leslie was born as "Nashville Franklyn Leslie" near San Antonio, Texas. Conflicting accounts of his early life exist. In 1913, Leslie wrote on his marriage certificate that he was the son of Bernard Leslie from Virginia, and Martha Leslie of Kentucky. The Tombstone Daily Prospector reported on July 15, 1889 that Leslie was born in Galveston, Texas in 1842 where he supposedly grew up. They stated that his father was Thomas Kennedy and his mother was Martha Leslie. The story reports that he took his mother's last name after a falling out with his father, though they did not provide any sources. In terms of his height, which is an important historical aspect for some, as stated above, he grew to 5’7”, a relatively robust height (N.B. Average height of this era is based on data which is largely unsubstantiated from an evidentiary perspective) for this era.
Imaginative personal history
Nothing has been documented concerning Leslie's first 36 years, although he told some colorful and improbable stories concerning those missing years. On two separate occasions, Leslie told writers his version of incidents from his early life. In 1880, Leslie said, "in 1861 I joined the Southern Army, and continued with it till April 9th 1865, when I was attached to General Gordon's division as a First Lieutenant, in the 10th Cavalry." He claimed he "was Deputy Sheriff of Abalene [sic]... under the notorious J.B. Hickock or 'Wild Bill,' " and that he was a "rough rider in Australia," and a [ship] pilot in the Fiji Islands and that he "has exhibited, as a fancy rifle shootist in different parts of the world."
In 1893, he related another story to W.H. Cameron of the San Francisco Chronicle, in which he claimed that the story of his life was a romance. Born in Virginia [sic] in 1842 of a good family, he went to Heidelberg to study medicine. At the same time, his brother attended West Point for a military education. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Frank returned to his old home in Virginia [sic] and entered the Confederate Army as a bugler while his brother joined the Union forces.
Leslie also claimed that he served as a scout for the U.S. Army in Texas, Oklahoma, and the Dakotas during the 1870s, but no documentation has been found.
San Francisco
Leslie was first recorded in San Francisco in 1878 where he was employed as a barkeeper in Thomas Boland's saloon at 311 Pine Street. He lived in San Francisco at 732 Howard Street. In 1879 he was a "bookkeeper," which may have been a typo for "barkeeper," since he worked at Kerr & Jurado's Saloon & Billiard Room. The next year he was again listed as a barkeeper in the same establishment and was living at 746 Folsom Street. In mid-1880, he moved to Tombstone, Arizona.
Tombstone, Arizona
Leslie arrived in Tombstone, in July 1880 dressed in the buckskin attire of a scout. He was tall and weighed about . When he arrived in Tombstone, he traded his frontier clothing for gentleman's attire like that worn in San Francisco. He complemented his city dress with a fringed buckskin vest that furthered his reputation as "Buckskin Frank" Leslie. In Tombstone, he entered a partnershp with William H. Knapp, and opened the Cosmopolitan Saloon next door to the Cosmopolitan Hotel at 409 Allen Street.
Kills Mike Killeen
Leslie was attracted to a chambermaid at the Cosmopolitan Hotel named Mary Jane "May" Killeen. He attended her wedding to Mike Killeen on April 13, 1880, in Tombstone, and was one of the two witnesses listed on the marriage record. Mike Killeen was jealous of the relationship between May and Leslie.
Late in the evening of June 22, 1880, Leslie had his arm around May as they sat on the front porch of the Cosmopolitan Hotel. George M. Perine, a friend of Leslie, saw her husband approaching, and warned Leslie, but not before Killeen fired his gun twice. The bullets grazed Leslie's head, and stunned him. Killeen attacked Leslie, and began clubbing him with his revolver when Killeen was shot, and mortally wounded. Before he died five days later, on June 28, he told E.T. Packwood that Perine had shot him. Both Leslie and Perine were charged with murder, but Leslie claimed he had fired in self-defense, and that Perine had not fired his weapon. The court accepted Leslie's explanation, and dismissed charges against both men.
Marries Mary Killeen
Eight days after her husband's death, Mary Killeen married Leslie. For the second time (within 84 days), 13 year-old Louisa E. Bilicke served as the bride's maid of honor. The Tombstone Epitaph reported:
Confronts with James Young
James Young had two encounters with Buckskin Frank Leslie and Leslie backed down both times. Young was an early arrival in Tombstone, Arizona and had worked in the Contention mine, and staked a claim nearby. When he found that Leslie had jumped his claim, Young approached him with a shotgun, and beckoned him to go back to town quickly. Leslie shrugged it off, and explained that he had heard that some others were about to jump Young's claim, and he had gone there to help him stand them off. When the news about the stand-off went around town, James Young's prestige rose, and Frank Leslie's faltered some. Later, when Leslie met Young in a store, unarmed and with his back turned, Leslie pulled his gun out of its holster, and was about to use it. The woman store-owner screamed and jumped between the two men. Again, Buckskin shrugged it off, and said he was just checking his six-gun to see that it was in good working order.
Kills Billy Claiborne
A major fire swept Tombstone on May 26, 1882, which destroyed Knapp & Leslie's Cosmopolitan Saloon. The partners decided against rebuilding, and Leslie took a job tending bar at the Oriental Saloon, one of the few buildings still standing.
Leslie was tending bar at the Oriental on November 14, 1882, when Billy Claiborne, who was very drunk, began using insulting and abusive language. Leslie asked Claiborne to leave, but Claiborne continued his foul and abusive speech. Leslie grabbed Claiborne by his coat collar, and escorted him out. Leslie later testified, "He used very hard language, and as he started away from me, shook a finger at me and said, 'That's all right Leslie, I'll get even on you.' "
Within a few minutes, two men told Leslie there was a man waiting outside to shoot him. When Leslie stepped outside, he saw "a foot of rifle barrel protruding from the end of the fruit stand." He tried to talk Claiborne out of shooting, but Claiborne raised his rifle, and fired the weapon, missing Leslie. Leslie returned fire, hitting Claiborne in the chest. "I saw him double up and had my pistol cocked and aimed at him again... I advanced upon him, but did not shoot, when he said, 'Don't shoot again, I am killed.' "
Leslie had planned that day to travel to the Dragoon Mountains with George W. Parsons, but the trip was cancelled. Parsons described Claiborne's death, writing that "Frank didn't lose the light of his cigarette during the encounter. Wonderfully cool man." The coroner's inquest concluded that Leslie shot Claiborne in self-defense, which "in the opinion of the jury, was justifiable."
The Magnolia Ranch
At the end of 1882, Milton E. Joyce sold his share in the Oriental Saloon, and he and Leslie entered a partnership to build a ranch near Arizona's Swisshelm Mountains. The "Magnolia" was located from Tombstone in a very desolate section of southeastern Arizona. Milt Joyce sold Leslie his share of the ranch in 1885.
Becomes cavalry scout
From May 20 to June 21, 1885, Leslie became a scout for the 4th Cavalry. In 1886, he applied for a job as a customs inspector, and continued some work as a scout. In the April, 1886 the San Francisco Chronicle reported:
Divorce
Mary Jane "May" Leslie filed a divorce complaint, and alleged that Leslie had had sex with "Miss Birdie Woods" between July 4–6, 1886. She also charged that Leslie had choked and beaten her on March 9, 1887. The divorce was granted on June 3, 1887. Judge William H. Barnes ordered Leslie to pay her $650 in cash and to convey title to a one-fourth interest in the Magnolia Ranch, including 13 horses and 150 cattle. Leslie was also ordered to pay all legal fees.
Murders Mollie Edwards
After his divorce, Mollie Edwards joined Leslie at his ranch as his "wife," but that relationship ended on July 10, 1889 when Leslie returned to his ranch drunk. He found Mollie Edwards sitting and talking with James Neil. The Tombstone Daily Epitaph reported:
Neil was badly wounded and was brought back to Tombstone where he was treated by one of the foremost surgeons in treating a gunshot wound in the United States, Dr. George E. Goodfellow on July 12, 1889. Leslie was arrested the same day and put in jail. After a two-day preliminary hearing, Leslie was ordered held without bail until his trial in Tucson. Four days after killing Edwards, the coroner's jury reported:
Leslie plead guilty "to murder in the first degree" on January 6, 1890, The Sacramento Daily Record-Union reported:
Sentenced to life
Leslie was sentenced to life in prison. Sheriff John Slaughter delivered him to the Yuma Territorial Prison on January 9, 1890, where he became convict number 632. The Mohave Miner, on January 18, 1890, reported "The eleven convicts who were brought here from Tombstone yesterday, arrived in an intoxicated condition. One of the number, a life prisoner, Frank Leslie, was so drunk that he could scarcely walk."
Leslie was in prison less than three months when he joined five other convicts in an unsuccessful escape attempt. Leslie was sent to solitary confinement for his part in the escape attempt. When he was released from solitary confinement, he became a model prisoner, and worked as a pharmacist in the prison infirmary. W.H. Cameron, a reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle, interviewed Leslie in late 1893.
Pardoned by Arizona Governor
After reading the story in the San Francisco Chronicle, a 36-year-old San Francisco divorcee named Belle Stowell began writing Leslie. The Tombstone Prospector (June 29, 1896) reported "It is probable that Frank Leslie, who was sentenced from this county to Yuma for life for murder, is likely soon to be a free man, as the Gazette states that executive clemency is likely to be extended in his behalf by Gov. Franklin." On November 17, 1896, Governor Benjamin J. Franklin of the Territory of Arizona granted Leslie a full and unconditional pardon. Leslie quickly left the state, going to Los Angeles, where he checked into the Natick House.
Later life
Marries Belle Stowell
Leslie later took a train to Stockton, California, and on December 1, 1896, Belle Stowell, went to the San Joaquin County Clerk's office, and obtained a marriage license. Leslie identified himself as "Nashville Franklyn Leslie, native of Virginia [sic], age 55," and stated that he was a "resident of San Carlos, Territory of Arizona." His bride described herself as "Mrs. Belle Stowell, native of Warren County, Illinois, age 39, resident of Warren Co., Illinois." The Stockton Daily Independent reported that "their wedding trip was to be to China, the start to be made by the next steamer," but they never made it to China. Four months later, the San Francisco Call, reported that "Mrs. Leslie is at present in this state, but it is said that her husband cannot be located... It is not known whether they have separated or not, but it is believed that they have." The marriage was not legally ended until March 19, 1903, when it was reported Belle was granted the divorce from Leslie “for failure to provide."
Fort Worth
In April 1897, Leslie arrived in Fort Worth, where he joined an Arizona friend named John Ralph "Jack" Dean. Leslie worked for Dean as a bartender in the Delaware Cafe. On January 17, 1898, the newspaper reported that he and a group of men formed "the charter of the Copper River Gold Mining and Prospect Company of Fort Worth was sent to Austin in charge of F.A. Mason, Capt. N.F. Leslie and Silas L. King today. This is the company which has been formed there to prospect in the Alaskan gold fields." Leslie apparently never went to Alaska, for in early April 1898 he was in Mexico. He was reported to be with "Doctor George Goodfellow and Tom Selby of San Francisco, at Hermosillo preparing for a trip to the interior."
Possible service in Spanish–American War
Leslie apparently didn't stay in Mexico long. He claimed that he enlisted, fought, and was wounded in the Spanish–American War. The San Francisco Call later published a lengthy story written by Leslie in which he claimed that "when Roosevelt commenced his recruitment I enlisted in one of the first companies formed in Arizona, and after arriving in Cuba was transferred by my own request to Lawtons's command and remained with him until the end of Spain's dominion in the western hemisphere. At the end of the War I returned to Arizona."
Mining in Mexico
If Leslie actually served in the Spanish–American War, he later traveled to Tombstone early in August, 1898, serving as a guide for a geological survey party looking for coal deposits. An Arizona paper reported that "since leaving Arizona Leslie has been in Cuba and returned wounded. After recovery he joined this surveying party and it is expected they will be engaged hereabouts for several months." The geological survey party was led by Professor Edwin Theodore Dumble. According to one Arizona newspaper "Prof. Dumble and his right hand man, Capt. Frank Leslie, have been in Nogales several days making arrangements for a month's stay in the field." Leslie was in the vicinity of Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico, during the late summer of 1899 when he had a close call. According to one report, "Captain Frank Leslie, well known all over Arizona, was held up by Yaquis and robbed. They took all his arms, mount etc., and turned him loose."
Leslie briefly returned to San Francisco but in 1900, he went to Mexico to work for the Mulatos Mining Company. Leslie wrote about the mining company's activities for a Nogales newspaper on March 14, 1902.
Return to San Francisco
Leslie was one of four well-dressed men, along with Harry Walters, T. Estrau and T.E. Gaitwere, who in November 1900, attempted to fleece J.P. Reynolds, a Nevada mining-man. The would-be victim sensed that the men were trying to defraud him, and got away before losing any money. "As Reynolds did not suffer from his experience with the bunko men, the officers were unable to hold them on any other charge except vagrancy." Leslie and the other men were arrested and charged with vagrancy at the city prison.
In another incident in December 1902, Leslie asked George V. Fause of Humboldt County for directions to a park in San Francisco. He befriended Fause and led him to a room in a lodging house on the southwest corner of Bush and Kearney Street, where Leslie and other men got Fause to give them a check for $675, which they promptly cashed at the Anglo-California Bank. When Fause left the place he ran into two policemen and told them of the fraud. The officers went back to the house as one of the men came out the front door. "When he saw the officers he started to run, but was soon overtaken and conveyed to the City Prison. He gave his name as Frank Leslie and his occupation as a horseman. Leslie was booked on a charge of grand Larceny by trick and device."
On November 25, 1902, Leslie was in San Francisco when his pistol fell out of his pocket, discharged, and wounded him. According to the San Francisco Chronicle:
Homestead claim filed in Seattle
On March 13, 1913, while living in Seattle, Leslie filed a homestead for property on Orcas Island. The homestead was contested a year later as Leslie "failed to reside, or attempted to cultivate the land." Leslie had boarded with John Dean and his wife. They looked for him and John reported Leslie had gone to Mexico City for mining business. The homestead claim was canceled on February 14, 1914.
Marriage and death
Leslie married Elnora "Nora" Cast in Napa, California on November 6, 1913. When he was married, Leslie reported his occupation as miner. At age 74 on May 20, 1916, Leslie was in Seattle where he was interviewed by a reporter from the Seattle Daily Times about a trip he was planning to Mexico.
Leslie was living in Sausalito, California, on Water Street on January 27, 1920. He was 77 years old and single. No public records of him have been found after this date, and it is not known when he died. His last wife, Elinora, died in Omak, Washington in 1932; Leslie was not listed as a survivor.
Photographs of Buckskin Frank Leslie
The most produced photograph of Buckskin Frank Leslie is the one taken at the Yuma Territorial Prison in November 1893, at the request of a San Francisco Chronicle reporter, for an interview. During the 1880s, there was also a photograph taken in a studio setting by a photographer, that depicts a well-dressed Frank Leslie. In December 2017, a previously unpublished photograph of Buckskin Frank Leslie was discovered, which depicts Leslie circa 1915, when he was in his seventies, and wearing his famous buckskin jacket. In that photograph, Frank Leslie was no longer sporting his sweeping moustache. The back of the photograph was inscribed "Nashville Frank Leslie".
Television portrayal
The actor Anthony Caruso played Leslie in the 1958 episode, "The Gunsmith," of the syndicated television anthology series, Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. Robert Fuller, prior to Laramie, was cast as gunsmith Alex. In the story line, Leslie comes to town to see his old flame Mary (Anita Gordon), Alex's fiancé who wants nothing to do with Leslie.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Chaput, Don. "Buckskin Frank" Leslie, Tucson, AZ: Westernlore Press, 1999.
DeMattos, Jack. "Gunfighters of the Real West: Buckskin Frank Leslie," Real West, September 1981.
DeMattos, Jack. Buckskin Frank Leslie Revealed, Wild West History Association Journal (Vol. VIII, No. 3) June, 2015.
DeMattos, Jack and Parsons, Chuck. They Called Him Buckskin Frank: The Life and Adventures of Nashville Franklyn Leslie, Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2018.
Leslie, Nashville Franklyn. "Personal Experiences With the Late General Lawton Told by Captain N. Frank Leslie, His Chief of Scouts in the Apache Campaign," San Francisco Call, Sunday, January 7, 1900.
Martin, Douglas D. Silver, Sex and Six Guns: Tombstone Saga of Buckskin Frank Leslie, Published by The Tombstone Epitaph, 1962.
O'Neal, Bill. "Buckskin Frank Leslie vs Billy the Kid Claiborne," True West, March 1991.
Rickards, Colin. Buckskin Frank Leslie: Gunman of Tombstone, El Paso, TX: Texas Western Press, 1964.
Scott, Jay. "Buckskin Frank: Tombstone Lady Killer," True Western Adventures, April 1961.
Traywick, Ben T. Tombstone's "Buckskin Frank": Nashville Franklyn Leslie, Tombstone, AZ: Published by Red Marie's, 2013.
American people convicted of murder
Gunslingers of the American Old West
1842 births
1927 deaths
People convicted of murder by the United States federal government
Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons
Cochise County conflict
People from Tombstone, Arizona
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%20Hills%2C%20Baltimore
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Hamilton Hills, Baltimore
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Hamilton Hills is a mixed-use suburban neighborhood located in the northeastern corner of Baltimore City, Maryland. Hamilton Hills represents a section of Hamilton, a larger historic area that includes other neighborhoods in Northeast Baltimore. The neighborhood's borders are Old Harford Road and Harford Road to the east, Echodale Avenue to the south, Perring Parkway to the west and the Baltimore County line to the north. The main thoroughfare in Hamilton Hills is Harford Road, which has been an integral part of the area's history.
The larger Hamilton area was sparsely populated until the late 18th century, the period when Harford Road was built. Hamilton began as a small, rural village surrounded by farmland during the 19th century. The land that became Hamilton Hills was a part of Baltimore County until 1918, when Baltimore City annexed it. Real estate developers arrived in the 20th century to build houses, and entrepreneurs formed a main street corridor on Harford Road. The Hamilton area was described throughout the 20th century as a desirable, family-oriented suburb in Baltimore City. The community has experienced White flight and been challenged by urban decay since the end of World War II. Residents in the 21st century have attempted to revive and protect Harford Road's main street economy as well as the reputation of the Hamilton area. Hamilton Hills was formalized in 2003 when the neighborhood association renamed the neighborhood.
Hamilton Hills' population in the 21st century has remained relatively stable compared to Baltimore's overall population decline. As of 2020, Hamilton Hills was the 5th largest neighborhood in the city by total population. Compared to Baltimore as a whole, median household incomes among Hamilton Hills residents in the 2010s were higher, life expectancy was longer, crime was lower, and voter participation was higher. Hamilton Hills residents have been more likely to graduate high school than all Baltimoreans but less likely to complete college.
Hamilton Hills is represented within the Baltimore City Council's 3rd District. Elementary and middle school students are zoned into three public schools, and the neighborhood is served by three post offices and a public library branch. It has two urban green spaces, one park, and a variety of cultural amenities.
History
Native American presence and European settlement
The Susquehannock people controlled the area that became Baltimore City and Baltimore County as late as the 1640s. They used the hilly, rugged terrain as hunting and trapping grounds, living instead to the north in the lower valley of the Susquehanna River. Beginning in 1634, the Maryland Colony's first English settlers spread north into the Baltimore area from St. Clement's Island in the Potomac River. These settlers gradually drove the Susquehannocks from the land, and they prevented other peoples such as the Iroquois and the Algonquians from claiming it.
The area that became Northeast Baltimore was sparsely populated in the 18th century. In 1734, the Principio Iron Company of England began acquiring land in the area for pig iron production, much of which they exported to England. At the peak of their operations, the company owned 4,900 acres of land in Northeast Baltimore. They used Herring Run to transport some of their goods on barges, and they likely stripped natural resources from the area that became Hamilton.
In 1780, during the American Revolutionary War, the Maryland General Assembly passed an act to confiscate all British property in the state. This included Principio's land in Northeast Baltimore. Over time, wealthy merchants from Baltimore Town built large estates on some of it, and truck farmers arrived to supply food for the region on other lots. Harford Road was built as early as 1791 in part to provide these merchants and farmers with a trade route into Baltimore Town. After the City of Baltimore was incorporated in 1797, most of the Harford Road area remained in Baltimore County until the 20th century.
19th century
Travelers complained in the early 19th century that potholes made Harford Road almost impassable with a horse and carriage. In 1819, the road was privatized as a toll road in exchange for its maintenance. A few connecting streets were built over the next few decades, and villages flourished around some popular crossroads. One such village became Hamilton's sister neighborhood of Lauraville.
During the mid and late 19th century, another village emerged on Harford Road between the intersections of Old Harford Road and Tames Lane. This is the village that later became Hamilton, though it was called North Lauraville in its earliest years. By the late 19th century, travelers in the region recognized North Lauraville as a rest stop and a center for horse and carriage supplies. Tames Lane ran from Harford Road to Belair Road where Hamilton Avenue is today. It was named for the Tames brothers, who opened the village's first general store at the intersection with Harford Road. Other businesses supporting the horse and carriage market as well as local farmers were opened along Harford Road and Tames Lane.
In the late 19th century, a retired sea captain named Hamilton Caughey donated land for Baltimore County to extend Tames Lane west of Harford Road. In exchange, Tames Lane was renamed Hamilton Lane and later Hamilton Avenue in his honor. When the United States Postal Service established a new post office at the intersection of Harford Road and Hamilton Lane, Baltimore Postmaster S. Davies Warfield renamed North Lauraville "Hamilton" to distinguish the village as a separate community.
In 1898, electric rail service for passengers was extended north on Harford Road from downtown Baltimore and into Hamilton. The streetcar system allowed Hamilton residents to travel farther from home and to work in the city. As a result, suburban development in the area would explode over the next few decades.
20th century
From village to neighborhood
After 1900, real estate developers bought many of Hamilton's old estates and farms to subdivide for new housing. In 1905, Evergreen Lawn became Hamilton's first subdivision on Evergreen Avenue. Between 1900 and 1919, a total of ten subdivisions were built in Hamilton and marketed toward middle-class families. Many of the area's present-day streets were named for its earliest residents or for historic properties.
As more residents moved to Hamilton during the early 20th century, they expanded the area's economic and communal activities. Retailers in various trades, from drug stores to dressmaking, opened along Harford Road and Hamilton Avenue. The two-story Hamilton Hall building was constructed at the southeast corner of Harford Road and Hamilton Avenue to serve as a prominent gathering place. Between 1900 and 1930, a dozen Christian churches were founded on or near Harford Road, and six held their first meetings in Hamilton Hall. Two neighborhood associations, the Hamilton Improvement Association and the Hamilton Women's Club, were formed to advocate for social and structural improvements in the area.
In 1918, Baltimore City annexed land including Hamilton and what is today Northeast Baltimore from Baltimore County. The city granted substantial property tax breaks for residents and developers in its newly annexed communities. The city also extended its water, sewer, and other infrastructure systems to Hamilton in the years following annexation.
After annexation, Baltimore City began connecting its eastern and western halves with several lateral roads. Northern Parkway was the first; it was begun in 1926 and completed in the 1970s. Echodale Avenue was built in 1935. By the mid-1920s, Harford Road had also evolved from a dusty toll road to a public arterial road. These roads allowed Hamilton's residents to access the rest of the city more easily and vice versa.
Mid to late 20th century
Hamilton was described throughout the 20th century as a desirable, family-oriented suburb and was known for its main street corridor on Harford Road. After another housing boom following World War II, most of the space available for residential stock had been developed. The last major housing push in Hamilton was the construction of apartment complexes near Northern Parkway and Perring Parkway, which occurred during the late 1960s and 1970s.
From the 1940s to the 1950s, Baltimore's city planners discontinued the electric streetcar system in favor of gasoline-powered automobiles. General Motors, Standard Oil, and Firestone Tire influenced the conversion of the city's streetcars to buses, and Hamilton's rail service on Harford Road was discontinued on June 19, 1956. The conversion of Harford Road exclusively to automobiles impacted Hamilton's main street economy. Over time, retailers relocated elsewhere to accommodate shoppers at strip malls and later at shopping malls.
Hamilton's characteristics changed during the latter half of the 20th century. The area became more of a pass-through community than a destination as its main street economy declined. White residents began migrating away from Baltimore and from Hamilton as suburban communities emerged in surrounding counties. Following the racial desegregation of Baltimore's public schools in the 1950s and 1960s, the majority of public school students in the city and in the Hamilton area shifted from White to Black. Generally speaking, Hamilton evolved into a more mixed-race area after Baltimore's population peaked in the 1950s.
21st century
To combat urban decay in the Hamilton-Lauraville area, local advocates targeted the Harford Road corridor for revitalization during the 1990s and 2000s. Hamilton-Lauraville Main Street, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, was founded with the support of the Baltimore Main Streets program. The organization's mission is to provide "quality of life experiences that retain residents and attract new neighbors, and to create opportunities for local businesses". Hamilton Lauraville Main Street has since hosted cultural events in the neighborhood and provided grants to businesses for improvements.
In 2000, the neighborhood association representing what became Hamilton Hills named the neighborhood Harford Echodale Perring Parkway (HEPP). In 2003, the association renamed the neighborhood Hamilton Hills, the name by which it is known today.
Hamilton, and Hamilton Hills by association, has been awarded in recent years for its desirability. In 2014, The Baltimore Sun ranked Hamilton 3rd in its top ten up-and-coming places to live in the Baltimore region. In 2019, the real estate website Redfin ranked Hamilton 4th in its top ten hottest affordable neighborhoods in the United States.
Geography
Hamilton Hills' borders have changed over time and, like many urban neighborhoods, have not always been clearly defined. The current borders are Old Harford Road and Harford Road to the east, Echodale Avenue to the south, Perring Parkway to the west and the Baltimore County line to the north. Some city agencies and local research organizations continue to include Hamilton Hills in their data for Harford-Echodale-Perring-Parkway (HEPP), a neighborhood cluster that includes Hamilton Hills and the neighborhoods of North Harford Road, Overlea, Taylor Heights, and the section of Westfield west of Harford Road.
The terrain in Hamilton Hills includes gently rolling hills that are characteristic of the Piedmont, a plateau region of the Eastern United States. Hamilton Hills' elevation ranges from above sea level at Herring Run near Echodale Avenue to near the intersection of Old Harford Road and Moore Avenue. Soils in the neighborhood are generally clay-like and moderately fertile.
Hamilton Hills has a total area of . Data published in 2020 showed that it was the 8th largest of Baltimore's neighborhoods by total area. Most of Hamilton Hills is land, though a thin section of Herring Run, which flows just outside of the neighborhood's western border, passes through the southwest corner. As of 2017, the total land area in HEPP covered by tree canopy was 29.6%, ranking 19th out of 55 neighborhood clusters in Baltimore.
Neighborhoods that are adjacent to Hamilton Hills include the community formerly known as Glenham-Belhar, Lauraville, Loch Raven, North Harford Road, Waltherson, and Westfield. Parkville is another community north of Hamilton Hills across the Baltimore County line. The campus of Morgan State University, which lies southwest of the neighborhood, can also be seen from some of the neighborhood's hills.
Demographics
According to data from the United States Census, Hamilton Hills' population has remained relatively steady in the 21st century. In 2000, Hamilton Hills (then known as HEPP) had an estimated 9,679 residents. By 2020, Hamilton Hills had an estimated 9,649 residents. Data published in 2020 showed that Hamilton was the 5th largest of Baltimore's neighborhoods by total population.
Many of Hamilton Hills' White residents have moved out of the neighborhood during the 21st century, and Black residents have mostly replaced them. In 2000, about 58.5% (5,662) of residents were Black or African American alone, 38.0% (3,676) were White alone, 1.0% (95) were Asian alone, and 1.8% (171) were from two or more races. About 1.6% (156) of all residents from all races were of Hispanic or Latino origin. By comparison, about 72.2% (6,962) of residents were Black or African American alone in 2020, 19.8% (1,914) were White alone, 3.4% (332) were some other race alone, and 4.2% (406) were from two or more races. About 3.5% (339) of residents from all races were Hispanic or Latino. Between 2000 and 2020, about 47.9% (1,762) of Hamilton Hills' White residents left the neighborhood. This period of White flight has continued despite the arrivals of White millennials into other areas of Baltimore.
About 55.4% (5,225) of Hamilton Hills residents were female as of 2019 and 44.6% (4,199) were male. The estimated median age of Hamilton Hills residents as of 2019 was 35.2 years old (33.8 for females, 40.4 for males). This was similar to the estimated median age of 35.4 years for all Baltimoreans as of the same year. About 6.6% (620) of residents were under 5 years old, which was similar to 6.4% for all Baltimoreans.
The estimated median household income of residents as of 2019 was $57,100. This was higher than the estimated median household income of $50,400 for all of Baltimore. About 19.1% of Hamilton Hills households had received some form of cash assistance or SNAP benefits within the past year compared to 25.0% citywide.
Hamilton Hills had fewer vacant housing units and more homeowners in 2020 than Baltimore as a whole. The neighborhood had an estimated 4,463 housing units as of that year, 6.3% (280) of which were vacant. This was lower than the citywide vacancy percentage of 16.6%. About 56.9% (5,358) of the neighborhood's residents also lived in owner-occupied housing as of 2019, and 43.1% (4,055) were renters. By comparison, about 51.0% of Baltimoreans lived in owner-occupied housing and 49.0% were renters.
Health
Between 2011 and 2015, the life expectancy of residents born in HEPP was 75.7 years compared to 73.6 years for all Baltimoreans. The leading causes of death in HEPP during that period were heart disease (25.8% of deaths) and cancer (23.5%). HEPP ranked 3rd out of 55 neighborhood clusters in Baltimore for deaths from breast cancer, representing 3.0% of the area's deaths compared to 1.5% for the entire city.
Between 2011 and 2015, the birth rate per 1,000 females in HEPP was lower (13.6) compared to that of all female Baltimoreans (14.3). The teen birth rate per 1,000 females in Hamilton Hills ages 15 to 19 (27.3) was also lower than that of all Baltimoreans from the same group (42.3). The infant mortality rate was also lower in HEPP: about 2.6 out of 1,000 infants born in HEPP died before the first birthdays, compared to 10.6 deaths among all of Baltimore's infants.
Hamilton Hills' nearest hospital is MedStar Good Samaritan Hospital, a private, not-for-profit teaching hospital located at 5601 Loch Raven Boulevard in Loch Raven.
Crime and safety
The Baltimore Police Department serves Hamilton Hills in its Northeastern District. The district's headquarters is located at 1900 Argonne Drive next to the campus of Morgan State University.
In 2019, Hamilton Hills residents reported 284 property crimes and 210 violent crimes for a total of 494 crimes. Between 2014 and 2019, the total annual crimes reported in the neighborhood decreased by 14.5%, from 578 to 494, mostly because of a decrease in reported property crimes. In 2019, there were 30.1 property crimes and 22.3 violent crimes reported for every 1,000 Hamilton Hills residents. These rates were lower than those for Baltimore City as a whole for the same year, which were 42.2 property crimes and 33.8 violent crimes reported for every 1,000 Baltimoreans.
The Fourth Battalion of the Baltimore City Fire Department provides fire protection to Hamilton Hills. Engine Company 56, the closest fire station to most of the neighborhood, is located at 6512 Harford Road in Westfield. Engine Company 42, Medic 6 is located to the south at 4522 Harford Road in Lauraville.
Culture
Art is present throughout the Hamilton-Lauraville area and in Hamilton Hills. The neighborhood features several murals through the support of the Baltimore Mural Program. Many of Hamilton Hills' restaurants also feature live music. In addition, several of Hamilton Hills' establishments foster arts and entertainment, including Chapterhouse Tattoo, the Hamilton Arts Collective, Hamiltone Music, the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Performing Arts, and the Strand Theater.
The Hamilton Lauraville Main Street organization has hosted cultural events for the Hamilton-Lauraville area throughout the 21st century. For example, they have organized First Friday events along Harford Road. In 2010, they began sponsoring the Downhill Derby, an annual soap box derby in Hamilton Hills.
The quality of the restaurants along the Harford Road corridor has been recognized in food media since the late 20th century. In 2019, a dining reporter for The Baltimore Sun described the Hamilton-Lauraville area as "Baltimore's low-key foodie neighborhood". Clementine, a farm-to-table restaurant that closed in 2017, was featured on an episode of the Food Network series Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives.
Excluding apartments, most housing units in Hamilton Hills are single-family detached houses or semi-detached houses with front porches and large yards. Because many houses in Hamilton-Lauraville were built with ample yard space, hundreds of urban gardeners and farmers live in the area. As of 2021, one active group created for gardeners in Hamilton-Lauraville on Facebook had over 1,000 members.
Parks and recreation
The Baltimore City Department of Recreation and Parks manages the majority of parks and recreational facilities in Baltimore. The agency manages Hamilton Hills' North Harford Park, which provides athletic fields and other recreational facilities at 6800 Hamlet Avenue. Hamilton Hills also has two urban green spaces: HEPP Park, a four-acre (0.02 km2) woodland area located at 2399 Pinewood Avenue; and the section of Herring Run that flows south into Herring Run Park.
Political and civic participation
Voter registration and voting in general elections have been more frequent in Hamilton Hills compared to all of Baltimore. As of 2018, 85.7% of adults 18 years or older in HEPP were registered to vote. This was higher than the 81.3% of adults who were registered across all of Baltimore. In elections between 2010 and 2018, an average of 49.8% of adults 18 years or older in HEPP voted in general elections. This was also higher than the percentage for all of Baltimore, as an average of 45.1% of the city's adults voted in general elections during the same period.
Hamilton Hills residents have formed several neighborhood associations since the early 1900s. The Hamilton Hills Neighborhood Association, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, is the present-day group of volunteers who organize and advocate for Hamilton Hills' residents.
Notable people
Notable residents of the Hamilton area have included:
Munro Leaf (1905–1976), an author and illustrator of children's books. He is best known for creating the character Ferdinand the Bull.
E. Ruth Hedeman (1910–2006), a solar astronomer. She published research on solar cycles and solar particle events.
Toots Barger (1913–1998), a national duckpin bowling champion and the second woman to be inducted into the Maryland State Athletic Hall of Fame.
Laura McNichol (1973-), a senior executive at Watco Companies, a major rail transportation and supply chain services company with locations throughout North America and Australia. She was born in Hamilton.
Sebastian Russo (1924–1981), a primary care physician who was shot and killed in his office on the 5100 block of Harford Road (now part of Lauraville). The wrought iron clock at the southwest corner of Harford Road and Hamilton Avenue was erected in his honor.
Lou Grasmick (1924–2016), a businessman, philanthropist, and professional baseball pitcher in Major League Baseball (MLB).
Jack Scarbath (1930–2020), a professional American football quarterback in the National Football League (NFL).
Matthew Porterfield (1977–), an independent filmmaker. He wrote and directed the 2006 drama film Hamilton, which is set in the Hamilton area.
Government
Baltimore is legislated by its City Council, which has 14 members elected by district and a president elected at-large. Hamilton Hills is represented within the 3rd council district. The neighborhood's current councilperson is Ryan Dorsey, who was elected to his first four-year term in 2016 and re-elected in 2020.
The Maryland General Assembly, which is the state legislature of Maryland, is divided into the Maryland Senate and the Maryland House of Delegates. Hamilton Hills is represented within the 43rd district and the 45th district of the Senate, as well as the 43rd district and the 45th district of the House of Delegates.
In the U.S. House of Representatives, Hamilton Hills is represented north of Northern Parkway within Maryland's 3rd congressional district and south of Northern Parkway within Maryland's 7th congressional district. John Sarbanes has represented the 3rd district since 2007. Kweisi Mfume previously represented the 7th district from 1987 to 1996. He was re-elected in May 2020 following the death of Elijah Cummings in October 2019.
Education
As of 2019, Hamilton Hills had a higher percentage of high school graduates than Baltimore as a whole but lower percentages of college graduates. About 90.5% (6,285) of Hamilton Hills' adults 25 years of age or older had at least a high school diploma or equivalent compared to 85.2% for the entire city. College completion rates were lower among Hamilton Hills residents. About 5.9% (407) of adults 25 years of age or older had associate degrees as of 2019, 15.4% (1,069) had bachelor's degrees, and 12.5% (870) had graduate or professional degrees. This was in comparison to all of Baltimore City, in which an estimated 4.8% of adults 25 years of age or older had associate degrees, 16.8% had bachelor's degrees, and 15.1% had graduate or professional degrees.
Schools
Baltimore offers students in pre-kindergarten, middle school, and high school the choice to attend any school in the city. Elementary students generally enroll in the schools zoned by area but can apply to the city's charter schools. In Hamilton Hills, students are zoned by default into three schools from pre-kindergarten through 8th grade. These are operated by Baltimore City Public Schools, the city's public school district.
Hamilton Elementary/Middle School is located at 6101 Old Harford Road in Hamilton Hills. The school enrolls students in pre-kindergarten through 8th grade. Elementary and middle students south of Northern Parkway attend this school. A total of 865 students were enrolled at this school in 2019. Of these, 78.6% (680) were Black, 7.1% (61) were Hispanic or Latino, and 9.7% (84) were White.
Woodhome Elementary/Middle School is located at 7300 Moyer Avenue in the North Harford Road neighborhood. The school enrolls students in pre-kindergarten through 8th grade. Elementary and middle school students near Old Harford Road north of Northern Parkway attend this school. A total of 387 students were enrolled at this school in 2019. Of these, 80.4% (311) were Black, 5.7% (22) were Hispanic or Latino, and 10.1% (39) were White.
Yorkwood Elementary School is located at 5931 Yorkwood Road in Loch Raven. The school enrolls students in pre-kindergarten through 5th grade. Elementary students north of Northern Parkway and near Perring Parkway attend this school. A total of 418 students were enrolled at this school in 2019. Of these, 95.2% (398) were Black and 2.9% (12) were Hispanic or Latino.
Two public high schools are also located in Hamilton Hills.
Reginald F. Lewis High School is located at 6401 Pioneer Drive. The school enrolls students in grades 9 through 12. Enrollment is subject to a choice lottery, meaning if more students select the school than it can serve, students are selected by lottery. A total of 541 students were enrolled at this school in 2019. Of these, 82.6% (452) were Black, 12.8% (69) were Hispanic or Latino, and 1.8% (10) were White.
Success Academy is an alternative placement high school located at 2201 Pinewood Avenue. The school enrolls students in grades 9 through 12 with special needs.
Library
The Enoch Pratt Free Library system operates the Hamilton Branch Library at 5910 Harford Road. The Hamilton area was previously served by the Old Hamilton Library, which opened at Hamilton and Richard Avenues in December 1920. After a housing boom following World War II, the larger Hamilton Branch building was constructed and opened in January 1959.
In 2018, about 19.3% of HEPP residents had library cards, ranking 49th out of 55 neighborhood clusters in Baltimore. This was lower than the estimated average of 27.8% across Baltimore's neighborhoods for the same year.
Postal service
The United States Postal Service (USPS) uses three ZIP Codes in Hamilton Hills: 21214, 21234, and 21239. They operate three post offices that serve the neighborhood:
The Hamilton Post Office is located at 4901 Harford Road. They deliver mail within the 21214 ZIP Code, which covers most of Hamilton Hills, and the 21239 ZIP Code, which covers the Barclay Square Apartments complex near Herring Run.
The Northwood Post Office is located at 1800 E Northern Parkway in Loch Raven. They deliver mail within the 21214 and 21234 ZIP Codes, including blocks in the north and west sections of the neighborhood.
The Parkville Post Office is located at 8201 Harford Road in Parkville. They deliver mail within the 21234 ZIP Code, including some blocks north of Northern Parkway and near Old Harford Road.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Hamilton Business District Streetscape
In 2019, the Baltimore City Department of Transportation installed separated bike lanes, floating bus stops, and more main street parking along Harford Road between White Avenue and Echodale Avenue. The changes were part of a $400,000 Hamilton Business District Streetscape project that reduced the number of traffic lanes for cars from four to three. They also represented Baltimore's testing of the Complete Streets urban design model, the placement of Harford Road on a "road diet", and an expansion of the city's cycling infrastructure.
Bus and rail
The Maryland Transit Authority's public bus service operates LocalLink Routes 30, 33, 36, and 54, and ExpressLink Route 154 through Hamilton Hills. These routes travel east and west along Northern Parkway and northeast to southwest along Harford Road. The agency also operates its MobilityLink service in the neighborhood, providing paratransit for riders who are unable to use Baltimore's buses or trains.
Rail service for passengers has not been present in Hamilton Hills since June 16, 1956, when Harford Road's electric rail service was converted to bus service. As of October 2020, the MTA had no plans to include Hamilton in their future rail services. The Green Line, which the MTA proposed in 2002 as part of a broader Baltimore Region Rail System Plan, would have included a stop in Hamilton Hills.
Roads and highways
Harford Road, or Maryland Route 147, has been an integral part of the neighborhood's history. It is a state highway that runs from North Avenue in Baltimore to Bel Air, the county seat of Harford County. The section of Harford Road that runs through Hamilton Hills forms part of the neighborhood's eastern border and is long. In January 2019, the Baltimore City Department of Transportation counted that about 700 motor vehicles passed southbound between White Avenue and Echodale Avenue during the peak AM hour, and about 600 motor vehicles passed northbound during the peak PM hour. Harford Road also connects drivers to Interstate 695 via a junction in Parkville.
Perring Parkway, or Maryland Route 41, is another state highway that runs through Hamilton Hills. It runs and begins at Harford Road in the Coldstream-Homestead-Montebello neighborhood as Hillen Road. It then continues north to Waltham Woods Road in Carney. The section of Perring Parkway that runs through Hamilton Hills forms the neighborhood's western border and is long. Perring Parkway is another road that connects drivers to Interstate 695 via its junction in Carney.
A few other major roads run through Hamilton Hills. Old Harford Road, which forms the other part of the neighborhood's eastern border, connects residents to Hamilton Elementary/Middle School, the Hamilton Branch of the Enoch Pratt Library, and some of the neighborhood's churches. Northern Parkway runs east to west across the city, connecting Liberty Heights Avenue in Northwest Baltimore to Belair Road in Overlea. Echodale Avenue, which forms the neighborhood's southern border, is part of a route that connects York Road to Belair Road. Hamilton Avenue, the road for which the Hamilton area was named, connects Harford Road to Belair Road north of Echodale Avenue.
Utilities
Electric power and natural gas are provided to Hamilton Hills by Baltimore Gas and Electric (BGE), a public utility company that serves the Baltimore metropolitan area and all of Baltimore.
Water and sewer services are provided by the Baltimore City Department of Public Works (DPW). Hamilton Hills receives water as a part of the DPW's Eastern Third Zone. The DPW pumps water from several sources to the neighborhood via its Ashburton and Lake Montebello filtration plants.
The DPW provides curbside collection of garbage, recycling, and yard waste in Hamilton Hills. The agency also fulfills a variety of neighborhood cleaning and greening requests through Baltimore's 3-1-1 municipal service system.
References
Bibliography
External links
Hamilton Hills Neighborhood Association
Hamilton Lauraville Main Street program
Live Baltimore neighborhood profile for Hamilton Hills
The weather forecast for Hamilton Hills
Neighborhoods in Baltimore
Northeast Baltimore
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic%20biology
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Forensic biology
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Forensic biology is the use of biological principles and techniques in the context of law enforcement investigations.
Forensic biology mainly focuses on DNA sequencing of biological matter found at crime scenes. This assists investigators in identifying potential suspects or unidentified bodies.
Forensic biology has many sub-branches, such as forensic anthropology, forensic entomology, forensic odontology, forensic pathology, and forensic toxicology.
Disciplines
History
The first known briefings of forensic procedures still used today are recorded as far back as the 7th century through the concept of utilizing fingerprints as a means of identification.
By the 7th century, forensic procedures were used to account criminals of guilt charges among other things.
Nowadays, the practice of autopsies and forensic investigations has seen a significant surge in both public interest and technological advancements. One of the early pioneers in employing these methods, which would later evolve into the field of forensics, was Alphonse Bertillon, who is also known as the "father of criminal identification". In 1879, he introduced a scientific approach to personal identification by developing the science of anthropometry. This method involved a series of body measurements for distinguishing one human individual from another.
Karl Landsteiner later made further significant discoveries in forensics. In 1901, he found out that blood could be categorized into different groups: A, B, AB, and O, and thus blood typing was introduced to the world of crime-solving. This development led to further studies and eventually, a whole new spectrum of criminology was added in the fields of medicine and forensics.
Dr Leone Lattes, a professor at the Institute of Forensic Medicine in Turin, Italy, has made significant additions into forensics as well. In 1915, he discovered a method to determine the blood group of dried bloodstains, which marked a significant advancement from prior techniques limited to analyzing liquid blood. This technique was adopted for criminal investigation.
In 1928, Albrecht. H.O, a German chemist, developed a chemical solution luminol, which can be used to detect trace amounts of blood stains at crime scenes.
Among others, Sir Alec Jeffreys further shaped forensics into what we know now. In 1984, he developed the DNA fingerprinting technique to examine the variations in the genetic code. This can be used to distinguish one individual from another. This method has become important in forensic science to assist police detective work, and it has also proved useful in resolving paternity and immigration disputes.
In 1983, Kary B. Mullis made a significant contribution to the fields of medicine and criminology by developing the PCR (polymerase chain reaction) technique, which can amplify even trace amount of DNA segments in-vitro. Such DNA samples, often found in crime scenes in minute amounts, degraded states and sometimes mixed with various body fluids from multiple individuals, can be effectively amplified using PCR. Beyond forensics, PCR has been applied to a wide range of fields, including disease diagnosis and virus detection.
DNA analysis
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is one of the most popular pieces of evidence to recover at a crime scene. More often than not, evidence containing DNA is regarded as biological evidence. With all of the substantial advances that have been made regarding DNA, biological evidence is recognized to be the "golden standard" in forensic science.
At the scene, biological evidence must be initially visibly recognized. Sometimes this is not always possible and the aid of an alternative light source, or Advanced Light Source (ALS), is required. Once identified as a potential source, presumptive tests are conducted to establish the possibility of the specified biological presence (semen, saliva, blood, urine, etc.). If positive, samples are collected and submitted for analysis in the laboratory, where confirmatory tests and further tests are performed.
DNA analysis has numerous applications such as paternity testing, identifications of unknown human remains, cold case breakthroughs, as well as connecting suspects and/or victims to a piece(s) of evidence, a scene, or to another person (victim or suspect, respectively).Nuclear DNA evidence can be recovered from blood, semen, saliva, epithelial cells and hair (if the root is still intact). Furthermore, Mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA) can be recovered from the shaft of hair, bone and the roots of teeth.
For most forensic DNA samples, STR analysis of autosomal short tandem repeats (STR) is performed in an attempt to individualize the sample to one person with a high degree of statistical confidence. Here, STR markers for autosomal STR are used in forensic DNA typing to track down the missing, verify family connections, and potentially connect suspects to crime sites.
Laboratory analysis of DNA evidence involves the sample DNA being extracted, quantified, amplified, and visualized. There are several methods of DNA extraction possible including organic (phenol-chloroform) extraction, Chelex extraction, and differential extraction.
Quantitation is commonly conducted using a form of the polymerase chain reaction, known as real-time PCR, quantitative PCR (qPCR). qPCR is the preferred method of DNA quantitation for forensic cases because it is very precise, human-specific, qualitative, and quantitative. This technique analyses changes in fluorescence signals of amplified DNA fragments between each PCR cycle without needing to pause the reaction or open the temperature-sensitive PCR tubes. In addition to the components necessary for standard a PCR reaction (i.e. template DNA, carefully designed forward and reverse primers, DNA polymerase [usually Taq], dNTPs, and a buffer solution containing Mg2+), qPCR reactions involve fluorescent dye-labelled probes that complement and anneal to the DNA sequence of interest that lies between the two primers. A "reporter" (R) dye is attached at the 5’ end of the fluorescent probe, while a "quencher" (Q) dye is attached at the 3’ end. Before the DNA strands are extended by the polymerase, the reporter and quencher are close enough in space that no fluorescence is detected by the instrument (the quencher completely absorbs/masks the fluorescence of the reporter). As the polymerase begins to extend the strand, the 5' end of the probe is degraded by the polymerase due to its exonuclease activity. The reporter dye is released from the 5’ end. It is no longer quenched, thus enabling fluorescence detection. A graph is constructed for the sample DNA comparing the presence of fluorescence (y-axis) to cycle number (x-axis) of the qPCR process. This is then compared to a standard curve of the cycle fluorescence threshold (y-axis) versus the log of known DNA concentrations (x-axis). By comparing the sample data to the standard curve, one may extrapolate the DNA concentration in the sample, which is essential to move forward with PCR amplification and capillary electrophoresis to obtain a DNA profile. DNA profiles are produced as an electropherogram. The obtained profile can be compared to known samples in CODIS to identify a possible suspect. Based on known frequencies of the genotype found in the DNA profile, the DNA analyst may place a statistical measure of confidence on DNA match.
Mitochondrial DNA analysis
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is used instead of nuclear DNA when forensic samples have been degraded, are damaged, or are in very small quantities. In many cases, there may be older human remains, sometimes ancient, and the only options for DNA collection are the body's bone, teeth, or hair.
mtDNA can be extracted from such degraded samples since its presence in cells is much higher than nuclear DNA. There can be more than 1,000 copies of mtDNA in a cell, while there are only two copies of nuclear DNA. Nuclear DNA is inherited from both the mother and the father but mtDNA is passed down from only the mother to all of her offspring. Due to this type of inheritance, mtDNA is useful for identification purposes in forensic work but can also be used for mass disasters, missing persons cases, complex kinship, and genetic genealogy.
The main advantage of using mtDNA is its high copy number. However, there are a few disadvantages of using mtDNA as opposed to nuclear DNA. Since mtDNA is inherited maternally and passed to each offspring, all members of the maternal familial line will share a haplotype. A haplotype "is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent". Sharing this haplotype among family members can cause an issue in forensic samples because these samples are often mixtures that contain more than one DNA contributor. De convolution and interpretation of mtDNA mixtures is more difficult than that of nuclear DNA, and some laboratories choose not to attempt the process Since mtDNA does not recombine, the genetic markers are not as diverse as autosomal STRs are in the case of nuclear DNA. Another issue is that of heteroplasmy — when an individual has more than one type of mtDNA in their cells. This can cause an issue in interpreting data from questioned forensic samples and known samples that contain mtDNA. Having adequate knowledge and understanding of heteroplasmy can help ensure successful interpretation.
There are some ways to improve success of mtDNA analysis. Preventing contamination at all testing stages and using positive and negative controls is a priority. In addition, the use of mini-amplicons can be beneficial. When a sample of mtDNA is severely degraded or has been obtained from an ancient source, the use of small amplicons can be used to improve the success of amplification during PCR. In these cases primers amplifying smaller regions of HV1 and HV2 in the control region of mtDNA are used. This process has been referred to as the 'ancient DNA' approach.
The first use of mtDNA as evidence in court was in 1996 in State of Tennessee v. Paul Ware. There was only circumstantial evidence against Ware so the admittance of mtDNA from hairs found in the victim's throat and at the scene were key to the case.
In 2004, with the help of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children and ChoicePoint, mtDNA was used to solve a 22-year-old cold case where the nuclear DNA evidence was not originally strong enough. After mtDNA analysis, Arbie Dean Williams was convicted of the murder of 15-year-old Linda Strait, which had occurred in 1982.
In 2012, mtDNA evidence allowed investigators to establish a link in a 36-year-old investigation into the murders of four Michigan children. Hair fibers found on the bodies of two of the children were tested and the mtDNA found to be the same for each sample. For the investigators this was a big break because it meant that the murders were likely connected.
Forensic anthropology
Anthropology is applied to forensics most regularly through the collection and analysis of human skeletal remains. The primary goals of anthropological involvement include identification and aiding in scene reconstruction by determining details regarding the circumstances of the victim's death. In cases where conventional techniques are unable to determine the identity of the remains due to the lack of soft tissue, anthropologists are required to deduce certain characteristics based on the skeletal remains. Race, sex, age and possible ailments can often be determined through bone measurements and looking for clues throughout the skeletal structure.
This becomes necessary when conventional methods that use soft tissue fail to establish the identity of remains. By examining bone measurements and other skeletal structure characteristics, anthropologists can often determine information such as race, sex, age, and potential health conditions.
Forensic botany
Forensic botany deals with the study of plants, leaves, seeds, and pollen or plant properties (such as anatomy, growth, behavior, classification, population dynamics, and reproductive cycles) that would be considered as physical evidence.
Before a plant can aid the investigations, the plant must be identified first to see if it is from the location that the plant was found. Forensic botany can help investigators by providing a link between an individual and the crime scene by pinpointing the geographical location of missing bodies or estimate where the burial took place. Another way that is used is through the interrogation process where investigators compare the traces that the victim(s) are found and compare to the statements of the suspect(s). Forensic botany can also reveal whether a death is due to suicide, accident, or homicide. Another example of forensic botany aiding investigators is by moss, moss can establish the PMI of a human skeletal, through its growth rate.
For example, an elderly man fell a steep hillside and was found dead. They concluded that the man did not die from the fall but from hypertensive heart disease. Forensic botany concluded that the fall was approximately 10 m and there was a lane that joined the hill path around 9 m perpendicular form the body. It showed he had leaves on his left hand and sweater. There were also broken bushes in the scene. Forensic scientists specializing in forensic botany had grabbed five soil samples and some plant samples from the scene. The plant samples were analyzed through optical microscopy, and they also examined the victims' clothing since it did carry some plant elements. They did a macroscopic and microscopic analysis compared to the collected samples on the scene. It was concluded that there was no evidence of struggle caused by another person instead, the elderly man had lost his balance.
Subspecialties In Forensic Botany
Subdisciplines within forensic botany examples include:
forensic palynology (study of pollen and spores). Palynology can produce evidence of decomposition time, location of death or the time of year.
dendrochronology (study of the growth of rings of trees stems and roots)
Lichenology (study of lichens)
Mycology (study of fungi)
Bryology (study of bryophytes). Bryology is the easiest to find evidence since bryophyte (a species of plants) attaches to shoes and clothes easily. Bryophyte useful since even if it is ripped apart or broken down, DNA can still be analyzed. Ways in which DNA can be analyzed is through the microscope or other sophisticated DNA testing.
Forensic ornithology
Forensic ornithology employs scientific methodologies to ascertain the bird species from traces of evidence such as a small feather, a fragment of bone, or a trace of blood. Bird remains can be identified, first and foremost from feathers as feathers exhibit distinctive characteristics specific to a particular bird species, which can be observed both at a macroscopic and microscopic level.
Forensic odontology
Dentistry has helped law enforcement detect and solve cases in criminal and civil proceedings. Odontology did not get popular until the 1960s when an interest was brought up by the first instructional program in the United States at the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. As a result of this program, the term "forensic odontology" is now widely known and understood by both dental and law enforcement professionals.
Odontologists or dental professionals can use dental science to establish a person's identity. The broad duties of a Forensic Odontologist include forensic identification of individuals, including in multi-casualty events, age estimation in living and deceased persons, interpreting injuries in the oral and perioral regions, bite mark analysis and comparison, and assisting forensic pathologists in determining the cause of death if there is a possible contributing dental condition.
Dental evidence is useful in establishing human identity by comparing the dental features of a deceased person with antemortem dental records.
Forensic pathology
Forensic pathology is a subfield in forensics where experts examine persons (bodies) who die suddenly, unexpectedly or violently, and thus determine the cause of death. The function of a forensic autopsy is to provide information through a postmortem examination of the body and analysis of the fluids to determine the cause of death, manner of death, and mechanism of injury.
A forensic pathologist is a medical doctor who is an expert in both trauma and disease and is responsible for performing autopsies. He/she applies their extensive knowledge of the human body and possible internal and external inflections as he/she performs an autopsy, to ascertain the manner and cause of death hopefully.
Information derived from the autopsy often greatly assists investigative efforts and scene reconstruction.
Forensic toxicology
Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and other disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilized but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results.
Forensic microbiology
With recent advances in massive parallel sequencing (MPS), or next-generation sequencing (NGS), forensic microbiology has become an increasingly promising area of research. "Initial applications in circumstances of biocrime, bioterrorism and epidemiology use microorganisms for the following reasons: (i) as ancillary evidence in criminal cases; (ii) to clarify causes of death (e.g., drownings, toxicology, hospital-acquired infections, sudden infant death and shaken baby syndromes); (iii) to assist human identification (skin, hair and body fluid microbiomes); (iv) for geolocation (soil microbiome or microbiome of bodies of water); and (v) to estimate postmortem interval (PMI) via thanatomicrobiome and epinecrotic microbial community". In fact, scientists estimate the time elapsed since death or the PMI by analyzing the stage of decay from bacterial decomposition or the bacterial succession patterns.
Bioterrorism and epidemiology
Bio terrorism occurs when biological components are used as warfare agents. Such biological weapons are microorganisms that are deliberately dispersed to incapacitate or cause disease and death to humans, animals or plants. Biological warfare agents can be natural or genetically modified. Nevertheless, these biological agents - be it viruses, bacteria or fungi are highly contagious.
Forensic microbiology also contributes to the development of epidemiology. By examining microorganisms obtained from infected individuals, scientists can determine a suspected source of infection, the type of infection present, and the evolution or mutation pattern of the microorganism. The application of a forensic microbiologist would be to examine the microorganisms isolated from infected individuals and compare it to known sources of infectious pathogens.
"It is important to remember that biological agents that can be used as weapons are often found in the environment. For this reason, it is always difficult to determine whether infections associated with these bioagents are accidental or purposely started". While not the first, or only, incidence of bioterrorism, perhaps the most notable case in recent memory involved the sending of at least four anthrax-containing envelopes in the United States in September and October 2001. "At least 22 victims contracted anthrax due to the mailings: 11 individuals contracted inhalation anthrax, with 5 of these infections resulting in fatalities; another 11 individuals suffered cutaneous anthrax. In addition, 31 persons tested positive for exposure to B. anthracis spores". However, the advancements in PCR and whole-genome sequencing allowed scientists to collaborate with the FBI and identify the source of the letter spores.
Differentiating a biowarfare attack from a normal epidemiology outbreak
The basic epidemiologic approach to evaluating a potential bioterrorist or biowarfare attack differs from any standard epidemiologic investigation. The first step uses laboratory and clinical findings to confirm that a disease outbreak has occurred. Once the case definition and attack rate have been determined, the outbreak can be characterized in the conventional context of time, place, and person. These data provide crucial information in determining the potential source of the outbreak. An epidemic curve can be calculated using data gathered on cases over time. The disease pattern is important to differentiate between a natural outbreak and an intentional attack. A bioterrorism attack is most likely caused by a point source, with everyone coming in contact with the agent at approximately the same time. Additional characteristics investigated in determining whether it is the result of a biological attack are: the presence of a large epidemic; more severe disease than expected for a given pathogen; a disease that is unusual for a given geographic area; and multiple simultaneous epidemics of different diseases.
Postmortem analysis
"Post-mortem microbiology (PMM) aims to detect unexpected infections causing sudden deaths; confirm clinically suspected but unproven infection; evaluate the efficacy of antimicrobial therapy; identify emergent pathogens; and recognize medical errors. Additionally, the analysis of the thanatomicrobiome may help to estimate the post-mortem interval.". There is currently an extensive amount of research being performed, most notably using the famous "body farms" throughout the United States, to determine if there is a consistent microbial decomposition "clock" that could be used by itself, or in conjunction with other techniques (such as forensic entomology) to help estimate postmortem intervals. One such group has made extensive headway into describing such a microbial clock, and "believes she's within two to five years of testing her clock in a real crime scene scenario". However, if a reliable and consistent microbial clock is determined to exist, "it's too soon to know whether the microbial clock will pass scientific and legal muster," (Beans) and "a judge would also have to determine that the microbial clock meets the standard for admission of expert testimony".
Water sample analysis
In cases involving a body of water at or near the scene of a crime, a sample of the water can be extracted and analyzed under a light microscope for microorganisms. One such microorganism that are analyzed within samples of fresh water are diatoms, microscopic algae of varying shapes. Different bodies of water have been found to contain unique sets of diatoms and therefore, a piece of evidence found in a specific body of water will contain unique diatoms on it found only in that specific body of water. Therefore, the diatoms on a questioned object or body can be compared to the diatoms from a body of water to determine whether it had been present in the water.
Current issues
Sexual assault kit backlog
Prior to DNA testing, many sexual assault cases could only rely on "he said, she said" and possible witnesses. Even once DNA analysis was available, many sexual assault kits, or SAKs, were never tested and thrown into a backroom or storage facility, only to be forgotten until discovered. Since DNA analysis is frequently utilized in most cases, most SAKs are examined and analyzed. However, the issue remains about the preexisting SAKs that have never been tested. A prevalent issue then, that still extends to now, is the absence of funds to process and analyze these SAKs. Many districts would dedicate their funds to homicides or more high-profile cases and sexual assaults would be swept aside. The biggest concern about all of these SAKs, is how to go about processing all of them, especially as more and more are being found each year.
Cold cases
With the considerable advances in DNA analysis, old, open cases with intact evidence can be examined for biological evidence. New profiles are uploaded to CODIS every day so the base population to search and compare to increases. Biological testing for cold cases, specifically homicides, encounters similar roadblocks as the SAKs - lack of funds or the DNA samples have not been properly stored; thus too much degradation has occurred for viable analyses.
Popular culture
In popular culture, forensic biology is frequently portrayed in shows like Law & Order, Hannibal, Bones, CSI, Dexter and Castle. However thanks to Hollywood's depiction of forensic science, the analysis of biological evidence has fallen prey to the CSI Effect, which results in the public's perception of its capabilities being severely distorted and its limits blurred.
See also
DNA profiling
Forensic chemistry
Forensic science
References
Branches of biology
Biology
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4985832
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirza%20Fatali%20Akhundov
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Mirza Fatali Akhundov
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Mirza Fatali Akhundov (; ), also known as Mirza Fatali Akhundzade, or Mirza Fath-Ali Akhundzadeh (12 July 1812 – 9 March 1878), was a celebrated Iranian Azerbaijani author, playwright, atheist, philosopher, and founder of Azerbaijani modern literary criticism, "who acquired fame primarily as the writer of European-inspired plays in the Azeri Turkic language".
Akhundzade singlehandedly opened a new stage of development of Azerbaijani literature. He was also the founder of the materialism and atheism movement in the Republic of Azerbaijan and one of forerunners of modern Iranian nationalism. He also advocated switching the Azerbaijani writing system from the Perso-Arabic script to the Latin alphabet.
According to the historian and political scientist Zaur Gasimov, the entirety of Akhundzadeh's intellectual landscape was "densely entangled with Persian thought". Akhundzadeh defined his kinsmen as Turki, but at the same time considered Iran his fatherland.
Life
Akhundzade was born in 1812 in Nukha (present-day Shaki, Azerbaijan) to a wealthy Iranian Azerbaijani landowning family from Azarbaijan. His parents, and especially his uncle Haji Alaskar, who was Fatali's first teacher, prepared young Fatali for a career in Shi'a clergy, but the young man was attracted to the literature. In 1832, while in Ganja Akhundzade, came into contact with the poet Mirza Shafi Vazeh, who introduced him to Western secular thought and discouraged him from pursuing a religious career. Later in 1834, Akhundzade moved to Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi, Georgia), and spent the rest of his life working as a translator of Oriental languages in the service of the Russian Empire's Viceroyalty. Concurrently, from 1837 onwards he worked as a teacher in Tbilisi uezd Armenian school, then in Nersisyan school. In Tiflis his acquaintance and friendship with the exiled Russian Decembrists Alexander Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, Vladimir Odoyevsky, poet Yakov Polonsky, Armenian writers Khachatur Abovian, Gabriel Sundukyan and others played some part in the formation of Akhundzade's Europeanized outlook.
Akhundzade's first published work was The Oriental Poem (1837), written to lament the death of the great Russian poet Alexander Pushkin. But the rise of Akhundzade's literary activity comes in the late 1850s. In early 1850s, Akhundzade wrote six comedies (Hekayati Molla Ibrahim-Khalil Kimyagar, The story of Monsieur Jourdan, a botanist and the dervish Mastalishah, a famous sorcerer, Adventures of the Lankaran Khanate Vizier, etc.) – the first comedies in Azerbaijani literature as well as the first samples of the national dramaturgy. The comedies by Akhundzade are unique in their critical pathos, analysis of the realities in Azerbaijan of the first half of the 19th century. These comedies found numerous responses in the Russian other foreign periodical press. The German, Magazine of Foreign Literature called Akhundzade "dramatic genius", "the Azerbaijani Molière." Akhundzade's sharp pen was directed against everything that he believed hindered the advance of the Russian Empire, which for Akhundzade was a force for modernisation, in spite of the atrocities it committed in its southern advance against Akhundzade's own kin. According to Walter Kolarz:
The greatest Azerbaidzhani poet of the nineteenth century, "Mirza Fathali Akhundov" (1812–78), who is called the "Molière of the Orient", was so completely devoted to the Russian cause that he urged his compatriots to fight Turkey during the Crimean War.
In 1859 Akhundzade published his short but famous novel The Deceived Stars. In this novel he laid the foundation of Azerbaijani realistic historical prose, giving the models of a new genre in Azerbaijani literature. Through his comedies and dramas, Akhundzade established realism as the leading trend in Azerbaijani literature.
According to Ronald Grigor Suny:
Turkish nationalism, which developed in part as a reaction to the nationalism of the Christian minorities [of the Ottoman Empire], was, like Armenian nationalism, heavily influenced by thinkers who lived and were educated in the Russian Empire. The Crimean Tatar Ismail Bey Gasprinski and the Azerbaijani writer Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade inspired Turkish intellectuals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
According to Tadeusz Swietochowski:
In his glorification of the pre-Islamic greatness of Iran, before it was destroyed at the hands of the "hungry, naked and savage Arabs", "Akhundzade was one of the forerunners of modern Iranian nationalism, and of its militant manifestations at that nor was he devoid of anti-Ottoman sentiments, and in his spirit of the age-long Iranian Ottoman confrontation, he ventured into his writing on the victory of Shah Abbas I over the Turks at Baghdad. Akhundzade is counted as one of the founders of modern Iranian literature, and his formative influence is visible in such major Persian-language writers as Malkum Khan, Mirza Agha Khan and Mirza Abdul-Rahim Talibov Tabrizi. All of them were advocates of reforms in Iran. If Akhundzade had no doubt that his spiritual homeland was Iran, Azerbaijan was the land he grew up and whose language was his native tongue. His lyrical poetry was written in Persian, but his work carries messages of social importance as written in the language of the people of his native land, Azari. With no indication of split-personality, he combined larger Iranian identity with Azerbaijani—he used the term vatan (fatherland) in reference to both."
Reza Zia-Ebrahimi too considers Akhundzade as the founding father of what he calls 'dislocative nationalism' in Iran. According to Zia-Ebrahimi, Akhundzade found inspiration in Orientalist templates to construct a vision of ancient Iran, which offered intellectuals disgruntled with the pace of modernist reform in Iran, a self-serving narrative where all of Iran's shortcomings are blamed on a monolithic and otherized 'other': the Arab. For Zia-Ebrahimi, Akhundzade must be credit with the introduction of ethno-racial ideas, particularly the opposition between the Iranian Aryan and the Arab Semite, into Iran's intellectual debates. Zia-Ebrahimi disputes that Akhundzade had any influence on modernist intellectuals such as Malkum Khan (beyond a common project to reform the Alphabet used to write Persian) or Talibov Tabrizi. His real heir was Kermani, and these two intellectuals' legacy is to be found in the ethnic nationalism of the Pahlavi state, rather than the civic nationalism of the Constitutional movement.
While Akundzadeh is said to have been an atheist, he was very sympathetic to the Zoroastrian religion and was in correspondence with Manekji Limji Hataria.
At that time, the Qajar dynasty was in great crisis as a consequence of their failures against the Russian empire and the British, and their corruption and mismanagement. This gave rise to the Constitutional movement. According to these intellectuals Iran needed political change to a constitutional parliamentarian model of governance. But for some intellectuals like Akhundzadeh this was not enough.
He argued that the Arabs and Islam were responsible for the downturn of Iranian civilization and argued that Iranians should look back to their glorious pre-Islamic civilization. In the Maktubàt-e Kamàl od-Dowleh beh Shàhzadeh Jamàl od-Dowleh (Letters from Kamal od-Dowleh to Prince Jalal od-Dowleh, 1860, hereafter Maktubàt) his vision on the glorious pre-islamic past is portrayed. Just like Jalal ed-Din Mirza Qajar, with whom he corresponded, he argued that Arabic loan words, alphabet and Islam should be removed. If this is accomplished, then according to him Iran can return to its glorious state. He was the first to compile these ideas into a coherent nationalist ideology, which makes him the father of Iranian nationalism.
Akhundzadeh was also an atheist, but he made an exception for Zoroastrianism, which he saw as a great religion and the true Iranian religion. He hoped that it would one day replace Islam again and so tried to promote it with his Maktubàt.
The ‘Sultans of Islam’ will be ‘kinder to your kin than to their own brother and father’. They ‘will deplore the fact that they did not know you until today and that throughout the history of Islam they have supported and admired Arabs, who are their enemies ... who destroyed their country’, rather than Zoroastrians who are ‘their brothers, who speak the same language [sic], their compatriots, the living memory of their glorious forefathers, and their guardian angels’.
Akhundzadeh was under the spell of what seems to be Manekji’s archaistic charisma, a sort of magnetism stemming from the special knowledge of the glorious past that he was perceived to possess. Akhundzadeh put him on a pedestal because he saw him as an emissary of this Golden Age for which he and Jalal ed-Din Mirza longed, as if Manekji had just walked out of a time machine. In another letter, this admiration of Manekji becomes more evident: ‘my wish is that . . .Iranians knew that we are the children of the Parsis, that our home is Iran, that zeal, honour, idealism and our celestial aspirations demand that we favour our kin, rather than alien bloodthirsty bandits’ (Akhundzadeh to Manekji, 29 July 1871, in Mohammadzadeh and Arasli 1963:249, emphasis added). It is very revealing that Akhundzadeh called Iranians the ‘children’ of the Parsis. He accorded Parsis a genealogical ascendancy that can only be explained by the fact that he considered them as a kind of pure Iranians uncontaminated by Arabs and Islam, who should be ‘followed’ by the contemporary debased Muslim lot. He then added that ‘my appearance is that of a Turk, but I am of the Parsis’ race’.
In the 1920s, the Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre was named after Akhundzade.
Iranian nationalism
Akhundzade identified himself as belonging to the nation of Iran (mellat-e Irān) and to the Iranian homeland (vaṭan). He corresponded with Jālāl-al-Din Mirzā (a minor Qajar prince, son of Bahman Mirza Qajar,1826–70) and admired this latter's epic Nāmeh-ye Khosrovān ('Book of Sovereigns'), which was an attempt to offer the modern reader biography of Iran's ancient kings, real and mythical, without recourse to any Arabic loanword. The Nāmeh presented the pre-Islamic past as one of grandeur, and the advent of Islam as a radical rupture.
Dislocative nationalism is thus predicated on more than a total distinction between supposedly Aryan Iranians and Semitic Arabs, as it is suggested that the two races are incompatible and in opposition to each other. These ideas are directly indebted to nineteenth-century racial thought, particularly the Aryan race hypothesis developed by European comparative philologists (a hypothesis that Zia-Ebrahimi discusses at length ). Dislocative nationalism presents the pre-Islamic past as the site of a timeless Iranian essence, dismisses the Islamic period as one of decay, and blames all of Iran's shortcomings in the years after on Arabs and the adoption of Islam. The advent of Islam is thus ethnicised into an 'Arab invasion' and perceived as a case of racial contamination or miscegenation.
Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani (1854–96) was one of Akhundzades disciples, and three decades later will endeavour to disseminate Akhundzade's thought while also significantly strengthening its racial content. Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani also followed Jalāl-al-Din Mirzā in producing a national history of Iran, Āʾine-ye sekandari (The Alexandrian Mirror), extending from the mythological past to the Qajar era, again to contrast a mythified and fantasised pre-Islamic past with a present that falls short of nationalist expectations.
Alphabet reform
Well ahead of his time, Akhundzade was a keen advocate for alphabet reform, recognizing deficiencies of Perso-Arabic script with regards to Turkic sounds. He began his work regarding alphabet reform in 1850. His first efforts focused on modifying the Perso-Arabic script so that it would more adequately satisfy the phonetic requirements of the Azerbaijani language. First, he insisted that each sound be represented by a separate symbol – no duplications or omissions. The Perso-Arabic script expresses only three vowel sounds, whereas Azeri needs to identify nine vowels. Later, he openly advocated the change from Perso-Arabic to a modified Latin alphabet. The Latin script which was used in Azerbaijan between 1922 and 1939, and the Latin script which is used now, were based on Akhundzade's third version.
Family
His parents' was Mirza Mahammad Taghi (born in Khamaneh) and Nane Khanum. He married Tubu Khanum, his mother's cousin in 1842. He had 13 children of whom only 2 (Nisa and Rashid) reached maturity. His second marriage was to Nazli Beyim, a descendant of Javad Khan, with whom he fathered Sayrabayim. He married off both Nisa and Sayrabayim to Khan Baba Mirza from the Bahmani family. His grandson Fatali was purged in 1938.
Legacy
Besides his role in Azerbaijani literature and Iranian nationalism, Akhundzadeh was also known for his harsh criticisms of religions (mainly Islam) and stays as the most iconic Azerbaijani atheist. National Library of Azerbaijan and Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre, as well as a couple of streets, parks, and libraries, are also named after Akhundzade in Azerbaijan. A cultural museum in Tbilisi, Georgia that focuses on Georgian-Azerbaijani cultural relations is also named after him.
Punik, a town in Armenia was also named in the honour of Akhundzade until very recently. TURKSOY hosted a groundbreaking ceremony to declare 2012 as the year of Mirza Fatali Akhundzade.
House Museum
Mirza Fatali Akhundov's house museum is the house museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundov, an Azerbaijani writer, educator, poet, materialist philosopher and public figure, founder of Azerbaijani drama and literary criticism in Azerbaijani literature, located in Sheki. Akhundov was born in this house and spent his childhood and adolescence here. This museum is also the first memorial museum opened in Azerbaijan.
History
The house was built in 1800. In 1811, it was taken by Mirza Fatali Akhundov's father Mirza Mohammad Taghi. Mirza Fatali Akhundov was born here in 1812. Two years later, Akhundov's father moved with his family to Khamna village near Tabriz. Mirza Fatali's parents divorced when he was 13 years old. Later, in 1825, Akhundov returned to Sheki with his family. From this period, his mother's uncle Akhund Haji Alasgar began to take care of him. In 1833 he entered the Russian school opened in Sheki, and after studying there for a year he went to Tbilisi in 1834. In 1940, a museum was established in this house. In 2012, in honor of the 200th anniversary of Akhundov, the museum was overhauled.
Description
The house museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundov in Sheki is the first memorial museum opened in Azerbaijan. The museum consisted of two small interlocking rooms. There is another building near the house. It was built later and an exposition on the life and work of the great writer was created here. M. F. Akhundov's house museum consists of 2 buildings, an exposition hall dedicated to his life and work and the house where Akhundov was born.
The house was built of raw brick in the Sheki architectural tradition around 1800 and consists of two rooms, a balcony and a basement. There is a wooden structure between the floors. The stove also shows that the building was built in an oriental style. Antiques are exhibited in the rooms. In the past, there were stone and brick walls in the yard, a brick arched gate in the eastern style, and another two-storey, basement house made of raw bricks belonging to Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh's cousins.
The Exposition Hall was built in 1975. The house-museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh was repaired in 2011–2012. The museum displays 248 exhibits.
Photos
Bibliography
Major works:
Комедии Мирзы Фетъ-Али-Ахундова (Comedies of Mirza Fatali Akhundov). Tiflis, 1853.
Tamsīlāt-i Kaputan Mīrzā Fath-ʿAlī Āḵūndzāda (Collection of plays of Mirza Fatali Akhundzade). Tiflis, 1860.
Works on literary criticism:
Qirītīkah (Criticism)
Risālah-i īrād (Fault-finding treatise)
Fann-i kirītīkah (Art of criticism)
Darbārah-i Mullā-yi Rūmī va tasnīf-i ū (On Rumi and his work)
Darbārah-i nazm va nasr (On verse and prose)
Fihrist-i kitāb (Preface to the book)
Maktūb bih Mīrzā Āqā Tabrīzī (Letter to Mīrzā Āqā Tabrīzī)
Uṣūl-i nigārish (Principles of writing)
See also
Mirza Fatali Akhundov National Library of Azerbaijan
Mirza Fatali Akhundov State Prize of the Azerbaijan SSR
References
Further reading
External links
Biography.
Akhundov: Alphabet Reformer Before His Time, Azerbaijan International, Vol 8:1 (Spring 2000).
http://mirslovarei.com/content_fil/AXUNDOV-MIRZA-FATALI-2072.html
Azerbaijani-language writers
19th-century Persian-language writers
Writers from the Russian Empire
Iranian male writers
19th-century Iranian philosophers
Philosophers from the Russian Empire
Iranian Azerbaijanis
Iranian atheists
Azerbaijani atheists
Atheist philosophers
Iranian nationalists
Iranian revolutionaries
People of the Persian Constitutional Revolution
1812 births
1878 deaths
People from Shaki, Azerbaijan
19th-century Azerbaijani philosophers
19th-century atheists
Former Muslims turned agnostics or atheists
Former Muslim critics of Islam
Burials at Pantheon of prominent Azerbaijanis
Azerbaijani Persian-language writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20P.%20Morrow
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Edwin P. Morrow
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Edwin Porch Morrow (November 28, 1877June 15, 1935) was an American politician, who served as the 40th Governor of Kentucky from 1919 to 1923. He was the only Republican elected to this office between 1907 and 1927. He championed the typical Republican causes of his day, namely equal rights for African-Americans and the use of force to quell violence. Morrow had been schooled in his party's principles by his father, Thomas Z. Morrow, who was its candidate for governor in 1883, and his uncle, William O. Bradley, who was elected governor in 1895. Both men were founding members of the Republican Party in Kentucky.
After rendering non-combat service in the Spanish–American War, Morrow graduated from the University of Cincinnati Law School in 1902 and opened his practice in Lexington, Kentucky. He made a name for himself almost immediately by securing the acquittal of a black man charged with murder based on an extorted confession and perjured testimony. He was appointed U.S. District Attorney for the Eastern District of Kentucky by President William Howard Taft in 1910 and served until he was removed from office in 1913 by President Woodrow Wilson. In 1915, he ran for governor against his good friend, Augustus O. Stanley. Stanley won the election by 471 votes, making the 1915 contest the closest gubernatorial race in the state's history.
Morrow ran for governor again in 1919. His opponent, James D. Black, had ascended to the governorship earlier that year when Stanley resigned to take a seat in the U.S. Senate. Morrow encouraged voters to "Right the Wrong of 1915" and ran on a progressive platform that included women's suffrage and quelling racial violence. He charged the Democratic administration with corruption, citing specific examples, and won the general election in a landslide. With a friendly legislature in 1920, he passed much of his agenda into law, including an anti-lynching law and reorganizing state government. He won national acclaim for preventing the lynching of a black prisoner in 1920. He was not hesitant to remove local officials who did not deter or quell mob violence. By 1922, Democrats regained control of the General Assembly, and Morrow could not accomplish much in the second half of his term. Following his term as governor, he served on the United States Railroad Labor Board and the Railway Mediation Board but never again held elected office. He died of a heart attack on June 15, 1935, while living with a cousin in Frankfort.
Early life
Edwin Morrow was of Scottish descent and was born to Thomas Zanzinger and Virginia Catherine (Bradley) Morrow in Somerset, Kentucky, on November 28, 1877. He and his twin brother, Charles, were the youngest of eight children. His father was one of the founders of the Republican Party in Kentucky and an unsuccessful candidate for governor in 1883. His mother was a sister to William O'Connell Bradley, who was elected the first Republican governor of Kentucky in 1895. Morrow's great-grandfather Thomas Morrow emigrated to America from Scotland before the Revolutionary War.
Morrow's early education was in the public schools of Somerset. At age 14, he entered preparatory school at St. Mary's College near Lebanon, Kentucky. He continued there throughout 1891 and 1892. From there, he enrolled at Cumberland College (now the University of the Cumberlands) in Williamsburg, Kentucky, and distinguished himself in the debating society. He was also interested in sports, playing halfback on the football team and left field on the baseball team.
On June 24, 1898, Morrow enlisted as a private in the 4th Kentucky Infantry Regiment for service in the Spanish–American War. He was first stationed at Lexington, Kentucky, and later trained at Anniston, Alabama. Due to a bout with typhoid fever, he never saw active duty and mustered out as a second lieutenant on February 12, 1899. In 1900, he matriculated for the fall semester at the University of Cincinnati Law School. He graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1902.
Morrow opened his practice in Lexington. He established his reputation in one of his first cases—the trial of William Moseby, a black man accused of murder. Moseby's first trial had ended in a hung jury, but because the evidence against him included a confession (which he later recanted), most observers believed he would be convicted in his second trial. Unable to find a defense lawyer for Moseby, the judge in the case turned to Morrow, who, as a young lawyer, was eager for work. Morrow proved that his client's testimony had been extorted; he had been told that a lynch mob waited outside the jail for him, but no such mob had ever existed. Morrow further showed that other testimony against his client was false. Moseby was acquitted on September 21, 1902.
Morrow returned to Somerset in 1903. There, he married Katherine Hale Waddle on June 18, 1903. Waddle's father had studied law under Morrow's father, and Edwin and Katherine had been playmates, schoolmates, and later sweethearts. The couple had two children, Edwina Haskell in July 1904 and Charles Robert in November 1908.
Political career
In 1904, Morrow was appointed city attorney for Somerset, serving until 1908. President William Howard Taft appointed him U.S. District Attorney for the Eastern District of Kentucky in 1910. He continued in this position until he was removed from office by President Woodrow Wilson in 1913.
Morrow's first political experience was working in his uncle William O. Bradley's gubernatorial campaign in 1895. In 1899, Republican gubernatorial candidate William S. Taylor offered to make Morrow his Secretary of State in exchange for Bradley's support in the election; Bradley refused. Despite the encouragement of friends, Morrow declined to run for governor in 1911.
In 1912, Morrow was chosen as the Republican candidate for the Senate seat of Thomas Paynter. Paynter had decided not to seek re-election, and the Democrats nominated Ollie M. James of Crittenden County. The General Assembly was heavily Democratic and united behind James. On a joint ballot, James defeated Morrow by a vote of 105–28. Due to the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment the following year, this was the last time the Kentucky legislature would elect a senator.
At the state Republican convention in Lexington on June 15, 1915, Morrow was chosen as the Republican candidate for governor over Latt F. McLaughlin. His Democratic opponent was his close friend, Augustus O. Stanley. Morrow charged previous Democratic administrations with corruption and called for the election of a Republican because "You cannot clean house with a dirty broom." Both men ran on progressive platforms, and the election went in Stanley's favor by only 471 votes. Although it was the closest gubernatorial vote in the state's history, Morrow refused to challenge the results, which significantly increased his popularity. His decision was influenced by the fact that a challenge would be decided by the General Assembly, which had a Democratic majority in both houses.
Governor of Kentucky
Morrow served as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1916, 1920, and 1928. In 1919, he was chosen by acclamation as his party's candidate for governor. This time, his opponent was James D. Black. Black was Stanley's lieutenant governor and had ascended to the governorship in May 1919 when Stanley resigned to take a seat in the U.S. Senate.
Morrow encouraged the state's voters to "Right the Wrong of 1915". He again ran on a progressive platform, advocating an amendment to the state constitution to grant women's suffrage. His support was not as strong for a prohibition amendment. He attacked the Stanley–Black administration as corrupt. Days before the election, he exposed a contract the state Board of Control awarded to a non-existent company. Historian Lowell H. Harrison argued that Black's refusal to remove the members of the board following this revelation probably sealed his defeat. Morrow won the general election by more than 40,000 votes. It was the largest margin of victory for a Republican gubernatorial candidate in the state's history.
On January 6, 1920, Governor Morrow signed the bill ratifying the Nineteenth Amendment, making Kentucky the 23rd state to ratify it, and the moment is captured in a photograph with members of the Kentucky Equal Rights Association. During the 1920 legislative session, the Republicans held a majority in the state House of Representatives and were a minority by only two votes in the state Senate. During the session, Morrow was often able to convince C. W. Burton, a Democratic senator from Grant County, to support Republican proposals. Tie votes in the Senate were broken by Republican lieutenant governor S. Thruston Ballard. Consequently, Morrow was able to effect a considerable reorganization of the state government, including replacing the Board of Control with a nonpartisan Board of Charities and Corrections, centralizing highway works, and revising property taxes. He oversaw improvements to the education system, including better textbook selection and a tax on racetracks to support a minimum salary for teachers. Among Morrow's reforms that did not pass was a proposal to make the judiciary nonpartisan.
Morrow urged enforcement of state laws against carrying concealed weapons and restricted activities of the Ku Klux Klan. During his first year in office, he granted only 100 pardons. This was a considerable decrease from the number granted by his immediate predecessors. During their first years in office, J. C. W. Beckham granted 350 pardons, James B. McCreary (during his second stint as governor) granted 139, and Augustus O. Stanley granted 257. He was also an active member of the Commission on Interracial Cooperation, a society for the elimination of racial violence in the South.
On February 9, 1920, Morrow dispatched the Kentucky National Guard to Lexington to protect Will Lockett, a black World War I veteran on trial for murder. Morrow told the state adjutant general "Do as much as you have to do to keep that negro in the hands of the law. If he falls into the hands of the mob I do not expect to see you alive." Lockett had already confessed, without the benefit of a lawyer, to the murder. His trial took only thirty minutes as he pleaded guilty but asked for a life sentence instead of death. Despite his plea, he was sentenced to die in the electric chair.
A crowd of several thousand gathered outside the courthouse while Lockett's trial was underway. A cameraman asked a large group of those gathered to shake their fists and yell so he could get a picture. The rest of the crowd mistakenly believed they were storming the courthouse and rushed forward. In the ensuing skirmish, one policeman was injured so badly that his arm was later amputated. The National Guard opened fire, killing six people and wounding approximately fifty. Some members of the mob looted nearby stores in search of weapons to retaliate, but reinforcements arrived from a nearby army post by mid-afternoon. Martial law was declared, and no further violence was perpetrated. A month later, Lockett was executed at the Kentucky State Penitentiary in Eddyville.
The incident is believed to be the first forceful suppression of a lynch mob by state and local officials in the South. Morrow received a laudatory telegram from the NAACP, and most of the national press regarding the incident was favorable. W. E. B. Du Bois called it the "Second Battle of Lexington". Morrow was consistent in his use of state troops to end violence in the state. In 1922, he again dispatched the National Guard to quell a violent mill strike in Newport.
Morrow also demanded consistency from local law enforcement officials. In 1921, he removed the Woodford County jailer from office because he allowed a black inmate to be lynched and offered a reward of $25,000 for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the perpetrators. Citizens of Versailles were more outraged that the jailer had been removed from office than that the prisoner had been lynched. The locals refused to aid in the investigation, and the lynchers were never arrested or charged. Local officials appointed the jailer's wife to finish his term in an attempt to skirt the removal.
In August 1922, a traveling salesman named Jack Eaton was arrested for allegedly assaulting several young girls. The girls' parents refused to press charges, and Eaton was released. Later, he was captured by a mob, who cut him several times and poured turpentine into his wounds. An investigation found that the Scott County sheriff had willfully delivered Eaton to the mob, and Morrow removed him from office. Though Eaton was a white man, blacks were elated with the removal because they hoped it would encourage other jailers to step up efforts to protect against lynchings and mob violence.
Morrow was frequently mentioned as a potential candidate for vice president in 1920. Still, he withdrew his name from consideration, sticking to a campaign promise not to seek a higher office while governor. On July 27, 1920, he made a speech in Northampton, Massachusetts, officially notifying Calvin Coolidge of his nomination for that office. Although he supported Frank O. Lowden for president, the nomination went to Warren G. Harding, and Morrow campaigned vigorously on behalf of his party's ticket.
In his address to the 1922 legislature, Morrow asked for for improvements to the state highway system and the repeal of all laws denying equal rights to women. He also recommended a large bond issue to finance improvements to the state's universities, schools, prisons, and hospitals. By this time, however, the Republicans had surrendered their majority in the state House, and practically all of Morrow's proposals were voted down. Morrow countered by vetoing several Democratic bills, including $700,000 in appropriations. Among the few accomplishments of the 1922 legislature were the passage of an anti-lynching law, the abolition of convict labor, and the establishment of normal schools at Murray and Morehead. Today, these schools are Murray State University and Morehead State University, respectively. The 1922 legislature also established a commission to govern My Old Kentucky Home State Park and approved construction of the Jefferson Davis Monument.
Although Morrow gained national praise for his handling of the Lockett trial, historian James C. Klotter opined that he "left behind a solid, and rather typical, record for a Kentucky governor." He cited Morrow's fiscal conservatism and inability to control the legislature in 1922 as reasons for his lackluster assessment. However, he praised Morrow's advancement of racial equality in the state. The state constitution prohibited Morrow from seeking a second consecutive term, and the achievements of his administration were not significant enough to ensure the election of Charles I. Dawson, his would-be Republican successor in the gubernatorial election of 1923.
Later career and death
Following his term as governor, Morrow retired to Somerset, where he became active in the Watchmen of the Republic, an organization devoted to eradicating prejudice and promoting tolerance. He served on the United States Railroad Labor Board from 1923 to 1926 and its successor, the Railway Mediation Board, from 1926 to 1934. He resigned to run for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives representing the Ninth District, but lost his party's nomination to John M. Robsion.
Following his defeat in the congressional primary, Morrow planned to return to Lexington to resume his law practice. On June 15, 1935, he died unexpectedly of a heart attack while temporarily living with a cousin in Frankfort. He is buried in Frankfort Cemetery.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Guide to the Edwin Porch Morrow papers, 1913-1940 housed at the University of Kentucky Libraries Special Collections Research Center
, Chapter Nine, Biographical Sketches. Published by Somerset Community College.
Kentucky Governors 1907–1927
Political Graveyard
1877 births
1935 deaths
American anti-lynching activists
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
American Presbyterians
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Burials at Frankfort Cemetery
Republican Party governors of Kentucky
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky%20Butte
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Rocky Butte
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Rocky Butte (previously known as Mowich Illahee and Wiberg Butte) is an extinct cinder cone butte in Portland, Oregon, United States. It is also part of the Boring Lava Field, a group of volcanic vents and lava flows throughout Oregon and Washington state. The volcano erupted between 285,000 and 500,000 years ago.
As part of the Boring Lava Field, Rocky Butte is considered an outlier of the Cascade Range. It was produced by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the North American tectonic plate; it is the core remnant of intrusive rock from kilate Pleistocene volcano. The butte has a calc-alkaline composition and consists of basaltic andesite with olivine phenocrysts.
Historically, the butte was the home of the Rocky Butte Jail, Judson Baptist College, and Hill Military Academy, as well as an extensive Works Progress Administration construction project, Portland Bible College and a campus for the City Bible Church; at the summit of Rocky Butte there is a still functioning but decommissioned rotating airway beacon. The slopes of the butte currently support Joseph Wood Hill Park and the Rocky Butte Natural Area, which includes a wide variety of flora and fauna and supports rich forest stands. Located adjacent to Interstate 205, the butte is a popular destination for hiking, climbing, and viewing mountains from its summit viewpoint.
Geography
Rocky Butte lies in the northeast part of Portland within the city limits, in Multnomah County, part of the U. S. state of Oregon. It is one of the few smaller volcanic cones within or near Portland, along with Mount Tabor, Kelly Butte, and Powell Butte. According to the U.S. National Geodetic Survey, Rocky Butte has an elevation of . It is surrounded on almost all sides by the Portland Delta.
With a variable topography, the Portland area ranges from river valley floors to terraces reaching elevations of . The Willamette Valley is separated within by hills reaching heights more than , and it is also physically separated from the lower Columbia River valley. The Columbia River flows west from the eastern Portland region, merging with the Willamette near Portland before moving north. Tributaries for the Willamette include the Pudding, Molalla, Tualatin, Abernethy, and Clackamas Rivers, while the Washougal and Sandy Rivers mark notable tributaries for the Columbia River. The Columbia River has significantly shaped the geology of the area.
Portland's climate is moderate, with long growing seasons, moderate rainfail, mild winters, and warm, dry summer seasons. The area typically does not experience frost, with more than 200 frost-free days annually. Temperature can vary widely, reaching a historic maximum of , though the usual July maximum is below , and the average minimum for January is above . Yearly, precipitation averages between in most river valleys, with a mean of from 1871 through 1952. It shows variability, however, with a historic low of at Portland in 1929 and a maximum of in 1882. More than 75 percent of this precipitation occurs between October and March; July and August mark the driest months with means below , while November, December, and January represent the wettest with averages greater than . Prevailing winds originate from the south during winter and from the northwest during the summer season, with the exception of prevailing winds at the mouth of the Columbia River Gorge, where winds predominantly move to the east. The southern winds have the highest velocities of the three, only rarely occurring with potentially destructive force.
Geology
There are a number of volcanic centers within a radius of Troutdale and more than 32 vents within a radius of Kelly Butte. Mostly small cinder cone vents, these volcanoes also include some larger lava domes from shield volcanoes at Mount Sylvania, Highland Butte, and Larch Mountain. Known as the Boring Lava Field, this cluster includes more than 80 known small vents and associated lava flows, with more volcanic deposits likely present. The Global Volcanism Program reports that the field includes somewhere between 32 and 50 shield volcanoes and cinder cones, with many vents concentrated northwest of the town of Boring.
Considered an outlier of the Cascade Range, the Boring Lava Field lies about to the west of the major Cascade crest. It marks one of five volcanic fields along the Quaternary Cascade arc, along with Indian Heaven, Tumalo in Oregon, the Mount Bachelor chain, and Caribou in California. Like the Cascade Range, the Boring field was also generated by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the North American tectonic plate, but it has a different tectonic position, with its eruptive activity more likely related to tectonic rifting throughout the region. The Boring Lava Field has erupted material derived from hot mantle magma, and the subducting Juan de Fuca plate may be as shallow as in depth at their location.
Many volcanic features in the Portland Basin area were destroyed by the Missoula Floods (also known as the Bretz or Ice Age Floods), which took place between 21,000 and 15,000 years ago and probably destroyed small cinder cones (including those made from tuff) and maar craters, burying them under up to of silt from slack water. Volcanic vents with either extensive eruptions of lava flows or volcanic plugs that filled their vents survived, including Rocky Butte, Prune Hill, and Beacon Rock. However, the upstream side of Rocky Butte was heavily eroded by the flooding.
Rocky Butte is a prominent, but isolated hill, with two volcanic vents. It is the core remnant of intrusive rock from a heavily eroded, late Pleistocene volcano that erupted basaltic andesite. Like many other vents in the Boring Lava Field, Rocky Butte consists of basaltic andesite with olivine phenocrysts, and it has a calc-alkalic composition. This basaltic andesite can be observed in exposures that extend from its summit park area to the roads below, as well as in a sill (a sheet of intrusive rock wedged between older layers of sedimentary rock, beds of volcanic lava, or tuff, or along the direction of layering in metamorphic rock) between layers of fluvial gravel from the Troutdale Formation on the Butte's eastern slope, within a flow scarp. Vug cavities were identified from rock in the historic quarry on the eastern side of Rocky Butte by scientists from the United States Geological Survey, including optically positive hornblende (also known as pargasite) with a pale brown color. They exhibit prismatic cleavage and extend for a few millimeters in length. Other minerals identified were dark green, pyroxene crystals with 70 percent hedenbergite and 30 percent diopside; white aggregates of tridymite; brown, granular olivine crystals with 80 percent forsterite and 20 percent fayalite; and tiny black, hexagonal plates of hematite with beveled edges. These minerals constitute a rare combination, and Trimble (1963) was unable to explain why free silica tridymite would be found together with low silica olivine.
The hill descends to meet the floodplain of the Columbia River, and at lower elevations, the mountain has cliffs on its northern and eastern sides. At the foot of Rocky Butte, there is a fosse (a ditch), which extends for before it opens toward the Columbia River to the north and divides to the south into two arms that run west and southwest. This depression has a width of less than and an average depth between . There is another terrace, with a height of , which sits next to Rocky Butte. It runs for to the west, with a descent of over that distance. To the south, this terrace also has a long depression near its base, which extends for from Rocky Butte. These features are likely the product of more than just erosional forces; Bretz (1925) argued that the fosse resulted from fluid eddies that pushed downward where currents interacted with the eastern side of Rocky Butte, and the terrace formed from accumulation of deposits in water under the blockage.
Eruptive history
Evarts et al. (2009) assign Rocky Butte an age younger than 500,000 years. One Argon–argon dating experiment determined an age for Rocky Butte lava of 285,000 years ± 16,000 years ago, which matches the normal magnetic polarity for the lava deposits at the Butte. There is a magnetic anomaly about northwest from Rocky Butte in Portland, but it is unlikely to be associated with the volcano or the Boring Lava Field in general. Local newspaper sources report that Rocky Butte is extinct.
Trimble (1963) noted that an eruption at Rocky Butte covered a hill composed of Troutdale Formation rocks, which are exposed as conglomerate rock at a height of on Rocky Butte's western slope. The exposure of rock from the Troutdale Formation suggests that Rocky Butte erupted onto a topographically irregular surface and that this surface later underwent erosion.
Ecology
The moderate climate and ample precipitation of the region lead to rapid regrowth of vegetation on untended sites, which can hamper fieldwork in the area. Many forests that covered the area were partly cleared for agriculture, timber, or burials in the early 20th century. These cleared and burned land plots sustain rich stands of secondary forest, featuring gorse, huckleberry, nettles, poison oak, salal, and blackberry. Myriad species of fern, as well as rapid-growth deciduous trees like alder and vine maple are also frequent. Forests support stands of Douglas fir, western hemlock, western redcedar, Pacific dogwood, bigleaf maple, Oregon ash, red alder, cascara buckthorn, Pacific madrone, and Oregon white oak; within swamps and moist areas in creeks, the shrub Devil's club can be observed. Other trees that sometimes dominate forest areas include black cottonwood. Forest communities have many additional shrubs including Indian plum, western hazel, and snowberry. Ground layer plants include the herbaceous sword fern and stinging nettle.
In contemporary times, clearing of forests for housing development has left about half of the Boring Lava region still forested. As a result, water quality has decreased due to higher sedimentation and turbidity, and flooding has gotten worse over time. Streams within the area are of either first or second order, with moderate to low flows and average gradients between 10 and 12 percent. Cool and clear, many sustain macroinvertebrates, and a smaller number support amphibians and fish. The Riparian zones in the Lava Field area host diverse species, and they are influenced by uplands that serve as migration connections for birds, mammals, reptiles, and some amphibians. Gravel bars extend to the west from Rocky Butte, creating barriers for a lowland marsh.
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service provided a list of potentially threatened or endangered species in the Boring Lava area, calling them "sensitive" species. Among plant species, they determined the following species to be sensitive: white top aster, golden Indian paintbrush, tall bugbane, pale larkspur, peacock larkspur, Willamette daisy, water howellia, Bradshaw's lomatium, Kincaid's lupine, Howell's montia, Nelson's checkermallow, and Oregon sullivantia. For animal and marine life, northwestern pond turtles, Willow flycatchers, long-eared myotises, fringed myotises, long-legged myotises, Yuma myotises, Pacific western big-eared bats, and northern red-legged frogs have been identified as species of concern; pileated woodpeckers, bald eagles, cutthroat trout, and coho salmon are also considered sensitive.
Human history
Mowitch Illihee, 'home of the deer', was the traditional hunting grounds for indigenous peoples.
At the summit of Rocky Butte, a rotating airway beacon was erected in 1929; although the beacon is still lit, it was officially decommissioned in the late 1960s.
During the 1930s, employees of the Works Progress Administration constructed a park at the summit, at an elevation of about . Called Joseph Wood Hill Park, it was built when Rocky Butte was known as Wiberg Butte. Rock from Rocky Butte's eastern slopes was used for the Multnomah County jail building, and some were later used for renovation of the Historic Columbia River Highway. There is a communications tower on the southern end of the volcano.
The Rocky Butte jail, completed in 1947, served as the major facility for male prisoners in Multnomah County, with a courtyard and recreation field. According to Rubin (1973), the Rocky Butte jail housed 320 inmates, but Houston, Gibbons, and Jones (1988) claimed that it often exceeded this limit. The jail also had a library, which was established in 1967 and housed 3,000 volumes. In general, the jail was known for being the subject of multiple grand jury investigations for security concerns, dirty conditions, access to drugs, violence, lack of organized programming, and most notably, during the 1960s and 1970s for severe overcrowding. Further attempts to replace the Rocky Butte jail were motivated by a successful escape in 1981 and a gun smuggling incident that resulted in an officer being shot in 1982. The Multnomah County Detention Center (MCDC) was built in downtown Portland after Rocky Butte Jail was demolished in 1984 to make way for Interstate 205. The Rocky Butte Jail and MCDC participated in a study on prisons, which was published in 1988 in the journal Crime & Delinquency.
In 1934, the Rocky Butte Scenic Drive Historic District was established. Built as part of a Works Progress Administration project that supported 25,000 employees in Portland, it was designed by the Multnomah County Road Department, The drive reaches the summit of Rocky Butte to a viewpoint overlooking Portland. Workers used basalt from the Rocky Butte quarry to create retaining walls, and the finished project was designed to have a rustic style typical for public works projects of the time. WPA workers also built the park and a baroque staircase at the top of Rocky Butte, finishing construction in 1939. At its peak popularity in the 1940s, Rocky Butte had more than 4,000 cars visiting each day. Over time, the park had far fewer visitors and fell into disrepair. During the 1970s, the summit became a frequent site for teenage parties; excessive littering and graffiti were commonplace. In the early 1990s, the Rocky Butte Preservation Society began cleaning up and restoring the park area and adding new amenities. Once of land were added and the Preservation Society took on an active maintenance role, the site was regraded, original plaques were reinstalled, and lawn areas, irrigation, red cinder walkways and additional trees, flowers, shrubs and grass were added to the park. The District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991. Other WPA projects included a tunnel in length at the southern end of Rocky Butte. Built between 1939 and 1941, it was constructed to improve access to scenic views on the Butte. The project took 16 months to complete, and workers used hand mining and drill and shoot methods to excavate layers of cinders and lava flows. The tunnel is curved because of the volcano's 5 degree grade. Rocky Butte basalt was used to build the Rocky Butte Tunnel as well as the nearby West Burnside and NW Cornell Road Tunnels, all of which were constructed by the mason R. Curcio and his crew. In total, the WPA's Rocky Butte project cost $500,000 to complete.
The Hill Military Academy, a prominent military school in Portland, moved from the northwestern district of Portland to a campus on Rocky Butte in 1931. The campus covered on the northern side of the volcano. Ran by its founder, Joseph Wood Hill, it closed in 1959 after its enrollment had declined significantly, and the school was purchased by Judson Baptist College. Today, Portland Bible College has a campus on Rocky Butte with offices and dormitory buildings, and The Grotto, a famous Catholic shrine encompassing , lies adjacent to the volcano. Created in 1924, The Grotto has more than 200,000 visitors annually. It consists of two levels, which are separated by the cliff of Rocky Butte's northern face. On the upper level of the shrine is the Chapel of St. Anne, which sits on the northern side of Rocky Butte and offers views of the Columbia River and Mount St. Helens. Built in 1934, the chapel also has a Peace Garden (finished in 1989) and a Meditation Chapel, which was completed in 1991. The City Bible Church also maintains a location at Rocky Butte, with services on Sunday mornings at 9:30 and 11:15 am as well as youth services on Wednesdays at 7 pm.
In 2000, Portland Police Bureau Officer Mark Kruger placed a shrine to Nazi soldiers on public park property at Rocky Butte. When Kruger's past was discovered during 2003 lawsuits, Kruger removed the shrine. The shrine was stored in the city attorney's office by then-deputy Tracy Reeve, preventing their discovery during the lawsuits. Kruger remained on the force and was promoted to captain in 2009. Kruger admitted to wearing Nazi uniforms. The shrine's existence was discovered by internal affairs in 2010 after commissioner Dan Saltzman ordered an investigation. Kruger was disciplined and suspended for two weeks in 2010, but was not demoted or fired. Kruger continued to state that he was a history buff, not a Nazi. He remained on the force until his retirement.
In May 2018, government officials from the Oregon Department of Transportation began clearing belongings and debris from a long-standing homeless campsite at the eastern side of Rocky Butte, also posting eviction notices. A fire occurred near a homeless camp on the northern side of Rocky Butte in July 2018.
Recreation
Rocky Butte is part of the Rocky Butte Natural Area, encompassing of land on NE Rocky Butte Road. The summit of Rocky Butte is a Portland city park, Joseph Wood Hill Park, which covers . The park offers views of the Boring Lava Field, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Hood. It lies in the throat of Rocky Butte's former volcanic vent on a bluff above the Hill Military Academy campus; this land was donated by Joseph Hill's sons. The park has red, crushed stone pathways, a stone wall, and a stone pedestal adorned with a metal plague bearing Joseph Wood Hill's image looking to the west. Rocky Butte is a popular location for seeing mountains. In 2017, the Portland Parks & Recreation bureau proposed to clear trees and invasive species in the park to allow better views of downtown Portland, Mount Hood, and Mount St. Helens, planting 400 low-growth trees and 5,200 shrubs in their place. A man was killed after falling from the summit viewpoint in May 2015.
Rocky Butte does not have a well-defined trail system. There are a number of climber and biker trails made by civilians on the base and lower parts of the mountain, as well as climbing paths near the summit, which are unfenced and can be unsafe. A walking path described by L. O. Foster (2013) starts from NE 92nd Avenue and Skidmore Street and runs for each way, lasting 1.5 to 2 hours. This trail passes the Rocky Butte Tunnel, the site for the Hill Military Academy, and the beacon. Dogs can be unleashed on the trails, but have to be kept on a leash at Joseph Wood Hill Park.
Rocky Butte is also a popular climbing destination in the Portland area, having been developed by climbers during the 1970s and 1980s. Many of its routes are top-roped, but some top anchors are missing from its routes, so daisy chain straps are recommended. The climbing routes are not suitable for dogs or children. Some of the most popular climbs are on the section known as Video Bluff. Rocky Butte provides a variety of climbs including cracks, dihedrals, slab, vertical, and overhanging face routes.
References
Sources
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External links
Rocky Butte Preservation Society
Rocky Butte Scenic Drive Historic District at PortlandMaps
NRHP Registration Form, 1991
Buttes of Oregon
Cascade Volcanoes
Cinder cones of the United States
Geography of Portland, Oregon
Landforms of Multnomah County, Oregon
Madison South, Portland, Oregon
Mountains of Oregon
Parks in Portland, Oregon
Subduction volcanoes
Volcanoes of Multnomah County, Oregon
Volcanoes of Oregon
Volcanoes of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florentine%20Codex
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Florentine Codex
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The Florentine Codex is a 16th-century ethnographic research study in Mesoamerica by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún. Sahagún originally titled it: (in English: The Universal History of the Things of New Spain). After a translation mistake, it was given the name . The best-preserved manuscript is commonly referred to as the Florentine Codex, as the codex is held in the Laurentian Library of Florence, Italy.
In partnership with Nahua men who were formerly his students at the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, Sahagún conducted research, organized evidence, wrote and edited his findings. He worked on this project from 1545 up until his death in 1590. The work consists of 2,400 pages organized into twelve books; more than 2,000 illustrations drawn by native artists provide vivid images of this era. It documents the culture, religious cosmology (worldview) and ritual practices, society, economics, and natural history of the Aztec people. It has been described as "one of the most remarkable accounts of a non-Western culture ever composed."
Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O. Anderson were the first to translate the Codex from Nahuatl to English, in a project that took 30 years to complete. In 2012, high-resolution scans of all volumes of the Florentine Codex, in Nahuatl and Spanish, with illustrations, were added to the World Digital Library. In 2015, Sahagún's work was declared a World Heritage by the UNESCO.
In 2023, the Getty Research Institute released the Digital Florentine Codex which gives access to the complete manuscript.
History of the manuscript
In 1575 the Council of the Indies suggested to the Spanish Crown to educate the native Americans in Spanish instead of using the indigenous languages; for this reason, the Spanish authorities required to Fray Sahagún to hand over all of his documents about the Aztec culture and the results of his research in order to get further details about this matter. In the meantime, the Bishop of Sigüenza, Diego de Espinosa, who was also the Inquisitor General and President of the Royal Council of Castile instructed the cleric Luis Sánchez a report about the situation of the native Americans. The concerning findings of this report triggered a visit of Juan de Ovando to the Council of the Indies because it demonstrated a total ignorance of the Spanish authorities about the native cultures and, in Ovando's opinion, was not possible to make correct decisions without reliable information. As a consequence, the Council of the Indies ordered to the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1568 that they needed to include ethnographic and geographic information regarding any new discovery within their limits. A similar disposition was given to the Vice-Royalty of New Spain in 1569, specifying that 37 chapters were to be reported; in 1570, the extent of the report was modified to required information for 200 chapters. That same year, Phillip II of Spain created a new position as "Cosmógrafo y Cronista Mayor de Indias" to collect and organize this information, being appointed Don Juan López de Velasco, so that he could write "La Historia General de las Indias", namely, a compilation about the history of the Indies.
King Phillip II of Spain concluded that was not beneficial for the Spanish colonies in America and, hence, it never took place. That is the reason why the missionaries, including Fray Bernardino de Sahagún continued their missionary work and Fray Bernardino de Sahagun was able to make two more copies of his Historia general. The three bound volumes of the Florentine Codex are found in the Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana, Palat. 218-220 in Florence, Italy, with the title Florentine Codex chosen by its English translators, Americans Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, following in the tradition of nineteenth-century Mexican scholars Francisco del Paso y Troncoso and Joaquín García Icazbalceta.
The manuscript became part of the collection of the library in Florence at some point after its creation in the late sixteenth century. It was not until the late eighteenth century that scholars become aware of it, when the bibliographer Angelo Maria Bandini published a description of it in Latin in 1793. The work became more generally known in the nineteenth century, with a description published by P. Fr. Marcellino da Civezza in 1879.
The Spanish Royal Academy of History learned of this work and, at the fifth meeting of the International Congress of Americanists, the find was announced to the larger scholarly community. In 1888 German scholar Eduard Seler presented a description of the illustrations at the 7th meeting of the International Congress of Americanists. Mexican scholar Francisco del Paso y Troncoso received permission in 1893 from the Italian government to copy the alphabetic text and the illustrations.
The three-volume manuscript of the Florentine Codex has been intensely analyzed and compared to earlier drafts found in Madrid. The Tolosa Manuscript (Códice Castellano de Madrid) was known in the 1860s and studied by José Fernando Ramírez. The Tolosa Manuscript has been the source for all published editions in Spanish of the Historia General.
The English translation of the complete Nahuatl text of all twelve volumes of the Florentine Codex was a decades-long work of Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, an important contribution to the scholarship on Mesoamerican ethno-history. In 1979, the Mexican government published a full-color, three-volume facsimile of the Florentine Codex in a limited edition of 2,000, allowing scholars to have easier access to the manuscript. The Archivo General de la Nación (Dra. Alejandra Moreno Toscano, director) supervised the project that was published by the Secretariat of the Interior (Enrique Olivares Santana, Secretary). The 2012 World Digital Library high-resolution digital version of the manuscript makes it fully accessible online to all those interested in this source for Mexican and Aztec history.
Sahagún's motivations for research
The missionary Sahagún had the goal of evangelizing the indigenous Mesoamerican peoples, and his writings were devoted to this end. He described this work as an explanation of the "divine, or rather idolatrous, human, and natural things of New Spain". He compared its body of knowledge to that needed by a physician to cure the "patient" suffering from idolatry.
He had three overarching goals for his research:
To describe and explain ancient Indigenous religion, beliefs, practices, deities. This was to help friars and others understand this "idolatrous" religion in order to evangelize the Aztecs.
To create a vocabulary of the Aztec language, Nahuatl. This provides more than definitions from a dictionary, as it gives an explanation of their cultural origins, with pictures. This was to help friars and others learn Nahuatl and to understand the cultural context of the language.
To record and document the great cultural inheritance of the Indigenous peoples of New Spain.
Sahagún conducted research for several decades, edited and revised his work over several decades, created several versions of a 2,400-page manuscript, and addressed a cluster of religious, cultural and nature themes. Copies of the work were sent by ship to the royal court of Spain and to the Vatican in the late-sixteenth century to explain Aztec culture. The copies of the work were essentially lost for about two centuries, until a scholar rediscovered it in the Laurentian Library (Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana) an archive library in Florence, Italy. The Spanish also had earlier drafts in their archives. A scholarly community of historians, anthropologists, art historians, and linguists has since been investigating Sahagún's work, its subtleties and mysteries, for more than 200 years.
Evolution, format, and structure
The Florentine Codex is a complex document, assembled, edited, and appended over decades. Essentially it is three integral texts: (1) in Nahuatl; (2) a Spanish text; (3) pictorials. The final version of the Florentine Codex was completed in 1569. Sahagún's goals of orienting fellow missionaries to Aztec culture, providing a rich Nahuatl vocabulary, and recording the indigenous cultural heritage are at times in competition within the work. The manuscript pages are generally arranged in two columns, with Nahuatl, written first, on the right and a Spanish gloss or translation on the left. Diverse voices, views, and opinions are expressed in these 2,400 pages, and the result is a document that is sometimes contradictory.
Scholars have proposed several classical and medieval worldbook authors who inspired Sahagún, such as Aristotle, Pliny the Elder, Isidore of Seville, and Bartholomeus Anglicus. These shaped the late medieval approach to the organization of knowledge.
The twelve books of the Florentine Codex are organized in the following way:
Gods, religious beliefs and rituals, cosmology, and moral philosophy,
Humanity (society, politics, economics, including anatomy and disease),
Natural history.
Book 12, the account of the conquest of the Aztec Empire from the point of view of the conquered of Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco is the only strictly historical book of the Historia General.
This work follows the organizational logic found in medieval encyclopedias, in particular the 19-volume De proprietatibus rerum of Sahagún's fellow Franciscan Friar Bartholomew the Englishman. One scholar has argued that Bartholomew's work served as a conceptual model for Sahagún, although evidence is circumstantial. Both men present descriptions of the cosmos, society and nature of the late medieval paradigm. Additionally, in one of the prologues, Sahagún assumes full responsibility for dividing the Nahuatl text into books and chapters, quite late into the evolution of the Codex (approximately 1566–1568). "Very likely," historian James Lockhart notes, "Sahagún himself devised the chapter titles, in Spanish, and the Nahuatl chapter titles may well be a translation of them, reversing the usual process."
Images within the Florentine Codex
After the facsimile edition became available generally in 1979, the illustrations of the Florentine Codex could be analyzed in detail. Previously, the images were known mainly through the black-and-white drawings found in various earlier publications, which were separated from the alphabetic text. The images in the Florentine Codex were created as an integral element of the larger work. Although many of the images show evidence of European influence, a careful analysis by one scholar posits that they were created by "members of the hereditary profession of tlacuilo or native scribe-painter".
The images were inserted in places in the text left open for them, and in some cases the blank space has not been filled. This strongly suggests that when the manuscripts were sent to Spain, they were as yet unfinished. The images are of two types, what can be called "primary figures" that amplify the meaning of the alphabetic texts, and "ornamentals" that were decorative. The majority of the nearly 2,500 images are "primary figures" (approximately 2000), with the remainder ornamental. The figures were drawn in black outline first, with color added later. Scholars have concluded that several artists, of varying skill, created the images. It was deduced that twenty-two artists worked on the images in the Codex. This was done by analyzing the different ways that forms of body were drawn, such as the eyes, profile, and proportions of the body.
It is not clear what artistic sources the scribes drew from, but the library of the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco had European books with illustrations and books of engravings. European elements appear in the imagery, as well as pre-Conquest images done in the "native style". A number of the images have Christian elements, which Peterson has described as "Christian editorializing". The entirety of the Codex is characterized by the Nahua belief that the use of color activates the image and causes it to embody the true nature, or ixiptla, of the object or person depicted. For the Aztecs, the true self or identity of a person or object was shown via the external layer, or skin. Imparting color onto an image would change it so that it was given the identity of what it was portraying. Color was also used as a vehicle to impart knowledge that worked in tandem with the image itself.
Books
The codex is composed of the following twelve books:
The Gods. Deals with gods worshipped by the natives of this land, which is New Spain.
The Ceremonies. Deals with holidays and sacrifices with which these natives honored their gods in times of infidelity.
The Origin of the Gods. About the creation of the gods.
The Soothsayers. About Indian judiciary astrology or omens and fortune-telling arts.
The Omens. Deals with foretelling these natives made from birds, animals, and insects in order to foretell the future.
Rhetoric and Moral Philosophy. About prayers to their gods, rhetoric, moral philosophy, and theology in the same context.
The Sun, Moon and Stars, and the Binding of the Years. Deals with the sun, the moon, the stars, and the jubilee year.
Kings and Lords. About kings and lords, and the way they held their elections and governed their reigns.
The Merchants. About long-distance elite merchants, pochteca, who expanded trade, reconnoitered new areas to conquer, and agents-provocateurs.
The People. About general history: it explains vices and virtues, spiritual as well as bodily, of all manner of persons.
Earthly Things. About properties of animals, birds, fish, trees, herbs, flowers, metals, and stones, and about colors.
The Conquest. About the conquest of New Spain from the Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco point of view.
Ethnographic methodologies
Sahagún was among the first people to develop an array of strategies for gathering and validating knowledge of indigenous New World cultures. Much later, the discipline of anthropology would later formalize these as ethnography. This is the scientific research strategy to document the beliefs, behavior, social roles and relationships, and worldview of another culture, and to explain these within the logic of that culture. Ethnography requires scholars to practice empathy with persons very different from them, and to try to suspend their own cultural beliefs in order to enter into, understand, and explain the worldview of those living in another culture.
Sahagún systematically gathered knowledge from a range of diverse persons (now known as informants in anthropology), who were recognized as having expert knowledge of Aztec culture. He did so in the native language of Nahuatl, while comparing the answers from different sources of information. According to James Lockhart, Sahagún collected statements from indigenous people of "relatively advanced age and high status, having what was said written down in Nahuatl by the aids he had trained."
Some passages appear to be the transcription of spontaneous narration of religious beliefs, society or nature. Other parts clearly reflect a consistent set of questions presented to different people designed to elicit specific information. Some sections of text report Sahagún's own narration of events or commentary.
He developed a methodology with the following elements:
He used the indigenous Nahuatl language.
He elicited information from elders, cultural authorities publicly recognized as the most knowledgeable.
He adapted the project to the ways in which Aztec culture recorded and transmitted knowledge.
He used the expertise of his former students at the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, whom he credited by name.
He attempted to capture the totality or complete reality of Aztec culture on its own terms.
He structured his inquiry by using questionnaires, but also could adapt to using more valuable information shared with him by other means.
He attended to the diverse ways that diverse meanings are transmitted through Nahuatl linguistics.
He undertook a comparative evaluation of information, drawing from multiple sources, in order to determine the degree of confidence with which he could regard that information.
He collected information on the conquest of the Aztec Empire from the point of view of the Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco, that had been defeated.
These methodological innovations substantiate historians' claim that Sahagún was the first anthropologist.
Most of the Florentine Codex is alphabetic text in Nahuatl and Spanish, but its 2,000 pictures provide vivid images of sixteenth-century New Spain. Some of these images directly support the alphabetic text; others are thematically related; others are for seemingly decorative purposes. Some are colorful and large, taking up most of a page; others are black and white sketches. The pictorial images offer remarkable detail about life in New Spain, but they do not bear titles, and the relationship of some to the adjoining text is not always self-evident. They can be considered a "third column of language" in the manuscript. Several different artists' hands have been identified, and many questions about their accuracy have been raised. The drawings convey a blend of Indigenous and European artistic elements and cultural influences.
Many passages of the texts in the Florentine Codex present descriptions of like items (e.g., gods, classes of people, animals) according to consistent patterns. Because of this, scholars have concluded that Sahagún used a series of questionnaires to structure his interviews and collect data.
For instance, the following questions appear to have been used to gather information about the gods for Book One:
What are the titles, the attributes, or the characteristics of the god?
What were his powers?
What ceremonies were performed in his honor?
What was his attire?
For Book Ten, "The People", a questionnaire may have been used to gather information about the social organization of labor and workers, with questions such as:
What is the (trader, artisan) called and why?
What particular gods did they venerate?
How were their gods attired?
How were they worshiped?
What do they produce?
How did each occupation work?
This book also described some other indigenous groups in Mesoamerica.
Sahagún was particularly interested in Nahua medicine. The information he collected is a major contribution to the history of medicine generally. His interest was likely related to the high death rate at the time from plagues and diseases. Many thousands of people died, including friars and students at the school. Sections of Books Ten and Eleven describe human anatomy, disease, and medicinal plant remedies. Sahagún named more than a dozen Aztec doctors who dictated and edited these sections. A questionnaire such as the following may have been used in this section:
What is the name of the plant (plant part)?
What does it look like?
What does it cure?
How is the medicine prepared?
How is it administered?
Where is it found?
The text in this section provides very detailed information about location, cultivation, and medical uses of plants and plant parts, as well as information about the uses of animal products as medicine. The drawings in this section provide important visual information to amplify the alphabetic text. The information is useful for a wider understanding of the history of botany and the history of zoology. Scholars have speculated that Sahagún was involved in the creation of the Badianus Manuscript, an herbal created in 1552 that has pictorials of medicinal plants and their uses. Although this was originally written in Nahuatl, only the Latin translation has survived.
Book Eleven, "Earthly Things", has the most text and approximately half of the drawings in the codex. The text describes it as a "forest, garden, orchard of the Mexican language". It describes the Aztec cultural understanding of the animals, birds, insects, fish and trees in Mesoamerica.
Sahagún appeared to have asked questions about animals such as the following:
What is the name of the animal?
What animals does it resemble?
Where does it live?
Why does it receive this name?
What does it look like?
What habits does it have?
What does it feed on?
How does it hunt?
What sounds does it make?
Plants and animals are described in association with their behavior and natural conditions or habitat. The Nahua presented their information in a way consistent with their worldview. For modern readers, this combination of ways of presenting materials is sometimes contradictory and confusing. Other sections include data on minerals, mining, bridges, roads, types of terrain, and food crops.
The Florentine Codex is one of the most remarkable social science research projects ever conducted. It is not unique as a chronicle of encountering the New World and its peoples, for there were others in this era. Sahagún's methods for gathering information from the perspective within a foreign culture were highly unusual for this time. He reported the worldview of people of Central Mexico as they understood it, rather than describing the society exclusively from the European perspective. "The scope of the Historia's coverage of contact-period Central Mexico indigenous culture is remarkable, unmatched by any other sixteenth-century works that attempted to describe the native way of life." Foremost in his own mind, Sahagún was a Franciscan missionary, but he may also rightfully be given the title as Father of American Ethnography.
Editions
General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún: The Florentine Codex, at the World Digital Library online
Bernardino de Sahagún, translated by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble; The Florentine Codex : General History of the Things of New Spain, 12 volumes; University of Utah Press (January 7, 2002), hardcover,
See also
Aztec codices
Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco
Bernardino de Sahagún
Diego Durán
References
Aztec codices
Mesoamerican codices
Nahuatl literature
1569 books
16th-century illuminated manuscripts
1560s in Mexico
1569 in New Spain
16th century in the Aztec civilization
History of New Spain
Aztec philosophy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammett%20equation
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Hammett equation
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In organic chemistry, the Hammett equation describes a linear free-energy relationship relating reaction rates and equilibrium constants for many reactions involving benzoic acid derivatives with meta- and para-substituents to each other with just two parameters: a substituent constant and a reaction constant. This equation was developed and published by Louis Plack Hammett in 1937 as a follow-up to qualitative observations in his 1935 publication.
The basic idea is that for any two reactions with two aromatic reactants only differing in the type of substituent, the change in free energy of activation is proportional to the change in Gibbs free energy. This notion does not follow from elemental thermochemistry or chemical kinetics and was introduced by Hammett intuitively.
The basic equation is:
where
= Reference constant
= Substituent constant
= Reaction rate constant
relating the equilibrium constant, , for a given equilibrium reaction with substituent R and the reference constant when R is a hydrogen atom to the substituent constant which depends only on the specific substituent R and the reaction rate constant ρ which depends only on the type of reaction but not on the substituent used.
The equation also holds for reaction rates k of a series of reactions with substituted benzene derivatives:
In this equation is the reference reaction rate of the unsubstituted reactant, and k that of a substituted reactant.
A plot of for a given equilibrium versus for a given reaction rate with many differently substituted reactants will give a straight line.
Substituent constants
The starting point for the collection of the substituent constants is a chemical equilibrium for which the substituent constant is arbitrarily set to 0 and the reaction constant is set to 1: the deprotonation of benzoic acid or benzene carboxylic acid (R and R' both H) in water at 25 °C.
Having obtained a value for K0, a series of equilibrium constants (K) are now determined based on the same process, but now with variation of the para substituent—for instance, or . These values, combined in the Hammett equation with K0 and remembering that ρ = 1, give the para substituent constants compiled in table 1 for amine, methoxy, ethoxy, dimethylamino, methyl, fluorine, bromine, chlorine, iodine, nitro and cyano substituents. Repeating the process with meta-substituents afford the meta substituent constants. This treatment does not include ortho-substituents, which would introduce steric effects.
The σ values displayed in the Table above reveal certain substituent effects. With ρ = 1, the group of substituents with increasing positive values—notably cyano and nitro—cause the equilibrium constant to increase compared to the hydrogen reference, meaning that the acidity of the carboxylic acid (depicted on the left of the equation) has increased. These substituents stabilize the negative charge on the carboxylate oxygen atom by an electron-withdrawing inductive effect (-I) and also by a negative mesomeric effect (-M).
The next set of substituents are the halogens, for which the substituent effect is still positive but much more modest. The reason for this is that while the inductive effect is still negative, the mesomeric effect is positive, causing partial cancellation. The data also show that for these substituents, the meta effect is much larger than the para effect, due to the fact that the mesomeric effect is greatly reduced in a meta substituent. With meta substituents a carbon atom bearing the negative charge is further away from the carboxylic acid group (structure 2b).
This effect is depicted in scheme 3, where, in a para substituted arene 1a, one resonance structure 1b is a quinoid with positive charge on the X substituent, releasing electrons and thus destabilizing the Y substituent. This destabilizing effect is not possible when X has a meta orientation.
Other substituents, like methoxy and ethoxy, can even have opposite signs for the substituent constant as a result of opposing inductive and mesomeric effect. Only alkyl and aryl substituents like methyl are electron-releasing in both respects.
Of course, when the sign for the reaction constant is negative (next section), only substituents with a likewise negative substituent constant will increase equilibrium constants.
The σp– and σp+ constants
Because the carbonyl group is unable to serve a source of electrons for -M groups (in contrast to lone pair donors like OH), for reactions involving phenol and aniline starting materials, the σp values for electron-withdrawing groups will appear too small. For reactions where resonance effects are expected to have a major impact, a modified parameter, and a modified set of σp– constants may give a better fit. This parameter is defined using the ionization constants of para substituted phenols, via a scaling factor to match up the values of σp– with those of σp for "non-anomalous" substituents, so as to maintain comparable ρ values: for ArOH ⇄ ArO– + H+, we define .
Likewise, the carbonyl carbon of a benzoic acid is at a nodal position and unable to serve as a sink for +M groups (in contrast to a carbocation at the benzylic position). Thus for reactions involving carbocations at the α-position, the σp values for electron-donating groups will appear insufficiently negative. Based on similar considerations, a set of σp+ constants give better fit for reactions involving electron-donating groups at the para position and the formation of a carbocation at the benzylic site. The σp+ are based on the rate constants of the SN1 reaction of cumyl chlorides in 90% acetone/water: for , we define . Note that the scaling factor is negative, since an electron-donating group speeds up the reaction. For a reaction whose Hammett plot is being constructed, these alternative Hammett constants may need to be tested to see if a better linearity could be obtained.
Rho value
With knowledge of substituent constants it is now possible to obtain reaction constants for a wide range of organic reactions. The archetypal reaction is the alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl benzoate (R=R'=H) in a water/ethanol mixture at 30 °C. Measurement of the reaction rate k0 combined with that of many substituted ethyl benzoates ultimately result in a reaction constant of +2.498.
Reaction constants are known for many other reactions and equilibria. Here is a selection of those provided by Hammett himself (with their values in parentheses):
the hydrolysis of substituted cinnamic acid ester in ethanol/water (+1.267)
the ionization of substituted phenols in water (+2.008)
the acid catalyzed esterification of substituted benzoic esters in ethanol (-0.085)
the acid catalyzed bromination of substituted acetophenones (Ketone halogenation) in an acetic acid/water/hydrochloric acid (+0.417)
the hydrolysis of substituted benzyl chlorides in acetone-water at 69.8 °C (-1.875).
The reaction constant, or sensitivity constant, ρ, describes the susceptibility of the reaction to substituents, compared to the ionization of benzoic acid. It is equivalent to the slope of the Hammett plot. Information on the reaction and the associated mechanism can be obtained based on the value obtained for ρ. If the value of:
ρ>1, the reaction is more sensitive to substituents than benzoic acid and negative charge is built during the reaction (or positive charge is lost).
0<ρ<1, the reaction is less sensitive to substituents than benzoic acid and negative charge is built (or positive charge is lost).
ρ=0, no sensitivity to substituents, and no charge is built or lost.
ρ<0, the reaction builds positive charge (or loses negative charge).
These relations can be exploited to elucidate the mechanism of a reaction. As the value of ρ is related to the charge during the rate determining step, mechanisms can be devised based on this information. If the mechanism for the reaction of an aromatic compound is thought to occur through one of two mechanisms, the compound can be modified with substituents with different σ values and kinetic measurements taken. Once these measurements have been made, a Hammett plot can be constructed to determine the value of ρ. If one of these mechanisms involves the formation of charge, this can be verified based on the ρ value. Conversely, if the Hammett plot shows that no charge is developed, i.e. a zero slope, the mechanism involving the building of charge can be discarded.
Hammett plots may not always be perfectly linear. For instance, a curve may show a sudden change in slope, or ρ value. In such a case, it is likely that the mechanism of the reaction changes upon adding a different substituent. Other deviations from linearity may be due to a change in the position of the transition state. In such a situation, certain substituents may cause the transition state to appear earlier (or later) in the reaction mechanism.
Dominating electronic effects
3 kinds of ground state or static electrical influences predominate:
Resonance (mesomeric) effect
Inductive effect: electrical influence of a group which is transmitted primarily by polarization of the bonding electrons from one atom to the next
Direct electrostatic (field) effect: electrical influence of a polar or dipolar substituent which is transmitted primarily to the reactive group through space (including solvent, if any) according to the laws of classical electrostatics
The latter two influences are often treated together as a composite effect, but are treated here separately. Westheimer demonstrated that the electrical effects of π-substituted dipolar groups on the acidities of benzoic and phenylacetic acids can be quantitatively correlated, by assuming only direct electrostatic action of the substituent on the ionizable proton of the carboxyl group. Westheimer's treatment worked well except for those acids with substituents that have unshared electron pairs such as –OH and –OCH3, as these substituents interact strongly with the benzene ring.
Roberts and Moreland studied the reactivities of 4-substituted bicyclo[2.2.2]octane-1-carboxylic acids and esters. In such a molecule, transmission of electrical effects of substituents through the ring by resonance is not possible. Hence, this hints on the role of the π-electrons in the transmission of substituent effects through aromatic systems.
Reactivity of 4-substituted bicyclo[2.2.2]octane-1-carboxylic acids and esters were measured in 3 different processes, each of which had been previously used with the benzoic acid derivatives. A plot of log(k) against log(KA) showed a linear relationship. Such linear relationships correspond to linear free energy relationships, which strongly imply that the effect of the substituents are exerted through changes of potential energy and that the steric and entropy terms remain almost constant through the series. The linear relationship fit well in the Hammett Equation. For the 4-substituted bicyclo[2.2.2.]octane-1-carboxylic acid derivatives, the substituent and reaction constants are designated σ’ and ρ’.
Comparison of ρ and ρ’
Reactivity data indicate that the effects of substituent groups in determining the reactivities of substituted benzoic and bicyclo[2.2.2.]-octane-1-carboxylic acids are comparable. This implies that the aromatic π-electrons do not play a dominant role in the transmission of electrical effects of dipolar groups to the ionizable carboxyl group Difference between ρ and ρ’ for the reactions of the acids with diphenylazomethane is probably due to an inverse relation to the solvent dielectric constant De
Comparison of σ and σ’
For meta-directing groups (electron withdrawing group or EWG), σmeta and σpara are more positive than σ’. (The superscript, c, in table denotes data from Hammett, 1940.) For ortho-para directing groups (electron donating group or EDG), σ’ more positive than σmeta and σpara. The difference between σpara and σ’ (σpara – σ’) is greater than that between σmeta and σ’(σmeta − σ’). This is expected as electron resonance effects are felt more strongly at the p-positions. The (σ – σ’) values can be taken as a reasonable measurement of the resonance effects.
Nonlinearity
The plot of the Hammett equation is typically seen as being linear, with either a positive or negative slope correlating to the value of rho. However, nonlinearity emerges in the Hammett plot when a substituent affects the rate of reaction or changes the rate-determining step or reaction mechanism of the reaction. For the reason of the former case, new sigma constants have been introduced to accommodate the deviation from linearity otherwise seen resulting from the effect of the substituent. σ+ takes into account positive charge buildup occurring in the transition state of the reaction. Therefore, an electron donating group (EDG) will accelerate the rate of the reaction by resonance stabilization and will give the following sigma plot with a negative rho value.
σ- is designated in the case where negative charge buildup in the transition state occurs, and the rate of the reaction is consequently accelerated by electron withdrawing groups (EWG). The EWG withdraws electron density by resonance and effectively stabilizes the negative charge that is generated. The corresponding plot will show a positive rho value.
In the case of a nucleophilic acyl substitution the effect of the substituent, X, of the non-leaving group can in fact accelerate the rate of the nucleophilic addition reaction when X is an EWG. This is attributed to the resonance contribution of the EWG to withdraw electron density thereby increasing the susceptibility for nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl carbon. A change in rate occurs when X is EDG, as is evidenced when comparing the rates between X = Me and X = OMe, and nonlinearity is observed in the Hammett plot.
The effect of the substituent may change the rate-determining step (rds) in the mechanism of the reaction. A certain electronic effect may accelerate a certain step so that it is no longer the rds.
A change in the mechanism of a reaction also results in nonlinearity in the Hammett plot. Typically, the model used for measuring the changes in rate in this instance is that of the SN2 reaction. However, it has been observed that in some cases of an SN2 reaction that an EWG does not accelerate the reaction as would be expected and that the rate varies with the substituent. In fact, the sign of the charge and degree to which it develops will be affected by the substituent in the case of the benzylic system.
For example, the substituent may determine the mechanism to be an SN1 type reaction over a SN2 type reaction, in which case the resulting Hammett plot will indicate a rate acceleration due to an EDG, thus elucidating the mechanism of the reaction.
Another deviation from the regular Hammett equation is explained by the charge of nucleophile. Despite nonlinearity in benzylic SN2 reactions, electron withdrawing groups could either accelerate or retard the reaction. If the nucleophile is negatively charged (e.g. cyanide) the electron withdrawing group will increase the rate due to stabilization of the extra charge which is put on the carbon in the transition state. On the other hand, if the nucleophile is not charged (e.g. triphenylphosphine), electron withdrawing group is going to slow down the reaction by decreasing the electron density in the anti bonding orbital of leaving group in the transition state.
Hammett modifications
Other equations now exist that refine the original Hammett equation: the Swain–Lupton equation, the Taft equation, the Grunwald–Winstein equation, and the Yukawa–Tsuno equation. An equation that addresses stereochemistry in aliphatic systems has also been developed.
Estimation of Hammett sigma constants
Core-electron binding energy (CEBE) shifts correlate linearly with the Hammett substituent constants (σ) in substituted benzene derivatives.
Consider para-disubstituted benzene p-F-C6H4-Z, where Z is a substituent such as NH2, NO2, etc. The fluorine atom is para with respect to the substituent Z in the benzene ring. The image on the right shows four distinguished ring carbon atoms, C1(ipso), C2(ortho), C3(meta), C4(para) in p-F-C6H4-Z molecule. The carbon with Z is defined as C1(ipso) and fluorinated carbon as C4(para). This definition is followed even for Z = H. The left-hand side of () is called CEBE shift or ΔCEBE, and is defined as the difference between the CEBE of the fluorinated carbon atom in p-F-C6H4-Z and that of the fluorinated carbon in the reference molecule FC6H5.
The right-hand side of Eq. is a product of a parameter κ and a Hammett substituent constant at the para position, σp. The parameter is defined by eq. :
where and are the Hammett reaction constants for the reaction of the neutral molecule and core ionized molecule, respectively. ΔCEBEs of ring carbons in p-F-C6H4-Z were calculated with density functional theory to see how they correlate with Hammett σ-constants. Linear plots were obtained when the calculated CEBE shifts at the ortho, meta and para carbon were plotted against Hammett σo, σm and σp constants respectively.
value calculated ≈ 1.
Hence the approximate agreement in numerical value and in sign between the CEBE shifts and their corresponding Hammett σ constant.
See also
Bell–Evans–Polanyi principle
Craig plot
Free-energy relationship
pKa
Quantitative structure–activity relationship
Notes
References
Further reading
General
Thomas H. Lowry & Kathleen Schueller Richardson, 1987, Mechanism and Theory in Organic Chemistry, 3rd Edn., New York, NY, US: Harper & Row, , see , accessed 20 June 2015.
Francis A. Carey & Richard J. Sundberg, 2006, "Title Advanced Organic Chemistry: Part A: Structure and Mechanisms," 4th Edn., New York, NY, US: Springer Science & Business Media, , see , accessed 19 June 2015.
Michael B. Smith & Jerry March, 2007, "March's Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms, and Structure," 6th Ed., New York, NY, US: Wiley & Sons, , see , accessed 19 June 2015.
Theory
L.P. Hammett, 1970, Physical Organic Chemistry, 2nd Edn., New York, NY, US: McGraw-Hill.
John Shorter, 1982, Correlation Analysis of Organic Reactivity, Chichester 1982.
Otto Exner, 1988, Correlation Analysis of Chemical Data, New York, NY, US: Plenum.
Surveys of descriptors
Roberto Todeschini, Viviana Consonni, Raimund Mannhold, Hugo Kubinyi & Hendrik Timmerman, 2008, "Entry: Electronic substituent constants (Hammet substituent constants, σ electronic constants)," in Handbook of Molecular Descriptors, Vol. 11 of Methods and Principles in Medicinal Chemistry (book series), pp. 144–157, New York, NY, US: John Wiley & Sons, , see , accessed 22 June 2015.
N. Chapman, 2012, Correlation Analysis in Chemistry: Recent Advances, New York, NY, US: Springer Science & Business, , see , accessed 22 June 2015.
History
John Shorter, 2000, "The prehistory of the Hammett equation," Chem. Listy, 94:210-214.
Frank Westheimer, 1997, "Louis Plack Hammett, 1894—1987: A Biographical Memoir," pp. 136–149, in Biographical Memoirs, Washington, DC, US: National Academies Press, see , accessed 22 June 2015.
Physical organic chemistry
Equations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforms%20of%20Portuguese%20orthography
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Reforms of Portuguese orthography
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The Portuguese language began to be used regularly in documents and poetry around the 12th century. Unlike neighboring Romance languages that adopted formal orthographies by the 18th century, the Portuguese language did not have a uniform spelling standard until the 20th century. The formation of the Portuguese Republic in 1911 was motivation for the establishment of orthographic reform in Portugal and its overseas territories and colonies. Brazil would adopt an orthographic standard based on, but not identical to, the Portuguese standard a few decades later.
Further minor spelling reforms were approved in lusophone countries over the rest of the 20th century. In 1990, a further agreement was reached between the various countries, with Portugal, Brazil, and Cape Verde adopting the new standard gradually by the beginning of 2016.
Pre-modern Portuguese orthography
The Portuguese language began to be used regularly in documents and poetry around the 12th century. In 1290, King Dinis created the first Portuguese university in Lisbon (later moved to Coimbra) and decreed that Portuguese, then called simply the "common language", would henceforth be used instead of Latin, and named the "Portuguese language". In 1296, it was adopted by the royal chancellery and began to be used for writing laws and in notaries.
The medieval spelling of Portuguese was not uniform, since it had no official standard, but most authors used an essentially phonemic orthography, with minor concessions to etymology common in other Romance languages, such as the use of c for before e or i, but ç otherwise, or the use of ss for between vowels, but s otherwise. King Diniz, who was an admirer of the poetry of the troubadours and a poet himself, popularized the Occitan digraphs nh and lh for the palatal consonants and , which until then had been spelled with several digraphs, including nn and ll, as in Spanish. These early forms of Old Portuguese spelling in transition have been referred to as Latin–Portuguese or Latin-Romance.
During the Renaissance, appreciation for classical culture led many authors to imitate Latin and (Romanized) Ancient Greek, filling words with a profusion of silent letters and other etymological graphemes, such as ch (pronounced as c/qu), ph (pronounced as f), rh, th, y (pronounced as i), cc, pp, tt, mn (pronounced as n), sce, sci (pronounced as ce, ci), bt, pt, mpt (pronounced as t), and so on, still found today in the orthographies of French and English.
Contrary to neighboring languages such as Spanish or French, whose orthographies were set by language academies in the 17th century (French) and the 18th century (Spanish), Portuguese had no official spelling until the early 20th century; authors wrote as they pleased with substantial difference in spelling or other elements.
Orthographic standardization
In 1911, the newly formed Portuguese Republic, concerned with improving the literacy of its citizens, charged a commission of philologists with defining a standard orthography for Portuguese. The result was what has come to be known in Portugal as the orthographic reform of Gonçalves Viana. The new standard became official in Portugal and its overseas territories at the time, which are today the independent nations of Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe, and East Timor, as well as the Chinese S.A.R. of Macau and the Indian state of Goa and territories of Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. In 1938, Brazil set up an orthography of its own, with the same general principles as the Portuguese orthography, but not entirely identical to it.
Basic principles
The authors of the first spelling reform of Portuguese, imbued with the modern ideas of phonology, rejected the etymological spellings current in the previous centuries, preferring a more phonetic orthography, like those of Spanish and Italian. On the other hand, considering that the period of Galician-Portuguese troubadorian poetry had been a golden age of Portuguese literature, they aimed to keep the new orthography as close to the medieval spelling as possible, in spite of some phonetic changes which the language had undergone. The resulting orthographic standard was essentially a compromise between these intents, on one hand, and common traditions, on the other: in a few cases, spelling conventions which went against etymology but had long become customary were made official.
Thus, the reform kept some graphemic distinctions for phonological traits which were not present in every dialect, but still present in at least some areas: between z and intervocalic s ( and in medieval Portuguese, but now reduced to in most dialects), between c/ç and s(s) ( and in medieval Portuguese, but now reduced to in most dialects), and between ch and x (originally and , now just in most dialects, although the distinction is still retained in some). The unstressed vowels e and o were also retained for word-family homogeneity and etymology when they were pronounced as i or u, respectively, and the digraph ou was differentiated from o, even though many speakers now pronounced both as . These distinctions have close parallels in the orthographies of other West European languages.
Since word stress can be distinctive in Portuguese, the acute accent was used to mark the stressed vowel whenever it was not in the usual position, more or less as in the orthographies of Spanish and Catalan. For example, the verb critica "he criticizes" bears no accent mark, because it is stressed on the syllable before the last one, like most words that end in -a, but the noun crítica "criticism" requires an accent mark, since it is a proparoxytone.
Since the height of the vowels a, e and o is also distinctive in stressed syllables (see Portuguese phonology), high stressed vowels were marked with a circumflex accent, â, ê, ô, to be differentiated from the low stressed vowels, written á, é, ó. The choice of the acute for low vowels and the circumflex for high vowels went against the conventions of other Romance languages such as French or Italian, but it was already commonplace in Portuguese before the 20th century. (In many words, Portuguese ê and ô correspond to the Latin long vowels ē, ō.)
Nasal vowels and nasal diphthongs usually appear before the orthographic nasal consonants n, m, in which case they do not need to be identified with diacritics, but the tilde was placed on nasal a and nasal o when they occurred before another letter, or at the end of a word. Although the vowel u can also be nasal before other vowels, this happens in so few words (mui, muito, muita, muitos, muitas) that marking its nasality was not considered necessary.
The acute accent was used also to mark the second vowel of a hiatus in a stressed syllable, where a diphthong would normally be expected, distinguishing for example conclui "he concludes" from concluí "I concluded", saia "that he leave" from saía "he used to leave", or fluido "fluid" from fluído "flowed".
Initially, the orthographic system, both in Brazil and Portugal, determined the usage of diacritics in cases where two words would otherwise be homographic but not homophonous, such as acôrdo, "agreement", distinguishing it from acórdo, "I wake up". This principle was abandoned in all but a dozen cases in 1945 in Portugal and in 1973 in Brazil. (In most cases the homographs were different parts of speech, meaning that context was enough to distinguish them.)
The orthography set by the 1911 reform is essentially the one still in use today on both sides of the Atlantic, with only minor adjustments having been made to the vowels, consonants, and digraphs. Since then, the only remaining significant differences between the two standards, and only substantial changes addressed in the 1990 spelling reform, were in the use of diacritics and silent consonants.
Brazilian orthography vs. Portuguese orthography
Brazil was never consulted about the orthographic reform of 1911, and so it did not adopt it. In the decades that followed, negotiations were held between representatives of Brazil and Portugal, with the intent of agreeing on a uniform orthography for Portuguese, but progress was slow. In 1931, Portugal and Brazil finally signed an orthographic agreement, on the basis of which Brazil established its own official orthography, in 1943.
Soon after, however, it became apparent that there were differences between the spellings being used in the two countries. Even though both were based on the same general principles, phonetic differences between European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese had led to divergent spellings in some cases. Various attempts were made in the remainder of the 20th century to bring the two orthographies closer to each other, sometimes with modest success, other times without success. To this day, they do not coincide completely.
Problems with the original orthography
Notwithstanding its traces of etymology, the 1911 orthography aimed to be phonetic in the sense that, given the spelling of a word, there would be no ambiguity about its pronunciation. For that reason, it had certain characteristics which later produced inconsistencies between the European and the Brazilian orthographies.
In unstressed syllables, hiatuses were originally distinguished from diphthongs with a trema. For instance, writing saüdade, traïdor, constituïção, so that they would be pronounced sa-udade, tra-idor, constitu-ição. But the pronunciation of these words is not uniform. Many speakers say sau-dade and trai-dor, especially in fast speech. Furthermore, there are no minimal pairs that distinguish a hiatus from a falling diphthong in unstressed syllables. For this reason, marking unstressed hiatuses came to be seen as unnecessary, and these tremas were eventually abolished.
The trema was also used in the words where the letter u is, exceptionally, pronounced in the digraphs gue, gui, que, qui, rather than silent as usual; e.g. agüentar, sagüim, freqüente, eqüidade. However, there is regional variation, with for example the u being pronounced in a few Brazilian Portuguese accents qüestão, but not in European Portuguese questão. Although the number of words with such divergent pronunciations is small, they have been seen as an obstacle to the orthographic unification of the language.
Unstressed vowels are usually high, but there are exceptions, including a few pairs of homographs in European Portuguese which vary only in having either a low or a high vowel in an unstressed syllable. To distinguish these, the grave accent was at first placed on unstressed low vowels: cf. pregar "to nail", where the e is pronounced in European Portuguese, with prègar "to preach", where è is pronounced , or molhada "wet" with mòlhada "bundle". But in Brazilian Portuguese both words in each example are pronounced the same way, so the grave accent is not used: pregar "to nail/to preach", molhada "wet/bundle"; the intended meaning is inferred from context. The grave accent was eventually abolished, except in a small number of contractions.
In other cases, where an unstressed low vowel was the result of the elision of the consonants c or p before c, ç, t, the consonant was kept in the spelling, to denote the quality of the preceding vowel. For example, in the word intercepção, which is stressed on its last syllable, the letter p is not pronounced, but indicates that the second e is pronounced , as opposed to the second e in intercessão, which is pronounced . Other examples of words where a silent consonant was left to lower the previous vowel are objecção and factor. In Brazilian Portuguese, the vowels in question are pronounced just like any other unstressed vowels, and, since there is no phonetic ambiguity to undo, the words are simply spelled objeção, fator, and so on.
The orthography distinguished between stressed éi and stressed ei. In Brazilian Portuguese, these diphthongs are indeed different, but in most dialects of European Portuguese both are pronounced the same way, and éi appears only by convention in some oxytone plural nouns and adjectives. This led to divergent spellings such as idéia (Brazil) and ideia (Portugal).
The Brazilian spelling has a, ê or ô in several words where the European orthography has á, é or ó, due to different pronunciation. For example, cf. pensamos, gênero, tônico (Brazil) with pensámos, género, tónico (Portugal). This happens when the vowels are stressed before the nasal consonants m or n, followed by another vowel, in which case both types of vowel may occur in European Portuguese, but Brazilian Portuguese allows only high vowels.
Timeline of spelling reforms
1911: First spelling reform in Portugal.
1931: Orthographic agreement between Portugal and Brazil. The agreement did not come into force, but some of its proposals (such as abolition of silent s from words such as sciência, scena, scéptico, etc., and change from dir-se há and amar-te hei to dir-se-á and amar-te-ei) were accepted by later reforms.
1937: First proposal of orthographic reform in Brazil is mentioned by the Constitution but not enforced.
1943: First orthographic reform of Brazil is delineated in the Vocabulário Ortográfico da Língua Portuguesa, by the Academia Brasileira de Letras.
1945: Sweeping spelling reform in Portugal eliminates the trema, and differential circumflex accents in most pairs of homographs such as acêrto and acerto, cêrca and cerca, côr and cor, fôra and fora, dêsse and desse, and so on. The orthographic rules of 1945 were written as an orthographic agreement between Portugal and Brazil, but Brazil did not adopt them.
1946: The Constitution of Brazil makes the orthographic reform of 1943 official and mandates that all books published in the country use the official spelling.
1971: Sweeping spelling reform in Brazil eliminates the trema in hiatuses, most differential circumflexes, and accent marks on vowels with secondary stressed syllables in compounds, such as ràpidamente, ùltimamente, cortêsmente, cafèzinho, and so on. This reform was mockingly nicknamed the "Remington Reform" because it reduced dramatically the number of words bearing accents (the reference is to Remington Rand, which manufactured both typewriters and rifles in Brazil, either because the reform made typewriting easier or because it "executed" a large number of diacritics).
1973: Portugal follows Brazil in abolishing accent marks in secondary stressed syllables.
1986: Brazil invites the other six Portuguese language countries, Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe, to a meeting in Rio de Janeiro to address the remaining problems. A radical reform which would eliminate the acute accent and the circumflex accent from all words except oxytones (as in the orthography of Italian) is proposed but abandoned after a negative reaction from both the Brazilian and Portuguese media and public.
1990: A new orthographic agreement is reached between Brazil, Portugal and the other Portuguese-speaking countries. Not so radical as the 1986 attempt, it proposes a compromise between the two orthographic systems.
2009: The new 1990 spelling reform goes into effect in Brazil, in Portugal, and in Cabo Verde, changing the rules of capitalization and hyphen usage, eliminating the trema completely from the language (except for foreign words), changing the diphthongs "éi" and "ói" into "ei" and "oi" respectively in paroxytones (unless, of course, when needed to show the stress), and eliminating silent letters as in acção or óptimo, which are now spelled ação and ótimo.
2015–2016: The transitional period in Portugal, Cabo Verde, and Brazil, during which both orthographies co-existed, ends. Only the new orthography is official from May 2015 (Portugal), October 2015 (Cabo Verde), and January 2016 (Brazil).
Orthographic Agreement of 1990
In 1990, an orthographic agreement was reached between the Portuguese-language countries with the intent of creating a single common orthography for Portuguese.
This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on January 1, 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008, allowing for a six-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies co-existed.
The legality of this decision is questioned, as the main bases of the International Treaty that governs the application of the new spelling reform are yet to be established, chiefly the common vocabulary drawn by all participating countries, that still does not exist. Also, the application of International Treaties, as per the Vienna Convention, states that the text of a treaty cannot be changed, and this one has undergone at least two revisions.
See also
Portuguese orthography
Academia Brasileira de Letras
Wikisource in Portuguese – Ortografia da Língua Portuguesa
Notes
References
Estrela, Edite A questão ortográfica – Reforma e acordos da língua portuguesa (1993) Editorial Notícias
Full text of the Pequeno Vocabulário Ortográfico da Língua Portuguesa (Abridged Orthographic Vocabulary of the Portuguese Language) published by the Brazilian Academy of Letters in 1943.
Text of the decree of the Brazilian government, in 1971, amending the orthography adopted in 1943 (no updated version of the PVOLP was published).
lusografia.org — Orthographic Agreement of 1990 (PDF – in Portuguese)
External links
Portal da Língua Portuguesa — Acordo ortográfico (in Portuguese)
Portuguese spelling reforms at Australian Centre for Social Innovations
Official source about Portuguese spelling reforms with studies and guides (in Portuguese)
Portuguese language
Portuguese
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Privilegio%20de%20Mandar
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El Privilegio de Mandar
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El Privilegio de Mandar (The Privilege to Rule) is a Mexican political parody broadcast by Televisa on Canal de las Estrellas. It started as a sketch on another Televisa show, called La Parodia, that parodies political, social and cultural events happening in Mexico. High ratings kept the show running.
It was first broadcast on October 25, 2004, during La Parodia. Soon, the high success of the program encouraged the producers to separate it from the other show, so on January 3, 2005, it became an independent show.
Televisa broadcast what is considered the last episode of the series on July 9, 2006, just after the federal elections in Mexico. However, some of the actors who performed leading roles (such as Arath de la Torre, who played the role of presidential candidate of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), Roberto Madrazo) stated that in a few years, when political events have advanced, they will make a return to see how things are.
History
In September 2004, La Parodia was one of the most successful shows on Mexican television. Characters presented here first would later appear on El Privilegio de Mandar, like "Chente" and "Andrés Manuel". The idea of the name "Privilegio" emerged from a skit on the famous Mexican telenovela El Privilegio de Amar (The privilege of loving), so the main title was presented with golden letters and slide images, just like a telenovela. This show was first aired as a section on La Parodia, on Monday October 25, 2004, at 10pm with its first episode, "El Informe". This quickly became such a success that from January 3, 2005, it became a show in its own right, La Parodia now being broadcast on Sundays. In September of the same year, Alter Films released a DVD containing the first ten broadcast episodes of El Privilegio de Mandar.
The show followed closely the world of the Mexican and even foreign politics, from the 2004 videoscandals and the Desafuero judges to the last 2006 Mexican general elections. During its broadcast, the show had several guest artists, like Consuelo Duval (from La Hora Pico and La Familia P.Luche). It won the 2005 TVyNovelas Award for Best Comic Program.
The show made history as the first political parody ever aired in Mexico, where every single political person was parodied. On Saturday July 8, Televisa broadcast a special programme hosted by Mexican entertainer and actor Ernesto Laguardia, in which scenes were presented from the first episodes of the show, interviews with the actors and the people parodied, as well as "behind the scenes" specials.
Televisa broadcast the last episode of what is considered the first season on July 9, 2006, just after the federal elections in Mexico.
From 2004, there have appeared around 50 different characters. The January 7, 2011 edition of NuestroDetroit.com, however, reported that a second season may soon be in production with Reynaldo Lopez taking over executive producing duties. The report went on to say that at least four actors—de la Torre, the Ortega brothers, and Vale—will return to the series.
Synopsis
As a parody, it is kind of predictable knowing what will happen the next episode. The only thing the viewer has to do is follow the political news. For example, in 2004, Andrés Manuel López Obrador had problems with the law, confronting a desafuero judge, so in the show all the trouble was parodied for months.
Not all the shows are directly related to real politics, although there is usually some political context. In February 2006, Bailando Por Un Sueño (Dancing for a Dream) was highest rating show on Televisa, El Privilegio de Mandar parodied the show as Bailando Por Un Hueso (Dancing for a Bone) a double meaning because Hueso in this context is an expression for an influence, the participants were the politicians dancing, with the idea that the winner would get some political position or influence as a result.
On El Privilegio de Mandar, Mexico is parodied as "Colonia el Relaxo con x" ("Relaxo" means "mess" in Spanish. The real word is "relajo", but the "j" is changed to "x" like the one in "Mexico"), representing the bad organization of the political world in that country. The states are represented as "Manzanas" (blocks), and the president as the president of the neighbors' association. Many of the parodied names and places are word-plays in Spanish, so they wouldn't be understood by many English or other languages speakers.
Main actors
These actors were the ones who played all the roles in El Privilegio de Mandar (the number next to them indicate the number of characters each one played)
Alfonso Villalpando
Angélica Vale
Arath de la Torre
Carlos Espejel
Eduardo España
Freddy Ortega
Germán Ortega
Herson Andrade
Pierre Angelo
Raquel Pankowsky
Samia
Yekaterina Kiev
Guest artists
Consuelo Duval
Jorge Arvizu, "El Tata"
René Franco
Ricardo Hill
Characters
Main characters
Andrés Manuel (Germán Ortega) — also known as El Peje — he is the parody of Party of the Democratic Revolution’s former candidate to the presidency , Andrés Manuel López Obrador. The logo of the party is parodied as El Sol Azteca referring to the sun in the yellow background and the prehispanic Aztec culture
Campa (Freddy Ortega) Ref. to Roberto Campa. He is the candidate to the presidency for the Partido Nueva Alianza
Canti (Carlos Espejel). Sometimes referred to as "Carlinflas", he is an inhabitant of Colonia el Relaxo. He represents the people from Mexico, formerly known as El Pueblo. His character is also the parody of a world-famous Mexican comedian: Mario Moreno Cantinflas. Espejel played this character from 1982 to 1992, stopping because of the death of Cantinflas. He was offered to play it again in 2004, and after a while he accepted.
Chente (Alfonso Villalpando) Chente is a short form for "Vicente" in Mexico (Vicente Fox Quesada, former President of Mexico). He is the president of the Colonia el Relaxo.
Cuauhtémoc (Arath de la Torre) Is the first name of C. Cardenas, former candidate of the PRD for the presidency of Mexico (1988, 1994, 2000) and son of Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, president of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. At first he resists the idea of Peje taking his place as candidate for the presidency but he gives him the chance.
Felipe Calderón (Eduardo España) — also known simply as Felipe — he was the parody of the National Action Party’s (PAN) candidate to the presidency of Mexico, Felipe Calderón Hinojosa, who is now President of Mexico. PAN party is referred to as los azules , parodying the blue color of the party’s logo. Sometimes is also represented as a piece of bread, because "pan" in Spanish means "bread".
Jackson Ref. to Enrique Jackson, a congresist from PRI, as his last name is Jackson his recurrent gag was often dancing a choreography of Michael Jackson while the bass of Billie Jean is heard.
La Jirafa (Yekaterina Kiev) A tall servant girl referred to as The Giraffe because of her height, she is the foil for Canti. She represents also the Mexican people when talking with Canti. She is a parody of Sara Garcia's character in Ahi esta el detalle, she always tries to keep Canti away from home as long as he only goes there to take dinner.
Martita (Raquel Pankowsky) — also known as Martita Según — represents Former Mexican President Fox's wife, Martha Sahagún de Fox. She was a mandatory spouse that always tries to keep Chente on track and also sometimes she does her husband job.
Roberto (Arath De La Torre) — also known as Madrazo — he is the parody of Roberto Madrazo, who was the Institutional Revolutionary Party’s candidate to the presidency of Mexico, and that political party's former leader. The party is referred to as tricolor, because the colours of the Mexican flag (green, white and red).
Sodi (Freddy Ortega). It's the parody of Demetrio Sodi de la Tijera, PAN's former candidate for the head of government in the Federal District.
Vocero (Jorge Arvizu, El Tata). He represents the spokesman of the former president, Vicente Fox. He currently tries to fix any error of his boss by appearing suddenly and saying "Lo que Chente quiso decir" (...actually Chente is telling...) and said a thing different than the original thing Fox said.
Other characters
Some of these characters are also presented in "La Parodia" show
Camacho Solís. Parody of Manuel Camacho Solís, former chief of government of the DF
Carlos Abascal (Carlos Espejel), former Mexican Secretary of Labor, and Secretary of Government.
Carlos Loharé de Mole (Arath de la Torre). Translated "Carlos I'lldoit of Mole), parody to journalist Carlos Loret de Mola (word play with Mola-Mole; popular Mexican dish)
Dámela Micha (Consuelo Duval). Parody to journalist and newscaster Adela Micha, she is an original character from "La Parodia". Her name is a pun of "Give me the half".
Elba Esther (Angélica Vale). Parody of Elba Esther Gordillo, leader of the National Union of Teachers.
Jesús Ortega He lost PRD's candidadacy for Mexico City chief of government to Marcelo Ebrard. He later became consultant of Andrés Manuel
Joaquín Loque-Nósdiga (Ricardo Hill). Translated "Joaquín Whatever-Hetellus", parody to newscaster Joaquín López-Dóriga)
Manuel Espino Barrientos. He is consultant of Felipe Calderón, and is a parody of the PAN's leader Manuel Espino Barrientos
Marcelo Ref. to Marcelo Ebrard. He is PRD's candidate to chief of government in the Federal District. Is also known as Supermar-celo (parody of Superman) by Andrés Manuel.
Marcos (Carlos Espejel). A parody of the Zapatista guerilla leader, Subcomandante Marcos.
Mariano Palacios (Pierre Angelo). He is Roberto's consultant, and a parody of Leader of the PRI, Mariano Palacios Alcocer
Patricia Mercado (Samia). She was the candidate to the presidency of the Social Democratic and Farmer Alternativeparty.
Peña Nieto Ref. to Enrique Peña Nieto. He is PRI's actual chief of government in La Manzana Estado de México, and parody of the then elected Governor of the State of Mexico and currently winner of 2012 presidential elections.
Salinas (Germán Ortega) Ref. to Carlos Salinas de Gortari. He was president of Mexico in (1988–1994). He is also known as "El Innombrable" (The one that must not be named) by Andrés Manuel.
Víctor Trujillo (René Franco), parody to comic and political journalist Víctor Trujillo
Previous characters
Some of these characters appeared on the last episode.
Dolores Latierna – Parody of Dolores Padierna, wife of René Bejarano (see: videoscandals)
Don Diego (Freddy Ortega) Ref. to Diego Fernandez de Cevallos, a Mexican Senator and former PAN Presidential candidate. During his sketches he tends to smoke severely and also in a scene involving the kid versions he was smoking hiding from his parents. The most of the sketches involving him were related to the build of the Carretera del Amor (Love's Highway, an extension he did to a road between two Jalisco towns).
Dr Simi. Parody to Víctor González Torres, aliased Dr. Simi. Dr. Simi was originally only a character for a famous chain of generic drugstores in Mexico, called Farmacias Similares (Similar Pharmacies), but Víctor G. Torres (the owner of the chain) took the name of the character and tried to register as an alternative candidate to the presidency of Mexico. He is not member of any party. (Late 2005-early 2006)
Edith González – Parody of actress Edith González. She has been also presented on "La Parodia"
Ema Pulido. Parody to "Bailando por un sueño" critic.
Félix Greco. Parody to "Bailando por un Sueño" critic (Only presented two episodes)
Gober Precioso (Herson Andrade). Also known as Mario de Tin-Marín (referring to the word play to random choices (de tin marin de do pingüe), he is a parody to Mario Marín, Governor of Puebla. He is the chief of government of La Manzana Puebla. The surname "Gober Precisoso" came out as a result of a scandal in which a leaked cell phone conversation revealed a conversation with Kamel Nacif (a suspected child molester and owner of a textile empire) who referred to Mario Marin as his "Gober Precioso" (that is Precious Governor, since 'gober' is a contraction for Governor) and offered him two bottles of cognac, presumably as a bribe to abuse a journalist. The writers in the show used this fact for the basis of the character. (Early 2006)
Irma (Angélica Vale) – Parody of actress Irma Serrano (Late 2004-Early 2005)
Kamel Nacif (Pierre Angelo) – He is the owner of a textile empire, and friend of Mario Marín. (Early 2006)
Mary (Angélica Vale). She was Canti's girlfriend and another inhabitant of Colonia el Relaxo (Late 2004-Mid-2005)
Montiel (Freddy Ortega). He was PRI's candidate to chief of government for the State of Mexico. In real life, he is the former governor of that state. (Late 2004-Late 2005)
Nico (Herson Andrade). Parody of Andrés Manuel's chauffeur, controversial in real life for his salary that contrasts with the fact that he drives a cheap car (Nissan Tsuru) for his boss. (Late 2004)
La Novia de Don Diego (Samia). Parody of Don Diego's girlfriend (Late 2004-Early 2005)
Ponce (Herson Andrade). Parody to PRD member Gustavo Ponce, (see: videoscandals)
René Bejarano (Arath de la Torre). He was the parody of René Bejarano, Mexican PRD politician. (see: videoscandals) (Late 2004 - early 2005)
Roberto Mitsuko. Parody to "Bailando por un sueño" critic.
Rosario Robles (Angélica Vale). She was chief of government of Mexico City from 1997 to 2000
Santiago (Pierre Angelo). Represents Santiago Creel, former Secretary of Government who lost the Presidential candidadacy to Felipe Calderón in 2005. (Late 2004-Mid-2005)
Yeidckol Ref. to Yeidckol Polensky. She was PRD's candidate for the chief of government in La Manzana Estado de México. She lost in 2005 to Enrique Peña Nieto (Mid-2005 –late 2005)
Characters also include non-Mexican politicians such as George Bush and Arnold Schwarzenegger.
Final episode
Episode 79: "The elections". The last episode of what's considered the first season was aired at 10pm on Sunday July 9, 2006.
A special TV programme was wired presenting early scenes from "El privilegio de mandar" in 2004, interviews with some parodied politics and with the actors, their feelings and "behind the scene" specials.
Real facts
AMLO arrived early at 8am to vote on Sunday July 2
A special cover was hosted by Televisa journalist on the day of the elections
At night, Calderón and López Obrador celebrated their triumphs over the other, with people supporting them, without even knowing who had won
On July 6, the official counting was finished and declared Felipe Calderón President-elect.
Andrés Manuel battled against the results and call to a meeting at Mexico City's Zócalo
Roberto Madrazo lost over 10 points under the nearest candidate
Parody
The show takes off with Andrés Manuel waiting for the IFE to open the polls at 7am on Sunday July 2, when the polls were actually opened at 8am (as a parody of the early arrive to the polls of the real Andrés Manuel). Then, are shown the Televisa studios where four journalists are waiting for the candidates to vote (they are also rarely presented characters):
Carlos Loharé de MoleDámela Micha'''Joaquín Loque-NósdigaVíctor TrujilloShortly after almost all characters arrive to the polls to present their votes (including characters that weren't presented anymore, like "Bejarano"). After the elections, "Ugalde" (parody to IFE's president) made an announcement on TV, saying that he couldn't give an official winner because two candidates (Felipe and Andrés Manuel) were head to head so it wasn't time to celebrate yet. The scene changes and shows Felipe celebrating with balloons and all the people supporting him:
- (Crowd, cheering) Felipe!, Felipe!, Felipe!
- (Felipe, happy) Friends, that disobedient boy (Disobedient boy is a mariachi song sung by Vicente Fox in a TV show during his campaign) said it!, I'm the next president!. And I'm sorry for Andrés Manuel that must be very sad
The scene changes again, now to Andrés Manuel:
- (Crowd, cheering) Andrés Manuel!, Andrés Manuel!, Andrés Manuel!
- (Andrés Manuel, happy) I am president!. I won for over five hundred thousand votes!
However, the scene changes once more, now to Roberto, in his house sat down and paralysed in front of the TV. Soon the door rings:
- (Roberto, sitting next to Mariano Palacios) The doorbell rings Mariano. Open the door; it could be a vote.
The day now changes to Thursday July 6, when the official counting was finished and declared Felipe winner of the election.
However, Andrés Manuel is very angry, and calls to a demonstration:
- (Andrés Manuel, angry) We have to do a meeting at Saturday 8 at the Zócalo for battling against the polls! (Talking to Jesús Ortega)
- (Jesús Ortega) Why not Sunday 9 morning?
- (Andrés Manuel) No Jesús, is the final match of the World Cup!
- (Jesús Ortega) And why not Sunday 9 night?
- (Andrés Manuel) No, it's the final episode of "El Privilegio de Mandar"
Finally, the scene of the meeting of Andrés Manuel is presented. When he finishes talking, Canti goes up the platform and starts talking about Andres Manuel's decision and the respect of the democracy. The show ends with all the crowd cheering "México!, México!, México!", a screen showing "¿Fin?" (The End?) and all the actors thanking the viewers for their support.
Jokes on this episode
Joaquín Loque-Nósidga, talking about the great coverage of Televisa of the elections by their reporters:
-(Joaquín) We've got a reporter and a camera on every state, on every district, on every poll, on every crayon.
Roberto has voted and now goes up to Mariano Palacios (his consultant):
- (Mariano, proud) Hey Roberto! You know what?, I voted against Felipe! (Roberto's rival)
- (Roberto, curious) And how did you vote against Felipe, Mariano?
- (Mariano, proud) I marked him with a cross! (Note: mark the candidate space with a cross means a vote)
Mario de Tin Marín hadn't respected the line and he was voting. The crowd protests about that selfish act:
- (Mario de Tin Marín, smiling) Calm down, as if you were gods!
Troubles with politicians
Andrés M. López Obrador criticised the show as making fun of him personally and as a strategy of the media to attack him because he felt that the amount of time dedicated to him was excessive in relation to other politicians. However, the show continued to broadcast parodies of him.
Víctor González Torres also criticized the show as making fun of his way of talking, as he has physical problems.
After 2006 elections, changes to the laws were provided to warn any television propaganda in favor or against a candidate, preventing Televisa to do another season of El Privilegio de Mandar.
Common phrases and jokes
Chente
"No Marthita" (complaining about what his wife says)
He often wears boots, as the real person
Several one-liners used in his campaign and presidential cycle were used to ridicule the President's actions.
Everytime the president says something aggressive to others, Vocero appears from nothing telling "What Chente really means is...")
Felipe Calderón
He is referred to sometimes as "Jelipe", as a common bad pronunciation of the letter F.
He waves his left arm up and down, as the real person. When doing this there was a funny cartoon sound effect.
Jokes with the real political campaign "Manos limpias" (clean hands):
"Since I have to keep my hands clean, a few days ago, I couldn't play Play-Doh with my daughter!
"Since I have to keep my hands clean, the other day, my wife had to replace our SUV's wheel!
"Since I have to keep my hands clean, the other day, I ate a taco with a spoon!
Andrés Manuel
The mispronunciation of the letters C and S, commonly between people from the Mexican Southeast
Parody of the pauses the real person makes while he is speaking
He always has his hair bad bruised so he had some hairs on the backhead lift up. He mentioned this portion of hair as his "Gallito Feliz" and sing a children song about it (Gallo in Mexico is a portion of hair bad bruised... literally translated to "Happy Rooster"). This gag is joking at the point that the real person woke up early the press to give a daily conference press as Mayor of Mexico City, and sometimes he arrived without bruising his hair properly.
Fear from Carlos Salinas de Gortari, he always mentions him as "El Innombrable" (The one must not be named) in a similar way to Harry Potter's Voldemort.In an episode he fights Darth Vader and when he is defeated he reveals to be "El Innombrable" and then Salinas said that Peje is his son.
Memorable phrases
"A estas encuestas sí les creo porque voy ganando" (These polls I believe in, because I'm winning); after the polls from June 23, when he was winning
"Que poca... ¡eso no es cierto!" (Son of a... that's not true!); used several times
"¡Esto es un compló!" (This is a complot!); every time he feels cornered about a situation that everybody is blaming on him even when he was the real cause. The phrase was original from Mexican Big Brother reality show where some participants plotted to nominate another participant. Indeed, when the real person said that he was plotted against in a political ruse to get him expelled from the elections, in the comedy the characters participated in a Big Brother-style reality show and he was the first to be nominated because he broke some of the rules in order to attend his morning conference, at the end he replies "This is a complot!".
"¡Callese, cha-cha-la-ca!" (Shut up you insignificant thing!); Chachalaca is a very small animal, and it was used frequently after the real one said this to the President during his campaign. In the program he used to shut up another characters.
Roberto
Uses the phrase "Amigo" (my friend) anytime he talks to somebody
He laughs in a very noisy way
Reference for the strongness of his last name ("Madrazo" is often an offensive word in Spanish for "hit") sometimes making him to get hit by something.
Incredible fear from Elba Esther Gordillo
René Bejarano
He never laughs. Instead, he covers his mouth with his hand and shakes his head like he was laughing
He uses his bills to blow his nose, clean his face, etc.
He ends his phrases in an upper tone than the one he started them
He always ensure to do not forget the rubbers.
Memorable phrases
"Dondequiera que esté, nadie, absolutamente nadie, me podrá quitar mi derecho de soñar" (No matter where I am, nobody, absolutely nobody will ever take from me my right to dream); at his desafuero judge.
"Me siento como un billete dentro de un portafolios" (I feel like a bill trapped inside a briefcase); being in jail.
Home media
In 2005, 10 early episodes from September–November 2004 were released on a double-sided DVD format. This DVD edition is still available in some music stores in Mexico.
These episodes include all the desafuero judge to Bejarano and the videoscandals.
Synopsis
Episode 6: "Derecho de soñar" (Right to dream); is about Bejarano's desafuero judge.
Two police officers ("polecias", as a parody of the ignorance of some police officers in Mexico) are waiting for Bejarano to come out of his house. The frame changes to the room of Bejarano, where he is packing his clothes.
Later, in the desafuero judge, he starts avoiding the judge's questions:
Part of the dialogue:
(Bejarano): "I know, you all have seen the video of me receiving money from Ahumada. The thing that really disappoints me is that, since an original version exists, you've all seen a fake copy. Now, our partner Dolores (referring to his wife) will give you the original videos that you can buy for a low price"
(Judge): "And the cash René?" (In Spanish: ¿Y la lana René?) (lana is a form to say money or cash in Mexico)
(Bejarano): "La Rana René está con los Muppets" (Kermit the Frog is with the Muppets) (Joking of the pronunciation of lana=rana; Rana René is the name of Kermit the Frog in Mexico)
(Judge, after finishing the judgement): "What does the people say?" (¿Qué es lo que dice el público?)
(Crowd, furious): "Out!" "Out!" (¡Fuera, fuera!) (this is parody of the TV Show Sabado Gigante)
(Bejarano): "Finally, to wrap things up, no matter where I am, nobody, absolutely nobody will ever take from me my right to dream!"
(Crowd): "Out"! "Out!"
(The frame changes and Bejarano is trapped in jail, before he wakes up and realizes he was dreaming), after this, other characters also dream, specially Peje where he dreams he's fighting Carlos Salinas dressed as Star Wars'' characters; Salinas, dressed as Darth Vader, rips Peje's "gallito feliz" and then removes his mask to show his identity and revealing to be his father.
References
External links
Official page
Parody television series
Las Estrellas original programming
Mexican sketch comedy television series
Television series based on comedy sketches
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Paul
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Chris Paul
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Christopher Emmanuel Paul (born May 6, 1985), nicknamed "CP3" and "the Point God", is an American professional basketball player for the Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Widely regarded as one of the greatest point guards of all time, Paul has won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award, an NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award, two Olympic gold medals, and led the NBA in assists five times and steals a record six times. He has also been selected to twelve NBA All-Star teams, eleven All-NBA teams, and nine NBA All-Defensive teams. In 2021, he was selected to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. He also served as the president of the National Basketball Players Association from 2013 to 2021. Among the highest-paid athletes in the world, he holds endorsement deals with companies such as Jordan Brand and State Farm.
Paul was a McDonald's All-American in high school and attended Wake Forest University for two years of college basketball, where he helped the Demon Deacons achieve their first-ever number-one ranking. He was selected as the fourth overall pick in the 2005 NBA draft by the New Orleans Hornets, where he developed into one of the league's best players, finishing second in NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting in 2008.
During the 2011 offseason, the Hornets organized a deal to send Paul to the Los Angeles Lakers, but the transaction was controversially voided by the NBA. He was instead dealt to the Los Angeles Clippers later that year. Led by Paul's playmaking, the Clippers developed a reputation for their fast-paced offense and spectacular alley-oop dunks, earning them the nickname "Lob City". In 2017, he was traded to the Houston Rockets, where he helped the team win a franchise-record 65 games in his debut season. He played one more season in Houston before being traded to the Oklahoma City Thunder as part of a package for Russell Westbrook in 2019. With the Thunder looking to rebuild, he was traded to the Phoenix Suns in 2020, where he reached the NBA Finals for the first time in his career in 2021. The following season, he helped the team win a franchise-record 64 games. After three seasons in Phoenix, Paul was traded away and landed on the Golden State Warriors.
Early life
Chris Paul was born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, to Charles Edward Paul and Robin Jones. He grew up in Lewisville with his older brother, Charles "C.J." Paul. His family gave him the nickname "CP3" because he, his father, and his brother all share the same initials. A former athlete himself, Charles Sr. taught his sons basketball and football and coached them in various youth leagues throughout their childhoods. Growing up, the Paul brothers spent their summers working at a service station owned by their grandfather Nathaniel Jones; Paul attributes many life lessons to his grandfather and has described him as his "best friend". Paul was raised Baptist.
High school career
Paul attended West Forsyth High School in Clemmons, North Carolina. During his freshman and sophomore seasons, he played on the junior varsity team. For his junior year, he averaged 25 points, 5.3 assists, and 4.4 steals per game, helping West Forsyth reach the state semifinals. Over the ensuing summer, he led the Winston-Salem-based Kappa Magic to the National U-17 AAU title, earning tournament MVP honors in the process. During his senior season, Paul received national attention for scoring 61 points in a game; his 61-year-old grandfather was murdered earlier that year and Paul honored him by scoring one point for each year of his life. Paul finished the season with averages of 30.8 points, 5.9 rebounds, 9.5 assists, and 6 steals per game, leading West Forsyth to a 27–3 record and the Class 4A Eastern Regional finals. He was ultimately named a McDonald's All-American, first-team Parade All-American, and North Carolina's Mr. Basketball by The Charlotte Observer.
College career
As a freshman at Wake Forest University, Paul averaged 14.8 points, 5.9 assists, and 2.7 steals per game, setting school freshman records for three-point percentage, free throws, free throw percentage, assists, and steals in the process. Behind his play, the Demon Deacons qualified for the NCAA tournament, losing in the Sweet Sixteen to St. Joseph's. At the conclusion of the season, Paul was named ACC Rookie of the Year and Third Team All-ACC.
For two weeks early in Paul's sophomore season, Wake Forest was ranked number one in the nation for the first time in school history. On January 15, 2005, Paul registered 26 points and 8 assists in a victory over rival North Carolina, and on February 3, he scored 23 points in a win against rival Duke. In the final game of the year, Paul punched NC State guard Julius Hodge in the groin and received a one-game suspension from the ACC Tournament, an incident that marred Paul's image for a short time. The Demon Deacons again qualified for the NCAA tournament but suffered a second round upset at the hands of West Virginia. With final averages of 15.3 points, 4.5 rebounds, 6.6 assists, and 2.4 steals per game, Paul was eventually named First Team Consensus All-America, and with a 3.21 grade point average (GPA), he was also named to ESPN's Academic All-America Team. On April 15, 2005, he announced he would be hiring an agent and turning professional. On March 2, 2013, Wake Forest retired his jersey. In 2021, Paul was inducted into the Wake Forest Sports Hall of Fame.
Professional career
New Orleans Hornets (2005–2011)
Early seasons in New Orleans and Oklahoma City (2005–2007)
Paul was selected as the fourth overall pick in the 2005 NBA draft by the New Orleans Hornets. Due to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina, the Hornets played most of their games in Oklahoma City during Paul's first two seasons with the team. Paul finished his debut season leading all rookies in total points, assists, steals, and double-doubles, and became only the second rookie in NBA history to lead the league in total steals. With final averages of 16.1 points, 5.1 rebounds, 7.8 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, he was named NBA Rookie of the Year, falling just one vote shy of winning the award unanimously. The only other rookie to receive a first place vote was Deron Williams, with whom Paul enjoyed a brief rivalry early in their careers.
At the 2007 All-Star Weekend, Paul set new Rookie Challenge records with 17 assists and 9 steals. For his sophomore season, he increased his scoring and passing averages to 17.3 points and 8.9 assists per game, but played in only 64 games due to injury.
Rise to stardom (2007–2011)
Paul was selected to his first NBA All-Star Game in 2007–08, playing in front of his home fans in New Orleans. Behind his leadership, the Hornets were near the top of the Western Conference standings all year, temporarily occupying first place on March 17 following a win against the Chicago Bulls. New Orleans finished the season with a franchise-record 56 wins and the second seed in the West. Paul led the NBA with 11.6 assists and 2.7 steals per game to go along with 21.1 points per game, finishing second in NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting and being named to his first All-NBA and All-Defensive teams. In his playoff debut, he scored 35 points against the Dallas Mavericks. In Game 2, he set a franchise playoff record with 17 assists. The Hornets defeated the Mavericks in five games, with Paul registering 24 points, 11 rebounds, and 15 assists in the final game. Their run came to an end in the next round, where they were eliminated by the San Antonio Spurs.
Prior to the start of the 2008–09 season, Paul signed a contract extension with the Hornets worth $68 million. On December 17, 2008, he set the NBA record for consecutive games with a steal at 106. On several occasions, he came within a few steals of recording a quadruple-double, including a 27-point, 10-rebound, 15-assist, and 7-steal game against the Philadelphia 76ers on January 26, 2009. His final averages were 22.8 points, 5.5 rebounds, 11 assists, and 2.8 steals per game. Despite Paul's individual accomplishments, New Orleans' record fell from the year before and they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the Denver Nuggets.
After a slow start to the 2009–10 season, the Hornets fired coach Byron Scott. Paul stirred up controversy when he announced his displeasure with the move, commenting that team management should have "consulted with me and asked how I felt before it happened." In early February 2010, Paul tore cartilage in his left knee and was sidelined for over a month by surgery, forcing him to miss the All-Star Game. In total, he played in only 45 games and his averages dropped to 18.7 points, 3.8 rebounds, 10.7 assists, and 2.1 steals per game. Without Paul, the Hornets struggled, missing the playoffs.
In 2010–11, Paul had another injury scare, suffering a concussion on March 6 after colliding with Cavaliers guard Ramon Sessions and being carried off the court on a stretcher. He returned two games later, registering 33 points and 15 assists against the Sacramento Kings. With the luxury of Paul playing a full season, the Hornets qualified for the playoffs and were matched up with the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers in the first round. In Game 1, Paul contributed 33 points, 14 assists, and 4 steals, and in Game 4, he registered 27 points, 13 rebounds, and 15 assists. In response to Paul's performances, Lakers beat writer Dave McMenamin declared that Paul was having a "historically great series". Nevertheless, New Orleans were eliminated in six games, and ownership, fearing that Paul would leave the franchise via free agency, began actively pursuing a trade that would provide the team equitable compensation in return for his services.
Los Angeles Clippers (2011–2017)
Failed Lakers trade and "Lob City" rise (2011–2012)
On December 8, 2011, the Hornets agreed to a three-team trade sending Paul to the Lakers. The NBA, who owned the Hornets at the time, nullified the deal because commissioner David Stern claimed that New Orleans would be better off by keeping Paul. The teams involved in the transaction attempted to lobby the league to reverse its ruling and reconstruct the deal to no avail. On December 12, the Hornets agreed to a trade sending Paul to the Los Angeles Clippers, but the deal broke down after the NBA added additional demands to the original terms. Two days later, the teams finally completed the trade, sending Paul and two future second-round draft picks to the Clippers in return for Eric Gordon, Chris Kaman, Al-Farouq Aminu, and the Minnesota Timberwolves' unprotected first round pick in the 2012 draft, which was used to draft Austin Rivers. Upon the deal's completion, Paul announced that he would opt into the final year of his contract and remain in Los Angeles for at least two more seasons.
Paul's arrival to Los Angeles rejuvenated the Clippers franchise, with teammate Blake Griffin later commenting, "It put us on the map." Early in Paul's debut season, the team developed a reputation for their fast-paced offense and spectacular alley-oop dunks, usually from Paul to Griffin or DeAndre Jordan, earning them the nickname "Lob City". Paul finished the year averaging 19.8 points, 9.1 assists, and 2.5 steals per game, becoming the first Clipper to be named to the All-NBA First Team since the franchise moved to Los Angeles in the 1980s. Behind his play and the emergence of Griffin as an All-NBA performer, Los Angeles qualified for the playoffs, losing to the San Antonio Spurs in the conference semifinals.
Playoff upsets (2012–2015)
At the 2013 All-Star Game, Paul led the West to victory with a 20-point and 15 assist performance, earning his first NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award. He finished the season averaging 16.9 points, 9.7 assists, and 2.4 steals per game, helping the Clippers to a franchise-record 56 wins. Seeded fourth in the West entering the playoffs, Los Angeles were defeated in the first round by the Memphis Grizzlies. Shortly after their early postseason exit, the Clippers announced they would not renew coach Vinny Del Negro's contract and rumors arose of Paul forcing Del Negro out. Los Angeles later denied any player involvement in the coaching decision.
Prior to the start of the 2013–14 season, Paul re-signed with the Clippers for five years on a contract worth approximately $107 million. Despite a shoulder injury that sidelined him for over a month, Los Angeles set another new franchise record for wins with 57. His final averages were 19.1 points, 10.7 assists, and 2.5 steals per game. In Game 1 of the second round of the playoffs, he hit a career postseason-high eight three-pointers to help the Clippers take an early series lead over the Oklahoma City Thunder. In Game 5 and with the series tied 2–2, he made a string of late mistakes leading to an eventual Thunder victory, later commenting, "It's me ... Everything that happened at the end is on me." Oklahoma City eventually eliminated Los Angeles in six games.
In 2014–15, Paul played in all 82 games for the first time in his career, averaging 19.1 points and a league-high 10.2 assists per game. In Game 7 of the first round of the playoffs, he hit a go-ahead shot with a second left to lift the Clippers over the Spurs despite a hamstring injury. The injury forced him to miss the first two games of the next series versus the Houston Rockets, and Los Angeles eventually lost in seven games despite holding a 3–1 series lead. The defeat marked ten consecutive seasons and seven consecutive playoff appearances without an NBA Conference Finals appearance for Paul.
Final years with Clippers (2015–2017)
In January of the 2015–16 season, Paul led the Clippers on a ten-game winning streak despite missing Griffin and Jordan at various points due to injury. For the third straight year, he finished the season with averages of over 19 points, 10 assists, and 2 steals per game. To begin the postseason, the Clippers drew a matchup with the Portland Trail Blazers, taking a 2–1 lead to start the series. In Game 4, Paul broke his hand and was ruled out indefinitely. Without Paul, as well as Griffin, who also injured himself in Game 4, Los Angeles eventually lost the series in six games.
In 2016–17, Paul missed 21 regular season games due to rest or injury, and averaged 18.1 points, 9.2 assists, and 5 rebounds in just over 31 minutes per game. At season's end, Paul was not rewarded with an All-NBA honor, marking just the second time he failed to make an All-NBA team since 2008 and the first time in his six years as a Clipper. In the playoffs, Los Angeles was eliminated after their first round series against the Utah Jazz, with Paul averaging 25.3 points, 9.9 assists, 5 rebounds per game over seven games.
Houston Rockets (2017–2019)
First Conference Finals appearance (2017–2018)
On June 28, 2017, Paul was traded to the Houston Rockets in exchange for Patrick Beverley, Sam Dekker, Montrezl Harrell, Darrun Hilliard, DeAndre Liggins, Lou Williams, Kyle Wiltjer, a future first round pick, and cash considerations. The Clippers ultimately decided to trade Paul because they were unwilling to offer him the contract extension that he was seeking and they did not want to lose him for nothing once he became a free agent. Paul, who was interested in playing alongside superstar guard James Harden, opted into the final year of his existing contract to facilitate the trade. Some analysts were initially skeptical of the trade due to the perceived redundancy of Paul and Harden's playing ball-dominating playing styles, leading to questions over how they would adjust to each other.
On October 17, Paul debuted for the Rockets in their season-opening win over the defending champion Golden State Warriors. He scored only four points on 2-for-9 shooting and sat on the bench down the stretch while the Rockets made their final push. It was later revealed that he was playing through a knee injury, and he subsequently missed the next 14 games, returning to the lineup on November 16 against the Phoenix Suns. With Paul healthy, Houston quickly established themselves as a championship contender, boasting the league's top-ranked offense in addition to a top-ten defense. Their success was primarily driven by Paul and Harden, who assumed playmaking duties while role players such as Eric Gordon, Trevor Ariza, and P. J. Tucker provided floor spacing with three-point shooting. On December 15, Paul registered 28 points, eight assists, and seven steals against the Spurs to lead the Rockets to their 12th straight victory. On January 26, 2018, he scored a season-high 38 points in a loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. The Rockets eventually finished the 2017–18 season with a franchise-record 65 wins and the best record in the NBA, which included Harden winning the MVP Award and the team setting a league record for three-point attempts. Paul's final averages were 18.6 points, 7.9 assists, and 1.7 steals per game.
In the first round of the playoffs, Houston eliminated the Minnesota Timberwolves, earning them a matchup with the Utah Jazz in the second round. In Game 5 of the series, Paul scored a career playoff-high 41 points along with eight three-pointers, 10 assists, and seven rebounds en route to a series-clinching victory over the Jazz. With the win, Paul advanced to the NBA Conference Finals for the first time in his career, where the Warriors awaited. Going into Game 5, the series was tied 2–2 before Paul helped lead Houston to victory by scoring seven fourth quarter points that powered a 10–5 run and gave the Rockets a lead that they never relinquished. However, Paul injured his hamstring late in the game, and with him out for the remainder of the series, Houston was eliminated from the postseason with back-to-back losses.
Uneventful season (2018–2019)
On July 8, Paul signed a four-year, $160 million maximum contract extension with the Rockets. On October 20, shortly after the start of the 2018–19 season, he was involved in an on-court altercation with Rajon Rondo of the Lakers, which resulted in a two-game suspension and a fine. On December 20, he suffered a left hamstring strain against the Miami Heat, which caused him to miss 17 consecutive games. On February 23, he recorded 23 points and a season-high 17 assists in a win over the Warriors. Late in the season, Paul found himself in the midst of a slump and Houston dropped down to the third seed in the conference, which prompted some analysts to wonder if Paul had moved into a new, less effective phase of his career. In the conference semifinals, the Rockets again found themselves matched up with Golden State, but could not close out the series despite the Warriors' primary scorer, Kevin Durant, missing the final two games.
Oklahoma City Thunder (2019–2020)
On July 16, 2019, the Rockets traded Paul, two protected first-round draft picks, and two first-round pick swaps to the Oklahoma City Thunder in exchange for Russell Westbrook. For the first time in years, Paul found himself on a young, rebuilding team without championship aspirations. Despite speculation that the Thunder would try to move on from Paul immediately, he embraced his role as a veteran leader of the team, which earned him praise from coach Billy Donovan. Paul debuted for Oklahoma City in a loss to the Utah Jazz on October 23, registering 22 points and 8 rebounds in 30 minutes of play. On January 30, he was selected to his 10th All-Star nod, and first since 2016, being named a Western Conference reserve. On February 11, Paul scored a season-high 31 points in a loss to the San Antonio Spurs.
Following a break in the season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Thunder eventually finished as the fifth seed in the conference, earning them a matchup with Paul's old team, the Houston Rockets, in the first round of the playoffs. Trailing 3–2 going into Game 6, Paul scored 15 of his 28 points in the fourth quarter to lead Oklahoma City to a series-tying victory. Although the Thunder would ultimately lose Game 7 and be eliminated from the postseason, Sports Illustrated deemed Paul's tenure with the team a success and opined that he had reestablished himself as one of the best point guards in the NBA.
Phoenix Suns (2020–2023)
First Finals appearance (2020–2021)
On November 16, 2020, the Thunder traded Paul and Abdel Nader to the Phoenix Suns for Kelly Oubre Jr., Ricky Rubio, Ty Jerome, Jalen Lecque, and a 2022 protected first round pick. On February 1, 2021, Paul dropped a season-high 34 points, along with nine rebounds and nine assists, in a close 109–108 win over the Dallas Mavericks. On February 19, he put up a season-high 19 assists while also scoring 15 points in a 132–114 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. On February 23, Paul was selected to his 11th All-Star appearance, second in a row, as a Western Conference reserve. With Devin Booker being named a replacement All-Star a day later, Paul and Booker were the first Suns duo since Steve Nash and Amar'e Stoudemire in 2010 to be named All-Stars. On March 21, Paul logged his first triple-double of the season with 11 points, 10 rebounds and 13 assists in a 111–94 win over the Los Angeles Lakers, becoming the sixth player in NBA history to record 10,000 career assists.
In Game 2 of the Conference Semifinals against the Denver Nuggets, Paul recorded 17 points, 15 assists, and 0 turnovers in a 123–98 victory. This was Paul's third playoff game with at least 15 points, 15 assists, and 0 turnovers, the most in NBA history. In Game 4, Paul scored 37 points on a 74 percent shooting (14-of-19) alongside seven assists in a 125–118 victory, leading the Suns to a 4–0 series sweep over the Nuggets for their first Western Conference Finals appearance since 2010. On June 16, Paul was indefinitely sidelined as he entered the NBA's COVID-19 health and safety protocols. Paul endured an eight-day isolation after testing positive for COVID-19 despite being vaccinated, which caused him to miss the first two games of the Western Conference Finals. In Game 6 of the Western Conference Finals against the Los Angeles Clippers, Paul tied a playoff career-high 41 points, while putting up eight assists, in a 130–103 victory to close out the series, advancing to the NBA Finals for the first time in his career and the Suns' first appearance since 1993. During the game Paul scored 31 out of his 41 points in the second half, becoming just the third player in the last 25 years to score at least 30 points in the second half of a series-clinching game. In Game 1 of the NBA Finals against the Milwaukee Bucks, Paul put up 32 points, 16 of those in the third quarter, along with nine assists, in a 118–105 win. The Suns jumped to a 2–0 lead in the series before losing in six games. Paul became the first player in NBA playoff history to lose four series in which his team led 2–0. After the Finals ended, he had wrist surgery.
Franchise record in wins (2021–2022)
On August 7, 2021, Paul signed a four-year contract extension with the Suns worth up to $120 million. On October 22, Paul recorded 23 points and 14 assists in a 115–105 win over the Los Angeles Lakers, becoming the first player in league history to record 20,000 points and 10,000 assists in their career. On November 2, Paul put up 14 points and 18 assists in a 112–100 win over the New Orleans Pelicans, moving past Mark Jackson and Steve Nash for third place on the NBA all-time career assists list. On December 2, Paul put up 12 points and 12 assists in a 114–103 win over the Detroit Pistons, leading the Suns to their franchise-record 18th win in a row. On January 24, 2022, Paul scored 27 points, grabbed nine rebounds and dished out 14 assists in a 115–109 win against the Utah Jazz. On January 28, Paul logged his 18th career triple-double with 21 points, 10 rebounds, and 14 assists in a 134–124 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. The following game, Paul had a season-high 19 assists with 20 points and eight rebounds in a 115–110 win against the San Antonio Spurs.
On February 3, Paul recorded 18 points, 12 assists, and three steals in a 124–115 loss to the Atlanta Hawks who snapped Phoenix's 11-game winning streak. This was Paul's 50th career game with 10 assists or more with no turnovers—the most such games in NBA history. Before the game, he was named a reserve for the 2022 NBA All-Star Game. On February 10, Paul tied his season-high 19 assists with 17 points and seven rebounds as he led the Suns to a 131–107 victory against the Bucks in a rematch of last year's NBA Finals. Paul finished with his 500th career double-double. He is just the fourth guard in NBA history to accomplish that feat. On February 16, Paul broke his right thumb in a game against the Houston Rockets, just before the All-Star break. On March 24, Paul returned from a broken right wrist to help the Suns wrap up the top seed in the NBA playoffs with a 140–130 victory over the Denver Nuggets. He finished the game with 17 points and 13 assists. On April 1, Paul surpassed Gary Payton for fourth on the NBA all-time career steals list. On April 5, after a Phoenix’s 121–110 win over the Lakers, Paul became the first player in NBA history to be part of four teams to set a franchise record for victories in a single season.
In Game 1 of the first round of the playoffs, Paul scored 19 of his 30 points in the fourth quarter along with seven rebounds, 10 assists, and three steals on 12-of-16 shooting from the field in a 110–99 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. He also became the oldest player in NBA history to put up at least 30 points and 10 assists in a playoff game. In Game 3, Paul scored 19 of his 28 points in the fourth quarter along with 14 assists to lead the Suns to a 114–111 win. In Game 6, he closed the series with 33 points along with eight assists and five rebounds on 14-of-14 shooting, which set the record for the most field goals in a game without a miss in NBA playoffs history. On May 2, in Game 1 of the Western Conference Semifinals, Paul moved past Tony Parker for fifth all-time in career playoff assists in a 121–114 win over the Dallas Mavericks. The Suns jumped to a 2–0 lead in the series before losing in seven games. Paul became the first player in NBA playoff history to lose five series in which his team led 2–0.
11,000 assists (2022–2023)
On October 23, 2022, Paul recorded seven points, eight rebounds and eleven assists in an 112–95 win over his former team, the Los Angeles Clippers, with whom he played for six seasons and is the franchise's career assists leader. He joined John Stockton and Jason Kidd as the only players in NBA history with 11,000 assists. Paul also became the first player in the league with 20,000 points and 11,000 assists. On October 30, Paul posted 15 assists along with 10 points and 0 turnovers in a 124–109 win over his former team, the Houston Rockets. On December 19, Paul scored a then season-high 28 points and delivered eight assists in a 130–104 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On Christmas Day, Paul recorded 17 points, a then season-high 16 assists and 0 turnovers in a 128–125 overtime loss against the Denver Nuggets.
On January 22, 2023, Paul returned to the lineup after missing the previous seven games with a hip injury. He had 22 points, 11 assists, six rebounds and three steals to lead the Suns to an 112–110 win over the Memphis Grizzlies. On January 28, Paul scored a season-high 31 points, along with seven rebounds and 11 assists in a 128–118 overtime win over the San Antonio Spurs. On February 14, Paul posted 17 points and a season-high 19 assists in a 120–107 win over the Sacramento Kings. The next game, Paul surpassed Michael Jordan for third on the NBA all-time career steals list. On April 6, Paul scored 25 points and made a career-high seven three-pointers in a 119–115 win over the Denver Nuggets.
Golden State Warriors (2023–present)
On June 24, 2023, the Suns traded Paul, Landry Shamet, four first-round pick swaps, and six second-round draft picks to the Washington Wizards for Bradley Beal. On July 6, the Wizards traded Paul to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for Jordan Poole, Patrick Baldwin Jr., Ryan Rollins, and two draft picks.
On October 29, 2023, Paul came off the bench for the first time in his NBA career, ending his NBA-record 1,365 consecutive games started, in a 106–95 win over the Houston Rockets.
National team career
Paul made his debut for the United States national team at the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan. He finished the competition with a tournament-high 44 assists, helping Team USA win the bronze medal in the process. At the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, he played a key role off the bench, scoring 13 points in a gold medal game victory against Spain. In addition to the gold medal, Team USA also finished the competition with a perfect 8–0 record. Paul was promoted to the starting point guard position for the 2012 Olympics in London, averaging 8.2 points, 5.1 assists, and 1.6 steals per game en route to another gold medal and undefeated tournament.
Player profile
Standing tall and weighing , Paul exclusively plays the point guard position. His career averages are 17.9 points, 4.5 rebounds, 9.5 assists, and 2.1 steals per game. He has earned All-NBA honors 11 times (2008, 2009, 2011–2016, 2020, 2021, 2022), All-Defensive honors nine times (2008, 2009, 2011–2017), and led the NBA in steals a record six times (2008, 2009, 2011–2014) and in assists five times (2008, 2009, 2014, 2015, 2022). In 2013, he was ranked as the third-best player in the league by ESPN and Sports Illustrated. In his 2014 NBA preview, ESPN's Kevin Pelton called Paul the league's best point guard, adding, "a title he's held throughout his career when healthy." In 2022, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary The Athletic ranked their top 75 players of all time, and named Paul as the 30th greatest player in NBA history.
Paul prefers playing in the half court versus playing up-tempo. He creates scoring opportunities by constantly changing speeds; upon beating his defender one-on-one or shedding him in the pick-and-roll, he will often slow down and box him out, denying him from regaining front side position and forcing the defense to help at all times. His ability to penetrate deep into the paint leads to easy shots for his teammates, and in 2013, he was second in the league in assisted three-pointers. As a playmaker, he is noted for his consistently high assist-to-turnover ratio, averaging just 2.4 turnovers per game over his career. A deft midrange shooter, he is especially proficient from the right elbow, leading the league in shooting percentage from that area in 2015. On defense, he aggravates opponents with active hands and high effort, and has been ranked as one of the best perimeter defenders in the NBA.
Off the court
Paul is regularly ranked as one of the highest-paid athletes in the world by Forbes. Some of the companies that he has done business with include Nike and State Farm. For a State Farm ad campaign, he portrayed a fictional twin brother named Cliff Paul. Paul was also the cover athlete for the video game NBA 2K8.
Paul was selected president of the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) on August 21, 2013, after having served on the executive committee for four years. He was a key figure in the banning of Clippers owner Donald Sterling from the NBA following racist remarks Sterling made in 2014. In one interview, Paul mentioned a possible boycott if Sterling continued to own the team. Paul also played a significant role in the election of Michele Roberts as the Executive Director of the Players Association, giving a strong recommendation to the executive committee responsible for filling the position. On August 7, 2021, Paul's tenure as president ended when CJ McCollum was elected to the position.
Paul is part owner of The Soccer Tournament.
Personal life
Paul married his college sweetheart, Jada Crawley, on September 10, 2011. Together they have two children. On November 11, 2011, Paul appeared with his family on Family Feud.
Paul is a Baptist. In a 2008 interview, Paul revealed that he is a Christian and attends church every Sunday whenever possible. He is an avid bowler and owns a franchise in the Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) League called L.A.X. He has hosted and participated in numerous celebrity and youth bowling events as the head of the CP3 Foundation, which benefits programs in Louisiana affected by Hurricane Katrina, as well as charities in Winston-Salem. In 2018, Paul purchased a minority ownership stake in the Winston-Salem Dash, a minor league baseball team located in his hometown.
Paul's brother, C.J., played college basketball at Hampton University and University of South Carolina Upstate. In 2004, they played against each other when Wake Forest had a preseason exhibition with USC-Upstate. C.J. now works as Chris's personal manager. Paul is also close friends with football player Reggie Bush; the two once lived in the One River Place complex in the New Orleans Central Business District while Bush was playing for the New Orleans Saints. They also shared a personal chef.
Paul has been a vegan since 2019 and is a brand ambassador for Beyond Meat. Paul is also in partnership with Gopuff, with the intentions to expand the latter's selection of plant-based foods and products, particularly those made and distributed by black- and brown-owned businesses.
In December 2022, Chris Paul graduated from Winston-Salem State University with his bachelor's degree in communications.
In June 2023, Chris Paul published his first memoir, titled Sixty One: Life Lessons from Papa, On and Off the Court. The book recalls Paul's childhood in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, his relationship with his grandfather Nathaniel "Papa" Jones and his family, his high school and Wake Forest University basketball careers, and stories from his professional NBA career.
Career statistics
NBA
Regular season
|-
|
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 78 || 78 || 36.0 || .430 || .282 || .847 || 5.1 || 7.8 || 2.2 || .1 || 16.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 64 || 64 || 36.8 || .437 || .350 || .818 || 4.4 || 8.9 || 1.8 || .0 || 17.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 80 || 80 || 37.6 || .488 || .369 || .851 || 4.0 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.6* || style="background:#cfecec;"|2.7* || .1 || 21.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 78 || 78 || 38.5 || .503 || .364 || .868 || 5.5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.0* || style="background:#cfecec;"|2.8* || .1 || 22.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 45 || 45 || 38.0 || .493 || .409 || .847 || 4.2 || 10.7 || 2.1 || .2 || 18.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 80 || 80 || 36.0 || .463 || .388 || .878 || 4.1 || 9.8 || style="background:#cfecec;"|2.4* || .1 || 15.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 60 || 60 || 36.4 || .478 || .371 || .861 || 3.6 || 9.1 || style="background:#cfecec;"|2.5* || .1 || 19.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 70 || 70 || 33.4 || .481 || .328 || .885 || 3.7 || 9.7 || style="background:#cfecec;"|2.4* || .1 || 16.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 62 || 62 || 35.0 || .467 || .368 || .855 || 4.3 || style="background:#cfecec;"|10.7* ||style="background:#cfecec;"|2.5* || .1 || 19.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 82 || style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 34.8 || .485 || .398 || .900 || 4.6 || style="background:#cfecec;"|10.2* || 1.9 || .2 || 19.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 74 || 74 || 32.7 || .462 || .371 || .896 || 4.2 || 10.0 || 2.1 || .2 || 19.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 61 || 61 || 31.5 || .476 || .411 || .892 || 5.0 || 9.2 || 2.0 || .1 || 18.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 58 || 58 || 31.8 || .460 || .380 || .919 || 5.4 || 7.9 || 1.7 || .2 || 18.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 58 || 58 || 32.0 || .419 || .358 || .862 || 4.6 || 8.2 || 2.0 || .3 || 15.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Oklahoma City
| 70 || 70 || 31.5 || .489 || .365 || .907 || 5.0 || 6.7 || 1.6 || .2 || 17.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 70 || 70 || 31.4 || .499 || .395 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.934* || 4.5 || 8.9 || 1.4 || .3 || 16.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 65 || 65 || 32.9 || .493 || .317 || .837 || 4.4 ||style="background:#cfecec;"|10.8* || 1.9 || .3 || 14.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 59 || 59 || 32.0 || .440 || .375 || .831 || 4.3 || 8.9 || 1.5 || .4 || 13.9
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 1,214 || 1,214 || 34.4 || .472 || .369 || .870 || 4.5 || 9.5 || 2.1 || .2 || 17.9
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 11 || 4 || 24.7 || .525 || .468 || .857 || 3.9 || style="background:#E0CEF2; width:3em"|11.6 || 2.4 || .0 || 12.2
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2008
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 12 || 12 || 40.5 || .502 || .238 || .785 || 4.9 || 11.3 || 2.3 || .2 || 24.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2009
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 5 || 5 || 40.2 || .411 || .313 || .857 || 4.4 || 10.4 || 1.6 || .0 || 16.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2011
| style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans
| 6 || 6 || 41.7 || .545 || .474 || .796 || 6.7 || 11.5 || 1.8 || .0 || 22.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2012
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 11 || 11 || 38.5 || .427 || .333 || .872 || 5.1 || 7.9 || 2.7 || .1 || 17.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2013
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 6 || 6 || 37.3 || .533 || .316 || .892 || 4.0 || 6.3 || 1.8 || .0 || 22.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2014
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 13 || 13 || 36.3 || .467 || .457 || .774 || 4.2 || 10.3 || 2.8 || .0 || 19.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2015
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 12 || 12 || 37.1 || .503 || .415 || .941 || 4.4 || 8.8 || 1.8 || .3 || 22.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2016
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 4 || 4 || 31.3 || .487 || .300 || 1.000 || 4.0 || 7.3 || 2.3 || .0 || 23.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2017
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| 7 || 7 || 37.1 || .496 || .368 || .879 || 5.0 || 9.9 || 1.7 || .1 || 25.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2018
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 15 || 15 || 34.5 || .459 || .374 || .830 || 5.9 || 5.8 || 2.0 || .3 || 21.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2019
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 11 || 11 || 36.1 || .446 || .270 || .844 || 6.4 || 5.5 || 2.2 || .6 || 17.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2020
| style="text-align:left;"|Oklahoma City
| 7 || 7 || 37.3 || .491 || .372 || .885 || 7.4 || 5.3 || 1.6 || .4 || 21.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2021
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 20 || 20 || 34.2 || .497 || .446 || .877 || 3.5 || 8.6 || 1.2 || .2 || 19.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2022
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 13 || 13 || 34.5 || .561 || .388 || .946 || 4.2 || 8.3 || 1.5 || .2 || 17.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2023
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 7 || 7 || 35.8 || .418 || .321 || .500 || 5.0 || 7.4 || 1.7 || .7 || 12.4
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 149 || 149 || 36.5 || .484 || .373 || .854 || 4.9 || 8.3 || 1.9 || .2 || 20.0
College
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2003–04
| style="text-align:left;"|Wake Forest
| 31 || 31 || 33.6 || .496 || .465 || .843 || 3.3 || 5.9 || 2.7 || .4 || 14.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2004–05
| style="text-align:left;"|Wake Forest
| 32 || 32 || 33.4 || .451 || .474 || .834 || 4.5 || 6.6 || 2.4 || .0 || 15.3
|-
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 63 || 63 || 33.5 || .472 || .470 || .838 || 3.9 || 6.3 || 2.5 || .2 || 15.0
Filmography
Awards and honors
NBA
12× NBA All-Star: 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2020, 2021, 2022
11× All-NBA Team:
First Team: 2008, 2012, 2013, 2014
Second Team: 2009, 2015, 2016, 2020, 2021
Third Team: 2011, 2022
9× NBA All-Defensive Team:
First Team: 2009, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
Second Team: 2008, 2011
NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award: 2013
NBA Rookie of the Year: 2006
NBA All-Rookie First Team: 2006
College
First team consensus All-American: 2005
No. 3 retired by Wake Forest'''
2× All-ACC Team
All-ACC First Team: 2005
All-ACC Third Team: 2004
All-ACC Defensive Team: 2004
All-ACC Freshman Team: 2004
ACC Rookie of the Year: 2004
All-ACC Tournament Second Team: 2004
United States national team
2× Olympic gold medalist: 2008, 2012
FIBA World Championship bronze medalist: 2006
USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year: 2004
See also
List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders
List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders
List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff triple-double leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual assists leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association single-game assists leaders
List of National Basketball Association single-game steals leaders
Notes
References
External links
Wake Forest Demon Deacons bio
1985 births
Living people
2006 FIBA World Championship players
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American sportspeople
African-American basketball players
African-American trade unionists
All-American college men's basketball players
American men's basketball players
Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Basketball players from Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Golden State Warriors players
Houston Rockets players
Los Angeles Clippers players
McDonald's High School All-Americans
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Players Association presidents
New Orleans Hornets draft picks
New Orleans Hornets players
Oklahoma City Thunder players
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball
Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball)
People from Lewisville, North Carolina
Phoenix Suns players
Point guards
United States men's national basketball team players
Wake Forest Demon Deacons men's basketball players
Winston-Salem State University alumni
|
4987631
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2066%20in%20Arizona
|
U.S. Route 66 in Arizona
|
U.S. Route 66 (US 66, Route 66) also known as the Will Rogers Highway, was a major United States Numbered Highway in the state of Arizona from November 11, 1926, to June 26, 1985. US 66 covered a total of through Arizona. The highway ran from west to east, starting in Needles, California, through Kingman and Seligman to the New Mexico state line. Nationally, US 66 ran from Santa Monica, California, to Chicago, Illinois. In its height of popularity, US 66 was one of the most popular highways in the state of Arizona, sometimes carrying over one million cars a year.
In the early years, US 66 had to compete with other major U.S. Highways for construction and improvement funding. The highway also played an important role during the Dust Bowl as a means for refugees (also known as "Okies") to escape the ruined farmlands of the Great Plains and migrate to California. Experiences of these refugees traveling through Arizona were largely detailed in John Steinbeck's novel, The Grapes of Wrath, and the 1940 movie adaption that followed. During the mid-20th century, the highway became a tourist destination, spawning the existence of several new motels, restaurants and other road-side businesses and attractions.
With the introduction of Interstate 40 (I-40), US 66 began declining considerably, with some of the towns along the highway becoming ghost towns. Following the completion of I-40, US 66 was completely decommissioned by the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT) in 1984, then retired nationwide the following year. Significant portions of the old highway remain, such as State Route 66 (SR 66) between Kingman and the Yavapai–Coconino county line east of Peach Springs. Since 1987, other sections have been designated as Historic Route 66, which is both an Arizona Historic Road and a National Scenic Byway.
Route description
US 66 was one of the main transcontinental highways in Arizona, serving as the main east–west highway through the northern end of the state. Nationally, US 66 ran from Chicago, Illinois, to the Los Angeles, California, metropolitan area. The highway in Arizona was over in its earlier years, between California and New Mexico. The route originally went from Topock through Oatman to Kingman. Later, the route between Topock and Kingman was switched to an alignment going through Yucca.
From Kingman, US 66 went northeast to Peach Springs before heading southeast to Seligman. Between Seligman and the New Mexico state line near Lupton, US 66 traveled the same basic route I-40 takes today, through Flagstaff, Winslow and Holbrook. Save for several city streets east of Flagstaff, most of US 66 has either been cut off, abandoned, destroyed or rebuilt into sections of I-40. Notable exceptions include the original route through Oatman, SR 66, multiple current and former I-40 Business Loops and Townsend–Winona Road from US 89 to I-40 in Winona. Several sections of the highway no longer part of the Arizona State Highway System are listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The following route description roughly follows the path US 66 would have traversed across Arizona in 1940.
California border to Kingman
US 66 entered Arizona from Needles, California, on the Old Trails Bridge across the Topock Gorge and Colorado River, within the Havasu National Wildlife Refuge, arriving in Topock, Arizona. The route headed northeast, where it crossed the path of present-day I-40 and the BNSF Railway (formerly the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway). The highway then curved east for less than a mile, before curving directly north on Mohave County Route 10 (also known as Oatman Highway), past present-day Golden Shores through Bureau of Land Management-managed federal lands.
Approximately north of Golden Shores, US 66 arrived at the foothills of the Black Mountains, following the base of the those mountains for before entering them. Shortly afterward, the old highway arrived in the town of Oatman, passing through the center of the old mining town. North of Oatman, US 66 turned in a generally eastward direction winding its way up and through the Black Mountains over treacherous curves. US 66 passed through the small mining community of Goldroad and the adjacent mine, before continuing on its winding path up the mountainsides.
Less than east of the Goldroad Mine, US 66 crossed over Sitgreaves Pass at an elevation of , making its slow winding descent towards the other side of the Black Mountains. The highway finally exited the mountains at Cold Springs Station, heading straight east before curving northeast again, away from the mountains. As it headed northeast, US 66 entered the town of McConnico, crossing the path of present-day I-40 again, before turning it turned north, and paralleled the Santa Fe Railway and curving through a small set of mountains. The highway and railroad then arrived in Kingman; US 66 followed Main Street (now Andy Devine Avenue). US 66 met US 93 and US 466 at a former highway junction, which is now the spot of Locomotive Park, the home of Santa Fe Railway No. 3759, a 3751 class 4-8-4 Northern steam locomotive. US 66 continued through town on Main Street, and curved northeast towards I-40 at the eastern end of Kingman. About northeast of Kingman, US 66 crossed under present-day I-40, and continued northeast through the present day Kingman metro area on what is now SR 66.
Kingman to Seligman
Between Kingman and Seligman, I-40's more southerly and more direct path diverges from former US 66 by approximately , putting considerable distance between former US 66 and the current Interstate. SR 66 and Crookton Road comprise the route of old US 66 between Kingman and Seligman. The state highway designation currently covers just of a section east of Kingman. As US 66 headed northeast from Kingman on SR 66 and paralleled the Santa Fe Railway, the highway made a gradual northeastern curve about from Kingman, and entered another mountain range, where it arrived at the town of Hackberry.
From Hackberry, US 66 then curved northeast through the mountains, passing through the towns of Valentine and Crozier. Upon entering a small mountain valley, the highway passed through the town of Truxton before entering the mountains again at Peach Springs. Between Valentine and Peach Springs, SR 66 takes a later routing of US 66, which is straighter and has fewer curves. The older, less straight alignment, used through 1940, can be seen on either side of present-day SR 66. A natural feature and tourist attraction called the Grand Canyon Caverns, just east of Peach Springs, are among the largest dry caverns in the United States.
Upon leaving Peach Springs, US 66 curved southeast into the Hualapai Indian Reservation. Shortly afterwards, the highway left Mohave County and continued east into Coconino County. Shortly after entering Coconino County, US 66 entered Yavapai County. The route briefly entered Coconino County again for less than , before crossing into Yavapai County for a second time, where it remained for several miles. This final crossing of the Yavapai–Coconino county line also serves as the present terminus of SR 66. From here on out, US 66 continued southeast as a county-maintained road (known as Crookton Road). This segment was previously the easternmost of SR 66, until ADOT retired this section and handed it over to Yavapai County in 1990 for maintenance.
Old US 66 continued in a straight southeasterly direction for , then made a long curve south and east around a large volcanic bluff. After curving around the bluff, US 66 continued into Seligman, becoming Chino Street (today part of the Seligman I-40 Business Loop) into the center of town. Seligman is the birthplace of the first Historic Route 66 Association of Arizona, established by local barber Angel Delgadillo in 1987. The association obtained the first "Historic Route 66" designation, which the state initially placed on the segment of US 66 between Kingman and Seligman. East of Seligman, old US 66 diverged from the current business route. Where the business route turns south to return to I-40, US 66 headed southeast on Crookton Road. US 66 proceeded to follow Crookton Road through high desert towards Ash Fork.
Seligman to Williams
From Seligman, US 66 continued heading southeast for on Crookton Road. At I-40 exit 139, the highway briefly took on the route of the present-day Interstate, but curved southeast less than a mile later onto the south frontage road. The volcanic cinder asphalt road curved northeast from the Interstate and crossed over a small three-span concrete bridge, rejoining I-40 where the frontage road curves east. In the same spot as present day exit 144, US 66 curved northeast, taking Pine Avenue into downtown Ash Fork. US 66 continued straight onto 8th Street where Pine Avenue turned east, then made a right-hand curve onto Lewis Avenue. Today, Lewis Avenue is a one-way street, heading westbound only. Traffic heading east through Ash Fork must take Park Avenue, one block to the south. Both Lewis and Park make up a one-way pair carrying I-40 Business through town.
At the spot where the I-40 Business Loop turns south to become SR 89, there used to be an intersection where US 66 met at a junction with US 89. US 89 shared a wrong-way concurrency with US 66 between Ash Fork and Flagstaff. Both US 66 and northbound US 89 continued straight east from this intersection on to a highway alignment which no longer exists. The former highway straddled the north side of I-40, at times, often joining and leaving the present westbound lanes of the Interstate. East of Ash Fork, the route left the high desert terrain and entered a mountainous area, covered with Ponderosa pine forests. US 66/US 89 left I-40 around exit 149, heading northeast along an abandoned section of highway through the Monte Carlo truck stop. Approximately from the Interstate, the highway turned straight east for , then wound southeast for , crossing over the Interstate. The old highway made a broad curve less than southeast of I-40, then curved northeast, merging back into the route of I-40. Today, part of this section of former US 66/US 89 is listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) as Abandoned Route 66, Ash Fork Hill.
Both US 66 and US 89 split from I-40 again at Bill Williams Loop Road near McClelland Lake. The highway took the loop road for south of the Interstate before merging back into the route of I-40. At exit 161, US 66/US 89 curved northeast from I-40, then headed east on Historic Route 66 into downtown Williams. Parts of downtown Williams surrounding former US 66/US 89, including the roadway itself, are listed on the NRHP. The Williams Historic Business District and Urban Route 66, Williams, were added to the NRHP in 1984 and 1989, respectively. East of town, US 66/US 89 met the Santa Fe Railway at an underpass, then curved southeast onto an abandoned road, which tied into Mountain Man Trail in front of the Bearizona Wildlife Park. This was also the spot where US 66/US 89 intersected with the western terminus of SR 64, which headed north towards Valle and the Grand Canyon, while US 66 and US 89 continued east towards Flagstaff.
Williams to Flagstaff
US 66/US 89 continued east from the SR 64 junction outside Williams on Mountain Man Trail for , then crossed the present-day route of I-40 diagonally onto Deer Farm Road. Although the highway was paved in 1940, both Mountain Man Trail and Deer Farm Road have been downgraded to county maintained graded dirt roads. The highway skirted the northern shore of Davenport Lake, then crossed present-day I-40 to the south side frontage road, known as Mountain Ranch Resort Drive. US 66/US 89 crossed I-40 a second time at the spot of the current exit 171 onto a road called "Old Route 66". Unlike Mountain Man Trail and Deer Farm Road, Old Route 66 is still paved. The highway then headed east, gently winding through small pine forests, until US 66/US 89 reached the town of Parks. Small sections of Old Route 66 to the west and east of Parks are listed on the NRHP under the name Abandoned Route 66, Parks (1921).
Just southeast of Parks, where Old Route 66 dead ends, US 66/US 89 crossed present-day I-40 diagonally to briefly parallel the Santa Fe Railway, before being subsumed into the route of I-40 once again. The old highway left I-40 again briefly along an abandoned graded curve on the south side of the Interstate just west of the Parks Rest Area. East of the rest area, US 66/US 89 split off a third time onto Bellemont Camp Road. The highway continued diagonally southeast through Bellemont, then merged back into I-40. The eastern end of Bellemont Camp Road (which can not be used as a through route by travelers today) is still paved in original concrete. Heading southeast out of Bellemont, US 66/US 89 used the route of I-40 until reaching present-day exit 191. Here, the highway angled southeasterly on I-40 Business into Flagstaff.
The former route through Flagstaff is officially named "Historic Route 66". At Milton Road, US 66/US 89 intersected with SR 79 at its northern terminus. By 1941, SR 79 had been redesignated as US 89 Alternate (US 89A). US 89A, as its designation suggests, was an alternative, more direct route for US 89 traffic. US 89A provided a shorter travel distance between Flagstaff and Prescott, via Sedona and the mining town of Jerome. Today, US 89A is known as SR 89A. US 66/US 89 continued north on I-40 Business from the junction with US 89A to underpass with the Santa Fe Railway. On the other side of the underpass, the highway curved right onto Santa Fe Avenue and passed through downtown Flagstaff, including the Santa Fe Railway Depot. Just west of the depot is where current US 180 joins I-40 Business, former US 66 and former US 89.
Heading southeast of downtown, paralleling the Santa Fe Railway, US 66/US 89 made two northeasterly curves along with the railroad. At the intersection with Country Club Drive north of I-40 exit 201, current US 180 and I-40 Business split off, heading south to join I-40. This intersection also serves as the current southern terminus of US 89. Just west of this intersection, a later routing of US 66 split off and paralleled the railroad towards Walnut Canyon National Monument and I-40 exit 204 (where the later routing joined the Interstate). The earlier route of former US 66 (used through 1940), and current route of US 89, continue northeast from this intersection towards the Flagstaff suburb of Townsend.
Flagstaff to Winslow
On the outskirts of the Flagstaff metropolitan area in Townsend, US 66 split from US 89. US 89 heads north towards the Glen Canyon Dam and Page, while old US 66 took an abandoned gradual curve to the east onto Townsend–Winona Road. The highway proceeded to wind through small pine forest wilderness, passing several small communities along the way, heading first east, then southeast near Sunset Crater and several other extinct volcanic cinder cones of the San Francisco Volcanic Field. Shortly before reaching the current route of I-40 east of Flagstaff, US 66 passed through a small unincorporated community called Winona, made famous in the song "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66". In Winona, US 66 crossed an abandoned steel bridge. Today, the modern road uses a concrete bridge built right next to the older structure. US 66 proceeded to cross over the Santa Fe Railway on an overpass heading out of Winona.
Where Townsend–Winona Road continues south to end at I-40 exit 211, US 66 continued east along the southern side of the railroad on Coconino County Route 394. Approximately southeast of exit 211, the county route dead-ends at the westbound lanes of I-40. US 66 continued on an abandoned highway grade southeast of this point (some of which has been overlaid by I-40), then zig-zagged northward, crossing a concrete bridge over a small gulch. North of the gulch, US 66 turned southeast, passing north of the abandoned Twin Arrows travel center. The old highway continued on an abandoned roadway and part of the south frontage road, before gradually being subsumed into the route of present-day I-40. This is also the area where US 66 left the pine forest area which started near Ash Fork and re-entered high desert terrain.
Near Exit 225, US 66 diverted from I-40 southeast on Buffalo Range Road. Around southeast of the Interstate, US 66 curved east on an abandoned highway grade to rejoin the route of I-40, where Buffalo Range Road turns sharply to the southwest. US 66 proceeded to follow I-40 east for , then split off again to head straight southeast, followed by a sharp curve to the north to cross the Canyon Diablo Bridge over Canyon Diablo into Two Guns. Two Guns, now abandoned, was a popular Old West-themed tourist attraction during the height of popularity of US 66. The most popular attraction at Two Guns was the Apache Death Cave, the site where several Apache individuals were murdered by a group of Navajo individuals. Leaving Two Guns, US 66 made a broad curve to the southeast across present-day I-40 exit 230, heading away from the Interstate on an abandoned roadbed.
About southeast of exit 230, and after passing the access road heading south to Meteor Crater, US 66 curved northeast to cross I-40, then made a gradual curve to the southeast. Shortly afterward, US 66 crossed I-40 a second time, where the westbound Meteor Crater Rest Area sits today. Immediately after crossing I-40, US 66 curved northeast to cross over I-40 a third time along with the Santa Fe Railway, then made a sharp turn to the east, followed by a gradual curve to the southeast. At I-40 exit 239, US 66 took the abandoned roadbed back to I-40 and followed the route of the present-day Interstate. About southeast of exit 239, US 66 left I-40 again onto an abandoned roadbed between the current Interstate and the Santa Fe Railway heading southeast, eventually crossing into Navajo County. Where the I-40 Industrial Spur crosses the railroad, the abandoned roadbed, which carried US 66, tied into "Old West Highway 66", where the highway entered Winslow. At the intersection with current SR 99 (former I-40 Business), US 66 headed southeast into downtown Winslow onto Second Street. Through downtown, US 66 passed the Winslow Visitor Center and Standin' on the Corner Park. At the intersection with Williamson Avenue, where SR 99 turns south with southbound SR 87, US 66 met SR 65 at its northern terminus. From here, SR 65 headed south to its other terminus at the Coconino National Forest boundary, while US 66 continued southeast on present-day northbound SR 87 out of town.
Winslow to Holbrook
Heading east out of Winslow, US 66 split from SR 87 onto an old roadbed, and crossed the Little Colorado River over a bridge that no longer exists. US 66 rejoined SR 87 shortly before the current highway turns north towards I-40 exit 257 and Homolovi State Park. Just north of Winslow, Homolovi State Park preserves over 300 Ancestral Puebloan archaeological sites. Where SR 87 turns north, US 66 continued northeast, merging into I-40. Where I-40 curves southeast, US 66 continued northeast onto Hibbard Road, then made a sharp turn east onto an old roadbed from the Interstate. US 66 proceeded to make a gradual S-curve to the southeast and cross a tributary of the Little Colorado River on another no longer extant bridge. The highway continued straight southeast from the bridge crossing for , then made a sweeping curve south by southeast and crossed I-40.
On the south side of I-40, US 66 made another gradual curve back to the southeast, then a second curve to the east, and merged back into Hibbard Road. Where Hibbard Road ends, US 66 continued diagonally across I-40, then turned immediately south again, crossing I-40 a second time onto the south frontage road. Here, US 66 arrived at the Jack Rabbit Trading Post. The trading post once posted signs up and down the highway for hundreds of miles between Arizona and Missouri. Today, one of the iconic billboards still stands next to the trading post. It is a wooden sign displaying a black jackrabbit on a yellow background with the phrase "Here It Is" spelled in large capitalized red letters on the left side of the jackrabbit. US 66 continued southeast from the trading post along the south frontage road, paralleling the Santa Fe Railway and Little Colorado River.
At the point where the south frontage road curves northeast to straddle the south side of I-40, US 66 crossed the Interstate becoming Main Street into Joseph City. US 66 through Joseph City is designated today as I-40 Business. East of town, US 66 curved southeast across I-40 onto the south frontage road close to the town post office. Where the frontage road makes a quick U-shape near exit 247, US 66 continued straight. In front of the Cholla Power Plant, US 66 curved to rejoin I-40. US 66 followed I-40 southeast past a reservoir and earthen dam. Where I-40 curves to the east, US 66 split off to the north side of I-40, becoming the north side frontage road. US 66 followed the north frontage road for a short distance, then rejoined I-40 momentarily at exit 283. Immediately after rejoining the Interstate, US 66 diverged, turning to the northeast, and rejoined the north frontage road. Where the frontage road makes a sharp curve to the north, US 66 continued straight east on an abandoned roadbed to I-40 exit 285.
At exit 285, US 66 crossed present-day I-40 into Holbrook becoming Hopi Drive (today signed as US 180 and I-40 Business). Along the western section of old US 66 in Holbrook is the Wigwam Village Motel, a motor court built to resemble a group of tipis. At the intersection of Hopi Drive and Navajo Boulevard, US 180 heads southeast towards Springerville and Silver City, New Mexico, concurrent for a short distance with southbound SR 77. In 1940, this intersection was the western terminus of US 260. US 260 followed the general path of present-day US 180 into New Mexico, where it ended in Deming. US 66 on the other hand, followed northbound SR 77 and I-40 Business on Navajo Boulevard.
Holbrook to the New Mexico border
Where SR 77 joins I-40 at exit 286, US 66 continued following I-40 Business and Navajo Boulevard north, then northeast, passing through the northeastern edge of Holbrook. At exit 289, US 66 took on the route of I-40, and split off again where exit 292 is today. US 66 followed an old roadbed on the north side of I-40 around the community of Sun Valley, then rejoined the Interstate at the edge of the Painted Desert. US 66 utilized a section of abandoned roadbed east of West Twin Wash, then crossed to a short section of roadbed and bridge on the south side of the Interstate at exit 300. US 66 rejoined I-40 and followed the eastbound lanes to the Painted Desert Indian Center, where the highway briefly split off onto the south frontage road. East of exit 303, US 66 rejoined I-40, where the frontage road curves to run parallel with the Interstate. US 66 diverged from I-40 where the south frontage road curves northeast and heads away from the Interstate.
US 66 followed the south frontage road for , then diagonally crossed I-40 onto a now-abandoned roadway through the Painted Desert, entering Apache County. Within Petrified Forest National Park, US 66 met at a junction with SR 63, which acted as the main route through the southern end of the park. Today, SR 63 is no longer a state highway and is known as Petrified Forest Road. US 66 continued northeast on the abandoned highway, which was located several miles north of I-40, through the heart of the Painted Desert. after the intersection with SR 63, US 66 arrived at the now-abandoned Painted Desert Trading Post. About northeast of the trading post, US 66 crossed over to the south side of I-40 onto County Route 7385. US 66 followed County Route 7385 around the Navajo Trading Post and McCarrell Memorial Cemetery to exit 330.
At exit 330, US 66 diagonally crossed I-40 onto an abandoned road heading northeast into Chambers and crossed present-day US 191. US 66 proceeded east on the frontage road from the intersection with US 191, then rejoined I-40. Exit 339 in Sanders used to be an at-grade intersection where US 66 met its child route, US 666. From the intersection, US 666 southbound followed present-day US 191 to Springerville, Safford, Willcox and Douglas, while US 66 and northbound US 666 ran concurrently northeast along present-day I-40. Northeast of exit 341, US 66/US 666 followed Querino Dirt Road and crossed over Querino Canyon on the Querino Canyon Bridge. At exit 346, US 66/US 666 rejoined I-40, and followed the Interstate through Houck and Allentown. Immediately northeast of exit 354, US 66/US 666 followed the south frontage road alongside I-40 into the small hamlet of Lupton. East of Lupton, US 66/US 666 merged back into I-40 and crossed into New Mexico, then continued east towards Gallup.
History
US 66 is one of the most popular highways in the history of the state of Arizona. It was also once one of the heaviest traveled highways in the state. Often called the "Main Street of America", US 66 has been the subject of a popular song ("(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66") and television show as well as several movies, including the 1940 movie The Grapes of Wrath and the 2006 children's movie Cars. The history of the highway dates back to United States Army expeditions during the mid-19th century and an ancestral highway known as the National Old Trails Road, one of the original transcontinental highways in North America. US 66 itself existed between 1926 and 1985. It was one of the original U.S. Highways in Arizona and, until the arrival of US 60 in 1931, US 66 was one of only two primary transcontinental highways in the entire state (the other was its southern counterpart, US 80). US 66 was used as a means of escape by refugees from the Dust Bowl during the Great Depression, and became an extremely popular tourist highway during the 1950s. The highway was largely bypassed and replaced in the latter half of the 20th century by I-40, which lead to the eventual decommissioning of US 66 as an active U.S. Highway. However, thanks to a preservation effort, largely kicked off by Seligman-based barber Angel Delgadillo, US 66 has made a comeback and is once again a popular tourist destination for travelers from around the world.
Background
In 1853, United States Army Lieutenant A. W. Whipple traversed the northern end of New Mexico Territory to survey a route for a proposed transcontinental railroad. Lieutenant Whipple was followed by Lieutenant Edward Fitzgerald Beale in the winter of 1858 and 1859. Beale created a second survey of the northern territory along the 35th Parallel, this time for a proposed wagon road. The wagon road was to start in Fort Smith, Arkansas, and travel to the Colorado River on the California border. Beale returned later in 1859 with a group of men to construct the road. The outfit was complemented with 22 camels as well as tools and supplies needed to build the wagon road. Beale's men constructed a path wide by removing rocks and vegetation in the way. The new road became known as Beale's Wagon Road, becoming a major artery for westward expansion and immigration. The road remained a popular means of travel until 1883, when the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway was completed through northern Arizona.
In 1914, the state of Arizona had finished reorganizing an earlier system of territorial roads into a new state highway system, managed by the Office of the State Engineer. Besides converting the two existing territorial maintained roads into new state highways, the Office of the State Engineer also acquired several roads not previously maintained by the state. One of the new acquisitions was Beale's Wagon Road. Now a state highway, Beale's Wagon Road was designated the Santa Fe Highway by the state. Santa Fe Highway started at the Colorado River in Topock, extending north through Kingman, then east through Flagstaff to Holbrook, where it headed southeast through Springerville into New Mexico. Also in 1914, the National Old Trails Road, an early transcontinental auto trail, was designated over the Santa Fe Highway.
Outside Arizona, the National Old Trails Road ran from Washington, DC, to Los Angeles, California. The National Old Trails Highway Association also had plans to construct a new road through Lupton for a shorter more direct route to New Mexico. For a short time, the National Old Trails Road was partnered with a local auto trail known as the Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, which acted as an alternate route going from the National Old Trails Road to Phoenix and Yuma. Disagreements soon arose between the managers of both highways. The National Old Trails Highway Association preferred the main route be the highway to Topock, while the Ocean-to-Ocean Transcontinental Highway Association preferred the route to Yuma. Both organizations eventually ended their partnership and went in opposite directions.
In the early days, National Old Trails Road traffic crossing the river utilized a ferry crossing between Topock and Needles on the California side of the river. The ferry, established in 1890, was used until 1914, when a river flood destroyed it. In response, the upstream Red Rock Bridge, owned by the Santa Fe Railway, became the new river crossing for National Old Trails Road motorists. The railroad had allowed cars to use the bridge so long as the drivers were willing to pay a toll. Construction started on the Old Trails Bridge, a dedicated automobile bridge, on June 30, 1915, and was completed several months later on February 20, 1916. The bridge was paid for by the states of California and Arizona as well as the Bureau of Indian Affairs at a cost of $75,000 (equivalent to $ in ). The bridge itself was a steel arch structure designed by San Bernardino County surveyor S. A. Sourwine. Once construction on the Old Trails Bridge had been completed, National Old Trails Road traffic was moved onto the new bridge and the Red Rock Bridge became train only once again. From 1916 to 1928, the Old Trails Bridge held the record of being the longest three-hinged arch bridge in the United States.
Between 1915 and 1922, the National Old Trails Highway was surfaced with gravel between Topock and Oatman as well as between Seligman and Holbrook. A small section just outside Ash Fork was also reconstructed and realigned at this time, becoming the first road to ever be paved using volcanic cinders. The highway was also paved through Flagstaff in 1921 using concrete. In 1921, the Arizona state highway system was reorganized again following the passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921. The state no longer referred to the National Old Trails Road as the Santa Fe Highway, and instead re-designated Topock–Kingman–Ash Fork Highway and the Ash Fork–Flagstaff–Winslow–Holbrook Highway west of Holbrook. East of Holbrook, the original route through Springerville became the Holbrook–Springerville–New Mexico State Line Highway, while the recently constructed new route through Lupton became the Holbrook–Lupton Highway.
U.S. Highway designation
Across the country, the numerous named auto trails began creating problems for motorists. Many auto trails had confusing alternate routes and were not always the most direct routes; also, multiple different auto trails often overlapped on the same roadway. During the annual meeting of the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) in San Francisco, California, in 1924, Minnesota state maintenance engineer A.H. Hinkle lobbied the organization to reorganize the nation's transcontinental highway system, suggesting a nationwide numbering system of well-located and direct interstate highways be implemented. AASHO agreed to Hinkle's ideas, passing a resolution on November 20, 1924, to develop a better organized interstate highway system. AASHO then sent a recommendation to the Secretary of Agriculture Howard M. Gore to create a joint board between the Bureau of Public Roads and state highway officials from across the nation to develop a new organized system of numbered interstate highways. Gore acted on the recommendation in 1925, establishing the Joint Board on Interstate Highways.
After intensive discussion, debating, and planning, the Joint Board submitted a mostly finalized proposal to the new Secretary of Agriculture, William M. Jardine, on October 26, 1925. The new system would use signs in the form of a white shield with black outlines, displaying the name of the state in which the highway was traveling through, the letters "U.S." to symbolize the highway system being an interstate numbering system rather than a regional state system, and the number of the route below the letters "U.S." on the shield. The highways would also be numbered in an organized fashion with the highest numbers being in the northeastern United States and lowest being in the southwest. Even-numbered routes would travel east to west while odd-numbered routes would travel north to south. The major north–south routes would end with the number "1" as the last digit, while major transcontinental east–west routes would utilize the number "0" as the last digit. This proposed system would come to be known as the United States Numbered Highway System.
Among the new proposed highways was a roughly crescent-shaped route named U.S. Route 60 (US 60). US 60 would run from Los Angeles, California, to Chicago, Illinois. However, after a major disagreement and argument between proponents of the Chicago-to–Los Angeles route and dignitaries from the state of Kentucky, AASHO moved the proposed US 60 designation was moved onto a different highway between Virginia Beach, Virginia, and Springfield, Missouri. This was done to give the Kentucky proponents the benefit of having a route ending in "0" passing through their state. The future Chicago–Los Angeles route was first intended to be re-designated US 62, but was instead re-designated US 66 at the request of the Chicago–Los Angeles route proponents. After some other alterations were made to the newly proposed U.S. Highway System, the system was ratified and approved by AASHO on November 11, 1926, making all the newly proposed routes official. With this, a large portion of the National Old Trails Road through the southwestern United States, including Arizona, was designated as a section of US 66. The original route of the National Old Trails Road southeast of Holbrook through Springerville became the westernmost section of US 70 (now US 180), making the junction of the old and new National Old Trails alignments the national western terminus of the new US 70.
The US 66 designation was recognized by the newly formed Arizona State Highway Department (sometimes abbreviated as ASHD) after the state highway system was reorganized on September 9, 1927. The reorganization entailed a transition from state-named highways to state- and U.S.-numbered highways. Arizona now had two principal cross-country U.S. Highways across the entire state: US 66 served the northern part of the state, while the southern half of Arizona heavily promoted and focused on US 80. Proponents of US 80 in Arizona had given their highway the nickname "The Main Street Through Arizona". At the same time, the newly formed U.S. Highway 66 Association dubbed US 66 the "Main Street of America", which may have been in response to the US 80 nickname. From 1927 onward, a friendly in-state competition existed between proponents of US 66 and US 80 within Arizona.
The early years
The name "National Old Trails Road" was officially dropped from US 66 in Arizona by December 1927. Immediately, the counties US 66 traveled through in northern Arizona began campaigning for the highway to be fully paved. In the middle of 1928, numerous bond issues passed by cities, states and the federal government were allocated to help begin paving work on US 66 across the nation, including a large portion of the route within Arizona. The total sum of the multiple bond issues was $41 million (equivalent to $ in ). To further supplement the cost of paving US 66, $150,000 was (equivalent to $ in ) raised by the U.S. Highway 66 Association on June 7, 1928. Extensive preparation work in the form of multiple aerial surveys and a detailed study regarding finances and local construction logistics was also undertaken to aid in paving through Arizona.
In 1928, almost none of US 66 was paved in Arizona, save for a stretch of highway between Flagstaff and Winona. This section had been paved back in 1921 with concrete mixed with locally sourced volcanic cinder. The highway was given a non-paved secondary surfacing (another term for gravel surfacing) between the Colorado River and east of Peach Springs. A section of US 66 from Crookton through Ash Fork to Williams was also paved in secondary surfacing. This section was approximately long. Secondary surfacing was also extant on a section of highway running from Bellemont to Flagstaff, as well as a section between Meteor Mountain (just east of Canyon Diablo) and Holbrook. The remainder of US 66 was graded, but had no improved surfacing of any kind.
The official 1929 Highway Department map depicted surfacing and road conditions along US 66 as being mostly unchanged since the previous year, although newspapers reported otherwise. By December 1929, reconstruction was underway between Holbrook and New Mexico on completely rebuilding and realigning the highway. Similar work was being undertaken between Holbrook and Winslow, including the construction of two new bridges. Paving work began between Flagstaff and Winslow as well as between Topock and Kingman. On December 29, 1929, the state highway commission reported $508,594.94 (equivalent to $ in ) had been allocated in state funds that year to rebuild US 66, with $305,982.79 (equivalent to $ in ) of said funds being spent to improve over of the highway by years end. Much of this work included grading and draining work, paving work, gravel surfacing and bridge construction.
By 1930, noticeable changes were made to the highway. The route between Oatman and a point west of Peach Springs had reverted to an unimproved dirt road. However, the route was given a gravel surface between Williams and Flagstaff. Between Topock and Oatman, the highway was fully paved, as was the section between Meteor Mountain and Winslow. The highway had also been realigned and straightened between Seligman and Crookton. By 1931, all of US 66 between Flagstaff and Winslow was paved. Gravel surfacing was administered to US 66 from the New Mexico state line to an area southwest of Lupton. By 1932, US 66 had been paved between Crookton and Ash Fork. Road surfacing also existed on the section of highway improved the year earlier, heading southwest from New Mexico through Lupton. Construction work was underway on US 66 between Seligman and Crookton, as was the highway between Oatman and Kingman. Despite the amount of work completed, a delegation of citizens representing towns along US 66 traveled to Phoenix on May 8, 1932, demanding the State Highway Commission to block funding for improvements to US 80 in favor of further improvements to US 66. Ultimately, the commission passed off the demands of the delegation and did not divert attention away from improving US 80.
On June 5, 1933, Arizona Governor Benjamin Baker Moeur sent letters to state highway commissioners asking for selective amounts of state funding to be diverted from US 66, US 89 and US 260 instead be allocated to the construction of US 60 near Globe. Moeur further specified he wanted enough funding be left over for the other highways so as not to halt construction and maintenance operations. The request was met with controversy and protest, much of which came from the U.S. Highway 66 Association. On June 18, 1933, the association sent a train of 200 delegates from towns along US 66 and US 89 to attend a highway hearing the next day and hold active demonstrations against Moeur's requested budget change. The demonstrations included worded banners displaying support for the three affected U.S. Highways, marching and the demonstrators singing a song called "Sixty-Six the Main Street of Arizona" by a citizen from Holbrook. One of the demonstration and delegation leaders explained to a reporter for the Arizona Republic newspaper, "We feel that Highway 66, Highway 89 and Highway 260 have not gotten a 'square deal' from the highway commission in the past five years... We are here to make a gentlemanly appeal to the highway commission to do the right thing by the northern part of the state." The delegation included people from Kingman, Seligman, Ash Fork, Williams, Flagstaff and Holbrook as well as US 89 and US 260 supporters from Concho, Adamana, St. Johns and Prescott. Despite the demonstrations and strong opposition raised by the US 66 delegation, the highway commission ultimately decided in favor of Moeur's request on June 20. Approximately $145,000 (equivalent to $ in ) from the 1933 to 1934 budget was transferred from projects along US 66 to the construction of US 60.
By 1934, despite budget cuts to US 66, the construction work between Seligman and Crookton had extended to the previously paved section of US 66 northwest of Crookton. Construction work was also underway on US 66 between Ash Fork and Williams, part of the route from Williams to Flagstaff and the unpaved section of highway between Kingman and Peach Springs through Hackberry. Most of the highway between Holbrook and Lupton through Sanders and Navajo was also undergoing construction. Road surfacing work was complete on US 66 between Williams and Bellemont, on a small section going through Peach Springs, between Oatman and Kingman and a small piece heading a few miles northeast of Holbrook. At this point, most of US 66 through Arizona was paved or undergoing resurfacing. The first known use of natural landscaping by the Arizona State Highway Department was performed along US 66 the same year.
By 1935, almost all of US 66 between Topock and Peach Springs had been paved. road surfacing had also been completed on all of US 66 between Crookton and New Mexico. The last unpaved sections of US 66 remaining were a section of heading west from Crookton through Cedar Grove and a section heading northeast out of Valentine. Although these two sections were not yet paved, they were surfaced with rock or gravel, meaning all of US 66 at least had improved surfacing. Passage of the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 by the United States federal government gave the Arizona State Highway Department the necessary provisions and funding to replace an at-grade railroad crossing in Winslow with an underpass in 1936. The entirety of US 66 in Arizona was paved by 1938. This made US 66 one of the first highways in Arizona to be completely paved. However, the title of first fully paved U.S. Highway in Arizona was taken three years earlier by the second incarnation of US 70, which entered Arizona from California through Ehrenberg and exited near Duncan into New Mexico. Albeit the paving work had been completed long before the Ehrenberg–Duncan route had been designated as part of US 70. On January 24, 1938, the entirety of US 66 between Los Angeles and Chicago was designated as the Will Rogers Memorial Highway by the U.S. Highway 66 Association.
US 66 also played a large role during the Dust Bowl era of the Great Depression. Refugees seeking a better life from drought and impoverished areas of the Great Plains states, often referred to as "Okies" (which started an insulting term used by long time California residents), extensively used US 66 as a means of escaping the heavily affected areas, looking for a better life in California. Western Arizona in particular provided a great obstacle for refugees traveling down US 66 to California: they would often have trouble crossing the Black Mountains on US 66 over Sitgreaves Pass. Many of their trucks would end up wrecked at the bottom of the mountain slopes next to the highway due to failed axle bearings. Refugee drivers were among the earliest US 66 travelers to hire locals to drive their often overloaded vehicles over the pass for them. The grades on this section US 66 would sometimes pose a large enough challenge to these vehicles that driving the trucks in reverse over the pass was often necessary.
After reaching the other side of the pass, the refugees would coast their vehicles down the other side to save gas. If the refugees needed gas, a man named Ed Edgerton ran a gas station complex known as "Ed's Camp" at the top of the pass. Most of the time, Edgerton was willing to barter with the refugees if they had little or no money. Sometimes, the refugees would trade or pawn valuable possessions to Edgerton for gas. Other times, Edgerton would have them work jobs at his station to earn their gas. Upon reaching the other side, the refugees would often establish camps along the Colorado River near Topock and Needles on the California side before continuing their journey. The rest of the route through Arizona was also difficult for refugees, due to the extremes of the desert heat during summertime. Famed author John Steinbeck would later go on to describe some of these experiences in his novel, The Grapes of Wrath. Part of the novel detailed the experiences of the Joad family, a fictional refugee family from Oklahoma taking US 66 through Arizona to California. In 1940, the novel was adapted by 20th Century Fox into a movie starring actor Henry Fonda as Tom Joad. Several scenes in the movie were filmed along US 66 in Arizona, including scenes where the family crossed the Arizona–New Mexico state line near Lupton and the Old Trails Bridge over the Colorado River in Topock.
The golden age
During the first three years of American involvement in World War II, civilian travel on US 66 declined greatly. In 1941, 17,600 cars a month were traveling westbound on the highway between New Mexico and California. By 1942, the number had decreased to 13,680 cars a month, then dropped to 7,040 cars a month by May 1943. This was largely because gasoline available to civilians was heavily rationed for the war effort and harder to come by. However, military traffic heavily used the highway during this time as several military installations were located near US 66. One such installation was the Navajo Army Depot in Bellemont. The military often transported troops, weapons and supplies. Despite the decline in civilian travel, people leaving the east coast to find wartime work in California often took US 66.
At the end of the war, many of the people who had gone to California for work returned home to the east coast on US 66. The eastward migration caused US 66 traffic to increase from record low numbers to the highest volume of traffic the highway had seen up to that point. By October 1945, 700–800 cars a day were traveling down US 66 in Arizona and some cars had as many as 17 people inside them. At night, there were up to 137 cars parked on the side of the road, so the occupants could sleep during the night. Drivers often traveled down the highway at dangerous speeds or drove for long periods, becoming fatigued. This, in tandem with increasing traffic, caused the number of fatal car accidents to rise exponentially. Between January and October 1945, 198 people were killed in car accidents on US 66. As a result, the Arizona Highway Patrol had to greatly increase the number of patrolmen on US 66 to crack down on reckless driving.
In 1945, the Santa Fe Railway constructed a new rail bridge over the Colorado River in Needles and Topock, upstream from the Old Trails and Red Rock Bridges. At the same time, California and Arizona had been looking to replace the Old Trails Bridge, as the structure had become insufficiently narrow and too weak for post-war truck and car traffic. Highway engineers determined the retired Red Rock Bridge could serve as a more than adequate replacement. The Red Rock Bridge had previously been rebuilt and reinforced twice during the early 20th century to handle heavier and faster train traffic.
The railroad had planned on tearing down the Red Rock Bridge, but instead donated the structure to the states of California and Arizona along with of right of way on either side of the bridge. This was done partially due to the cost of converting the bridge into a highway crossing being less expensive than demolishing the veteran structure. Both states began surveying and planning to rebuild the Red Rock Bridge into a new Colorado River crossing for US 66. Once planning had been completed, the state governments of California and Arizona agreed to split the cost of conversion. The tracks were removed from the bridge and a concrete roadway put in its place. On May 21, 1947, the Red Rock Bridge was reopened to automobile traffic for the first time in 31 years, this time as a dedicated highway crossing. US 66 was immediately re-routed off the Old Trails Bridge onto the Red Rock Bridge. The Old Trails Bridge was originally to be demolished but was instead purchased by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company and now carries part of a natural gas pipeline between California and Texas.
In 1946, the Arizona State Highway Department began planning a major improvement along US 66 between Flagstaff and Winslow. The plan was to construct a new highway between Flagstaff and Winona to shorten the travel time and the overall distance between Winslow and Flagstaff. The project was estimated to cost around $1,300,000 (equivalent to $ in ). Originally meant to be a single contract construction project, the bypass was later divided into two separate contracts. Bidding for both construction projects were opened on January 9 the same year with a scheduled completion date of September 30, 1947. The Fisher Construction Company and Tanner Construction Company were both awarded the contracts, with Fisher to construct the first east of Flagstaff and the remaining to be constructed by Tanner. By May 10, 1946, 30 percent of the section being constructed by Fisher was completed.
By September 1946, both Tanner and Fisher had made substantial progress on their respective sections, with all excavation on the Tanner section completed, with preliminary paving work beginning. Both sections, however, were disconnected by the Santa Fe Railway which cut the new highway in half. At the time, planning for a railroad overpass was being undertaken by the State Highway Department. The H.L. Royden Company was awarded the contract for constructing the overpass. The new highway was opened to traffic in October 1947 and US 66 was re-routed onto it, bypassing the hamlet of Townsend between Flagstaff and Winona. The overall cost of the project ended up being $1,433,400 (equivalent to $ in ). Although the route between Townsend and Winona was removed from the state highway system, the section from Flagstaff to Townsend remained part of US 89, which shared a wrong-way concurrency with US 66 from Townsend to Ash Fork. Following the re-routing, the concurrency was shortened to an intersection between the old and new route in eastern Flagstaff.
In 1950, the State Highway Department began planning construction of a new alignment of US 66 through Yucca. Construction was planned to start near Topock and head northeast through Yucca to connect with the existing highway near Kingman. At the time, the section between Topock and Kingman still followed the steep and winding path through Oatman into the Black Mountains and through Sitgreaves Pass. This section was built across this rough terrain instead of following the more level route to the east adopted by the railroad because the road followed the National Old Trails highway which was for gold mining in Oatman and Goldroad (now a ghost town). It was fraught with hairpin turns and was the steepest along the entire route, so much so that some early travelers, too frightened at the prospect of driving such a potentially dangerous road, hired locals to navigate the winding grade. By September 1950, the Oatman bypass was given priority on the state highway construction agenda, as US 66 was crucial to military defense traffic. The State Highway Department contracted the Phoenix-Tempe Stone Company to construct the first of the new route on September 15, 1950, at a cost of $262,152 (equivalent to $ in ).
By early 1951, the bypass was under construction. Phoenix-Tempe was awarded a second contract on February 1, 1951, to build an overpass over the Santa Fe Railway in Yucca along with the approach roads to the overpass. In April 1951, a contract to construct of the new bypass was given to the W.J. Henson company for $234,872 (equivalent to $ in ). The Highway Department created another contract job in October 1951 to pave and construct a further of the bypass route, in hopes of speeding up the project. The Phoenix-Tempe company was again awarded the contract. Despite the highway's priority and rushed construction, the Yucca Overpass was delayed for several months due to a shortage of available steel. The steel was finally delivered to begin the overpass construction on January 25, 1951.
Construction of the bypass continued through late 1951 to the middle of 1952. By August 1952, construction on the bypass was winding down. By this point, had been completed with the final under construction. The bypass was completed and opened to traffic on September 17, 1952. The overall construction of the bypass from 1950 to 1952 was done at record speed at the time, being the fastest major highway construction project within the state's history. US 66 was rerouted onto the new bypass, removing Oatman from US 66. The new route ran along level ground close to the railroad, from Topock to Kingman through Yucca. The bypassing of Oatman lead to the town's decline and near abandonment, while Yucca enjoyed a small period of increased success from US 66 traffic. Oatman Highway remained an undesignated state highway until September 2, 1955, when it was completely transferred to Mohave County.
During the late 1940s and early to mid-1950s, the popularity of US 66 greatly increased. There was a great increase in postwar driving, with more people taking the nation's roads than in decades past. To meet the increase in postwar travel, the number of restaurants, gas stations and motels along the route grew. The number of creative attractions and landmarks also grew, in an attempt to attract further tourism, such as the Wigwam Motel in Holbrook, where every room was built to resemble a Native American tipi. Other popular tourist attractions and stopping points along the highway included the Two Guns, the Twin Arrows Trading Post, Painted Desert Trading Post and Grand Canyon Caverns.
American actor and musician Bobby Troup composed the song "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66", while traveling down the highway with his wife in 1941. This song was later covered by popular musician Nat King Cole who made it into a best selling record. US 66 travelers found useful advice through a guidebook, written by author Jack D. Rittenhouse, titled aptly, A Guide Book to Highway 66. US 66 also became well known for the unusual advertisements placed along the highway by Burma-Shave, a popular shaving cream manufacturer of the time. The era between 1945 and 1956 is often considered the height of popularity of US 66 travel. The popularity of the highway led to the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), an American television broadcast network, to air a television show called Route 66 in 1960.
The decline of Route 66
The Arizona State Highway Department had spent a total of $19 million (equivalent to $ in ) on US 66 alone between 1944 and 1954. This was largely due to the gigantic increase in traffic on US 66 through Arizona over the last decade. A Flagstaff-based newspaper once stated that US 66 carried the largest number of interstate travelers of any highway in Arizona. By 1954, more than one million cars a year were traveling down US 66 from New Mexico to California. The increased traffic had also led to a greater number of car accidents and traffic jams, the latter of which earned US 66 the unfortunate reputation of being "The World's Largest Traffic Jam". By 1956, at least one out of six deaths resulting from car accidents in Arizona took place on US 66. This helped the highway earn another negative nickname, "Bloody 66".
The rough shape, narrowness and safety issues along US 66 and similar highways in Arizona contributed to public sentiment towards rebuilding and improving safety along the state's highways. In 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower heavily endorsed the long-standing idea of constructing a nationwide network of four-lane divided superhighways. Originally proposed back in the 1930s, this system of nationwide freeways would have entirely controlled access through the entry and exit ramps, as well as grade-separated interchanges with other highways, roads, and railroads. The new freeways would also include smoother grades coupled with more gradual curves. These massive changes in highway construction were intended to help increase traffic flow and greatly reduce car accidents occurring on the national highway network. Eisenhower pushed the United States Congress to accept the idea and appropriate funding for the new system. Congress finally approved the proposal with the passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, bringing into existence the Interstate and Defense Highway System. Several U.S. Highways in Arizona were chosen to become the corridors for the new Interstates, including US 66, which was slated to be replaced by I-40.
By December 1960, approximately of US 66 had been rebuilt into the first section of I-40 to open in Arizona, and a further of US 66 was also undergoing conversion into I-40. By October 1962, of US 66 between Williams and Flagstaff was being rebuilt into parts of I-40. The new section was completed and opened to traffic later the same year. In 1966, a new four-lane steel bridge was opened over the Colorado River, replacing the Red Rock Bridge. US 66 was moved onto the new bridge, running concurrently with the new I-40 across the river. The Red Rock Bridge was closed following the opening of the new bridge and sat completely abandoned for over a decade. Unlike the Old Trails Bridge, the Red Rock Bridge would never be repurposed. In 1976, the bridge was entirely dismantled. Today, only concrete pilings remain where the bridge once stood.
By September 1967, over of I-40 had been constructed or rebuilt from sections of US 66, with another under way. I-40 around Flagstaff was completed and opened to traffic in 1968, bypassing US 66 and US 89 through town. By 1971, almost all of US 66 east of Flagstaff had been rebuilt into I-40, save for the city streets through Winslow, Joseph City and Holbrook. I-40 had also been completed around Flagstaff and west to the junction between SR 64 and US 66 east of Williams. Another section of I-40 was complete between Seligman and Ash Fork, with a tiny section completed just east of Ash Fork. Almost all US 66 had been converted into I-40 between Kingman and Topock as well, save for a section east of Topock and a section south of Kingman. A small section of I-40 had also been completed between Kingman and a junction with US 93 about south of Hackberry.
Controversy came with the construction of I-40. There was a large opposition to freeway bypasses around the towns along the route. Much of the opposition came from town officials and businessmen, all too familiar with the decline of Oatman caused by the 1952 bypass. A large political effort was mounted across several towns along US 66 to block the construction of any further bypasses. The bypass revolts gained considerable attention in the Arizona State Government, with state legislators considering the idea of banning freeway bypasses in Arizona. In the end, the movements did little to stifle the Interstate construction. However, the movement did give the many communities along US 66 some extra time. The state government agreed not to construct the bypasses until all other sections of I-40 had been completed, in hopes of giving the US 66 towns time to adjust to the upcoming changes.
In 1978, the I-40 bypasses were completed around Seligman and Kingman. The Seligman bypass was followed by three bypasses around Ash Fork, Winslow and Holbrook opening in 1979. Despite being open to traffic, the Holbrook bypass would not be completed until 1981. The Joseph City bypass was completed and opened in September 1980. The final bypass was opened around Williams on October 13, 1984, receiving a special ceremony. By far the largest bypass was the section of I-40 constructed between Kingman and Ash Fork. Rather than follow US 66, which formed a roughly arc shaped path through Valentine, Peach Springs and Hackberry, this section of the Interstate went straight east, leaving several communities and a large section of US 66 several miles north of the new main highway. This entire section was completed in 1978.
As I-40 replaced US 66, the old highway's popularity greatly declined. Business along the route began declining as fewer and fewer people drove through the old towns. Slowly, many towns declined or were outright abandoned and became ghost towns, including tourist towns like Two Guns. Many residents of the declining US 66 towns described the loss of business being instantaneous, happening right after the bypasses opened. The Interstate bypasses also meant the end of US 66 as an active highway, in conjunction with California concurrently removing its section of US 66 from the state highway system between 1964 and 1974, which moved the western terminus of the entire highway to the Colorado River in Topock, Arizona. The same year, US 66 was also truncated in the east from Chicago to Joplin, Missouri.
Despite California's lack of recognition of US 66 as an active highway, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) recognized the new western terminus of the highway at US 95 in Needles, across the river from Topock. The section of US 66 through Arizona remained unaltered until 1979, when AASHTO approved a request from California and Arizona to truncate US 66 from Needles to a junction with I-40 and US 666 in Sanders. However, the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT) continued to recognize the US 66 designation west of Sanders, establishing a signed western terminus at I-40 in Kingman.
Following the completion of the Williams bypass in 1984, ADOT approved a plan to deal with the remains of the highway in Arizona. All of US 66 in Arizona was no longer recognized as an active U.S. Highway. The sections of US 66 that were not concurrent with I-40 were re-designated as multiple Business Loops of I-40 and the section of highway from Kingman to Seligman was re-designated State Route 66. The section from Seligman to Crookton was abandoned to Yavapai County. On June 26, 1985, AASHTO approved a request by the states of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Missouri to retire the US 66 designation from the U.S. Highway System.
Historic Route 66
A Seligman-based small business owner named Angel Delgadillo had observed the impact that the decline of US 66 and establishment of the I-40 bypass had on his town. Delgadillo, a Seligman native, had been operating his privately owned barbershop since 1950. When I-40 had been completed around Seligman, the number of cars traveling through Seligman substantially decreased from thousands per day to only a handful per day. This also meant a great decrease in Delgadillo's business. By 1986, Delgadillo had been attempting for years to get former US 66 in Arizona designated as a historic route with little to no success. The same year, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway ended employee layovers in Seligman, decreasing Delgadillo's business even further.
On February 18, 1987, Delgadillo organized a meeting of 15 small business owners with establishments along old US 66. Among the attendees was Delagdillo's older brother, Juan Delgadillo, who owned Delgadillo's Snow Cap Drive-In just down the street from Angel's barber shop. The businessmen met at the Copper Cart Canyon restaurant in downtown Seligman and agreed to form the Historic Route 66 Association of Arizona. The new association began lobbying and meeting with state level politicians as well as multiple chambers of commerce for support. Delgadillo even began selling US 66 themed merchandise at his barber shop to gather further support. The efforts of the new association paid off in November 1987, when the Arizona State Transportation Board designated several sections of old US 66 as Historic Route 66. The victory was marked by a ceremonial ribbon cutting for the new historic route in Seligman on April 23, 1988. This event was also the beginning of the first annual Route 66 Fun Run, an event where historic cars drive together down Historic Route 66 from Seligman to Kingman. The success of Historic Route 66 made Angel Delgadillo a popular figure among Route 66 enthusiasts around the world. Delgadillo has since been hailed as the "Guardian Angel of Route 66" and "Mayor of the Mother Road", among other nicknames.
The ADOT Parkways, Historic and Scenic Roads program continues to recognize certain sections of former US 66 as Historic Route 66. The longest sections of the designated historic route follow the original US 66 between Topock and Seligman through Oatman and from Flagstaff to Winona. Other smaller sections of Historic Route 66 comprise former US 66 segments that are currently or were once designated as I-40 Business. This is the case in Ash Fork, Williams, Winslow and Holbrook. Flagstaff is the only city in Arizona where the Historic Route splits into two alignments, the first along the aforementioned route to Winona and the second taking a small section of later US 66 to a junction with I-40 immediately east of Flagstaff. The discontinuous sections of Historic Route 66 are all connected by I-40. As there are no designated sections between Holbrook and New Mexico, the Arizona historic route officially has its eastern terminus in Holbrook.
Former US 66 sections are designated as the Historic Route 66 National Scenic Byway. The designation means the old highway is protected and preserved as both a National Scenic Byway and All-American Road under the supervision of the Federal Highway Administration. A museum is also dedicated to Historic Route 66 at the Powerhouse Visitor Center in Kingman. A further byway designation was granted to the original section of US 66 through Oatman, designated the Route 66 Historic Back Country Byway by the Bureau of Land Management as part of the BLM's Back Country Byways system. The overall length of all combined sections of Historic Route 66 is . Until the addition of Historic U.S. Route 80 in 2018, Historic Route 66 was the only route in the Parkways, Historic and Scenic Roads program to span multiple counties, and was the longest state-designated historic route in Arizona. Similar to US 66, US 80 was once a heavily traveled transcontinental U.S. Highway with an iconic car culture until Interstates bypassed and replaced it. Historic Route 66 is one of Arizona's four state designated Historic Routes, with the others being Historic US 80, the Jerome–Clarkdale–Cottonwood Historic Road (Historic US 89A) and the Apache Trail Historic Road.
Major intersections
This list follows the final non-freeway alignment in 1960.
Structures
Buildings
A Desert Power & Water Co., Electric Power Plant built in 1908 closed in 1938, soon after the Hoover Dam was completed; it now houses a visitor information office, Route 66 Museum and gift shop.
The Schoolhouse at Truxton Canyon Training School in Valentine operated from 1903 to 1937 as a mandatory boarding school in which Hualapai were separated from their families and put to work learning various trades. Long a symbol of forced assimilation, the historic building is now the property of the Hualapai Nation.
The Peach Springs Trading Post, constructed in 1928 using local stone and logs, replaced an earlier 1917 trading post at Peach Springs. Its original role was to trade native crafts for foodstuffs, medicine and household goods. The building now houses Hualapai conservation offices.
Lowell Observatory, an astronomical observatory established in Flagstaff in 1894, is one of the oldest observatories in the United States and a designated National Historic Landmark. The observatory is well known for being the location where astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered the dwarf planet Pluto on February 18, 1930.
Flagstaff's Santa Fe Railway Depot, built in 1926, is currently an Amtrak station and includes a visitor information office. Flagstaff's 43-room Hotel Monte Vista was established in 1927 and is believed to be a filming location for the 1942 film Casablanca, starring actor Humphrey Bogart.
Historic districts
Kingman Commercial Historic District, Kingman
Seligman Historic District, Seligman
Railroad Addition Historic District, Flagstaff
La Posada Historic District in Winslow, which dates from 1930, includes the Winslow Santa Fe station as well as La Posada Hotel and Gardens, a Fred Harvey Company hotel.
Restaurants
Delgadillo's Snow Cap Drive-In in Seligman, was built in 1953 with scrap railway lumber by Juan Delgadillo. Following Delgadillo's passing in 2004, his children took over ownership and operation of the restaurant. It continues to offer choices such as a "cheeseburger with cheese" and "dead chicken."
The Galaxy Diner along the route in Flagstaff is a popular fixture. It had opened in the 1950s and retained the small-town diner iconography despite popular franchises replacing many restaurants; it was refitted to better emulate its original era in the 1990s. The diner closed on August 2, 2019, then re-opened under new ownership in August 2020.
Camps, motor courts, and motels
The Oatman Hotel, a historic two-story adobe building which opened in 1902 as the Durlin Hotel and was rebuilt in 1924 during a local gold rush now houses a bar, restaurant and museum.
The Wigwam Village Motel in Holbrook is distinctive for patented novelty architecture in which every room of the motel is a free-standing concrete wigwam. In Pixar's 2006 animated film Cars, these are depicted as the traffic cones of the Cozy Cone Motel.
The Pueblo Revival style Painted Desert Inn in Navajo, constructed circa-1920 of wood and native stone, and purchased by the US National Park Service in 1935, is situated on a mesa overlooking the vast Painted Desert.
About from Kingman in Antares, Arizona is the Kozy Corner RV park, which features the 'Giganticus Headicus' attraction, a 14-foot tall homemade monument resembling the Easter Island heads. The park is on Antares Point, the longest continuous curve (c. 2 miles) of any United States highway. The RV park is isolated, bracketed between the Peacock Mountains and Route 66 and the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway, which run parallel; it began as a camp for railroad workers in the early 1900s. A local legend claims that Gene Roddenberry stayed at the motel and named the Antares ship in Star Trek after its location.
Bridges
Old Trails Bridge, Topock
Walnut Canyon Bridge, Winona
Canyon Diablo Bridge, Two Guns
Querino Canyon Bridge, Houck
Road segments
Various segments of old US 66 throughout Arizona, in various states of preservation, are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
See also
Keyhole Sink
Arizona State Route 66
U.S. Route 80 in Arizona
U.S. Route 180
Twin Arrows, Arizona
References
Further reading
External links
Route 66 through Arizona – Turn by turn directions
US 66 at Arizona Roads
Historic Route 66 Association of Arizona – Official website
Route 66 in Arizona
Route 66
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National Register of Historic Places in Apache County, Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Coconino County, Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Mohave County, Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Navajo County, Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Yavapai County, Arizona
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MythBusters%20cast%20members
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List of MythBusters cast members
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This is a list of cast members of the television series MythBusters on the Discovery Channel. In addition to the core cast members, the MythBusters team includes several honorary MythBusters, and some recurring guests.
Cast
Current cast
Jon Lung
Jon Lung is a product designer and graphic designer from Staten Island, New York, known as a co-host on the 2017 revival of the series. Lung and his co-host Brian Louden were selected as hosts after winning the reality television competition series Mythbusters: The Search. This aired in January and February 2016.
Brian Louden
Brian Louden is an American pilot and rescue diver from Houston, Texas, known as a co-host on the 2017 revival of Mythbusters. Louden and his co-host Jon Lung won the spots from competition on Mythbusters: The Search, which aired in January and February 2016.
Former cast
Recurring experts are sometimes referred to as "Honorary MythBusters".
Jamie Hyneman
Jamie Hyneman is a main cast member on MythBusters, along with Adam Savage. His demeanor on the show is calm, logical and no-nonsense, in stark contrast to Savage's more animated, impulsive and energetic persona. The two often have very different ideas for performing experiments and building devices. Hyneman's ideas tend to be more simple and he prefers to reduce a solution to its most basic form. These two experts have competed when testing myths.
In numerous interviews, both Jamie and Adam have said that one of the reasons for the show's success is their differences. In addition, they do not like each other, but they do have a mutual respect for each other's work. They do not have a social relationship outside the show. In a 2015 interview, they said their arguments were part of early seasons, but they worked to have such occasions reduced on-camera.
In the "AC vs. Windows Down" myth, Hyneman revealed a food that he developed known as "the 444", a smoothie-like concoction of four fruits, four vegetables, and four grains. Despite skepticism by the rest of the crew, Hyneman described the 444's taste as "quite pleasant".
Adam Savage
Adam Savage has been involved in MythBusters since its creation. Savage's demeanor on MythBusters is animated and energetic, providing a foil to Jamie Hyneman's more reserved straight man persona.
Savage and Hyneman were the only hosts of the show for the first season of MythBusters. Starting with the second season, members of Hyneman's staff were introduced and began to appear regularly in episodes; Kari Byron, Tory Belleci and welder Scottie Chapman appeared in the second season. In the third season, Chapman was replaced by Grant Imahara, a robot builder and model maker.
Kari Byron
Kari Byron was a co-host until 2014 with fellow co-hosts of the "Build Team," Tory Belleci and Grant Imahara. She and the others also hosted their own segments. She became involved in the show after persistently showing up at Hyneman's M5 Industries workshop in a desire to get hired by his company. She and the other Build Team members were given a more prominent role beginning with the show's second season. Not having had a long history in show business, Byron at first found it difficult to act naturally with this more visible position but gradually became more accustomed to it.
During the second half of the 2009 season, Byron was on maternity leave and was temporarily replaced by Jessi Combs. In 2010–2011, Byron had her own show, Head Rush, on the Science Channel, geared towards science education and teens.
Byron has also hosted the 2010 and 2011 editions of Large, Dangerous Rocket Ships for the Science Channel. She and Belleci made a guest appearance on the October 3, 2012 episode of the Discovery series Sons of Guns. They test fired some of the weapons in the Red Jacket shop and watched as the staff retested a myth previously busted by the Build Team: that a propane tank could explode if struck by a bullet. On August 21, 2014, it was announced that Byron, along with co-stars Grant Imahara and Tory Belleci, would be leaving MythBusters.
Tory Belleci
Tory Belleci is often considered by fellow MythBusters Kari Byron and Grant Imahara to be more of a daredevil and, as such, often performs the more dangerous stunts when testing a myth. These have included: testing the "Red Flag to a Bull" myth; testing the myth that a human's tongue will instantly stick to a frozen pole, in the "Frozen Tongue" myth; and the "Underwater Blow Dart" myth. One of his more popular stunts, shown several times on the show, was an attempt to jump over a toy wagon on a bicycle; the attempt failed, resulting in Belleci flipping forward, landing on his face and skidding across the pavement, only to immediately respond with an "I'm okay". As a result of doing these stunts, he is often involved in comical accidents while testing myths. According to the October 28, 2012 episode of MythBusters, he suffers from acrophobia.
During the "Fall Guys" myth, Belleci fell off a roof, and despite being strapped into a safety harness system, landed in an open window ledge below the drop point, and injured his leg causing substantial bleeding.
He and Byron made a guest appearance on the October 3, 2012 episode of the Discovery series Sons of Guns. They test fired some of the weapons in the Red Jacket shop and watched as the staff retested a myth previously busted by the Build Team: that a propane tank could explode if struck by a bullet.
On August 21, 2014, it was announced that Belleci, along with co-stars Byron and Imahara, would be leaving MythBusters.
Grant Imahara
Grant Imahara joined MythBusters on the invitation of friend and occasional employer Jamie Hyneman and Industrial Light and Magic (ILM) colleague Linda Wolkovitch. He joined as the third member of the Build Team, replacing former MythBusters welder Scottie Chapman. His colleagues often jokingly referred to him as the "geek" of the Build Team. He often made the robots that are needed for the show and otherwise specialized in operating the computers and electronics for the myths. On August 21, 2014, it was announced that Grant, along with co-stars Kari Byron and Tory Belleci, would be leaving MythBusters.
Grant Imahara died on July 13, 2020, after suffering a brain aneurysm.
Christine Chamberlain
Christine Chamberlain was a "MythTern" (portmanteau of MythBusters and intern) who joined the MythBusters team as a result of a Discovery Channel contest and was present for the second season of MythBusters. She was mostly Jamie and Adam's assistant in myths and stayed on the show until season 3.
Scottie Chapman
Scottie Chapman (born 1971) is a former member of the Build Team who was called the "Mistress of Metal" for her work in welding and metal craft. Notable for her tattoos (which were used for a myth investigation in one episode), she departed after the third season. On her MySpace blog, she revealed that she would not be back as a regular, but appeared in the "Supersize Rocket Car", as well as The Great Ice Debate myth. She also made an appearance in one episode broadcast after her departure that involved an experiment, executed over a number of months, which began when she was with the show and ended after she had left (Episode Breaking Glass, Myth "Rolling Stone Gathers No Moss"). She was formerly the bassist of the band Fuzz, which would evolve into Weezer.
Jessi Combs
Jessi Combs was a cast member on the Build Team for a short time. Her arrival was announced on July 31, 2009, by the Discovery Channel when co-host Kari Byron went on maternity leave prior to giving birth to her first child. Byron left the show on the episode "Dumpster Diving" and Combs replaced her on the show. Combs was an American television personality and metal fabricator who appeared from 2005 to 2008 on the Spike show Xtreme 4x4. Prior to appearing there she appeared on the TLC program Overhaulin' as a guest fabricator.
After high school Combs turned down a scholarship to attend an interior design school. In 2004, she graduated from WyoTech in the Collision & Refinishing Core Program at the top of her class. She also took the Street Rod Fabrication and Custom Fabrication and High Performance Powertrain programs.
Combs died in August 2019 in a crash of a jet-powered high-speed race car in southeastern Oregon while attempting to set a new four-wheel land speed record, which was posthumously awarded to her in June 2020 by Guinness World Records.
Jessie Nelson
Jessie Nelson, or simply Jess, was a "Mythtern" (portmanteau of MythBusters and intern). She made her first appearance on MythBusters during the "Archimedes' Death Ray" episode as part of the girls' team on the small scale build-off. She appeared again in the "Whirlpool of Death" myth. In that episode she assisted Adam with the building of scale models to test the whirlpool, and towards the end of the episode got to hold his hand as he vomited in the whirlpool tank, adding her own memorable quote to MythBusters: "Smells like pizza". She then appeared in the "Mega Movie Myths" episode, where she helped find a car for the use with the ejector seat myth. She also appeared in "Air Cylinder of Death", "Christmas Lights", "Hindenburg Mystery", "Western Myths", "Walking on Water", "Birds in a Truck", "Bifurcated Boat", mixing the non-Newtonian fluid, "Pirate Special", "Special Supersized Myths", and "Superhero Hour".
Staff
Robert Lee
Robert Lee (born ) is the narrator of the series, who shares the job of explaining experiments and facts with the hosts, often using a copious number of puns and humor. In some regions—such as the United Kingdom and Scandinavia—he is replaced by Irish and British narrators Robin Banks or Daisy Beaumont. Rufus Hound narrates the version of the show that aired on the BBC. Lee returned to narrate the revival MythBusters: The Search as well, and he followed this with the narration for MythBusters Jr and Mythbusters: There’s Your Problem! This makes him the longest continuous serving member of the franchise.
Eric Haven
Eric Haven is a former comic book artist who draws the blueprint drawings used to introduce each episode, as was revealed in the 2012 season's "Mailbag Special". He took over the job from the MythBusters (Savage and Hyneman) and the former Build Team (Byron, Belleci, and Imahara).
He has been a researcher for the program for 33 episodes from 2004 to 2005 and served as an associate producer from 2005 until 2012 for 143 episodes. Since the broadcast of Season 13, he has been credited as a producer for the show.
Guests
Helpers
Many people have come on the show to provide assistance with the myths.
: Heather Joseph-Witham is a folklorist whose extensive research in urban legends, myths, and folklore led her to be tapped for information by the MythBusters team. She appeared on camera in the three pilot episodes and the entire thirteen-episode first season. Joseph-Witham's role on the show ended after the third episode of the second season. She received her doctorate from the now defunct Folklore and Mythology Program at UCLA in 1998. She is currently an associate professor at Otis College of Art and Design in Los Angeles, California.
: Frank Doyle is a retired FBI agent who appeared in the myths "Cement Mix-Up", "Exploding Gas Tank", "Exploding Pants", "Crimes and Myth-Demeanors 2", "Exploding Nitro Patches", "Voice Flame Extinguisher", and others. Frank assisted the MythBusters by helping load a cement truck with 850 pounds of explosives to cause its destruction. He also provided the tracer ammunition for the revisit of the myth that shooting a gas tank can cause it to explode "Car Capers" revisit. He also supervised the making of the explosives for the "Exploding Pants" myth. Doyle has since become somewhat of a regular on the show, helping with many explosives that are used.
: Erik Gates was a rocketry expert who appeared in the episodes JATO Chevy, Ming Dynasty Astronaut, Swingset 360, Confederate Rocket, and Salami Rocket. Erik provided rockets and his rocketry expertise in several myths, starting with the very first experiment—the legend of the Jet Assisted Take-Off Chevy Impala. Gates died in a construction accident unrelated to rocketry on December 20, 2009, at the age of 47. The episode Mini Myth Mayhem was dedicated to his memory.
: J. D. Nelson is the Alameda County sheriff sergeant and EOD team leader who appeared in the myths Exploding Pants, Dynamite Paint Job, and others. "JD" supervises the use of the Alameda County Sheriff Office's bomb disposal range in Dublin, California for many of the explosives episodes.
: Initially introduced as sergeant Alan Normandy, and now a South San Francisco police lieutenant and court-certified firearms expert, he appeared in the myths Blown Away, Finger in a Barrel, Catching a Bullet in Your Teeth, Bullets Fired Up, Mega Movie Myths, Firearms Folklore, Myths Revisited, Exploding Tire of Death, Killer Cigarette Butts, and others. Normandy frequently assists the MythBusters by supplying modern firearms—including fully automatic weapons—to evaluate myths and legends about guns. A 29-year police veteran, chief firearms instructor, former SWAT officer and police sniper, Normandy often assists the MythBusters as a range safety officer, and also provides some legal and firearms expertise. A regular guest and often referred to as an "old friend," Normandy has been a consultant to the production even before the first episode aired.
: Roger Schwenke is an acoustician for Meyer Sound who appeared in the myths "Does a Duck's Quack Echo?", "Brown Note", "Breaking Glass", and "Sounds Bogus". He was called an honorary MythBuster by Adam in the "Breaking Glass" myth. He also helped bust the "Does a Duck's Quack Echo?" and brown note myths as well as demonstrating how to shatter glass using only sound waves.
: Sanjay Singh was an emergency medical technician who appeared in the episodes Poppy Seed Drug Test, Myths Revisited, Exploding Pants, Pirates 2, and others. He worked in Alameda County and was on several episodes of MythBusters beginning with the third episode until his death in 2010. He provided first aid back up to the show's hosts. The episode Storm Chasing Myths was dedicated to his memory.
: Stephen C. Smith is an aeronautic engineer that provided expertise on the Concrete Glider episode, the "Plywood Parachute" portion of the Beat the Radar Detector episode, and the formation flying portion of the Toilet Bomb episode.
Celebrities
In addition, several celebrity guests have been brought in to guest on the show, either for their high level of skill or knowledge in a certain area.
: U.S. president Barack Obama asked Jamie and Adam to meet him in the White House Library, to which they obliged. He gave them the "Archimedes Solar Ray 3.0" myth, asking them to revisit for the third time the "Ancient Death Ray" myth and report the results, and was once again busted.
: Ricky Jay was a world-record-holding card thrower from the myth "Killer Deck".
: Roger Clemens is an MLB pitcher from the episode "Baseball Myths".
: Ray Guy was an NFL punter from the myth "Helium Football".
: Shirley Eaton is a James Bond actress from the myth "Goldfinger".
: Jon Fitch is a MMA fighter from the myth "Coffin Punch".
: Matt Cain is an MLB pitcher from the myth "Monk Magic".
: Seth Rogen is an actor featured in the episode "Green Hornet Special".
: Vince Gilligan is the creator and producer of Breaking Bad, and was in the episode "Breaking Bad Special".
: Aaron Paul is an actor who plays Jesse Pinkman on the show Breaking Bad, and was in the episode "Breaking Bad Special".
: Alton Brown is a celebrity chef who was featured on the episode "Food Fables".
: James Cameron is a film director who appeared in the myth "A Titanic Tale".
: Ron Siegel is a chef who appeared in the myth "Tenderizing Steak with Dynamite".
: Michael Rooker is an actor who played Merle Dixon on The Walking Dead and was in the episode "Zombie Special".
: Nik Wallenda is an acrobat, aerialist, daredevil, and high wire artist who appeared on the episode "Duct Tape Canyon".
: Sophia Bush is an actress who appeared in the episode "Star Wars Special".
: Johnathan Hillstrand is on the show Deadliest Catch and appeared in the Deadliest Catch Special.
: Scott "Junior" Campbell is on the show Deadliest Catch and appeared in the Deadliest Catch Special.
: Sean Casey is from the show Storm Chasers and appeared in the Storm Chasing Special.
: Reed Timmer is from the show Storm Chasers and appeared in the Storm Chasing Special.
Non-human assistants
Buster
Buster is a Hybrid II model crash test dummy that plays an important role in many experiments by taking the place of a human subject in the more dangerous myth tests. The first and most recognized of the dummies used in the show, Buster was introduced in the beginning of the first season for the "Exploding Toilet" myth. Savage had purchased the dummy to take the place of Hyneman (who had second thoughts about testing the myth because he realized the foam he would be using was flammable), and Hyneman gave it its name.
Because of the nature of the situations in which the MythBusters use him, Buster has been subjected to forces and situations that far exceed his original design parameters as an automobile crash test dummy. As a testament to the danger of the tests in which he is used—often resulting in his being broken into pieces, burnt, or otherwise mutilated—Buster has had to be extensively repaired and rebuilt over the course of the series to the point that the episode "Buster Special" was devoted to his being completely redesigned and rebuilt as "Buster 2.0". Buster was designed with quick and simple repair in mind, and boasts improved joints, with a more realistic range of movement, and easily replaceable poplar wood "bones". Poplar was chosen because its shear strength was very similar to human bone, providing an accurate gauge of how bones would react in experiments. Buster's new flesh (with the exception of his face, hands, and feet) is made of a silicone marketed for use in animatronics called Dragon Skin. Buster's original head was retained when he was rebuilt, but it had to be replaced after it was shattered during a mishap on the "Escape Slide Parachute" myth. His original face was retained to fit over his replacement head. They tested Buster 2.0 by dropping him 60 feet (about 20 meters) off a crane while inside a donated Cadillac named Earl.
The MythBusters have at times adapted Buster to fit specialized equipment or give him new functionality. For myths involving holding onto things (such as "Plywood Builder"), his hands are replaced with clamps or quick-release rigs. For myths involving falls (like "Hammer Bridge Drop"), monitoring equipment, such as accelerometers or shock gauges, is installed on or within his body. He was also attached to a pneumatic system at one time so he could punch sharks for the "Shark Punching" myth.
Just before testing the revisited "Jet Taxi" myth, Buster spoke two lines as chosen by fans: "Adam, I am your father," followed by "I wonder if Mike Rowe is hiring," a reference to the host of Discovery's other popular show, Dirty Jobs. In October 2007, the fan site also uploaded a video spoof of Buster's life narrated by Jim Forbes of Behind the Music and starring Tory, Grant, Kari and Adam.
As Grant once noted, there are very few times when Buster is actually used for his original purpose (a crash test dummy) on MythBusters.
Since his introduction on the show (in something of a running joke) the cast refer to Buster as if he were an actual living person, and consider him a full member of the cast in his own right. On several myths that involved long drops or intense forces in which Buster was damaged, Adam and others expressed dismay and concern over Buster having been damaged so extensively, most notably during the "Escape Slide Parachute" myth.
On the "Viewer Special 2" episode, a new Buster was introduced. This Buster is a former crash test dummy provided by Dayton T. Brown, Inc. The new Buster was named "Buster 2.0"—not to be confused with the remodeled "Buster 1.0". The original Buster has been retired. During the James Bond special, Buster was dressed up in a tuxedo when he was used for the exploding propane myth. In most myths involving people, Buster is usually dressed in whatever clothes are relevant to the myth (e.g. a police uniform, farmer's overalls, etc.) to give him more character and an air of faux authenticity.
In more recent episodes, the hosts of the show as well as the narrator appear to have taken up a policy of calling any human-analogue "Buster" (not just the specific crash test dummies given the name). However, this practice is very rarely, if at all, applied to dummies made out of ballistics gel or otherwise used to represent human tissue (such as pigs).
In the series finale, Buster is attached to a rocket sled and launched toward a concrete block wall at a speed of over Mach one, disintegrating on impact. Adam subsequently recovers some of the fragments and gives them to Jamie and the Build Team in a follow-up reunion special.
Simulaids
Simulaids are Buster's family of at least four dummies, dubbed "Randy" or "Rescue Randy" (father), "Jane" (mother), "Suzy" or "Simulated Suzy" (daughter), and an unnamed son. Rescue Randy has also been referred to as "Ted" (for Bus-Ted, Annihila-Ted, Humilia-Ted, and so on). These were added partly because Buster (even after his redesign) was becoming increasingly difficult to repair, and also because not all myths can be accurately tested with Buster due to his size, weight, and other factors. For instance, Suzy (a child dummy) was used to test the myth that a child could go 360 degrees around a swing set. Being representative of an adult man, Buster would not have properly fit the criteria for the myth. The Simulaids were first introduced in the Killer Brace Position myth, primarily because multiple dummies were needed for testing. At least one Simulaid has been destroyed in the course of subsequent experiments (In the "Point Break" trilogy the Simulaid was destroyed when it hit the ground from 4000 feet).
Ted
Ted is an extra crash-test dummy used in the show. In addition to this, any full-size human made from ballistics gelatin is usually named Ted, from the last syllable of bus-ted, annihila-ted, exploi-ted. One instance of Ted's use was in the "Train Suction" myth, in which he played the unsuspecting commuter.
Deadblow
Deadblow, Grant Imahara's battlebot, has been used to aid the MythBusters in various ways, such as measuring vibrations in the ground (for the "Chinese Invasion Alarm" myth) to being a cat decoy (in the "Beat the Guard Dog" myth). Grant temporarily renamed the robot "Blinky" and fitted it with a set of headlights to simulate an oncoming vehicle for the "Driving in the Dark" myth.
Sparky
Sparky was a robot used multiple times on the show. In the "Gunpowder Keg" myth, Jamie took the motor and wheels from an electric wheelchair and fitted it with a metal hood for protection, a remote control, and a stand for a keg of gunpowder. The MythBusters drilled a hole in the keg and lit the ensuing trail of gunpowder on fire to see if the fire would travel up the falling stream of gunpowder and explode the keg. After many trials, the myth was called plausible, and Sparky survived. Sparky was used again in both the "Hot Bullets" and the "Campfire Chaos" myths to drop bullets of various caliber as well as aerosol cans into a campfire to see if they could cause serious injury or death. Sparky was not damaged, but it was determined that both bullets and bug spray could cause injury but would be unlikely to kill someone if dropped into a campfire.
Mythdog Bo
Mythdog Bo is a small dog that appears in the 2017 revival of the show. She does not provide much help and only appears when she walks on set, and her random appearances have caused some jokes.
Buster II/Jr
Buster Jr is the version of Buster in the 2017 version of the show. He was introduced in the second episode, where they needed a criminal to block a propane chimney. They needed the replacement after the original was fired into a brick wall with a rocket.
References
General references
External links
MythBusters cast members
Cast
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screwed%20Up%20Click
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Screwed Up Click
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The Screwed Up Click (or S.U.C.) is an American hip hop collective based in Houston, Texas, that was led by DJ Screw. Its most notable members include DJ Screw, Big Hawk, Big Mello, Big Moe, Big Pokey, the Botany Boyz, E.S.G., Fat Pat, Lil' Flip, Lil' Keke, Lil' O, and Z-Ro. In addition, Devin the Dude, K-Rino, Lil' Troy, South Park Mexican and UGK are considered to be "Screwed Up Affiliated". Many of the current and former SUC members come from the neighborhoods of South Park, 3rd Ward, Sunnyside, Cloverland, Hiram Clarke and South Acres.
History
In the early 1990s, a new type of music began gaining popularity in Houston, collectively called "Chopped and screwed", which was pioneered by DJ Screw. The sound was created from a turntable technique in which Screw slowed down the tempo and torqued with parts of hip-hop anthems, giving them a new hypnotic & mesmerizing sound which he believed also made the lyrics easier to understand. In 1991, he began to release tapes, known as "Screw Tapes", on which he slowed down and manipulated records by popular artists and also prominently included freestyles by a group of friends and local rappers, who came to be known as the Screwed Up Click.
In 1994, Screw moved into a house in the eastern park of South Park, which soon came to be known as "The Screw House", where he could conduct his new business of selling tapes and recording freestyles with the group. These tapes quickly gained popularity in the area, allowing many of the group's members to launch successful solo careers. At some point the business became too much for the house, so the group relocated its operations to a store in Missouri City that became known as "The Screw Shop". After years of success that took its members to new heights, the S.U.C. found itself surrounded by tragedy when two of its members died, Fat Pat who was murdered and DJ Screw who overdosed from a lethal combination of codeine and other drugs. However, the group still continues to record new music with many of its members now focusing primarily on their solo careers. In later years, the group saw the deaths of other members including Big Hawk and Big Moe in 2006 and 2007 respectively, as well as the incarceration of others.
More recently in 2010, the S.U.C. had a reunion tour in 2010 which included Big Pokey, Lil' Keke, Lil' O and Z-Ro. In 2014, several members of the group appeared on the track "The Legendary DJ Screw" from Bun B's fourth studio album Trill OG: The Epilogue, including a posthumous verse from Big Hawk.
Original members
This is a list of all of the original members of the Screwed Up Click.
Al-D
Albert Driver, better known by his stage name Al-D, is a member of the Screwed Up Click. Though not biologically, he is commonly known as DJ Screw's brother. His first album release is "Home Of The Free" from 1995 and has released other projects since then. Current single via digital only release is Ballaz Featuring – E.S.G., Griddy Vocalz, Mo City Don. 2015 will see the release of his new album yet to be announced.
Big Hawk
John Edward Hawkins, better known as H.A.W.K. or Big Hawk was one of the founding members of the Screwed Up Click. He grew up on the dead end block of MLK with younger brother, Patrick "Fat Pat" Hawkins and two sisters. He started rapping in 1992 when Fat Pat took him to DJ Screw's house, an upcoming mixtape producer and DJ in the southern area of Houston. In 1994 Hawk, Fat Pat, DJ Screw, and Kay-K, collaborated to form the group D.E.A. and Dead End Records. In late 1998 D.E.A. released an original independent album entitled, “Screwed For Life”. In 1999 Hawk participated in a Southside Playaz compilation album titled You Got Us Fuxxed Up, with Mike D, Claydoe and other members of the S.U.C. Hawk released his solo album, Under Hawk's Wings on Dead End Records in 2000 and was featured on the Lil' Troy hit "Wanna Be A Baller". He also collaborated with Lil' O on the hit song, "Back Back". Next, he partnered with Game Face Records in 2002 and released his first album under his label Ghetto Dreams Ent., self-titled, HAWK. With the hit song, "U Already Know", the album charted the Billboard's list of top R&B and Rap Albums at #45. On May 1, 2006, Hawkins, 36, was shot to death outside of a home in Houston. Police were unable to find any witnesses that could provide information on a suspect or a motive for the shooting.
Big Moe
Kenneth Doniell Moore, better known as Big Moe, was known for a softer and slower style than other Houston rappers, including a mixture of rapping and singing that he called "rapsinging" as well as for his music that celebrated codeine-laced syrup as a recreational drug. As one of the founding members of the "Original Screwed Up Click," Big Moe started out in music by freestyling on DJ Screw mixtapes before being signed to Wreckshop Records. He would go on to release three albums with Wreckshop Records, City of Syrup in 2000, Purple World in 2002 and then Moe Life in 2003. Moe died on October 14, 2007, at 33 years old, after suffering a heart attack one week earlier that left him in a coma. There was speculation that recreational codeine use in the form of Purple Drank may have contributed to his death.
Big Pokey
Milton Powell, better known as Big Pokey, was one of the original members of the Screwed Up Click. He joined up with DJ Screw in the early 1990s and started releasing songs on DJ Screw's many mixtapes. His first full-length album appeared in early 1999, "Hardest Pit in the Litter". The following year, Pokey returned with "D-Game" 2000, another album of mid-tempo 808-driven beats featuring several of his Houston peers as guests. In 2005 he was featured in a song which was #93 on US Top 100 with Paul Wall called Sittin' Sidewayz. He has since released many other albums and mixtapes. He collapsed on stage in Beaumont, TX on June 17, 2023 and was pronounced dead.
Botany Boyz
The Botany Boyz are the rap group which included rappers Big D-E-Z, B.G. Duke, B.G. Gator, C-Note, D-Red, Lil' 3rd, Lil' Head, Pap-Pap and Will-Lean. One of the foremost contributors to the Houston screw scene, the group was part of the Screwed Up Click in the early to mid 1990s. The group name is a reference to Botany Lane in the Cloverland area of Houston where they resided. Their first album, Thought of Many Ways, was released on their own label, Big Shot Records, in 1997; its follow-up, Forever Botany, was released in 1999 and managed to crack the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop charts at #99 in 2000 as the Houston rap scene became more popular across the US. Since then, the members have concentrated more on solo projects, with C-Note being the most successful. Since the group's creation members Big D-E-Z, Lil 3rd, Lil Head and Pap-Pap have left the group as well as member B.G. Gator, who committed suicide on Mother's Day a year after his mom died.
DJ Screw
Robert Earl Davis, Jr. also known as DJ Screw was a central figure in the Houston hip hop community and was the creator of the now-famous Chopped and Screwed DJ technique. This creation led to his nickname of "The Originator". During the early 1990s, he invited some of the Houston emcees from the city's south side to rhyme on those mixes. He was also a member of the rap group Dead End Alliance. This eventually led to the formation of the Screwed Up Click. DJ Screw died on November 16, 2000, from a lethal combination of codeine and other drugs. Since his death, DJ Screw has had a considerable influence in the Houston scene, which is sometimes referred to as "Screwston" in his memory. His distinct musical stylings influenced countless rap acts. Alternative weekly The Houston Press named the 1995 album 3 'n the Mornin' (Part Two) as no. 13 on its list of the 25 best Houston rap albums of all time. The newspaper credited the release for the way it helped shape Houston's hip-hop culture. The newspaper also referred to Chopped and Screwed music as the second most likely type of music to be associated with Texas, an example of DJ Screw's influence in the region.
E.S.G.
Cedric Dormaine Hill, better known by his stage name E.S.G. (which stands for Everyday Street Gangsta), is a rapper originally from Bogalusa, Louisiana. He helped to popularize the "chopped and screwed" style of rap music. His debut album Ocean of Funk was released in 1994 and he released albums regularly since then.
Fat Pat
Patrick Lamark Hawkins, better known by his stage name Fat Pat, was a member of Dead End Alliance with his brother John "Big Hawk" Hawkins, DJ Screw and Kay-K, all original members of the Screwed Up Click. He released two albums with Wreckshop Records in 1998, Ghetto Dreams and Throwed In Da Game, On February 3, 1998, Hawkins was fatally shot in Houston, TX, after going to a promoter's apartment to collect an appearance fee. Eight years later, his brother rapper Big Hawk was also shot to death.
Kay-K
Kay-K also known as Shakey Red was an original member of the Screwed Up Click and a founding member of the Dead End Alliance, which also included DJ Screw, Fat Pat, & Big Hawk.
Lil' Keke
Marcus Lakee Edwards, better known by his stage name Lil' Keke, is an original member of the Southern hip hop collective Screwed Up Click. Lil' Keke gained national underground love with his track "Southside" from his 1997 release "Don't Mess Wit Texas". In 2005, Lil' Keke signed to Swishahouse Records. In an interview with HitQuarters at the time, label president and A&R T. Farris said, "He is a legend here in Houston. He plays a big role in the whole style of rap that we make down here."
Lil' O
Ore Magnus Lawson, better known by his stage name Lil' O, was born in Lagos, Nigeria and raised in Southwest Houston, Texas. He is an original member of Screwed Up Click. He is known for his short stature, being 5 feet tall, from which he earned the nickname "Da Fat Rat Wit Da Cheeze". While studying at Xavier University of Louisiana in New Orleans in 1997, he recorded “Can’t Stop”, which featured vocal contributions from the ladies that would go on to earn renown as Destiny's Child. The track soon became Lil’ O's debut single and went on to score an instant local hit. In 1999, he signed with the Houston-based indie label Game Face Entertainment, from which he released his debut album, Blood Money, which went on to sell 20,000 copies. In 2001, his album Da Fat Rat Wit Da Cheeze sold over 75,000. He collaborated with Big Hawk on the hit single "Back Back", which led to a nationwide deal with Atlantic Records, which he later left in 2003.
Mike D
Michael Dixon, better known by his stage name Mike D (also known as Bosshog Corleone or Dickbone Corleone), is a rapper based out of Houston, Texas, who along with Clay Doe, Fat Pat and Mr. 3–2, formed the rap group Southside Playaz. Mike D was able to create a lot of tracks with Fat Pat before his death, which are still included on new Southside Playaz CDs to this day.
Other members
This is a list of all of the known past and present members who joined the Screwed Up Click after its creation.
Big Floyd
George Floyd was raised in Houston and briefly rapped with the group in the mid-1990s. He later joined a group called Presidential Playas which released one album in 2000. On May 25, 2020, he was murdered in police custody in Minneapolis in an incident that led to worldwide protests and riots.
Big Jut
Big Jut is a member of the Screwed Up Click who was also DJ Screw's and many of the other members’ personal barber. He was also the one to introduce some rappers to Screw, such as Dat Boy Grace, who later joined the group. He released an album titled Screwed Up Fo Life in 2004.
Big Mello
Curtis Donnell Davis, better known by his stage name Big Mello, was a member of the Screwed Up Click. He debuted as Big Mello in 1992 with the album "Bone Hard Zaggin'" on the Rap-A-Lot Records label. Shea Serrano of the Houston Press said that Big Mello was famous for "repping Hiram Clarke in the 90's[...]" On June 15, 2002, Mello, along with a passenger died after he lost control of his vehicle and hit a pillar in the 4500 block of South Loop West In Houston.
Big Rue
Big Rue was a member of the Screwed Up Click. He was also one of the founding members of M.O.B. Style Protected. He is deceased.
Big Steve
Big Steve, also known as Granpappy Mafioso, was a member of the Screwed Up Click. He was also a founding member of the group "Woss Ness" with Rasir X and Mista Luv. He was murdered two years after the group's debut album "Da Game Done Changed".
Bird
Reggie "Bird" Oliver is a member of the Screwed Up Click. He met DJ Screw in 1989 and they became close friends. While Screw sold tapes out of his house, he asked Bird to stand behind the door with a gun. Screw's friend Toe commissioned the first tape and then played it for Bird, who was among the first to commission a second round of tapes.
Chris Ward
One of the last added members of the Screwed Up Click. He is also part of the group Boss Hogg Outlawz with Slim Thug.
Clay Doe
Clay Doe is a rapper based out of Houston, Texas, who along with Mike D, Fat Pat and Mr. 3–2, formed the rap group Southside Playaz.
Dat Boy Grace
Charles Grace, professionally known as Dat Boy Grace or Macc Grace, as well as his brother Lo$, were members of the Screwed Up Click, in which he developed a long time friendship with DJ Screw. He was introduced to Screw by his barber, Big Jut, a fellow Screwed Up Click member. Grace died in 2017.
Enjoli
Enjoli, also known as First Lady of the SUC, earned her title by rapping on DJ Screw's Underground Chapters. She was a close friend of fellow Houston rapper Big Moe and appeared on his albums City of Syrup, on the track "I Wonder", and Purple World, on the track "The Letter". She also made an appearance on rapper Z-Ro's album Z-Ro vs. the World on the track "Dirty 3rd".
Herschelwood Hardheadz
The Herschelwood Hardheadz, named after the south side Houston Texas neighborhood they grew up in, is a group that was a part of the Screwed Up Click and was formed in 1993. Its members included Duke, Knocky, Archie Lee and formerly Lil' Keke.
Lil Flip
Wesley Eric Weston, Jr., better known by his stage name Lil' Flip, is a rapper and member of the Screwed Up Click. He gained early popularity from the title "The Freestyle King", given to him by Screw himself. In 2000, Lil' Flip independently released his first album titled The Leprechaun In 2002, Columbia Records offered Flip a contract and Suckafree a distribution deal. Lil Flip released his debut studio album Undaground Legend on August 27, 2002. The album was certified Platinum in December 2002. It contained his hit single "The Way We Ball". When Lil' Flip's label Columbia tried to restructure Flip, he left, ending up at Sony Urban Music which he believed could promote his music better. The first single from the album was "Game Over (Flip)". After that he quickly released his second single, "Sunshine" featuring Lea Sunshine. This album sold 198,000 domestic copies in its first week and was certified double Platinum by August 2004. Lil' Flip released his third album I Need Mine in 2007. The album debuted at number 15 on the Billboard 200 with 43,000 copies sold in its first week. Lil' Flip has since left Columbia Records and gone back to being an independent artist, founding his own label Clover G records. His fourth album Ahead of My Time was originally set to be released as early as 2007, but was pushed back many times and was finally released on July 6, 2010. Lil' Flip released two "album-before-the-album's" in 2009 to help promote the release of Ahead of My Time. The two albums were: Respect Me and Underground Legend 2. Lil' Flip released his fifth album The Black Dr. Kevorkian on October 31, 2013, which sold 10,000 copies in its first week.
Los
Carlos Grace, professionally known as Los or Loco Bush, was a member of the Screwed Up Click and younger brother of Macc Grace. Together the two formed Grace Boyz. Grace was a starting member of the Willowridge High School (Houston) 1994 Men's Basketball State Championship team. He was the teams feature three point shooter and best defensive guard. Introduced to Screw along with his brother, Los started rapping on Screw Tapes. More recently since the death of his brother, Macc Grace, Los has put out several new projects, most of which pay tribute to Macc and Screw. Los also has a son of the same name who plays Division 1 football in college as a running back.
Mr. 3-2
Christopher Juel Barriere, professionally known as 3-2, was a member of the Screwed Up Click. While signed to Rap-A-Lot Records he was involved with three groups, The Convicts, Southside Playaz and Blac Monks, and released one solo album. After leaving Rap-A-Lot, 3-2 released albums on "N Yo Face" and "Street Game Records." He has collaborated on tracks with UGK, Scarface, South Park Mexican, Too $hort, 8Ball & MJG. He has done numerous underground mixtapes that circulate throughout underground rap in the South. On November 10, 2016, he was shot in the back of the head at a Southwest Houston gas station.
Viper
Viper considers himself a loose associate of the Screwed Up Click. He notably appeared in the film Fifth Ward alongside DJ Screw - Fifth Ward itself was directed by his brother, Greg Carter. Viper then also appeared on the 5th Ward Soundtrack Vol 2, under the alias J-Ride, alongside more Screwed Up Click acts. Later in his career he mentions DJ Screw in his song Leanin’ Low, a song about the death of a friend that inspired him to start rapping, which could be a reference about anyone.
Yungstar
Yungstar is a member of the Screwed Up Click who began rapping around age ten. In the early 1990s, he began working with DenDen, CEO of Straight Profit Records. He emerged nationally with a guest appearance on Lil' Troy's "Wanna Be a Baller". He then went on to release the hit song "Knocking Pictures Off The Wall" with Lil' Flex.
DJ Zo tha Affiliate
DJ Zo is DJ Screw's second cousin. He was also an affiliated DJ for Chalie Boy. Today, he continues to work as an on-air personality for radio stations and puts out CDs. He also owns a mobile DJ company.
Z-Ro
Joseph Wayne McVey, better known by his stage names Z-Ro and The Mo City Don, is a member of the Screwed Up Click. In 1998, Z-Ro released his debut album, Look What You Did to Me. He celebrated his 22nd birthday at DJ Screw's house, recording the "Blue 22" tape. These things helped to escalate Z-Ro's popularity throughout the South and by 2002 his talent and hard work caught the attention of Rap-A-Lot’s founder and CEO James Prince, who offered him a deal. In 2004, Z-Ro released his critically acclaimed Rap-A-Lot debut titled The Life of Joseph W. McVey. The record was a huge success and helped expand Z-Ro’s fan base beyond the South. In 2005, Z-Ro released Let the Truth Be Told, which was well received. Z-Ro's 2006 album I'm Still Livin' was released while he was imprisoned for drug possession, to positive reviews. It was called "a great album... powerful" but "relentlessly bleak" by The Village Voice and "one of the best rap albums to come out of Houston" by the Houston Chronicle. He was named one of America's most underrated rappers by The New York Times in 2007. In 2010 he released his next album titled Heroin, which was followed by another new album titled Meth in 2011 and then Angel Dust in 2012. After a series of mixtapes, released sporadically over three years, Z-Ro has returned with a proper studio album entitled Melting the Crown. Following that album he recorded his most recent episode of albums entitled “Drankin and Drivin" in 2016. This album features a very well notifiable artist by the name Krayzie Bone.
Discography
Studio albums
Blockbleeders (1999)
Making History (2005)
The Takeover (2014)
References
External links
Screwed Up Records (official website)
Rappers from Houston
Musical groups from Houston
Underground hip hop groups
Hip hop collectives
Southern hip hop groups
African-American musical groups
Musical groups established in 1990
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinkle%20Fieldhouse
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Hinkle Fieldhouse
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Hinkle Fieldhouse (named Butler Fieldhouse from 1928 until 1966) is a basketball arena on the campus of Butler University in Indianapolis, Indiana. Completed in early 1928, it was the largest basketball arena in the United States until 1950. The facility was renamed Hinkle Fieldhouse in 1966 in honor of Butler's longtime coach and athletic director, Paul D. "Tony" Hinkle. It is the sixth-oldest college basketball arena still in use. Added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 and designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1987, Hinkle Fieldhouse is sometimes referred to as "Indiana's Basketball Cathedral."
Hinkle Fieldhouse has served as the home court for the Butler Bulldogs men's basketball team since 1928 (with the exception of 1943 to 1945, when it was converted to a military barracks during World War II) and as the site of the annual Indiana High School Boys Basketball Tournament's championship games from 1928 to 1971. In addition to amateur and professional basketball games, it has hosted visits from U.S. presidents, indoor track events and bicycle races, professional tennis matches, circuses, and other civic and religious gatherings.
The Butler Bulldogs men's basketball team won the Horizon League conference title at Hinkle in 2010. Several memorable high school basketball championship games were played at the Butler arena, including the 1954 title game, when tiny Milan High School's basketball team defeated a larger Muncie Central High School team. Milan's team served as the inspiration for the movie Hoosiers (1986), and the final scenes of the film's championship game were filmed at Hinkle Fieldhouse.
History
Hinkle Fieldhouse (originally named Butler Fieldhouse) was among the first buildings erected when Butler University moved to the Fairview campus in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1928. Butler Fieldhouse and the Butler Bowl (a 36,000-seat football stadium that has since been downsized and renamed the Bud and Jackie Sellick Bowl) were promoted by a corporation of 41 Indianapolis businessmen who viewed them as a benefit to the city as well as Butler. When Butler signed a lease with the Indiana High School Athletic Association to host the championship games of the state's high school basketball tournament, the corporation agreed to finance the construction project at a cost of $1 million.
Designed by Indianapolis architect Fermor Spencer Cannon, construction began on the basketball arena at 49th Street and Boulevard Place on the northeast edge of Butler's campus in fall of 1927. When completed in early 1928, it was the largest basketball arena in the United States, a distinction it retained until 1950, and is the sixth-oldest college basketball arena still in use. Called Butler Fieldhouse from 1928 to 1966, it was renamed Hinkle Fieldhouse in honor of Butler's longtime coach and athletic director, Paul D. "Tony" Hinkle. The arena's design included a steel truss system that provides spectators with unobstructed views of the basketball court, an initial seating capacity of more than 15,000, and a fireproof brick and stone exterior. The innovative technology for its time served as the inspiration for other basketball arenas. Hinkle Fieldhouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 22, 1983, and designated a National Historic Landmark on February 27, 1987, and has been in use for nine decades.
Although Hinkle Fieldhouse has hosted other events, it is best known as a basketball venue in a state that is well known for its enthusiasm for the game (often referred to as "Hoosier Hysteria"). In addition to serving as the home court for the Butler Bulldogs men's basketball team, Butler hosted the Indiana high school tournament's championship games from 1928 to 1971 (except for 1943 to 1945, when the arena was converted to a military barracks to house U.S. Army Air Forces and U.S. Navy recruits during World War II. The state high school championship games returned to the Butler Fieldhouse in 1946 and remained there until 1972, when the Indiana High School Athletic Association moved the state basketball tournament's championship games to Indiana University's Assembly Hall in Bloomington, and later to other venues in the state.
In November 1965, Butler University's board of trustees voted in favor of renaming the basketball facility Hinkle Fieldhouse to honor Paul D. "Tony" Hinkle, a former three-sport coach and athletic director at Butler. Hinkle, who came to Butler as an assistant basketball coach in 1921, was named its head basketball coach in 1926. Hinkle served as head coach of the Butler men's basketball, baseball, and football teams from 1934 to 1970. He was also Butler's athletic director.
On December 22, 1983, Hinkle Fieldhouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places, and designated a National Historic Landmark on February 27, 1987, in recognition of its role in transforming college basketball into a popular spectator sport in the 1920s and 1930s. Hinkle Fieldhouse is one of only a few early 20th-century sports arenas still in use in the United States, and among the best-preserved of its kind. Brad Stevens, the former Butler basketball coach who became head coach of Boston Celtics, once remarked that Hinkle Fieldhouse is "not for everybody," but continued, "But it is for somebody that appreciates tradition, somebody that appreciates history." In 2006, to celebrate Butler University's 150th anniversary, a documentary about Hinkle Fieldhouse entitled Indiana's Basketball Cathedral aired on ESPN. More recently, a $36.2 million renovation and restoration project was completed in 2014. The 2015–2016 basketball season was the first full season in the upgraded facility.
Building description
The exterior of the historic arena has the appearance of "a red-brick airplane hangar" and has been called "Indiana's Basketball Cathedral." Designed by Indianapolis architect Fermor Spencer Cannon, a founding member of the Indiana Society of Architects, the six-story brick arena on more than had an original seating capacity of 15,000. The expansive, cathedral-like facilities were the result of an arched-steel truss system that supported the roof and provided unobstructed views of the basketball court. Butler's fieldhouse was also among the earliest of its kind to use ramps for access to upper-deck seats. Because of its innovative construction, Hinkle Fieldhouse has served as a prototype for other indoor athletic facilities, including the design of Gainbridge Fieldhouse, home to the city's NBA and WNBA teams, respectively the Indiana Pacers and Indiana Fever.
Exterior and plan
The rectangular plan for the arena lies on an east–west axis with round-arch gable ends. Its steel truss system supports a three-stage monitor roof and red-brick walls resting on a poured concrete foundation. The three-story main facade (south wall) is constructed of brick on a concrete foundation. A stone belt course surrounds the structure between the first and second stories. Decorative buttresses vertically divide the main facade into twenty-two bays. There are eight entry gates on the south wall with tall, round-arch windows above the entry doors. The north wall is similar to main facade, but it does not have entry gates. The east facade has a round-arch gable about six stories tall, as well as nine bays divided by buttresses. The west facade is identical to east wall above third floor; however, a two-story brick wing is attached to the west wall at its lower levels. The arena's exterior still retain its original features, but the steel-framed windows and metal doors have been either repaired or replaced in subsequent renovations.
Interior
The main interior feature of the arena is an NCAA regulation-sized basketball court at the center. The removable hardwood basketball court, which originally ran east–west, was changed in 1933 to a north–south orientation to provide additional arena seating and to avoid the glare of late afternoon sun on the court.
Three tiers of seating, which originally contained wooden plank bleachers, surround the basketball court on all sides. (Most of these bleachers were replaced with seat back chairs and the original trough urinals were replaced with waterless urinals during a renovation in 2014.) The interior also has poured concrete floors and ramps, which lead to the two upper tiers of stands, and an open concourse surrounding the stands. In addition, the interior framework has exposed steel girders and corrugated metal roof sheathing. Interior walls are brown glazed brick. Ticket offices are located at the entryway. Concrete block offices and classrooms initially built under the main floor stands were removed during renovations in 2014. Natural light streams in from the monitor roof and gable-end windows. The facility also has electric lighting.
Wing
The fieldhouse's two-story brick wing has a flat roof and is attached to the arena's west wall at the lower levels. The wing's main floor originally contained a swimming pool and a small gymnasium; lockers and mechanical rooms were in the area below ground. The wing had fallen into disuse and was completely remodeled as part of major renovations completed in 2014.
Renovations
The basketball arena has been renovated and remodeled several times over its 90-year history. In 1933, for example, the interior was reconfigured, to change the court from an east–west to a north–south orientation. In the initial arrangement, more than half of the seats were at the ends of the court, while event viewing is typically better from the sides. A major $1.5 million facelift in 1989 reduced the original seating capacity of 15,000 to 11,043. The main reception area, basketball offices, film rooms, and team locker rooms were also renovated. In 1992, other athletic and physical education offices, sports locker rooms, and fitness facilities at the fieldhouse were renovated as well.
Butler University began planning in 2009 for another major renovation to the exterior and interior of the facility. The $36.2 million renovation and restoration project was completed in 2014. RATIO Architects worked with university officials to maintain appearance of the historic exterior, improve the interior's accessibility, and renovate the building's wing. To assist with renovation costs, the university was the recipient of a $750,000 federal Save America's Treasures grant. In 2015, Indiana Landmarks awarded Butler its Cook Cup for Outstanding Renovation.
Because of the building's National Historic Landmark status, exterior changes to the fieldhouse are minimal. Renovations made in 2014 included the replacement of steel-sash windows and 9,700 windowpanes, in addition to tuckpointing 282,000 exterior bricks. Interior renovations made in 2014 included removal of offices and storage space under the bleachers to open up the main concourses, adding decorative murals and new scoreboards, upgrading seating to improve accessibility and comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and additional mechanical upgrades such as air conditioning. The appearance of the basketball court, barrel-vaulted ceiling, and the exposed-steel roof trusses are mostly unchanged.
As part of the 2014 renovations, the arena's seating capacity was reduced from 10,000 to 9,100. The gym, which was originally filled with bleachers, was altered to include about 4,500 chair-back seats (covering nearly all of the lower two levels) and handrails along the aisles; however, some bleachers remain for student seating. In addition, a large video board was installed above midcourt and smaller scoreboards occupy each of the four corners. "The scoreboards on the side are new, but it still has a historic feel," remarked Butler senior guard Alex Barlow in an interview in 2014. "It still has a lot of modern upgrades that fans like to see. If you see the locker room and the weight room and the training room, it's come a long way since I've gotten here."
New spaces were created during the renovation to the attached wing at the west end of Hinkle Fieldhouse by adding two floors to a former swimming pool area closed in 2002 due to the high maintenance costs. The result was a three-level facility that includes a training facilities, locker rooms, and an academic center with study spaces in an area the athletic department had been using for storage. In addition, an elevator was installed to reach upper decks of the fieldhouse. Butler's athletic administrative offices and coaches' offices are on the top level. The training facility on the second floor is reportedly six times larger than the previous training area. The men's and women's basketball offices are adjacent to their respective locker rooms on the lower level near the court have been upgraded. The men's basketball locker room has been expanded and, for the first time, has a separate video room. Gordon Hayward, a former Butler star who went on to become a professional player with the Utah Jazz in 2010 and Boston Celtics player in 2017, donated the funds for the locker-room renovation.
Events
Hinkle Fieldhouse has hosted annual championship games of Indiana's high school basketball tournament, numerous collegiate games and tournaments, U.S. Olympic team exhibition games, and professional basketball games, as well as other special events. During World War II, the fieldhouse was temporarily converted to a military barracks.
Notable Butler team events
The Butler Bulldogs men's basketball team, who were named the national champions in 1928, won the inaugural game at Butler Fieldhouse on March 7, 1928, beating the University of Notre Dame, the defending national champion, with a final score of 21–13 in overtime with 12,000 fans in attendance.
Hinkle Fieldhouse hosted the entire 1994 Horizon League men's basketball conference tournament as well as parts of the 2004, 2008, 2009, and 2010 Horizon League tournaments. Butler's men's basketball team won the Horizon League conference title at Hinkle in 2010. Butler's men's and women's basketball teams continue to play their home games at Hinkle Fieldhouse as part of the Big East Conference.
Notable high school tournaments
In addition to hosting home games for the Butler basketball teams, Hinkle Fieldhouse was the site of Indiana's annual state high school boys' basketball championship games from 1928 to 1971. The only exception was 1943 to 1945, when the arena was used as a military barracks and the state's high school basketball championship games were held at the Coliseum on the grounds of the Indiana State Fair. In 1946, Indiana's high school basketball tournament games returned to Butler and remained there until 1972, when the championship games moved to Indiana University Bloomington's Assembly Hall, and from there to other venues. Afterwards, Hinkle Fieldhouse hosted sectional basketball games through 1993. The sectional games moved to Lawrence North High School in 1994.
In the first high school boys' championship basketball game at Butler Fieldhouse in 1928, Muncie Central High School defeated Martinsville High School. (John Wooden, a member of the Martinsville team, went on to become a college basketball coach at Indiana State Teachers College (present-day Indiana State University) and beginning in 1948 at the University of California, Los Angeles.) In Butler Fieldhouse's first sellout crowd for the state tournament's championship game In March 1930, the Washington Hatchets defeated Muncie Central. At that time, Butler's basketball arena was "considered one of the premier places in the country to hold games."
Among the most memorable high school basketball games played at the Butler Fieldhouse occurred in the 1946 state championship game when Anderson High School's "Jumping Johnny" Wilson set a state finals record as the first player "to score 30 points in a title game." Another notable game was the "Milan Miracle" in 1954, when tiny Milan High School's basketball team defeated the much larger Muncie Central High School team. Milan player Bobby Plump made the last-minute score to win the game and went on to become a star player at Butler. (The Milan team and the tournament win also served as the inspiration for the fictional Hickory High School team in the movie, Hoosiers (1986). The final scenes of the movie's championship game were also filmed at the fieldhouse.)
In 1950, Butler Fieldhouse was the site of the first televised broadcast of a state championship game. In the 1955 and 1956 state championship games at Butler Fieldhouse, Oscar Robertson and his teammates at Indianapolis's Crispus Attucks High School won back-to-back state championships, a first time for an all-black high school team. Crispus Attucks High School also used the Butler Fieldhouse as its home gym in the 1950s.
NCAA tournament
Hinkle Fieldhouse (then called Butler Fieldhouse) hosted the East Regional of the 1940 NCAA basketball tournament. The East Regional was one of only two regionals since the 1940 tournament involved only eight teams. The arena also hosted the first, second, and regional semifinal (Sweet 16) round games of the 2021 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament.
Other notable basketball games
Hinkle Fieldhouse has been host to other basketball-related events such as professional basketball teams, U.S. Olympic team exhibition games, and the first USSR-USA basketball game, as well as all-star basketball games for the NBA, ABA and the East-West College All-Stars.
Several notable games took place at Butler Fieldhouse in the 1940s and 1950s. The 1940 NCAA basketball tournament East Regionals were held there, and won by the eventual national men's champion, the Indiana Hoosiers. Until 1978, those games were the only NCAA tournament games held in Indianapolis. In 1948 the annual Hoosier Classic basketball tournament with Indiana University, Purdue University, the University of Notre Dame, and Butler played its inaugural games at Butler Fieldhouse during the winter holidays. An estimated 75,000 fans watched these games in the first three years of the tournament. The NBA's Indianapolis Olympians, formed in 1949, used the Fieldhouse until the team disbanded and withdrew from the NBA after the 1952–53 season. In 1956, a few weeks before the U.S. Olympic team won a gold medal at the Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia, Bill Russell and other U.S. Olympic team members played an exhibition game at Butler Fieldhouse against the Phillips 66ers, the national Amateur Athletic Union championship team.
In September 2019, the WNBA's Indiana Fever announced that they would use Hinkle Fieldhouse for all home games in 2020 and 2021, as well as part of the 2022 season. The move was made to accommodate a major renovation of Bankers Life Fieldhouse. The vast majority of work is scheduled to take place during the NBA offseason, which includes the entire WNBA season, though the COVID-19 pandemic moved the Fever to a league-wide bubble environment at IMG Academy in Bradenton, Florida.
Other events
In addition to basketball games, Hinkle Fieldhouse has been used for other athletic events such as professional tennis matches, six-day bicycle races, national equestrian events, and the Butler Relays (a national indoor track event in the 1930s and 1940s), among others. Ten indoor world records for track events were set or tied at the Butler Relays, including Jesse Owens's world record of 6.1 seconds in the dash in 1935. Hinkle Fieldhouse hosted the Men's and women's volleyball tournament during the 1987 Pan American Games, attracting 15,000 spectators. At that time, it was the highest-attended volleyball match ever held in the United States.
In addition, Hinkle Fieldhouse has served as an "unofficial convention center" for politicians and religious leaders such as Wendell Willkie, Thomas E. Dewey, and Jesse Jackson; Evangelist Billy Graham; and host to U.S. presidents (Herbert Hoover, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton). Other special events have included three-ring circuses and a two-day, 125-piano concert.
The final scene of the climactic championship game in Hoosiers (1986) was filmed at Hinkle Fieldhouse, the site of the 1954 championship game between Milan High School and Muncie Central. (The Milan team and the final game were the inspiration for the fictional basketball team in the movie.) The film also featured the voices of the game's original announcers, Hilliard Gates and Tom Carnegie.
See also
Allen Fieldhouse
Cameron Indoor Stadium
Palestra
Rose Hill Gymnasium
List of NCAA Division I basketball arenas
Gallery
Panorama
Notes
References
External links
Butler Bulldogs basketball venues
Basketball Association of America venues
Basketball venues in Indiana
College basketball venues in the United States
Former National Basketball Association venues
Indianapolis Jets
Indianapolis Kautskys
Indoor track and field venues in Indiana
National Historic Landmarks in Indianapolis
National Basketball League (United States) venues
National Register of Historic Places in Indianapolis
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament Final Four venues
Sports venues in Indianapolis
Sports venues on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Tourist attractions in Indianapolis
University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Volleyball venues in Indiana
Sports venues completed in 1928
1928 establishments in Indiana
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2066%20in%20Illinois
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U.S. Route 66 in Illinois
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U.S. Route 66 (US 66, Route 66) was a United States Numbered Highway in Illinois that connected St. Louis, Missouri, and Chicago, Illinois. The historic Route 66, the Mother Road or Main Street of America, took long distance automobile travelers from Chicago to Southern California. The highway had previously been Illinois Route 4 (IL 4) and the road has now been largely replaced with Interstate 55 (I-55). Parts of the road still carry traffic and six separate portions of the roadbed have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
History
When US 66—first known as the Main Street of America and later dubbed the Mother Road by novelist John Steinbeck in 1939—was designated on November 11, 1926, the original path used mostly pre-existing roads. It was meant to minimize any needed construction and to get the entire path of the route open to traffic as soon as possible. In fact, because Illinois had already paved most of the roads that would comprise US 66, Illinois was the first of the eight states through which the route ran to have its segment of US 66 completed at a time when much of Route 66 was still a gravel-and-dirt road.
In Illinois and the Midwest in general, the construction of US 66 was important to the economies of small, rural towns, which saw a burst of activity when the road finally passed through. However, those communities in Illinois were already profiting from a paved highway that preceded Route 66 by a few years. In 1916, the Federal Aid Post Road Act, known as the Shackleford Bill, passed Congress and appropriated $75 million to be distributed to the states over the next five years. Funding was provided on an ongoing basis, over the period of five years, and the law made the federal government an active partner in road building for the first time. Five roads in Illinois were designated to receive federal money under the legislation; they were: the National Old Trails Road (National Road, present-day US 40), Lincoln Highway, Dixie Highway, the road from Chicago to Waukegan, and the road from Chicago to East St. Louis, including portions of IL 4, which was the actual predecessor to US 66 in Illinois.
The earliest known Chicago-to-St. Louis road was a former Native American Indian trail and stagecoach road that was renamed the Pontiac Trail in 1915. Route 66 began in Chicago and, once outside the metropolitan Chicago area, traveled down the Pontiac Trail through many cities and towns on its way southwest, including Joliet, Odell, Bloomington, Lincoln, Springfield, Edwardsville and East St. Louis.
IL 4 coincided with most of the Pontiac Trail and closely paralleled the Chicago and Alton Railroad tracks running from Chicago to East St. Louis. The roadbed for IL 4 was prepared in 1922 by teams of horses dragging equipment behind them. Laborers received 40 cents per hour for performing backbreaking labor on the roadbed. In 1923 in Bloomington-Normal, concrete was poured along the road's path along much the same route US 66 would take on its original route through the area. By 1924, IL 4 was almost entirely paved between Chicago and St. Louis. Construction on the few remaining parts of US 66 in Illinois began in 1926.
By the 1930s, US 66 extended from Chicago through Springfield to St. Louis; much of the original pavement was still in use by the early 1940. The dangers of the original pavement were recognized by the nickname "Bloody 66," which reflected the frequently deadly road accidents along the mostly rural route. When World War II erupted, Route 66—already the heaviest trafficked highway in Illinois—saw an increase in military traffic and importance to defense strategy. The aging road's deterioration was hastened by the increase in military truck traffic. The Defense Highway Act of 1941 provided Illinois with about $400,000 in funding, and by 1942, plans were in place to make much needed road repairs that were also intended in part to make the road safer for traffic.
Route description
St. Louis to Hamel
Entering Illinois from St. Louis, Missouri, the highway originally crossed the Mississippi River at the McKinley Bridge. This first alignment passed through Venice and Madison, eventually becoming IL 203 in northeast Granite City. In 1930, the Chain of Rocks Bridge was opened on Bypass US 66, allowing travelers to circumvent St. Louis. This route met the original Route 66 in Mitchell. The Luna Cafe, Bel-Air Drive-In sign, and the Old Greenway Motel can be found along this stretch of road, as well as The Mustang Corral, a Ford Mustang shop, just before IL 157 on the right hand side eastbound. Route 66 joined IL 157 through Hamel via Edwardsville.
Congestion at the McKinley Bridge was reduced in 1951 with the construction of the Veterans' Memorial Bridge. Route 66 joined US 40, traversing East St. Louis and Fairmont City. Shortly after Fairmont City, Route 66 passed Cahokia Mounds, later a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It joined IL 157 on the western end of Collinsville, later navigating to modern day I-55 via IL 159. This stretch of Route 66 met the main route in Hamel.
Poplar Street Bridge was opened in 1967 to facilitate I-55, I-64, and I-70. US 66 and US 40 were both simultaneously rerouted over this newer bridge instead of the Veterans' Memorial Bridge.
Hamel to Springfield
Original route
U.S. Route 66 originally followed IL 4 north of Hamel. This alignment navigated through Staunton, Sawyerville, Benld, Gillespie and Carlinville to Nilwood. The section of US 66/IL 4 from Nilwood to Girard was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 23, 2002. Route 66 continues along IL 4 north through Virden, Thayer, to Auburn. A section of IL 4 north of Auburn and south of Springfield, which was also part of the original span of US 66, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 6, 1998. This is the last brick alignment in Illinois. Route 66 then passed through Chatham, and entered Springfield. Breaking off of IL 4, the route passed the Illinois State Capitol and the Old State Capitol.
Eastern alternate route
An alternate route northward from Hamel was opened in 1930. It followed IL 4 for , then branched off to the east, bypassing Staunton. The road moved northeast through Mount Olive past the Soulsby Service Station. The alignment from Litchfield to Mount Olive was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 29, 2001. This segment is a stretch that begins northwest of Mount Olive in southeastern Macoupin County and ends about north of the intersection of US 66 and IL 16 in Litchfield. This alignment passed through North Litchfield, South Litchfield, Cahokia and Mount Olive townships. The terrain through the area is mostly flat. Unlike other sections of Route 66 in Illinois that are listed on the National Register, the segment from Litchfield to Mount Olive does not include any contributing structures such as bridges or culverts. The Ariston Café in Litchfield is the longest-operating restaurant along the former US 66. The Belvidere Café, Motel, and Gas Station also provided services to travelers. This alternate alignment continued north past Waggoner, Farmersville, Divernon, Glenarm and Cotton Hill, and joined the original path in Springfield near the Old Capitol Building.
The increased military traffic along US 66 during World War II and the consequent extreme demands put on the road bed caused parts of the road to be replaced along this stretch during the 1940s. This stretch of US 66 became a four-lane road with two lanes in each direction; the new lanes became the southbound lanes. For south of Litchfield, the southbound lanes still carry two-way traffic. A new alignment of Route 66 headed northeast of Hamel through Livingston. This new section bypassed Mount Olive to the northeast, later running west of the old route through Litchfield before rejoining the original path. Sections of the older alternate route were destroyed during the 1930s when Lake Springfield was created; the fragments of the old route that remain were added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 12, 2009.
Springfield to Gardner
From Springfield to Gardner, Historic US 66 is now a parallel frontage road for I-55, except for business loops for Lincoln and Bloomington-Normal. US 66 originally continued north through Springfield past the Illinois State Fairgrounds and the Lazy A Motel. The route rejoined IL 4 and continued alongside Carpenter Park; a small section of this route is listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 9, 2002. Route 66 continued north through Sherman and Broadwell, entering Lincoln. From there, the route veered northeast through the towns of Lawndale, Atlanta, McLean, Funk's Grove, and Shirley. McLean is home to the famous Dixie Travel Plaza, a truck stop that was established as the Dixie Truckers Home in 1928. To the north is Funks Grove, settled by the Funk family in 1824 where pure "maple sirup" is made.
From there, Route 66 entered Bloomington, passing through the Central Business District and the McLean County Square. Further north as Bloomington gave way to Normal, the route passed Illinois State Normal University. From Normal, Route 66 continued northeast through Towanda, where there is now a parkway and bike trail along a stretch of the abandoned highway, with exhibits that highlight all eight states through which Route 66 travels. There are also classic "Burma Shave" signs displayed along the trail.
Route 66 traveled through Lexington and Chenoa to Pontiac. Passing by the Illinois State Police Office, the route continued northeast through Cayuga and Odell to Dwight. A restored Standard Oil Gasoline Station still stands in Odell, as does Ambler's Texaco Gas Station in Dwight.
The stretch from Cayuga to Chenoa was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 23, 2007. This section of US 66 was commissioned in 1926. The road segment travels from the northeast to the southwest and begins in the southeast corner of Odell Township in Livingston County and ends in the northwest corner of Chenoa Township in McLean County. US 66 passes through Odell, Esmen, Pontiac, Eppards Point, and Pike Townships, on its stretch from Cayuga to Chenoa. The road is paralleled on its east by the Union Pacific Railroad tracks and on its west by I-55. Portions of the northbound and southbound lanes still carry traffic; in spots where one of the sections is still in use the other section is abandoned but still extant.
Along this stretch of highway, there are 14 structures and buildings. Insofar as the National Register and historic preservation are concerned, eight of those are considered contributing structures to the listing and six are considered non-contributing. There are also 12 highway bridges found along the segment and a box culvert; six of the bridges are considered contributing to the National Register listing, as is the box culvert. Six of the bridges have been replaced since the historic period, and all of the bridges are constructed from concrete. The bridges have various lengths and support structure. The box culvert along the segment of road measures by wide and was built as part of the road's foundation. This particular box culvert, like many, usually went unnoticed by travelers along the road. The section of pavement between Pontiac and Cayuga was part of a larger section of the roadway that began north of Cayuga in Gardner. This entire section was built in 1943 after large parts of Route 66 became badly deteriorated during the mid-1940s. The portion of the roadway that extended south of Pontiac to the newly constructed bypass at Bloomington-Normal was constructed during the early 1940s.
Gardner to Welco Corners
The route again split as it entered Gardner. These three alignments reunited at Welco Corners, which is located in present-day Bolingbrook.
1926 route through Joliet
The original eastern path of US 66, most of which is currently designated as IL 53, served Gardner, Braceville, Godley, and Braidwood before entering Wilmington. The section of Route 66 from Wilmington to Joliet was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 5, 2006, and travels through mostly agricultural land, although the area also includes the former Joliet Arsenal. This segment of Route 66 runs through Joliet, Jackson, Wilmington and Florence Townships in Will County. It begins in Wilmington and ends just short of the I-80 interchange in Joliet.
Several structures along this section are included in a National Register listing. Contributing structures to the listing include one bridge, one overpass and four concrete box culverts. The three-span, continuous steel multibeam bridge, in the northbound lanes, dates to 1950 and features concrete balusters and top rails. The box culverts were built as part of the 1926 road's foundation and range in width from . There are also four non-historic bridges constructed during the 1970s and 1980s along this stretch of US 66.
Currently, IL 53 coincides with Route 66 through Joliet. North of Joliet, the early roadbed was four lanes wide by 1936. It passed by the notorious Stateville Penitentiary, then in unincorporated Joliet but now in Crest Hill ever since that suburb was created. After IL 53 splits to the north in Romeoville, the road is signed only as Historic US 66. The later alignments rejoin this original path at Welco Corners, an early crossroads now part of Bolingbrook that by the 1920s had added a truck stop and other motorists' services.
When this path was bypassed by the redirected US 66 in 1940, it became Alternate US 66, following Chicago Street through the central city on the east bank of the Des Plaines River and Broadway on the west bank. Decades later, even this business route split through the central city into northbound lanes on Scott Street and southbound lanes on Ottawa Street, with the split rejoining on Chicago at Columbia Street before crossing the Ruby Street Bridge to the west bank and onto Broadway, going north toward Crest Hill. All three of these north–south downtown streets offer a number of important historical structures for travelers to visit.
From south to north, these include the Beaux Arts style Joliet Union Station by Jarvis Hunt; the historic Church of St. Anthony, the oldest public building still in use in Joliet; the endangered St. Mary Carmelite Church by Patrick Keely; the Joliet Public Library, designed by Daniel Burnham; the restored Rialto Square Theatre, one of the few surviving movie palaces of the more than 400 designed by Rapp & Rapp; the Georgian Revival Louis Joliet Hotel, transformed into apartments but still an unfinished renovation project; the Neoclassical Old Joliet Post Office; the Auditorium Building block by G. Julian Barnes, a classic Joliet limestone building; the Joliet Area Historical Museum, which occupies another Julian Barnes building, the former Ottawa Street Methodist Church; the Italianate style Joliet Chamber of Commerce Clubhouse, now the JJC Renaissance Center, and the old Joliet YMCA across the street, both designed by Burnham Brothers; two Art Deco structures, the Public Service Building on Ottawa and the KSKJ Building on Chicago Street further north; and the magnificent Bedford limestone St. Joseph Church, designed by Burnham protege William J. Brinkmann and the largest church in the city, whose twin spires could be seen for miles around when Route 66 was new.
There are also at least two pop-culture points of interest. One is just north of downtown Joliet, not far from the city center campus of Joliet Junior College. Sherb Noble opened the first Dairy Queen on June 22, 1940, at 501 N. Chicago Street in Joliet. Although the shop closed and the last soft serve ice cream was sold in the early 1950s, the building was designated a local landmark in November 2010. Across the river at the south end of Route 66 Park is the Rich & Creamy ice cream stand on Broadway, easily recognized by the statues of Elwood and Jake Blues, the Blues Brothers, posed on the roof. This classic stand is open for business from mid-spring through late fall, depending on the weather, and is a welcome stop on the tour.
1940 route through Plainfield
The new western route was opened in 1940 and began in Gardner on the other (west) side of the Southern Pacific railroad tracks, taking over portions of IL 59 and IL 126. Its main purpose was to bypass Joliet. This route also served Braceville, Godley, and Braidwood but then curved north to Channahon, Shorewood, and Plainfield, rejoining the original route at Welco Corners. In Plainfield, this new route overlapped US 30 (Lincoln Highway) for a short distance. After this road was opened, the original route through Joliet was redesignated as Alternate US 66. Between Gardner and Braceville, a magnificent through-arch bridge carried this alignment of Route 66 over railroad tracks; unfortunately it deteriorated beyond repair and was demolished in 2000. Beyond Braidwood, motorists can follow this 1940 alignment on IL 129, I-55, IL 59, IL 126, and I-55 again.
1957 freeway route
In 1957, a new freeway, which is today's I-55, was opened as US 66 between Gardner and Welco Corners, bypassing both Braidwood and Plainfield. Most portions of the 1940 western alignment that were not incorporated into the new freeway reverted to their previous state routes, except for the section from Gardner through Braidwood, which became IL 129. This freeway was originally designated only as US 66 and was then also designated as I-55 in 1960, becoming the first complete section of I-55 in Illinois. It served as mainline US 66 for 19 years, from 1957 to 1976, longer than either of the two previous alignments.
Between 2007 and 2008, the section of I-55 between I-80 and Welco Corners, originally built as the redirected path of US 66 in 1957, was rebuilt and widened to three lanes in each direction to accommodate modern traffic loads. However, between I-80 and Gardner, I-55 today remains mostly as it was as US 66 in 1957. This heritage is evident, with fully mature trees in interchange medians, several 1957-era motels and gas stations still in operation, and several original bridges still in use, such as the Smith Bridge over the Des Plaines River and the nearby Blodgett Road overpass.
Welco Corners to Chicago
From Welco Corners in Bolingbrook to Indian Head Park, I-55 was built on top of much of old US 66. Here, Route 66 passed through what is now Woodridge, Darien, Willowbrook and Burr Ridge—none of which were in existence in 1926 when the route was created and did not come into existence as suburbs until the late 1950s through late 1960s. The stretch from Darien northeast through what is now Countryside and Hodgkins was then part of a large rural farmland collectively known as Lyonsville, as the eastern end of it was located in Lyons Township in Cook County. This section of mainline I-55 is today signed as Historic US 66, though inconsistently so, making it difficult for travelers to follow along the original 1926 path; however, a section of the original highway that now serves as the two-way north frontage road in Darien, Willowbrook and Burr Ridge retains the old Route 66 feel. The original path is slightly difficult to follow here, due to swings north around the I-55 interchanges between Lemont Road and County Line Road, but not impossible, and taking the north frontage road leads travelers past several sites of historic interest, including Cass Cemetery and the former Martin B. Madden mansion known as Castle Eden (now a Carmelite priory) in Darien as well as the International Harvester experimental fields in Burr Ridge (once known as Harvester, Illinois after the plant located there).
Near the Cass Avenue instersection, Route 66 and I-55 pass by the northern edge of the Argonne National Laboratory campus. A mile or so further east near the IL 83 interchange, Dell Rhea's Chicken Basket in Willowbrook is still a popular stop for motorists on the route, although being cut off from the Interstate did cost it a significant amount of business after I-55 was built and during the 1960s through 1980s. At the Indian Head Park interchange with I-294 (Tri-State Tollway), I-55 separates from US 66 to follow a more southerly route as the Stevenson Expressway while Historic US 66 continues eastward on Joliet Road, passing by the historic Lyonsville Congregational Church at Wolf Road and traversing Countryside, Hodgkins and McCook.
The original path of Route 66 on Joliet Road intersects the overlapping US 12/US 20/US 45 at LaGrange Road in Countryside before touching the edge of Hodgkins near East Avenue. A brief stretch of Route 66 in McCook between East Avenue and 55th Street west of First Avenue has been permanently damaged by a local quarry and was closed in May 1998, and Historic US 66 detours onto East Avenue north to 55th Street east before intersecting again with Joliet Road. The detour around the quarry is well marked. In McCook, the route passes by the former Snuffy's 24-Hour Grill, now restored and transformed into the Steak N Egger on Route 66.
The route continues northeast on Joliet Road through McCook and Lyons, then jogs north briefly onto Harlem Avenue to Ogden Avenue in Berwyn, where it meets US 34. From Berwyn, Route 66 continues northeast on Ogden Avenue past the Berwyn Route 66 Museum, passing through Cicero before entering Chicago on a diagonal and progressing through the Greater Lawndale area, where it divides North Lawndale from South Lawndale before moving through Douglass Park, the Tri-Taylor Historic District and the Illinois Medical District on the Near West Side.
Turning due east from Ogden Avenue once north of the I-290 (Eisenhower Expressway), Route 66 moves through the Jackson Boulevard Historic District toward the Chicago Loop via Jackson Boulevard. After a construction project during the early- to mid-1950s temporarily designated Jackson Boulevard as one-way east, Jackson Boulevard became one way eastbound permanently in 1955; thus, Route 66 from the West Loop through the downtown area was split, with the westbound lanes relocated to Adams Street.
The eastern endpoint of US 66 was always at US 41. The original 1926 terminus was at Jackson Boulevard and Michigan Avenue, as Michigan Avenue was designated US 41 in 1926. However, when US 41 through most of Chicago was relocated to Lake Shore Drive in 1938, Route 66 was extended an additional two blocks east on Jackson Drive through Grant Park, past Buckingham Fountain, to end at Lake Shore Drive on the shore of Lake Michigan. This last two-block section on Jackson Drive is two way; consequently, when Jackson was designated a one-way street in 1955, westbound Route 66 made a one-block long jog northbound on Michigan Avenue before continuing west on Adams.
The current "End Historic Illinois U.S. Route 66" markers are located on Jackson (eastbound) and the "Start Historic Illinois U.S. Route 66" markers are on Adams (westbound) at Michigan Avenue, in the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District, in recognition of the original eastern terminus of US 66 at Michigan and Jackson. The historic eastern terminus is marked by the southwest corner of the Art Institute of Chicago and the Fountain of the Great Lakes in the Art Institute's South Garden along Michigan Avenue; both the museum and the fountain were already there long before the route's inauguration at that intersection in November 1926 and remain there today.
Major intersections
Distances listed are based on entering Illinois via the Veterans Memorial Bridge and following an alignment through Plainfield, using the last known non-freeway route where drivable.
Structures
Filling stations
Filling stations were essential to the success of a trans-national road such as Route 66. Stations evolved their own unique design types and filling station architecture varied by period, at one time or another all major design types were represented along US 66 in Illinois. The existence of Route 66, and its alignment which ran parallel to much of the Chicago–St. Louis-running Chicago and Alton Railroad, itself made gasoline distribution simpler. The earliest gas stations were curbside but these were quickly rendered obsolete because of their tendency to back up traffic when a customer used the roadside pumps. The curbside filling station was the first type of business to use the actual term "filling station". Other types of gas stations evolved such as the house or cottage type, the house and canopy, the house and bays, and the oblong box type. Examples of extant filling stations along Route 66 in Illinois can be found in varying states of disrepair, and a few have been fully restored.
Restaurants
In the early years of Route 66, many motorists brought their own food along with them and cooked it on the road. Constrained by tight finances and a mistrust of the unknown quality of road food, these earliest travelers were often reluctant to eat out. By the 1930s, this attitude had eased somewhat, and more motorists were eating out along the road. As drivers and automobiles on the road increased, so too did opportunities for fast food. One pioneer in this field was the White Castle chain, founded in 1921; the oldest White Castle restaurant on Route 66 is still in business in Berwyn.
The road food trend was aided by entrepreneurs such as Howard Johnson who provided predictable, simple dishes—comfort food for the weary traveler. Many of the first roadside cafés were part of motor camp complexes, but others, such as Johnson's started explicitly as cafes and evolved further from there. Large companies, such as Johnson's, or the Steak 'n Shake chain which began in Normal and was based on the pioneering idea of curbside service at the car, enjoyed success alongside what were mostly "mom-and pop" eateries dotting the Mother Road.
Some locations along Route 66 in Illinois became known for their cuisine. One example is the state capital, Springfield. The city has long had an affiliation with food. The corn dog on a stick was invented in the city under the name "Cozy Dog", although there is some debate to the actual origin of the popular snack. The Cozy Dog Drive In has been a Springfield Route 66 staple since 1950. One of the first U.S. drive-thru restaurant windows is still in operation in Springfield on Route 66 at the Maid-Rite Sandwich Shop.
The oldest restaurant still in operation along the entire stretch of US 66, nationwide, is the Ariston Café in Litchfield. The Ariston is an excellent example of the type of mom and pop operation that flourished along Route 66 in Illinois, as is the Palms Grill Café in Atlanta. Two others are the upstate fried-chicken rivals, White Fence Farm in Romeoville and Dell Rhea's Chicken Basket in Willowbrook. The former is a large, rambling, old-style farmhouse, the latter more like a cozy, neon-lit roadhouse where one can hear live blues on weekend nights; the farm offers an antique-filled gallery for visitors, the roadhouse a spate of Route 66 memorabilia, a neon fowl as its emblem, and loads of knick-knacks celebrating chickens. Each has its fans; both offer the traveler the comfort of a relaxed sit-down meal, and both continue to flourish as unique experiences on the route.
Camps, motor courts, and motels
Motorists along Route 66 during the 1920s usually carried the essentials with them and often simply set up camp on a rural roadside. Eventually, tourist camps began to spring up along the highway. At first, these campsites and cabins, offered for 25¢ and 50¢ apiece, were unfurnished; the tourist camps offered few amenities. As amentities such as communal toilets began to appear, travelers began to demand them. The camps gave way to motor courts that consisted of a row of cabins, then motor hotels, long buildings with individual rooms side by side and parking in front of them—the name for which was in time shortened to simply "motel".
Bridges
Nearly all bridges along old Route 66 in Illinois are constructed from concrete, with very few exceptions. These concrete bridges are simple, lack ornamentation, and all of their major components—abutments, piers, floor beams, decks, stringers, and railings—were constructed from concrete. The only ornamentation is found in the railings, which sometimes contained balusters. Between 1926 and 1940, most of the Route 66 bridges in Illinois were built as two-lane spans. Later incarnations built after 1940 had two lanes in each direction.
One exception to these simple bridges was the now-demolished, magnificent steel bowstring arch bridge at Braceville. There are three notable exceptions that remain. All three are in the greater metropolitan Chicago area: the Jackson Boulevard and Adams Street Bridges over the South Branch of the Chicago River, and the Ruby Street Bridge over the Des Plaines River in Joliet. The Jackson, Adams and Ruby Street bridges are the only three remaining movable span bridges on the entire length of Route 66 in eight states, and they are marvels of modern engineering: Chicago-style double-leaf bascule trunnion bridges. The bridge at Adams Street and its neighbor at Jackson Boulevard are the only two single deck bridges in the city that represent the Plan of Chicago's ideal" downtown river bridge. The Jackson and Adams bridges are also among the oldest spans still in use along Route 66 and two of the busiest in Chicago—therefore probably in the state—due to their heavy volume of weekday pedestrian and commuter traffic crossing the bridges to and from nearby Union Station.
Museums and attractions
Illinois is home of various museums devoted to the history of US 66, such as the Berwyn Route 66 Museum in Berwyn, the Joliet Area Historical Museum's Route 66 Welcome Center, the Illinois Route 66 Association Hall of Fame and Museum in Pontiac, and the Cruisin' with Lincoln Visitors Center, inside the McLean County Museum of History in Bloomington, Illinois. Vehicles used by late Route 66 travelling artist Bob Waldmire, including a Volkswagen Type 2 minibus that inspired the creation of Pixar animated character Fillmore in the film Cars, are part of the museum collection in Pontiac. Two other museums of interest in Pontiac are the International Walldog Mural and Sign Art Museum and the Pontiac–Oakland Museum. The newest Route 66 museum is the Litchfield Museum and Route 66 Welcome Center, which opened in 2012 across from the Ariston Cafe. This museum houses an extensive history of the city of Litchfield and offers guided tours and special events.
Route 66 in Illinois is also famous for some very quirky jumbo-size attractions, such as the former Bunyon's Paul Bunyan statue, a "Muffler Man" giant originally from a Berwyn hot dog shack that now stands in the quaint downstate community of Atlanta; the similar Gemini Giant in Wilmington; the largest wind farm East of the Mississippi River, Twin Groves Wind Farm, just east of Bloomington, with more than 240 turbines across ; the Railsplitter Covered Wagon in Lincoln, the world's largest according to Guinness Book of World Records; the Route 66 mural in Pontiac that depicts the world's largest US 66 shield; and the Tall Bunny at Henry's Ra66it Ranch in Staunton.
There are a number of other attractions along Historic US 66 that are in the process of being restored, such as Sprague's Super Service gas station in Normal and The Mill on 66 restaurant in Lincoln. Both sites have received numerous grants and philanthropic donations, but are still in need of project funding to complete their restoration.
The central Illinois section of Route 66 includes some of the territory that Lincoln the lawyer covered on the 8th Judicial Circuit. Here, visitors can see several Abraham Lincoln attractions as part of their Route 66 experience. In Springfield, there is the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Lincoln's Tomb, and the Lincoln Home National Historic Site with a brand new exhibit of items from the Steven Spielberg movie Lincoln. In the town of Lincoln, which was named for the 16th president and christened by him in 1853, visitors can see the newly expanded Lincoln Heritage Museum on the campus of Lincoln College. Also, visitors can stop in at the David Davis Mansion in Bloomington to learn the story of how Davis became manager of Lincoln's presidential campaign and later was appointed by him to serve as a justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. This section of Route 66 also offers two other interesting side trips: Illinois Amish Country and the Shelbyville State Fish and Wildlife Area.
Significance
US 66 has come to stand for the collective, American tourist experience and holds a special place in American popular culture. There is a certain nostalgic appeal to Route 66 that is associated with the thrill of the open road that has contributed to its popularity. Looking at the historic roadway through Illinois from a different perspective, it reveals a unique history that tells the story of movement and road building across the prairie. Study of the highway in Illinois also reveals the evolution of the Interstate Highway System and the growing popularity of automobiles.
Aside from the six sections of the route in Illinois that have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the entire stretch of US 66 through Illinois has been declared a National Scenic Byway and is alternatively known as the Illinois Route 66 Scenic Byway. The stretch of road was declared the Illinois Route 66 Scenic Byway on September 22, 2005 by the U.S. Department of Transportation.
See also
Notes
References
External links
Illinois Route 66 Scenic Byway
Illinois Digital Archives: State Highway Maps
Roads on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
66
Route 66 in Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Cook County, Illinois
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver%20Zoo
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Denver Zoo
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Denver Zoo is an nonprofit zoological garden located in City Park of Denver, Colorado, United States. Founded in 1896, it is operated by the Denver Zoological Foundation and funded in part by the Scientific and Cultural Facilities District (SCFD) in addition to ticket sales and private donations. It is the most visited paid attraction in Colorado.
Denver Zoo was started with the donation of an orphaned American black bear. With the construction of Bear Mountain, it became the first zoo in the United States to use naturalistic zoo enclosures rather than cages with bars. It expanded on this concept with Primate Panorama, featuring huge mesh tents and open areas for apes and monkeys, and with Predator Ridge, which has three separate areas through which animals are rotated so that their overlapping scents provide environmental enrichment. Toyota Elephant Passage, which opened on June 1, 2012, is divided into five areas for rotating the various species.
Denver Zoo is accredited by the (American) Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) and American Humane and is also a member of the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA). The zoo achieved ISO 14001 certification in 2009, was given the first AZA Green Award in 2011, and was named the "Greenest Zoo in the Country" at the World Renewable Energy Forum in 2012. In 2015, it was re-certified for ISO 14001 and achieved OHSAS 18001 certification, becoming only the fourth zoo in the world to get both certifications.
History
Early years
Denver Zoo was founded in 1896 when an orphaned American black bear cub named Billy Bryan – short for William Jennings Bryan after the contemporary American politician – was given to Thomas S. McMurry (mayor of Denver from 1895–1899) as a gift. McMurry gave the hard-to-manage cub to the keeper of City Park, Alexander J. Graham, who started the zoo with this animal. Other animals at the young zoo included native waterfowl at Duck Lake, native prairie dogs, antelope which roamed the park, and a flock of Chinese pheasants, which later populated the eastern plains of the state.
As this collection grew, the newly-formed park board continued to focus almost exclusively on acquiring native animals (with a notable pheasant collection and rhesus macaques as the exceptions) and some of the most popular animals at the park were large herds of bison and elk.
In 1905, a population of red squirrels was added to the zoo's collection; this population grew rapidly and decimated the bird population at Duck Lake. A plan to shoot the squirrels was scrapped when citizens protested. Instead, as many squirrels as could be caught were sent to the Denver Mountain Parks.
Mid-20th century
The zoo was a motley menagerie until 1906, when Mayor Robert W. Speer declared that the zoo's "[p]rison bars can be done away with" in favor of "concrete rocks, waterfalls, trees, etc." Speer hired the city's landscape architect, Saco R. DeBoer, to draw up the plans for his renovation and appointed Victor H. Borcherdt as zoo director.
Borcherdt designed the Bear Mountain exhibit, which opened in 1918. This structure is tall and long, and cost $50,000 to build ($ in dollars ). It was built of dyed and textured concrete forms cast from Dinosaur Mountain just outside Morrison, Colorado. Hidden moats replaced cage bars, and native plants and an artificial stream enhanced the natural look. The two main exhibits originally housed polar bears and grizzly bears.
The south tip of the exhibit was designed to resemble Mesa Verde National Park. Originally it housed monkeys, but due to escape problems California sea lions were housed there instead. Between 1941 and 1961 it housed a female polar bear named Velox, who became the mascot of the 31st U.S. Infantry Regiment in 1952. Velox died at the zoo in 1961 and a memorial stone for her is displayed at the zoo. Bear Mountain established Denver as one of the foremost among American zoos, and the Saint Louis Zoo hired Borcherdt after seeing the exhibit.
Although other zoos in the region made extensive use of New Deal funds to upgrade their facilities, only one notable addition was made to Denver Zoo between 1918 and 1950. Monkey Island was built in 1937 using funds from the Works Progress Administration. Mayor Benjamin F. Stapleton funded the zoo very little, and it was in poorly maintained condition when Mayor Quigg Newton was elected in 1947. Newton hired DeBoer, the architect involved with the zoo's design forty years before, to plan a rebirth. Starting with the 1950 overhaul of Monkey Island, the zoo has steadily added to and improved its exhibits.
The Denver Zoological Foundation was created in 1950, the same year that the zoo acquired its first elephant, Cookie. A Children's zoo was opened in 1951 (since replaced by Primate Panorama). A perimeter fence was built in 1957, defining the zoo as a separate area but still within City Park. Automobile traffic in the zoo was finally eliminated completely in 1959. Pachyderm Habitat was opened the same year, and Cookie was joined by a second elephant, Candy.
The zoo opened the Feline House in 1964, a Giraffe House in 1966, and an Animal Hospital in 1969. Bird World was opened in 1975, followed by the Mountain Sheep Habitat in 1979, Northern Shores for polar bears, Arctic foxes, North American river otters, and pinnipeds in 1987, and Wolf Pack Woods in 1988.
The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 made it impossible to keep the polar bears and sea lions in the Bear Mountain enclosure. This and its deteriorating condition lead to a $250,000 renovation of the exhibit starting in 1987 ($ in dollars ). The exhibit reopened in 1989 with grizzly bears and Asiatic black bears occupying the northern two exhibits and coatis in the southern tip.
1990s-present
In 1993, the zoo opened the $11.5 million Tropical Discovery exhibit. Designed by the Denver architectural firm Anderson Mason Dale, this indoor tropical garden topped by glass pyramids is the aquarium and herpetarium of Denver Zoo, and its opening doubled both the number of species and the number of animals at the zoo. Along with the animals, 90% of which had never been on display at the zoo, there are over 250 species of plants represented in the exhibit.
On November 6, 1994, twin polar bear cubs Klondike and Snow were born to a first-time mother named Ulu, who rejected the cubs. They were successfully raised by zoo staff and became a popular attraction. The bears were transferred to SeaWorld Orlando. In 2012 Snow was transferred from Sea World in Orlando, Florida to the Reid Park Zoo in Tucson, Arizona, where she died unexpectedly on September 2, 2012. Klondike died at SeaWorld Orlando on September 13, 2013. Their story is commemorated at Denver Zoo by a bronze sculpture located across from the main polar bear viewing area.
On February 24, 2007, a jaguar mauled zookeeper Ashlee Pfaff inside the animal's enclosure. The jaguar was shot and killed by the zoo's emergency response team while rescuing Pfaff, who later died of her injuries at a local hospital. This event occurred despite zoo policy prohibiting direct contact between keepers and big cats. An investigation by the zoo concluded the attack was the result of human error by Pfaff. For a short time in early 2007, the zoo's jaguar exhibit remained empty until the arrival of replacement jaguar Caipora. The zoo has not had jaguars since 2010.
In 2009, Denver Zoo was the first zoo in the United States to achieve ISO 14001 certification. City park rebuilt its greenhouses in 2009, and as part of this project was able to provide the zoo with its own dedicated greenhouse.
That same year, Denver Zoo celebrated the birth of an endangered aye-aye that was the first of the species to be conceived and born in a North American zoo. The zoo has continued to have a successful breeding program.
In 2010, the zoo, in cooperation with the City and County of Denver, drained Duck Lake in order to remove sediment buildup and improve its water quality. Duck Lake is part of City Park but not part of the zoo. It is a major nesting area for black-crowned night herons and snowy egrets in the state. The nature walk along the lake shore was upgraded as part of the Asian Tropics project.
In 2012, the zoo opened the $50 million Toyota Elephant Passage. The exhibit was originally announced in 2006 as Asian Tropics, and bids for a general contractor were sent out in June 2009. The exhibit was constructed by the Kiewit Building Group and groundbreaking was on December 2, 2009. It was opened to the general public on June 1, 2012.
In 2015, following conservation work around Lake Titicaca in Peru, Denver Zoo welcomed 20 Lake Titicaca frogs from the Huachipa Zoo and later became the first zoo outside South America to breed the rare amphibians. Some have moved to other institutions in hopes of building a healthy captive population that can be released back into the lake in the future. In nearby Colombia, the zoo released Andean condors in 2010 and 2012.
Exhibits
Denver Zoo houses species from all over the world, including hoofed mammals, carnivorous mammals, primates, pachyderms, birds, reptiles, and fish. The zoo's animal collection contains 3,500 specimens representing 550 unique species. The zoo is laid out in a large loop, with exhibits both inside and outside the loop. Current exhibits include the following:
Primates
Primate Panorama spreads over and primarily houses apes and other larger primates. Tree-dwelling apes and monkeys live in open-air wire mesh tents that soar four stories high and cover more than an acre of ground. Inside these tents, primates like ring-tailed lemurs, Wolf's guenons, black-and-white colobus, red-crowned mangabeys, siamangs and black-handed spider monkeys can play and climb on twisting vines. Western lowland gorillas roam freely, climbing ropes and taking afternoon hammock naps in one of the largest gorilla habitats in the world. Sumatran orangutans have their own outdoor habitat where they can climb trees and swing in hammocks.
Jewels of the Emerald Forest pavilion is situated near the entrance to Primate Panorama. It features a meandering trail through diorama replicas exhibiting many small primates amongst other rainforest animals. Animals housed here include the aye-aye, pale-headed saki and golden lion tamarin. Connecting to the building is an island exhibit that's home to red-ruffed lemurs.
The nearby Shamba offers a view of a Central West African village and is home to red river hogs and mandrills. An aviary further down the trail showcases rhinoceros hornbills.
Monkey Island was built in 1937 with funds from the Works Progress Administration. It was rehabilitated in 1950. In 2023, the island's hooded capuchins were moved to the Emerald Forest building.
Monkey House, facing Monkey Island, was the original primate exhibit in the zoo. In recent years, it served as a winter residence for the capuchins but as of 2023 it is no longer in use. The brick building is considered a historic structure and repurposing of some kind is likely.
Cats
Predator Ridge, completed in 2004 and the first exhibit most visitors encounter, is a large exhibit representing the African savanna. It has the ability to rotate multiple groups of Southern African lions and spotted hyenas, whose overlapping scents provide environmental enrichment for the animals. Other small African animals like dwarf crocodiles and leopard tortoises are exhibited in and around the Pahali Ya Simba pavilion. A habitat for African penguins, featuring a 10,000 gallon pool with underwater viewing, was completed in 2021 and is located directly inside the front entrance.
Feline House was built in 1964. In its heyday, lions, tigers, jaguars, cheetahs, Amur leopards, snow leopards, striped hyenas, fossa, red pandas, dwarf mongooses, maned wolves, northern tree shrews and bat-eared foxes called the building home. Much of the building is now closed and has been renovated in some areas to make way for Stingray Cove as well as exercise yards for animals in the zoo's education collection.
The Edge is a newly designed exhibit modeled after the pine forests of Russia for the zoo's Amur tigers. Two yards with large pools and pathways that wander over visitors' heads provide enrichment and exercise for the tigers. It opened to the public in March 2017, replacing Wolf Pack Woods, which opened in 1988.
Cats elsewhere include fishing cats and clouded leopards, both in Toyota Elephant Passage.
Hoofed mammals
Hoofed mammals are generally housed in the center of the zoo's main circular path. Species in the hoofed mammal yards include Grevy's zebras, reticulated giraffes, Bactrian camels, okapis, yellow-backed duikers, Somali wild asses, a Vietnamese potbellied pig named Charlie, a variety of antelope species including eastern bongo, addax, lesser kudu and southern gerenuk, as well as Cape buffalo. Denver Zoo is also one of only a few zoos in the world to house a breeding herd of Przewalski's horses. Other species exhibited in the hoofed mammal yards include Abyssinian ground hornbills with the duikers, west African crowned cranes with the gerenuk, ostriches with the zebras as well as red kangaroos and African wild dogs.
Giraffe House was created in 1966 and, along with the outdoor giraffe run, houses the zoo's giraffe herd.
Mountain Sheep Habitat was opened in 1979. It contains two natural-style "mountains" housing Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep and mountain goats.
Birds
The original aviary currently houses the bald eagle and Andean condor, and an attached building is the winter quarters for American and Chilean flamingos.
Lorikeet Adventure, the Nurture Trail, and the Avian Propagation Center all opened in 2006. Lorikeet Adventure is a large, open-air mesh tent where visitors can mingle with and feed a variety of lorikeet species such as rainbow, scarlet-breasted and coconut lorikeets; it is also the home of a blue-streaked lory, the only typical lory in the exhibit. The Nurture Trail is a short trail through a forested glade home to two exhibits: one for red-crowned cranes and one for grey crowned cranes. The trail then goes past smaller outdoor enclosures attached to the Avian Propagation Center, which provides Denver Zoo with state-of-the-art facilities for breeding and raising all types of birds.
The Forest Aviary in Primate Panorama is a area richly landscaped and enclosed in a nearly invisible wire mesh. Visitors can walk around inside with the birds, which include (depending on the season) the Egyptian vulture and waldrapp ibis as well as a wide array of waterfowl.
Humboldt penguins are housed north of Bear Mountain.
Former bird exhibits included:
Bird Garden, an open-air mesh tent home to exotic birds including kookaburras, great argus and Cabot's tragopans. It was taken down on December 2, 2009, alongside enclosures for yaks, American bison, Mishmi takin, waterbuck, Ankole-Watusi cattle, muskoxen, Pallas' cats, mountain lions, reindeer and white-lipped deer, to make way for Toyota Elephant Passage.
Bird World was open from 1975–2019. Its multiple exhibits were regarded as some of the best indoor tropical rainforests in the country.
Tropical Discovery
Tropical Discovery was opened in 1993 as the zoo's herpetarium and aquarium. The building explores several tropical environments and displays mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians and insects from these areas. The trip begins with a view into a South American river with different species of river fishes then continues to a cave featuring several bat species including the short-tailed bat, Jamaican fruit bat and vampire bat, as well as blind cave fish. A snake exhibit hidden inside a Mayan temple features venomous species from around the world including the snouted cobra, eyelash viper and neotropical rattlesnakes. Animals seen in the Rainforest area include the capybara, Linne's two-toed sloth, archerfish and an array of poison dart frogs. Further on, visitors are immersed in a coral reef with false percula clownfish, lionfish, queen angelfish, spotted garden eels and more. Around the corner, a gallery of North American snakes is located across from the alligator snapping turtle and other North American reptiles and fish in a large pool. Further on, the Siamese crocodile also enjoys a large pool near the Matamata turtle and the Discovery Room, which features other small species like the frilled lizard.
Dragons of Komodo was the largest Komodo dragon exhibit of its kind when it opened in 1999 and is still one of the largest Komodo dragon exhibits in the country. As well as housing Komodo dragons, Dragons of Komodo is home to other island reptiles like rhinoceros iguanas and giant New Caledonia geckos.
Toyota Elephant Passage
Toyota Elephant Passage is a $50 million exhibit. At its opening, it was the largest bull elephant habitat in the world, designed to house up to 12 elephants, 8 of them bulls. This arrangement allows the zoo to conduct behavioral research related to the recent discovery that bull elephants (originally thought to be solitary) form loose bachelor herds in the wild when not breeding with matriarchal herds. The exhibit houses Asian elephants and other animals such as greater one-horned rhinoceros and Malayan tapirs, which rotate among different habitats in the same style as Predator Ridge. It includes more than of trails for the animals, and pools in the exhibit contain a total of . Northern white-cheeked gibbons swing directly over a boardwalk for visitors, traveling between three islands. Clouded leopards and sarus cranes live in nearby yards. The exhibit includes an indoor facility for smaller species like fishing cats, Asian small-clawed otters, great hornbills and green tree pythons and it provides important breeding facilities for the Indian rhino and Asian elephant in North America.
The exhibit opened with two female elephants (Mimi and Dolly) and two bull elephants (Bodhi and Groucho). The zoo made history in 2013 by transporting Billy, a bull elephant from Belgium's Antwerp Zoo, via plane to the new exhibit. This marked the first time in over 30 years an Asian elephant had been imported into the United States and one of the few times the genetics of the European population would mix with the North American population. In October 2018, bull elephants Chuck and Jake came to the exhibit from the African Lion Safari in Ontario. This move made Denver's herd the largest Asian elephant bachelor herd in the world with five bulls.
On February 22, 2020, the first greater one-horned rhino calf in the zoo's history was born as the result of artificial insemination.
At its opening, the exhibit contained a waste-to-energy gasification system that allowed organic waste (i.e. uneaten food, animal waste, etc...) to be burned in an oxygen-deprived environment in order to create energy. The system powered outdoor hot tubs for the elephants and Denver Zoo's goal was to be "Zero Waste" by 2020, powering the whole facility with waste. Those involved with the project reported that no adverse byproducts would be released when the system was running but several surrounding residents were concerned that the gasification process would create an unpleasant odor around the zoo. These concerns resulted in ending the gasification project at Denver Zoo. Since the decision in 2015, the zoo is seeking partners to continue the project with offsite.
Nonetheless, the exhibit and its buildings have received LEED Platinum certification from the U.S. Green Building Council.
Harmony Hill
Harmony Hill provides a habitat for grizzly bears modeled after the fictional Harmony Hill State Park. A second habitat next to it is designed to resemble a backyard in order to illustrate and provide solutions for human-wildlife conflict. The second habitat is home to two rescued leucistic raccoons. Harmony Hill opened in 2019, making use of the former polar bear exhibit which opened as part of Northern Shores in 1987.
Northern Shores
This exhibit opened in 1987 and has continued to be a spacious and engaging home for California sea lions. Multiple pools, islands for sun bathing, underwater viewing windows and demonstrations provide guests with many opportunities to connect with the residents.
Pachyderm Habitat
Opened in 1959, the Pachyderm Habitat is currently home to Black rhinoceros and river hippopotamus. The Asian elephants and Malayan tapirs were moved to Toyota Elephant Passage prior to its opening in June 2012. As of summer 2015, the Pachyderm Habitat is also home to a special area for children called the Be a Zookeeper Zone where they can learn how to be a zookeeper or meet small animals from the education collection. Two llamas named Jorge and Fernando came to the zoo for the new area.
Bear Mountain
This historic exhibit, on the National Register of Historic Places and originally opened in 1918, is one of the first natural-style zoo exhibits in North America and the first to use simulated concrete rocks. It underwent a $250,000 restoration between 1987 and 1989. After Bear Mountain's grizzly bears were moved to a newer exhibit, it has become home to smaller species like cinereous vultures and a North American porcupine.
Stingray Cove
Stingray Cove is a seasonal, interactive exhibit featuring an 18,000 gallon shaded open-air aquarium housing cownose rays, white-spotted and brown-banded bamboo sharks, southern stingrays, shovelnose guitarfish and bonnethead sharks. Guests are able to gently touch, feel, and feed the rays as they swim around the tank. Admission to the exhibit (which includes one piece of food for feeding to the rays) costs $5 in addition to zoo entry. The exhibit opened in June 2020.
Traveling Exhibits
Denver Zoo has hosted several traveling exhibits in recent years to raise awareness for conservation efforts. Traveling exhibits brought to the zoo have included "Nature Connects, Art With Lego® Bricks," "Washed Ashore, Art to Save the Sea" and "Dinos! Live at Denver Zoo."
Other facilities
The Conservation Carousel features hand-carved wooden replicas of some of Denver's most popular residents including a polar bear mom and cubs, giraffes, okapi and baby gorilla, along with many other endangered animals.
The Denver Zoo Railroad presented by Union Pacific offers a quick trip around the zoo's carousel meadow filled with beautiful lush foliage, under the shade of 100-year-old trees. Visitors can see American and Chilean flamingos and other waterfowl just outside the Primate Panorama exhibit. Denver Zoo Railroad is the first natural gas-powered zoo train in the United States.
The 4D Theater is located near the Asian hoofstock exhibits. The line visitors wait in displays artifacts, art and music celebrating central Asian culture and folktales.
The Helen and Arthur E. Johnson Animal Hospital was completed in 2021 and features one of the few CT scanners on an American zoo campus as well as double the space of the previous hospital built in 1969. The Schlessman Family Foundation Visitor and Education Center has windows onto a lab, surgical suite and treatment rooms allowing visitors to watch procedures.
The Gates Wildlife Conservation Education Center houses classrooms and meeting rooms for public and private (rental) use.
The Wild Encounters outdoor amphitheater is designed for wildlife presentations and is located just outside the Gates Center.
Education and conservation
Throughout the day Denver Zoo provides educational opportunities for visitors, including the sea lion demonstration, Toyota Elephant Passage demonstration, Predator Ridge demonstration, a variety of programming at both Wildlife Plaza and the Wild Encounters amphitheater as well as many other feedings/demonstrations. Some of these are seasonal and vary throughout the year.
In 2014, a paid, mobile app titled the Denver Zoo Audio Tour became available, providing zoo visitors with the ability to hear short, educational presentations about numerous zoo animals.
Denver Zoo is a part of Miami University’s graduate-level Advanced Inquiry Program (AIP). The program offers a Master of Arts in Biology or Master of Arts in Teaching through online coursework and face-to-face experiential learning experiences at the Denver Zoo.
Denver Zoo is part of the (American) Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) Species Survival Plan for many species. As an active member of the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), Denver Zoo works with other zoos and aquariums around the world to respond to the global extinction crisis facing the world's frogs and other amphibians. Denver Zoo works with conservationists in Peru to save wild populations of the endangered Lake Titicaca frog and Lake Junin giant frog. Amphibian experts with the zoo have had rare success breeding boreal toads, listed as endangered in several western states, and have released over 600 young toads in southwestern Utah. In 2021, the zoo and Colorado Parks and Wildlife partnered to launch a program aimed at increasing the boreal toad population of the state.
Denver Zoo also has a storied history with the American bison as it was one of the first zoos to assist in nationwide efforts to save the species from extinction. A breeding herd of five bison arrived at the zoo in 1899. The zoo no longer houses the species but manages a herd on the Rio Mora National Wildlife Refuge in New Mexico and also contributed animals to both the Genesee herd near Denver and the Heartland Ranch herd near Lamar. The latter herd, behaving naturally on thousands of acres and with the help of the Southern Plains Land Trust, almost entirely returned the ecosystem to its natural state as of 2019.
Denver Zoo's conservation efforts are coordinated by the Department of Conservation Biology. Through continued research and funding, the Department helps to conserve a variety of species worldwide. Although the zoo has been active in conservation and research since its founding in 1896, the establishment of the Department of Conservation Biology provides dedicated staff and funding to support hundreds of projects throughout the world.
Events
Boo at the Zoo is held every Halloween and is great fun for children.
Zoo Lights is open during December evenings. This is a spectacular stroll through a wonderland of lights, many of them animated and representing animals at the zoo.
References
Further reading
External links
Tourist attractions in Denver
Zoos in Colorado
1896 establishments in Colorado
Works Progress Administration in Colorado
Parks in Denver
Buildings and structures in Denver
Zoos established in 1896
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanians%20in%20Montenegro
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Albanians in Montenegro
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Albanians in Montenegro (; ) are an ethnic group in Montenegro of Albanian descent, which constitute 4.91% of Montenegro's total population. They are the largest non-Slavic ethnic group in Montenegro.
Albanians are particularly concentrated in southeastern and eastern Montenegro alongside the border with Albania in the following municipalities including Ulcinj (71% of total population), Tuzi (68%), Gusinje (40%), Plav (9%), Bar (6%), Podgorica (5%) and Rožaje (5%).
The largest Montenegrin town with significant Albanian population is Ulcinj, where the Albanian National Council is located. In 2022, Dritan Abazović became the first ethnic Albanian to hold the office of Prime Minister of Montenegro.
Geography
Albanians in Montenegro are concentrated along the Albania-Montenegro border in areas that were incorporated in Montenegro after the Congress of Berlin (1878) and the Balkan Wars (1912-13). Coastally, they live in the Ulcinj (Ulqin) and Bar (Tivar) municipalities which formed part of Venetian Albania. Within the Municipality of Bar, Albanians are also found in the regions of Krajë, Mërkot and Shestan. Albanian tribes and regions are located in the transboundary mountainous region of Malësia in Tuzi Municipality, south of Montenegrin capital Podgorica, as well as historically populating much of the Brda region, including as the Zeta and Bjelopavlići plain. Albanian communities in the past were also found in Old Herzegovina, Old Montenegro and the Littoral. In eastern and northeastern Montenegro, Albanians are concentrated in municipalities of Plav (Plavë) and Gusinje (Gucia) and a smaller community is located in Rožaje Municipality (Rozhajë). The Slavic dialect of Gusinje and Plav shows very high structural influence from Albanian. Its uniqueness in terms of language contact between Albanian and Slavic is explained by the fact that most Slavic-speakers in today's Plav and Gusinje are of Albanian origin.
In the past Albanians were present in significant numbers in Bar, Podgorica, Spuž, Nikšić, Kolašin as well as in Žabljak. These communities were largely expelled in different waves during the late 19th century.
A mixture of Slavic and Albanian speakers made up the Muslim population of Sandžak (today divided between Serbia and Montenegro) at the end of the nineteenth century. Many Albanian speakers gradually migrated or were relocated to Kosovo and Macedonia, leaving a primarily Slavic-speaking population in the rest of the region (except in a southeastern corner of Sandžak that ended up as a part of Kosovo).
Toponymy
A number of placenames in Montenegro are considered to be ultimately derived from or through Albanian. Some cases include:
Budva, being ultimately derived from the Albanian word butë.
Ulcinj is considered to be connected with the Albanian word ujk or ulk (meaning wolf in English) from Proto-Albanian *(w)ulka.
Nikšić appears to have developed from the diminutive Albanian name Niksh plus the Slavic suffix ić.
Kolašin which according to author Rebecca West was originally named Kol I Shen, being Albanian for 'St. Nicholas'.
Ceklin has been connected to Albanian ceklinë or cektinë which means shallow ground.
Crmnica first appears in the 13th century under two different names, Crmnica and Kučevo, which is the slavicized variant of an Albanian toponym that meant "red place" (kuq).
Lješanska nahija, whose toponym derives from a Slavicized variant of the Albanian masculine name Lesh (Lješ).
Bojana, a river in southeastern Montenegro, emerged via the Albanian Bunë, and is often seen as indication that Albanian was spoken in the pre-Slavic era in southern Montenegro.
A number of microtoponyms and names of clans in Old Montenegro are originally derived from Albanian onomastics, such as Gjin, Gjon, Progon, Lesh, Mal and others, with some of them being: Đinov Do village in Cuce, Đinovo Brdo in Cetinje, Đinova Glavica in Pješivci, the village of Đinovići in Kosijeri, the Đonovići brotherhood in Brčeli of Crmnica, Lješanska nahija, along with its villages Liješnje, Štitari, Goljemadi and Progonovići, the village of Lješev Stup and the toponym Malošin do in Bjelice, the village of Arbanas in Ceklin.
History
Antiquity
The name of the Labeatae tribe, first attested in the 2nd century BCE, is formed by the Lab- particle which is frequently found in the southern Illyrian onomastic area and the common Illyrian suffix -at(ae). The Lab- particle represents a metathesis from Alb- > Lab-, which itself could be related to the appearance of the ethnonym of the Albanians in the same area.
Medieval era
A document believed to be from 1202, mentions a ruler named Vladislav who gave the Vranjina Monastery land and other concessions, among which was forbidding Albanians from using these lands for grazing or settling. A 1220 document issued by the nun Jelena, bestows the Vranjina monastery certain gifts, and forbids the usage of church land by nobility, be they Serbs, Latins, Albanians or Vlachs.
Various Albanian pastoral migrant communities (katun), which included groups like the Mataruge, Mugoša, Macure , Maine , Malonsići, Kriči and possibly the Lužani , starting around the 12th and 13th centuries immigrated across the Zeta, settling in Montenegro and as far as the Neretva river.
Albanian katuns are documented in the Tara region in 1278. In the area of modern Ceklin the settlement of Arbanas is mentioned in 1296 in a letter by King Milutin. In the same year a document issued by Stefan Milutin gives the Kuči village of Orahovo and 100 sheep to the Vranjina Monastery. In it Milutin also orders the locals, be they Slavs, Latins, Albanians or Vlachs to pay a tribute to it of 100 perpers.
In the Middle Ages, Albanians in present-day Montenegro lived in the highlands of Malësia-Brda (both terms mean highlands), around Lake Scodra and coastally in the area known as Albania Veneta. Tuzi, a key Albanian settlement today, is mentioned in 1330 in the Dečani chrysobulls as part of the Albanian (arbanas) katun (semi-nomadic pastoral community) of Llesh Tuzi (Ljesa Tuzi in the original), in an area stretching southwards from modern Tuzi Municipality along the Lake Skadar to a village near modern Koplik. This katund included many communities that later formed their own separate communities: Reçi and his sons, Matagushi, Bushati and his sons, Pjetër Suma and Pjetër Kuçi, first known ancestor of Kuči. In the 1330 chrysobulls, the Hoti tribe is mentioned for first time in Hotina Gora (mountains of Hoti) in the Plav and Gusinje regions on the Lim river basin. Among the people of Lužani, Albanian anthroponyms such as Gjon, Lesh, Progon and Muriq are mentioned in the 1330 Dečani chrysobulls.
A certain Nicholas Zakarija is first mentioned in 1385 as a Balšić family commander and governor of Budva in 1363. This is considered the first attestation of a member of the noble Albanian Zaharia family. After more than twenty years of loyalty, Nicholas Zakarija revolted in 1386 and became ruler of Budva. However, by 1389 Đurađ II Balšić had recaptured the city.
Beginning in the 15th century, a period of Albanian piracy occurred lasting until the 19th century.These pirates were based mainly in Ulcinj, but were also found in Bar. During this period, Albanian pirates plundered and raided ships, including both Venetian and Ottoman vessels, disrupting the Mediterranean economy and forcing the Ottoman and European powers to intervene. Some of the pirate leaders from Ulcinj, such as Lika Ceni and Hadji Alia, were well known during this period. The Porte had such a problem with the Albanian pirates that they were given the "name-i hümayun" ("imperial letters"), bilateral agreements to settle armed conflicts. The pirates of Ulcinj, known in Italian as lupi di mare Dulcignotti (Alb. ujqit detarë Ulqinakë, 'Ulcinian sea wolves'), were considered the most dangerous pirates in the Adriatic.
In the Middle Ages, the areas of Crmnica (Kuqeva) and Mrkojevići (Mërkoti) shows a strong symbiosis of Slavic and Albanian populations. In the second half of 15th century, the Slavic anthroponymy of Crmnica and Mrkojević was frequently followed by the Albanian suffix -za. This phenomenon doesn't appear in such widespread form in any other area of Montenegro. It has been interpreted as the result of gradual, centuries-long adoption of Slavic culture by an Albanian-speaking population. The Mrkojevići in particular may present a case of an Albanian-speaking population shifting to a Slavic-speaking one. In 1496 Đurađ Crnojević mentions the nobleman Radovan Lъšević (Lješević) in the area of Lješanska nahija, while its inhabitants as Lьšnane (Lešnane).
Ottoman period
Meshari (Albanian for "Missal") the oldest published book in Albanian was written by Gjon Buzuku, a Catholic Albanian cleric in 1555. Gjon Buzuku was born in the village of Livari in Krajina (Krajë in Albanian) in the Bar region.
In 1565 the Kelmendi rose up against the Ottomans and appear to have done so together with the Kuči and Piperi. In 1597, the tribes of the Kelmendi, Kuči, Piperi and Bjelopavlići and the Nikšiči rose in rebellion, headed under the latters leader, voivoda Grdan.
In 1613, the Ottomans launched a campaign against the rebel tribes of Montenegro. In response, the tribes of the Vasojevići, Kuči, Bjelopavlići, Piperi, Kastrati, Kelmendi, Shkreli andi Hoti formed a political and military union known as “The Union of the Mountains” or “The Albanian Mountains” . The leaders swore an oath of besa to resist with all their might any upcoming Ottoman expeditions, thereby protecting their self-government and disallowing the establishment of the authority of the Ottoman Spahis in the northern highlands. Their uprising had a liberating character. With the aim of getting rid of the Ottomans from the Albanian territories
In the 1614 Convention of Kuçi, 44 leaders mostly from northern Albania and Montenegro took part to organize an insurrection against the Ottomans and ask for assistance by the Papacy. That same year, the Kelmendi along with the tribes of Kuči, Piperi and Bjelopavlići, sent a letter to the kings of Spain and France claiming they were independent from Ottoman rule and did not pay tribute to the empire.
In 1658, the seven tribes of Kuči, Vasojevići, Bratonožići, Piperi, Klimenti, Hoti and Gruda allied themselves with the Republic of Venice, establishing the so-called "Seven-fold banner" or "alaj-barjak", against the Ottomans.
A Franciscan report of the 17th century illustrates the final stages of the acculturation of some Albanian tribes in Brda. Its author writes that the Bratonožići (Bratonishi), Piperi (Pipri), Bjelopavlići (Palabardhi) and Kuči (Kuçi):" nulla di meno essegno quasi tutti del rito serviano, e di lingua Illrica ponno piu presto dirsi Schiavoni, ch' Albanesi " (since almost all of them use the Serbian rite and the Illyric (Slavic) language, soon they should be called Slavs, rather than Albanians)
In 1685 the Mainjani tribe participated in the Battle of Vrtijeljka on the side of the Venetians. The battle resulted in defeat. The news of the battle was recorded in Rome on 27 May 1685: "two courageous leaders, one named Bajo, friend of captain Janko, and the other, captain Vuković the Arbanas, died"; the source states that the defeat was due to betrayal of Montenegrins in the battle.
In 1688 the tribes of Kuçi, Kelmendi and Pipri rose up and captured the town of Medun, defeating 2 Ottoman counter-assaults and capturing many supplies in the process before retreating.
In 1700, after the Great Serb Migration, the Kelmendi and Kuçi and other tribes like the Shkreli of Rugova established themselves in the region of Rožaje and the neighboring town of Tutin in Serbia. The Shala, Krasniqi, and Gashi also moved in the region.
The Arbanasi people in the Zadar region are thought to have hailed from the Catholic Albanian inhabitands of the region of Shestan, specifically from the villages of Briska (Brisk), Šestan (Shestan), Livari (Ljare), and Podi (Pod) having settled the Zadar area in 1726–27 and 1733 on the decision of Archbishop Vicko Zmajević of Zadar, in order to repopulate the land.
Semi-independent Albanian Pashalik
A period of Albanian semi-independence started in the 1750s with the Independent Albanian Pashas. In 1754 the autonomous Albanian Pashalik of Bushati family would be established with center the city of Shkodra called Pashalik of Shkodra.
The Bushati family initially dominated the Shkodër region through a network of alliances with various highland tribes. Kara Mahmud Bushati attempted to establish a de juro independent principality and expand the lands under his control by playing off Austria and Russia against the Sublime Porte. In 1785, Kara Mahmud's forces attacked Montenegrin territory, and Austria offered to recognize him as the ruler of all Albania if he would ally himself with Vienna against the Sublime Porte. Seizing an opportunity, Kara Mahmud sent the sultan the heads of an Austrian delegation in 1788, and the Ottomans appointed him governor of Shkodër. When he attempted to wrest land from Montenegro in 1796, however, he was defeated and killed by an ambush in northern Montenegro. At its peak during the reign of Kara Mahmud Bushati the pashalik encompassed much of Albania, most of Kosovo, western Macedonia, southeastern Serbia and most of Montenegro. The pashalik was dissolved in 1831.
British author Rebecca West visited the town of Kolašin in the 1930s where she learned that in the 18th century, Catholic Albanians and Orthodox Montenegrins lived in peace. In 1858, however, several Montenegrin tribes attacked the town and killed all inhabitants who kept their Albanian identity or who were Muslim.
National Awakening
On October 26, 1851, the Arnaut chieftain Gjonlek from Nikšić was traveling with 200 Arnauts, given the task of defending Ottoman Albanian interests. They were attacked by Montenegrin forces from Gacko. On November 11, 1851, Montenegrin forces numbering 30 crossed the Morača river and attacked the Albanian Ottoman citadel, under Selim Aga, with 27 men. Five were killed and four wounded while Selim Aga pulled back, wounded, into his house. The next morning, he returned to counter the Montenegrins. The Pasha of Scutari immediately began gathering troops.
League of Prizren
In 1877, Nikšić was annexed by the Montenegrins in accordance with the Treaty of Berlin. American author William James Stillman (1828-1901) who traveled in the region at the time writes in his biography of the Montenegrin forces who, on the orders of the Prince, began to bomb the Studenica fortress in Nikšić with artillery. Around 20 Albanian nizams were inside the fortress who resisted and when the walls breached, they surrendered and asked Stillman if they were going to be decapitated. An Albanian accompanying Stillman translated his words saying they were not going to be killed in which the Albanians celebrated. Shortly after the treaty, the Montenegrin prince began expelling the Albanians from Nikšić, Žabljak and Kolašin who then fled to Turkey, Kosovo (Pristina) and Macedonia. The Montenegrin forces also robbed the Albanians before the expulsion.
After the fall of Nikšić, Prince Nicholas I wrote a poem of the victory.
After the territorial expansion of Montenegro towards the Ottoman territories in 1878, Albanians for the first time became citizens of that country. Albanians that obtained Montenegrin citizenship were Muslims and Catholics, and lived in the cities of Bar and Ulcinj, including their surroundings, in the bank of river Bojana and shore of Lake Skadar, as well as in Zatrijebač.
On the eve of conflict between Montenegro and the Ottomans (1876–1878), a substantial Albanian population resided in the Sanjak of İşkodra. In the Montenegrin-Ottoman war that ensued, strong resistance in the towns of Podgorica (majority Muslim at the time, with a substantial portion being Albanian) and Spuž toward Montenegrin forces was followed by the expulsion of their Albanian and Slavic Muslim populations who resettled in Shkodër. These populations resettled in Shkodër city and its environs. A smaller Albanian population formed of the wealthy elite voluntarily left and resettled in Shkodër after Ulcinj's incorporation into Montenegro in 1880.
On January 31, 1879, Montenegrin teacher Šćepan Martinović informed the government of Cetinje that the Muslims of Nikšić desired a school. The Ottomans had opened schools in Nikšić , among other neighboring regions, in the 17th and 18th century.
In 1879, Zenel Ahmet Demushi of the Geghyseni tribe, fought with 40 members of the family against Montenegrin forces led by Marko Miljanov in Nikšić . The conflict intensified in 1880 when the Albanian irregulars fought under Ali Pash Gucia against the Montenegrin forces led by the brother of Marko Miljanov, Teodor Miljanov, the battle lasting five hours, according to letters written by two local Albanians from Shkodër who participated in the battle.
The Battles for Plav and Gusinje were armed conflicts between the Principality of Montenegro and Ottoman irregular armies (pro-Ottoman Albanian League of Prizren) that broke out following the decision of the Congress of Berlin (1878) that the territories of Plav and Gusinje (part of former Scutari Vilayet) be ceded to Montenegro. The conflicts took place in this territory between 9 October 1879 and 8 January 1880. The following battles were fought: the Velika attacks (9 October–22 November 1879), the Battle of Novšiće (4 December 1879) and the Battle of Murino (8 January 1880). Some of the participants in the battles became distinguished such as Jakup Ferri of Plav, whose actions in 1879 made him a hero of Albanian folk poetry together with Ali Pasha Gucia.
In 1880 a battle was fought between the Ottoman forces of Dervish Pasha and Albanian irregulars at the region of Kodra e Kuqe, close to Ulcinj. The area of Ulcinj had been handed over to Montenegro by the Ottomans after the Albanians previously fought against the annexions of Hoti and Grude. The Great powers instead pressured the Ottomans to hand over the area of Ulcinj, but also here the Albanians refused. Eventually the Great powers forced the Ottomans to take actions against the League of Prizren, ending the resistance and successfully handing over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro.
In 1899, the government in Montenegro arrested Albanians in Nikšić and Danilovgrad out of fear that the Malesori would attack the Young Turks in the region, and the captives were held for more than six months in prison.
20th century
The Bulgarian foreign ministry compiled a report about the five kazas (districts) of the sanjak of the Novi Pazar in 1901–02. According to the Bulgarian report, the kazas of Akova and Kolašin were almost entirely populated by Albanians.
In the kaza of Akovo there were 47 Albanian villages which had 1,266 households, whereas Serbs lived in 11 villages which had 216 households. The town of Akova (Bijelo Polje) had 100 Albanian and Serb households.
The kaza of Kolašin had 27 Albanian villages with 732 households and 5 Serb villages with 75 households. The administrative centre of the kaza, Šahovići, had 25 Albanian households.
On March 24, 1911, an Albanian uprising broke out in Malësia. During one of its battles, the Battle of Deçiq (6 April), the Albanian flag was raised for the first time in possibly over 400 years in the Deçiq mountain near Tuzi. It was raised by Ded Gjo Luli on the peak of Bratila after victory was secured. The phrase "Tash o vllazën do t’ju takojë të shihni atë që për 450 vjet se ka pa kush" (Now brothers you have earned the right to see that which has been unseen for 450 years) has been attributed to Ded Gjo Luli by later memoirs of those who were present when he raised the flag. It was one of three banners brought to Malësia by Palokë Traboini, student in Austria. The other two banners were used by Ujka of Gruda and Prelë Luca of Triepshi.
On 11 May, Shefqet Turgut Pasha issued a general proclamation which declared martial law and offered an amnesty for all rebels (except for Malësor chieftains) if they immediately return to their homes. After Ottoman troops entered the area Tocci fled the empire abandoning his activities. Three days later, he ordered his troops to again seize Dečić. Sixty Albanian chieftains rejected Turgut Pasha's proclamation on their meeting in Podgorica on 18 May. After almost a month of intense fightings rebels were trapped and their only choices were either to die fighting, to surrender or to flee to Montenegro. Most of the rebels chose to flee to Montenegro which became a base for large number of rebels determined to attack the Ottoman Empire. Ismail Kemal Bey and Tiranli Cemal bey traveled from Italy to Montenegro at the end of May and met the rebels to convince them to adopt the nationalistic agenda which they eventually did.
After the battle, at the initiative Ismail Qemali the assembly of the tribal leaders of the revolt was held in a village in Montenegro (Gerče) on 23 June 1911 to adopt the "Gërçe Memorandum") with their requests both to Ottoman Empire and Europe (in particular to the Great Britain). This memorandum was signed by 22 Albanian chieftains, four from each tribe of Hoti, Grude and Shkrel, five from Kastrati, three from Klementi and two from Shale.
The Plav–Gusinje massacres (1912–1913) occurred between late 1912 and March 1913 in the areas of the modern Plav and Gusinje municipalities and adjacent areas. More than 1,800 locals, mostly Muslim Albanians from these two regions were killed and 12,000 were forced to convert to Orthodoxy by the military administration put in charge of these regions by the Kingdom of Montenegro which had annexed them during the First Balkan War.
After the Balkan Wars, new territories inhabited by Albanians became part of Montenegro. Montenegro then gained a part of Malesija, respectively Hoti and Gruda, with Tuzi as center, Plav, Gusinje, Rugovo, Peja and Gjakova. During World War I, Albanian immigrants from Nikšić who had been expelled to Cetinje sent a letter to Isa Boletini saying that they risked starving if he did not send them money for food.
On May 26, 1913, a delegation from the chief families of Hoti, Gruda, Kelmendi, Shkreli and Kastrati met Admiral Cecil Burney of the international fleet and petitioned against the annexation of Hoti and Gruda by Montenegro. The delegation warned that hostilities would resume if those areas didn't remain "entirely Albanian".
During World War I, local Albanian qadi Bajram Balota organised a force of irregulars in the territory held by Austria-Hungary in Montenegro around Berane and Rožaje, with his soldiers and allies persecuting and killing Orthodox Montenegrins. His movement was dissolved following a defeat by Austro-Hungarian soldiers on June 18, 1918.r
The entry of the Montenegrin army in 1912-13 and the Yugoslav army after 1919 in Plav-Gusinje was accompanied by repressive policies against the local population. An Albanian revolt, which later came to be known as the Plav rebellion rose up in the Rožaje, Plav and Gusinje districts, fighting against the inclusion of Sandžak in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. As a result, during the Serbian army's second occupation of Rožaje, which took place in 1918–1919, seven hundred Albanian citizens were slaughtered in Rožaje. In 1919, Serb forces attacked Albanian populations in Plav and Gusinje, which had appealed to the British government for protection. About 450 local civilians were killed after the uprising was quelled. These events resulted in a large influx of Albanians migrating to Albania.
With the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes after World War I, Albanians in Montenegro became discriminated. The position would improve somewhat in Tito's Yugoslavia. In the mid-twentieth century, 20,000 Albanians lived in Montenegro and their number would grow by the end of the century. By the end of the 20th century the number of Albanians began to fall as a result of immigration.
During the Second World War, Chetnik forces based in Montenegro conducted a series of ethnic cleansing operations against Muslims in the Bihor region. In May 1943, an estimated 5400 Albanian men, women and children in Bihor were massacred by Chetnik forces under Pavle Đurišić. The notables of the region then published a memorandum and declared themselves to be Albanians. The memorandum was sent to Prime Minister Ekrem Libohova whom they asked to intervene so the region could be united to the Albanian kingdom. That same year saw the creation of the SS-police "self-defence" regiment Sandžak, being formed by joining three battalions of Albanian collaborationist troops with one battalion of the Sandžak Muslim militia. Its leader was Sulejman Pačariz, an Islamic cleric of Albanian origin.
The spring of 1945 saw the massacre of an unknown number of mostly ethnic Albanians from Kosovo Yugoslav Partisans in late March or early April 1945 in Bar, a municipality in Montenegro, at the end of World War II. Yugoslav sources put the number of victims at 400 while Albanian sources put the figure at 2,000 killed in Bar alone. According to Croatian historian Ljubica Štefan, the Partisans killed 1,600 Albanians in Bar on 1 April after an incident at a fountain. There are also accounts claiming that the victims included young boys. After the massacre, the site was immediately covered in concrete by the Yugoslav communist regime and built an airport on top of the mass grave.
Modern period
On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck Albania. In Montenegro, Albanians from Ulcinj were involved in a major relief effort sending items such as food, blankets, diapers and baby milk through a local humanitarian organisation Amaneti and in Tuzi through fundraising efforts.
Demographics
Albanians in Montenegro are settled in the southeastern and eastern parts of the country. Ulcinj Municipality, consisting Ulcinj (Albanian: Ulqin) with the surroundings and Ana e Malit region, along with the newly formed Tuzi Municipality, are the only municipalities where Albanians are the majority (71% and 68% of the populations respectively). A large number of Albanians also live in the following regions: Bar (Tivar) and Skadarska Krajina (Krajë) in Bar Municipality (2,515 Albanians or 6% of the population), Plav (Plavë) and Gusinje (Guci) in Plav Municipality (2,475 or 19%) and Rožaje (Rozhajë) in Rožaje Municipality (1,158 or 5%).
The largest Albanian settlement is Ulcinj, followed by Tuzi.
Municipalities with an Albanian majority
Of the 24 municipalities in the country, 2 have an ethnic Albanian majority.
Anthropology
The Albanians in Montenegro are Ghegs.
Tribes
The historical Albanian tribes which exist in Montenegro up to the modern era are: Hoti, Gruda, Trieshi, Koja.
Other Albanian tribes also existed in the past, but either formed other tribes or assimilated into the neighbouring Slavic population. Examples include Mataruge and Španje in Old Herzegovina, Kriči in the region of Mojkovac, Kryethi and Pamalioti around the city of Ulcinj, Mahine above Budva, Goljemadi in Old Montenegro, as well as tribes who inhabited the Brda area, including Bytadosi, Bukumiri, Malonšići, Macure, Mataguzi, Drekalovići, Kakarriqi, Mugoša
, Rogami, Kuçi, Piperi, Bratonožići, Vasojevići and Bjelopavlići, the latter five now identifying as Slavic.
The Ceklin tribal community are of partial Albanian origin, with the two founding brotherhoods sharing descent matrilineally from Piperi while being patrilineally from the Kelmendi (Gornjaci) and Piperi (Donjaci). The Lužani, were inhabitands of the upper Zeta valley, among whom common Albanian anthroponyms were also found. They were at least partly of Albanian origin with Hrabrak suggesting that they might have been recent immigrants from Albania. Certain scholars such as Tea Mayhew and Marie-Janine Calic also consider the Paštrovići to have been an Albanian tribe. The tribe of the Riđani appear to have been predominantly a romanized people, nevertheless Albanian names also appear among them, as was the case with one of their leaders, katunar Šimrak. The name of the Nikšići, appears to have developed from the diminutive Albanian Niksh plus the Slavic suffix ić.
Culture
Montenegrin Albanian culture in this region is closely related to the culture of Albanians in Albania, and the city of Shkodër in particular. Their Albanian language dialect is Gheg as of Albanians in Northern Albania.
Religion
According to the 2003 census, 73.86% of Albanians living in Montenegro were Muslim and 26.13% were Roman Catholic. The religious life of Muslim Albanians is organized by the Islamic Community of Montenegro, comprising not only Albanians, but also other Muslim minorities in Montenegro. Catholic Albanians, generally living in Šestani,Malesija, and some in the Bar and Ulcinj municipalities, are members of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bar, whose members are mainly Albanians, but which also includes a small number of Slavs. The current archbishop, Rrok Gjonlleshaj, is an ethnic Albanian.
During the Middle Ages, Eastern Orthodox Albanians also inhabited Montenegro, with some examples including the Mahine near Budva, which had as its gathering place the Podmaine monastery, and the Mataguzi south of Podgorica whose leaders in 1468 donated to the Vranjina Monastery a land area between Rijeka Plavnica and Karabež on the shores of Lake Skadar.
Language
Albanians in Montenegro speak the Gheg Albanian dialect, namely the northwestern variant, while according to the 2011 Census, there are 32,671 native speakers of the Albanian language (or 5.27% of the population).
According to Article 13 of the Constitution of Montenegro, Albanian language (alongside Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian) is a language in official use, officially recognized as minority language.
Music
The lahuta is used by Albanians of Montenegro for the singing of epic songs or Albanian Songs of the Frontier Warriors. This practice was especially common in Malësia, although it was also practiced among other regions such as Sandžak with the bard Avdo Međedović. Yahya bey Dukagjini, one of the best-known diwan poets of the 16th century, was an Albanian from Pljevlja.
Education
The government of Montenegro provides Albanian-language education in the local primary and secondary schools. There is one department in the University of Montenegro, located in Podgorica, offered in Albanian, namely teacher education
Politics
Early 20th century political figures which had significant activity in the Albanian community in Montenegro are Ismail Nikoçi, mayor of Gusinje and Agan Koja, imam of Plav. Nikoçi fought against the annexation of Plav-Gusinje by Yugoslavia in 1919 raised awareness for the rights of the Albanian refugees which left the area. Koja who became more prominent after Nikoçi's assassination led a group of kachaks who fought against the Yugoslav army in the Albanian-Yugoslav borderlands. The leader of the Kaçak movement in Rozaje, Kolašin and Bihor was Jusuf Mehonja, a member of the Committee of Kosovo, among others such as Husein Boshko, Feriz Sallku and Rek Bisheva.
The first political party created by Albanians in this country is the Democratic League in Montenegro, founded by Mehmet Bardhi in 1990. Most Albanians support the country's integration into the EU: during the 2006 Montenegrin independence referendum, in Ulcinj Municipality, where Albanians at that time accounted over 72% of the population, 88.50% of voters voted for an independent Montenegro. Overall, the vote of the Albanian minority secured the country's secession from Serbia and Montenegro.
In 2008, the Albanian National Council (Albanian: Këshilli Kombëtar i Shqiptarëve, abb. KKSH) was established to represent the political interests of the Albanian community. The current chairman of the KKSH is Genci Nimanbegu.
In 2022, Dritan Abazović became the first ethnic Albanian to hold the office of Prime Minister of Montenegro.
Prominent Individuals
See also
Albania–Montenegro relations
Serbo-Montenegrins in Albania
Malësia
Malesija, Montenegro
Albanians
Gallery
References
Bibliography
Montenegro
Ethnic groups in Montenegro
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary%20of%20Pakistan
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Judiciary of Pakistan
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The judiciary of Pakistan () is a hierarchical system with two classes of courts: the superior (or higher) judiciary and the subordinate (or lower) judiciary. The superior judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, the Federal Shariat Court and five High Courts, with the Supreme Court at the apex. There is a High Court for each of the four provinces as well as a High Court for the Islamabad Capital Territory. The Constitution of Pakistan entrusts the superior judiciary with the obligation to preserve, protect and defend the constitution. Neither the Supreme Court nor a High Court may exercise jurisdiction in relation to Tribal Areas, except otherwise provided for. The disputed regions of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan have separate court systems.
The independence of the Pakistani judiciary has changed over time. Whereas the judiciary used to defer to the Pakistani military, which is a dominant actor in Pakistan's politics, the judiciary has increasingly competed with and confronted the military.
Besides Supreme Court of Pakistan, there are areas that are not constitutional parts of Pakistan till now. They are Gilgit Baltistan and AJK. As per the constitution of Pakistan, they are being governed by Government of Pakistan on interim basis. Though Gilgit Baltistan declared its independence from Dogra/Maharaja Kashmir on 1 November 1948, that is said to be the independence day of Gilgit Baltistan. Likewise, the authority of Constitution of Pakistan is not held there, though through Presidential ordinances, and PM packages, they are governed and given an interim authority delegated by Federal Government of Pakistan.
As the Supreme Court of Pakistan doesn't have jurisdiction over Gilgit Baltistan, thus another form of APEX Court named Supreme Appellate Court for Gilgit Baltistan has been introduced, with designated powers as that of Supreme Court of Pakistan.
The subordinate judiciary consists of civil and criminal district courts, and numerous specialized courts covering banking, insurance, customs and excise, smuggling, drugs, terrorism, taxation, the environment, consumer protection, and corruption. The criminal courts were created under the Criminal Procedure Code 1898 and the civil courts were established by the West Pakistan Civil Court Ordinance 1962. There are also revenue courts that operate under the West Pakistan Land Revenue Act 1967. The government may also set up administrative courts and tribunals for exercising exclusive jurisdiction in specific matters.
As of 2017, Pakistan's judiciary is suffering from a backlog of two million cases, with lawsuits taking an average of nearly ten years to resolve. According to some estimates, 90% of civil cases involve land disputes, owing to Pakistan's lack of a proper land register.
Superior judiciary
Supreme Court of Pakistan
The Supreme Court (KAS), established in 1956, is the apex court in Pakistan's judicial hierarchy, the final arbiter of legal and constitutional disputes. The court consists of a Chief Justice and sixteen other judges. There is also provision for appointment of acting judges as well as ad hoc judges in the court. It has a permanent seat in Islamabad as well as branch registries in Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta and Karachi.
It has a number of de jure powers which are outlined in the constitution, including appellate and constitutional jurisdiction, and suo moto power to try human rights matters. Through several periods of military rule and constitutional suspensions, the court has also established itself as a de facto check on military power.
The Supreme Court Judges are supervised by the Supreme Judicial Council.
Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan
The Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan was established in 1980 to scrutinize all Pakistani laws and determine if they conform to Islamic values "as laid down in the Quran and the Sunnah". If a law is found to be 'repugnant', the Court notifies the relevant government, specifying the reasons for its decision. The court also has appellate jurisdiction over penalties (hudud) arising under Islamic law, although these decisions can be reviewed by the Shariat Appellate Bench of the Supreme Court. The decisions of the court are binding on the high courts as well as the subordinate judiciary. The court appoints its own staff and frames its own rules of procedure.
The court consists of eight Muslim judges, appointed by the President of Pakistan, on the advice of a judicial committee of the chief justices of the Supreme Court and the Federal Shariat Court. The committee chooses from amongst serving or retired judges of the Supreme Court or the high courts or from amongst persons possessing the qualifications of judges of a high court. Of the eight judges, three are required to be Islamic Scholars/Ulema well versed in Islamic law. The judges serve terms of three years, subject to extension by the President. The current Chief Justice of the Federal Shariat Court is Justice Sheikh Najam ul Hasan.
High courts
There is a high court for the Islamabad Capital Territory and four provincial high courts. A high court is the principal court of its province.
Lahore High Court, Lahore, Punjab
Sindh High Court, Karachi, Sindh
Peshawar High Court, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Balochistan High Court, Quetta, Baluchistan
Islamabad High Court, Islamabad, ICT
Judiciary in autonomous territories
Supreme Court of Azad Jammu and Kashmir
The highest court of appeals in Azad Jammu and Kashmir is the Supreme Court of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. There is a Chief Justice and two additional judges on the court.
Supreme Appellate Court Gilgit-Baltistan
The highest court of appeals in Pakistan's Gilgit Baltistan area is the Supreme Appellate Court Gilgit-Baltistan. There is a Chief Justice and two additional judges on the court.
High courts
High Court of Azad Jammu and Kashmir
Gilgit-Baltistan Chief Court
Subordinate judiciary
District judiciary
District judiciary or district courts exist in every district of each province, and have civil and criminal jurisdiction ordinarily governed by Civil Procedure Code,1908 for civil cases and by Code of Criminal Procedure in criminal cases. The administrative head of district judiciary is the 'district and sessions judge'. In each district headquarters, there are a number of courts of additional district and sessions judges having same judicial powers like the court of district and sessions judge, including trial for offences shown in schedule II of Code of Criminal Procedure as exclusively triable by the Court of Session i.e. Qatl e Amd (culpable homicide), rape, defamation dacoity etc. These courts have also jurisdiction to try cases under the Hudood Laws of Pakistan, certain offences under Control of Narcotic Substances Act etc. These courts also work as ex officio Justice of Peace to entertain complaints against police officials. In civil jurisdiction these courts entertain the matters under Succession Act, Insolvency Act, suits for government, summary suits pertaining to negotiable instruments etc. These Courts are also civil appellate and criminal appellate courts. Civil and Family Appeals and Civil Revisions against the Judgements and orders of courts of senior civil judges, civil judges, rent controllers, and family courts are entertained by the court of district judge which transfers the same to additional district judges as well. All convictions awarded by judicial magistrates and convictions up to four years awarded by courts of assistant sessions judges or magistrates especially empowered under section 30 Cr.P.C. are appealable to a court of sessions judge which also transfer the criminal Appeals and criminal revisions to Additional Sessions Judges.
The high court of each province has appellate jurisdiction over the lower courts.
The Supreme Court has exclusive jurisdiction over disputes between and among provincial governments, and appellate jurisdiction over high court decisions.
Court usually starts early in the morning, with the hearing of pre-arrest bail applications, followed by post-arrest bail applications and civil appeals from the orders of the judicial magistrates' courts and civil judges. Decisions are usually announced later in the day, once the judge has had time to peruse the case files after the hearings. The rest of the day is allocated for the recording of the evidence in sessions cases such as in offences murder, rape and robbery etc. Cases are usually allotted by administrative orders of district and sessions judges. The court of the district and sessions judge usually hears administrative applications against lower courts orders.
Civil judge judicial magistrates' courts
In every town and city, there are numerous civil and judicial magistrates' courts. Normally in capacity of judicial magistrate these courts have the powers to try all offences other than those which are specifically triable by Court of Session but maximum limit for awarding sentence of improvement is not more than three years. However a judicial magistrate having special powers under section 30 of Code of Criminal Procedure can award all punishments except capital punishment. In civil capacity in the province of Sindh and Balochistan as a civil judge these courts have jurisdiction to entertain the claims of third-class suits having a pecuniary limit up to fifty thousand rupees. In other provinces civil judges have jurisdiction to entertain first- and second-class suits. Judicial magistrates possesses territorial jurisdiction police station wise as per notification issued by the Court of Session Judge. In magisterial functions judicial magistrates record statements on oath of witness, Judicial confession of accused, holds identification test parades, inquest proceedings of the prisoners. This court takes first cognizance of all offences of local laws, disposes of unclaimed properties or the movable properties suspected to be stolen.
Special tribunals and boards
There are numerous special tribunals such as;
Banking courts
Criminal courts
Custom courts
Drug courts
Federal Services Tribunal
Provincial services tribunals (one for each province)
Income tax tribunals
Accountability courts
Anti-terrorism courts
Labour courts
Labour Appellate Tribunal
Environmental courts
Board of Revenue
Special magistrate courts
Control of Narcotic Substances (special courts)
Consumer courts -
Intellectual Property Tribunal
Foreign Exchange Appellate Board
Almost all judges of above-mentioned courts and tribunals except for consumer courts are district and sessions judges or of having same qualifications. Besides, there exist revenue courts, operating under the West Pakistan Land Revenue Act 1967.
The revenue courts may be classified as the Board of Revenue, the Commissioner, the Collector, the Assistant Collector of the First Grade and Second Grade. The provincial government that exercise administrative control over them appoints such officers. Law prescribes their powers and functions.
Family courts
The West Pakistan Family Courts Act 1964 governs the jurisdiction of Family Courts. As per schedule in the Act of 1964 family courts entertains the disputes of dissolution of marriage, recovery of maintenance of wives and minors, dower, dowery articles, guardian and wards disputes ie custody of minors, recovery of bridal gifts etc. All final decisions are appealable before the court of district judge while interim orders are not appealable but are challenged before high court through the constitutional jurisdiction.
Juvenile courts
The parliament has passed the Juvenile Justice System Act 2018. The law is applicable to the whole of Pakistan. It has repealed the Juvenile Justice System Ordinance 2000.
Section 4 of the JJSO authorizes the Provincial Government to establish one or more juvenile courts for any local area within its jurisdiction, in consultation with the chief justice of the high court.
Jurisdiction of juvenile courts was conferred to sessions judges and judicial magistrates in accordance with their original jurisdiction under Code of Criminal Procedure. Juvenile Justice System Act provides that every person below the age of 8 years is juvenile. The conclusive proof of age is Occification Test. The law warrants separate Camera trial of the juvenile providing all privileges to the juvenile accused as per the Act of 2018.
Judicial academies
Judicial academies provide training for judges and judicial officials from within the country and other countries.
Appointments of Judges
Supreme Court of Pakistan
Prior to 18th Constitutional Amendments, appointments to the Supreme Court of Pakistan were made by the President of Pakistan, on the recommendation of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. This system bred many allegations of favoritism. Many judges who were appointed were relatives of other Judges or Government officials. However, following the Supreme Court's judgement in the Al-Jehad Trust case, the government's role in judicial appointments was curtailed. Under the terms of this judgement, the Government and the President's office were bound to act on the recommendations of the Chief Justice of Pakistan.
After passage of the 18th and 19th Constitutional Amendments, a new Judicial Commission (named Judicial Commission of Pakistan) and Parliamentary Committee were established for appointments. The Judicial Commission of Pakistan consists of a total of nine members: the Chief Justice of Pakistan, four senior judges of the Supreme Court, a former Chief Justice or judge of the Supreme Court nominated by the serving Chief Justice in consultation with the four serving judges of the Supreme Court aforementioned, the Attorney General of Pakistan, the Federal Minister for Law and Justice and, one senior advocate nominated by the Pakistan Bar Council. The Parliamentary Committee confirms or may not confirm the nominee of the Judicial Commission. All power of executive was curtailed by the judicial commission and president has no discretionary power but only to approve the nominees. Prime minister has only ministerial power regarding the appointment procedure.
High Courts
In Appointments to the High Courts, the same procedure as in Supreme Courts appointments is adopted Prior to 18th Constitutional Amendment, High Court appointments suffered much the same criticisms as those to the Supreme Court. Future appointments will be made in the same manner as those to the Supreme Court. But instead of 4 supreme court judges, 4 most senior high court judges, provincial law minister and a member of provincial bar councils (such as Punjab Bar Council) will sit the Judicial Commission of Pakistan considering the appointment of high court judges. The age limit for the high court judge is minimum 45 years.
There is no merit system for selection of Judges to higher Judiciary. Judges of the Judicial Service are generally ignored during the selection while
influential Lawyers who have political support from Political Parties and Bars make it to the higher Judiciary.
District & Sessions Judges
Additional District & Sessions Judges are appointed by the Provincial & federal High Courts, from a pool of Lawyers and subordinate judges. To be eligible for appointment, Lawyers must have ten years' experience as an advocate with good standing in the respective jurisdiction. They must also pass an examination conducted by the High Courts. Subordinate judges are also promoted from senior civil judges on a seniority basis.
Civil Judge Cum Judicial Magistrate
Civil Judge Cum Judicial Magistrates are also appointed by the Provincial High Courts, on the recommendation of provincial Public Service Commissions. These Commissions hold open competitive exams annually, which are advertised in national newspapers. The basic qualifications required are an LL.B from any recognized university, and two years' experience as an advocate in the jurisdiction in question. The exams include various compulsory papers. For example, the Punjab Public Service Commission sets compulsory papers on English Language & Essay, Urdu Language & Essay, Islamic Studies, Pakistan Studies, General Knowledge (objective test), Criminal Law, Civil Law 1 & 2, and General Law. All candidates who pass the examinations are given a psychological test. Those who pass both these stages are interviewed by members of Service Commissions, and recommendations are made to the respective High Courts for appointments. In Sindh province, the appointments are made on the backdrop of a test conducted by National testing service (NTS) which is primarily based on English language and General knowledge. The candidates who manage to pass the first test then undertake another test by NTS after which the successful candidates are chosen for the interview which is conducted by the five most senior judges of high court including chief justice of Sindh and candidate who manage to pass the interview are recommended for the post of civil judge and judicial magistrate who thereafter are appointed by the government of Sindh.
Controversies
Harassment of female law officers
In May 2018 some Pakistani Judges complained of harassment and threats to Judges by Pakistani 'male' lawyer fraternity and bar associations. Similar complained of more serious nature was made in November 2020 by Dr Sajida Ahmed Chaudhry, Additional District and Sessions Judge Fathejang complained to Chief Justice of Pakistan through open letter against culture of continued intimidating disrespect, harassment and threats of judges and women judges by Pakistani 'male' lawyer fraternity and bar associations. Dr Sajida Ahmed Chaudhry has been quoted saying
"....if the district judges were supposed to be snubbed, abused, mentally and physically tortured by the lawyers during court hours but their honour and dignity could not be protected by the top judiciary, the district judges are ready to surrender their extra perks like cars, laptops, etc...."“When the male as well as the female judges are harassed at our courts, I feel compelled and frustrated either to burn all my educational degrees one by one in front of the LHC or in front of the Supreme Court so that none of the girls among the 230 million population should dare to come and join judiciary,”According to Rubya Mehdi Pakistan Judiciary is quite corrupt to the extent that it is said in Pakistan that even walls of judicial offices seek bribes; in this scenario in spite of Islamic traditions did not favor female judicial officers still popular public opinion was in very much welcoming appointments of female judges since they were less approachable for corruption; and for the same reason Pakistani male advocates behave adversely to Pakistan's women judges since they find them difficult to be approached and bribed.
See also
Anti Terrorism Court of Pakistan
Jirga
Punjab Bar Council
Pakistan penal code
Blasphemy law in Pakistan
Copyright protection in Pakistan
The Oath of Judges Order 2000
Politics of Pakistan
Law of Pakistan
Women related laws in Pakistan
References
Law of Pakistan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachi%20Nuclear%20Power%20Complex
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Karachi Nuclear Power Complex
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The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (or KANUPP) is a large commercial nuclear power plant located at the Paradise Point in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan.
Officially known as Karachi Nuclear Power Complex, the power generation site is composed of three commercial nuclear power plants. The K-1 commenced its criticality operations in 1971 whereas K-2 was commenced its operations in 2021 with a gross power capacity of 1100 MWt. The K-3, with similar design to K-2, is due for official commissioning and commenced its criticality operations on 21 February 2022.
The first nuclear power plant, which was later known as K-1, was commissioned with support from Canada whereas K-2 and K-3 have been supported by financing and investment provided by China and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). After a lengthy and complicated negotiations with Canada, the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was constructed by Canadian firms in 1965 and it went critical in August 1971 with a smaller CANDU-type reactor– it provided energy and generated electricity to whole city of Karachi. The site is protected and covered under the IAEA monitoring, which also provided funding for the site's expansion.
The nuclear power plant has a distinction of being the first commercial nuclear plant in the Muslim world.
History
In 1960, Abdus Salam, then-science adviser to Ayub administration, provided a strong advocacy for the industrial usage of the nuclear power in his country at the UN General Assembly, paving away a path for the establishment of the nuclear power plant. Despite the strong opposition from the officials in the Ayub administration, it was the personal efforts of Abdus Salam who had the funding and financing of the nuclear power plant approved from President Ayub Khan. In 1963, the Government of Pakistan commissioned the Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) to conduct the survey for the nuclear power plant which selected the Paradise Point and Hawke's Bay as the ideal locations— the GSP selected Paradise Point for the location. Negotiations and talks took place with Canada over the supply of the nuclear power plant in Karachi and the contract was signed with General Electric Canada as the designer and employed the Montreal Engineering Company as its civil engineering firm in 1965.
The nuclear power plant was jointly designed by the engineers of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission and the Canada's General Electric to provide distinction and difference from the India's nuclear research reactors such as CIRUS and Dhruva reactors that uses the same CANDU technology. The decision-making factor that was taken under consideration to sell the CANDU technology to Pakistan by Canada was seen as maintaining a balance of power between India and Pakistan. In 1966, the civil engineering and construction started by the Montreal Engineering Co. which finished its construction in 1971. The nuclear power plant attained criticality on 1 August 1971, and commenced on producing full power generation on 2 October 1972.
On 28 November 1972, President Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto inaugurated the Karachi Nuclear Plant when it was connected with the grid system of K-Electric, an investor-owned energy supply utility based in Karachi.
Initially, Canada, through its contractor GE Canada, supplied the deuterium oxide moderator and the natural uranium but it wanted to eject from supporting the operations of the nuclear power plant after 1974 when India exploded the nuclear bomb whose fissile material was produced in CIRUS reactor initially supplied by Canada. In 1975, the GE Canada begin to charge Pakistan $27/lb for deuterium oxide which was expensive for the country's taxpayers to afford.
With Pakistan's refusal of becoming the party of the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT), the GE Canada halted to sell of imported spare parts, natural uranium, heavy water, and technical support for the nuclear power plant, raising fears of Karachi going under a blackout phase in 1976. With Canadian technicians departing the country, the city was exposed to open radioactive materials while estimating that the nuclear power plant would shut down in six months. Despite Canadian skepticism, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission was able to work on producing deuterium oxide at lesser price, and set up the machine shop to manufacture its machinery and tools near nuclear power plant with the assistance from Karachi University.
The Canadian ejection from the project turned out to be a blessing in disguise because it allowed the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission establish its own machine shops, welding facilities, and training centers with the help from Karachi University that proved to be pivotal on country's production of able machinists and qualified welders as well as nuclear fuel cycle technology. Since 1979, the deuterium oxide and heavy water is locally and indigenously produced by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission at the Multan Heavy Water Production Facility that made it possible and kept the plant running its grid operations.
Many of spare parts and machine components were locally designed that kept the nuclear power plant running its grid operation in safe manner– the valuable experience gained was shared to Chinese officials in designing the reactor safety protocols and eventually helped run the Chashma Nuclear Power Plant in 1993.
After intense negotiations and with the IAEA's cooperation in May 1990, Canadian policy towards Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was revised allowing it to provide assistance for Safe Operation of KANUPP (SOK) through the IAEA and only for the IAEA suggested remedial actions.
In 2015 and 2016, China showed great interest in expanding the energy capacity of Karachi Nuclear Power Plant and signed an agreement to supply two Hualong One nuclear power plants with the start of commercial operations scheduled for 2021 and 2022 respectively. Reactor units will have a design life of 60 years and account for approximately 10% of the country's total generation capacity. As of 31 December 2017, the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant has generated 14.2 billion kWhr of electricity and been fueled by thousands of Pakistan-made fuel bundles without any failure.
Reactor technology
KANUPP
The first reactor unit at the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was a single CANDU-type pressurized heavy-water reactor (PHWR) with a total gross energy generation capacity of 137 Megawatts (MW). It was originally known as "KANUPP"—later classified as K1 in 2010s—that used the water-cooled Deuterium oxide (D2O or heavy water) moderator with natural uranium serving it as its fuel. The Multan Heavy Water Production Facility provided the necessary heavy water to Karachi Nuclear Power Plant since 1978
The KANUPP was noted as one of the oldest reactor that used the CANDU-type PHWR system to generate energy from 1971 to 2021.
The reactor consisted of a tubed calandria vessel of austenitic stainless steel, which contains the heavy water moderator and 208 coolant tube assemblies. The moderator system consisted of the calandria, coolers, pumps and purification system in the heavy water circuit, and control valves, dump valves and helium blowers in the helium circuit. The fuel was natural uranium in the form of sintered uranium dioxide pellets sheathed in thin zirconium alloy tubes to form solid fuel elements about 19.1 inches (48.53 cm) long by 0.6 inches (1.4 cm) diameter.
In 2010, a multi-effect distillation (MED) process source was connected to Karachi Nuclear Power Plant that can produce 1600 m3/d of potable water. In addition, a reverse osmosis plant is also coupled with the nuclear power plant that is producing 454 m3/d of water for reactor usage.
Between 1970 and the 1990s, the KANUPP had generated energy of about ~7.9 billion units of electricity with an average lifetime availability factor of 55.9%. The Canadian technicians designed the life of the plant operations for ~30 years which it did complete its lifetime in 2002. The Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NRA), the regulator of the nuclear power plant, extended its lifetime operation to 2012 (later to 2021), and kept 55.7% capacity factor with total energy generation of 137 MW.
On 1 August 2021, the Canadian unit, K1, was ceased from its criticality operations and was phased out when it was decommissioning from the national grid system, marking the end of its 50-years of long operational services to the nation.
From 1973 to 1979, K1 had an operation factor of 70.1% and between 2006 and 2021, it was at 55.7%.
K2
In 2015, Chinese energy contractors became interested in Karachi Nuclear Power Plant – eventually the Pakistani administration and Chinese government signed an energy agreement to construct two Hualong One reactor units at the US$ Bn with each reactor producing 1,100 MW.
The K-2 is a pressurized water reactor (PWR) supplied by the China National Nuclear Corporation, and is jointly designed by the engineers of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. On 26 November 2013, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif ceremonially broke ground on an energy project at the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant for the construction of two reactor units, one consisting the Hualong One and the other is ACPR-1000— both are pressurized water reactor. Construction of the KANUPP-2 begins on 20 August 2015 and the KANUPP-3's construction commenced on 31 May 2016. Both units are near completion and are expected to attain full energy capacity in 2021 and 2022 respectively.
According to Dr. Ansar Pervaiz, then Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, said that Chinese banks have provided $6.5 Bn for this project as loans and the cold testing of the reactor system at the KANUPP-2 was commenced on 9 December 2019. KANUPP-2 was synchronised with the electricity grid on 18 March 2021. The China Zhongyuan Engineering Corporation (CZEC) is currently serving its civil engineering consultant for both reactors.
On 2 December 2020, the loading of the nuclear fuel started with the clearance from the Nuclear Regulatory Authority. The criticality operation was successfully commenced on 3 March 2020. On 20 March 2021, the K2 was synchronized with the nation's electricity grid system, with PAEC terming the operation as "Pakistan Day gift" to the nation.
On 28 May 2021, the nuclear power plant was operationalized with nation's energy system and was inaugurated with Prime Minister Imran Khan.
K3
The K3 is a first planned as an ACP-1000 nuclear reactor supplied by the China National Nuclear Corporation whose construction was commenced on 31 May 2016, being constructed alongside KANUPP-2 and the first steam engine was installed on 28 August 2018.
On 1 January 2022, the fuel loading started on; and the nuclear power reactor was connected to the national grid system on 4 March 2022.
K4 and K5
PAEC (Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission) has planned to establish two new power plants, namely K-4 and K-5, each with a capacity of 1,400MW in Karachi Nuclear Power Complex.
Energy management
Electricity grid connections
The National Engineering Services (NES) provides consultancy on energy management of the nuclear power plant and manages the electricity power transmission operations by replacing the aging transformers, three-phase electric powerlines, circuit breakers, and protective relay of the 132 kV double circuit transmission line that links the nuclear power plant to the K-Electric. The NES often works closely with the Institute of Power Engineering of the Karachi University to devise discriminative protection scheme and its integration into the nuclear power plants grid system. In 2010, the NES and Institute of Power Engineering engaged in replacing the electromechanical power relays with the SF6 circuit breakers and modern numerical line protection devices.
Energy capacity and corporate management
The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was designed to produce gross energy at 137 MWe with the corresponding net output is 125 MWe. From 1972 to 1979, the nuclear power plant operated with relatively high availability capacity factors up to 70% – it provided the electricity and energy to the whole city of Karachi. Between 1972 and 1992, the nuclear power plant generated the energy about 7.9 billion units of electricity with an average lifetime availability capacity factor of 55.9%. In 1994, the nuclear power plant was exceptionally operated at 85.81% of capacity factor– the highest since its establishment. In 2002–04, the nuclear power plant was shut down due to maintenance issues, and is now kept at 55.55% capacity factor, nominally producing 90 MW of electric power.
With the completion of the two more units, the nuclear power plant is expected to produce over 2000 MW of electricity at an 80–90% capacity.
The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant is owned by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission which runs the operations through regulations provided by the Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NRA) that is responsible for licensing, inspection and ensuring the safety procedures taking place while running the power plant.
The National Engineering Services (NES) of Pakistan, the contractor, manages nuclear power plant on site on behalf of Nuclear Regulatory Authority and oversees the overall electricity distribution of nuclear power plant including the employment of transformers and grid connections over the city. The K-Electric supports the NES operations to manage the plant and relays on energy provided by the nuclear power plant to feed through its circuits. The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, on the other hand, has the responsibility of running the overall operations of the nuclear power plant including computerized machinery, plant stimulators, and manufacturing of fuel bundles, producing fuel cycle, manufacturing tools, and employing of computers.
Energy site contractors
Montreal Engineering Co. (1965–71)
GE Canada (1971–76)
K-Electric
China NNC
NES Pakistan
Reception
Power outages, leakages, and engineering
The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant received wide range of media publicity and fame when it was inaugurated by President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 2 November 1972, accompanied by nation's top scientists and high ranking civic officials. Since 2000, the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant has been subjected to a political debate and controversy between nation's anti-nuclear power and pro-nuclear power activists due to its repeated shutdown to generate energy to provide to the city. In 2000, Zia Mian, a physicist at the SDPI based in Islamabad, compared the performance and efficiency of nuclear power plant as "six worst performing reactors in the world."
In the wake of nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011, the Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NRA) of Pakistan did a safety inspection of the nuclear power plant. Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy who visited the nuclear power plant as part of the inspection viewed negatively of the performance of the plant and was very critical of IAEA's monitoring of the plant. Without the Canadian material support, the nuclear power plant has been shut down multiple times in the years of 1979, 1982, 1993, and in 2002. The power outages at the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant has been reported to high as compared to the other Canadian CANDU reactor, mainly attributed to equipment and regulation failure. In 2002, the Nuclear Regulatory Authority was established to set up the regulation codes, safety regulations, and statues based on the experience learned in running the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant.
The uranium hexafluoride (UF6) leakages in nuclear steam cylinder has been commonly reported multiple times but it was addressed when Bashiruddin Mahmood claimed to invent a scientific instrument to prevent further leakages. On 18 October 2011, a seven-hour emergency was imposed by the NES (manager of the plant) after detecting a heavy water leak. The leak was brought under control and the emergency was lifted.
Despite incidents of power outages, the senior physicists and the management of the nuclear power plant has dismissed the criticism of the operations of the nuclear power plant who maintained that the power plant had to be run without Canada's technical and material support, and facilities which were nonexistence in the country to support the operations of the plant. The welding facility, tool manufacturing, and machine shops near the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant were eventually established by Parvez Butt (a mechanical engineer) to support the nuclear power operations of the plant in successive years— Butt was honored with nation's highest honor for this contribution.
According to report submitted to IAEA by S.B. Hussain, a senior physicist who worked at Karachi Nuclear Power Plant, maintained that operating nuclear power plant in the environment of complete Canadian absence was a difficult task, but proved a blessing in disguise, because it provided the Atomic Energy Commission an opportunity to engage in self-reliance in producing nuclear fuel cycle and self-manufacturing programs that was pivotal experience in safely running and managing the much larger Chashma Nuclear Power Plant in Punjab.
According to the assessment compiled by the China's National Nuclear Corporation, the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant's construction works has promoted the development of related industries in Pakistan, providing more than 10,000 jobs for the local area.
Notable staff
Parvez Butt– machinist, chief engineer, director of nuclear power, Chair of PAEC (2001–06)
Bashiruddin Mahmood– principal engineer
Ansar Pervaiz— engineer, general manager of nuclear power plant, Chair of PAEC (2009–13)
Wazed Miah, physicist and chief scientist at nuclear power plant (1972–74)
Hameed Ahmad Khan, physicist and chief scientist at nuclear power plant
Anwar Habib, principal engineer and nuclear safety
Zaheer Baig, health physicist and radiation control
Education facilities
Training opportunities
Since 1973, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission engaged in joint educational venture with University of Karachi's physics department to sponsor degree programs in health physics and electronics engineering, and extended partnership with the NED University on electrical engineering, specifically the power engineering.
The Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences in Islamabad operates and maintains the Institute of Power Engineering in Karachi that offers training programs and courses in nuclear, electrical, and mechanical engineering at the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant.
See also
Energy in Pakistan
Nuclear power in Pakistan
Hydroelectric power in Pakistan
Electricity in Pakistan
Rolling blackout
Economy of Karachi
Industry of Pakistan
Industry in Karachi
References
External links
Karachi Nuclear Power Plant
KARACHI: Plan to establish 1,000MW Kanupp-II put on hold
Nuclear Karachi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politeness%20theory
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Politeness theory
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Politeness theory, proposed by Penelope Brown and Stephen C. Levinson, centers on the notion of politeness, construed as efforts on redressing the affronts to a person's self-esteems or effectively claiming positive social values in social interactions. Such self-esteem is referred as the sociological concept of face (as in "save face" or "lose face") to discuss politeness as a response to mitigate or avoid face-threatening acts such as requests or insults. Notable components in the framework of the theory include positive and negative faces, face threatening act (FTA), strategies for doing FTAs and factors influencing the choices of strategies; each described below.
Among the studies of politeness in a variety of cultures for many years, Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson's politeness theory has become very influential. Though Brown and Levinson proposed their model as universally applicable, their theory has been challenged by other scholars in varied aspects such as its cross-cultural applicability or ways to interpret and conceptualize politeness.
Positive and negative face
The concept of face was derived from Chinese into English in the 19th century. “Face” conceptualized as an individual's positive claim of social values in socializing contact was introduced into academia by Erving Goffman through his theories of "face" and "facework". According to Brown and Levinson's assumption in politeness theory based on Goffman's “face”, one's face is categorized into two forms: positive and negative. Brown and Levinson defined positive face two ways: as "the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others executors" (p. 62), or alternatively, "the positive consistent self-image or 'personality' (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants" (p. 61). Negative face was defined as "the want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others", or "the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction—i.e. the freedom of action and freedom from imposition". Whereas positive face involves a desire for connection with others, negative face needs include autonomy and independence.
Ten years later, Brown characterized positive face by desires to be liked, admired, ratified, and related to positively, noting that one would threaten positive face by ignoring someone. At the same time, she characterized negative face by the desire not to be imposed upon, noting that negative face could be impinged upon by imposing on someone. Positive face refers to one's self-esteem, while negative face refers to one's freedom to act. These two aspects of face are the basic wants in any social interaction; during any social interaction, cooperation is needed amongst the participants to maintain each other's face. Participants can do this by using positive politeness and negative politeness, which pay attention to people's positive and negative face needs respectively.
Face-threatening acts
According to Brown and Levinson, positive and negative face exist universally in human culture; it has been argued that the notion of face is the actual universal component to their proposed politeness theory. A face threatening act is an act that inherently damages the face of the addressee or the speaker by acting in opposition to the wants and desires of the other. Face threatening acts can be verbal (using words/language), paraverbal (conveyed in the characteristics of speech such as tone, inflection, etc.), or non-verbal (facial expression, etc.). Based on the terms of conversation in social interactions, face-threatening acts are at times inevitable. At minimum, there must be at least one of the face threatening acts associated with an utterance. It is also possible to have multiple acts working within a single utterance.
Negative face-threatening acts
Negative face is threatened when an individual does not avoid or intend to avoid the obstruction of their interlocutor's freedom of action. It can cause damage to either the speaker or the hearer, and makes one of the interlocutors submit their will to the other. Freedom of choice and action are impeded when negative face is threatened.
Damage to the hearer
The following are cases in which the negative face of the hearer (the person being spoken to) is threatened.
An act that affirms or denies a future act of the hearer creates pressure on the hearer to either perform or not perform the act.
Examples: orders, requests, suggestions, advice, remindings, threats, or warnings.
An act that expresses the speaker's sentiments of the hearer or the hearer's belongings.
Examples: compliments, expressions of envy or admiration, or expressions of strong negative emotion toward the hearer (e.g. hatred, anger, distrust).
An act that expresses speaker’s future imposing of positive effects toward the hearer, as either rejection or acceptance put pressure on the hearer and may incur a debt.
Examples: offers and promises.
Damage to the speaker
The following are cases in which the negative face of the speaker (the person talking) is threatened.
An act that speaker’s humbles his own face or accept debt to maintain hearer’s face and make good for the hearer.
Examples: expressing thanks, acceptance of gratitude or apology, excuse, acceptance of offers, pretending unaware of H’s mistakes, committing do something unfavorable.
Positive face-threatening acts
Positive face is threatened when the speaker or hearer does not care about their interactor's feelings, wants, or does not want what the other wants. Positive face threatening acts can also cause damage to the speaker or the hearer. When an individual is forced to be separated from others so that their well-being is treated less importantly, positive face is threatened.
Damage to the hearer
The following are cases in which the positive face of the hearer (the person being spoken to) is threatened.
An act that expresses the speaker's negative assessment of the hearer's positive face or an element of his/her positive face.
The speaker directly or indirectly indicating that he dislike some aspect of the hearer's possessions, desires, or personal attributes.
Examples: disapproval, criticism, contempt or ridicule, complaints and reprimands, accusations, insults.
The speaker expresses disapproval by stating or implying that the hearer is wrong, irrational, or misguided.
Examples: contradictions or disagreements, challenges.
An act that expresses the speaker's indifference toward the addressee's positive face.
The addressee might be embarrassed for or fear the speaker.
Examples: excessively emotional expressions.
The speaker indicates that he doesn't have the same values or fears as the hearer
Examples: disrespect, mention of topics which are inappropriate in general or in the context.
The speaker indicates that he is willing to disregard the emotional well being of the hearer.
Examples: belittling or boasting.
The speaker increases the possibility that a face-threatening act will occur. This situation is created when a topic is brought up by the speaker that is a sensitive societal subject.
Examples: topics that relate to politics, race, religion.
The speaker indicates that he is indifferent to the positive face wants of the hearer. This is most often expressed in obvious non-cooperative behavior.
Examples: interrupting, non sequiturs.
The speaker misidentifies the hearer in an offensive or embarrassing way. This may occur either accidentally or intentionally. Generally, this refers to the misuse of address terms in relation to status, gender, or age.
Example: Addressing a young woman as "ma'am" instead of "miss."
Damage to the speaker
The following are cases in which the positive face of the speaker (the person talking) is threatened.
An act that shows that the speaker is in some sense wrong, has own dignity offended, or unable to control himself.
Examples: apologies, acceptance of compliment, inability to control one’s physical self, inability to control one’s emotional self, self-humiliation, confessions.
Refusals as threatening both positive and negative face
In their study of refusals to requests, Johnson et al. argue refusals can threaten both the positive and negative face of the refuser (the person who was asked a favor), and the positive face of the requester (the person asking for a favor). Obstacles, or reasons for non-compliance with a person's request, can "vary on three dimensions: willingness-unwillingness, ability-inability, and focus on-focus away from the requester".
The willingness dimension differentiates between refusals where the refuser states, "I don't want to help you" and "I'd like to help." Ability differentiates between, "I'm short on cash" and "I have some extra money." Focus on-focus away from requester differentiates between, "It's your problem, so you take care of it" and "It's terrible that your mom won't give you the money."When a person makes a request, their positive face is threatened mostly along the ability and unwillingness dimensions. People tend to make requests of "intimates," people they are supposed to know well/have a good relationship with. Threat to the requester's positive face increases when the requester chooses a person who has low ability/inability to fulfill the request or is unwilling to comply (the person being asked has to refuse the request); choosing a person with low ability suggests the requester has poor relational knowledge. On the other hand, choosing a person with high ability decreases threat to the requester's positive face because it shows the requester's competence; choosing a person with high willingness reinforces the requester's choice and decreases threats to positive face.
Choosing to refuse or not refuse a request can threaten the requester's positive and negative faces in different ways. When a person refuses to comply with a request from an intimate, they are violating relational expectations and increasing threat to their positive face; however, focusing attention away from the requester can decrease threat to the requester's positive face even if they are unwilling to help. In contrast, focusing attention on the requester can increase threat to positive face since it highlights the refuser's unwillingness. Accepting a request is the least threatening act.
Threats to the refuser's negative face vary along the ability and focus dimensions. Focusing away from the requester allows the refuser to maintain their autonomy while maintaining the relationship; this leads to less face-threat if the refuser has high ability because they can choose whether to comply or not. Focusing on the requester would threaten their relationship with the requester and their long-term autonomy (the requester may be unwilling to comply to future requests when the roles are reversed); however, if the refuser has low ability, focusing on the requester can actually decrease threats to negative face by showing they are unable to comply even if they wanted to.
*Note: the requester and refuser would be analogous to the "speaker" and "hearer" roles discussed earlier in the section "Face-threatening acts".
Politeness strategies
Politeness strategies are used to formulate messages in order to save the hearer's positive and negative face when face-threatening acts are inevitable or desired. Brown and Levinson outline four main types of politeness strategies: bald on-record, negative politeness, positive politeness, and off-record (indirect) as well as simply not using the face-threatening act.
Bald on-record
Bald on-record strategy does not attempt to minimize the threat to the hearer's face, although there are ways that bald on-record politeness can be used in trying to minimize face-threatening acts implicitly, such as giving advice in a non-manipulative way. Often using such a strategy will shock or embarrass the addressee, and so this strategy is most often utilized in situations where the speaker has a close relationship with the listener, such as family or close friends. Brown and Levinson outline various cases in which one might use the bald on-record strategy, including:
Situations and examples
Situations with no threat minimization
Urgency or desperation
Watch out!
When efficiency is necessary
Hear me out:...
Task-oriented
Pass me the hammer.
Little or no desire to maintain someone's face
Don't forget to clean the blinds!
Doing the face-threatening act is in the interest of the hearer
Your headlights are on!
Situations where the threat is minimized implicitly
Welcomes
Come in.
Offers
Leave it, I'll clean up later.
Eat!
Positive politeness
Positive politeness strategies seek to minimize the threat to the hearer's positive face. These strategies are used to make the hearer feel good about themselves, their interests or possessions, and are most usually used in situations where the audience knows each other fairly well, or an individual's positive face needs, or self-worth, have to be met. In addition to hedging and attempts to avoid conflict, some strategies of positive politeness include statements of friendship, solidarity, compliments, and the following examples from Brown and Levinson:
Situations and examples
Attend to H's interests, needs, wants
You look sad. Can I help you?
Use solidarity in-group identity markers
Hey, mate, could you lend me 3 dollars?
Be optimistic
Don't worry. You'll do just fine!
Include both speaker (S) and hearer (H) in activity
You and I are going swimming together!
Make offers or promises
If you wash the dishes, then I'll vacuum the floor.
Exaggerate interest in H and his interests
That's a nice haircut. Where'd you get it?
Avoid disagreement
Yeah, it's rather long; it only looks short from a distance.
Make jokes
Your hair's even longer than my uncle's!
Other purposes and usages
Positive politeness strategies can also emerge in situations where the speakers do not know each other well. For example, Charlotte Rees and Lynn Knight have explored the role politeness theory plays in general practice consultations. They found that, in an effort to remain polite, patients agreed to the presence of a student observer during a general practice consultation even when the patient preferred a private consultation. Rees and Knight concluded that politeness strategies in the medical field can inhibit patients from providing complete and accurate information.
Another use of positive politeness is polite or formal speech such as Japanese honorifics. Again, this type of formal speech can be used to protect the hearer's positive face.
Negative politeness
Negative politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearer's negative face and emphasize avoidance of imposition on the hearer. By attempting to avoid imposition from the speaker, the risk of face-threat to the hearer is reduced. These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposing on the listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than in bald on record strategies and positive politeness strategies. Examples from Brown and Levinson include:
Situations and examples
Be indirect
Would you know where Oxford Street is?
Use hedges or questions
Perhaps, he might have taken it, maybe.
Could you please pass the rice?
Be pessimistic
You couldn't find your way to lending me a thousand dollars, could you?
So I suppose some help is out of the question, then?
Minimize the imposition
It's not too much out of your way, just a couple of blocks.
Use obviating structures, like nominalizations, passives, or statements of general rules
I hope offense will not be taken.
Visitors sign the ledger.
Spitting will not be tolerated.
Apologetic
I'm sorry; it's a lot to ask, but can you lend me a thousand dollars?
Use plural pronouns
We regret to inform you.
Three main stages of favor seeking
Favor seeking, or a speaker asking the hearer for a favor, is a common example of negative politeness strategies in use. Held observes three main stages in favor-seeking: the preparatory phase, the focal phase, and the final phase:
The preparatory phase is when the favor-seeking is preceded by elaborate precautions against loss of face to both sides. It often involves signals of openings and markers to be used to clarify the situation (e.g. 'You see,' or 'so,'). The request is often softened, made less direct, and imposing (e.g. past continuous 'I was wondering'; informal tag 'What d'you reckon?). The speaker must also reduce his own self-importance in the matter and exaggerate the hearer's (down-scaling compliments).
The focal stage is subdivided into elements such as asker's reasons or constraints (e.g. 'I've tried everywhere but can't get one'), the other's face (e.g. 'You're the only person I can turn to'), and more.
The third stage is the final stage which consists of anticipatory thanks, promises, and compliments (e.g. 'I knew you would say yes. You're an angel.').
McCarthy and Carter provide an example of negative politeness using the following dialogue from the Australian television soap opera, "Neighbours":
Clarrie: So I said to him, forget your books for one night, throw a party next weekend.
Helen: A party at number 30! What will Dorothy say about that?
Clarrie: Well, what she doesn't know won't hurt her. Of course, I'll be keeping my eye on things, and (SIGNAL OF OPENING) that brings me to my next problem. (EXPLAIN PROBLEM) You see, these young people, they don't want an old codger like me poking my nose in, so I'll make myself scarce, but I still need to be closer to hand, you see. So, (ASK FAVOR) I was wondering, would it be all right if I came over here on the night? What d'you reckon?
Helen: Oh, Clarrie, I...
Clarrie: Oh (MINIMIZATION) I'd be no bother. (REINFORCE EXPLANATION) It'd mean a heck of a lot to those kids.
Helen: All right.
Clarrie: (THANK WITH BOOST) I knew you'd say yes. You're an angel, Helen.
Helen: Ha! (laughs)
All of this is done in attempt to avoid imposition on the hearer. Negative politeness is concerned with proceeding towards a goal in the smoothest way and with sensitivity to one's interlocutors. In English, deference ('Excuse me, sir, could you please close the window') is associated with the avoidance or downplaying of an imposition; the more we feel we might be imposing, the more deferential we might be. It is clearly a strategy for negative politeness and the redressing of a threat to negative face, through actions such as favor-seeking.
Off-record (indirect)
The final politeness strategy outlined by Brown and Levinson is the indirect strategy; This strategy uses indirect language and removes the speaker from the potential to be imposing. The strategy of doing off-record is to express something general or different than the speaker's true meaning and relies on the hearer's interpretation to have the speaker's purpose get conveyed. The speaker can get credit for not imposing on the hearer or give the hearer a chance to be helpful and generous. This strategy relies heavily on pragmatics to convey the intended meaning while still utilizing the semantic meaning as a way to avoid losing face (see below in Choice of strategy).
Situations and examples
· Minimizing the threaten toward the hearer's freedom (S-Speaker, H-Hearer)
-S: Do you have a free chair over there? -H: Yes, I do. (grab the chair for the speaker)
-S: Are you going out? -H: Yes, but I’ll come home early.
Giving the hearer a chance to show good personality in caring for others
-S: My head aches a lot. -H: Oh, I’ll get some pain-killer pills for you.
Choice of strategy
Paul Grice argues that all conversationalists are rational beings who are primarily interested in the efficient conveying of messages. Brown and Levinson use this argument in their politeness theory by saying that rational agents will choose the same politeness strategy as any other would under the same circumstances to try to mitigate face. They show the available range of verbal politeness strategies to redress loss of face. Face-threatening acts have the ability to mutually threaten face, therefore rational agents seek to avoid face-threatening acts or will try to use certain strategies to minimize the threat. In certain situations, an over application of any particular strategy may actually achieve the opposite of the intended effect, as "certain speakers consistently evaluate polite behavior as unnecessary and offensive."
Speaker (S) will weigh:
the want to communicate the content of the face-threatening act in question
the want to be efficient or urgent
the want to maintain H's face to any degree
In most cooperative circumstances where 3. is greater than 2., S will want to minimize the face-threatening act.
Payoffs associated with each strategy
In deciding which strategy to use, the speaker runs through the individual payoffs of each strategy.
Bald on-record
enlists public pressure, puts H in the public eye if there are others present
S gets credit for honesty, outspokenness which avoids the danger of seeming manipulative, yet can come across as abrasive and tactless
S avoids danger of being misunderstood by putting intended meaning directly into utterance without the reliance upon the pragmatic meaning
Positive politeness
minimizes threatening aspect by assuring that S considers to be of the same kind with H, increasing the sense of solidarity and decreasing their social distance
criticism may lose much of its sting if done in a way that asserts mutual friendship
when S includes themself equally as a participant in the request or offer, it may lessen the potential for face-threatening act debt
Ex: a person says "Let's get on with dinner" to their spouse in front of the television: by using the first person plural of the imperative form of the verb, the speaker is able to include themself as a recipient of the order, just like the hearer, likewise increasing solidarity.
Negative politeness
Helps avoid future debt by keeping social distance and not getting too familiar with H
pays respect or deference by assuming that you may be intruding on the hearer in return for the face-threatening act.
Ex: "I don't mean to bother you, but can I ask a quick question?"
Off record
get credit for being tactful, non-coercive
avoid responsibility for the potentially face-damaging interpretation
give the addressee an opportunity to seem to care for S because it tests H's feelings towards S
If S wants H to close the window, he may say "It's cold in here." If H answers "I'll go close the window" then he is responding to this potentially threatening act by giving a "gift" to the original speaker and therefore S avoids the potential threat of ordering H around and H gets credit for being generous or cooperative
Don't do the face-threatening act.
S avoids offending H at all
S also fails to achieve his desired communication
An example might be a physician avoiding bringing up the need for a patient to lose weight.
Sociological variables
Three sociological factors affect the choice of politeness strategy and the seriousness of the face threatening action: distance between speaker and listener; the power difference between the speaker and listener; and ranking of the seriousness of the face threat.
Social distance between parties (symmetric relation)
Distinguishes kin or friend from a stranger with whom you may have the same social status, but who is still separate because of social distance. Different acts may be seen as face-threatening or non-face threatening depending on the social distance between speaker and listener
Example: We may use less elaborate positive strategies or we may choose to use positive rather than negative politeness when speaking with family rather than a stranger
Power relations between parties (asymmetric relation)
We are inclined to speak to our social equals differently than those whose status is higher or lower than our own in a given situation.
Example: If a professor is working in her office and people are being very loud and disruptive in the next room, she will go over there and tell them to be quiet but the way she does it will differ depending on who it is. If they are students she will use the bald on-record strategy to make sure there is no confusion in what she is asking, saying: "Stop talking so loud!".
But if they are colleagues she will claim common ground with them using the positive politeness strategy or frame an indirect request for them to stop talking, saying: "I'm working on a lecture and it's really hard to concentrate with all this noise."
Additionally if they are really high status directors of the department she may end up saying nothing at all or apologize for interrupting them, refraining from the face-threatening act.
The absolute ranking of the threat of the face-threatening act
Some impositions are considered more serious than others. Highly imposing acts like requests demand more redress to mitigate their increased threat level.
Overall the formula for the weight of a face-threatening act is:
Weight = Social distance (speaker, hearer) + power difference (speaker, hearer) + rank of imposition
Hierarchy of strategies
The greater potential for loss of face requires greater redressive action. If the potential for loss of face is too great, the speaker may make the decision to abandon the face-threatening acts completely and say nothing.
The number next to each strategy corresponds to the danger-level of the particular face-threatening act. The more dangerous the particular face-threatening act is, the more S will tend to use a higher numbered strategy.
No redressive action
*Bald On-Record- leaves no way for H to minimize the face-threatening act.
Positive redressive action
*S satisfies a wide range of H's desires not necessarily related to the face-threatening act.
**Shows interest in H
**Claims common ground with H
**Seeks agreement
**Gives sympathy
Negative redressive action
*S satisfies H's desires to be unimpeded—the want that is directly challenged by the face-threatening act.
**Be conventionally indirect
**Minimize imposition on H
**Beg forgiveness
**Give deference
*This implies that the matter is important enough for S to disturb H
Off-Record
*S has the opportunity to evade responsibility by claiming that H's interpretation of the utterance as a face-threatening act is wrong
Don't do the face-threatening act.
Application examples
Although the politeness theory originated from the curiosity of linguistics and language forming, scholars are beginning to see its other benefits: its ability to not only help with interpersonal relationships, workplace environments, and beyond.
Business world
One study by Cynthia Dunn observed a Japanese business that required etiquette training for their new employees. Employees were taught the company's definition of politeness; they were expected to incorporate these beliefs into their day-to-day behavior, such as "kindness," "consideration for others," and "deference and respect". However, self-presentation was also a critical feature employers wanted their employees to improve upon. An attractive self-presentation through various nonverbals and word choice would not only reflect the individual's politeness but the corporation's as well. This decision had very positive consequences in the workplace environment.
Through new studies there is the possibility that the politeness theory may penetrate deeper areas. For example, maybe more businesses will begin to take on these concepts and incorporate them into their discussion and conflict-resolution strategies. These could be effective in achieving long-term goals. Whatever the case may be, the politeness theory has a solid foundation in the field of communication and will certainly contribute positively to the assimilation of language and civility.
Art world
In his 1967 work, Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior, Goffman posits numerous times that with every remark people make, they risk maintaining their face and the face of others. Politeness theory is generally applied when assessing speech acts or remarks. However, a study conducted by Jurgita Sribaitė looked at politeness theory as it applied to written art reviews. The study focused on art reviews in Lithuania in the early and mid-1970s and analyzed the different strategies used by the art reviewers as they attempted to critique pieces of art while maintaining their face as well as the face of the artists. The study was able to identify face-saving acts and all four politeness strategies at work. The author states, "Reviewers usually appear to have in mind the addressee's positive face (the desire to be liked and be approved of) as well as his negative face (the desire to be left free to act as he chooses)." The examples given show that even the reviewers, who hold the obvious advantage over the addressees, cared to save both their face and the face of the artists.
Humor
Positive politeness strategies are used as a way of giving someone a sense of belonging and as seen in the politeness strategies section, jokes are considered a positive politeness strategy. Therefore, joking can be a way of making someone feel as if though they belong. However, some contemporary researchers have noted that humor is complex and not all jokes can be considered polite. In fact, many instances of humor usage can negatively affect face for a number of reasons: the hearers ability to understand the joke is tested, the hearer may interpret verification of the willingness to hear a joke as aggressive, and the hearer can be threatened even by non aggressive humor if it tests their ability to understand the joke or their emotions. In a study conducted by Marta Dynel, in 2016, different occasions of humor used in the television show, House, were assessed and analyzed as polite or (im)polite. In reference to the conclusions of study Dynel states, "Specifically, humor may serve politeness and/or impoliteness depending on the speaker's intention and awareness of the consequences his/her utterance may carry, the hearer's recognition of the speaker's intention, as well as his/her ultimate amusement or taking offense." In general, humor can provide face-saving tactics that enable solidarity, but it can also be a risky strategy to use because the speaker and the hearer must be on the same page.
Delivering bad news
When delivering bad news the speaker has a lot to consider regarding his or her own face and the face of the hearer. In 2015, Miroslav Sirota and Marie Juanchich conducted a study on uncertainty communication with negative outcomes. The authors suggest "First, speakers making a prediction may intend not only to inform about a probability level, but also to manage the hearer's faces or their own...Second, speakers perform face-managing intentions by altering (e.g. lessening or magnifying) the explicitly communicated probablility of a negative outcome...Thus, politeness theory posits that speakers use uncertainty quantifiers to pursue informative intentions and also to sugar-coat threatening news to manage the hearers' or their own faces."
The study conducted required people to communicate bad news to a friend regarding two scenarios. In the first scenario the subjects had to communicate a 50% probability that their friend's new car was going to break-down, and in the second scenario the subjects communicated a 50% chance that their friend's stock were going to lose their value. The subjects of the study reported that "speakers intended to manage hearer's faces from threatening news or to manage their own faces from being wrong… speakers communicated an altered (in the case of our scenarios, lower) outcome probability when they intended to be tactful or cautious than when they intended to be informative."
In 2002, an oncologist by the name of Jerome Groopman wrote an article entitled, Dying Words; How should doctors deliver bad news?. In his article he recalls one of the first experiences in which he had to tell a young woman that she has malignant terminal cancer. He said to her, "Claire, with this disease, a remission would ordinarily last three to six months. A person could expect to survive between one to two years." He found that this type of strategy (bald on-record) deeply shook the patient (negatively threatened her negative face). He now uses different strategies and realized that with sensitive information tact must be used, but also that the patient must be aware of the true probability of negative outcome. Many doctors, he argues, do not find that balance and tend to hedge information, "More than forty percent of oncologists withhold a prognosis from a patient if he or she does not ask for it or if the family requests that the patient not be told. A similar number speak in euphemisms, skirting the truth." This statement reads similarly to the Sirota and Juanchich study; bad news is very frequently sugar-coated in attempt to save face.
Mitigated speech
In his book, Outliers, Malcolm Gladwell wrote a chapter entitled, "The Ethnic Theory of Plane Crashes." The chapter attempts to explain why so many planes that crash end up crashing from human error, and not mechanical issues. One of the most prominent reasons, Gladwell points out, is the lack of effective communication due to the power dynamic between the captain and the first officer. He uses numerous examples of black box recordings in which the first officer hints at a problem instead of addressing it outright. He introduces the linguistic term, mitigated speech, and states, "We mitigate when we're being polite, or when we're ashamed or embarrassed, or when we're being deferential to authority." First officers tend to use mitigated speech when addressing their captain and this has caused plane crashes in the past.
Linguists Ute Fischer and Judith Orasanu conducted a study with a group of captains and first officers. They gave them a scenario in which they had to communicate to each other the need to change course to avoid a thunderstorm. Overwhelmingly the captains used commands, or what Brown and Levinson would consider bald on-record politeness strategy, to communicate with their first officer. On the other hand, the first officers only used hints, similar to what politeness theory would consider an off-record politeness strategy, to communicate with their superior, the captain. Airlines have been taking this issue seriously and have made strides in teaching captains and first officers how to communicate with each other effectively.
Intercultural Communication
Various researches have analyzed the application of politeness theory in communication between different cultural groups. Communicative expectations, patterns of communicative activities and choice of politeness strategies vary among cultures. For instance, Morisaki and Gudykunst argue that members from individualist cultures prefer to use negative politeness strategies in conflict management, while members from collectivist cultures would rather use positive politeness strategies. 12
In addition, some other researchers focused on the acquaintance of politeness strategies and knowledge about politeness difference in foreign language education. Japanese researcher Kawai found that there is a lack of “cultural learning” in English education makes the Japanese student weak in effectively using politeness strategies in English, such as the reliance on context understanding in Japanese may cause face-threatening acts when in inter-cultural communication with western cultures. Tanaka and Kawade found differences in the usage pattern of politeness strategies among native English speakers and ESL learners.
Critiques
Brown and Levinson's politeness theory is very applicable not only in the area of study within the communication field but also helpful in guiding individuals in ways to improve their speech and actions Two qualities in particular stand out:
Good Heuristic Value: This theory has motivated scholars to implement more research into grasping these ideas or finding alternatives to this way of thinking.
Broad Scope: This theory considers factors that play a role in the field of communication such as "language, identity, relational definition ... social power, distance, and culture".
On the other hand, Although Brown and Levinson's theory is widely applicable, some weaknesses in their theory have been noted.
Cultural differences
Many academics have critiqued that many cultures use politeness strategies differently than how Brown and Levinson theorized. Many sociologists criticize that politeness theory is heavily based on Western cultures where individualism is highly valued compared to many non-Western cultures where group identity is valued over the individual. Some of this intracultural difference is, in part, due to diverse "knowledge and values" within a particular society, but Brown and Levinson argue that their theory is universal.
Although everyone has face wants, there are different ways strategies they use to accomplish these wants or mitigate face threats based on their culture. For example, negative politeness is the norm in some cultures (Japan and Britain) but not others that prefer positive politeness (Australia) and some cultures use politeness strategies when there is no face threat, such as the Japanese honorific system. Ide et al. shows that the roughly equivalent term in Japanese, teneina, has different sets of connotations associated with it from the English term "politeness". Gu (1998) pointed out that some face concerns in Western culture are not taken into account in Eastern cultures. In a series of interviews conducted by Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper in 1989 of fifty-two Israeli families, they conclude that as suggested already by the semantic definitions offered for the term "politeness" by Israelis, the constituents of "tact" and its appropriate modes of expression are very much subject to cultural interpretation.
Inclusiveness of politeness strategies
Some claim that a few of these techniques may be used in more than one type of situation or more than one at a time. Additionally, a given speech act (of any politeness strategy) can have multiple consequences, rather than affecting only positive face or negative face as the current theory suggests.
Nonverbal aspects of communication
Sometimes nonverbal actions speak louder than verbal communication and might alter how the politeness strategy is interpreted or which politeness strategy is used.
Individual differences
An individual may have a pattern or way of communicating that they have habitually used in the past that others may consider face threatening or vice versa. Mood may also drive how they choose to respond to a situation regardless of politeness strategies.
Issues with terminology and their definitions
Various definitions of 'politeness' which make reference to considering others' feelings, establishing levels of mutual comfort, and promoting rapport have been found to be lacking, in that often whether a verbal act is face threatening or not depends upon preemptively knowing how the hearer will interpret it. This view shifts the focus from predominantly upon the speaker to upon both speaker and hearer, implying that politeness is socially constructed and therefore not universal, requiring cross-cultural examination. Additionally, a distinction has been made between first- and second-order politeness, due to the appropriation of an English word for a scientific concept: first-order politeness "correspond[s] to the various ways in which polite behavior is perceived and talked about by members of socio-cultural groups", meaning the connotation of 'politeness' for those not studying it, and second-order politeness is "a theoretical construct, a term within a theory of social behavior and language usage", meaning the scientific application of the term.
Spencer-Oatey argues that sociality rights also plays a role in relationship management other than "face", and Brown and Levinson's "negative face" is not about face concerns but should be conceptualized into sociality rights. Watts (2003) argues that "it is impossible to evaluate (im) politeness behaviour out of the context of real, ongoing verbal interaction" and also "social interaction is negotiated on-line."
Hierarchy politeness
Scholars suggest power differences vary between strangers and acquaintances, which in turn, shape the effects of the politeness strategies. Social similarity and intimacy are other aspects to consider, as these connections create an increased awareness of the other person's meaning and request and therefore minimize the face-threatening act. In 1964, socio-psychologist Edward E. Jones wrote a book on ingratiation and defines it as "a class of strategic behaviors illicitly designed to influence a particular other person concerning the attractiveness of one's personal qualities." The concept of ingratiation has helped spur further investigation into how its power dynamics play into Brown and Levinson's politeness theory. The claim has been made that Brown and Levinson's theory does not take into account the effect unique dynamic power relations and rankings has on the way people interact with one another (i.e. ingratiation).
An article written by Akio Yabuuchi argues a case for a new trichotomous politeness system to replace politeness theory's dichotomous politeness system; hierarchy politeness The proposed system is made up of fellowship politeness (similar to Brown and Levinson's positive politeness), autonomy politeness (similar to Brown and Levinson's negative politeness), and hierarchy politeness. Hierarchy politeness recognizes ingratiation as a way to communicate within power dynamics.
See also
Complimentary language and gender
Cooperative principle
Politeness maxims
References
Further reading
Brown, Penelope and Stephen C. Levinson. 1987. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [First published 1978 as part of Esther N. Goody (ed.): Questions and Politeness. Cambridge University Press]
Cameron, Deborah. 2001. Working with Spoken Discourse. Sage Productions
Coulmas, Florian. 1998. The handbook of sociolinguistics. Wiley-Blackwell.
Foley, William. 1997. Anthropological Linguistics: An introduction. Blackwell.
Goldsmith, D. J. (2006). Brown and Levinson's politeness theory. In B. Whaley & W. Samter (Eds.) Explaining communication: Contemporary theories and exemplars (pp. 219–236). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Goffman, Erving. 1955. On Face-Work: An analysis of ritual elements in social interaction, Psychiatry: Journal of Interpersonal Relations 18:3, pp. 213–231 [reprinted in Interaction Ritual, pp. 5–46].
Kadar, Daniel Z., and Michael Haugh (2013). Understanding Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lakoff, R. 1973. The logic of Politeness; or minding your p's and q's. Papers from the 9th Regional Meeting, Chicago Linguistics Society. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society.
Schiffrin, Deborah. 1994. Approaches to Discourse. Wiley-Blackwell.
Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. Oxford University Press.
Discourse analysis
Pragmatics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Typographical%20Union
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International Typographical Union
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The International Typographical Union (ITU) was a North American trade union for the printing trade for newspapers and other media. It was founded on May 3, 1852, in the United States as the National Typographical Union, and changed its name to the International Typographical Union at its Albany, New York, convention in 1869 after it began organizing members in Canada. The ITU was one of the first unions to admit female members, admitting women members such as Augusta Lewis, Mary Moore and Eva Howard in 1869.
Typographers were educated, economically mobile, in every major urban center with newspapers, and had the unique possibility to influence publicity in favour of their cause. This led the union to the forefront of improving working conditions. ITU President W. B. Prescott led the ITU in 1897 to win a 48-hour work week and a standard wage scale for all printers. During the Great Depression, the ITU introduced the 40-hour work week across the industry at no cost to employers as a way to share the fewer jobs available. That ITU initiative spread to other unions and has since been codified across the labor sector by federal legislation in the US establishing the 40-hour work week.
The ITU had a unique system of factional opposition in its democratic elections, documented by Seymour Martin Lipset in his co-authored book Union Democracy: The Internal Politics of the International Typographical Union (1957). The local scale committees worked for a decent wage while the executive council sent ITU representatives to assist local unions in contract negotiations. All contracts had to be approved and ratified by both the Executive Council and the newspaper publisher. For most of its history, the ITU benefited from friendly and strong competition between Independents and Progressives for control of the union.
As the work of typographers declined with automation, computers and mechanization of the print media, the ITU was disbanded. In 1986, a majority of ITU mailers voted to merge with the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and the remaining typographers joined the Communications Workers of America. Before its dissolution, the ITU was the oldest union in the United States.
History
Formation
The concept for a typographical union was formed at a New York City meeting of 18 representatives from typographers' associations in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Kentucky in December 1850. A committee led by John Keyser of Philadelphia was formed to investigate issues and propose a plan of action.
The representatives met again in Baltimore in September 1851. While they resolved to form a national union, no other actions were taken.
Finally, delegates from typographers' unions in 14 cities met in Cincinnati in May 1852 and organized the National Typographical Union. A random drawing enabled the Indianapolis local to become Local Union #1 and the new headquarters. In 1869, a new Constitution was adopted, accepting the affiliation of Canadian printing trade unions and changing the name to the International Typographical Union. In 1873, at Montreal, Canada, the first ITU convention outside the United States was held. The ITU Book of Laws would be amended many times, yet it was as members called it "ITU Law." Each union shop was a "Chapel" and the shop steward was the "Chapel Chairman". All apprentices and journeymen had to have working cards showing paid union dues. ITU Law dictated that dues, which were proportionate to the amount of work done in the chapel, had to be paid by the first Tuesday after the last Saturday of the month. If the Union dues were not paid, the member was not allowed to work until their payment.
Fragmentation
Technological developments in the late 19th century such as the development of lithography and photography led to diversification and specialization among printers. Further fragmentation in the printing labor movement led to the establishment of the International Printing Pressmen's Union of North America (IPPU), in 1889. In 1892, the ITU authorized membership for mailers and for newspaper writers. Pressure mounted for a separate pressman's union, and in 1892 the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders (IBB) was formed. Many pressmen left the ITU for the Bookbinders. At the same time as mailers joined, two thousand pressmen members seceded to form the International Printing Pressmen Union Assistants, (IPPUA) in 1897 and the International Stereotypers' and Electrotypers' Union, (IS&EU) in 1902. At the start of the 20th century, ITU membership was primarily compositors and mailers.
In 1894, the Louisville convention sought to have president W. B. Prescott examine ways to have newer technology under the ITU. Then, the ITU chartered a photoengravers' union in New York City. Over the next few years, the ITU organized photoengravers in several other cities as well. However, many photoengravers felt that the leaders of the ITU were indifferent to their needs.
In 1899, photoengravers in New York City went on strike to demand a 48-hour work week. ITU President S. B. Donnelly refused to support the local, fearing employers might retaliate. The New York City photoengravers won their strike, but the lack of ITU support led most of the union's photoengraver locals to seek disaffiliation. A national convention in Philadelphia in November 1900 saw the photoengravers leaving the ITU and establishing the International Photo-Engravers Union of North America. ITU President James M. Lynch, pressured the AFL into refusing to recognize the photoengravers' union until May 1904.
In 1893, the ITU struck Harrison Gray Otis's Los Angeles Times. In 1896, the union began a boycott that ran until 1908. In 1903, ITU President James M. Lynch, persuaded William Randolph Hearst to start a rival paper, the Los Angeles Examiner.
On October 1, 1910, James B. Mc Namara, an ITU member and his brother. Joseph J. Mc Namara, secretary-treasurer of the International Union of Bridge and Structural Iron Workers placed a bomb in the L.A. Times building, killing 21 people. Famed attorney Clarence Darrow defended the brothers. They were convicted of the bombing and murder. Despite various job actions that lasted into the 1920s, the L.A. Times remained a non-union shop. This was a major defeat for both the ITU and other trade unions; Los Angeles and Southern California would be lost to trade unions except in the case of the entertainment industry.
AFL
As early as 1879, the International Typographical Union was in the forefront of organized labor. The ITU was instrumental in the formation of the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions in 1882. In the same time frame, the ITU rejected the Knights of Labor. In the American Federation of Labor (AFL) presidential election of 1881, William H. Foster of the ITU defeated Samuel Gompers. In 1886, the Cigar Makers' Union leader, Samuel Gompers, was elected AFL president. The ITU was the largest and strongest union in the AFL. By the end of the 19th century, ITU President S. B. Donnelly called the ITU the "strongest and most stable printing union in the United States". In 1924, William Green would succeed Gompers as AFL president. The seeds of discord between the AFL and ITU were sown.
Fight for better working conditions
From October 1891, the ITU Mortuary Benefits were the most respected in trade unionism.
In 1906, ITU President James M. Lynch decided to use strong tactics and initiated strikes in most major cities, attempting to secure an eight-hour work day. The union had lost a fight for a nine-hour day a few years earlier; however, this time, the union spent over US$4 million supporting its striking locals. Not only did the ITU win an eight-hour work day, but the ITU strike paved the way for similar gains by the five other printing unions.
The ITU was a democratic labor union. Members served a five-year apprenticeship and were tested to become journeymen. The Progressives and Independents gave the union a two-party organization. The Progressive party gave most of the leaders to the ITU.
In 1907, ITU President James M. Lynch appointed a special committee, "to formulate some system for the technical trade education of our members and apprentices." The committee selected, and President Lynch accepted, the ITU Course of Instruction: thirty-six "Lessons in Printing". Courses were first offered to members of Chicago Typographical #16 by The Inland Printer Technical School of Chicago. Alumni would include future ITU presidents, Woodruff Randolph and John J. Pilch.
In 1914, ITU President James M. Lynch resigned, appointed by Governor Martin H. Glynn as New York State Commissioner of Labor. Many printers in the New York "Big 6" Local, saw the political appointment, a way to remove Lynch from dealing with newspaper publishers. James M. Lynch would serve as ITU president 1925–1926. Employers sought concessions after World War I as part of their 'open shop' movement. A key goal was to lengthen the work day to 10 to 12 hours. The wartime ITU president Marsden G. Scott fought back with massive strikes all over the country. In one period (May to December 1921), new ITU president John McParland could say the defense fund was secure as the union collected over $6 million in strike donations and spent $5.5 million in strike benefits.
By June 1924, employers had had enough. The three-year running battle with the union had cost owners dearly and the union preserved its gains. However, the win was one that had cost the health of ITU president, John McParland, who served from 1921–1923. Charles P. Howard served out the rest of 1923 as ITU president; being elected in 1924 and serving until 1938.
ITU role in forming the CIO
The ITU had been active in organizing new workers for almost 80 years. As the Great Depression created a crisis for American workers, the ITU joined with other unions in the AFL to agitate for more organizing.
In 1935, Charles P. Howard, president of the ITU, joined with John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers; David Dubinsky of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union; Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America; Thomas McMahon of the United Textile Workers; John Sheridan of the International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers; Harvey Fremming of the Oil Workers Union and Max Zaritsky of the Hatters, Cap and Millinery Workers to form the Committee for Industrial Organization within the AFL.
In 1937, ITU Secretary Randolph was livid at AFL President William Green. The AFL executive council levied an assessment to fight industrial organization upon allied unions. The ITU refused to pay; Randolph's reason was "not to pay any assessment levied by any means other than a referendum vote of ITU printers and mailers."
The craft unions within the AFL demanded that the committee stop organizing members on an industrial basis. Lewis and the other members of the CIO persisted.
In 1938, the AFL ejected the eight member unions of the CIO, including the ITU. At the 1938, ITU convention at Birmingham, Alabama, President Claude M. Baker disclosed to the delegates the decision of the AFL. Three unions returned to the AFL. On May 21, 1941, the ITU turned down reaffiliation with the AFL by referendum vote of the ITU members. During its time in the CIO, the union experienced a brief growth in members, topping out at 84,200 in 1939. The increase was notable, but moderate as production swung towards heavy industry during World War II. In 1944, the ITU reaffiliated with the American Federation of Labor. The AFL promised the ITU full autonomy. ITU President Woodruff Randolph and AFL President William Green re-established and re-affirmed the ITU–AFL relationship, as if no breach had taken place. The five remaining unions subsequently formed the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The CIO rejoined the AFL in 1955, forming the new entity known as the AFL–CIO. AFL–CIO President George Meany and his successors would have a cool relationship with all ITU presidents from Randolph to Bingle. ITU President Joe Bingle asked AFL–CIO President Lane Kirkland to speak at the 1983 San Francisco ITU Convention; Kirkland declined.
Woodruff Randolph
Woodruff Randolph (1892–1966), a printer from Chicago #16 and attorney-at-law, served as ITU Secretary-Treasurer (1929–1944) and ITU President (1944–1957). Randolph was very powerful and often usurped the position of ITU president Claude M. Baker. The ITU presidential election of 1944 between Baker and Randolph was one of the most vicious in union history. He loathed the National Labor Relations Board. During World War II, Randolph dealt with the National War Labor Board. He led the Progressive party of the ITU. At the 1949 Oakland ITU convention, he spoke in harsh terms against the Taft–Hartley Act, the act in favor of the open shop. Chicago #16, Randolph's home local, was the first local hit by Taft-Hartley. On November 24, 1947 the Chicago papers went on a strike that lasted 22 months. Newspaper publishers called for aid from the authors of the law, US Senator Robert A. Taft (R.-Ohio) and Congressman Fred A. Hartley, Jr. (R.-New Jersey) The ITU and Woodruff Randolph won in Chicago. He fought publishers and won in the early 1950s. In 1951, Randolph created Unitypo, the union-supported newspaper in struck cities. Unitypo met with mixed results from the public at large. In the mid-1950s, Randolph embodied the ITU; his power was felt in every ITU shop and feared in every newspaper's board room. The printers were shocked during the 1957 ITU convention in New York to find that Randolph would not seek reelection.
Woodruff Randolph hand-picked the Progressives to run for executive council in 1958, which would control the ITU for nearly twenty years. At the same time United States Senator John McClellan (D.-AR) was investigating organized crime in labor unions. When Dave Beck, president of the Teamsters, resigned in 1957—near the time of Randolph's statement of retirement—many ITU members wondered about their long-time leader. The new ITU President Elmer Brown meekly appeared before the US Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management. Brown had been ITU second Vice-President (1944–1949) and had served in various offices in his home local, New York Typographical #6 (1945–1957). Brown claimed that during the 1957 ITU convention, Randolph requested Brown run for president of the ITU. Brown told the committee that he had not been aware of events in Indianapolis since he left the Executive Council. Randolph retired to his homes in Indiana and Florida, October 1, 1966, he died in the Union Printers Home.
Printing decline
Woodruff Randolph's hand-picked Progressive Executive Council held the longest tenure as a unit in ITU history: from 1958–1978, its membership was Elmer Brown, president; John J. Pilch, first vice-president; Alexander Sandy Bevis, second vice-president (Canadian); Joseph P. Bailey, third vice-president (Mailer). Secretary-treasurer Don Hurd died in 1959, succeeded by William R. Cloud. After Elmer Brown's 1968 death, the ITU presidents were Pilch (1968–1973) and Bevis (1974–1978).
The Mergenthaler linotype machine was used by newspaper printers from the 1880s to the 1970s. Technological progress again confronted the ITU in the post-war period. A number of new advances—including offset lithography, flexography, relief print, screen printing, rotogravure, and digital printing—greatly reduced the number of workers needed in the modern printshop and newspaper composing room.
In 1964, the ITU counted 121,858 members. But by 1980, the union had shed nearly a quarter of its membership due to technological advances. Toward the end of the ITU, the mailers outnumbered the printers. With the disappearance of linotype machines and the advent of paste makeup and computerized composition methods, the work in the composing rooms dropped. The mail rooms needed people to work on the inserting machines.
Merger
Concerned that the union did not have the economic strength to win good wages and benefits for its members and worried that further membership declines might threaten the viability of the union, the ITU leadership sought a merger with another printing union.
The ITU sought to merge with the Newspaper Guild but terminated negotiations in 1981 after nearly four years of talks. The ITU discussed merging with the Graphic Communications International Union, but the talks did not proceed very far. Later, the GCIU merged into the IBT.
Problems plagued the term of ITU President Joe Bingel (1978–1983). In a contested special election between Bingel and Robert McMichen, McMichen, the anti-Teamster candidate, won the election. However, the ITU was dying.
The ITU executive council subsequently required president Robert McMichen to enter into merger talks with the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. IBT President Jackie Presser spoke of merger with the ITU; at the 1983 San Francisco ITU convention. ITU President Joe Bingle risked his leadership post on the ITU–IBT merger and lost. However, the ITU's 74,000 members turned down the merger two-to-one in a vote taken in 1985, fearing that the Teamsters could not be trusted to respect the terms of the merger agreement—which included the hallmark of the ITU: autonomy. The Mailers would later join the Teamsters; the Printers would not. The last ITU convention was held in 1984 in Hershey, Pennsylvania. By 1986, the ITU had only 44,000 active members.
On December 31, 1986, the Associated Press printed the following with a dateline of Colorado Springs, Colorado:
The International Typographical Union has ceased to exist, and most of its staff was laid off at national headquarters here.
Most of the 60 workers are continuing on a temporary basis with the Communication Workers of America, with which the ITU merged, said ITU spokesman Bill Frazee.
The ITU ended operations on December 31, 1986. On January 1, 1987, the union joined the CWA as its Printing, Publishing and Media Workers Sector.
CWA has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., and employees working for the sector will transfer there in two to four months, Frazee said.
The International Typographical Union was the nation's oldest union, charted nationally in 1852. Its membership peaked in the 1960s at 100,000 printers.
But since computerization of the business, membership has dropped to 40,000 working printers and 35,000 retirees.
Finally, in 1987, the printers of the ITU merged with the Communications Workers of America (CWA). It is now the Printing, Publishing, and Media Workers Sector of the CWA. Daniel F. Wasser is currently president of the sector.
The Mailers were split between the CWA and IBT. In May 1986, many Mailer locals joined "The Mailers' Conference of the CWA". When the ITU ended, some of the Mailer locals merged into the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT). It is now the Newspaper, Magazine and Electronic Media Workers Division. Joe Molinero is the division director.
The ITU Fraternal Pension Fund was from 1908 to 1966. Elmer Brown created the Negotiated Pension Plan (NPP). Today, the pension for all ITU members before 1986 and CWA members since 1987 is the CWA/ITU Negotiated Pension Plan. This pension plan is located in Colorado Springs, Colorado. The Teamsters have the IBT Pension for members after 1987.
Administration
Original chartered locals
On May 5, 1852:
Indianapolis, #1
Philadelphia, #2
Cincinnati, #3
Albany, #4
Columbus, #5
New York, #6
Pittsburgh, #7
St. Louis, #8
Buffalo, #9
Louisville, #10
Memphis, #11
Baltimore, #12
Boston, #13
Harrisburg, #14
Chartered later in 1852:
Rochester, #15
Chicago, #16
New Orleans, #17
Detroit, #18
Elmira, #19
Nashville, #20
San Francisco, #21
A group of thirty men met to organize the Columbia Typographical Society in Washington, DC in December 1814. In 1867 they joined the newly-formed National Typographical Union (later, the International Typographical Union) as Columbia Typographical Union No. 101, representing workers at The Washington Post and Times-Herald, and Evening Star. Columbia Typographical Union/CWA No. 101 is now the oldest continuously existing labor union local in the United States.
The Typographical Journal records that in May 1892 there were 300 locals.
Office headquarters
At the Kansas City ITU convention of 1888, Indianapolis was selected as the official headquarters for the International Typographical Union. ITU President Edward T. Plank, declared, "In 1888 [...] all official (ITU) business, together with books, accounts and records shall be kept [...] at the City of Indianapolis, County of Marion, State of Indiana." During the 1927 ITU convention, at Indianapolis, ITU President Charles P. Howard showed delegates the Van Camp Mansion at Meridian and Twenty-Eighth Streets, which was to serve as the ITU headquarters.
The 1959 ITU convention at Philadelphia passed an action to move the ITU headquarters, after 73 years in Indianapolis, it was decided that the headquarters would be moved to Colorado Springs, Colorado. The building began in 1961, the new ITU Headquarters (225 S. Union Blvd.) and ITU Training Center (301 S. Union Blvd.) being located on the grounds of the Union Printers Home (101 S. Union Blvd.). The final move to Colorado Springs of President Elmer Brown and the Executive Council was completed in February 1963. The ITU Training Center, which opened on May 5, 1962, would publish The Typographical Journal, The ITU Bulletin, and The ITU Review. The former two were the oldest trade union organs founded in 1889.
Union Printers Home
In 1889, Colorado Springs, Colorado was chosen as the site of Union Printers Home. George W. Childs, publisher of the Philadelphia Public Ledger and his philanthropist friend Anthony J. Drexel gave a gift of $10,000 in 1886 to start work toward the Home, thus starting a fund which grew. The 1890 ITU convention in Atlanta approved of the Home.
On May 12, 1892, the Childs–Drexel Home for Union Printers opened on located on the corner of Pikes Peak Ave. and S. Union Blvd. "A Home for the Aged and Sanatorium for Tuberculars. Maintained by the International Typographical Union for Its Distressed Members." 19th Century printers suffered from tuberculosis, and the clean air of the Rocky Mountains, Pikes Peak area in Colorado was seen as a location to clean the diseased lungs. The home was open only to members of the ITU; members' wives or widows were not admitted. John D. Vaughn served as first Superintendent of the Home while its first member was W. B. Eckert, a retired member and former officer of the Philadelphia #2 local. The 1899 ITU convention at Detroit approved the name Union Printers Home. The home, a hospital and sanatorium, was staffed by its own doctors, nurses and other medical technicians. The lands of the home grew to to accommodate a dairy, farms, gardens, power plant, and workshops to help make the UPH self-sufficient. In 1944, Dowell Patterson (1899–1968), superintendent of the home, saw that the most modern of medical equipment was furnished to the UPH. In later years, the tubercular sanitoriums were razed. Today the home serves the people of Colorado Springs and El Paso County as a health care facility with assisted living and nursing care. The main building is a State of Colorado historical site. In February 2020, the local press and media reported the State of Colorado had shut down the facility, citing numerous violations. In July 2021, a small group of investors are planning to refurbish the UPH over the next five years and turn it into a public space.
Women's International Auxiliary
The Women's International Auxiliary was formed at the 1902 Cincinnati ITU Convention. The WIA slogan was Spend Union Earned Money for Union Label Products and Union Services and its quarterly publication was Label Facts. The WIA contributed to the Union Printers Home Fund with various fund raising events. At each ITU convention the WIA would award prizes for the, Union Label Poster contest. Only printer wives were eligible to be elected to the WIA local and international offices. After 1948, mailers' wives were only eligible to serve the local and international WIA auxiliary as third vice president.
The Women's International Auxiliary of the International Typographical Union ceased to exist after 1990, which was after the dissolution of the parent union.
Allied Printing Trades Association
In March 1911, five international unions created the Allied Printing Trades Association:
International Typographical Union
International Printing Pressmen Union of North America
Bookbinders
Photo Engravers
Stereotypers and Electrotypers Unions
In 1955, there was a new agreement, and the following unions were included in the association:
United Papermakers and Paperworkers
The Newspaper Guild
International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers
The Plate Printers
Die Stampers and Engravers
The Mailer unions chartered by the ITU were eligible for membership in Allied Printing Trades Councils. The International Mailers Union was refused membership.
Mailers
Nearly 100 Mailer Locals would be chartered under the ITU. To mark the difference between the Printers and Mailers Unions, the ITU used the M before the local number. In New York City, Typographical #6 and Mailers, M-6. The position of the mailers was that of second-class citizens in the ITU, with no voice on the executive council. Mailers Cary Weaver and Munro Roberts felt the needs of mailers fell on deaf printer ears on the ITU executive council.
The Mailers Trade District Union (MTDU) was an internal part of the ITU. Lawsuits from 1926–1944 were fought for mailer rights. The MTDU was eventually abolished by court injunction and referendum vote. In 1929, ITU president Charles P. Howard selected third vice-president C. N. Smith (a printer) to represent the MTDU. The mailers were allowed to vote in 1930 for their MTDU representative; John Mc Ardle and Harold Mitchell served in 1934. Munro Roberts was elected as MTDU member of the executive council, (1935–1937) but he had no voice or vote. After many heated arguments with ITU President Howard and Secretary Randolph, Roberts became committed to a separate mailer union. Moreover, the International Mailers' Union (IMU), was created and many shops would have two boards, ITU and IMU. With the departure of Roberts, Thomas J. Martin represented the MTDU (1938–1944). The MTDU continued by court order; however, the mailers were again without an observer to the executive council. The 1947 Cleveland convention paved the way for the demise of the MTDU and the election of a mailer to the executive council. Joe Bailey (San Francisco–Oakland Mailers #M-18), was elected third vice-president before the 1948 Milwaukee convention. ITU President Woodruff Randolph saw a way to appease mailers returning after service in World War II. The agreement made between ITU President Randolph and Joe Bailey: only a Printer would ever be president, first and second Vice-President or Secretary-Treasurer of the ITU. The position of third Vice-President would be held only by a Mailer. The IMU lost much power to draw new membership. The IMU finally was finally fully merged into the ITU only in 1982, only five years before the union's demise. Joe Bailey served on the ITU executive council until 1973. A mailer would remain ITU third vice-president: Robert F. Ameln, (1974–1975) and the Canadian mailer, Allen J. Heritage, (1976–1986).
Leadership
Presidents
1852: John S. Nafew
1853: Gerard Stith
1854: Lewis Graham
1855: Charles F. Town
1856: M. C. Brown
1857: William Cuddy
1858: Robert C. Smith
1860: John McCreath Farquhar
1863: Eugene Vallette
1864: A. M. Carver
1865: Robert E. Craig
1866: John H. Oberly
1868: Robert McKechnie
1869: Isaac D. George
1870: William J. Hammond
1873: W. R. McLean
1874: William H. Bodwell
1875: Walter W. Bell
1876: John McVicar
1877: Darwin R. Streeter
1878: John Armstrong
1879: Samuel Haldeman
1880: William P. Atkinson
1881: George Clark
1883: Mark L. Crawford
1884: M. R. H. Witter
1886: William Aimison
1888: Edward T. Plank
1891: William B. Prescott
1898: Samuel B. Donnelly
1900: James M. Lynch
1914: James M. Duncan
1915: M. G. Scott
1921: John McParland
1923: Charles P. Howard
1924: James M. Lynch
1926: Charles P. Howard
1938: Claude M. Baker
1944: Woodruff Randolph
1957: Elmer Brown
1968: John J. Pilch
1974: Sandy Bevis
1978: Joe Bingel
1984: Robert McMichen
Secretary-Treasurers
1854: H. H. Whitcomb
1857: Lewis Graham
1858: George W. Smith
1859: Thomas J. Walsh
1864: William F. Moore
1866: Alexander Troup
1868: John Collins
1874: W. A. Hutchinson
1877: John H. O'Donnell
1878: William White
1880: William H. Trayes
1882: Mark L. Crawford
1883: William Briggs
1885: E. S. McIntosh
1886: D. M. Pascoe
1887: William S. McClevey
1893: A. G. Wines
1896: John W. Bramwood
1909: John W. Hays
1929: Woodruff Randolph
1944: Jack Gill
1947: Don Hurd
1959: William R. Cloud
1974/5: Thomas Kopeck
See also
United States labor law
United Kingdom labour law
List of labor unions in the United States
Notes
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Archives
The International Typographical Union, Local 2 (Philadelphia) Records, documenting union activities from 1850 to 1967, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Preliminary Guide to the International Typographical Union Records. 1890–1982. .17 cubic foot (2 folders). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
International Typographical Union, Local 99 Records. 1882–1981. plus 4 items.
Mickey Neylan Photograph Collection. 1900–1970. 185 photographic prints. Contains photographs of the Seattle Typographical Union No. 202.
Literature
The Executive Council International Typographical Union, A Study of the History of the International Typographical Union, 1852–1963. Volumes I & II . Colorado Springs, CO: International Typographical Union, 1964.
The Executive Council International Typographical Union, Facts About The International Typographical Union For All Who Would Like To Know ! Colorado Springs, Colorado: The ITU Executive Council, 1965.
Ethelbert, Stewart. Early Organization of Printers. Washington: Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor - No. 61. November, 1905.
Seymour Martin Lipset. Union Democracy: The Internal Politics of the International Typographical Union. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1956.
Loft, Jacob. The Printing Trades. Farrar & Rinehart, 1944.
Munson, Fred. Labor Relations in the Lithographic Industry. Boston: Harvard University Press, 1963.
Stevens, George. History of Typographical Union No. 6. Albany: New York Commissioner of Labor, 1911.
Tracy, George A. History of the Typographical Union. Indianapolis: International Typographical Union, 1913.
External links
Printing, Publishing, and Media Workers Sector of the CWA, (ITU)
, Seymour Martin Lipset, 20/1988. Last accessed on 16 September 2006
Newspaper, Magazine and Electronic Media Workers Division, Teamsters
Lipset's Union Democracy After 40 Years, Michael Goldfield, 1998. Last accessed on 16 September 2006.
Communications Workers of America
Printing trade unions
International Brotherhood of Teamsters
Typesetters
Trade unions established in 1852
Trade unions disestablished in 1986
1852 establishments in New York (state)
Union democracy
AFL–CIO affiliates
Canadian Labour Congress affiliates
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa%20In%C3%A9s
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María Inés
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María Inés Guerra Núñez (born July 1, 1983), commonly known as María Inés Guerra, is a Mexican TV hostess and singer.
In 2002 gained fame after receiving the news to be accepted in the musical TV Academy, while in the city of Paris, France on tour with the theater ensemble ITESM. During the reality show, songs like "Hijo de la luna", "Soledad" and "Do not cry for me Argentina" received favorable reviews for his performance, but after her performance in the fifteenth concert gets the tenth competition. Alongside her generation received diamond wheel for more than 1,500,000 copies sold every concert disc released weekly. Following her participation by Academy Launches "María Inés" her first album under the record label BMG-Ariola, the single "A través de tu recuerdo," was well received in different parts of the country.
However, her career and interests expanded to other facets achieved to date one of the most frequent presenting not only of TV Azteca, but the art world since joining the morning show "Con sello de mujer." Later continued entertainment,'s mention just a few, "Aguas con el muro", "High School Musical" and "Disco de oro", the latter sharing the stage with José Luis Rodríguez "El Puma" who named her "The most beautiful Hostess in the Mexican Television Networks. "
In her first chance performance appears to represent an antagonistic role in the soap opera "Enamórate" but is in theater that successfully showcases works as "Peter Pan" and "The Vagina Monologues", however is consolidated by winning the recognition as "Best Newcomer" by starring in the musical "The coming deluge", where he received multiple ovations when projecting fluency, stage presence and also a high level of growth vocal. Complementing in this area makes dubbing into Spanish for television series such as "The Imagers" and "Grey's Anatomy" and dubbing his foray into film with "Tinker Bell: Secret of the Fairies".
Her image has crossed borders, achieving further his career towards internationalization with the weekly program "Update" on channel Glitz *, as a presenter on E! Entertainment Television, and as well as starring in La florería de Sofía, children's series broadcast by Disney Junior for northern Latin America. In her ten-year career has become one of the most beautiful faces on television, recognized by the public and with a promising future in the art world. Note that this is one of the graduates of the reality show that is still in force, and although their priority is driving, does not rule out return to music in a few years with some soul disc that reflects your personal style more, meanwhile the musical theater and interpret songs for Disney have kept her singing career.
She participated the weekly "Estilo DF" on E! Entertainment Television, also participates in reuniting with her former fellow of La Academia for its tenth anniversary. In this year is expected to launch its own line of jewelry in silver, which penetrates as a designer and entrepreneur.
Early life and career
The daughter of Oscar Guerra and Laura Núñez, María Inés has two siblings, which were named after their parents. She has a twin brother, Oscar. As a child, she became interested in having a career in the world of entertainment, particularly in acting and singing. She participated in several plays, of which the Mexican version of CATS, is most important. María Inés has not set aside education because of this, however, and completed high school in the late '90s. For college, she attended the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (in Spanish: Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, ITESM), one of the most prestigious and renowned colleges in Mexico and Latin America, where she majored in architecture.
La Academia
In 2002, María Inés was selected among thousands of singers throughout Mexico to participate in La Academia, a national talent search similar to American Idol. Throughout the competition, she received both good and bad critics, her best performance being Hijo de la Luna, by Spanish group Mecano. María Inés served as a particular case in the competition, as she was eliminated twice. She was eliminated the fifth week of the competition, and was awarded the 13th place prize. María Inés was then brought back two weeks later during a special concert in which three former contestants were to come back to the show. Five weeks later, she was once again eliminated.
A second concert for former contestants to come back was announced. In this concert, she interpreted "No Llores por mí, Argentina", the Spanish version of Madonna's "Don't Cry for Me, Argentina", and received excellent critics from the four judges. Controversy arose after María Inés was not selected to re-enter the reality, even though an internet poll in La Academia's official website showed her as the favorite to do so. After 13 weeks of competition, she received the 10th place in the reality. Within the show, she began a relationship with a fellow contestant, Raúl Sandoval.
In La Academia Maria Ines interpreted:
Desafío de Estrellas & Homenaje a...
After La Academia, Maria Ines participated in several other projects for TV Azteca. She first appeared in the Desafio de Estrellas, a competition between the 32 participants of the first and second generations of La Academia. In the fourth concert, and after becoming one of the 16 finalists, Maria Ines was eliminated and received the 16th place of the competition, ousting 16 other participants from both generations. In the Desafio Maria Ines interpreted:
Maria Ines then participated in several concerts of the show Homenaje a..., which had the same format as La Academia, with contestants from that same show. A prize money was given in every show to the best singer but Maria Ines never received this prize, even though she appeared as one of the top 5 singers in all of the four concerts she participated in. Throughout the series of concerts Maria Ines interpreted famous songs from artists such as Rocío Dúrcal and Juan Gabriel, it was, however, "Me gustas tal y como eres", from Luis Miguel and Sheena Easton, in a duet with former boyfriend Raul, which is considered her best interpretation. The songs she interpreted in the Homenaje include:
"No Lastimes mas" -- (Rocío Dúrcal)
"Te amare" -- (Miguel Bosé)
"Llueve sobre mojado" With Adrian -- (Camilo Sesto)
"Asereje" -- (Las Ketchup)
"Me Gustas Tal Como Eres" With Raúl Sandoval -- (Luis Miguel and Sheena Easton)
Discography
La Academia
La Academia, and all its spinoffs released up to 25 albums, in which María Inés participated on 19.
La Academia:
CD01 - Asi Es la Vida (Live) With Yahir & Hector -- (Elefante)
CD02 - Hijo de la Luna -- (Mecano)
CD03 - I Want it That Way With Jose Antonio -- (Backstreet Boys)
CD04 - Soledad -- (La Oreja de Van Gogh)
CD05 - Yo no soy esa Mujer -- (Paulina Rubio)
CD08 - Se Fué -- (Laura Pausini)
CD09 - Te Quiero -- (Miguel Bosé)
CD10 - Mírame -- (Timbiriche)
CD11 - Ay Amor -- (Flans)
CD12 - Rueda mi Mente -- (Sasha Sokol)
CD13 - Cuentame -- (Lucero)
CD14 - No Llores por mi Argentina -- (Madonna)
La Academia's Special Editions:
ELLAS - Hijo de la Luna -- (Mecano) & Mírame -- (Timbiriche)
EDICION ESPECIAL - Hijo de la Luna -- (Mecano)
La Academia's Spinoffs:
HOMENAJE A GRANDES DUETOS - Asereje With Laura & Azeneth -- (Las Ketcup)
HOMENAJE A INTERPRETES ESPAÑOLES - Llueve sobre Mojado with Adrian Carvajal
HOMENAJE A JUAN GABRIEL - No Lastimes Mas -- (Juan Gabriel)
María Inés
In 2003 she released a solo album with 9 songs, 3 brand new songs, 1 song in English, and 5 La Academia's Performances; The album is homonym and it was released only in Mexico, and it was not as good a seller as former La Academia's contestants like Yahir, Nadia or Myriam. She presented her solo album along with singing her first single on popular TV Azteca shows like "Ventaneando with Paty Chapoy"
Her only single was Atraves de tu Recuerdo which had a very good acceptance in Mexico.
The album track list is:
1 "Atrévete a Vivir"
2 "Se Fue" – (Laura Pausini)
3 "A través de tu Recuerdo"
4 "Soledad" – (La Oreja de Van Gogh)
5 "Te Amaré"
6 "Hijo de la Luna" – (Mecano)
7 "Rueda mi Mente" – (Sasha Sokol)
8 "DJ Tonight"
9 "No Llores por mi Argentina" – (Madonna)
El Diluvio que Viene
In 2007 she participated on the play called "El Diluvio que Viene" with Jaime Camil, play that record an album.
The album track listing is:
1 "Un nuevo sitio disponer"
2 "Que pena que sea Pecado"
3 "Calma"
4 "Concierto para Cura y Campana"
5 "Tira el Dinero"
6 "Bella noche sin Sueño"
7 "Ahi va la Consuelo"
8 "Bella noche sin sueño (Reprise)"
9 "Las hormigas mueven la montaña"
10 "Balada de San Crispín"
11 "Que pena que sea Pecado (Reprise)"
12 "Clementina"
13 "Te Quiero"
14 "Cuando el arca de Detenga"
15 "Eso es Amor"
16 "Un nuevo sitio disponer (Reprise)"
Charts
Personal life
She married in 2013 with businessman Gustavo Guzmán Favela. In 2014 their first child was born.
With TV Azteca
Azteca Novelas
After her participation with the La Academia-related shows had ended, Maria Ines branched out into television. Her first and only participation in a telenovela was Enamorate, an innovative project by TV Azteca to obtain rating from teenagers and young adults. Ines was cast as the main antagonist, with singer Yahir and Mexican film actress Martha Higareda as the two protagonists. The success of the show was instant and the show was prolonged for 3 more months.
In 2008, she appeared in the leading role in Cambio de Vida, which was a show in the same line as Lo que callamos las mujeres.
She did a special episode of Lo que callamos las mujeres called "Las alas de mi alma" (the wings of my soul) where she told her story of how she got into La Academia". On June 12, 2009, Ma. Ines made her 2nd appearance on Lo que callamos las mujeres.
Morning time Department
Maria Ines was later part of Con Sello de Mujer a show, similar to the American The View, which she was part of for 2 years, surviving change after change within the show. After the network pulled the plug on the show.
She retrieved from Con Sello de Mujer to begin a new TV show called Chiflando y Aplaudiendo, A show that had jokes, different kinds of competitions between the audience members, gossip, etc. but it ended after few weeks on air.
She took the place of Rossanna Najera in Poker de Reinas for several episodes with Luz Blanchet, Anette Michel and Andrea Escalona, but her participation ended when she agreed to host the prologue of LA ACADEMIA ULTIMA GENERACION:CAMINO A LA FAMA leaving the show to the new La Academia's host Rafeal Araneda.
She have replaced the main hostess of Venga La Alegria for several non-consecutive episodes.
She has made several appearances as a special guest on the TV Azteca show called Para Todos, a game show hosted by Mimi ex vocalist of the female pop group Flans, Luis Armando 3rd place of the 6th Generation of La Academia, Formerly Televisa's host Mauricio Barcelata and Héctor Soberón, in which she sang with Luis Armando the hit song Todo Cambió of the famous band Camila.
Prime time department
In 2005, TV Azteca made a Mexican version of Dancing with the Stars in which Ma. Ines took place in both seasons, taking 4th place in the 1st one, losing to Pedro Sola and taking the 2nd place in the second one, losing to Edgar Galicia.
While hosting Con Sello de Mujer; she, as well, hosted the show Disco de Oro, along with José Luis Rodríguez "El Puma", which was a reality show, about '80s–'90s singers who at least have won a GOLD certification in their career; They will be voted-off one by one each Sunday, leaving the finalist who will dispute the award, which is the recording of a new album.
In 2007, she appeared on different episodes of the show Si te la sabes Cantala...Con Famosos but she never won. It was a show of completing the lyrics of different songs.
Disney and TV Azteca join forces and started a new show, which Ma.Ines hosted along with Roger. It was reality show calledHigh School Musical: La Seleccion, this was a Mexican spinoff of High School Musical and the Mexican version of High School Musical: Get in the Picture and it lasted 15 weeks.
She hosted a TV Azteca show called Aguas con el Muro with Martín Altomaro.
She Appeared on the 10th. Concert of La Academia Ultima Generacion, as the 14 artists of the 1st Generation get together to join the 12 students left on the Last Generation.
On January 6, Ma. Ines appeared as co-host of the Fundación Azteca's Jugueton which is sponsored by A Quien Corresponda host Jorge Garralda.
She has hosted along with Roger Gonzalez, host of ZAPPING ZONE, a TV Azteca Sunday-show called Planeta Disney, which carries all the Disney hottest news and movies.
Ma.Ines with Mauricio Barcelata hosted The Mexican independence special show on September 15.
After Mexico requested a new generation of La Academia, after being stated that the 6th. was the last one, a new generation was introduced and Ma. Ines participated as godmother of 2 participants of Guadalajara, Jalisco where she is originally from.
Ma.Ines will participate as the regular hostess of La Academia: Al Descubierto on Azteca 7, where a daily summary of what is happening in the house and backstage of the different concerts will be presented by her. She also hosted the La Academia: Fashion Week runway.
Entertainment Department
She joined the entertainment department, directed by Paty Chapoy.
After Ines Gomez Mont left the show Los 25+, a casting was made for the new hostess, in which Maria Ines made the final cut, making her the replacement for Ines and the new hostess of this Sunday show, making a new turn in her career, after being in daily and prime time entertainment for 5 years she switch to entertainment news, area directed by Paty Chapoy. Los 25+ is the funniest countdown in the Mexican television. Her new job has taken her to the front cover of the online magazine of Ventaneando with Paty Chapoy.
A TV special was broadcast on August 29 about Michael Jackson's death called ¿Quién mato a Michael Jackson?, in which Ma.Ines served as the main hostess.
In 2010, she started hosting a mini-show called 7 Expertos which is a show about a competition between 7 professional hairdressers.
María Inés is currently the host of FTV Mag México on the Fashion TV channel.
Ma. Ines Television's Timeline
Hostess
2004—Con sello de Mujer
2005-2007—Con sello de mujer
2007—Disco de oro
2007—Chiflando y aplaudiendo
2007—High School Musical: La Selección
2008—Poker de Reinas
2008—La Academia (6) : Camino à la Fama (Prologue)
2008—Aguas con el muro
2009—Juguetón
2009—Planeta Disney
2009-2015—Los 25+
2009—¿Quién mato a Michael Jackson?
2009—Mi México
2009—La Academia (7) : Al sescubierto
2010—7 Expertos
2010—FTV Mag México
2011—Update
2012—E! Latin News
2012-2013—Estilo DF
2013—El juguetón
2020—LCDP
Theater
2004—Las princesas y sus príncipes
2007—Peter Pan
2007—El diluvio que viene
2010—Los monólogos de la vagina
Guest
2007—Si te la sabes Cantala...Con Famosos
2008—La Academia Ultima Generación 10th. Concert
2009—Para Todos
Contestant
2002—La Academia
2003—Desafio de Estrellas & Homenaje
2005—Bailando por un millón 1
2005—Bailando por un millón 2
Actress
2004—Enamórate
2008—Lo que callamos las mujeres: canto a la vida
2008—Cambio de vida
2009—Lo que callamos las mujeres
2011—La florería de Sofía
On air
Theater
She participated on the Mexican play Peter Pan as Tinkerbell next to Jaime Camil and Lolita Cortez, but her part was virtually as her schedule was really tight.
Her biggest shot on theater was on the play called El Diluvio Que Viene with Jaime Camil, later replaced by, Manuel Pereyra and Ernesto D'Alessio, and María Filipini, Carmen Delgado, Enrique de la Riva with Patricio Castillo.
In 2010 she was in the play The Vagina Monologues in Mexico City.
Modeling career, radio and other appearances
Along her TV career she has made a lot of commercials like Ecko with Evangelina Elizondo and Elektra.
She has modeled for "Modeli", a Shoe Campaign with Alan Tacher.
She was introduced by Quién Magazine, as one of the prettiest girls of Mexico, next to Yadhira from Nicky Klan and Belinda.
She have done some modeling as a Quinciañera and in the online magazine of Ventaneando with Paty Chapoy, where she appeared months later on the cover, introducing her as the new hostess of Los 25+.
María Inés has made several appearances in different magazines, like 2010 Elle Magazine(Latin America edition).
She has a 12 spread editorial photoshoot in the October '09 issue of Glow Magazine.
She has a photo spread in the December '09 issue of InStyle Magazine (Latin America edition).
Ana Silvia Garza, mother of Mariana Garza, revealed a book called "Pro age/Dove" in which 53 different personalities dedicate a thought to each one of their mothers. This book is a special edition made by the worldwide brand "Dove", which is not going to be on sale but they are going to be 253 copies among the famous women who made a contribution to the book. Where Ma.Ines participated with some of other thoughtfull women like Paola Rojas, Fernanda Familiar, Ana María Alvarado, Dominika Paleta and Liz Gallardo, among others.
She was on the radio broadcast on EXA FM every Sunday, bringing a summary of every concert of La Academia's 2009 New Generation.
References
María Inés Photos
External links
Website
Living people
1983 births
21st-century Mexican singers
21st-century Mexican women singers
Actresses from Guadalajara, Jalisco
La Academia contestants
Mexican telenovela actresses
Mexican television actresses
Mexican television personalities
Singers from Guadalajara, Jalisco
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFL%20siren%20controversy
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AFL siren controversy
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The AFL siren controversy, informally known as Sirengate, was the controversial conclusion and result of an Australian rules football match played on 30 April 2006 during round 5 of the Australian Football League's 2006 season. The match was played between the St Kilda and Fremantle Football Clubs at Aurora Stadium (then the sponsor name of York Park) in Launceston, Tasmania.
When the final siren sounded, Fremantle was leading by one point; however, the umpires did not hear the siren, and play continued for around 10 seconds, during which time St Kilda scored a point to tie the match. Four days later, the AFL Commission determined that the match should have been ended when the first siren sounded and St Kilda was stripped of its last behind, resulting in the victory and the full four premiership points being awarded to Fremantle.
It was only the second time in VFL/AFL history that the score and result of a game was changed on protest, with the first occurring 106 years earlier.
Fixture and venue
The match was played between St Kilda and Fremantle at Aurora Stadium in Launceston, Tasmania. Both teams went into the match with two wins and two losses, and many media commentators had commented on the importance of the match to both teams.
The two teams had developed an intense rivalry in recent seasons, with a number of controversial games between the two teams ending in very close margins. The previous match between the clubs, at Subiaco Oval, had been highly controversial, with Fremantle coming from behind to win by five points after Justin Longmuir took a mark with seconds left in the match and then kicking a goal after the siren. Numerous contentious free kicks in the match had angered Saints fans, and the anger was intensified by the subsequent "Whispers in the Sky" controversy. The match before that, held at Aurora Stadium, was won by St Kilda by one behind, scored by Aaron Hamill in the final minute following a contentious holding-the-ball decision.
Aurora Stadium was not a regular venue for AFL matches; it had been used as an alternative home ground by St Kilda and since 2001, and it had previously hosted only 16 regular season AFL matches. The crowd numbered 15,282, with the maximum capacity and record attendance for the venue being around 20,000.
Teams
St Kilda Saints
Fremantle Dockers
Match
Fremantle were leading by 27 points midway through the third quarter when St Kilda full-forward Fraser Gehrig conceded five consecutive free kicks during a scuffle with a number of Fremantle defenders. Three of the free kicks were converted to consecutive 50-metre penalties, with the result that Fremantle full-back Michael Johnson was allowed to walk the length of the ground to kick a goal from the goal square that gave Fremantle a 33-point lead.
St Kilda coach Grant Thomas responded by benching the angry Gehrig. Shortly afterwards, he benched tall forward Nick Riewoldt, replacing the forward line with smaller targets in Stephen Milne and Brett Voss. St Kilda then kicked seven of the next nine goals to come back into the game. With 37 seconds of playing time remaining in the game, St Kilda's Leigh Montagna scored the seventh of those goals to bring the Saints within one point of Fremantle; the score was Fremantle 14.10 (94) leading St Kilda 13.15 (93).
Final minute and siren
From the centre bounce which followed Montagna's goal, St Kilda moved the ball into its forward line, where a pack formed about 45 metres from goal, and a ball-up was called by the umpire with eight seconds remaining. From that ball-up, Nick Riewoldt (St Kilda) knocked the ball across the field, and another pack formed as the official timekeeper's clock reached 0:00 and the timekeeper sounded the siren.
The umpire controlling play, Mathew Nicholls, signalled another ball-up to restart play; he was oblivious to the noise of the siren, which was barely audible over the raucous crowd. A number of Fremantle players, particularly Scott Thornton, appeared to have either heard the siren or reacted to other players hearing the siren, and the Fremantle players began to celebrate what they thought was a one-point victory. Nicholls, however, did not hear the siren and refused to listen to the claims of Fremantle players, particularly Byron Schammer, that the siren had sounded. He also did not confer with the other two umpires, and restarted play.
The Fremantle players, who had converged around the ball-up celebrating and remonstrating with Nicholls, were unprepared when the ball spilled out of the contest and was cleared to St Kilda's Steven Baker. Baker, in the clear, kicked from about 35 metres out to attempt to win the game, just before being bumped by a desperate Daniel Gilmore (Fremantle). While this kick was in motion the timekeeper sounded the siren again and, this time, it was heard by one of the other field umpires, Hayden Kennedy. The laws of Australian football allow for a kick to score if it is in the air when the umpire hears the siren; and Baker's shot for goal missed and scored a behind, worth one point, thus tying the scores at 94 apiece. The goal umpire signalled this behind.
At this point, confusion reigned. The three field umpires and goal umpire conferred to discuss the result. Unaware that the siren had sounded previously, Nicholls ruled that Baker's shot had been within game time, and also that Gilmore's late bump was illegal. If no score had been registered, this would have resulted in a downfield free kick; however, as there had been a behind scored, Baker was given the option of letting the behind stand (ensuring a draw would result) or cancelling the point and having a set shot for goal from the same place (a chance at victory, with a small risk of defeat if he failed to score with his kick). The latter option would be a kick after the siren with the chance to win the game.
A number of Fremantle players, particularly Des Headland, overheard Nicholls stating that the point would not stand and again began to celebrate in the belief that they had been awarded the match, not realising that Baker had received a free kick. At this time, Fremantle coach Chris Connolly and CEO Cameron Schwab had stormed onto the ground. St Kilda captain Lenny Hayes yelled at Connolly to leave the ground, and former teammate Heath Black, now playing for Fremantle, stepped in to separate the two.
Baker elected to cancel his previous behind, and the goal umpires crossed their flags to officially negate the behind, returning the score to 94–93. Baker then took a set shot at goal from 35 metres out, but his kick was wide to the right, again scoring a behind and thus retying the game. At this point, the two goal umpires from either end met at the centre of the ground to compare their score sheets, as is standard practice after the conclusion of AFL matches. After conferring for about a minute, they signalled that the scores on the scoreboard were correct and that the match was a draw, Fremantle 14.10 (94) drew St Kilda 13.16 (94).
Relevant rules
The relevant clauses of the official AFL rules at that time were:
"10.4.1 The timekeepers shall sound the siren to signal the end of a quarter until a field umpire acknowledges that the siren has been heard and brings play to an end."
and
"10.4.2 Play in each quarter shall come to an end when any one of the field umpires hears the signal."
It emerged that the timekeeper had sounded the first siren; the timekeeper erroneously believed, however, that the field umpire had acknowledged it due to the fact that he saw the Fremantle players celebrating the win and the umpire calling for the ball. He then began to do paperwork, paying no attention to the continuing match, and was not made aware that play was continuing until a spectator got his attention by striking his window with an empty beer can. He then sounded the siren a second time, just after Baker's first kick for goal.
As a result, the timekeepers erred with respect to Rule 10.4.1; that is, the siren did not continue to sound until it was formally acknowledged by an umpire. Acknowledgement of the siren requires any one of the three field umpires to raise both arms into the air and blow the whistle. There remains some doubt as to whether any of the three umpires did hear the siren; however, in any event, none chose to bring play to an end as required by Rule 10.4.2. The rules do make clear that the umpires, rather than the siren, are the sole judges of when a quarter ends; however, in practice, this is usually in the form of a split-second judgement call on whether a mark or kick occurred before or after the siren sounded rather than the 25 seconds difference in this case.
Aftermath
Initial result
Immediately after the match, Fremantle lodged an official protest, claiming to have won the game by a point. The AFL agreed to conduct a full investigation and did not rule out overturning the result and awarding the match to Fremantle. However, the AFL still released the official round results that listed the result of the match as a draw.
Betting
As a result of the official results being issued on Sunday afternoon, most betting agencies paid out on a draw. Some smaller agencies also announced (before the AFL awarded the victory to Fremantle) that they would voluntarily pay out for the Fremantle win as a goodwill gesture. The largest sports bookmaker in Australia, TAB Sportsbet, however, did not alter from the original decision, even after the AFL revised the official result, because their conditions of betting stated that they pay based on the league's official AFL match results sheet as received by fax shortly after each game.
Media coverage and analysis
As the goal umpires were signalling that the scores were correct, Nine Network reporter Michael Roberts interviewed Chris Connolly on the ground. Connolly was adamant that the siren had gone and said that the emergency umpire had thought Hayden Kennedy had heard the siren, so the game had finished before the final ball-up. He said, "The right thing has got to be done... I'm sure the AFL will make the right decision."
A few minutes later in the changerooms, Roberts conducted an interview with the St Kilda coach, Grant Thomas, who acknowledged that the Saints had played poorly and were happy to escape with a draw.
In his post-match conference, Connolly stubbornly described the match as "a great win by the boys" and stated that "the Fremantle Football Club will leave no stone unturned for our 35,000 supporters to get these four points."
Over the next few days, the incident received widespread coverage in the Australian sports media, with the Australian Football League website describing the match as "one of the most controversial matches of the modern era". The West Australian and Nine Network's The Footy Show dubbed the incident Sirengate, the -gate suffix being a reference to the Watergate scandal.
Media analysis of the incident hinged on the interpretation of the relevant rules. Rule 10.4.2 implies that the match does not automatically end when the siren sounds but rather continues until the umpire hears the siren and signals the end of the game. This would lead to the conclusion that the result must stand as a draw. However, Rule 10.4.1 requires the timekeeper to sound the siren continuously until an umpire acknowledges the siren and calls an end to play. This rule was not correctly observed by the timekeeper. This leads to an argument that the match was not brought to an end according to the rules of the game and that the outcome of the game was determined not within the playing arena but rather by external governance matters that are the responsibility of the AFL: the quality of match facilities and the performance of timekeeping duties. This line of argument leads to the view that natural justice required the game to be awarded to Fremantle.
Investigation and ruling
The AFL football operations department commenced an investigation of the conclusion of this match, to be conducted by AFL Investigations Officers Allan Roberts and Bill Kneebone. After interviewing the umpires, timekeepers, AFL match manager and a spectator, as well as reviewing the television replay, they concluded that "It would appear that the timekeeper(s) have not complied with (Law 10.4.1 End of Quarter)."
During a four-hour hearing on Wednesday, 3 May, the AFL Commission heard submissions from representatives of both teams and the AFL investigating officer. The result of the hearing was that Fremantle was awarded victory and four competition points, with the official final score reading St Kilda: 13.15 (93) vs. Fremantle: 14.10 (94). On 4 May, St Kilda ruled out a legal challenge to the outcome, ending any further uncertainty.
The commission stressed that this decision was in response to a unique set of circumstances external to the game rather than overruling an on-field umpiring decision; hence, no precedent was set for the overturning of results decided by controversial umpiring decisions, errors by goal umpires, etc. The key factor was that the timekeeper had not fulfilled his duties by failing to sound the siren continuously until the umpires acknowledged the end of the game. This prevented the umpires from being able to end the game at the correct time.
An upgrade of the York Park siren was implemented by the grounds manager, former Western Bulldogs player Robert Groenewegen, in May 2006, in anticipation of the Round 12 game at the venue.
Chris Connolly on the arena
A secondary point for discussion was Chris Connolly's angry march onto the ground. According to the rules of the game, the coach is not allowed onto the playing arena during the game. Because Connolly had walked onto the ground before the umpires had officially ended the game (after Steven Baker's secondary kick), he had contravened the rule, which would usually result in a fine and a "please explain" from the AFL but no other penalty. Commentators had pointed out that a fine was not mandatory but applied to a case on its merits and that, in the prevailing confusion of the game, it would be reasonable for the AFL to waive the fine in favour of a simple "please explain".
Ultimately, because the commission changed the result of the game, it meant that the game was retrospectively declared over when Connolly entered the arena; as such, Connolly was no longer guilty of any infraction, and therefore the AFL had no grounds to issue any fine.
Scorecard
End of season
Although the match was played quite early in the season, the end result proved important when determining the ladder placings at the conclusion of the home-and-away season. Fremantle finished with a record of 15–7 in third place, and St Kilda finished with a record of 14–8 in sixth place, with and finishing fourth and fifth with a 14–8 record. Had the draw stood (and all other results throughout the season remain unaffected), Fremantle and St Kilda would have been level on 14–7–1; St Kilda's superior percentage would have seen them finish third, with Fremantle fourth, Sydney fifth, and Collingwood sixth. This would have affected all four games in the first week of the finals and given St Kilda a double chance at the expense of Sydney (who would go on to make the Grand Final).
Early in the season, there was ongoing speculation that, if the talented Fremantle lineup failed to reach the finals, it might cost Fremantle coach Chris Connolly his job at the club. Before the result was officially overturned, it was thought that the two points potentially lost by the siren mistake could be the difference between making or missing the finals. Ironically, however, it was St Kilda coach Grant Thomas who was dismissed at the end of the season after (though not necessarily because) the club was defeated by Melbourne and eliminated in the first week of the finals, which would certainly not have happened if St Kilda had finished third and claimed a double chance.
Similar incidents
There have been several occasions in Australian rules history of winning or decisive scores being kicked after the siren or bell had sounded, but failed to be heard, with a variety of outcomes to protests. These were much more common prior to the introduction of sirens, with the timekeepers' bells which were previously used much more likely to be unheard by the umpires. Protests of this nature were considerably more likely to be upheld prior to 1911, when the Laws of the Game were first amended to include the clause "the field umpire shall be the sole judge as to the first sound of the bell."
Famous similar instances include:
VFA, 1890, 4.13 defeated Port Melbourne 3.7. Port Melbourne protested that the mark from which Jack Worrall scored Fitzroy's first goal was taken after the half time bell was rung but not heard by the umpires; the Association upheld the appeal, and amended the result to a 3.13 vs 3.7 draw (behinds did not count towards the result at this time). "Follower", the influential football writer in the Leader and the Age newspapers, considered the Association's decision outrageous and refused to recognise it, and his newspapers published a version of the season's final ladder with Fitzroy's win still standing.
VFL, Round 1, 1900, 9.14 (68) drew with 10.8 (68). St Kilda successfully protested that Melbourne had scored a behind after the three-quarter-time bell, and the score was amended to a St Kilda victory by one point. It was the only precedent of a VFL/AFL match result being overturned on such an appeal; and it was St Kilda's first-ever VFL win, taking place after 48 losses in three winless seasons from 1897–1899.
WAFL Grand Final, 1907, East Fremantle 6.11 (47) defeated Perth 6.6 (42). Perth successfully protested that East Fremantle had kicked a goal from a free kick which was not awarded until after the half time bell, and the score was amended to a Perth victory by one point.
VFL, Round 2, 1911, 7.12 (54) drew 7.12 (54) after Geelong's Bert Whittington was awarded a touched/rushed behind from an after-the-bell set shot because the umpire had not heard the bell. Had the umpire heard the bell, the ball would have been considered dead when touched and Melbourne would have won by one point. Melbourne protested, but its protest was dismissed.
VFL, Round 17, 1928, 12.10 (82) defeated Melbourne 11.15 (81). protested, arguing that Bert Smedley's winning goal was kicked about seven seconds after the final bell had rung. Although the timekeepers agreed that the goal had been scored after the bell, the protest was dismissed because the umpire hadn't heard it.
VFA, 1950, Brunswick defeated Camberwell by five points, after the umpire failed to hear the final bell and the winning goal was kicked by Ivor McIvor after an additional fifteen seconds of play. On protest, the match was declared no result; the match was late in the season and did not affect the final four, so it was not replayed.
In VFL, Round 10, 1962, defeated by one point at the Brunswick Street Oval, after the umpire failed to hear the final siren and the winning behind was rushed by Carlton's Martin Cross from a ball-up. Fitzroy did not protest the result; it did request that the Fitzroy Cricket Club install new sirens the ground to avoid a repeat, but the request was rejected.
Night Series Grand Final, 1980, between North Melbourne and Collingwood at VFL Park. In a passage of play which followed the sounding of the final siren, North Melbourne's Kerry Good marked and goaled after the siren to win the game for North Melbourne by three points. Collingwood did not protest.
VFA, 1982. Geelong West's Simon Taylor kicked the winning goal against Frankston after the final siren. The controlling umpire failed to hear the siren, while the non-controlling umpire heard the siren and signalled the end of play; the two umpires conferred and awarded the goal. Frankston appealed the result, but the appeal was rejected. As in the St Kilda vs Fremantle match, the Association found that the timekeeper should have sounded the siren for longer.
STJFL (Southern Tasmanian Junior FL) Under-14 Grand Final, 2007. Sorell was leading Lauderdale by three points when the siren sounded, but the umpires failed to hear it and the timekeepers failed to keep the siren going. In the ensuing play, Lauderdale kicked a goal, won the game by three points, and was presented with the premiership. Sorell lodged a protest, and the STJFL declared the match a draw and awarded the premiership jointly to both teams.
See also
2006 AFL season
List of Australian sports controversies
List of "-gate" scandals
References
External links
Herald Sun
ABC Sport – Commission Set to Rule (3 May 2006)
Investigation Report to Adrian Anderson
Podcast about the incident
Podcast about the Commission's decision
2006 in Australian rules football
Australian Football League games
Australian rules football controversies
Fremantle Football Club
St Kilda Football Club
Siren controversy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis%20on%20Tour
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Elvis on Tour
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Elvis on Tour is a 1972 American concert film starring Elvis Presley during his fifteen-city spring tour earlier that year. It is written, produced, directed by Pierre Adidge and Robert Abel and released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM).
Following his return to live performances and touring after his acting career, Presley starred in the documentary Elvis: That's the Way It Is with MGM in 1970. Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, then arranged a deal for another documentary film with the studio by early 1972. MGM hired Abel and Adidge, who previously documented Joe Cockers 1970 tour of the United States. The crew filmed four Presley shows that were later intertwined with interviews. Assisted by Martin Scorsese, it featured the use of split screens.
The film was released on November 1, 1972. While it opened to mixed reviews, it became a box-office success. In 1973, Elvis on Tour won the award for Best Documentary Film at the 30th Golden Globe Awards.
Background
After an eight-year hiatus where he focused on his acting career, Elvis Presley returned to live performances with his 1968 television special, Elvis. With the success of the show, his manager, Colonel Tom Parker, arranged a residency for Presley at the International Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, in 1969. Presley assembled a new band comprising James Burton (guitar), John Wilkinson (rhythm guitar), Jerry Scheff (bass guitar), Ronnie Tutt (drums), Larry Muhoberac, (piano) and Charlie Hodge (rhythm guitar, background vocals). The backing vocals of The Sweet Inspirations, The Imperials, The Stamps, and Kathy Westmoreland accompanied the band. Additionally, the 30-piece Joe Guercio Orchestra accompanied him.
Presley made his first appearance outside Las Vegas at the 1970 Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, where he performed between February 27 and March 1, 1970. Parker then made a deal with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) for a concert film shot in August 1970 during the Elvis Summer Festival event at the International Hotel in Las Vegas. Presley began touring the United States again in 1970 after a thirteen-year hiatus. He began his tour schedule with an appearance at the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Phoenix, Arizona, on September 9, 1970. In November 1970, as Presley toured, MGM released the concert film now entitled Elvis: That's the Way It Is.
The release of the soundtrack of That's the Way It Is reached number 21 on Billboard's Pop Albums chart. Meanwhile, the release of Elvis Country (I'm 10,000 Years Old) in early 1971 peaked at numbers 12 and 6 on the Pop Albums chart and Top Country Albums chart, respectively.
Cast
Elvis Presley as Self
Bill Baize as Self - The Stamps
Estell Brown as Self (as Estelle Brown)
James Burton as Self
Production
In early 1972, Parker and MGM began the negotiation process for a new documentary film to be shot in Las Vegas. The project, originally titled Standing Room Only, was planned to be released with its respective soundtrack album. MGM agreed to pay Parker and Presley $250,000 (). Following the terms of the new contract signed between the singer and his manager in February 1971, Presley received two-thirds of the income generated by his appearances, while Parker received one-third.
The concept of the film was changed to show Presley as he toured arenas throughout the United States. Presley would appear in fifteen cities during his spring tour. For the tour, concert promoters paid Presley's usual fee of $1 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Jack Haley Jr., then vice president of MGM, approached Robert Abel and Pierre Adidge. Abel and Adidge had worked previously on the documentary Mad Dogs & Englishmen that followed Joe Cocker's 1970 tour of the United States. After his experience with Cocker, Abel expressed his disinterest, but Adidge convinced him to travel to Las Vegas to see Presley in concert. After the show, the two met the singer backstage. Presley convinced the still reluctant filmmakers to take on the project. The directors told Presley that they did not like Elvis: That's the Way It Is, as they felt he was acting for the cameras. They warned Presley they would only work on the project if he acted naturally; Presley agreed he would.
Adidge and Parker visited the tour locations while Abel made arrangements for the equipment and crew. The directors planned to use small, unobtrusive cameras. They would edit the footage later to increase the image resolution to that of a 70 mm film. Upon meeting Presley, Pierre and Abel felt he was too bloated and pale. They worked with the lighting to hide Presley's appearance. The team had eleven Eclair cameras equipped with eleven-minute film rolls. To avoid loss of continuity, the cameras were cued to a tape deck that collected the video and sound from all the sources. In March 1972, Presley traveled to Los Angeles for rehearsal filming on March 30. For the sessions at RCA Records's Hollywood studio, Presley sang the numbers he prepared for the tour and performed Gospel jam sessions with the musicians.
Abel attended the start of Presley's tour in Buffalo, New York, on April 5, 1972. He taped the concert with a simple camera to study Presley's performance later. The Associated Press reported the show broke the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium's attendance record for concerts with a crowd of 17,360. The crew began shooting the documentary at Presley's appearance at Hampton Roads, Virginia. the Daily Press reported the show on April 9 at the Hampton Coliseum, had a sold-out crowd of 22,000. There were traffic jams on Interstate 64 an hour before the show. The newspaper described the audience welcoming Presley with "deafening applause and screams". It remarked that the singer was "a little chubbier than he used to be" but that "the electricity" of his performance was as "magnetic as ever". The crew filmed Presley's performance the following night in Richmond.
After the Richmond show, Abel returned to California to review the film and work out the structure of the documentary. He joined the team for Presley's performance in Greensboro, North Carolina, and showed Parker the footage they had at a local theater. Presley's manager reacted positively. Aididge's crew shot Presley behind the scenes in Jacksonville, Florida, where they captured what would become the documentary's final scene. The crew recorded a fourth concert at Presley's show in San Antonio, Texas. The San Antonio Express estimated 10,500 concertgoers attended the show, and reviewer Bill Graham noted the audience was "deafening" when Presley came on stage. The piece stated that Presley's "sound hadn't changed" and that he "was at his best, if not better than ever in his entertainment career". The reviewer noted there were more males in the crowd compared to the 1950s and that the audience "had matured". Graham commented the younger fans "seemed to sit and cheer in awe", and though "there wasn't a mad rush for the stage", Presley "made his now famous rush for the waiting car". After two full weeks of shooting, the production team finished the photography. The team told the Copley News Service they shot 60 hours of footage.
Through Presley's friend, Jerry Schilling, the directors convinced the singer to use footage of his early career that included his appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show. A fan club in England provided additional early footage. Parker opposed references to Presley's early career, as he felt it would portray the singer as a "nostalgia act". Schilling convinced Presley to allow the filmmakers to interview him at the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios. The interview provided the film's narrative, as the voice clips were used between performance sequences as the tour progressed. Presley's father, Vernon, was interviewed at Graceland. The release of a companion live album was canceled after an overcurrent damaged the recording equipment on the fourth night of the tour. The costs of shooting the film amounted to $600,000 (). With Presley's performance fee, the total production cost $1.6 million ().
Parker asked MGM to remove parts of Presley's interview from the film, including the singer's negative comments about his acting career. Some of his comments were ultimately included in the final cut with a compilation film clip of Presley's on-screen kisses that reflected the repetitive plot of his films. Ken Zemke was the documentary's primary editor, while Martin Scorsese edited the film's montage. As in Woodstock, Scorsese used split screens to focus on the performer, as well as on individual band members. Abel's company, Cinema Associates, partnered with Cinema Research Corporation to develop a technique to change the film's resolution: the footage was originally shot in 16 mm, and it was later squeezed or compressed to a 35 mm film that gave the material a quality gain of 50%. The transfer was then augmented to 70mm with the use of an optical printer. Abel also used the technique for the production of his 1973 film Let the Good Times Roll featuring footage of singers from the 1950s and 60s.
Release and reception
Elvis on Tour was released on November 1, 1972. As Parker closed negotiations with NBC for Presley's upcoming television special Aloha from Hawaii via Satellite, MGM executive James T. Aubrey urged them to delay the broadcast planned for November 18 to avoid both releases overlapping. Elvis on Tour placed at number 13 on Varietys National Box Office Survey. The film covered its production expenses soon after its opening, as it was shown in 187 theaters in 101 towns and took in $494,270 in three days.
The January 1973 opening of the documentary in Japan attracted 52,830 spectators who contributed $131,311 to the local box-office. On January 28, 1973, Elvis on Tour tied with Walls of Fire for Best Documentary Film at the 30th Golden Globe Awards. It became the only film starring Presley to earn an award.
Domestic critical reception
The Los Angeles Times felt the documentary was "unpretentious", while the piece favored it over Elvis: That's The Way It Is. They preferred the atmosphere of the tour compared to Presley's Las Vegas performances, as the critic noted that Presley appeared "assured, relaxed". The article closed by describing Presley as "an American institution" and the film as "highly enjoyable". The New York Times Vincent Canby opined that Presley's shows were "okay", while the scenes that showed him moving from venue to venue were uninteresting. Canby remarked that the film "remained unconvincing", as he suggested that the documentary portrayed Presley as he appeared in the Hal Wallis films he starred in instead of showing his private persona. The critic considered that "there is no 'real' Elvis left", as he closed the review suggesting that the documentary "sanctified him". Meanwhile, for Rolling Stone it was "the first Elvis Presley" movie, as the publication compared it with the content of his previous releases.
The Boston Globe felt Elvis On Tour was made "four rock documentaries too late". The reviewer favored Presley's live sets, but he felt the scenes that followed him to the next show were repetitive and that Presley played for "idolatrous legions". The gospel rehearsals were praised in contrast to the transitional travelling scenes. Meanwhile, the inclusion of footage from The Ed Sullivan Show was welcomed. The reviewer remarked Parker's discrete appearance on the documentary and he praised the cinematography. The San Francisco Examiner opined that the film expanded upon Elvis: That's The Way It Is, as the newspaper called it "beautifully done" and "absorbing and fascinating". The reviewer felt that the documentary presented redundant scenes as Presley moved along concerts, and that his changes of costumes and "the signs of fatigue on his face" differentiated the concerts. The article determined that Presley "comes through magnificently", while Adidge and Abel were praised for their use of split screens and speed techniques that were "used with taste". The soundtrack was deemed to be "generally excellent".
The Atlanta Constitution opened its review calling Elvis On Tour "disappointing". Critic Howell Raines pointed out that Adidge and Abel failed to present Presley's "appeal as a performer". Raines lamented the end result, as he felt that the film did not reflect Presley's "eminence in entertainment history" and that the footage of the concerts omitted Presley's choreography. For The Courier-Journal, critic Billy Reed deplored Presley's previous films, while he remarked that Elvis On Tour cast Presley "in a role that truly only he can play. Elvis is himself." Reed considered the documentary "worthwhile", noting its "excellent close-up, split screen photography".
The St. Louis Post-Dispatch said Presley's fans would enjoy the film but that others would "enjoy the handsome production for a while", but that they would be then deterred by "the repetitious visuals and hope that the tour comes to an end". The reviewer praised Zemke's work editing the film, but he felt that the use of the split screens "becomes too much". The newspaper noted Presley's offstage presence marked by "warmth and grace" and that the performances onstage were "excellent". The piece criticized the scenes that showed Presley between shows and the segment filmed at Graceland.
International critical reception
In Canada, The Gazette hailed Elvis On Tour, for showing Presley's "power and glory". Reviewer Dane Lanken felt that while the cinéma vérité camera work was "extreme" the performance of Presley "comes through". Lanken attributed Presley's success to his voice. The review praised the musicians and backup singers, but noted that the documentary did not offer personal details of Presley nor of his manager. Meanwhile, the Windsor Star considered Parker "an old foxy carnival barker" who "pulled another fast one". The newspaper deemed it an advertisement and the reviewer felt that it was the same film as Elvis: That's The Way It Is. He called both films "pseudo-documentaries" that did not show Presley off-stage and instead focused on his show. The reviewer welcomed Presley's performance of Gospel numbers, but lamented the singer's large entourage and choice of attire. It concluded that Presley and Parker's talent could "be seen in ultra extravagance" on the film. For The StarPhoenix it was a "visual treat" that it compared to a television special. The review praised the work by the backup singers and Presley as he "cling(s) to the gospel songs in a reassuring manner". The Richmond Review perceived Elvis On Tour as "another quicknik vehicle" for "keeping" Presley's "face in front of his North American audience". The review delivered a negative reception of the use of split screens as "annoyingly amateurish" and determined that the film's target audience was Presley's fanatics.
In England, The Guardian concluded there was a "good use of the split screen", there were "plenty of numbers for the fans" but said that Presley's "mystique remains unexplored". The Evening Standard called it a "disappointing round of concert platforms". The review concluded that with the similarity of the cities and venues, the production team could "have shot it all in one spot". It favored the montage of Presley's movie kisses, but it dismissed the documentary as "a PR handout". For The Observer, critic George Melly called Presley "a survivor of the early days of rock 'n' roll" and "the silent majority's superstud". The critic added that the reaction of the fans to Presley offered "a certain awareness of the absurdity". The piece concluded "his batman costumes" were "really splendid".
In Australia, The Sydney Morning Herald received the documentary as "fairly cynical". The reviewer stated that "disappointingly" with the concert and backstage footage did not reveal the private life of the singer. They concluded that Presley was "singing as well as ever" and that the split screens were "well used". Meanwhile, The Age pointed the heavy use of split screens and that Presley performed "through scores of indistinguishable pops". The piece concluded the film "grows repetitive to the unconverted."
Legacy
Elvis On Tour was first broadcast on television by NBC, on January 15, 1976. Outtake footage from the film was used for the 1981 documentary This Is Elvis. MGM released Elvis On Tour on VHS in 1982. In 1997, a new VHS version was released. The new edition received negative criticism for the removal of the split screen footage. In 2003, the show recorded in San Antonio, Texas was released with the compilation Elvis: Close Up. In 2004, Elvis on Tour – The Rehearsals was released by Presley's official collector label Follow That Dream.
In 2010, Turner Entertainment released the film on DVD, Blu-ray, and digital video. As the release matched Presley's 75th birthday, the film was later screened during the annual Elvis Week in August 2010 in Memphis, Tennessee, as well as in 460 theaters across the United States. The re-release grossed $587,818 at the box office. The new version replaced the original use of Chuck Berry's "Johnny B. Goode" on the opening credits with "Don't Be Cruel" due to copyright issues.
The Wall Street Journal deemed it "an unfettered and revealing look at Presley's rich gospel side, his sizzling performing power and popularity, and even his ongoing battle with stage fright".
References
Sources
External links
1970s musical films
1972 films
1972 documentary films
American documentary films
Documentary films about singers
Films about Elvis Presley
Films directed by Robert Abel (animator)
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Rockumentaries
1970s English-language films
1970s American films
English-language documentary films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Church%20of%20Jesus%20Christ%20of%20Latter-day%20Saints%20in%20South%20Korea
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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in South Korea
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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church; Korean: 예수 그리스도 후기 성도 교회) was unofficially established in South Korea as early as World War II due to religious influence by LDS servicemen; however, Korean people did not begin to get baptized until the missionary efforts of LDS servicemen during the Korean War. Kim Ho Jik was the first Korean person to be baptized in the LDS Church on July 29, 1951 in New York. Two of his children were of the first four Korean people baptized in Korea on August 3, 1952. LDS Church presence and missionary work was officially established on April 20, 1956 with the arrival of two missionaries: Don G. Powell and Richard L. Detton. The Korean Mission opened on July 8, 1962 with Gail E. Carr as the first president of the mission. Successful missionary work led to the growth of the LDS Church in the 1960s and 1970s leading to the organization of the first stake in Korea in 1973 and the dedication of the first temple in Seoul on December 14, 1985.
Translation of the Book of Mormon was a lengthy process that commenced in the 1950s, however translators had a difficult time finishing the project. Kim Jo Hik aided translation throughout the process, but the translation was completed by Han In Sang and published on March 29, 1967. A re-translation of the Book of Mormon was completed in 2005.
As of 2021, the LDS Church reported 88,603 members in 100 congregations in South Korea, making it the third largest body of LDS Church members in Asia behind the Philippines and Japan.
History
1950–1962: The Korean War and missionary efforts
Fresh after being released after president of the Japan Mission, Alma Owen Taylor and missionary Frederick A. Caine visited Korea for a few weeks to determine whether Korea was ready for missionaries from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Taylor recognized their increasing interest in Christianity, but wondered if it was purely political interest. This represented the first contact of the LDS Church with Korea; however, the first prolonged influence of the LDS Church in Korea was by United States servicemen stationed in Korea during World War II. The first baptism in Korea was of a U.S soldier. The first Korean member of the church was Kim Ho Jik, who joined the church on July 29, 1951 while obtaining his doctorate at Cornell University. Kim Ho Jik had been sent to New York in 1949 by the South Korean president to learn about nutrition and bring that knowledge back to improve Korea. While attending Cornell, Kim was given a copy of the Articles of Faith by a Latter-day Saint friend. After reading the Articles of Faith, he read the Book of Mormon. He was baptized in the Susquehanna River on July 29, 1951. Kim Tai Whan and Kim Young Sook, his son and daughter, as well as a former student of Kim's and her daughter, were the first four baptisms in Korea on August 3, 1952. Korean citizens who worshiped with U.S. military servicemen at LDS Church services in Pusan and Seoul began to be baptized members of the church.
By September 1953, over twenty Korean members had joined the Church in Pusan. After the cease fire, most members moved back to Seoul, which became the center of the LDS Church in Korea. Due to problems maintaining a permanent place of worship, in February 1954, a Korean Sunday School was established with Kim as superintendent. This was the first native Korean LDS organization established in Korea. There were over sixty regularly attending members by April 1954. During this time, most of the members of the LDS Church in Korea were young male students. One of these original members, Han In Sang, later become a general authority of the LDS Church. Sang was also the first native Korean to serve a full-time mission. The Far East Mission (or Japanese Mission) consisted of many Asian countries including Korea, however proselytizing missionaries were only sent to Japan, and not yet Korea.
During a visit to Korea in 1955, member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles Joseph Fielding Smith dedicated Korea for missionary work on August 2, 1955. Even though the LDS Church was not recognized by the Korean government as an official ecclesiastical organization, Kim became president of the Korean District of the Northern Far East Mission. Additionally, servicemen branches and native Korean branches were separated and church branches were officially created in Seoul and Pusan. Kim helped president of the Northern Far East Mission, Paul C. Andrus, get the Church recognized by the government, lease a missionary house, and obtain the approval of the missionaries' visas. Having been transferred from missions in Japan, Don G. Powell and Richard L. Detton were the first Mormon missionaries in Korea; they arrived on April 20, 1956. Six more missionaries were sent to Korea the following summer; four of them went to Pusan.
Due to postwar conditions in Korea, in summer 1958, half of the missionaries became sick with hepatitis. Missionaries had difficulties learning Korean. Church materials such as the Book of Mormon and hymnbooks were not translated into Korean until over a year after full-time missionary work began. Kim translated the Articles of Faith and the sacrament prayers, but missionaries still had difficulties communicating in Korean. Missionaries were sent translated tracts and pamphlets in September 1957, replacing ones in the Japanese language they had been previously using. For the next few years, missionaries were getting about eighteen baptisms a year, which was the highest of any mission at the time. This high rate of baptisms plateaued in 1964. Eighty percent of original converts were male, and this trend continued into the 1970s with over half of converts being male. At first, this was likely due to more contact between servicemen and Korean men. However, after the Korean War, the trend likely continued due to Korea's male-oriented society. Missionary work targeted men rather than women, by policy. After the economic effects of the Korean War began to diminish, Korean's interest in religion diminished as well and baptisms declined beginning in 1965.
Translation of the Book of Mormon
The first attempted translations of the Book of Mormon were done with the Japanese language and recently completed Japanese translation in mind. This caused problems, because Korean people held animosity for the Japanese people due to Japan's recent occupation of Korea due to World War II. Previously, the first copies of the Book of Mormon used in Korea were in English and Japanese. Students learning English were given the English version whereas older individuals were given the Japanese version because Korean people were forced to learn Japanese when they were occupied by Japan.
Kim Ho Jik was one of the first involved in the translation process, having already translated the sacramental prayers and Article of Faith. Kim supervised the translation process, working with Chang Se Cheon and Cheong Dae Pan. Kim translated the English into Korean verbally, and Chang wrote down the translation. Due to Kim's other obligations, this was a slow process, so Chang eventually took over the daily translation. Only one half of the book was completed, because Chang moved to Utah in 1959. A second translation was attempted by Hong Byeong Shik and Kim on August 23, 1959; however Kim died of a heart attack eight days later. Hong worked alone as a translator with his wife as his scribe. It is unknown whether Hong referred to Chang's previous translation, but he most likely referred to Japanese versions. After a year, the translation was completed in 1961. Hong was assisted by missionaries and church members during the editing process. The translation was edited and typset around 5 times between 1961 and 1962. Due to the extension revisions necessary, a small pocket edition of 3 Nephi was published before the rest of the manuscript.
When Gail Carr became mission president, he allowed missionary Bruce K. Grant to gather opinions on the translation from both Korean members and academics. Grant concluded that the translation should be reworked to more closely match the 1957 re-translated Japanese version. The new Japanese version used clearer language and was less "archaic" than its predecessor. Cheong became head translator in 1964. After Cheong became Korean district president, conflicting assignments forced Cheong to ask to be released. Lee Ho Nam replaced Cheong. However, Cheong still aided in translation. The Church became concerned that the Church in Korea had already existed for 10 years but there was no Korean translation of the Book of Mormon. Carr asked Han In Sang to revise and complete the translation in 1964. Cheong continued to translate, but consented to Han revising some of his translations. After reviewing Cheong's work, Han decided to re-translate the whole Book of Mormon in 1965; he consulted Hong's published 3 Nephi, Cheong's translation, and the English version. Han completed the draft in 1966. After Carr was released as mission president, the first Korean translation of the Book of Mormon was published on March 29, 1967.
Since the Book of Mormon was published in 1967, there have been several editions. The Translation Department of the Church initiated a new translation in the early 1990s, translated from the 1981 English version. A new translation was published in 2005. Including the history and author, little is known about this translation. Due to the new translation, the Church changed its name in Korea from "Maril Seongdo Yesu Keuriseudo Kyohoe" (The Last Day Saints Church of Jesus Christ") to "Yesu Keuriseudo Hugi Seongdo Kyohoe" ("The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day/Second-term Saints").
1962–1985: Establishment of the Korean Mission and expansion
The first mission in Korea was established on July 8, 1962. Gail E. Carr became the first president of the Korean Mission. At thirty-two years old, he was one of the youngest mission presidents at the time. Korean membership had reached 1,603; there were five branches and nineteen missionaries serving in Korea. Carr initiated the construction of a chapel for the Seoul East Branch; this was one of the first LDS Chapels on the Asian continent. Carr purchased vital church properties, created two new branches, initiated a language study program, and encouraged translation of church materials during his presidency. Carr's wife organized the first Relief Society in Korea. Because they did not yet have translated Relief Society instruction materials, the sisters met and discussed homemaking. After Kim Jung Sook translated the materials, they were able to have formal Relief Society instruction. After Carr, the next three mission presidents were carefully chosen based on academic accomplishment due to the Korean values of education.
Spencer J. Palmer began his mission presidency after Carr on August 2, 1965. Palmer had previously served as an Army chaplain in Korea and he was a professor of Korean studies and eastern religions at Brigham Young University. While missionary work and the establishment of the LDS church in Korea had been fairly successful, church membership was unstable due to the large number of student members and Korean leadership was lacking, relying too heavily on the leadership of young American missionaries. On January 2, 1966 Palmer and a Korean District choir participated in a 30-minute program on television that presented song and testimony. Palmer answered common questions about the LDS Church and invited watching citizens to learn about the LDS Church through its missionaries. Other Christmas programs continued on television, radio, and in-person performances. The Korean people responded to these programs very well. Music & the Spoken Word was broadcast in Korea, at the time suggested by Palmer as the only foreign language mission in Asia and perhaps the world in which the program was broadcast to native residents weekly.
By 1965, the LDS Church in Korea had one district and seven branches. Four branches were in Seoul, two were in Pusan, and one was in Taegu. In 1968, the Church in Korea was divided into two districts with thirteen branches and three unofficial church gatherings. The Southern District in Pusan was created in February 1968; the Central District remained in Seoul. Because missionary policy required that missionaries focus on heads of families, friends of the Church, and generally older individuals, the average age of the Church increased by five years. More families joined the Church, tithing payment increased, and membership increased from 2,529 in 1965 to 3,317 in 1968. The mission home was constructed in 1966; Palmer insisted that the building parts be entirely made in Korea to show the LDS Church's loyalty to Korea and its industry. Palmer also bought the property in Seoul on which the first LDS temple would be built.
In 1966, member of the First Presidency of the LDS Church, Hugh B. Brown became the first general authority to be invited to speak in Korea at Yonsei University. On the last day of Brown's visit, he participated in a flag raising ceremony at the Church headquarters in Seoul. Brown told Korean members of the Church to be proud citizens and to be an example by serving the Lord through serving their country. Robert H. Slover became the next mission president in August 1968. During his service, baptisms increased to around 500 per year, on average. The average number of baptisms per missionary per year at the end of 1969 was 7.1 with nearly one hundred missionaries serving in Korea. New branches and proselyting areas were opened and the Honam District was established.
Robert H. Slover became the next mission president in summer 1968. Slover focused on improving the administrative and organizational aspects of the Church in Korea. Under his direction, the number of districts increased to four and the number of missionaries increased from 75 to 125. Baptisms began to increase in 1969, in part, because of the establishment of the Language Training Mission in Hawaii. This allowed missionaries to come to Korea with greater Korean language skills and a greater ability to proselyte and teach the Korean people. Other organizational changes related to missionary work and housing improvements allowed for missionaries that were in better health, better trained, supervised, and motivated. L. Edward Brown became mission president in 1971. In contrast to Palmer and Slover's strategy to send missionaries to every established area in South Korea, Brown believed that concentrating missionaries in large cities and creating strong church centers was the best strategy. Brown also emphasized putting only Korean members in church leadership positions. At the end of Brown's service, the number of missionaries in Korea was 180. Palmer, Slover, and Brown had difficulty obtaining church property and few church buildings were built during their presidencies.
In 1973, Spencer W. Kimball organized the first stake. Rhee Ho Nam was named the president of the first stake in Korea. Despite the organization of the stake, it wasn't until 1979 that each ward had their own separate chapel. In 1975 and 1976, the Church Educational System constructed the first Institute building outside of North America. In 1975, The Korean Pusan (Busan) Mission was created with Han In Sang as mission president. Church growth was significant in the 1970s, with Church membership at 12,971 at the end of 1978. Due to growth, the Seoul Korea West Stake was established in 1977. The Seoul East Stake was created April 18, 1979 with the Seoul North Stake created three days later. The Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square (then the Mormon Tabernacle Choir) first performed in Korea in September 1979. This represented the choir's first tour to the Far East. D. Brent Clement was named president of the newly created Korea Seoul West Mission in 1980, but he was quickly transferred to the Korea Seoul Mission and Kim Cha Bong was named the president of the Korea Seoul West Mission instead. Gordon B. Hinckley dedicated the first Korean Temple in Seoul on December 14, 1985. A Missionary Training Center was built next to the temple in the 1986. The fourth mission in Korea was established in 1986 as the Korea Taejŏn (Daejeon) Mission with Hong Moo Kwang as president.
1988–Present: Recent developments
BYU International Folk Dance Ensemble performed in the Opening Ceremonies of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. In 1991, the one-millionth copy of the Korean translation of the Book of Mormon was sold. Near the end of 1996, there were around 70,000 members of the LDS Church in Korea. Besides Japan, Korea is one of the only countries in the world whose Latter-day Saint community is self-supporting. Members contributed funds to the construction of most of the church buildings and chapels in Korea. In 2001, Dallin H. Oaks met with Korea's prime minister at the time Lee Han-Dong, while at a regional conference in Seoul. In 2010, the Korea Seoul West Mission merged into the Korea Seoul Mission to better allocate resources to the growing LDS Church in Korea. The Missionary Training Center in Seoul closed around March 2013. The Korea Seoul South Mission was created in 2013. In January 2019, the LDS Church announced that the boundaries of the Korea Daejeon Mission would be shifting and it would be merging into another mission in July 2019.
Compatibility with Korean culture
Missionary work has been more successful in Korea than many other non-Christian Asian countries. First of all, previous missions to Korea by other Christian denominations prepared Korean people for LDS missionary work. Additionally, the Confucian values embedded in Korean culture have influenced Korea in keeping and maintaining high-quality genealogical records. The LDS Church's emphasis on genealogy and family history allows Korean members to respect and honor their ancestors by completing ceremonies for them in LDS temples. Furthermore, other emphases of the LDS Church such as education, the eternal nature of the family, and temple work have been very appealing to the Korean people. Moreover, LDS missionary success in the early history of the Church in Korea was influenced by the political and economic turmoil surrounding the Korean War. Suffering and hardship caused the Korean people to look to other religious and philosophical sources for answers to their questions.
Although the deeply-rooted Confucian and Buddhist traditions and values in Korea are beginning to change, there are a few aspects of Korean culture that are causing problems for the LDS Church in Korea. First, education in South Korea and entrance examinations into higher education require a lot of time for students in order to succeed. Although the LDS Church tends to support the success of its members as well as high educational goals, Church leaders have been concerned that students do not have time to attend Church or develop their faith. Second, marriage in Korea is often regulated by parents, using the principles of kunghap, similar to astrology, in which compatibility of couples is determined by the year, month, day, and hour in which someone is born. This is different from LDS values which encourage marriage, and especially marriage to another member of the Church.
Stakes
Missions
Temples
April 14, 1985, the Korean Temple of the church was dedicated. In the LDS Church, there is a distinction between a meetinghouse and a Temple. By 1985, there were numerous meetinghouses but only one temple in Korea.
See also
Christianity in Korea
Religion in Korea
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
LDS Newsroom: Country Profile: South Korea
Deseret News 2010 Church Almanac (Republic of Korea)
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints - Official Site - South Korea (Korean)
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints - Official Site - Worldwide (English)
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints - Visitors Site
Christianity in Asia
Harold B. Lee Library-related Americana articles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20miscellaneous%20letter-series%20single%20titles
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List of Ace miscellaneous letter-series single titles
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Ace Books have published hundreds of genre titles, starting in 1952, including a few that did not fit into the standard three genres that Ace focused on -- science fiction, westerns, and mysteries. A few of these were in dos-à-dos format, but many were single volumes. Between 1953 and 1968, the books had a letter-series identifier; after that date they were given five digit numeric serial numbers. There were a total of 581 singles letter-series titles not in any of the other three genres, and these are listed below.
The list given here gives a date of publication; in all cases this refers to the date of publication by Ace, and not the date of original publication of the novels. For more information about the history of these titles, see Ace Books, which includes a discussion of the serial numbering conventions used and an explanation of the letter-code system.
D, G and S Series
D-032 NA Dorothy Malone Cookbook For Beginners (1953)
D-043 NA George S. Viereck and Paul Eldridge Salome: My First 2000 Years Of Love (1953)
S-054 NA Carl Offord The Naked Fear (1954)
S-058 NA Joachim Joesten Vice, Inc. (1954)
D-062 NA Ken Murray Ken Murray's Giant Joke Book (1954)
D-065 NA Juanita Osborne Tornado Edward Kimbrough Night Fire (1954)
S-067 NA Robert Bloch The Will to Kill (1954)
S-070 NA Rae Loomis Luisita (1954)
S-074 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Heat Lightning (1954)
S-075 NA Ralph E. Shikes (ed.) Cartoon Annual (1954)
S-076 NA Émile Zola Shame
S-080 NA Wilene Shaw The Fear and the Guilt
S-085 NA Ernst-Maurice Tessier (as Maurice Dekobra) The Bachelor's Widow (1954)
S-087 NA Noland Miller Why I Am So Beat (1955)
D-088 NA Dexter Davis (author) 7-Day System for Gaining Self-Confidence (1955)
S-091 NA Stanley Baron End of the Line (1955)
S-093 NA H. T. Elmo Modern Casanova's Handbook (1955)
S-095 NA Harry Whittington The Naked Jungle (1955)
S-100 NA Henry Lewis Nixon The Caves (1955)
S-102 NA George Albert Glay Oath of Seven (1955)
S-104 NA R. V. Cassill and Eric Protter Left Bank Of Desire (1955)
S-105 NA Edward De Roo The Fires of Youth (1955)
S-107 NA C. P. Hewitt (as Peter Twist) The Gilded Hideaway (1955)
S-108 NA Leslie Waller (as C.S. Cody) Lie Like a Lady (1955)
S-111 NA Harry Harrison Kroll The Smoldering Fire (1955)
S-114 NA Edward Adler Living It Up (1955)
S-116 NA Brant House Words Fail Me (1955)
S-117 NA Kim Darien Dark Rapture (1955)
S-119 NA Lawrence Easton The Driven Flesh (1955)
S-122 NA Ledru Baker Jr. The Preying Streets (1955)
S-124 NA Rae Loomis House of Deceit (1955)
S-126 NA A. H. Berzen Washington Bachelor (1955)
D-127 NA Robert Payne Alexander And The Camp Follower (1955)
S-130 NA Sidney Weissman Backlash (1955)
D-131 NA Eugene Wyble The Ripening
S-132 NA Brant House (ed.) Cartoon Annual #2 (1955)
S-136 NA R. V. Cassill A Taste of Sin
S-137 NA Ralph Jackson Violent Night (1955)
S-140 NA H. T. Elmo Honeymoon Humor (1956)
S-141 NA Oliver Crawford Blood on the Branches (1956)
S-142 NA Glenn M. Barns Masquerade in Blue (1956)
S-143 NA Harry Whittington A Woman On The Place (1956)
S-145 NA Brant House (ed.) Little Monsters (1956)
S-151 NA Robert Novak Climb a Broken Ladder (1956)
S-152 NA Henry Felsen Medic Mirth (1956)
S-153 NA Hallam Whitney The Wild Seed (1956)
D-154 NA Sloan Wilson Voyage to Somewhere (1956)
S-158 NA Kim Darien Golden Girl (1956)
S-159 NA Jack Webb (as John Farr) She Shark (1956)
S-161 NA E. Davis Gag Writer's Private Joke Book (1956)
D-163 NA Russell Boltar Woman's Doctor (1956)
S-165 NA Brant House (ed.) Love and Hisses (1956)
S-171 NA Eddie Davis (ed.) Campus Joke Book (1956)
S-174 NA Robert Novak B-Girl (1956)
D-175 NA Irving Settel (ed.) Best Television Humor of the Year (1956)
D-178 NA Jean Paradise The Savage City (1956)
S-179 NA Brant House (ed.) Squelches (1956)
D-181 NA Arthur Conan Doyle and John Dickson Carr The Exploits of Sherlock Holmes (1956)
D-184 NA J. Mccague The Big Ivy (1956)
S-188 NA Brant House (ed.) They Goofed! (1956)
S-190 NA Henry Lewis Nixon The Golden Couch (1956)
D-191 NA Frank Slaughter Apalachee Gold (1956)
D-194 NA Theodor Plievier Moscow (1956)
S-198 NA William Bender Jr. Tokyo Intrigue (1957)
D-200 NA Edward J. Ruppelt Unidentified Flying Objects (1956)
D-202 NA Leonard Kauffman The Color of Green (1957)
D-207 NA Charles Grayson Hollywood Doctor
D-210 NA Stephen Longstreet The Lion at Morning (1957)
D-212 NA H. T. Elmo Hollywood Humor (1957)
D-213 NA Peter J. Steincrohn, M.D. How to Stop Killing Yourself (1957)
D-214 NA Martin L. Weiss Hate Alley
D-218 NA Sasha Siemel Tigrero!
S-219 NA P. A. Hoover Backwater Woman (1957)
D-222 NA R. Frison-Roche First on the Rope (1957)
D-224 NA Shelby Steger Desire in the Ozarks (1957)
D-228 NA David Howarth We Die Alone (1957)
D-229 NA Walter Whitney Take It Out In Trade (1957)
D-232 NA Willard Manies The Fixers (1957)
D-234 NA Robert L. Scott Look of the Eagle (1957)
D-238 NA Clellon Holmes Go (1957)
D-239 NA G. Harry Stine Earth Satellite and the Race for Space Superiority (1957)
D-243 NA Michael Wells The Roving Eye (1957)
D-244 NA Terence Robinson Night Raider of the Atlantic: The Saga of the U-99 (1957)
D-246 NA John Harriman The Magnate (1957)
D-250 NA Arthur Steuer The Terrible Swift Sword (1957)
D-251 NA Hamilton Cochran Windward Passage (1957)
D-254 NA Marcos Spinelli The Lash of Desire (1957)
S-256 NA Karl Ludwig Oritz The General (1957)
D-257 NA Louis Malley Tiger in the Streets (1957)
D-258 NA Sławomir Rawicz The Long Walk (1957)
S-262 NA Leland Jamieson Attack! (1957)
S-263 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) See How They Run (1957)
D-267 NA Jim Bosworth Speed Demon (1958)
D-268 NA Brant House (ed.) Lincoln's Wit, Humorous Tales And Anecdotes By And About Our 16th President (1958)
D-269 NA Michael Powell Death in the South Atlantic
D-270 NA Bud Clifton D For Delinquent
D-271 NA Cliff Howe Lovers And Libertines (1958)
S-275 NA Brant House (ed.) Cartoon Annual #3- The Cream of the Year's Best Cartoons (1958)
D-278 NA Donald Barr Chidsey This Bright Sword (1957)
D-280 NA James P. S. Devereux The Story Of Wake Island
D-281 NA Norman Vincent Peale (ed.) Guideposts (1958)
D-282 NA Cliff Howe Scoundrels, Fiends, and Human Monsters (1958)
D-287 NA Holland M. Smith Coral And Brass (1958)
D-290 NA P. A. Hoover A Woman Called Trouble (1958)
D-292 NA Booth Mooney The Insiders (1958)
D-293 NA Väinö Linna The Unknown Soldier (1954)
D-296 NA John Clagett Run The River Gauntlet (1958)
D-300 NA J. Walter Small The Dance Merchants (1958)
D-302 NA Maurice Druon The Iron King (1956)
D-306 NA Peyson Antholz All Shook Up (1958)
D-307 NA Brant House (ed.) From Eve On: Wit And Wisdom About Women (1958)
D-310 NA Marcos Spinelli Mocambu (1958)
D-312 NA Harlan Ellison The Deadly Streets (1958)
D-314 NA Blair Ashton Deeds Of Darkness (1958)
D-318 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Captain Crossbones (1958)
D-319 NA Hans-Otto Meissner The Man With Three Faces (1958)
D-323 NA Brant House The Violent Ones (1958)
D-325 NA Irving Werstein July 1863 (1958)
D-326 NA Wilhelm Johnen Battling The Bombers
D-330 NA Bud Clifton Muscle Boy (1958)
D-334 NA Stanley Johnston Queen of the Flat-Tops (1958)
D-336 NA Samuel A. Krasney Morals Squad
D-337 NA Jack Gerstine Play It Cool
D-338 NA Edward De Roo The Fires Of Youth
D-341 NA Rae Loomis The Marina Street Girls (1959)
D-342 NA Nicholas Gorham Queen's Blade (1959)
D-343 NA Edward de Roo The Young Wolves (1959)
D-344 NA Gordon Landsborough Desert Fury (1959)
G-352 NA Francis Leary Fire And Morning (1959)
D-353 NA Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) The Macabre Reader
D-355 NA Bill Strutton and Michael Pearson The Beachhead Spies (1958)
D-359 NA John Croydon (as John Cooper) The Haunted Strangler (1959)
D-363 NA Samuel A. Krasney The Rapist (1959)
D-364 NA Donald Barr Chidsey The Pipes Are Calling (1959)
D-365 NA Robert Eunson MIG Alley (1959)
D-370 NA Paul Ernst (as Ernest Jason Fredericks) Cry Flood (1959)
G-371 NA Theodor Plievier Berlin (1959)
D-374 NA Burgess Leonard The Thoroughbred And The Tramp (1959)
G-376 NA J. Harvey Howells The Big Company Look (1959)
D-378 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Out For Kicks
G-382 NA C. T. Ritchie Willing Maid
D-383 NA David Stacton (as Bud Clifton) The Murder Specialist (1959)
G-386 NA Richard O'Connor The Sulu Sword (1959)
D-389 NA Cyril Henry Coles and Adelaide Manning (jointly as Manning Cole) No Entry (1959)
G-390 NA R. Foreman Long Pig
D-394 NA Donald Barr Chidsey The Flaming Island (1959)
D-396 NA Rae Loomis Luisita
D-398 NA Noland Miller Why Am I So Beat
D-399 NA Edward Adler Living It Up (1955)
G-402 NA Daniel P. Mannix Kiboko (1959)
D-404 NA Clifford Anderson The Hollow Hero (1959)
D-406 NA Edward Deroo Go, Man, Go! (1959)
D-410 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Buccaneer's Blade (1959)
D-414 NA Alexandre Dumas The Companions of Jehu (1960)
D-416 NA John Kenneth The Big Question (1960)
D-417 NA Edward de Roo Rumble at the Housing Project (1960)
D-420 NA John A. Williams The Angry Ones (1960)
D-423 NA Browning Norton Tidal Wave (1960)
D-426 NA Robert S. Close Penal Colony
D-428 NA P. A. Hoover Scowtown Woman
D-429 NA Charles Runyon The Anatomy Of Violence (1960)
D-432 NA Donn Broward Convention Queen (1960)
D-434 NA Jules Verne The Purchase of the North Pole (1960)
D-435 NA C. T. Ritchie Lady In Bondage (1960)
D-438 NA Charles Fogg The Panic Button (1960)
G-440 NA Andrew Hepburn Letter Of Marque (1960)
D-441 NA Lloyd E. Olson Skip Bomber (1960)
D-444 NA Shepard Rifkin Desire Island (1960)
D-446 NA Edward Moore Flight 685 Is Overdue (1960)
D-452 NA Joe L. Hensley The Colour of Hate (1960)
G-454 NA Anne Powers Ride East! Ride West! (1960)
D-458 NA Harry Wilcox (as Mark Derby) Womanhunt (1960)
D-460 NA James Macgregor When The Ship Sank (1960)
D-464 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Tame The Wild Flesh (1960)
D-467 NA William C. Anderson Five, Four, Three, Two, One-Pfftt Or 12,000 Men And One Bikini (1960)
D-472 NA Harry Whittington A Night For Screaming
D-474 NA Leland Lovelace Lost Mines & Hidden Treasure
D-481 NA Joseph F. Dinneen The Biggest Holdup (1960)
D-486 NA Edward De Roo The Little Caesars
D-487 NA Leonard Sanders Four-Year Hitch
D-488 NA Dan Brennan Third Time Down (1961)
D-493 NA Ellery Queen (ed.) The Queen's Awards, Fifth Series
D-495 NA Samuel A. Krasney A Mania For Blondes (1961)
D-501 NA David Stacton (as Bud Clifton) Let Him Go Hang (1961)
D-503 NA Frances Nichols Hanna (as Fan Nichols) The Girl in the Death Seat (1961)
D-506 NA Harry Harrison Kroll The Brazen Dream (1961)
D-508 NA Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) More Macabre (1961)
D-512 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Marooned (1961)
D-513 NA Harlan Ellison The Juvies
D-518 NA Bill Miller and Robert Wade (as Wade Miller) Nightmare Cruise (1961)
D-519 NA Carroll V. Glines and Wendell F. Moseley Air Rescue! (1961)
D-520 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) One Foot In Hell (1961)
D-521 NA Margaret Howe The Girl in the White Cap (1961)
D-522 NA Hal Ellson A Nest Of Fear (1961)
D-523 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Strike The Black Flag (1961)
D-524 NA Maysie Greig (as Jennifer Ames) Overseas Nurse (1961)
D-526 NA Kim Darien Obsession (1961)
D-529 NA Leslie Turner White The Pirate And The Lady (1961)
D-532 NA Isabel Capeto (as Isabel Cabot) Nurse Craig (1961)
D-533 NA H. T. Elmo Mad. Ave. (1961)
D-536 NA Peggy Gaddis The Nurse And The Pirate (1961)
D-539 NA Mary Mann Fletcher Psychiatric Nurse (1962)
D-540 NA Arlene Hale School Nurse (1962)
D-543 NA Harriet Kathryn Myers Small Town Nurse (1962)
D-545 NA Suzanne Roberts Emergency Nurse (1962)
D-548 NA Dudley Dean Mcgaughty (as Dean Owen) End of the World (1962)
D-549 NA Tracy Adams Spotlight On Nurse Thorne (1962)
D-552 NA Patricia Libby Hollywood Nurse
D-553 NA William Hope Hodgson The House On The Borderland (1962)
D-554 NA Jean Francis Webb (as Ethel Hamill) Runaway Nurse (1962)
D-556 NA Ruth Macleod A Nurse For Dr. Sterling (1962)
D-557 NA Florence Stuart Hope Wears White (1962)
D-558 NA Suzanne Roberts Campus Nurse (1962)
D-559 NA Jane L. Sears Ski Resort Nurse (1962)
D-560 NA Robert H. Boyer Medic In Love (1962)
D-561 NA Ann Rush Nell Shannon R. N. (1963)
D-562 NA Patricia Libby Cover Girl Nurse (1963)
D-563 NA Arlene Hale Leave It To Nurse Kathy (1963)
D-564 NA Harriet Kathryn Myers Prodigal Nurse
D-565 NA Ray Dorlen The Heart Of Dr. Hilary (1963)
D-566 NA Suzanne Roberts Julie Jones, Cape Canaveral Nurse (1963)
D-567 NA Isabel Moore A Challenge For Nurse Melanie (1963)
D-569 NA Arlene Hale Dude Ranch Nurse (1963)
D-571 NA Katherine Mccomb Princess Of White Starch (1963)
D-575 NA Peggy Dern A Nurse Called Hope (1963)
D-576 NA Dorothy Karns Dowdell Border Nurse (1963)
D-577 NA Sarah Frances Moore Legacy Of Love (1963)
D-579 NA Suzanne Roberts Hootenanny Nurse (1964)
D-580 NA Arlene Hale Symptoms Of Love (1964)
D-581 NA Suzanne Roberts Co-Ed In White (1964)
D-582 NA Joan Sargent My Love An Altar (1964)
D-583 NA Tracy Adams Hotel Nurse (1964)
D-584 NA Monica Edwards Airport Nurse (1964)
D-585 NA Arlene Hale Nurse Marcie's Island (1964)
D-586 NA Barbara Grabendike San Francisco Nurse
D-587 NA Arlene Hale Nurse Connor Comes Home (1964)
D-589 NA Virginia B. Mcdonnell The Nurse With The Silver Skates (1964)
D-591 NA Monica Heath (as Arlene J. Fitzgerald) Northwest Nurse (1964)
D-593 NA Suzanne Roberts Sisters In White (1965)
D-595 NA Ruth Macleod Nurse Ann In Surgery (1965)
D-596 NA Arlene Hale Nurses On The Run (1965)
D-598 NA Arlene Hale Disaster Area Nurse (1965)
D-599 NA Patricia Libby Winged Victory For Nurse Kerry (1965)
F Series
F-118 NA Jacob O. Kamm Making Profits in the Stock Market (1961)
F-132 NA Mario Cappelli Scramble! (1962)
F-137 NA R. Dewitt Miller Impossible: Yet It Happened! (1962)
F-140 NA Leonie St. John Love With A Harvard Accent (1962)
F-146 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Sir Scoundrel (1962)
F-151 NA Nedra Tyre Reformatory Girls (1962)
F-163 NA Adele De Leeuw Doctor Ellen (1962)
F-175 NA Evelyn Berckman Lament For Four Brides (1962)
F-198 NA Simenon The Short Cases Of Inspector Maigret
F-202 NA Evelyn Berckman The Hovering Darkness (1963)
F-218 NA Allen Churchill They Never Came Back (1960)
F-219 NA Henry Makow Ask Henry (1963)
F-278 NA Frances Spatz Leighton Patty Goes To Washington (1964)
F-288 NA Hal Sherman Fishing For Laughs
F-331 NA Gahan Wilson Graveside Manner (1965)
F-339 NA Arlene Hale Private Duty for Nurse Scott (1965)
F-341 NA Suzanne Roberts A Prize For Nurse Darci (1965)
F-349 NA Suzanne Roberts Celebrity Suite Nurse (1965)
F-352 NA Arlene Hale Nurse On Leave (1965)
F-359 NA Sharon Heath Jungle Nurse (1965)
F-362 NA Suzanne Roberts The Two Dr. Barlowes (1965)
F-368 NA Arlene Hale Chicago Nurse (1965)
F-369 NA Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) The Lobo Horseman (1965)
F-371 NA Arlene Hale Camp Nurse (1965)
F-378 NA Mary Mann Fletcher Danger - Nurse At Work (1966)
F-381 NA Sharon Heath Nurse At Shadow Manor (1966)
F-384 NA L. P. Holmes The Savage Hours (1966)
F-385 NA Arlene Hale Emergency For Nurse Selena (1966)
F-387 NA Arlene Hale Mountain Nurse (1966)
F-394 NA Gail Everett Journey For A Nurse (1966)
F-397 NA Willo Davis Roberts Nurse Kay's Conquest (1966)
F-405 NA Suzanne Roberts Vietnam Nurse (1966)
F-410 NA Arlene Hale Lake Resort Nurse (1966)
F-413 NA Sharon Heath A Vacation For Nurse Dean (1966)
F-417 NA Willo Davis Roberts Once A Nurse (1966)
F-419 NA Suzanne Roberts Rangeland Nurse (1967)
F-424 NA Arlene Hale Community Nurse (1967)
F-430 NA Arlene Hale Nurse On The Beach (1967)
M Series
M-145 NA Elizabeth Kellier The Patient at Tonesburry Manor (1966)
M-146 NA anonymous (ed.) Cracked Again (1966)
M-159 NA Sylvia Lloyd Down East Nurse (1965)
M-161 NA Sharon Heath Nurse at Moorcroft Manor (1965)
M-163 NA Ray Hogan Wolver
M-164 NA Suzanne Roberts Cross Country Nurse
G Series
There had previously been nine titles with a G prefix published as part of the D//G/S-series. These nine are:
G-352 NA Francis Leary Fire And Morning (1959)
G-371 NA Theodor Plievier Berlin (1959)
G-376 NA J. Harvey Howells The Big Company Look (1959)
G-382 NA C. T. Ritchie Willing Maid
G-390 NA R. Foreman Long Pig
G-440 NA Andrew Hepburn Letter Of Marque (1960)
G-454 NA Anne Powers Ride East! Ride West! (1960)
The nine titles above are also listed in the D/G/S-series, but are separated here for convenience.
The remaining titles come from the second G series.
G-504 NA Theodor Plievier Moscow (1965)
G-505 NA Ken Murray Ken Murray's Giant Joke Book
G-507 NA John M. Foster Hell in the Heavens
G-515 NA Sławomir Rawicz The Long Walk
G-520 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Arena
G-522 NA Frederick Faust (as George Challis) The Firebrand
G-527 NA Frederick Faust (as George Challis) The Bait And The Trap (1965)
G-532 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Traitors’ Legion (1963)
G-536 NA Helen Reilly The Day She Died
G-537 NA Edward J. Ruppelt Unidentified Flying Objects (1965)
G-538 NA Andre Norton Shadow Hawk (1965)
G-541 NA Jean Potts The Evil Wish
G-542 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) Meet Me Tonight (1965)
G-544 NA Ruth Fenisong The Wench Is Dead (1964)
G-545 NA Dana Lyon The Trusting Victim (1965)
G-550 NA Theodora DuBois The Listener (1965)
G-552 NA Theodora DuBois Shannon Terror (1965)
G-553 NA Michael Avallone The Man From U.N.C.L.E.
G-554 NA Genevieve Holden The Velvet Target
G-556 NA Leonie St. John Love With a Harvard Accent (1963)
G-558 NA Genevieve Holden Something's Happened To Kate
G-559 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) After Midnight (1965)
G-560 NA Harry Whittington The Doomsday Affair (1965)
G-562 NA Helen McCloy The Long Body (1965)
G-563 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) A Day In Monte Carlo (1965)
G-564 NA John Oram Thomas (as John Oram) The Copenhagen Affair (1965)
G-566 NA Irene Maude Swatridge and Charles John Swatridge (jointly as Theresa Charles) Lady in the Mist (1965)
G-567 NA Theresa Charles The Shrouded Tower (1965)
G-568 NA Melba Marlett Escape While I Can (1965)
G-569 NA David Howarth We Die Alone (1965)
G-571 NA David McDaniel The Dagger Affair (1965)
G-572 NA Joy Packer The Man in the Mews (1966)
G-575 NA Margaret Summerton Quin's Hide (1966)
G-578 NA Dorothy Eden (as Mary Paradise) Shadow of a Witch (1966)
G-581 NA John T. Phillifent The Mad Scientist Affair (1966)
G-583 NA Marie Garratt Festival Of Darkness (1966)
G-589 NA Margaret Summerton Ring Of Mischief (1966)
G-590 NA David McDaniel The Vampire Affair (1966)
G-593 NA Dorothy Eden (as Mary Paradise) Face of an Angel (1966)
G-594 NA Charles Runyon The Bloody Jungle (1966)
G-598 NA Barbara James Bright Deadly Summer (1966)
G-600 NA Peter Leslie The Radioactive Camel Affair (1966)
G-603 NA Carolyn Wilson The Scent of Lilacs (1966)
G-604 NA Jess Shelton Daktari (1966)
G-608 NA Jean Potts The Only Good Secretary (1967)
G-612 NA Leal Hayes Harlequin House (1967)
G-613 NA David McDaniel The Monster Wheel Affair (1967)
G-616 NA Marion Zimmer Bradley Souvenir Of Monique (1967)
G-617 NA Peter Leslie The Diving Dames Affair (1967)
G-621 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Matravers Hall (1967)
G-624 NA Velma Tate (as Francine Davenport) The Secret of the Bayou (1967)
G-629 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Nurse Missing (1967)
G-635 NA Lena Brooke Mcnamara Pilgrim's End (1967)
G-636 NA Joan C. Holly (as J. Holly Hunter) The Assassination Affair (1967)
G-643 NA Jean Vicary Saverstall (1967)
G-645 NA Gene DeWeese and Robert Coulson (jointly as Thomas Stratton) The Invisibility Affair (1967)
G-651 NA Elizabeth Salter Once Upon A Tombstone (1967)
G-652 NA Michael Bonner The Disturbing Death of Jenkin Delaney (1967)
G-653 NA Arlene Hale Doctor's Daughter (1967)
G-658 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Leap in the Dark (1967)
G-662 NA Agnes Mary Robertson Dunlop (as Elisabeth Kyle) The Second Mally Lee (1967)
G-663 NA Gene DeWeese and Robert Coulson (jointly as Thomas Stratton) The Mind-Twisters Affair (1967)
G-666 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Wayneston Hospital (1967)
G-670 NA David McDaniel The Rainbow Affair (1967)
G-672 NA Arlene Hale University Nurse (1967)
G-676 NA John Sawyer and Nancy Buckingham Sawyer (as Nancy Buckingham) Storm in the Mountains (1967)
G-679 NA Willo Davis Roberts Nurse At Mystery Villa (1967)
G-684 NA Barbara James Beauty That Must Die (1968)
G-686 NA Ray Dorien The Odds Against Nurse Pat (1968)
G-689 NA Ron Ellik and Fredric Langley (jointly as Fredric Davies) The Cross of Gold Affair (1968)
G-696 NA Arlene Hale Emergency Call (1968)
G-699 NA Cornell Woolrich The Bride Wore Black (1968)
G-700 NA Elizabeth Salter Will To Survive (1968)
G-702 NA William Johnston Miracle At San Tanco: The Flying Nun (1968)
G-707 NA T. E. Huff (as Edwina Marlowe) The Master of Phoenix Hall (1968)
G-711 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Nurse Stacey Comes Aboard (1968)
G-722 NA Gail Everett My Favorite Nurse (1968)
G-725 NA William Johnston The Littlest Rebels: The Flying Nun #2 (1968)
G-729 NA David McDaniel The Utopia Affair (1968)
G-743 NA Sharon Heath Nurse On Castle Island (1968)
G-744 NA Eula Atwood Morrison (as Andrea Delmonico) Chateau Chaumand (1968)
G-749 NA John Sawyer and Nancy Buckingham Sawyer (as Nancy Buckingham) Call Of Glengarron (1968)
G-750 NA Arlene Hale Dr. Barry's Nurse (1968)
G-751 NA Mildred Davies The Dark Place (1968)
G-752 NA Peter Leslie The Splintered Sunglasses Affair (1968)
G-757 NA Helen Arvonen Remember With Tears (1968)
G-765 NA Virginia Smiley Nurse Kate's Mercy Flight (1968)
K Series
K-101 NA Charles Francis Potter The Faith Men Live By
K-102 NA Richard E. Byrd Alone
K-103 NA Prudencio de Pereda Fiesta
K-104 NA W.A. Swanberg Sickles the Incredible
K-105 NA Alfred Duggan Winter Quarters
K-106 NA Allen Churchill The Improper Bohemians
K-108 NA D. Robertson Three Days
K-109 NA Dalton Trumbo Jonny Got His Gun (1959)
K-110 NA Kirst The Seventh Day (1959)
K-111 NA Robert Sproul The Cracked Reader
K-112 NA Les Savage, Jr. The Royal City
K-113 NA Eric Duthie Tall Short Stories
K-114 NA O. A. Bushnell Peril in Paradise
K-115 NA A. A. Hoehling They Sailed Into Oblivion
K-116 NA Elliot West Man Running
K-117 NA Frank Edward Stranger Than Science (1960)
K-118 NA Alfred Duggan Children of the Wolf (1959)
K-119 NA Ralph Ginzburg Erotica
K-120 NA J. Haslip Lucrezia Borgia
K-121 NA Robert C. Ruark Grenadine Etching - Her Life and Loves
K-122 NA Kurt Singer (ed.) Spies Who Changed History
K-123 NA Richard B. Erno The Hunt
K-124 NA Peter Freuchen Eskimo
K-125 NA Harold Mehling Scandalous Scamps
K-126 NA Robert Dahl Breakdown
K-127 NA George Stewart Fire
K-128 NA Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Beach Patterns of Sexual Behavior
K-129 NA Alfred Duggan Conscience of the King
K-132 NA Harnett Thomas Kane Spies for the Blue and Gray
K-133 NA Don Berry Trask: The Coast of Oregon, 1848
K-134 NA Peter Fleming Operation Sea Lion
K-136 NA C. D. MacDougall Hoaxes
K-137 NA George Bluestone The Private World Of Cully Powers
K-138 NA George R. Stewart Ordeal By Hunger
K-139 NA Alfred Duggan Three's Company
K-140 NA Harry R. Litchfield Your Child's Care
K-141 NA Emil Ludwig Michelangelo and Rembrandt: Selections From Three Titans
K-142 NA Brant House (ed.) Crimes That Shocked America
K-143 NA Willa Gibbs The Twelfth Physician
K-144 NA Frank Edwards Strangest of all (1962)
K-145 NA Harry F. Tashman The Marriage Bed
K-146 NA Rowena Farr Seal Morning
K-147 NA Carl J. Spinatelli Baton Sinister (1959)
K-148 NA Herbert Asbury The Chicago Underworld
K-149 NA Talbot Mundy Queen Cleopatra (1962)
K-150 NA Patricia Robins Lady Chatterley's Daughter (1961)
K-151 NA Pierce G. Fredericks The Great Adventure
K-152 NA Brant House (ed.) Great Trials Of Famous Lawyers (1962)
K-153 NA Rebecca Liswood A Marriage Doctor Speaks Her Mind About Sex
K-155 NA Thomas R. Henry The Strangest Things in the World
K-156 NA Charles Fort The Book of the Damned
K-157 NA E. H. G. Lutz Miracles of Modern Surgery
K-158 NA Phyllis A. Whitney Thunder Heights
K-159 NA Theodora DuBois Captive of Rome
K-160 NA Guy Endore The Werewolf of Paris
K-161 NA Frederick L. Collins The FBI In Peace And War
K-162 NA Richard O'Connor Gould's Millions
K-163 NA Rupert Furneaux Worlds Strangest Mysteries
K-164 NA Phyllis A. Whitney The Trembling Hills
K-166 NA Shirley Jackson The Sundial
K-167 NA Karen Blixen (as Pierre Andrezel) The Angelic Avengers
K-168 NA R. Dewitt Miller Stranger Than Life
K-169 NA Scott Sullivan The Shortest Gladdest Years
K-170 NA John J. Pugh High Carnival
K-171 NA Dorothy Eden Lady of Mallow
K-172 NA Peter Bourne The Golden Pagans
K-173 NA Dorothea Malm To The Castle
K-174 NA Georgette Heyer The Grand Sophy
K-175 NA Virginia Coffman Moura (1963)
K-176 NA Brant House Strange Powers of Unusual People
K-177 NA Anya Seton My Theodosia
K-178 NA Phyllis A. Whitney The Quicksilver Pool
K-179 NA Georgette Heyer Venetia
K-180 NA Margaret Lynn To See A Stranger
K-181 NA Margaret Summerton The Sea House
K-182 NA Doris Webster and Mary A. Hopkins Instant Self-Analysis
K-183 NA Phyllis Bentley The House of Moreys
K-184 NA Dorothy Eden Whistle For The Crows
K-185 NA Shirley Jackson Hangsaman
K-187 NA Henry Bellamann Victoria Grandolet
K-188 NA Richard E. Byrd Alone
K-189 NA Dorothy Cameron Disney The Hangman's Tree
K-190 NA Jim Egleson and Janet Frank Egleson Parents Without Partners
K-191 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The Brides Of Bellenmore (1963)
K-192 NA Sheila Bishop The House With Two Faces
K-193 NA Franklin S. Klaf and Bernhardt J. Hurwood A Psychiatrist Looks At Erotica
K-194 NA Margaret Summerton Nightingale At Noon
K-195 NA Michael Avallone (as Edwina Noone) Dark Cypress
K-196 NA Joseph Sidney Karnake and Victor Boesen Navy Diver
K-197 NA Doris Miles Disney Who Rides a Tiger
K-198 NA Josephine Bell Stranger On A Cliff
K-199 NA Barbara O'Brien Operators And Things (1958)
K-200 NA J. L. Whitney The Whisper of Shadows
K-201 NA Georgette Heyer April Lady (1964)
K-202 NA William Burroughs Junkie (1964)
K-203 NA Jan Hillard Morgan's Castle
K-204 NA Robert Payne Charlie Chapin: The Great God Pan (1964)
K-205 NA Ruth Willock The Night of the Visitor
K-206 NA Frank Edwards Strange World
K-207 NA Lady Eleanor Smith A Dark And Splendid Passion
K-208 NA Nicole Maxwell The Jungle Search for Nature's Cures
K-209 NA Aileen Seilaz The Veil of Silence (1965)
K-210 NA Hans Holzer Ghost Hunter
K-211 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The Pavilion At Monkshood (1965)
K-212 NA Sheila Bishop The Durable Fire
K-213 NA Michael Avallone (as Edwina Noone) Dark Cypress (1965)
K-215 NA Rohan O'Grady The Master of Montrolfe Hall
K-216 NA Jan Roffman The Reflection of Evil
K-217 NA Charles Fort Lo!
K-218 NA Ross Santee Cowboy
K-219 NA Joan Aiken The Silence Of Herondale
K-220 NA Susan Howatch The Dark Shore
K-221 NA Virginia Coffman The Beckoning
K-222 NA John Macklin Strange Destinies
K-223 NA Michael Avallone (as Edwinna Noone) Corridor Of Whispers
K-224 NA Brant House Strange Powers of Unusual People
K-225 NA Michael Avallone The Summer of Evil
K-226 NA Georgette Heyer Sylvester
K-227 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Green Fire
K-228 NA Robb Stewart Strange Prophecies That Came True
K-228 NA Joan Winslow Griffin Towers
K-229 NA R. DeWitt Miller Impossible: Yet It Happened!
K-230 NA Dorothy Eden The Pretty Ones
K-231 NA Lane Peters Promise Him Anything
K-232 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The House of Fand
K-233 NA Patricia Robins Lady Chatterley's Daughter
K-234 NA Virginia Coffman The Devil Vicar
K-235 NA Georgette Heyer Sprig Muslin
K-236 NA Dorothy Eden Bridge of Fear
K-237 NA Robert Tralins Strange Events Beyond Human Understanding
K-238 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Someone Waiting
K-239 NA Dorothy Eden The Sleeping Bride
K-240 NA Susan Howatch The Waiting Sands
K-241 NA Brad Steiger Strange Guests
K-242 NA Ruth Comfort Mitchell The Legend of Susan Dane
K-243 NA Dorothy Eden The Deadly Travellers
K-244 NA Kurt Singer (ed.) The Gothic Reader
K-245 NA Marie Garratt Dangerous Enchantment
K-246 NA Joan Grant Castle Cloud
K-248 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Whisper in the Dark
K-249 NA Dorothy Eden The Brooding Lake
K-250 NA Dr. Webb B. Garrison Strange Bonds Between Animals And Men
K-251 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Shadow of a Stranger
K-252 NA Phyllis A. Whitney The Trembling Hills
K-254 NA Rupert Furneaux The World's Strangest Mysteries
K-255 NA R. DeWitt Miller Impossible: Yet It Happened!
K-257 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) I Am Gabriella!
K-258 NA Barbara Blackburn City of Forever
K-259 NA Michael Harvey Strange Happenings
K-260 NA Joan Rich and Leslie Rich Dating and Mating By Computer (1966)
K-261 NA Dorothy Eden Night of the Letter (1967)
K-262 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Walk Into My Parlor (1966)
K-263 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The Night My Enemy (1967)
K-264 NA Jane Blackmore The Dark Between The Stars (1967)
K-265 NA Georgette Heyer The Reluctant Widow (1967)
K-266 NA Thomas R. Henry The Strangest Things in the World (1967)
K-267 NA Dorothy Eden Listen To Danger (1967)
K-268 NA Brad Steiger Treasure Hunting
K-269 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Seven Days From Midnight
K-271 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Falcon's Shadow
K-272 NA Hans Holzer Yankee Ghosts (1966)
K-273 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) The Willow Herb (1967)
K-275 NA Dorothy Eden Crow Hollow (1967)
K-276 NA Bernhardt J. Hurwood Strange Talents (1967)
K-278 NA Helen Arvonen Circle of Death
K-279 NA anonymous The Strange And Uncanny
K-280 NA Susan Howatch Call in the Night (1967)
K-281 NA Margaret Wetherby Williams (Margaret Erskine) No. 9 Belmont Square (1967)
K-282 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The Winds of Night
K-283 NA Nancy Buckingham Cloud Over Malverton (1967)
K-284 NA Monica Dickens The Room Upstairs
K-285 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Hotel Deluxe
K-286 NA Nancy Buckingham The Hour Before Moonrise
K-287 NA Margaret Wetherby Williams (as Margaret Erskine) Old Mrs. Ommanney is Dead
K-288 NA Robb Stewart Strange Prophecies That Came True (1967)
K-289 NA Jane Blackmore Night of the Stranger (1967)
K-290 NA Jan Roffman Ashes in an Urn (1966)
K-291 NA Brad Steiger We Have Lived Before (1967)
K-292 NA John Macklin The Enigma of the Unknown (1967)
K-293 NA Elizabeth Ford Dangerous Holiday (1967)
K-294 NA Joan Aiken Beware of the Bouquet (1967)
K-295 NA Margaret Wetherby Williams (as Margaret Erskine) The Woman At Belguardo (1967)
K-296 NA Warren Smith Strange Powers of the Mind
K-297 NA Nancy Buckingham The Dark Summer (1968)
K-298 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) The Silver Cord
K-299 NA Rae Folly Fear of a Stranger
K-300 NA Michael Hervey They Walk By Night
K-301 NA Dorothy Eden The Laughing Ghost
K-303 NA Jane Blackmore Beware The Night (1967)
K-304 NA Margaret Wetherby Williams (as Margaret Erskine) The Family At Tannerton (1967)
K-305 NA John Macklin Strange Encounters (1968)
K-306 NA Susan Howatch The Shrouded Walls (1968)
K-307 NA Brad Steiger The Occult World Of John Pendragon (1968)
A Series
A-1 NA Brigitte von Tessin The Shame and the Glory (1966)
A-7 NA The editors of Short Story International The World's Best Contemporary Short Stories (1966)
A-9 NA Todhunter Ballard Gold In California! (1966)
A-11 NA Harold T. Wilkins Flying Saucers On The Attack (1967)
A-18 NA Frederick E. Smith A Killing For The Hawks
A-20 NA Dorothy Malone Cookbook For Beginners (1968)
A-21 NA Corinne Griffith Eggs I Have Known (1968)
A-22 NA Jean Mattimore and Clark Mattimore Cooking By The Clock (1968)
A-23 NA Alberto Moravia The Wayward Wife (1968)
A-24 NA William A. Bishop Winged Warfare (1967)
A-26 NA Peter J. Steincrohn How To Get A Good Night's Sleep (1968)
A-27 NA Jim Harmon The Great Radio Heroes (1968)
A-28 NA René Fonck Ace of Aces (1968)
A-130 NA Robert B. Douglas (trans.) The Hundred Stories
N Series
N-1 NA UPI editors Retrospect 1964: Summaries and Captions From Special U.P.I Dispatches (1965)
N-2 NA UPI editors Retrospect 1965: U.P.I. Pictorial History of 1964 (1966)
N-4 NA Isaac Asimov Is Anyone There? (1966)
References
Ace Image Library. Contains images of most covers for both the singles and doubles.
Bookscans. Contains numerous images of the Ace covers.
Letter-series single titles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry%20Tursunov
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Dmitry Tursunov
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Dmitry Igorevich Tursunov (; born 12 December 1982) is a retired Russian tennis player and a tennis coach. At age 12 he moved to the United States to train and further his prospects of becoming a professional player. His career-high singles ranking was world No. 20, achieved in October 2006.
Tursunov jokes about his lack of ability and success on clay courts. He was sponsored by Fila and Wilson. He helped the Russian Davis Cup team win the 2006 Davis Cup and reach the finals of the 2007 Davis Cup.
Tennis career
Tursunov began playing tennis in Moscow at the age of five when his father made him play a few hours a day. He came to the United States to train with Vitaly Gorin.
I practiced a few hours a day. My dad realized fairly early that I had a lot of potential. A lot of people criticize him for basically choosing that career for me. He understood that I didn’t have many options to make money and since he really liked tennis, he decided that I was to be a tennis player. It just happened that I was naturally good at it.
Early years
Tursunov played his first match in June 1998 against Chris Groer in a Futures event in Los Angeles and won, but lost in the following round. In 1999, the Russian played in the Futures events in Philippines and United States and was able to reach two semifinals and a quarterfinal. In 2000, he broke a leg in January, which forced him to miss four months of the season. When he came back, he continued playing in Futures events in the United States. He reached his first Futures final in Haines City, Florida, but lost to Australian Jaymon Crabb. He then won his first Futures title the following week, defeating another Australian Peter Luczak. He reached another final in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, losing to Scott Barron and won two more Futures events in Malibu, California over José de Armas and in Scottsdale, Arizona over Stefan Wauters.
In 2001, Tursunov won the Futures event in Boca Raton over Jeff Morrison, then the Dallas Challenger defeating Justin Bower. After these two lower-level tournament successes, Tursunov qualified for his first ATP event in 2001 Kroger St. Jude International and made the quarterfinals, earning his first top-100 win over then world No. 51, Greg Rusedski along the way, before losing to eventual champion Mark Philippoussis. He continued playing on the Challenger circuit, reaching three quarterfinals, but his form suffered after his impact in Memphis because of what doctors believed was a bulging disk in his back. He returned after two months away, and then suffered a stress fracture in his leg. Tursunov was forced to miss six months and did not come back to tennis until June 2002, That year, he won another title on the United States Futures circuit and reached a Challenger semifinal and two quarterfinals.
2003–2005
After making two finals on the ATP Challenger Tour in Aptos losing to Jeff Salzenstein and in the Bronx, New York to Ivo Karlović, Tursunov qualified for his first Grand Slam event at the US Open defeating former world number one and then world No. 14, Gustavo Kuerten, in five sets, earning his first top-20 win before losing in the third round to Xavier Malisse. Continuing on after the US Open, he won two consecutive Challenger titles: in Mandeville, Louisiana over Jan Hernych, and in San Antonio, Texas over Sébastien de Chaunac, and then the semifinals of his next two Challenger tournaments. At the end of 2003, he finished the year ranked in the top 100 for the first time in his career.
Tursunov started the season of 2004 losing in the first rounds of Chennai Open and Australian Open, but won Waikoloa Challenger over Alejandro Falla. He then reached the quarterfinals of the Cellular South Cup losing to Mardy Fish. He then played in his first Masters event but lost in the first rounds of Pacific Life Open and NASDAQ-100 Open. He then reached the quarterfinals of U.S. Clay Court Championships losing to eventual champion Tommy Haas. He then lost in the first round in his next three ATP Tour in the Torneo Godó, French Open, and Stella Artois Championships. However, he rebounded in the Wimbledon Championships upsetting 19th seed and compatriot Marat Safin in the first round and eventually fell to ninth seed Carlos Moyá in the third round. At the TD Waterhouse Cup, he was able to reach his first ATP Tour semifinals retiring against Lleyton Hewitt. After the US Open loss to Fabrice Santoro in the second round, Tursunov was forced out of tennis again for seven months with a broken vertebra suffered in a boating accident.
He came back at the 2005 Indian Wells Masters tournament losing to Agustín Calleri. In his next tournaments he reached the second rounds of French Open and Stella Artois Championships, and the first round of Nottingham Open. At Wimbledon, Tursunov achieved his best ever performance in a Grand Slam tournament by making the fourth round. In his second-round match against then world No. 9, Tim Henman, he had to play in a Wimbledon club shirt as two of his shirts were stolen from the locker room before the match. He eventually defeated the local hope in five sets, earning his first top-ten win of his career. He eventually lost in the fourth round to Sébastien Grosjean.
He then reached the second rounds of RCA Championships and Los Angeles Open, the first rounds of Western & Southern Financial Group Masters and Pilot Pen Tennis and reached also the second round of his next four tournaments including the US Open. At the Kremlin Cup, he was able to reach the semifinals losing to compatriot Igor Andreev. He then won the Challenger event in Kolding, Denmark defeating Steve Darcis. In his last tournament of the year he reached the third round of BNP Paribas Masters losing to Nikolay Davydenko.
2006–2007
2006 was a successful year for Tursunov as he achieved his highest ever ranking thus far, he began by reaching the quarterfinals of Qatar Open and Medibank International losing to eventual finalists Gaël Monfils and Igor Andreev respectively. He then reached the second round of Australian Open to Tommy Robredo. At the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships he lost in the quarterfinals to Tommy Haas. He then won a Challenger event in Sunrise, Florida defeating Alberto Martín. At the NASDAQ-100 Open he was able to reach the fourth round of a Master Series for the first time losing to world No. 1, Roger Federer.
He then went 1–6 in his next six events only earning a victory over Gastão Elias at the Estoril Open. At the French Open, Tursunov lost to David Nalbandian after having a 2–0 set lead in the third round. He then reached the quarterfinals of the Queen's Club Championships losing to local hero Tim Henman and the first round of Nottingham Open losing to another local hero Andy Murray. He defeated then world No. 4, Ivan Ljubičić, in the third round of Wimbledon coming back from two sets to love, before losing in the next round. After losing his serve in the fifth set to give Nieminen an 8–7 lead, he hit a ball at the chair umpire's chair. He was given a point penalty and later fined £4,000 ($7,500) for "unsportsmanlike conduct". He called the chair umpire, Fergus Murphy, an "idiot" in the news conference he had after the match.
He then reached his first ATP final at the LA Tennis Open losing to Tommy Haas and followed it up with a semifinal performance at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic losing to Andy Murray. He then fell in the third rounds of Rogers Cup and US Open, and the second rounds of Western & Southern Financial Group Masters and BRD Năstase Țiriac Trophy. Additionally, he lost to Dennis Novikov at the 2016 Sarasota Challenger while Novikov was experimenting with a new Yonex frame. He then won his first career title at the Kingfisher Airlines Tennis Open defeating Tommy Robredo in the semifinals and Tomáš Berdych in the final. He then lost four consecutive matches in the third round of Japan Open Tennis Championships and the first rounds of Kremlin Cup, Madrid Masters and St. Petersburg Open. He then reached the third round of BNP Paribas Masters losing to eventual champion Nikolay Davydenko. At the end of the year, he won a Challenger event in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine defeating Benjamin Becker in the final.
On 6 January 2007, Tursunov won the Hopman Cup in Perth, Western Australia, while representing Russia alongside Nadia Petrova. In the final, Tursunov defeated Tommy Robredo in straight sets, after teammate Petrova's victory over Anabel Medina Garrigues. Following this match was a pro set mixed doubles between Russians Tursunov and Nadia Petrova and Spaniards Tommy Robredo and Anabel Medina Garrigues. This match was a clear show of the playful nature of Tursunov and the other players. The match was relaxed since the outcome of the mixed-doubles pro set match did not matter. At one stage, Anabel Medina Garrigues switched with Tursunov so that Tursunov and Robredo were on one side, while Medina Garrigues and Petrova were on the other. The umpire assigned points to Spain regardless.
At the Australian Open, he reached the third round, losing to Tomáš Berdych. He lost in the first round of his next four ATP Tour tournaments. He then fell in the second rounds of Estoril Open and Internazionali BNL d'Italia, and the first round of the Hamburg Masters. At the French Open he fell to Fernando Verdasco. During the grass-court season he reached the semifinals of Queen's Club Championships and Nottingham Open to big servers Andy Roddick and Ivo Karlović. At Wimbledon, Tursunov was beaten in four sets in the third round by Tommy Haas. Ironically, Haas was unable to go on and play his next game against Roger Federer due to an abdominal injury.
In Indianapolis, Tursunov won his second career title, defeating surprise finalist Frank Dancevic. He then lost three consecutive matches at the Masters event of the Rogers Cup and Cincinnati Masters, and the US Open. Tursunov then rebounded by winning his second title of the year at the Thailand Open, dominating Benjamin Becker. He then reached the third round of the Japan Open losing to Feliciano López. He then lost early in Kremlin Cup and Madrid Masters. At the St. Petersburg Open he fell in the quarterfinals to Andy Murray. At the BNP Paribas Masters, he lost to Mardy Fish. As the defending champion, Tursunov lost in the final of the Challenger in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine to Mischa Zverev.
2008–2009
Tursunov played his first tournament of 2008 at the Qatar Open falling to Nikolay Davydenko in the quarterfinals. Medibank International in Sydney, Australia. He defeated Stan Wawrinka, top seed and No. 8 in the world Richard Gasquet, Sébastien Grosjean, and Fabrice Santoro. In the final, Tursunov defeated Australian Chris Guccione. This was his fourth career title. At the Australian Open, Tursunov beat Xavier Malisse in the first round. However, he then lost his second-round match against Sam Querrey in four sets.
Tursunov lost in the first round of the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament to Rafael Nadal, but combined with Tomáš Berdych to win the doubles title, defeating Mikhail Youzhny and Philipp Kohlschreiber in the final. This was his second doubles career title. In the Dubai Tennis Championships, he fell to Richard Gasquet. At the Pacific Life Open, he fell to Juan Ignacio Chela. At the Sony Ericsson Open, he defeated Richard Gasquet in their third encounter of the year in the second round, but lost in the fourth round to Tomáš Berdych. In Monte-Carlo, he lost to Igor Andreev. At the Barcelona Open, he reached the quarterfinals losing to German Denis Gremelmayr. He lost two consecutive first-round appearances at the Rome Masters and the Hamburg Masters. At Roland Garros, Tursunov won his first two matches against Daniel Brands and Guillermo García López, and then lost to Jérémy Chardy in straight sets. However, Tursunov paired up with Igor Kunitsyn in the men's doubles event. They reached the semifinals, losing to Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić. This performance lifted Tursunov to a career-high doubles ranking of No. 36.
In Nottingham, Tursunov walked off the court when losing by a set and a break in a first-round doubles match after disagreeing with a line call. The next morning, the ATP announced that he had been thrown out of the tournament because of his actions. This included the singles tournament, handing second round opponent Thomas Johansson a walkover into the quarterfinals. At Wimbledon, Tursunov beat Nicolas Mahut and Chris Eaton, but lost to Janko Tipsarević in the third round. At the Indianapolis Tennis Championships, Tursunov upset top seed James Blake to make it to the final. He was unable to defend his title, losing to Gilles Simon in the championship match. At the Rogers Cup, Tursunov lost in the third round to Blake. He lost to eventual champion Andy Murray, also in the third round, at the Western & Southern Financial Group Masters, after earning his third victory of the year over Richard Gasquet. Tursunov represented Russia for the first time at the Beijing Olympics. He lost in the first round to top seed Roger Federer. At the US Open, Tursunov reached the third round by beating Eduardo Schwank and Victor Hănescu. He was beaten by his compatriot Nikolay Davydenko.
Tursunov then celebrated his fifth ATP title win at the Open de Moselle in Metz, beating Paul-Henri Mathieu in the final. He then suffered three consecutive losses at the Kremlin Cup, Madrid Masters, and St. Petersburg Open. At the BNP Paribas Masters he retired in his second-round match against Novak Djokovic. He then won a Challenger event in Helsinki in his last tournament of the year.
The Russian began 2009 by losing his first three matches at the Qatar Open, Medibank International, and Australian Open. He then qualified for the Zagreb Indoors, but lost to Ernests Gulbis. He then fell in the second round of the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament, Open 13, and Dubai Tennis Championships, losing to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, Feliciano López, and Igor Andreev, respectively. He then reached the third round of the BNP Paribas Open to Rafael Nadal and the Sony Ericsson Open to Andy Roddick.
He came back at the French Open, losing in the first round to Arnaud Clément. On grass, he reached the second round of the Gerry Weber Open, losing to Philipp Kohlschreiber, and won the Aegon International, defeating Canadian Frank Dancevic in the final, his first grass court title. He then retired in his first-round match in Wimbledon against Mischa Zverev due to an ankle injury. He reached the quarterfinals Indianapolis Tennis Championships, losing to Frank Dancevic. He then lost four consecutive matches at the LA Tennis Open, the Legg Mason Tennis Classic, the Rogers Cup, and the US Open.
2010–2011
Dmitry missed most of the first part of 2010 due to the left ankle injury, and he had ankle surgery in February. He played his first tournament of the year at the French Open, falling to Daniel Gimeno Traver in the first round. He then played on the Challenger tour. He fell in the first round in Wimbledon to Rainer Schüttler. He then fell in the second round of the qualifying draw in the Campbell's Hall of Fame Tennis Championships and the Farmers Classic. He won his first ATP match of the year at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic, defeating Teymuraz Gabashvili before falling to Tomáš Berdych. He again lost in the first round of the US Open to Jürgen Melzer in five sets. He then played in Bangkok, losing in the first round and quarterfinals of the Challenger events, and in the qualifying competition Thailand Open. At the Japan Open, Tursunov produced two upsets defeated world No. 25, Ernests Gulbis, and world No. 30, Richard Gasquet, before falling in the quarterfinals to the world No. 1 and eventual champion, Rafael Nadal.
In Russia as a wild card, he fell in the first round of the Kremlin Cup and reached the semifinals of the St. Petersburg Open, losing to compatriot Mikhail Youzhny. He then retired in his first-round match at the Valencia Open 500 against Pablo Andújar due to a left calf injury.
Tursunov began 2011 by losing in the qualifying draw of the Brisbane International to Peter Luczak and the first round of the Australian Open to Victor Troicki. He then competed in the Singapore ATP Challenger as a wild card, which he won. In Rotterdam, Tursunov was able to qualify and beat Andrey Golubev in the first round, before losing to fourth seed Tomáš Berdych.
At the Open 13, he defeated Grigor Dimitrov in three tight sets. He then defeated Ivan Ljubičić and then-world No. 10 Jürgen Melzer, his first victory over a top-ten player in over two and a half years. He then lost to top seed Robin Söderling in the semifinals. In the Dubai Tennis Championships, he fell to Marcel Granollers. He then competed on the Challenger Tour, winning the GB Pro-Series Bath. He reached the finals of the Athens Open, a Challenger event, but withdrew due to a knee problem. He then fell in the qualifying draw of the BMW Open and the first round of the French Open. On grass, he played at the Challenger Aegon Trophy falling to Matthias Bachinger. At the Aegon Championships, he fell in the first round to Feliciano López in straight sets. At his final Wimbledon warm-up, the UNICEF Open, he had wins over Robert Kendrick, Nicolas Mahut, Santiago Giraldo, and third seed Xavier Malisse in the semifinals. He then faced fourth seed Ivan Dodig in the final and won his seventh ATP title.
2012–2017
In 2015, he won two men's doubles titles with different partners.
Davis Cup
As Tursunov's form started to improve and he came into calculation for selection in the Russia Davis Cup team, the problems he was having obtaining United States citizenship became apparent. Tursunov attempted over several years' time to become a United States citizen, but the process stalled and Tursunov travels with a Russian passport and an American visa. In his own words "It's frustrating, but what can you do?" In spite of this, Tursunov was selected for Russia in the Davis Cup semi final against Croatia and won his dead rubber match against Ivo Karlović. In 2006 in the first round tie against Netherlands, he won both his matches against Raemon Sluiter and Melle van Gemerden. He defeated Richard Gasquet in five sets in the fourth rubber of the quarterfinal; consequently sending the Russians into the semi-finals of the Davis Cup. For the second time in 2006, Tursunov sealed victory for Russia in the Davis Cup; this time in the semi-final where he defeated Andy Roddick of the United States in a match that lasted 4 hours and 48 minutes, ending 17–15 in the last set. By virtue of this victory, he earned Russia the spot in the Davis Cup final against Argentina, which took place in December. Despite, earning the winning match in the quarterfinals and semifinals, Tursunov only played doubles partnering with Marat Safin, which they won to give Russia a 2–1 lead. Marat Safin later sealed the 2006 Davis Cup win for Russia with his victory over José Acasuso.
Tursunov was named in the four-man team that played the United States in the Davis Cup final in 2007, in Portland, Oregon, from 30 November to 2 December 2007. He lost the first rubber of the 2007 Davis Cup final against Roddick. Tursunov was on the verge of defeating James Blake, but Blake won in the fourth dead rubber, the USA having won the tie in the previous doubles match. In 2008, Tursunov lost both his matches in the first round tie against Serbia losing in doubles and in singles, however they still won the tie 3–2. In the semifinal tie against Argentina, he won his doubles match, playing with Igor Kunitsyn. In 2009, he sealed the victory for Russia in the first round tie against Romania defeating Victor Hănescu in five sets. In 2011, he won his singles match against Sweden, however Russia had already lost the tie by losing the first three matches.
Retirement
Tursunov retired from playing on the professional tour on 28 August 2017 because of another injury.
Coaching
In 2011, he mentored a 17-year-old ATP-player, Aslan Karatsev, for some time.
He subsequently became the coach of WTA Tour tennis players Elena Vesnina and Aryna Sabalenka, respectively. From 16 August 2021 to 6 June 2022 he was the coach of Anett Kontaveit. He was the coach of 2021 US Open Champion Emma Raducanu for a short period in 2022. He coached Belinda Bencic from October 2022 to April 2023.
He is currently coaching Veronika Kudermetova.
Awards
International
Tursunov represented December 2009 in the Association of Tennis Professionals calendar.
National
The Russian Cup in the nominations:
Mixed Doubles Team of the Year: 2007.
ATP career finals
Singles: 9 (7 titles, 2 runner-ups)
Doubles: 12 (7 titles, 5 runner-ups)
ATP Challenger and ITF Futures finals
Singles: 26 (17–9)
Doubles: 10 (6–4)
Performance timelines
Singles
Doubles
Top 10 wins
Notes
References
External links
Dimtry talking to Gabby Logan on BBC Radio Five Live
1982 births
Hopman Cup competitors
Living people
Olympic tennis players for Russia
Tennis players from Moscow
Russian expatriates in the United States
Russian male tennis players
Russian tennis coaches
Tennis players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20Order%20of%20Saint%20James%20of%20the%20Sword
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Military Order of Saint James of the Sword
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The Military Order of Saint James of the Sword () is a Portuguese order of chivalry. Its full name is the Ancient, Most Noble and Enlightened Military Order of Saint James of the Sword, of the Scientific, Literary and Artistic Merit (Portuguese: Antiga, Nobilíssima e Esclarecida Ordem Militar de Sant'Iago da Espada, do Mérito Científico, Literário e Artístico).
History
The Order was founded in 1172, and has its origins in the Order of Santiago, founded in the Kingdom of León in 1170, probably as an order of Augustinian canons regular to escort pilgrims to the shrine of St. James the Greater in Santiago de Compostela. King Ferdinand II of León soon set it to garrison the southern frontiers of León against the Almohads of al-Andalus. In 1170, Ferdinand II granted the new order the castles of Cáceres and Monfragüe, which had been confiscated from Gerald the Fearless in 1169, and would make further donations thereafter. The new Leonese order was soon operating in neighboring kingdoms. His nephew, King Alfonso VIII of Castile granted them the castles of Mora and Oreja in 1171, and merged the arriving knights of Santiago with the older Castilian brotherhood of knights of Ávila in 1172.
The establishment of the Order of Santiago was endorsed by papal legate Cardinal Hyacinthus of Acardo on a visit to Iberia in 1172–73. The approval of the Order was confirmed three years later by Pope Alexander III in a bull issued July 1175.
In January 1174, Alfonso VIII granted them the citadel of Uclés, which would later serve as the headquarters of the Order of Santiago as a whole after the reunification of the León and Castile in 1230.
The Order expanded into Portugal when King Afonso I of Portugal donated Arruda dos Vinhos in June 1172. This was followed up by donations of the Castle of Monsanto in September 1173 and Abrantes in September 1174. Given the poor relations between Afonso and Ferdinand II, the arrival of the Leonese order in Portugal is a little surprising. Some historians have conjectured Afonso was trying to exploit a quarrel between order's grand master Pedro Fernández and king Ferdinand II, but it is likely that the Order's entry was part of some diplomatic agreement between the two kings. Nonetheless, the donation documents explicitly name Rodrigo Álvarez as the administrator of all three Portuguese donations. Although a founding knight of Santiago, Rodrigo Álvarez was known to be dissatisfied with its rules (Álvarez would resign shortly after and found his own separate Order of Mountjoy in Aragon). So it is possible Afonso may have been trying to encourage a switch or schism in the Order already at this stage. The foundation of the Order of Évora (future Order of Aviz) in 1175/76 reveal Afonso's keen interest in a native Portuguese order.
Expulsion from Portugal
Whatever the intentions of the original invitation, the knights of Santiago evidently did not meet Afonso's expectations. The Crown took back Monsanto in 1174, and in 1179, Afonso expelled the Order of Santiago from Portugal and cancelled all their donations, as a consequence of a war that erupted between Portugal and León that year.
Return to Portugal
In 1186, after the death of Afonso I, King Sancho I of Portugal donated to the Order of Santiago the Portuguese dominions of Palmela, Almada and Alcácer do Sal, all in the Setúbal District, south of Lisbon), thus marking their return. But in 1190–91, all three citadels were conquered in an offensive led by the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur. They were recovered sometime between 1194 and 1204. The Order of Santiago established its Portuguese headquarters at Palmela shortly before 1210, and definitively by 1212.
One of the most notable of Portuguese knights of St. James was Paio Peres Correia. Between 1234 and 1242, Correia led the conquest of much of the southerly Moorish dominions of Baixo Alentejo and the Algarve. In 1242, Paio Peres Correia was elevated to Grand Master of the Order of St. James, the only known Portuguese to have held the supreme title of the Castilian-based Order.
In 1249, Paio Peres Correia and the Order of Santiago helped Afonso III of Portugal sweep up the final Moorish possessions in the Algarve. The possessions of the Order in Portugal were expanded and confirmed by Afonso III in 1255.
Portuguese Order of Santiago
After the death of Correia in 1275, the Order of Santiago returned firmly into Castilian hands. Thus, in 1288, King Denis of Portugal separated the Portuguese branch from the Castilian-Leonese Order. This was confirmed by Pope John XXII in 1320.
During the 1383–1385 Portuguese succession crisis, D. Fernando Afonso de Albuquerque, master of the Order of Santiago in Portugal, backed the candidacy of John, Master of Aviz, and served briefly as John's ambassador to the English Court.
Upon becoming king, having distributed much royal and seized land to reward his supporters, King John I of Portugal was left with a slim royal demesne, insufficient to maintain his many sons with princely households. But the vast wealthy domains of the military orders were an alternative option. John promptly set his mind on acquiring the masterships of all the principal military orders in Portugal for his family.
In 1418, John secured the mastership of the Order of St. James for his son, John of Reguengos, the future Constable of Portugal. In 1420, he secured the mastership of the Order of Christ (ex-Templars) for another son, Henry the Navigator. After his death in 1433, John I's own Order of Aviz (ex-branch of Calatrava) was passed to a third son, Ferdinand the Saint. The mastership of the three major orders – St. James, Christ and Aviz – would remain in the hands of princes of the royal family (infantes) for much of the next century.
After the death of John of Reguengos in 1442, his brother, the regent prince Peter of Coimbra appointed John's son Diogo as master of Santiago. But Diogo died within a year, so Peter passed the mastership on to his nephew, Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Beja, the younger brother of King Afonso V of Portugal. This was confirmed by Pope Eugene IV in 1444. In the 1452 bull Ex apostolice sedis, Pope Nicholas V confirmed once more Ferdinand's appointment and put a definitive end to questions (up to then still being raised by Castile) about the autonomy of the Portuguese branch of Santiago.
At the death of Henry the Navigator in 1460, his title of Duke of Viseu and the mastership of the Order of Christ passed on to Infante Ferdinand, Henry's designated heir. Ferdinand was in an unusual position of holding two major military orders, but this was ratified by Pope Pius II in 1461.
At Infante Ferdinand's death in 1470, all his titles, including both the orders of Christ and Santiago, were inherited by his eldest son, João, Duke of Viseu. But the sickly João died just two years later, in 1472. The mastership of the orders was subsequently separated again: João's younger brother, Diogo, Duke of Viseu became master of the Order of Christ, while the Order of St. James passed to his brother-in-law, Infante John, the eldest son and heir of Afonso V of Portugal. (John had recently married Infante Ferdinand's daughter, Eleanor of Viseu).
With the ascension of Infante John as King John II of Portugal in 1481, the fortunes of the Order of St. James rose with him. At the time, the Order of Christ, with their vast possessions (including the Atlantic islands), was the richest and most powerful military order in Portugal. To combat their influence, John II, a centralizing prince, doted on and deployed his Order of St. James at their expense.
The Order of Christ had been out of the explorations business since the death of Prince Henry in 1460. As A result, the Order of St.James supplied a greater share of the knights for the slate of new expeditions organized by John II in the 1480s.
The death of John II's only legitimate son and heir Prince Afonso in 1491 threw the kingdom into a succession crisis, as it left John II with only one legitimate successor, his cousin and brother-in-law, Manuel, Duke of Beja. Manuel of Beja had become the master of the Order of Christ in 1484 (following the death of his brother, Diogo of Viseu). John II did not trust Manuel, and suspected he might fritter away his hard-won gains. As a result, John II launched a campaign to legitimize his natural son, Jorge de Lencastre, as royal heir. From Pope Innocent VIII, John II received authorization to appoint Jorge de Lencastre as the Master of the Order of St. James in April 1492 (and also administrator of the Order of Aviz). However, the Pope refused to legitimize his birth, and as a result, at the death of John II in 1495, Duke Manuel of Beja ascended as King Manuel I of Portugal.
In the first decade of Manuel's reign, D. Jorge de Lencastre was the leader of what might be called the political opposition to Manuel, composed mostly of loyalists of the late King John II. The Order of St. James was his power base, and its castle in Palmela served as something akin to an 'alternative' royal court.
.
The Order of Santiago played a leading role in the early India expeditions, a legacy project from the reign of John II. Vasco da Gama, Paulo da Gama, D. Francisco de Almeida, D. Afonso de Albuquerque and Duarte de Meneses, were leading knights of the Order of Santiago.
It is reported by chronicler João de Barros (p. 274) that just before his departure for India in 1497, King Manuel I of Portugal presented Vasco da Gama with his personal standard – not the familiar armillary sphere flag later associated with Manuel, but rather the banner of the Order of Christ, of which Manuel was the grand master. But chronicler Gaspar Correia (p. 15) reports that as soon as the ships left sight of Lisbon harbor, Paulo da Gama pulled 'the royal standard' down from the mast. Evidently the Gamas took the king's gesture as a calculated slight against their beloved Santiago.
Nonetheless, in subsequent years Manuel I would set his Order of Christ to poach the knights of the Order of St. James. In January, 1505, Manuel managed to coax D. Francisco de Almeida to abandon Santiago and move over to the Order of Christ. Vasco da Gama himself eventually did the switch in 1507. Afonso de Albuquerque, by contrast, refused; he was buried in his Santiago vestments.
Master Jorge de Lencastre spent much of his career trying to defend the Order of Santiago against Manuel's encroachments. In May 1505, he actually managed to secure a royal order prohibiting knights from leaving his orders without his express permission. But Manuel soon obtained from Pope Alexander VI two bulls to undermine him – one from July 1505, giving the King of Portugal the right to dispose of the property of all three Orders; another in January, 1506, authorizing knights to move freely from other Orders to the Order of Christ.
In 1509, D. Jorge de Lencastre introduced a new set of rules for the Order of Santiago, overhauling its administration in a centralized fashion, bringing it closer in line with the rules of their Spanish brethren. This was done perhaps to gain the support of the Spanish monarchy and the Pope, but to no avail. In 1516, Manuel secured from Pope Leo X the authority to appoint Jorge's successor as grand master of Santiago.
As a royal order
Manuel died in 1521, and he was succeeded by his son John III of Portugal. When Jorge de Lencastre died in July 1550, John III received a bull from Pope Julius III a couple of weeks later appointing him personally as the master of both the Order of Santiago and the Order of Aviz. This was followed by a second bull, Praeclara carissimi, issued by the pope under great diplomatic pressure by John III in December 1551, appointing the Kings of Portugal as masters in perpetuity of all three military orders (Christ, Santiago and Aviz), thus bringing an end to the independence of the military orders in Portugal.
Secularization
Pope Pius VI (1789) and Queen Maria I reformed the order into a secular institution.
As an order of merit
In 1834, when the civil government of Portugal became anti-clerical after the defeat of King Miguel in the Civil War, under the constitutional monarchy, the order lost its properties. The ancient military orders were transformed by the liberal constitution and subsequent legislation into mere orders of merit. The privileges which once had been an essential part of the membership of the old military orders also ceased.
In 1910, when the Portuguese monarchy ended, the Republic of Portugal abolished all of the orders except the Order of the Tower and Sword.
Revival
In 1917, at the end of World War I, some of these Orders were re-established to reward outstanding services to the state, the office of Grand Master belonging to the Head of State – the President of the Republic. The Military Order of St. James, together with the other Portuguese Orders of Merit, had its statutes revised on several occasions, during the First Republic (1910–1926), then in 1962, and again in 1986.
The Military Order of Saint James, together with the Military Orders of Christ and of Aviz, form the group of the "Ancient Military Orders", governed by a Chancellor and a Council of eight members, appointed by the President of the Republic, to assist him as Grand Master in all matters concerning the administration of the Order. The Order, despite its name, can be conferred to Portuguese and foreigners for outstanding services to science, literature or art. The highest grade of the Order, that of Grand Collar, is a special award, conferred only to foreign heads of state.
Domains
The Order of Santiago possessed many domains granted by the Portuguese Crown, almost all of them south of the Tagus river, clustered in the Sado region and lower Alentejo. As the most southerly of the four Portuguese military orders, the Santiago knights were the first frontline against incursions from the Moorish Algarve in the 13th century. These domains were partitioned into comendas, and granted by the Order in commendam to a Santiago knight () entrusted with the obligation of defending them. After the completion of the conquest of the Algarve, the continued to be a source of revenue for the Order, granted to distinguished individual knights of the Order, still contingent on military service, and run according to the Order's regulations. In principle, the was just a temporary manager of the Order's property, although over time some treated the as their own property.
The vast size and compactness of the domains of the Order of Santiago, its self-contained system of knights and , and the extensive privileges of the Order, including civil and criminal jurisdiction, over these domains, has led some commentators to refer to it as a "state within a state". The grand masters of the Order were among the most powerful men in Portugal, and stood at the peak of rural society in their districts.
By the 15th century the large of the Order of Santiago were (from north to south): Arruda and Santos (both north of the river), then Palmela, Setúbal, Sesimbra, Cabrela, Alcácer do Sal, Torrão, Grândola, Ferreira, Santiago do Cacém, Sines, Aljustrel, Messejana, Casével, Garvão, Castro Verde, Mértola, Almodôvar, and (on the southeast Algarve coast) Cacela.
Grades
The Order of St. James of the Sword, as awarded by the Portuguese government today, comes in six classes:
Grand Collar (GColSE), which wears the badge of the Order on a special collar (chain), and the star of the Order in gold on the left chest;
Grand Cross (GCSE), which wears the badge of the Order on a gilt collar (chain), or on a sash on the right shoulder, and the star of the Order in gold on the left chest;
Grand Officer (GOSE), which wears the badge of the Order on a gilt collar (chain), and the star of the Order in gold on the left chest;
Commander (ComSE), which wears the badge of the Order on a gilt collar (chain), and the star of the Order in silver on the left chest;
Officer (OSE), which wears the badge of the Order on a gilt collar (chain), and on a ribbon with rosette on the left chest;
Knight (CavSE) or Dame (DamSE), which wears the badge of the Order on a silver collar (chain), and on a plain ribbon on the left chest.
Insignia
The insignia of the order prominently features the Cross of St. James.
The badge of the Order is a gilt cross with red enamel, similar to the Order's emblem illustrated here, but with a longer lower arm, and is surrounded by a wreath of green-enamelled palm leaves; a white-enamelled scroll, bearing the legend "Ciência Letras e Artes" (Science Literature and Art), is located at the bottom of the badge. (The Grand Collar badge has no scroll, and a laurel wreath instead of palms.) During the monarchy the badge was topped by the Sacred Heart of Christ.
The star of the Order has 22 asymmetrical arms of rays, in gilt for Grand Collar, Grand Cross and Grand Officer, and in silver for Commander. The central disc is in white enamel, with a miniature of the modern badge in it. During the monarchy the Sacred Heart of Christ was placed at the top of the star.
The ribbon of the Order is plain lilac.
See also
Orders, decorations, and medals of Portugal
References
Bibliography
External links
Homepage of the order, with pictures of the badges and explanation of the several grades
The Cross of Saint James, history of the St James' Cross used by the Order of St James of the Sword
1172 establishments in Europe
12th-century establishments in Portugal
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4992708
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayuu%20people
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Wayuu people
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The Wayuu (also Wayu, Wayúu, Guajiro, Wahiro) are an Amerindian ethnic group of the Guajira Peninsula in northernmost part of Colombia and northwest Venezuela. The Wayuu language is part of the Maipuran (Arawak) language family.
Geography
The Wayúu inhabit the arid Guajira Peninsula straddling the Venezuela-Colombia border, on the Caribbean Sea coast. Two major rivers flow through this mostly harsh environment: the Rancheria River in Colombia and the El Limón River in Venezuela representing the main source of water, along with artificial ponds designed to hold rain water during the rain season.
The territory has equatorial weather seasons: a rainy season from September to December, which they call Juyapu; a dry season, known by them as Jemial, from December to April; a second rainy season called Iwa from April to May; and a long second dry season from May to September.
History
Guajira rebellion
Although the Wayuu were never subjugated by the Spanish, the two groups were in a more or less permanent state of war. There were rebellions in 1701 (when they destroyed a Capuchin mission), 1727 (when more than 2,000 natives attacked the Spanish), 1741, 1757, 1761 and 1768. In 1718, Governor Soto de Herrera called them "barbarians, horse thieves, worthy of death, without God, without law and without a king". Of all the Indigenous peoples in the territory of Colombia, they were unique in having learned the use of firearms and horses.
In 1769, the Spanish captured 22 Wayuus in order to put them to work building the fortifications of Cartagena. The reaction of the natives was unexpected. On May 2, 1769, at El Rincón, near Río de la Hacha, they set their village afire, burning the church and two Spaniards who had taken refuge in it. They also captured the priest. The Spanish immediately dispatched an expedition from El Rincón to capture the Wayuu. This force was led by José Antonio de Sierra, a mestizo who had also headed the party that captured the 22 Guajiro. They recognized him and forced his party to take refuge in the house of the curate, which they then set afire. Sierra and eight of his men were killed.
This success was soon known in other Guajiro areas, and more men joined the revolt. According to Messía, at the peak there were 20,000 Wayuu under arms. Many had firearms acquired from English and Dutch smugglers, sometimes even from the Spanish. These enabled the rebels to take nearly all the settlements of the region, which they burned. According to the authorities, more than 100 Spaniards were killed and many others taken prisoner. Many cattle were also taken by the rebels. The Spaniards who could took refuge in Río de la Hacha and sent urgent messages to Maracaibo, Valle de Upar, Santa Marta and Cartagena. Cartagena sent 100 troops. The rebels themselves were not unified. Sierra's relatives among the Wayuu took up arms against the rebels to avenge his death. The two groups of natives fought at La Soledad. That and the arrival of Spanish reinforcements caused the rebellion to fade, but not before the Guajiro had regained much territory.
Evangelization process
The process of evangelization of the Wayuu people restarted in 1887 with the return of the Capuchin friars under reverend friar José María de Valdeviejas. In 1905, Pope Pius X created the Vicariate of La Guajira with friar Atanasio Vicente Soler y Royo as first Vicar, in an attempt to "civilize" the Wayuu people.
The friars then created the orphanages for Wayuu children beginning with the La Sierrita orphanage, built in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountains in 1903, followed by the San Antonio orphanage, located by the Calancala River, in 1910, and the Nazareth orphanage in the Serrania de Macuira mountains in 1913, creating a direct influence over the Rancherias of Guarrachal, El Pájaro, Carazúa, Guaraguao, Murumana, Garra patamana and Karraipía, with Nazareth exerting some control over the rancherias of Taroa, Maguaipa, Guaseipá and Alpanapause. The friars constantly visited the settlements inviting the Wayuu to attend mass. Wayuu children in the orphanage were educated with traditional European customs. Conflicts between the Wayuu people and the Colombian government decreased since then. In 1942 Uribia celebrated Christmas and New Year's Eve for the first time.
Demographics
According to a 1997 census in Colombia, the Wayuu population numbered approximately 144,003 – representing 20% of Colombia's total Amerindian population and 48% of the population of the Department of La Guajira. The Wayuu occupy a total area of within approximately ten settlements, eight of which are located south of the Department (including a major one called Carraipia).
In Venezuela, the Wayuu population is estimated at 293,777, according to the 2001 census, with some 60,000 living in the city of Maracaibo. This makes the Wayuu the largest indigenous group in Venezuela, representing 57.5% of the Amerindian population.
Wayuu communities are not uniformly distributed within these territories, as their population is concentrated primarily in the outskirts of such settlements as Nazareth and Jala'ala, on the plains of Wopu'muin and Uribia, and within the municipalities of Maicao and Manaure, where population densities are some of the highest in the peninsula. This irregular distribution is intimately related to seasonal changes in weather – during the dry season, a significant proportion of the population crosses the border into Venezuela to work in the city of Maracaibo and its nearby settlements; once the rainy season begins, these Wayuu tend to return to their homes on the Colombian side.
The Wayuu people refer to themselves simply as "Wayuu" and do not acknowledge the term "Indian", preferring instead the term "people". They use the terms Kusina or "Indian" to refer to other ethnic indigenous groups, while using the term Alijuna (essentially meaning "the one who damages") to refer to outsiders or persons of European ancestry.
Clans
Families in the Wayuu culture are divided into clans, some of which are:
Language
The Wayuu language, called wayuunaiki, is part of the Arawak language family predominant in different parts of the Caribbean. There are small differences in dialect within the region of La Guajira: the northern, central or southern zones. Most of the younger generation speak Spanish fluently but understand the importance of preserving their traditional language.
To promote cultural integration and bilingual education among Wayuus and other Colombians, the Kamusuchiwo'u Ethno-educative Center, or Centro Etnoeducativo Kamusuchiwo'u, started an initiative to create the first illustrated Wayuunaiki-Spanish, Spanish-Wayuunaiki dictionary.
Religion and society
The central figure of the Wayuu religion is Maleiwa (God) creator of everything, of the Wayuu and the founder of society. Pulowi and Juya, spiritual beings, like demigods, are a married couple associated with procreation and life, where Pulowi is the female figure related to the wind and dry seasons, and Juya the male, is a nomad and related to hunting who is seen as a powerful killer. Wanülu represents the evil spirit being of illness, and death.
Children are born at home, assisted by the mother-in-law or the nearest female relative. Priority is placed on the well-being of the child as women prefer to feed children first and follow strict diets when the survival of children is not assured.
Puberty is not very important among boys, but girls are exposed to rituals as early as 12 years old or when they start menstruating, requiring them to go through a period of seclusion for anywhere from two months up to two years. Girls are obliged to shave their heads and rest in a chinchorro or large hammock. During this period, Wayuu girls are taught how to be a wife in which a large part consists of cooking and learning the art of crocheting Wayuu bags. She is also fed with a special vegetarian diet called Jaguapi, and bathes frequently.
Women play important roles in the society, but it is not quite a matriarchal one. The Wayuu want their women to be wise and mature. Nearly all traditional marriages are arranged and accompanied by a dowry, which is given to the mother's brothers and uncles. Young girls are promised to men of the clan as young as 11 years old, around the time they are becoming of child-bearing age. The perceived intention is to wed her to a man before risking that pregnancy out of wedlock or arrangement, a cause of great social shame, specifically for the woman's family's honor and credibility. Men may have multiple wives (polygamy).
The Wayuu believe that the life cycle does not end with death, but that a relationship with one's bones continues. Burials are very important. The relatives of the dead act in a certain way: first, the body is buried with personal belongings; after five years, the bones are exhumed, put into ceramics or a chinchorro (hammock), and reburied in the clan's cemetery.
Lifestyle
A traditional Wayuu settlement is made up of five or six houses that made up [[wikt:caserío|caseríos' ']] or rancherías. Each ranchería is named after a plant, animal or geographic place. A territory that contains many rancherias is named after the mother's last name; that is, society is matrilineal. The Wayuu congregated in rancherias are usually isolated and far from each other to avoid mixing their goat herds.
The typical house is a small structure called a piichi or miichi, generally divided into two rooms with hammocks to sleep in and keep personal belongings such purses or mochilas of acrylic fiber and ceramics to keep water.
Wayuu culture is known for making Wayuu bags or mochilas. There are many styles of mochilas. A susu is a backpack typically 20 cm-30 cm wide and 35 cm high, used to store personal and work items. Characteristic for the fabrics are the decorating patterns inspired by nature and what the culture sees around.
Living quarters are either rectangular or semi-circular. Close to the main house is a common area called a luma or enramada, similar to a living room but almost in the open. Built of six pillars with a flat roof, it is used for everyday duties and to attend to visitors and business activities. Family members hang their hammocks there for the noon nap.
Traditionally, the walls are made of yotojoro – a wattle and daub of mud, hay and dried canes, but some Wayuu now use more modern construction with cement and other materials. The preferred material for roofing and yotojoro wood is the dagger cactus (Stenocereus griseus), which the Wayuu call yosú. The word yotojoro originally referred to the cane-like inner wood of the yosú cactus. This plant is used for many other purposes: it is planted to create living fences around pastures; young shoots are fed to goats; the fruit (iguaraya) is similar to pitahaya and is a popular food among the Wayuu. Because the demand for yosú as food and wood is seasonal, at times there is little fruit, building material or even cuttings for fences. It has thus been proposed to develop techniques for the Wayuu to cultivate it. Due to varying supply of yosú wood for construction, other plants are also used, including trupillo or turpío (Prosopis juliflora), jattá (Haematoxylum brasiletto), kapchip (Capparis zeylanica) and kayush (Peruvian Apple Cactus, Cereus repandus).
Music and dances
Traditional Wayuu music is closely tied to economy and social life. For example, they sing to their cattle. They also use music for meetings and celebrations, as well as mourning rituals during funerals. La Yonna is a traditional dance used to honor guests.
Girls are taught a dance that is at the heart of the Majayura, the ritual passage of the "young Wayuu virgin". She must dance in a courtship dance (baile de cortejo) with prospective suitors. With her head covered and wearing a fabric shawl and dress, the girl dances forward with small steps and arms outstretched, swooping like a bird, within a circle made up of people from the village. The male dances backward before her, coming close and yielding as they circle around, until he finally falls to the ground. The adult men play traditional drums and musical instruments in their ring around the dancers. If a male is respected in his clan and accepted, he must pay a dowry to the girl's mother and male relatives. This used to be in the form of goats and sheep for the support of the clan.
Traditional musical instruments include kashi, sawawa (a type of flute), ma'asi, totoy and the taliraai (tubular flute), wootoroyoi (a type of clarinet), among others.
Wayuu artisan industry
Wayuu women learn how to weave at a very early age. The Wayuu are descendants of the Caribs and Arawak peoples, largely known for their strong weaving tradition. The Wayuu carry on this traditional weaving.
It is said the Wayuu learned to weave thanks to a mythical spider called Walekeru. This spider would create magical pieces using thread from her mouth. She is the one that taught all Wayuu women to crochet, crocheting hammocks to sleep in, belts for men, shoes, bracelets and Wayuu bags of all different sizes and crochet methods to be used for different purposes. Today, the skill of crocheting has become the main source of income for the Wayuu community.
Traditionally, Wayuu bags were not as bright and colorful as they are now. Cotton used to be able to grow in the region of La Guajira thus Wayuu bags were made of natural fibers. They were dyed using plants and elements of the natural surrounding, thus took on shades of brown, red and other natural hues.
Today, there is a common misconception that Wayuu bags are made of cotton. But all crochet pieces from the Wayuu community are made of acrylic threads from companies like Miratex, providing bright hues that will not wash out easily with time as opposed to natural fibers.
Weaving and crocheting make up a large part of their daily life, especially for women. Most of the women presently weave or will do it at some point through their lives. The men participate in the industry as well; they make the straps, provide the materials, and transport the goods to the city centers. The tribe produces millions of high-quality artisan products every year. This artisan weaving industry plays a vital role in the local economy, and the people are known most for the mochila Wayuu or Wayuu Bag.
Today, Wayuu bags are the most exported handicraft in all of Colombia.
The Wayuu have resented the way that foreigners have profited more from their work than do the artisans.
Representation in other media
The Wayuu are among the peoples depicted in the 1921 documentary Blandt Syd-Amerikas urskovsindianere (Among the Primeval Forest Indians of South America).
The feature film Pájaros de verano (Birds of Passage, 2019) is set on the Guajira peninsula and among the Wayuu in the 1970s. Directed by Cristina Gallegos and Ciro Guerra, it stars José Acosta and Carmiña Martínez. In addition, many non-actor Wayuu are included in the film, which is primarily in the Wayuu language. It explores the disruption of traditional clan culture after members of the tribe enter the drug trade, and are affected by great wealth and violence.
The film "" by the German filmmaker is about the forced displacement of Wayuu people from the town of Tamaquito. The Swiss-based company Glencore with its Colombian subsidiary el Cerrejon needs their land for coal-mining.
Notable Wayuu people
Patricia Velásquez (b. 1971), actress/model and founder of the Wayúu Tayá Foundation
Lido Pimienta, musician/artist and winner of the 2017 Polaris Music Prize. Pimienta is of mixed Afro-Colombian and Wayúu descent
Luis Díaz (Colombian footballer), Liverpool FC and Colombia national team football player
Omar Rudberg
See also
Pütchipü'ü, the mediator in the traditional Wayuu justice system.
Arhuacos
Haplogroup Q1a3a
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Koguis
Taironas
Notes
References
2017. Use history of the fungus Podaxis pistillaris, Inonotus rickii and Phellorinia hercualeana (Basidiomycetes) by the Wayuu aboriginal peoples in the Colombian Alta Guajira. [Spanish with English abstract] Revista Mexicana de Etnobiologia 15: 64–73. PDF fulltext
2007: Uso, manejo y conservacion de "yosú", Stenocereus griseus (Cactaceae) en la Alta Guajira colombiana [Usage, Management and Conservation of yosú, Stenocereus griseus (Cactaceae), in the Upper Guajira, Colombia]. [Spanish with English abstract] Acta Biológica Colombiana 12(1): 99–112. PDF fulltext
External links
Ubuntu Linux in Wayuunaiki – a project to bring Wayuunaiki language support to Ubuntu Linux
Wayuu artwork, National Museum of the American Indian
"Forgotten in the dust of northern Colombia", a photo essay on the Wayuu by Nicolò Filippo Rosso, Washington Post, 7 August 2017
Unicef article on community radio keeping Wayuu culture alive in Venezuela
Wayuu Indigenous People of Colombia and Venezuela, Indigenous Peoples Issues
article on the Wayuu, PBS FrontlineMassacre of Wayuu, Denver Post''
Summary of Colombian policies towards Amerindian ethnic groups, Colombia's national library
Etniasdecolombia.org
Psicologia del Caribe: Wayuus
Commercial
Lombia + Co., fair trade company that works directly with Wayuu artisans. Recognized by Wayuu Princess Patricia Velasquez as "the right way to do business" and by Lonely Planet as a "responsible seller".
Indi Arts, artisans collective for Wayuu-designed bags and other goods
Wayuu Market, online market for Wayuu goods, allows design and color requests
Wayuu Bags Mochilas, Authentic Wayuu Mochilas Bags Handmade Fashion Crochet Purses, Colombian Bags by the Indigenous Wayuu in La Guajira, Colombia
Origin Colombia, an ethical and fairtrade company that supports the livelihood of the Wayuu community in Colombia by selling their Wayuu bags
Indigenous peoples in Venezuela
Indigenous peoples in Colombia
Circum-Caribbean tribes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%20proph%C3%A8te
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Le prophète
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Le prophète (The Prophet) is a grand opera in five acts by Giacomo Meyerbeer, which was premiered in Paris on 16 April 1849. The French-language libretto was by Eugène Scribe and Émile Deschamps, after passages from the Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations by Voltaire. The plot is based on the life of John of Leiden, Anabaptist leader and self-proclaimed "King of Münster" in the 16th century.
Performance history
After the brilliant success of their grand opera Les Huguenots (1836), Meyerbeer and his librettist Scribe decided to collaborate again on a piece based on a historical religious conflict. Meyerbeer's great personal wealth and his duties as official court composer to King Frederick William IV of Prussia meant that there was no hurry to complete the opera, and it was more than a decade in the composition and planning. Le prophète was first performed by the Paris Opera at the Salle Le Peletier on 16 April 1849. In the audience at the work's premiere were Chopin, Verdi, Théophile Gautier, Delacroix, Charles Dickens, Ivan Turgenev and Berlioz, among others. The production featured costumes by Paul Lormier and sets by Charles-Antoine Cambon and Joseph Thierry (acts 1 and 4), Charles Séchan (acts 2 and 5), and Édouard Desplechin (act 3). It involved the first use ever on stage of Léon Foucault and Jules Duboscq's electric arc light (régulateur à arc électrique), imitating the effect of sunlight.
The creators of the three main roles were Jeanne-Anaïs Castellan as Berthe, Pauline Viardot as Fidès, and Gustave-Hippolyte Roger as Jean. A sensational success at its premiere, the second city to hear it was London, at Covent Garden on 24 July of the same year. It was given all over Germany in 1850, as well as in Vienna, Lisbon, Antwerp, New Orleans, Budapest, Brussels, Prague and Basel. Its tremendous success continued throughout the 19th and into the early 20th century.
Like others of Meyerbeer's operas, Le prophète lost favor in the early part of the twentieth century and it fell out of the operatic repertoire worldwide, except for very occasional revivals. The Metropolitan Opera revived the opera in 1918 as a vehicle for star tenor Enrico Caruso. Since the Second World War notable productions have included: Zürich in 1962, Deutsche Opera Berlin in 1966 (both starring Sandra Warfield and James McCracken) and the Metropolitan Opera in 1977 with Marilyn Horne as Fidès, directed by John Dexter. At the Vienna State Opera in 1998 the opera was given in a production by Hans Neuenfels with Plácido Domingo and Agnes Baltsa in the leading roles. Beginning in 2015, new productions of Le prophète are again appearing in European opera houses.
Roles
Synopsis
Time: The religious wars of the 16th century
Place: Dordrecht and Münster
Precis: Jean de Leyde (based on the historical John of Leiden), whose beloved, Berthe, is coveted by Count Oberthal, ruler of Dordrecht, is persuaded by a trio of sinister Anabaptists to proclaim himself king in Münster.
Meyerbeer originally wrote a long overture for the opera which was cut during rehearsals, along with various other sections of the work, due to the excessive length of the opera itself. For over a century, the overture was thought to survive only in piano arrangements made at Meyerbeer's request by Charles-Valentin Alkan, but Meyerbeer's manuscript full score was rediscovered in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris in the early 1990s, the original parts were discovered in the archives of the Paris Opèra shortly thereafter, and a newly edited edition was published in 2010.
Act 1
The countryside around Dordrecht in Holland. At the bottom flows the Meuse. On the right, Oberthal's castle with a drawbridge and turrets; on the left, the farms and mills connected with the castle.
It is morning. The peasants and millers leave to work, the wings of the mills begin to turn (Prelude and pastoral chorus: La brise est muette). Berthe, a young peasant girl, is very happy to be able to marry the man she loves (Aria: Mon cœur s'élance et palpite). She welcomes her future mother-in-law, Fidès, who blesses her and puts an engagement ring on her finger. Berthe explains to Fidès that she needs the Count's permission to marry Jean whom she has loved ever since he rescued her from the Meuse. Before leaving for Leiden, where Fidès runs an inn with her son, Berthe must obtain permission from Oberthal to leave the country and to marry. The two women head for the count's castle, but stop at the sight of three men dressed in black. These are three Anabaptists, Jonas, Matthisen and Zacharie, singing their chorale, Ad nos ad salutarem (to a tune created by Meyerbeer). The Anabaptists arouse the interest of the local peasants in their ideas of social revolution and urge them to revolt against their overlord. The peasants arm themselves with pitchforks and sticks and make for the castle, but all stop at the sight of the Count of Oberthal and his soldiers. Seeing Berthe, Oberthal asks the girl about the reasons for her presence. Berthe explains that she has loved Fidès' son Jean since he saved her from drowning and asks his permission to marry. Oberthal however recognizes one of the Anabaptists, Jonas, as a former steward and orders soldiers to beat the three men. Taken by Berthe's beauty, he refuses her request and arrests the two women. The people become angry, and with the returning Anabaptists, threaten the castle.
Act 2
The interior of the inn of Jean and Fidès in the suburbs of Leiden in Holland. At the back, a door with crosses overlooking the countryside. Doors to the right and left of the stage
The Anabaptists enter with merrymaking peasants and try to persuade Jean that he is their destined leader, claiming that he closely resembles the picture of King David in Münster Cathedral. Jean recounts to them a dream in which he was in a temple with people kneeling before him. Jean tells the three Anabaptists that he lives only for his love for Berthe and refuses to join with them (Aria: Pour ma Berthe, moi je soupire); they leave. Berthe hurries in, having fled Oberthal; the Count next arrives and threatens to execute Jean's mother Fidès unless Berthe is returned to him. In despair, Jean gives in and hands over Berthe to Oberthal. Fidès blesses her son and attempts to console him (Aria: Ah ! mon fils sois béni). When the Anabaptists return, Jean is ready to join them in vengeance against Oberthal; he goes, without letting Fidès know (Quartet: Oui, c'est Dieu qui t'appelle).
Act 3
Scene 1
The camp of the Anabaptists in a forest of Westphalia. A frozen pond extends to the horizon lost in the mist and is bordered to the left and right of the scene by the forest. On the banks of the pond are erected the tents of the Anabaptists
Jean has been proclaimed to be a prophet. Anabaptist soldiers bring in a group of prisoners made up of richly clothed nobles and monks, whom they are threatening with axes. All the captives were going to be massacred, but Mathisen intervened and reminded the other Anabaptists that it would be better to execute them only once their ransom had been demanded and paid. Farmers arrive, skating across the frozen pond, bringing food which has been paid for with money stolen from the captives. The farmers are invited by the Anabaptist soldiers to celebrate with them (Ballet and chorus).
Scene 2
The interior of the tent of Zacharie, a few moments later
The Anabaptists determine to seize Münster; their decision is overheard by Oberthal who has entered the camp in disguise. He pretends that he wants to join the Anabaptists and Zacharie and Jonas then make him swear to respect the peasants and the poor, but to mercilessly massacre the nobles and the burghers, after having stripped them of their wealth. (Comic trio: Sous votre bannière que faudra-t-il faire ?) On his detection he is arrested; but when he informs Jean that Berthe escaped from his clutches, and he has seen her alive in Münster, Jean, wearying of the violence and bloodshed caused by the Anabaptist campaign, cancels the order for his execution.
Scene 3
The Anabaptists' camp
An attack on Münster led by the three Anabaptists fails, and the returning rabble are rebellious. However, Jean, as Prophet and Leader, inspires the Anabaptist troops with a celestial vision of their impending success (Triumphal hymn: Roi du ciel et des anges).
Act 4
Scene 1
The town hall of Münster, where several streets end. To the right, a few steps leading to the door of the town hall
Jean, who wishes to make himself Emperor, has taken the city, whose citizens are in despair at his rule. Fidès sits on a pillar and begs for alms to pay for a Mass for the rest of her son, whom she thinks dead. Berthe, dressed in pilgrim's clothes, arrives in the square. She recognizes Fidès and the two women fall into each other's arms. Berthe relates that after she managed to escape from the Count of Oberthal, she sought Jean and her mother in their inn in Leiden. Neighbors told her they would have gone to Münster. Berthe immediately set out to try to find them. Fidès then tells the girl that her son died: she found only his bloodied clothes while an unknown person claimed to have witnessed his assassination ordered by the prophet of the Anabaptists. Berthe then decides to assassinate the prophet, while Fidès prays God to bring her son eternal rest. Exalted, the girl runs to the palace of the prophet while Fidès tries in vain to catch up (Duet: Pour garder à ton fils le serment).
Scene 2
Inside Münster Cathedral
The second scene is Jean's coronation in the cathedral and is preceded by a Coronation March, during which the crown, the scepter, the sword of justice, and the seal of the State, are handed over to Jean. Fidès is determined to carry out Berthe's plan for revenge; entering the cathedral, she curses the Anabaptists' prophet (Prayer and imprecation: Domine salvum fac regem). The coronation ends while the crowd marvels at the miracles already accomplished by the prophet and acclaim him as the Son of God, not conceived by woman (Children's chorus with general chorus: Le voilà, le roi prophète). When Fidès hears Jean say that he is anointed by God, she recognizes his voice and cries out "My son!". This threatens Jean's plan and he pretends not to know her. He calls on his followers to stab him if the beggar woman claims again to be his mother. This forces Fidès to retract, saying her eyes have deceived her.
Act 5
Scene 1
A vault in Jean's palace in Münster: on the left, a staircase through which one descends into the vault. To the right, an iron gate opening onto a tunnel that leads out of the city
The Anabaptist trio resolve to hand over Jean to the German Imperial armies, which are preparing to invade the city, to buy their own protection. Soldiers bring Fidès to the vault where she is held prisoner. She is torn apart by contradictory feelings: she still loves her son, but she loathes what he has become, a false prophet who pretends to be the son of God and who leads armies responsible for many crimes. Finally, Fidès seems ready to forgive the faults of her son, while wishing that death should come to free her from all her ills (Aria: Ô prêtres de Baal). A soldier announces to Fidès the visit of the prophet. She then regains a little hope and prays for her son to repent and take the right way. Jean finally arrives and asks his mother to forgive him. Fidès reproaches her son for his behavior. Jean tries to justify himself by recalling that he wished to avenge himself for the oppressions of the earl of Oberthal. The only way for Jean to obtain pardon from his mother is to give up his power and wealth and no longer claim to be a prophet. At first reluctant to abandon all those who trusted him, Jean is gradually convinced. He agrees to follow his mother who forgives all his faults (Grand duet: Mon fils ? je n'en ai plus !) Informed by a member of her family about the existence of secret passages, Berthe enters the vault in order to access the powder magazine and blow up the palace and all its inhabitants. As soon as she sees Jean, she throws herself into his arms and is about to flee with him and Fidès, abandoning her avenging mission.
Jean, Berthe and Fidès, finally united, dream of their future life, peaceful and full of bliss. (Trio: Loin de la ville). A soldier, however, enters and warns Jean that the Imperial troops, assisted by the three Anabaptists, have invaded the city and entered the palace. Berthe realizes suddenly that Jean and the prophet are one and the same person. Shocked, she curses her fiancé and then stabs herself to death. Having lost forever the one he loved, Jean decides to die as well and to drag all his enemies to death.
Scene 2
The great hall of the Münster palace. A table placed on a platform rises in the middle of the stage
The Anabaptist soldiers feast and sing of the glory of their prophet at the banquet to celebrate his coronation. Young girls dance for them while others bring them wine and food (Bacchanale (Choral dance: Gloire, gloire au prophète) The three Anabaptists are watching Jean hoping that he will be drunk enough to be easily captured. Jean, for his part, warns his soldiers that they must be ready to close all the doors of the palace as soon as they receive his order. Jean encourages all to get drunk and asks the three Anabaptists to stand by his side as a reward for their fidelity (Drinking song: Versez, que tout respire l'ivresse). Suddenly, Oberthal at the head of imperial soldiers appears in the hall. He demands that the false prophet be executed without delay, a request which the three Anabaptists eagerly approve. In the confusion, nobody realizes that the doors of the palace have all been closed. A huge explosion then occurs and the flames grow from all sides. A wall collapses, allowing Fidès to join her son. Jean and his mother throw themselves into each other's arms for a last farewell, while all try in vain to escape from the conflagration that spreads more and more. The palace collapses in smoke and flames, killing all within (Final duet with chorus: Ah ! viens, divine flamme).
Analysis
Dark and complex libretto
Pessimistic worldview
The richness and complexity of the libretto particularly impressed contemporaries at the creation of the work. Noted writer and literary critic Théophile Gautier began his review of the premiere in La Presse by noting that "the choice of the libretto is ... for Meyerbeer of major importance" and that "Meyerbeer is the most dramatic composer ever heard at the Opera: he has the highest level of theatrical understanding, ... and that is, in our opinion, the distinctive quality of his genius." Many of the critics of the time are struck by the correspondence between the libretto of Le prophète and the post-revolutionary period of the years 1848 to 1849 in France. T. Gautier notes that "the Anabaptists and the peasants have dialogue that might be taken from the pages of the Communist newspapers". As Meyerbeer himself acknowledged, the general tone of the work is "sombre and fanatical". The view of the world conveyed by the opera is particularly pessimistic: the three Anabaptists advocate revolution only in their own interest; too cowardly to expose themselves directly, they seek a charismatic leader whom they will not hesitate to betray when they feel the wind turn. But the old system against which the Anabaptists rise is far from being presented in a favorable manner: it is even, in the person of the Count of Oberthal, very clearly condemned for his arbitrariness, his injustice and the abuses of power which are inherent. As for the people, they are characterized successively by their cowardice (in the first act) and their bloody brutality (at the beginning of the third). Just before disappearing into the flames, Jean de Leiden states the "moral" of the opera:
(To the Anabaptists) You, traitors!
(to Oberthal) You, tyrant, whom I lead in my fall!
God dictated your end ... and I execute it! All are guilty ... and all are punished!
No heroes nor love story
In contrast to the usual opera texts of the day, the love story is very clearly in the background in the libretto. Scribe prefers to focus on characters with unusually detailed psychology.
The first of these characters is the "hero" (or rather the anti-hero) Jean of Leiden. The deepest nature of the character remains ultimately ambiguous: does he truly believe in the mission that God is said to have entrusted to him (in the prophetic dream of the second act, the vision of his victorious attack on Münster at the end of the third, and the coronation ceremony)? Or does he know that he is ultimately only a usurper who takes advantage of circumstances (hence his bad conscience and his repentance when he confronts his mother in the last act)? Does he really believe in the ideals of equality and social justice he defends? Or does he only act out of vengeance? Is he manipulated by the three Anabaptists? Or is he constantly controlling the situation? The libretto does not say.
According to musical historian Robert Letellier, Scribe would have been inspired by the character of the false Dmitri in the drama Boris Godunov of Pushkin published in 1831 to create his portrait of Jean of Leiden, torn between his sincere religious faith and his imposture as a prophet and son of God. The libretto also mentions twice the character of Joan of Arc; in the second act she is referred to as an example of a war leader acting in the name of faith; in the third, this reference highlights the cruel failure of Jean, who, by his own admission, only directs a group of executioners, while "Joan of Arc, in her footsteps, has given birth to heroes."
The second remarkable figure in the libretto is Fidès, the mother of John. This is the main female character, much more original than the conventional figure of Berthe, Jean's fiancée. Fidès is a devout woman who loves her son and tries to save him many times, even if she has to deny her motherhood and accuse herself of lying when she is not. The scene where Fidès questions the divine origin of her son during the coronation is a direct echo of the scene in Schiller's play The Maid of Orleans, which appeared in 1801, where the father of Joan of Arc accuses his daughter of sorcery at the coronation in Reims of Charles VII. With rare exceptions, Meyerbeer does not entrust the character with particularly virtuosic music; he prefers to invent a kind of lyrical declamation that reinforces the credibility and dignity of this role as a mother. On the musical level, the role is particularly difficult and was specifically written for the rare voice of Pauline Viardot.
Finally, the trio of the Anabaptists, who act, speak and move as if they were only one person, is, for Robert Letellier, an invention of great originality. Perhaps intended as a caricature of the Holy Trinity, the trio personifies hypocrisy, treason and the dangers of demagogy.
Music
The musical unity of the work is established by the existence of some recurring themes: the main one is the Anabaptist hymn "Ad nos, ad salutarem undam, iterum venite miseri", which is heard in the first act with the sinister appearance of the three Anabaptists. It reappears in the third act when Jean calms his troops who have just suffered a defeat, while preparing them for new battles. Finally, the theme appears again at the beginning of the last act as the three Anabaptists plan to betray the "prophet". Another theme used as a recurring motif relates to the role of prophet taken up by Jean. It is heard for the first time in a distorted form in the second act when Jean recounts the dream that haunts him. Then it is heard again, with a different tone and rhythm, in the coronation march of the fourth act.
The many novel orchestral effects of the score were much admired by the composer Hector Berlioz in his review of the original production.
Of the vocal music, the trio in the second scene of act 3 is particularly notable for the original way in which a serious situation is set by Meyerbeer to a comic trio. Count Oberthal has come in the dark to the Anabaptist camp hoping to infiltrate their group and disrupt their plans. The Anabaptists Zacharie and Jonas at first do not recognise him, and in the trio Oberthal swears, to a catchy tune, that he wants to execute as many aristocrats as he can while the Anabaptists gaily add "tra-la-las". But, holding a lamp to Oberthal's face, Jonas recognises his enemy and the same seemingly jolly music is repeated, to sardonic effect,as the two Anabaptists swear to kill him and Oberthal expresses his hatred of them.
A critical edition of the score was published in 2011.
Influence
The musical and theatrical influences of the opera can be felt in, amongst others, Liszt's monumental Fantasy and Fugue on the chorale "Ad nos, ad salutarem undam" for organ which is based on the Anabaptists' chorale, the duet between mother and lost child in Giuseppe Verdi's Il trovatore, and the catastrophic finale of Richard Wagner's Götterdämmerung. The tremendous success of Le prophète at its Paris première also provoked Wagner's anti-Jewish attack on Meyerbeer, Das Judenthum in der Musik.
Ballet
The first scene of act 3 of Le prophète contains a ballet, titled "Les Patineurs", in which the dancers mimic ice skaters. In this opera's premiere in 1849, the dancers wore a type of primitive inline roller skates, which had been invented in Europe in the previous century, to more convincingly look like they were ice skating (quad roller skates had not yet been invented). In 1937 Constant Lambert arranged the ballet music of this opera and excerpts from the ballet music of L'étoile du nord into the ballet Les Patineurs, choreographed by Sir Frederick Ashton, in which the dancers mimic ice skaters.
Orchestration
Pit orchestra
Strings: First violins, second violins, violas, cellos, double basses, 2 harps
Woodwinds: 1 piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 1 cor anglais, 2 clarinets, 1 bass clarinet, 4 bassoons
Keyboard: 1 organ, 4 hands
Brass: 4 French horns, 4 trumpets (natural and piston), 3 trombones, 1 ophicleide
Percussion: timpani (3 sets for the finale of the third act), triangle, cymbals, tam-tam, bass drum, snare drum
Stage band (coronation scene)
18 saxhorns, 2 cornets, 2 trumpets, 4 military drums, antique cymbals (played by the children's chorus)
Recordings
James McCracken (Jean de Leyde), Marilyn Horne (Fidès), Renata Scotto (Berthe), Jean Dupouy (Jonas), Christian Du Plessis (Mathisen), Jerome Hines (Zacharie), Jules Bastin (Oberthal); Ambrosian Opera Chorus, Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Henry Lewis, conductor. Recorded 1976. Sony CD Cat:88875194782.
First recording of the new critical edition: John Osborn (Jean), Marianne Cornetti (Fides), Lynette Tapia (Berthe), Albrecht Kludszuweit (Jonas), Pierre Doyen (Mathisen), Tijl Faveyts (Zacharie), Karel Martin Ludvik, (Oberthal). Essener Philharmoniker, Giuliano Carella, conductor. Recorded 2017. Oehms CD Cat:OC971.
References
Notes
Sources
Huebner, Stephen, "Le prophète", in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, ed. Stanley Sadie (London, 1992)
Online sources
External links
Le prophete : opera en cinq actes, digitized by BYU on archive.org
French libretto
Visual evidence of the premiere on Gallica
– arranged for piano four hands by Charles-Valentin Alkan
– for piano by Henri Herz
– for organ by Franz Liszt
Operas by Giacomo Meyerbeer
French-language operas
Operas
Grand operas
1849 operas
Opera world premieres at the Paris Opera
Operas set in Germany
Libretti by Eugène Scribe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusive%20thought
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Intrusive thought
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An intrusive thought is an unwelcome, involuntary thought, image, or unpleasant idea that may become an obsession, is upsetting or distressing, and can feel difficult to manage or eliminate. When such thoughts are associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette's syndrome (TS), depression, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), and sometimes attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the thoughts may become paralyzing, anxiety-provoking, or persistent. Intrusive thoughts may also be associated with episodic memory, unwanted worries or memories from OCD, post-traumatic stress disorder, other anxiety disorders, eating disorders, or psychosis. Intrusive thoughts, urges, and images are of inappropriate things at inappropriate times, and generally have aggressive, sexual, or blasphemous themes.
Description
General
Many people experience the type of negative and uncomfortable thoughts that people with more intrusive thoughts experience, but most people can dismiss these thoughts. For most people, intrusive thoughts are a "fleeting annoyance". Psychologist Stanley Rachman presented a questionnaire to healthy college students and found that virtually all said they had these thoughts from time to time, including thoughts of sexual violence, sexual punishment, "unnatural" sex acts, painful sexual practices, blasphemous or obscene images, thoughts of harming elderly people or someone close to them, violence against animals or towards children, and impulsive or abusive outbursts or utterances. Such thoughts are universal among humans, and have "almost certainly always been a part of the human condition".
When intrusive thoughts occur with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), patients are less able to ignore the unpleasant thoughts and may pay undue attention to them, causing the thoughts to become more frequent and distressing. Attempting to suppress intrusive thoughts often cause these same thoughts to become more intense and persistent. The thoughts may become obsessions that are paralyzing, severe, and constantly present, these might involve topics such as violence, sex, or religious blasphemy, among others. Distinguishing them from normal intrusive thoughts experienced by many people, the intrusive thoughts associated with OCD may be anxiety provoking, irrepressible, and persistent.
How people react to intrusive thoughts may determine whether these thoughts will become severe, turn into obsessions, or require treatment. Intrusive thoughts can occur with or without compulsions. Carrying out the compulsion reduces the anxiety, but makes the urge to perform the compulsion stronger each time it recurs, reinforcing the intrusive thoughts. According to Lee Baer, suppressing the thoughts only makes them stronger, and recognizing that bad thoughts do not signify that one is truly evil is one of the steps to overcoming them. There is evidence of the benefit of acceptance as an alternative to the suppression of intrusive thoughts. In one particular study, those instructed to suppress intrusive thoughts experienced more distress after suppression, while patients instructed to accept the bad thoughts experienced decreased discomfort. These results may be related to underlying cognitive processes involved in OCD. However, accepting the thoughts can be more difficult for persons with OCD.
The possibility that most patients with intrusive thoughts will ever act on those thoughts is low. Patients who are experiencing intense guilt, anxiety, shame, and are upset over these thoughts are very different from those who actually act on them. Patients who are not troubled or shamed by their thoughts, do not find them distasteful, or who have actually taken action, might need to have more serious conditions such as psychosis or potentially criminal behaviors ruled out. According to Lee Baer, a patient should be concerned that intrusive thoughts are dangerous if the person does not feel upset by the thoughts, or rather finds them pleasurable; has ever acted on violent or sexual thoughts or urges; hears voices or sees things that others do not see; or feels uncontrollable irresistible anger.
Aggressive thoughts
Intrusive thoughts may involve violent obsessions about hurting others or themselves. They can be related to primarily obsessional obsessive compulsive disorder. These thoughts can include harming a child; jumping from a bridge, mountain, or the top of a tall building; urges to jump in front of a train or automobile; and urges to push another in front of a train or automobile. Rachman's survey of healthy college students found that virtually all of them had intrusive thoughts from time to time, including:
causing harm to elderly people
imagining or wishing harm upon someone close to oneself
impulses to violently attack, hit, harm or kill a person, small child, or animal
impulses to shout at or abuse someone, or attack and violently punish someone, or say something rude, inappropriate, nasty, or violent to someone.
These thoughts are part of being human, and need not ruin the quality of life. Treatment is available when the thoughts are associated with OCD and become persistent, severe, or distressing.
One example of an aggressive intrusive thought is the high place phenomenon, the sudden urge to jump from a high place. A 2011 study assessed the prevalence of this phenomenon among US college students; it found that even among those participants with no history of suicidal ideation, over 50% had experienced an urge to jump or imagined themselves jumping from a high place at least once. A 2020 study carried out in Germany reported similar results. The phenomenon is more commonly experienced by individuals with a high level of anxiety sensitivity, and may be caused by the conscious mind's misinterpretation of an instinctive safety signal.
Sexual thoughts
Sexual obsession involves intrusive thoughts or images of "kissing, touching, fondling, oral sex, anal sex, intercourse, and rape" with "strangers, acquaintances, parents, children, family members, friends, coworkers, animals and religious figures", involving "heterosexual or homosexual content" with persons of any age.
Common sexual themes for intrusive thoughts for men involve "(a) having sex in a public place, (b) people I come in contact with being naked, and (c) engaging in a sexual act with someone who is unacceptable to me because they have authority over me." While common sexual intrusive thoughts for women are (a) having sex in a public place, (b) engaging in a sexual act with someone who is unacceptable to me because they have authority over me, and (c) being sexually victimized.
Like other unwanted intrusive thoughts or images, most people have some inappropriate sexual thoughts at times, but people with OCD may attach significance to the unwanted sexual thoughts, generating anxiety and distress. The doubt that accompanies OCD leads to uncertainty regarding whether one might act on the intrusive thoughts, resulting in self-criticism or loathing.
One of the more common sexual intrusive thoughts occurs when an obsessive person doubts their sexual identity. As in the case of most sexual obsessions, individuals may feel shame and live in isolation, finding it hard to discuss their fears, doubts, and concerns about their sexual identity.
A person experiencing sexual intrusive thoughts may feel shame, "embarrassment, guilt, distress, torment, fear of acting on the thought or perceived impulse, and doubt about whether they have already acted in such a way." Depression may be a result of the self-loathing that can occur, depending on how much the OCD interferes with daily functioning or causes distress. Their concern over these thoughts may cause them to scrutinize their bodies to determine if the thoughts result in feelings of arousal. However, focusing their attention on any part of the body can result in feelings in that body part, hence doing so may decrease confidence and increase fear about acting on the urges. Part of the treatment of sexual intrusive thoughts involves therapy to help them accept intrusive thoughts and stop trying to reassure themselves by checking their bodies. This arousal within the body parts is due to conditioned physiological responses in the brain, which do not respond to the subject of the sexual intrusive thought but rather to the fact that a sexual thought is occurring at all and thus engage an automatic response (research indicates that the correlation between what the genitalia regard as "sexually relevant" and what the brain regards as "sexually appealing" only correlates 50% of the time in men and 10% of the time in women). This means that an arousal response does not necessarily indicate that the person desires what they are thinking about. However, rational thinking processes attempt to explain this reaction and OCD causes people to attribute false meaning and importance to these physiological reactions in an attempt to make sense of them. People can also experience heightened anxiety caused by forbidden images or simply by discussing the matter which can then also cause physiological arousal, such as sweating, increased heart rate and some degree of tumescence or lubrication. This is often misinterpreted by the individual as an indication of desire or intent, when it is in fact not.
Religious thoughts
Blasphemous thoughts are a common component of OCD, documented throughout history; notable religious figures such as Martin Luther and Ignatius of Loyola were known to be tormented by intrusive, blasphemous or religious thoughts and urges. Martin Luther had urges to curse God and Jesus, and was obsessed with images of "the Devil's behind." St. Ignatius had numerous obsessions, including the fear of stepping on pieces of straw forming a cross, fearing that it showed disrespect to Christ. A study of 50 patients with a primary diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder found that 40% had religious and blasphemous thoughts and doubts—a higher, but not statistically significantly different number than the 38% who had the obsessional thoughts related to dirt and contamination more commonly associated with OCD. One study suggests that the content of intrusive thoughts may vary depending on culture, and that blasphemous thoughts may be more common in men than in women.
According to Fred Penzel, a New York psychologist, some common religious obsessions and intrusive thoughts are:
sexual thoughts about God, saints, and religious figures
bad thoughts or images during prayer or meditation
thoughts of being possessed
fears of sinning or breaking a religious law or performing a ritual incorrectly
fears of omitting prayers or reciting them incorrectly
repetitive and intrusive blasphemous thoughts
urges or impulses to say blasphemous words or commit blasphemous acts during religious services.
Suffering may be greater and treatment more complicated when intrusive thoughts involve religious implications; patients may believe the thoughts are inspired by Satan, and may fear punishment from God or have magnified shame because they perceive themselves as sinful. Symptoms can be more distressing for individuals with strong religious convictions or beliefs.
Baer believes that blasphemous thoughts are more common in Catholics and evangelical Protestants than in other religions, whereas Jews or Muslims tend to have obsessions related more to complying with the laws and rituals of their faith, and performing the rituals perfectly. He hypothesizes that this is because what is considered inappropriate varies among cultures and religions, and intrusive thoughts torment their sufferers with whatever is considered most inappropriate in the surrounding culture.
Age factors
Adults under the age of 40 seem to be the most affected by intrusive thoughts. Individuals in this age range tend to be less experienced at coping with these thoughts, and the stress and negative effect induced by them. Younger adults also tend to have stressors specific to that period of life that can be particularly challenging especially in the face of intrusive thoughts. Although, when introduced with an intrusive thought, both age groups immediately attempt to reduce the recurrence of these thoughts.
Those in middle adulthood (40-60) have the highest prevalence of OCD and therefore seem to be the most susceptible to the anxiety and negative emotions associated with intrusive thought. Middle adults are in a unique position because they have to struggle with both the stressors of early and late adulthood. They may be more vulnerable to intrusive thought because they have more topics to relate to. Even with this being the case, middle adults are still better at coping with intrusive thoughts than early adults, although processing an intrusive thought takes middle adults longer. Older adults tend to see the intrusive thought more as a cognitive failure rather than a moral failure in opposition to young adults. They have a harder time suppressing the intrusive thoughts than young adults causing them to experience higher stress levels when dealing with these thoughts.
Intrusive thoughts appear to occur at the same rate across the lifespan, however, older adults seem to be less negatively affected than younger adults. Older adults have more experience in ignoring or suppressing strong negative reactions to stress.
Associated conditions
Intrusive thoughts are associated with OCD or OCPD, but may also occur with other conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder, clinical depression, postpartum depression, generalized anxiety disorder and anxiety. One of these conditions is almost always present in people whose intrusive thoughts reach a clinical level of severity. A large study published in 2005 found that aggressive, sexual, and religious obsessions were broadly associated with comorbid anxiety disorders and depression. The intrusive thoughts that occur in a schizophrenic episode differ from the obsessional thoughts that occur with OCD or depression in that the intrusive thoughts of people with schizophrenia are false or delusional beliefs (i.e., held by the schizophrenic individual to be real and not doubted, as is typically the case with intrusive thoughts) .
Post-traumatic stress disorder
The key difference between OCD and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is that the intrusive thoughts of people with PTSD are of content relating to traumatic events that actually happened to them, whereas people with OCD have thoughts of imagined catastrophes. PTSD patients with intrusive thoughts have to sort out violent, sexual, or blasphemous thoughts from memories of traumatic experiences. When patients with intrusive thoughts do not respond to treatment, physicians may suspect past physical, emotional, or sexual abuse. If a person who has experienced trauma practices looks for the positive outcomes, it is suggested they will experience less depression and higher self well-being. While a person may experience less depression for benefit finding, they may also experience an increased amount of intrusive and/or avoidant thoughts.
One study looking at women with PTSD found that intrusive thoughts were more persistent when the individual tried to cope by using avoidance-based thought regulation strategies. Their findings further support that not all coping strategies are helpful in diminishing the frequency of intrusive thoughts.
Depression
People who are clinically depressed may experience intrusive thoughts more intensely, and view them as evidence that they are worthless or sinful people. The suicidal thoughts that are common in depression must be distinguished from intrusive thoughts, because suicidal thoughts—unlike harmless sexual, aggressive, or religious thoughts—can be dangerous.
Non-depressed individuals have been shown to have a higher activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex while attempting to suppress intrusive thoughts. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is the area of the brain that primarily functions in cognition, working memory, and planning. This activation decreases in people at risk of or currently diagnosed with depression. When the intrusive thoughts re-emerge, non-depressed individuals also show higher activation levels in the anterior cingulate cortices, which functions in error detection, motivation, and emotional regulation, than their depressed counterparts.
Roughly 60% of depressed individuals report experiencing bodily, visual, or auditory perceptions along with their intrusive thoughts. There is a correlation with experiencing those sensations with intrusive thoughts and more intense depressive symptoms as well as the need for heavier treatment.
Postpartum depression and OCD
Unwanted thoughts by mothers about harming infants are common in postpartum depression. A 1999 study of 65 women with postpartum major depression by Katherine Wisner et al. found the most frequent aggressive thought for women with postpartum depression was causing harm to their newborn infants. A study of 85 new parents found that 89% experienced intrusive images, for example, of the baby suffocating, having an accident, being harmed, or being kidnapped.
Some women may develop symptoms of OCD during pregnancy or the postpartum period. Postpartum OCD occurs mainly in women who may already have OCD, perhaps in a mild or undiagnosed form. Postpartum depression and OCD may be comorbid (often occurring together). And though physicians may focus more on the depressive symptoms, one study found that obsessive thoughts did accompany postpartum depression in 57% of new mothers.
Wisner found common obsessions about harming babies in mothers experiencing postpartum depression include images of the baby lying dead in a casket or being eaten by sharks; stabbing the baby; throwing the baby down the stairs; or drowning or burning the baby (as by submerging it in the bathtub in the former case or throwing it in the fire or putting it in the microwave in the latter). Baer estimates that up to 200,000 new mothers with postpartum depression each year may develop these obsessional thoughts about their babies; and because they may be reluctant to share these thoughts with a physician or family member, or suffer in silence out of fear they could be "crazy", their depression can worsen.
Intrusive fears of harming immediate children can last longer than the postpartum period. A study of 100 clinically depressed women found that 41% had obsessive fears that they might harm their child, and some were afraid to care for their children. Among non-depressed mothers, the study found 7% had thoughts of harming their child—a rate that yields an additional 280,000 non-depressed mothers in the United States with intrusive thoughts about harming their children.
Treatment
Treatment for intrusive thoughts is similar to treatment for OCD. Exposure and response prevention therapy—also referred to as habituation or desensitization—is useful in treating intrusive thoughts. Mild cases can also be treated with cognitive behavioral therapy, which helps patients identify and manage the unwanted thoughts.
Exposure therapy
Exposure therapy is the treatment of choice for intrusive thoughts. According to Deborah Osgood-Hynes, Psy.D. Director of Psychological Services and Training at the MGH/McLean OCD Institute, "In order to reduce a fear, you have to face a fear. This is true of all types of anxiety and fear reactions, not just OCD." Because it is uncomfortable to experience bad thoughts and urges, shame, doubt or fear, the initial reaction is usually to do something to make the feelings diminish. By engaging in a ritual or compulsion to diminish the anxiety or bad feeling, the action is strengthened via a process called negative reinforcement—the mind learns that the way to avoid the bad feeling is by engaging in a ritual or compulsions. When OCD becomes severe, this leads to more interference in life and continues the frequency and severity of the thoughts the person sought to avoid.
Exposure therapy (or exposure and response prevention) is the practice of staying in an anxiety-provoking or feared situation until the distress or anxiety diminishes. The goal is to reduce the fear reaction, learning to not react to the bad thoughts. This is the most effective way to reduce the frequency and severity of the intrusive thoughts. The goal is to be able to "expose yourself to the thing that most triggers your fear or discomfort for one to two hours at a time, without leaving the situation, or doing anything else to distract or comfort you." Exposure therapy will not eliminate intrusive thoughts—everyone has bad thoughts—but most patients find that it can decrease their thoughts sufficiently that intrusive thoughts no longer interfere with their lives.
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a newer therapy than exposure therapy, available for those unable or unwilling to undergo exposure therapy. Cognitive therapy has been shown to be useful in reducing intrusive thoughts, but developing a conceptualization of the obsessions and compulsions with the patient is important. One of the strategies sometimes used in Cognitive Behavioral Theory is mindfulness exercises. These include practices such as being aware of the thoughts, accepting the thoughts without judgement for them, and "being larger than your thoughts."
Medication
Antidepressants or antipsychotic medications may be used for more severe cases if intrusive thoughts do not respond to cognitive behavioral or exposure therapy alone. Whether the cause of intrusive thoughts is OCD, depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder, the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) drugs (a class of antidepressants) are the most commonly prescribed. Intrusive thoughts may occur in persons with Tourette syndrome (TS) who also have OCD; the obsessions in TS-related OCD are thought to respond to SSRI drugs as well.
Antidepressants that have been shown to be effective in treating OCD include fluvoxamine (trade name Luvox), fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil), citalopram (Celexa), and clomipramine (Anafranil). Although SSRIs are known to be effective for OCD in general, there have been fewer studies on their effectiveness for intrusive thoughts. A retrospective chart review of patients with sexual symptoms treated with SSRIs showed the greatest improvement was in those with intrusive sexual obsessions typical of OCD. A study of ten patients with religious or blasphemous obsessions found that most patients responded to treatment with fluoxetine or clomipramine. Women with postpartum depression often have anxiety as well, and may need lower starting doses of SSRIs; they may not respond fully to the medication, and may benefit from adding cognitive behavioral or response prevention therapy.
Patients with intense intrusive thoughts that do not respond to SSRIs or other antidepressants may be prescribed typical and atypical neuroleptics including risperidone (trade name Risperdal), ziprasidone (Geodon), haloperidol (Haldol), and pimozide (Orap).
Studies suggest that therapeutic doses of inositol may be useful in the treatment of obsessive thoughts.
Epidemiology
A 2007 study found that 78% of a clinical sample of OCD patients had intrusive images. Most people with intrusive thoughts have not identified themselves as having OCD, because they may not have what they believe to be classic symptoms of OCD, such as handwashing. Yet, epidemiological studies suggest that intrusive thoughts are the most common kind of OCD worldwide; if people in the United States with intrusive thoughts gathered, they would form the fourth-largest city in the US, following New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago.
The prevalence of OCD in every culture studied is at least 2% of the population, and the majority of those have obsessions, or bad thoughts, only; this results in a conservative estimate of more than 2 million affected individuals in the United States alone (as of 2000). One author estimates that one in 50 adults have OCD and about 10–20% of these have sexual obsessions. A recent study found that 25% of 293 patients with a primary diagnosis of OCD had a history of sexual obsessions.
See also
Internal monologue
The Imp of the Perverse
Shoulder angel
Tourette syndrome
Earworm
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Symptoms and signs of mental disorders
Cognition
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd%20Armoured%20Brigade%20%28United%20Kingdom%29
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22nd Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)
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The 22nd Armoured Brigade was an armoured brigade of the British Army that saw service during and after the Second World War. The brigade was formed on the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939 from Territorial Army (TA) armoured regiments. It saw a considerable amount of action during the war, beginning with the Western Desert Campaign where it was engaged in Operation Crusader and at the Battles of Gazala, Mersa Matruh, First Alamein and Alam el Halfa. It then joined the 7th Armoured Division (the 'Desert Rats') for the Second Battle of El Alamein. It remained part of 7th Armoured for the rest of the war, including the campaigns in Tunisia, Italy and North West Europe. It continued in the postwar TA until 1956. The brigade's identity was re-established in the Regular Army between 1981 and 1993.
Mobilisation
22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade (the 'Heavy' was dropped on 14 April 1940) was formed at the outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939 with the mobilisation of three part-time Yeomanry regiments of the Territorial Army (TA): 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars (RGH), 3rd County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters) and 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters) (CLY). On 15 January 1940 it joined 2nd Armoured Division in Northern Command. Because 1st Armoured Division in France with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) had first call on scarce resources, the equipment of 2nd Armoured Division and its units proceeded slowly during the Phoney War period.
When the Battle of France was lost and the BEF was being evacuated from Dunkirk (without its equipment) at the end of May, the incomplete 2nd Armoured Division was the only armoured formation available to Home Forces. It was moved into the area between Northampton and Newmarket, Suffolk, to be ready to counter-attack in the event of invasion.
As the threat of invasion of the United Kingdom receded, it became possible to spare more troops and equipment to reinforce Middle East Forces facing the Italians. Most of 2nd Armoured Division was sent out on 26 October 1940, but 22nd Armoured Brigade remained in the UK, having been transferred to 1st Armoured Division. It adopted the new organisation for an armoured brigade, which included a battalion of motorised infantry (2nd Kings Royal Rifle Corps). 10th Company Royal Army Service Corps provided the brigade's transport.
North Africa
By the summer of 1941 the Italians in Libya had been reinforced by General Rommel's Afrika Korps and the tide had turned against the British forces (most of 2nd Armoured Division was captured on 8 April). The Defence Committee of the British War Cabinet decided to send out 22nd Armoured Brigade as soon as possible. It was recognised that the brigade had been trained in an anti-invasion role and would require a certain amount of preparation on arrival – in desert navigation, for instance. Its new Crusader tanks would also require modification for desert conditions. But the Defence Committee hoped that the brigade would reach Egypt by mid-September and be ready for action by 1 November. In fact, the convoy carrying 22nd Armoured Brigade sailed (without its motor battalion) on 15 August, and after rounding the Cape of Good Hope it finally arrived in Egypt on 2 October. The start of Eighth Army's counter-offensive (Operation Crusader) had to be put off until mid-November.
Operation Crusader
The brigade joined 7th Armoured Division for Operation Crusader. Reinforced by C Battery, 4th Royal Horse Artillery and a Troop of D Battery, 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery, the brigade's role was to find and destroy the enemy armour. Eighth Army's advance began at dawn on 18 November and had approximately reached its first day's objectives by evening, but mechanical breakdowns had already reduced 22nd Armd Bde's tank strength from 155 to 136 runners. Next day it was reconnoitring forward towards Bir el Gub when the divisional commander arrived and ordered it to attack the Italian Ariete Division. The inexperienced Yeomanry attacked impetuously, and after driving in the Italian covering troops came under heavy fire from the prepared positions behind. When it broke off the attack the brigade had lost 25 tanks, but had destroyed 34 Italian medium tanks, damaged 12 others and knocked out 12 guns. On 20 November the Afrika Korps counter-attacked and 22nd Armoured Bde was recalled from Bir el Gub to take part in the imminent armoured battle. It arrived too late to influence the indecisive battle. The garrison of Tobruk began its breakout next day, and the Afrika Korps hurried north to prevent this, pursued by Eighth Army's armour, including 22nd Armoured Bde. However the pursuers were held up by rearguards, boggy ground, and the need to refuel. Over the next few days there was confused fighting round Sidi Rezegh airfield that reduced 22nd Armd Bde's fighting strength from 79 to 34 tanks by the end of 22 November. Next day it did its best to hold off a renewed Axis attack, but lost another third of its tanks. The fighting round Sidi Rezegh ended when Rommel sent the Afrika Korps on a 'Dash to the Wire', driving eastwards behind Eighth Army towards the Egyptian frontier. The crippled British armoured formations could do little about it, though Tobruk was relieved.
By the time the brigade rejoined the fighting on 22 December it had received fresh tanks: 3rd and 4th CLY had 80 Crusaders between them, while 2nd RGH had 30 M3 Stuart light tanks. It was now under the direct command of XIII Corps (the rest of 1st Armoured Division had now arrived in Egypt but was still training for desert warfare). 22 to 25 December was spent regaining contact with the enemy's new positions. Then on 27 December Gen Ludwig Crüwell commanding the armour of the Afrika Korps noticed a gap between 22nd Armd Bde at Chor es Sufan and 22nd Guards Brigade north of Agedabia. Rommel approved Crüwell's proposal to defeat the British armour in detail, and he attacked the following day with 15th and 21st Panzer Divisions comprising 60 tanks (of which 44 were Panzer IIIs and IVs), against 22nd Armd Bde's 90 available tanks (35 Stuarts, the rest Crusaders). 22nd Armoured Brigade also had under its command 2nd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery (RHA) (two 8-gun 25-pounder batteries), 102nd (NH) Anti-Tank Regiment (three 12-gun batteries of 2-pounders), 122 Light Anti-Aircraft Battery (12 x Bofors 40 mm guns) and the motorised infantry of 9th Battalion Rifle Brigade (Tower Hamlets Rifles). The German attack was a notable success, 22nd Armd Bde being driven back across the Wadi Faregh with the loss of 37 tanks (many to mechanical breakdown) against only seven German tanks knocked out. The brigade with its supporting troops was attacked again on 30 December and was again mauled, losing another 23 tanks. Having won a respite the Germans withdrew to El Agheilia, while 22nd Armd Bde, having lost nearly all its Crusaders, was also withdrawn to refit.
Battle of Gazala
On 4 March 1942 22nd Armd Bde was reorganised as an independent Brigade Group, with supporting artillery, engineer, transport and medical units. It returned to the front on 17 April 1942 under XXX Corps, coming under the command of 1st Armd Division on 23 April. The Battle of Gazala began on 26 May when Rommel tried to outflank the Gazala Line of defensive 'boxes'. XXX Corps moved south to give battle the following day. Before 22nd Armd Bde had got far it was attacked by both of the Afrika Korps' Panzer divisions, and it was ordered to fall back to the 'Knightsbridge' box, with the loss of 30 tanks and several guns. From Knightsbridge the brigade was able to attack the Germans' right flank, dealing some sharp blows. 22nd Armoured Bde spent the next day watching the immobile 15th Panzer Division (which was out of fuel). On 29 May the Axis armour began to close in around Knightsbridge, and 22nd Armd Bde sent two regiments to help 2nd Armd Bde in a fierce armour and artillery action fought in a sandstorm. By evening both sides were battered and exhausted. On 30 May 22nd Armd Bde made unsuccessful attacks on the enemy anti-tank (A/T) screen. By now the battle had become a succession of confused armoured actions in the 'Cauldron' amidst the defensive boxes occupied by the infantry. Eight Army made a new attack on the Cauldon on 4/5 June: 22nd Armd Bde had simultaneously to attack enemy armour and assist 9th Indian Infantry Bde. The attack began in moonlight at 02.50 and at first went well, 9th Indian Bde and 107th Rgt RHA of 22nd Armd Bde taking its opening positions, but the Axis positions were further back than realised, and the brigade's armour (156 Crusader, Stuart and Grant tanks) ran into the concentrated fire of the enemy's artillery and a panzer counter-attack. The tanks could give no aid to 9th Indian Bde, which was pushed off its objectives, and at the end of the day 22nd Armd Bde withdrew to Leaguer with the loss of some 60 tanks. The following day the infantry and artillery, including 107th Rgt RHA, were overrun in the Cauldron.
Replacing tanks after the Cauldron battle was complicated by the different tank types used by different regiments in the armoured brigades. By 12 June 22nd Armd Bde had 27 Grants, 5 Stuarts and 34 Crusaders. Disruption was also caused by the frequent exchanges of brigades between different armoured division HQs – 22nd Armd fought under the command alternately of 1st and 7th Armd Divisions. The final phase of the Battle of Gazala began on 12 June, and British tank losses were again heavy. The following day Eighth Army began to withdraw. In a rearguard action 22nd Armd Bde foiled Rommel's attempt to cut the coast road, but the retreat went back to position around Mersa Matruh.
Mersa Matruh and First Alamein
1st Armoured Division, including 22nd Armd Bde, was positioned a few miles south west of Mersa Matruh when Rommel began probing the position on the evening of 26 June. 22nd Armoured Bde only had 3rd and 4th CLY in the line, though it was reinforced by the re-equipped 2nd Dragoon Guards (Queen's Bays) of 2nd Armd Bde on 28 June while the Battle of Mersa Matruh continued. Rommel got between the Eighth Army's formations and forced them to retreat again, and by 30 June they were back at the El Alamein position.
The Axis advance was halted by the British armoured brigades and artillery on 1–2 July in the First Battle of El Alamein. By 3 July 22nd Armd Bde was down to 20 Grants, 29 Stuarts and 8 Crusaders, but with 4th Armd Bde it awaited the enemy attack south of the Ruweisat Ridge and stopped it after a sharp engagement lasting half an hour. Eighth Army was counter-attacking by 15 July, 22nd Armd Bde supporting the 2nd New Zealand Division. In this attack the brigade consisted solely of 3rd CLY, but was joined during the afternoon by the newly-arrived Royal Scots Greys (RSG) in their first tank action, giving a total of 31 Grants, 21 Stuarts and 23 Crusaders. The fighting died down by the end of July.
Battle of Alam el Halfa
By the time Rommel made a renewed attack on the British positions at Alam el Halfa on 30 August, Eighth Army had been reinforced and was under fresh commanders, including Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery at Eighth Army, Lt-Gen Brian Horrocks at XIII Corps, and Brigadier Philip 'Pip' Roberts, who took command of 22nd Armd Bde on 27 July. The brigade group (operating under 10th Armd Division) now had four armoured regiments (three of them composite): RSG, 1st/6th Royal Tank Regiment (RTR), 5th RTR/2nd RGH, and 3rd/4th CLY. Each had a light squadron of Stuarts or Crusaders and two heavy squadrons of Grants, totalling 40 Stuarts, 34 Crusaders and 92 Grants. The Grants with their 75mm guns (known as 'Egypt's last hope') were dug around Point 102 in front of the Alam el Halfa ridge alongside the 6-pounder A/T guns of the brigade's motor battalion, 1st Rifle Brigade (RB). Two squadrons of Crusaders were stationed to the south, to lure the Afrika Korps onto this line. On the morning of 31 August 15th and 21st Panzer Divisions did not take this bait but headed eastwards past the brigade's position. 22nd Armoured Bde therefore showed some of its tanks, which caused 21st Panzer to swing round and head for 3rd/4th CLY in the centre. A fierce duel began, in which the RSGs, 1st and 104th RHA and 44th (Home Counties) Division's artillery all joined in. 15th Panzer circled round to threaten 5th RTR/2nd RGH, but darkness was falling and the panzers were running short of fuel after the heavy going. Once Montgomery was satisfied that the Afrika Korps was committed, he launched a limited attack southwards and on 2 September Rommel called off the attack and retreated back to his starting position with severe casualties. 22nd Armoured Bde had only lost five of its Grants destroyed.
Second Alamein
22nd Armoured Brigade Group now reverted to being a normal armoured brigade as a permanent part of 7th Armoured Division. Its tank strength on the eve of the Second Battle of El Alamein was:
Brigade HQ – 4 Crusaders
1st RTR –24 Grants, 19 Stuarts
5th RTR – 24 Grants, 18 Crusaders
4th CLY – 9 Grants, 29 Crusaders
These included 8 of the new Crusader Mark III equipped with the 6-pdr gun. The Motor Battalion was 1st RB.
Montgomery's plan for Eighth Army's night attack at Alamein (Operation Lightfoot) on 23/24 October required XIII Corps to penetrate the enemy's two belts of minefields (codenamed 'January' and 'February') and then pass the armoured brigades through. For 22nd Armd Bde this involved an approach march of and then an advance of through four gaps, with its flank covered by 131st Infantry Bde. The Royal Engineers' mine-clearing parties moved forward when the artillery barrage began at 21.40 and had cleared the two southern gaps through 'January' by 02.30, but 1st RB's two advance guard companies had to subdue enemy post before the northern gaps could be completed. By 05.00 5th RTR and the two 1st RB companies were through 'January' by one gap or another, but the mine-clearing parties had suffered heavy casualties; they could only attempt two gaps through 'February', and these were frustrated by heavy fire and daylight. 22nd Armoured Brigade's casualties during the night were 200. The following morning the tanks had to sit in open formation under steady shellfire.
Horrocks decided that as 7th Armd Division could not punch a hole through 'February', 131st Bde would have to make a night attack on 24/25 October supported by 22nd Armd Bde. The infantry got through the minefield but were pinned down just beyond it. 22nd Armoured Bde then attempted to pass along the two cleared lanes in bright moonlight but came under heavy A/T fire; 31 tanks were disabled and the attempt was called off. Montgomery then decided to concentrate on the more important attack by XXX Corps and turn XIII Corps over to the defensive. The attacks had achieved their purpose, however, pinning down 21st Panzer Division so that it did not move north to face XXX Corps until 26/27 October.
XIII Corps was then 'milked' to reinforce XXX Corps, so that by 1 November when the second phase of the battle (Operation Supercharge) began, 22nd Armd Bde only had 54 Grants, 16 Crusader IIs and 10 Crusader IIIs. Once again, its role was to feint.
Pursuit to Tripoli
Once the rest of Eighth Army had broken through, 7th Armd Division was launched in pursuit of the broken enemy, with 22nd Armd Bde in the lead. On 5 November it covered more than , but ended the day still short of its objective, having encountered a dummy minefield and halted until it could be investigated. Moving off at first light next morning the brigade encountered German reconnaissance troops and then 21st Panzer Division, whose tanks were too short of fuel to manoeuvre. In a series of actions lasting most of 6 November, in heavy rain, the brigade inflicted considerable casualties; in the evening the enemy fled towards Matruh. After waiting for its own fuel, 22nd Armd Bde reached the Libyan frontier near El Beida on 10 November, ignoring fleeing German tanks as it closed on its objective of Fort Capuzzo. Next day the enemy were fleeing towards Bardia too fast to be caught.
After the victory of Alamein, Eighth Army advanced more slowly towards Tripoli, with 22nd Armd Bde in Army Reserve. Montgomery then decided to 'crash' through to Tripoli itself. On the night of 20/21 January 1943 Eighth Army made a thrust along the coast road towards the city with 51st (Highland) Division and 22nd Armd Bde. The Highlanders were closing on the city on 22 January and 2nd Armd came up 'pell-mell' to take the lead. Tripoli fell without fighting next day.
Tunisia
After Eighth Army had closed up to Tunisia 7th Armd Division was in the line when Panzer Army Afrika attacked XXX Corps at Medenine on 6 March. 22nd Armoured Bde was deployed in depth behind the division's infantry, but the Germans' clumsy armoured attack was mainly defeated by the British artillery and A/T guns.
In the Battle of Wadi Akarit on 6 April Eighth Army's infantry had to breach a formidable anti-tank obstacle. 51st (Highland) and 50th (Northumbrian) Divisions were each supported by a squadron provided by 4th CLY, which was now equipped with 29 Sherman tanks along with its 21 Crusaders. The assembly of the infantry divisions in the dark was complicated, but 51st (H) achieved its first objective easily. 50th (N) Division had a harder task, but 4th CLY's squadron was ordered round by a gap made by 51st (H) and was able to cut in behind the enemy. For the second phase 51st (H) Division's supporting infantry tanks were gradually picked off, and 4th CLY's squadron had to pass through to help out, but 50th (N) Division's squadron was able to pass its Shermans through its gap by 09.30. XXX Corps then settled down to consolidate the gap that it had made, and the enemy withdrew during the night.
The final phase of the Tunisian campaign began on 6 May with Operation Strike directed towards Tunis. After the infantry had broken into the Axis defence lines 7th Armoured Division was directed to dash ahead and break through the inner defences before the enemy had time to man them. 22nd Armoured Bde set off at 10.30 after 4th Indian Division had secured a vital knoll, and headed for the high ground. However the advance got slowed up, and by 17.00 7th Armoured had settled into a position about beyond the infantry. Next morning 22nd Armd Bde engaged a few scattered tanks and 88mm guns and disposed of them by 14.00. At 15.15 7th Armoured was ordered to close in on Tunis. Armoured car patrols reached the city centre at 15.40, closely followed by 1st RTR with 1/7th Bn Queen's from 131st Bde. They quelled any scattered resistance, secured all important building and bridges, and restored order. All remaining Axis forces in Tunisia were rounded up and surrendered unconditionally on 13 May.
Italy
7th Armoured Division was not involved in the Allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky), instead it re-equipped and trained at Homs, east of Tripoli, before taking part in the landings at Salerno on the Italian mainland (Operation Avalanche). Leading elements of 7th Armd Division landed from the first follow-up convoy on 15 September, six days after the initial assault. 5th RTR accompanied the lorried infantry of 131st Bde in the division's first wave. However, there was still heavy fighting around the beachhead and the brigade group was unable to begin the intended breakout. The bulk of the division had arrived by 28 September when the advance began. 131st Brigade with 5th RTR took the lead through the close country, making slow progress, then after Naples had fallen to Allied troops 22nd Armd Bde took the lead on 2 October. 1st RTR found a way through the 'mass of rubble and demolitions' at Somma Vesuviana and over the next two days fought a series of actions with 1st RB to flush the enemy out of a number of towns. Despite all the bridges being blown, 1st RTR forced a crossing of the Regi Lagni drainage canal and closed up to the River Volturno.
The Royal Engineers could not find a suitable tank ford over the Volturno, so the infantry of 131st Bde had to force a bridgehead while 22nd Armd Bde waited. As the engineers worked on a bridge, the water level fell, and a suitable ford appeared, so a squadron of 4th CLY shovelled away the river bank and struggled across to support the infantry. However, torrential rain and mud made armoured action impossible off the roads. The Volturno was successfully bridged elsewhere and the Allied advance continued. On 22 October 5th RTR found Sparanise unoccupied and 1st RB cleared enemy observation posts from the hills above.
At the end of October, 7th Armoured Division was shifted to the left flank, nearest the sea, which entailed a tedious journey through Capua, where the bridge could only take one tank at a time. 1st Rifle Brigade took over the outpost line in front of the main enemy position on Monte Massico. If 7th Armoured could get along the coast road towards Mondragone it would outflank Monte Massico. Reconnaissance revealed a fordable crossing near the beach, so a squadron of 5th RTR advanced by this route on 1 November while the rest of the regiment supported 131st Bde's attack on Mondragone. A few tanks were lost to mines on the beach, but Mondragone was found to be clear and the Massico ridge was occupied at small cost, while the enemy withdrew across the Garigliano river. Next day the tanks, thogh heavily shelled and hampered by enemy demolitions, worked between the mountain and the sea and captured Cicola after a sharp fight.
The brigade had fought its last battle in Italy: shortly afterwards 7th Armd Division was withdrawn to the UK to take part in Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy. It transferred its equipment to 5th Canadian Armoured Division and the personnel sailed from Naples to Glasgow, docking on 7 January 1944.
North-West Europe
22nd Armoured Bde was re-equipped with Cromwell tanks and trained in the area round Brandon, Suffolk, to take part in the Allied landings in Normandy. The brigade was to sail in assault landing craft and land on D Day and D + 1, followed by the rest of 7th Armd Division. It embarked on Landing Craft Tank (LCTs) at Felixstowe on 4 June and landed successfully on Gold Beach during the morning of D + 1 (7 June).
Normandy
On 10 June, 22nd Armoured Brigade led the division's advance towards Villers-Bocage during Operation Perch, but progress was slow through the restricted Bocage country. In an attempt to move around the flank of the Panzer Lehr Division, the division became embroiled the Battle of Villers-Bocage on 13 June. The brigade was ambushed by Tiger I tanks of 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion, and the 4th CLY lost around 14 tanks within a 15-minute period. A bitter battle then developed in and around the town before the brigade withdrew before nightfall. In July, the division was moved to the area north of Caen to take part in Operation Goodwood. The armour of VIII Corps crossed the River Orne on 18 July and attacked behind a massive artillery and air bombardment, but the 7th Armoured Division was caught in traffic congestion and barely got into action. The division was shifted west again to take part in Operation Bluecoat (1–2 August), but failed to gain its objective, the commanders of 7th Armoured Division and 22nd Armoured Brigade being sacked after this failure. The division came into its own after the breakout from the Normandy beachhead, when it advanced rapidly across northern France and Belgium, liberating towns as they went, including Ghent on 5 September.
Low Countries and Germany
The rest of September and October was spent in probing operations while 21st Army Group's emphasis shifted to Antwerp and Operation Market Garden, where the division was called in to clear XXX Corps' severed supply lines. 22nd Armoured Brigade cooperated with 51st (Highland) Division around 's-Hertogenbosch, but much of the country was unsuitable for tanks. It was not until 13 January 1945 that the division participated in a major attack (Operation Blackcock) towards Roermond. The division then rested and prepared for the crossing of the Rhine, Operation Plunder. The infantry began their assault crossing on the night of 23/24 March, followed by an airborne landing (Operation Varsity) next day. By 27 March the engineers had bridged the river and 7th Armd began to cross. At first progress was slow, but on 29 March 22nd Armoured Brigade fanned out leading the advance; the division made by 2 April, only halted by the River Ems. 11th Armoured Division having captured a bridge intact, 22nd Armoured Brigade resumed its advance, now a pursuit. Hamburg surrendered to 7th Armoured Division on 3 May, and the German surrender at Lüneburg Heath followed next day.
Second World War Order of Battle
The 22nd Armoured Brigade commanded the following units in the war:
Supporting units of 22nd Armoured Brigade Group while an independent formation May–September 1942:
107th (South Nottinghamshire Hussars) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery
2nd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery
1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery
Troop, 7 Field Squadron, Royal Engineers (RE)
13/7 Field Squadron, RE
20 Field Troop, RE
Troop, 4 Field Squadron, RE
67 and 432 Companies, Royal Army Service Corps
2 Light Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps
Brigade commanders
The following officers commanded the brigade during the Second World War:
Brigadier J. Scott-Cockburn, 3 September 1939
Brigadier W.G. Carr, 8 February 1942
Brigadier A.F. Fisher, 7 July 1942
Brigadier G.P.B. 'Pip' Roberts, 27 July 1942
Colonel D.S. Newton-King 20 January 1943 (acting)
Brigadier W.R.N. 'Loony' Hinde, 23 January 1943
Lieutenant-Colonel G.P. Gregson, 7 August 1944 (acting)
Brigadier H.R. Mackeson, 10 August 1944
Lieutenant-Colonel J.E. Swetenham, 11 September 1944 (acting)
Brigadier H.T.B. Cracroft, 16 September 1944
Lieutenant-Colonel A. G. V. Paley, 7 October 1944 (acting)
Brigadier A.D.R. 'Tony' Wingfield, 18 October 1944
Postwar
When the Territorial Army was reconstituted in 1947, the 22nd Armoured Brigade was reformed as the armoured component of 56th (London) Armoured Division, with the following organisation:
City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders)
Westminster Dragoons (2nd County of London Yeomanry)
3rd/4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters)
42nd Royal Tank Regiment
Queen Victoria's Rifles (King's Royal Rifle Corps)
Inns of Court Regiment (armoured cars)
303 Signal Squadron (Armoured Brigade), Royal Corps of Signals
56th (London) Armoured Division was reformed as an infantry division in 1956, and most of the Yeomanry regiments underwent mergers in the reduced TA.
22nd Armoured Brigade's identity was reinstated during the Cold War by converting Task Force Bravo (which had been created four years earlier from the 11th Armoured Brigade) into an armoured brigade in 1981. It was assigned to the 1st Armoured Division and based at Campbell Barracks in Hohne. It disbanded in 1993 following the end of the Cold War. From November 1984 until the brigade disbanded, 1st Royal Tank Regiment once more formed part of 22nd Armoured Brigade, based at Tofrek Barracks Hildesheim, and equipped with Chieftain Tanks.
See also
British Armoured formations of World War II
List of British brigades of the Second World War
British Army Order of Battle (September 1939)
Notes
References
Bibliography
Basil Collier, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Defence of the United Kingdom, London: HM Stationery Office, 1957.
L.F. Ellis, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: Victory in the West, Vol I: The Battle of Normandy, London: HM Stationery Office, 1962/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, .
L.F. Ellis, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: Victory in the West, Vol II: The Defeat of Germany, London: HM Stationery Office, 1968/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, .
Martin Farndale, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: The Years of Defeat: Europe and North Africa, 1939–1941, Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1988/London: Brasseys, 1996, .
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol I, Wakefield, Microform Academic, 1984, .
Sir Brian Horrocks, A Full Life, London: Collins, 1960.
Eric Hunt, Battleground Europe: Normandy: Mont Pinçon, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 2003, .
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Martin Lindsay and Capt M..E. Johnstone, History of 7th Armoured Division June 1943–July 1945, British Army of the Rhine, 1945.
Cliff Lord & Graham Watson, Royal Corps of Signals: Unit Histories of the Corps (1920–2001) and its Antecedents, Solihull: Helion, 2003, .
C.J.C. Molony,History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol V: The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and the Campaign in Italy 3rd September 1943 to 31st March 1944, London: HM Stationery Office, 1973/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
The Memoirs of Field Marshal Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, London: Collins, 1958.
Maj-Gen I.S.O. Playfair, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol I: The Early Successes against Italy (to May 1941), London: HM Stationery Office, 1954/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
Maj-Gen I.S.O. Playfair, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol II: The Germans come to the aid of their Ally (1941), London: HM Stationery Office, 1956/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
I.S.O. Playfair, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol III: (September 1941 to September 1942) British Fortunes reach their Lowest Ebb, London: HM Stationery Office, 1960 /Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
I.S.O. Playfair & Brig C.J.C. Molony, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol IV: The Destruction of the Axis forces in Africa, London: HM Stationery Office, 1966/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
John Sutton (ed.), Wait for the Waggon: The Story of the Royal Corps of Transport and its Predecessors 1794–1993, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 1998, .
External links
Graham Watson, The Territorial Army 1947
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22 Armoured
Military units and formations established in 1939
Military units and formations disestablished in 1960
Military units and formations established in 1981
Military units and formations disestablished in 1993
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20%28surname%29
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James (surname)
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James is a surname in the English language originating from the given name, itself derived from the Hebrew Yaʿaqōḇ. Notable people with the surname include:
A
A. P. T. James (c. 1908–1962), better known as 'Fargo' James; Tobagonian politician
Aaron James (basketball) (born 1952), American basketball player
Aaron James (footballer) (born 1976), Australian rules footballer from Victoria
Ada James (1876–1952), American suffragist and reformer
Adam James (actor) (born 1972), British actor
Adam James (singer) (fl. 2000s–2010s), Australian country singer
Aidan James (born 2001), American singer and musician
Alan James (1890–1952), American film director and screenwriter
Alan James (poet) (fl. 1970s–2020s), South African poet
Alec James (cricketer) (1889–1961), Welsh cricketer
Aled James (born 1982), Welsh rugby union footballer
Alex James (footballer) (1901–1953), Scottish soccer player
Alex James (musician) (born 1968), English musician and journalist, member of band Blur
Alex James (songwriter) (born 1976), songwriter and producer
Alice James (1848–1892), American diarist
Andre James (born 1997), American football player
Andrea James (born 1967), American writer, film producer, director and LGBT rights activist
Andrea James (playwright), Australian playwright, author of Sunshine Super Girl
Angela James (born 1964), Canadian ice hockey player
Angharad James (poet) (1677–1749), Welsh language poet
Ann James (born 1952), Australian illustrator and writer
Ann James (artist) (1925 – 2011), English-born Canadian artist and educator
Annie Laurie Wilson James (1862–?), American journalist
Anthony James (actor) (1942–2020), American actor
Anthony James (artist) (born 1974), English sculptor, painter and performance artist
Antonio James (c. 1954–1996), American murderer
Antonio D. James (born 1985), American film director
Antony James (born 1989), British swimmer
Archibald James (1893–1980), British politician and Royal Air Force officer
Arnold James (born 1974), international footballer from Antigua and Barbuda
Art and Arthur James (disambiguation), multiple people
Art James (1929–2004), American game show host
Art James (baseball), American baseball player
Arthur James (racehorse owner) (1853–1917), British racehorse owner
Arthur James (footballer) (1855–1911), English footballer
Arthur James (politician) (1883–1973), Governor of Pennsylvania
Arthur Lorne James (1903–1964), Air Vice-Marshal in the Royal Canadian Air Force
Arthur G. James (1912–2001), American surgeon
Arthur James (judge) (1916–1976), English Court of Appeal judge
Ashley James (curator), American curator
Augustus James (1866–1934), Australian politician
Aurora James (born 1984), Canadian creative director, activist, and fashion designer
B
Barbara James (1943–2003), Australian author, historian, journalist, political adviser and activist
Barry James, English stage actor
Becky James (born 1991), Welsh cyclist
Benjamin James (disambiguation), multiple people
Benjamin James (Nova Scotia politician), farmer and political figure in Nova Scotia
Benjamin F. James (1885–1961), Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Benjamin James (American football), head football coach for the Dickinson College Red Devils, 1942
Benjamin James (Nova Scotia politician), farmer and political figure in Nova Scotia
Bernard James (born 1985), American basketball player
Bernie James (baseball) (1905–1994), American baseball player
Bernie James (born 1958), English–born, American soccer player
Bert James (disambiguation), multiple people
Bert James (baseball) (1886–1959), American baseball player
Bert James (1914–2006), Australian politician
Betty James (1918–2008), American businesswoman who named the slinky
Bill James (disambiguation), multiple people
Bill James (pitcher, born 1887) (1887–1942), baseball player
Bill James (pitcher, born 1892) (1892–1971), baseball player
Bill James (novelist) (1929–2023), novelist
Bill James (American politician) (born 1930), American politician
Bill James (rower), New Zealand rower
Bill James (Australian footballer) (born 1937), Australian rules footballer
Bill James (born 1949), American baseball writer and historian
Billy James (disambiguation), multiple people
Billy T. James (1948–1991), New Zealand comedian
Billy James (basketball) (born 1950), American professional basketball player
Billy James (rugby player) (born 1956), Welsh rugby union player
Billy James (born 1960), American publicist, musician, and author known as Ant-Bee
Billy James (publicist), American publicist and talent scout
Bob James (disambiguation), multiple people
Bob James (musician) (born 1939), jazz musician
Bob James (rock singer) (1952–2021), singer of Montrose, 1974–1976
Bob James (baseball) (born 1958), baseball player for the Expos, Tigers, and White Sox
Bob James (country singer) (born 1960), representative of CMT Europe, 1995–1997
Brad James (born 1981), American actor
Bradley James (disambiguation), multiple people
Bradley James, English actor
Bradley James (1961–2012), American professional wrestler better known as Brad Armstrong
Brandon James (born 1987), American footballer
Brendan James (born 1979), American singer/songwriter
Brett James (footballer) (born 1972), Australian Rules footballer from South Australia
Brett James (born 1968), American singer, songwriter and record producer
Brian James (disambiguation), multiple people
Brian James (actor) (1918–2009), Australian TV actor
Brian James (cricketer, born 1934) (1934–2000), English cricketer
Brian James (cricketer, born 1941) (1941–2002), English cricketer
Brian James (rugby league) (1943–2020), Australian rugby league footballer
Brian James (guitarist) (born 1955), British punk musician, former member of The Damned
Brian James (basketball) (born 1956), American basketball coach
Brian d'Arcy James (born 1968), American actor and musician
Brian Girard James, better known as Road Dogg (born 1969), American professional wrestler
Brian R. James (born 1974), American game designer and software engineer
Brion James (1945–1999), American character actor
Bronny James (born 2004), American basketball player and son of LeBron James
Butch James (born 1979), South African rugby player
C
C. L. R. James (1901–1989), Trinidadian essayist and historian of the Haitian Revolution
Carl James (1925–2005), American collegiate sports executive
Carlos James (born 1971), American college baseball coach
Carol James, New Zealand footballer
Carol-Ann James, West Indian cricketer
Carole James (born 1957), Canadian politician
Carwyn James (1929–1983), Welsh rugby player
Casey James (born 1982), American singer and guitarist
Cecil James (1913–1999), English bassoonist
Cedric James (born 1979), American footballer
Charlene James, British playwright and screenwriter
Charles and Charlie James (disambiguation), multiple people
Charles Tillinghast James (1805–1862), U.S. Senator from Rhode Island
Charles James (MP) (1817–1890), British politician
Charles Hamilton James, Count of Arran, Anglo-Scottish Soldier and Author
Charles Pinckney James (1818–1899), U.S. federal judge
Charles James (chemist) (1880–1928), British–born discoverer of lutetium
Charles James (footballer) (1882–1960), English footballer for Stoke
Charles James (rugby league) (1891–1917), New Zealand rugby league footballer
Charles Holloway James (1893–1953), British architect
Charles James (designer) (1906–1978), British–American fashion designer
Charles James (attorney) (born 1954), U.S. assistant attorney general
Charles James (American football) (born 1990), American football cornerback
Charlie James (baseball) (born 1937), American baseball player
Chris James (baseball) (born 1962), American baseball player
Chris James (racing driver) (born 1978), British auto racing driver and businessman
Chris James (footballer) (born 1987), New Zealand soccer player
Christine James, Welsh poet and academic; Archdruid of Wales
Christopher James, 5th Baron Northbourne (1926–2019), British farmer and aristocrat
Christopher James (poet) (born 1975), British poet
Ciaran James (born 1991), British water polo player
Chuck James (born 1981), American baseball player
Clement James (footballer) (born 1981), British footballer
Cleo James (born 1940), American baseball player
Clifton James (1921–2017), American actor
Clive James (1939–2019), Australian writer, poet, essayist, critic, and commentator on popular culture
Colin James (bishop) (1926–2009), Bishop of Wakefield, 1977–1985, and Winchester, 1985–1995
Colin James (journalist) (born 1944), New Zealand journalist
Colin James (born 1964), Canadian musician
Connor James (born 1982), Canadian ice hockey player
Connor James (soccer) (born 1996), Canadian soccer player
Cordelia James, Baroness James of Rusholme (1912–2007), British educator and justice of the peace
Craig James (disambiguation), multiple people
Craig T. James (born 1941), U.S. Representative from Florida
Craig James (running back) (born 1961), American football player and sportscaster
Craig James (economist) (born 1962), Australian economist
Craig James (English footballer) (born 1982), English footballer
D
Dafydd James (born 1975), Welsh rugby union international and British Lion
Dai James (1899–after 1929), Welsh forward
Dan and Daniel James (disambiguation), multiple people
Dan James (1937–1987), American footballer
Daniel James (businessman) (1801–1876), one of the co-founders of Phelps, Dodge & Co.
Daniel Willis James (1832–1907), American businessman
Daniel James (Gwyrosydd) aka "Gwyrosydd" (1848–1920), Welsh poet and hymn-writer
Daniel Lewis James (1911–1988), American author
Daniel James Jr. aka "Chappie" (1920–1978), African American USAF general
Daniel James (historian) (born 1948), British historian and expert in Peronism
Daniel James (soldier) (born 1962), British Army Corporal and interpreter, convicted of espionage
Daniel James (game developer) (born 1971), British-Canadian video game developer
Daniel James (music producer) (born 1975), Australian music producer and songwriter
Daniel James (footballer) (born 1997), Welsh soccer player
Darren James (broadcaster) (born 1960), Australian radio broadcaster
Darren James (born 1964), American pornographic actor
David James (disambiguation)
David James (actor, born 1839) (1839–1893), English comic actor and one of the founders of London's Vaudeville Theatre
David James (actor, born 1967) (born 1967), Australian television and film actor; and former presenter of ABC's Play School
David James (actor, born 1972) (born 1972), South African film, theater, and television actor known for playing Koobus Venter in the 2009 film District 9
David James (bishop) (born 1945), current bishop of Bradford
David James (cell biologist) (born 1958), cell biologist who discovered the glucose transporter GLUT4
David James (cricketer, born 1921) (1921–2002), Welsh cricketer
David James (footballer, born 1917) (1917–1981), Welsh forward
David James (footballer, born 1942), Scottish forward
David James (footballer, born 1970), English goalkeeper
David James (politician, born 1843) (1843–1921), member of the Wisconsin State Senate
David James (politician, born 1919) (1919–1986), British politician and member of the Conservative Party
David James, Baron James of Blackheath (born 1937), British corporate trouble-shooter, former chairman of the Millennium Dome, and author of the Conservative Party's James Report
David James (rugby, born 1866) (1866–1929), Welsh international rugby player
David James (rugby, born 1906) (1906–1981), Welsh rugby union and professional rugby league footballer
David James (rugby, born 1985) (born 1985), Welsh rugby league player
Deborah Lee James (born 1958), United States Secretary of the Air Force
Deborah James (disambiguation)
Deborah James (activist), American activist
Deborah James (anthropologist), South African anthropologist and academic
Dennis James (1917–1997), American actor and game show host
Dennis James (musician), American musician prominent in the revival of silent films
Dennis James (bodybuilder) (born 1969), African-American bodybuilder
Derwin James (born 1996), American football player
Devin James Stone, American lawyer and YouTuber
Diane James (born 1959), Ukip MEP
Dick James (1920–1986), music publisher
Dick James (American football) (1934–2000), American footballer
Dominic James (born 1986), American basketball player
Don and Donald James (disambiguation), multiple people
Don James (American football) (1932–2013), American college football head coach
Don James (video games), Nintendo executive
Donald James (surfer) (died 1996), American pre-WWII surfer
Donald James (1931–2008), English novelist and television writer
Donald Chris James (born 1962), American baseball player
Dorothy James (1901–1982), American composer
Doug James (born 1962), American footballer and broadcaster
Doug James (musician) (born 1953), American musician
Duncan Airlie James (born 1961), Scottish kickboxer and actor
Duncan James (born 1978), British singer (Blue)
Duncan James (Australian singer) (fl. 2003–04), Australian singer
E
E. L. James (born 1963), British author (Fifty Shades of Grey)
E. O. James (1888–1972), anthropologist in the field of comparative religion
Ed, Eddie and Eddy James (disambiguation), multiple people
Ed James (writer) (1908–1995), American writer and creator of the U.S. sitcom Father Knows Best
Ed James (disc jockey) (born 1976), radio DJ
Eddie James (Canadian football) (1907–1958), Canadian football running back
Eddie James (born 1961), American murderer
Eddy James (1874–1937), Australian rules footballer
Edgerrin James (born 1978), American football player
Edison James (born 1943), Prime Minister of Dominica
Edmond James (1874–1952), British colonial administrator
Edward James (disambiguation), multiple people
Edward James (martyr) (c. 1557–1588), English Catholic priest and martyr
Edward James (clergyman) (1569–1610?), Welsh clergyman and translator
Edward James (judge) (1757–1841), judge and politician in Nova Scotia
Edward James (barrister) (1807–1867), English barrister
Edward James (Nova Scotia politician) (1825–1909), politician in Nova Scotia, Canada
Edward Holton James (1873–1954), American socialist
Edward James (cricketer) (1896–1975), Welsh cricketer
Edward James (1907–1984), British poet and art patron
Edward James (historian) (born 1947), Professor of medieval history at University College Dublin
Edwin James (scientist) (1797–1861), American botanist, geographer, geologist and explorer
Edwin James (lawyer) (c. 1812–1882), English lawyer, Member of Parliament and would-be actor
Edwin Leland James (1890–1951), American newspaper editor
Eleanor James (born 1986), English actress
Elinor James (1644–1719), British printer and writer
Elmore James (1918–1963), American blues singer, songwriter and musician
Emrys James (1928–1989), Welsh actor
Eric James (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric James (cricketer, 1881–1948), Australian cricketer
Eric James, Baron James of Rusholme (1909–1992), English peer and academic
Eric James (cricketer, 1923–1999), Australian cricketer
Eric James (clergyman) (1925–2012), British Anglican clergyman
Erica James (born 1960), British novelist
Etta James (1938–2012), American R&B and gospel singer
Eugene James (1913–1933), American jockey
Evan James (disambiguation), multiple people
Evan James (poet) (1809–1878), composer of the Welsh national anthem
Evan James (civil servant) (1846–1923), Indian Civil Service
Evan James (rugby) (1869–1901), Welsh rugby international
Evan James (cricketer) (1918–1989), Welsh cricketer
Evan James (soccer) (born 1990), Canadian soccer player
F
Faruq Mahfuz Anam (born 1964), Bangladeshi singer, known as James (musician)
Florence James (1902–1993), Australian author and literary agent
Fob James (born 1934), American politician; 48th Governor of Alabama
Frances James (soprano) (1903–1988), Canadian soprano
Frances James (ecologist) (born 1930), American ecologist
Francesca James (born 1949), American actress
Francis James (congressman) (1799–1886), U.S. Representative from Pennsylvania
Francis James (missionary) (1851–1900), British Christian missionary in China
Francis James (1918–1992), Australian publisher
Frank James (disambiguation), multiple people
Frank James (MP) (1821–1924), British politician
Frank James (1843–1915), American outlaw
Frank Linsly James (1851–1890), English explorer
Frank Cyril James (1903–1973), Canadian academic and principal of McGill University
Frank B. James (1912–2004), U.S. Air Force general
Frank A. James, III, American historian
Fred James (disambiguation), multiple people
Freddie James (born 1937), American football coach
Frederic James (1915–1985), American artist
Frederick James (artist) (1845–1907), American artist
Frederick Seton James, (1870–1934), British colonial administrator
Frederick Alexander James (1884–1957), Australian merchant and litigant
G
Gareth James (born 1984), English cricketer
Gary James (born 1960), English drummer
Garry James (born 1963), American footballer
Gee Gee James (1902 or 1903–1971), American actress
Gene James (1925–1997), American professional basketball player
George James (disambiguation)
George James (soldier) (1760–1811), colonel of the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers
George Payne Rainsford James (1799–1860), novelist and historical writer
George Wharton James (1858–1923), prolific popular lecturer and journalist
George James (footballer) (1899–1976), English footballer
George K. James (1905–1994), American college sports coach
George James (musician) (1906–1995), American jazz saxophonist
George James (writer) (died c. 1954), Guyanese writer
George James, Jr., former head college football coach for the Kentucky State University Thorobreds
Gerald James (1917–2006), British actor
Geraldine James (born 1950), English actress
Gerard Luz James (born 1953), United States Virgin Islander politician, funeral director and businessman
Gérard James, American set decorator
Gerry James (born 1934), Canadian football, and ice hockey player
Gill James (born 1934), Australian politician
Glenicia James (born 1974), West Indian cricketer
Glyn James, Welsh footballer
Gordon James (actor) (1878–1949) English actor
Gordon C. James, American political consultant
Graham James (disambiguation)
Graham James (bishop) (born 1951), British Bishop of Norwich
Graham James (ice hockey) (born 1954), former Canadian ice hockey coach and convicted sex offender
Greg James (disambiguation)
Greg James, born 1985, British broadcaster, author and podcaster
Greg James (judge), born 1944, Supreme Court judge
H
H. Evan James (fl. 1908–1920), British Olympic fencer
Hannah Packard James (1835 – 1903), American library pioneer
Harold and Harry James (disambiguation), multiple people
Harold James (archer)
Harold James (historian) (born 1956)
Harold James (Pennsylvania politician), State Representative
Harry James (Australian rules footballer) (1877–1940)
Harry James (American football) (1881–1947)
Harry James (1916–1983), American musician
Helen F. James (born 1956), American paleornithologist
Helen G. James, American equality activist
Henry James (disambiguation), multiple people
Henry James (British Army officer) (1803–1877), director-general of the Ordnance Survey
Henry James, Sr. (1811–1882), American theologian
Henry James, 1st Baron James of Hereford (1828–1911), English lawyer and statesman
Henry James (1843–1916), American author and critic
Henry Evan Murchison James (1846–1923), British officer in the Indian Civil Service, explorer and writer
Henry James (priest) (1864–1949), Dean of Bangor Cathedral, 1934–1940
Henry James (biographer) (1879–1947), winner of the 1931 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography
Henry James (basketball) (born 1965), American basketball player
Hilary James, British musician
Hilda James (1904–1982), British Olympic swimmer
Horace James (born 1984), Jamaican footballer
Hugh James (disambiguation)
I
Iain James, English singer/songwriter
Ian James (athlete) (born 1963), Canadian Olympic long jumper
Ifor James (1931–2004), British musician and teacher
Isaac James (Medal of Honor) (1838–1914), American soldier who fought in the American Civil War
Ivor James (1882–1963), British cellist
J
Jack James (Australian rules footballer) (1892–1977), played for St Kilda and Richmond in Victoria
Jack James (rocket engineer) (1920–2001), American who worked on NASA's Mariner program
Jackie James, Scottish musician
James James (1833–1902), Welsh musician (composer of 'Land of my Fathers')
Jamie James (born 1953), Canadian guitarist and singer/songwriter
Jason James (disambiguation), multiple people
Jason James (musician) (born 1981), Welsh musician
Jason James (basketball), American college basketball coach
Jay James (Bullet for My Valentine) (born 1981), Welsh musician
Jeff James (baseball) (1941–2006), American baseball player
Jeff James (musician) (born 1988), American singer and songwriter
Jeffrey James, Australian news anchor
Jennifer James (born 1977), English actress
Jeremy James (sculptor) (born 1964), British sculptor
Jeremy James (singer/songwriter) (born 1978), American musician
Jesse James (disambiguation)
Jesse James (1847–1882), American outlaw, member of the James-Younger Gang
Jesse E. James (1875–1951), only surviving son of American outlaw Jesse James
Jesse James (Texas Treasurer) (1904–1977), Texas State Treasurer
Jesse James (television personality) (born 1969), custom vehicle maker and American television personality
Jesse James (actor) (born 1989), American actor
Jesse James (tight end) (born 1994), American football player
Jesse James (songwriter), writer of the 1968 hit instrumental "The Horse"
Jewell James (born 1953), Lummi master wood carver, activist
Jill James, American biochemist
Jim James (born 1978), American musician
Joe James (disambiguation)
Joe James (racing driver) (1925–1952), American racecar driver
Joe James (American football), head football coach for the Howard Payne University Yellow Jackets
Joe James (soccer) (born 1961), U.S. soccer defender
John James (disambiguation):
John James (architect) (1673–1746), English architect
John James (actor) (born 1956), American actor
John James (Australian rules footballer) (1934–2010), Australian Rules footballer
John E. James (born 1981), American businessman
Jonathan James (1983–2008), American cybercriminal
Joni James (1930–2022), American singer
Joseph James and Joseph James, Jr., (born c. 1790 and 1820 respectively), Native American interpreters
Joshua James (disambiguation), multiple people
Josiah-Jordan James (born 2000), American basketball player
Justin James (disambiguation), multiple people
K
Kamara James (1984–2014), American Olympic fencer
Kasey James (born 1982), American wrestler
Kelly James (1958–2006), American mountain climber
Kendall James (born 1991), American football player
Ken, Kenneth and Kenny James (disambiguation), multiple people
Ken James (cricketer) (1904–1976), former New Zealand Test cricketer
Ken James (politician) (1934–2014), former Canadian Member of Parliament
Ken James (Australian actor) (born 1948)
Kenneth Tyler James, musician
Kenny James (American football) (born 1984)
Kevin James (disambiguation), multiple people
Kevin James (magician) (born 1962), French-born American magician
Kevin James (broadcaster) (born 1963), conservative radio host and political commentator
Kevin James (born 1965), American actor and comedian
Kevin James (Scottish footballer) (born 1975), footballer for Ayr United
Kevin James (terrorist) (born c.1976), American who pleaded guilty to planning terrorist attacks in California
Kevin James (English footballer) (born 1980), footballer for Dulwich Hamlet
Kirani James (born 1992), Grenadian sprinter
L
L. Dean James (1947–2018), American writer
Larry James (disambiguation), multiple people
Larry James (1947–2008) American Olympic sprinter
Larry M. James (born 1950), President and CEO of CitySquare
Larry D. James, Lt. General in the United States Air Force
Larry C. James, former chief psychologist at Guantanamo, and author of Fixing Hell
Laura James (nurse) (1880–1969), New Zealand nurse in World War I
Laura James (born 1990), American model
LeBron James (born 1984), American basketball player
Lee James (politician) (born 1948), member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Lee James (weightlifter) (1953–2023) American weightlifter
Lee S. James (born 1973), English golfer
Lee James (BBC) (fl. 2009), British sports broadcaster
Leela James (born 1983), American singer
Leighton James (born 1953), Welsh footballer
Lennie James (born 1965), English actor
Leon James (born 2001), Thai footballer
Les James (1890–1917), Australian rules footballer
Letitia James (born 1958), American lawyer, activist, and politician in Brooklyn
Lily James (born 1989), English actress
Lionel James (1962–2022), American football player
Linda James (born 1951), British–born New Zealand artist
Liz James, British art historian
Louisa James (born 1979), English journalist and newsreader
Luke James (disambiguation), multiple people
Luke James (footballer) (born 1994), midfielder for Peterborough United F.C.
Luke James (singer) American R&B singer
Lulu James (born c. 1992), British electronic and soul singer
M
Mabel Moir James (1917–2010), Dominican politician
Margaret Calkin James, fashion designer
Margot James (born 1957), British politician
Maria James (1793–1868), Welsh-born American poet
Marion James (1934–2015), American blues singer and songwriter
Mark James (disambiguation), multiple people
Mark James (British cleric) (1845–1898), British-Bermudan priest
Mark James (songwriter) (born 1940), American songwriter
Mark James (golfer) (born 1953), English golfer
Mark Andrew James, American conductor and oboist
Martin James (disambiguation), multiple people
Martin S. James (1920–2011), English-American art historian
Martin James (cricketer) (born 1963), English cricketer
Martin James (footballer) (born 1971), English professional football player
Marty James, American singer/songwriter
Marvin James (born 1989), Swiss snowboarder
Mary James (educator), associate director of Research at the University of Cambridge
Mathew, Matt, Matthew and Matty James (disambiguation), multiple people
Mathew James (umpire) (born 1974), Australian rules football umpire
Matt James (game designer) (born 1981), American game designer
Matt James (rugby league) (born 1987), British rugby league player
Matt James (TV presenter), British host of shows such as The City Gardener
Matthew C. James 19th century Marine architect, poet and songwriter
Matthew James (politician) (born 1955), American politician from Virginia
Matthew James (actor), American actor
Matty James (Matthew Lee James, born 1991), English footballer for Leicester City
Max James (born 1951), Australian rules footballer from South Australia
Mel James, Welsh rugby union and rugby league footballer
Melville James (1877–1957), Australian Anglican bishop
Merlin James (born 1960), British artist
M. E. Clifton James (1898–1963), British actor, impersonator of Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery
Michael, Mickie and Mike James (disambiguation), multiple people
Michael James (singer), British singer and songwriter
Michael James (politician), Canadian politician of the early 20th century
Michael James (Australian footballer) (born 1971), Australian rules footballer
Michael James (producer), American record producer, guitarist, and mixing engineer
Michael James (quilt artist) (born 1949), American artist
Mickie James (born 1979), American professional wrestler
Mike James (baseball) (born 1967), American baseball player
Mike James (rugby union) (born 1973), Canadian rugby union player
Mike James (basketball, born 1975), American basketball player
Mike James (basketball, born 1990), American basketball player
Mike James (American football) (born 1991)
Miles James (1829–1871), American soldier and Medal of Honour recipient
Miss James (1830–1910) English philanthropist
Montague Rhodes James (1862–1936), British mediaeval scholar and writer
Morgan James (born 1981), American singer/songwriter and actress
N
Naomi James (born 1949), New Zealand sailor
Natalie James, married name of Natalie Caine (1909–2008), English oboist
Nate James (born 1977), British singer/songwriter
Nate James (basketball) (born 1977), American basketball player
Neil James (c. 1961–2014), English rugby league footballer
Nick James (disambiguation)
Nicky James (1943–2007), British musician and songwriter
Norman James (disambiguation), multiple people
Norman L. James (1840–1918), American politician
Norman B. James (1872–1963), Canadian politician
Norman James (footballer) (1908–1985), English footballer
Norman James (broadcaster) Canadian sports broadcaster
O
Oliver James (disambiguation)
Oliver James (psychologist) (born 1953), psychologist, journalist, author and television presenter
Oliver James (entertainer) (born 1980), English musician, singer, songwriter and actor
Oliver James (footballer) (born 1987), English professional footballer
Oliver James (cricketer) (born 1990), Welsh cricketer
P
P. D. James (1920–2014), British crime writer
Paul James (disambiguation)
Percy James (1917–1993), Welsh footballer
Peter James (historian), British historian
Peter James (writer) (born 1948), British writer
Peter Wilfred James (1930–2014), British botanist
Pilli Alfred James (1931–1983), Indian academic
Polly James - multiple people
Polly James (born 1941), British actress
Polly James (broadcaster) (fl. 2010 -), British broadcaster
Polly James (screenwriter) (fl. 1940's - 1950's), American screenwriter
Philip Frederick Wright James (17 May 1890 – 1 November 1975) an American composer, conductor and music educator.
Philip Seaforth James (28 May 1914 – 5 May 2001) a barrister, academic, author and soldier.
Philip J. K. James (born 30 June 1978) is a British entrepreneur, adventurer and CEO of Penrose Hill
Phil Nyokai James (born 1954) is a teacher, performer and avant-garde composer
R
Raji James (born 1970), British actor
Ralph Duncan James (1909–1979), English and Canadian mathematician
Reginald W. James (1891–1964), English and South African naturalist and physicist
Reece James (disambiguation)
Reece James (footballer, born 1993), English footballer
Reece James (footballer, born 1999), English footballer
Richard James (disambiguation):
Richard James (scholar) (1592–1638), English scholar and librarian
Richard James (musician), British musician
Richard D. James (born 1971), British musician known as Aphex Twin
Richard D. James (scientist) (born 1952), American scientist
Richard T. James (1914–1974), American co-inventor of the Slinky
Richie James (born 1995), American football player
Rick James (1948–2004), African-American funk and soul musician
Rob, Robbie and Robert James (disambiguation)
Rob James (singer) (born 1977), Canadian pop singer
Rob James (guitarist), member of The Clarks
Robbie James (1957–1998), Welsh soccer player
Robert James (physician) (1703–1776), English physician
Robert S. James (1818–1850), father of the American outlaw Jesse James
Robert James (headmaster) (1905–1982), headmaster of St Paul's School and of Harrow School
Robert James (actor) (1924–2004), Scottish actor
Robert Rhodes James (1933–1999), British historian and Conservative Member of Parliament
Robert G. James (born 1946), United States District Court judge
Robert James (defensive back) (born 1947), played in the National Football League, 1969–1974
Robert James (linebacker) (born 1983), drafted by the Atlanta Falcons, 2008
S
Sally James (disambiguation)
Scottie James (born 1996), American basketball player for the Hapoel Haifa of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Sharpe James (born 1936), American politician
Sebastian James (born 1966), British businessman and son of Christopher James, 5th Baron Northbourne
Shawn James (born 1983), Guyanese-American basketball player
Sid James (1913–1976), South African born British actor and comedian
Skip James (1902–1969), American blues singer and guitarist
Sonny James (1928–2016), American country singer
S.P. (Sydney Price) James (1870–1946), British physician and parasitologist
Steve James (disambiguation):
Steve James (blues musician) (1950–2023), American folk blues musician
Steve James (cricketer) (born 1967), English cricketer
Steve James (snooker player) (born 1961), English snooker player
Steve James (actor) (1952–1993), American actor
Steve James (footballer) (born 1949), English soccer player
Steve James (born 1965), American professional wrestler better known as Steve Armstrong
T
T. G. H. James (1923–2009), British Egyptologist, known as Harry James
Teresa James (1914–2008), American aviator
Tessa James (born 1991), Australian actress
Tommy James (born 1947), American musician
Tony James (born 1958), British musician
V
Val James (born 1957), American ice hockey player
Victor James (1897–1984), Australian Unitarian minister and pacifist
W
Walter James (1863–1943), Premier of Western Australia from 1902 to 1904 and supporter of the federation movement
Sir Walter James, 1st Baronet (1759–1829), British Baronet and last warden of the Royal Mint
Walter James, 1st Baron Northbourne (1816–1893), British Member of Parliament
Walter James, 2nd Baron Northbourne (1846–1923), British Peer and Liberal politician
Walter James, 4th Baron Northbourne (1896–1982), British olympic rower and agriculturist
Wendy James (born 1966), British singer
William James (disambiguation):
William James (1842–1910), American philosopher
William James (naval commander) (1720–1783), British naval commander
W. Frank James (1873–1945), US Congressman
William H. James (1831–1920), second governor of Nebraska
William Levis James (1833–1903), Union Army general
Y
Yolande James (born 1977), Canadian politician
Fictional characters
Corey James, a character in the television series All American
Dillon James, a character in the television series All American
Grace James, a character in the television series All American
Jeremy James, a character in the novel Adventures with Jeremy James
Kenny James (My Name is Earl), a character on My Name is Earl
Julie James, a character on I Know What You Did Last Summer
Pamela James, a character on Martin
Spencer James, a character in the television series All American
Other
Angela James Bowl, Canadian ice hockey trophy
The ClementJames Centre, a British charity based in London
Colin James (album), the 1988 debut album from Canadian musician Colin James
Ellen James Society, American rock band
Isaac James (band), American rock band
HMS Mary James, two ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name Mary James
See also
James (disambiguation)
Jameson (disambiguation)
Jamison (disambiguation)
References
Patronymic surnames
English-language surnames
Surnames from given names
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4993996
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basshunter
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Basshunter
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Jonas Erik Altberg (; born 22 December 1984), known professionally as Basshunter, is a Swedish singer, record producer, songwriter and DJ. As indicated by his stage name, Basshunter is known for bass-heavy eurodance, trance, and electronic pop music.
Born and raised in Halmstad he moved to Malmö in 2006. As a young teen, Basshunter sang in a choir his mother ran. He started producing music at the age of 17, and later he started performing in local venues in his early career. In 2006, he self-released "Boten Anna" for free download a few months before he signed with labels Extensive Music and Warner Music Sweden and began commercial releases. His 2007 song "Now You're Gone" featuring Bazzheadz is based on Bazzheadz's "Now You're Gone" which uses the melody of "Boten Anna" with entirely different lyrics.
Basshunter has recorded five studio albums: The Bassmachine (2004), LOL (2006), Now You're Gone – The Album (2008), Bass Generation (2009), and Calling Time (2013). In addition to his own music, he has written for El Capon, Mange Makers, and Lana Scolaro. He has taken part in the seventh series of the British reality television show Celebrity Big Brother, episodes of the Swedish game show Fångarna på fortet, and an episode of the British television quiz show Weakest Link.
His accolades include a European Border Breakers Award, a Musikförläggarnas pris, a Telia award, and nominations for a BT Digital Music Award, two Grammis, an MTV Europe Music Award, and a Rockbjörnen. According to Svenska Dagbladet figures published in 2009, he has sold more than 3 million records.
Early life
Jonas Erik Altberg was born on 22 December 1984 in Halmstad to Gunhild Elisabet (died 2016), a teacher and school principal as well as union representative for the Swedish Teachers' Union and Karl Göran Altberg, who worked for a construction company. He has a younger brother, Joakim; the family lived near Tylösand. In his mid-teens he started singing in a choir his mother ran. He also sang for two years in a rock band, where he became acquainted with experimental music. He attended secondary school with a technical specialization, but moved after two years to , a secondary school in Halmstad with a music specialization. He finished secondary school in 2005, after which he attended college, but did not complete his education.
Career
2001–2006: Beginnings
Altberg began producing music at the age of 17 after six months of using the software program FruityLoops (FL Studio). He chose the stage name "Basshunter" in a reference to his musical style, and described the name as commercial and powerful. His father was tired of hearing the constant pounding when Basshunter was producing music inside the bedroom, so he built him clubhouse.
In 2004, Basshunter was chosen in an online poll and performed live for the first time at a rave party in Älmhult. Alex Music released Basshunter's first studio album, The Bassmachine, on 25 August 2004. In 2005, a remastered version of this album with improved sound quality was released. In 2006, Basshunter re-released The Bassmachine as The Bass Machine and also released his first compilation album The Old Shit through his own website. Basshunter's interest in music deepened as time went by. He recorded a YouTube video, entitled Basshunter Tutorial, showing his recording process in FL Studio. The track from the video was covered over 200 times.
Basshunter published his music mainly through the Internet for free download on platforms such as chat channels and gaming websites. He was registered on online communities like Efterfest, LunarStorm, Nattstad, Porrigt, Playahead, Skunk and Trance.nu. For several years he was a DJ in Swedish clubs.
2006–2008: LOL
In March 2006, Basshunter published his song "Boten Anna" online and within twenty-four hours, it had been downloaded 37,000 times. Basshunter's single "Welcome to Rainbow" was released on 1 April 2006; it included the track "Boten Anna". With this success, Basshunter received several proposals from managers and music labels. Swedish DJ and party organizer Joakim Jarny contacted Basshunter via Internet Relay Chat and Jarny was soon overwhelmed by hundreds of requests from club owners in Sweden, Norway and Denmark who wanted Basshunter to perform at their clubs. Jarny contacted his friend Henrik Uhlmann at Extensive Music and in April 2006, Basshunter signed with Extensive Music and Warner Music Sweden. On 9 May 2006, "Boten Anna" was officially released as a single. By 8 June 2006, the song had been downloaded over one million times. In that year, he moved to Malmö, where the headquarters of Extensive Music are located.
"Boten Anna" peaked at number one on the Swedish singles chart and reached number 13 on the Swedish Best of All Time list, and was certified platinum. It also reached number one on the Danish singles chart, staying there for 14 weeks, and was certified triple platinum for selling 61,000 copies. It was also certified gold in Austria. "Boten Anna" was covered twice by Dutch duo Gebroeders Ko, whose bootleg charted at number three in the Netherlands, right after Basshunter's version. The next cover called reached number two. An official German-language version was released in 2007.
Basshunter's second studio album LOL was released on 28 August 2006. He worked on the album for three-and-a-half weeks, during which Ali Payami helped him with three songs. Basshunter described it as a connection of vocal music with hard dance and hard trance music; Basshunter's use of vocals is a significant departure from his earlier works. An American version of LOL was released on 1 January 2008, with the same Swedish songs as the original album but with lyrics and some titles translated into English. The new release also included new tracks, including "Now You're Gone", "Russia Privjet", "The Beat", "Jingle Bells", "Beer in the Bar" and "DotA (Club Mix)". A special version of this album was released in 2008, and includes the German version of "Boten Anna" and three music videos. LOL peaked at number five in Sweden, number four on the Finnish chart and number three on the Danish albums chart, and was certified double platinum in Denmark.
The second single from LOL, "Vi sitter i Ventrilo och spelar DotA", was released on 13 September of the same year. The single peaked at number two in Finland, number six in Sweden, and number seven in Norway and Denmark. It was certified gold in Denmark. His song "Hallå där" charted at number 51 on Swedish singles chart. The album's third single, a remake of the Christmas song "Jingle Bells", was released on 13 November and peaked at number nine in Norway, and number 13 in Sweden. The single also made it onto the Dutch and United Kingdom charts. The single "Vifta med händerna", which features the duo Patrik & Lillen, peaked on the Finnish charts at number seven and on the Sweden charts at number 25. On 5 November 2007, a new version of the "Vi sitter i Ventrilo och spelar DotA" was released under the title "DotA"; it charted on Germany's singles chart. This is different from the 2008 version from Now You're Gone – The Album.
2007–2009: Now You're Gone – The Album
On 29 December 2007, an English-language version of "Boten Anna" entitled "Now You're Gone" was released. A year earlier, in 2006, DJ Mental Theo (under the alias Bazzheadz) had created a bootleg English version called using the melody of "Boten Anna" with entirely different lyrics. Initially, Basshunter tried to translate "Boten Anna" into English but found it difficult to keep the "hock" and the story so he recorded his own version of "Now You're Gone" with DJ Mental Theo's lyrics. It was the initial release for Hard2Beat Records label (later Dance Nation). The single charted at number one in the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number one for five weeks. It was the first Swedish song to reach number one in the United Kingdom since "Dancing Queen" by ABBA. "Now You're Gone" sold in excess of 667,000 copies in the United Kingdom and was certified platinum there. It also charted on the UK Top 100 Songs of the Decade list. "Now You're Gone" also stayed at the top for five weeks in Ireland, made it to number two on the Swedish chart, and number three in New Zealand, where the single was certified platinum. On the French singles chart, "Now You're Gone" peaked at number six. "Now You're Gone" also charted at number four on the European Hot 100 Singles chart.
The next single "Please Don't Go", a cover of the KC and the Sunshine Band 1979 song, was released on 19 May 2008 and reached number six on the Swedish singles chart. The third single "All I Ever Wanted" was released on 29 June 2008 and peaked at number 2 in the United Kingdom, where it sold about 400,000 copies and was certified gold. It reached number one on the Irish singles chart. The single "All I Ever Wanted" was certified gold in New Zealand and charted at number 10 on the European Hot 100 Singles chart.
Basshunter worked on Now You're Gone – The Album for two-and-a-half weeks before releasing it on 14 July 2008. The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number one sold 376,017 copies in the United Kingdom, and was certified platinum there. It also topped the album chart in New Zealand and was certified platinum there. Now You're Gone – The Album charted at number two in Ireland and reached number six on the European Top 100 Albums chart. The song "Angel in the Night" was released as a single on 8 September 2008; it charted at number 10 in Ireland and number 14 in the United Kingdom. It also charted in Sweden. In 2008 Basshunter became the 11th-best-selling singles songwriter in the United Kingdom according to eight months of data compiled by Official Charts Company.
The album's fifth single "I Miss You" is a dance cover of a Westlife song and was released on 14 December 2008. The single appeared on the United Kingdom, Swedish, and German charts. On 5 April 2009, the single "Walk on Water" was released, as was a deluxe edition of the album that includes all of the original album together with remixes of singles; "I Can Walk on Water" was replaced with the single version and renamed "Walk on Water".
2009: Bass Generation
On 25 September 2009, Basshunter's fourth studio album Bass Generation, was released. The Double Album Version includes remixes of some of his singles, and the tracks "Without Stars" and the Swedish version of "Camilla". In early September 2009, prior to the album's release, the track "Numbers" was released as a free download via Basshunter's official Bebo account. Bass Generation reached number two in New Zealand, and number 16 in the United Kingdom and Irish album charts. It sold more than 60,000 copies and was certified silver in the United Kingdom.
The track "Every Morning" was released as a single on 18 September 2009; it reached number 13 on Swedish singles chart and number 14 in New Zealand. It peaked at number 17 in the United Kingdom and Ireland. "I Promised Myself", a cover of a Nick Kamen hit, was released on 29 November 2009.
2010–2013: Calling Time and The Early Bedroom Sessions
The single "Saturday" was released on 5 July 2010; it reached number 14 on the New Zealand chart and was certified gold there. It also charted in the United Kingdom and Ireland. On 20 April 2011, the next Basshunter single "Fest i hela huset", which was recorded during his time in the Swedish Big Brother series, was released. The single charted at number five on the Swedish singles chart. His following single "Northern Light" was released on 14 May 2012 and the next single "Dream on the Dancefloor" was released on 18 November that year.
Basshunter's compilation album The Early Bedroom Sessions, which consists of tracks from albums The Bassmachine and The Old Shit, other early releases and unreleased tracks, was released on 3 December 2012. In 2012, Basshunter moved to Dubai and he also lived in Mallorca for six months. Extensive Music also moved to Dubai.
On 13 May 2013, Basshunter's fifth album Calling Time was released. In the version released in Ireland and in the United Kingdom, the track "Saturday" was replaced with "Open Your Eyes". Basshunter recorded more than 30 tracks for Calling Time and selected the final fifteen; he said he "tried to grow as an artist" with an album that has "classic Basshunter sounds" and previously unreleased music. The album charted at number 25 on the US Dance/Electronic Albums chart. On 20 June 2013, the single "Crash & Burn" was released; it charted on the Russian airplay chart. The last single from the album was "Calling Time", which was released on 27 September.
2013–present: Singles
On 26 July 2013 Basshunter announced he was retiring from singing to focus on DJing, producing, and songwriting. He met new artists and invited them to sing on his songs. He made the decision after four exhaustive performances in four days. On 20 November 2013, the single "Elinor" was released. In 2014, Basshunter announced a new album was in work. In 2016, Basshunter returned to recording; he said he would not release a new studio album but would focus on recording singles in accordance with prevailing trends in music industry. Almost after five years since his last single, on 19 October 2018, the single "Masterpiece" was released; it did not appear on major national charts. Since then, he has released five more singles: "Home" (2019), "Angels Ain't Listening" (2020) and "Life Speaks to Me" (2021); a tribute to Avicii. His 2022 "End the Lies" is a collaboration with Italian duo . In 2023 he collaborated with Victor Leksell on "Ingen kan slå (Boten Anna)". It peaked at number four on the Swedish singles chart.
Artistry
Musical style
Basshunter defines his music as eurodance. He says it is cheerful, full of energy and very melodic, stating it does not sound like other types of music, and that producers and artists display their own identities in their works. He is passionate about basslines and uses them in his music. Basshunter likes to create songs in minor scales. He has at least five unknown pseudonyms under which he produces music in secret. He always takes his laptop on concert tours so he can spontaneously record ideas and return to them when he is back in his main studio. Basshunter composes music and writes lyrics himself, though sometimes his agent helps with the lyrics to find the right English words. He likes to write lyrics that audiences can identify with. In 2018 Basshunter said that the music industry changed in previous years and it is harder now more than ever to stand out from other artists because it is easier to produce music. He added that it is more important than ever to adapt and an artist has to create something that people haven't heard before and described it as a holy grail. In 2020 Basshunter described himself as quite an emotional producer after a few years break from producing music.
As influences, he mentions listening to and , and bands Warp Brothers and Snap!. He also listened to many underground tracks that had never been released or are not widely known by the general public, as well as German and Dutch techno music, trance, reggae, funk and blues music; particularly the music of Ray Charles. He considers Ali Payami as one of the best music producers, songwriters and DJ's. The first music release he bought is a single "The Way" by Fastball in the 1990s. He is fan of Robbie Williams. Basshunter's work has influenced Avicii, Bladee, DCPA, Earmake and Thaiboy Digital. CMAT, Johan Gunterberg from De Vet Du, , , Surf Mesa and Linda Thelenius like Basshunter's music. Stefán Finnbogason from Sykur and Throttle listen to Basshunter's music.
The first computer Basshunter used was the Atari ST. After achieving commercial success, he bought software to produce his music. Around 95% of his music is created with software, including digital audio workstations such as FL Studio, Logic Pro, Logic Studio, Pro Tools, Cubase, and Virtual Studio Technology plugins. He also plays guitar. He said stores buy an album for about 100 Swedish krona, of which he gets paid 12-13 percent. He said people think he listens to techno in his headphones all the time but he rarely listen to the music he produces, which gives him a wider perspective.
Basshunter considers his fan base to be very important for his career and knows many of his non-Scandinavian fans actually prefer his songs to be in Swedish. Writing in English may be an advantage for reaching international audiences but he has also said he likes the challenge of writing songs in English.
Live performances
Basshunter tries to plan the shows but actually presents his live performances as improvisations. In 2006, he performed seven times in one day, when he performed at shopping centres in Gothenburg and Malmö, and five nightclubs. He believes around 10% of Scandinavians or Swedes attend his concerts outside Sweden. Basshunter has performed at many festivals including Elämä lapselle (2006 and 2008), Hity Na Czasie twice in 2007 and 2009, T4 on the Beach (2010), Youth Beatz (2011), Allsång på Skansen (2012), Hull Pride (2012), Nottinghamshire Pride (2012), Emmabodafestivalen (2014 and 2017), The Gathering (2019) and Lundakarnevalen (2022).
In 2006, Basshunter performed during the Norway Cup. In 2009, he performed at the New Year's Eve party for the president of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev and his family. He appeared on BBC Switch Live (2008) and in 2014 performed on Sochi Medals Plaza during the awards ceremony of Winter Olympic Games. Basshunter has performed on many tours, including New Zealand Tour (2009), Dance Nation Tour (2009 and 2010) and Australian Tour (2016).
Production, songwriting and remixes
Basshunter has remixed songs for a number of artists. In 2007 he released some remixes of singles; "Dancing Lasha Tumbai" by Verka Serduchka finished second in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007. "Du hast den schönsten Arsch der Welt" by Alex C. (featuring Y-ass) charted at number one in Austria and Germany. "Ieva's polka (Ievan polkka)" by Loituma also charted in Germany. He also released remix of "Calcutta 2008" for Dr. Bombay's compilation album The Hits. In 2008, Basshunter remixed Alina's song "When You Leave (Numa Numa)". In 2014, Basshunter remixed by Arash (featuring T-Pain), which charted in Austria and Germany, and was released on Arash's album Superman. In 2015, he wrote "Mange kommer hem till dig" for the band Mange Makers. The single charted at number three on the Swedish Heatseeker chart. In 2020 he wrote "Shut Up Chicken" for El Capon and "Charlie" for Lana Scolaro. "Shut Up Chicken" appeared on the Russian and Polish airplay charts.
Music videos
Music videos for "Now You're Gone", "All I Ever Wanted", "Angel in the Night", "I Miss You", "Every Morning", "I Promised Myself", "Saturday" and "Northern Light" were directed by Alex Herron. His series of music videos with Aylar Lie received media attention. "Now You're Gone" became the most-viewed YouTube video in the United Kingdom in 2008 and the third-most-viewed YouTube video of 2009 with 65 million views. The music video for "Saturday" charted at number one in Poland.
Other activities
Philanthropy
In 2008 and 2010, Basshunter appeared at the charity event Cash for Kids. He also appeared at the charity event Musikhjälpen in 2008. In February 2012, Norton Hill School's Quantock House organized a 20-hour charity sleep-over with Basshunter's song "Now You're Gone" playing non-stop, collecting more than £2,000 in the event to raise funds for the charities Time is Precious and Cancer Research UK. The event was repeated in 2015 with the same results.
Television and media
In 2009, Basshunter was a guest of television shows Red Bull Rivals and Never Mind the Buzzcocks. Starting in 2010, Basshunter took part in the seventh series of British Channel 4's Celebrity Big Brother as a housemate and finished in fourth place. He also appeared in the Swedish television game show Fångarna på fortet and in the British quiz show Weakest Link in 2010. In 2011 Basshunter's profile on Facebook was the most followed page among Swedish musicians with over 1,7 million followers. In 2015 his profile dropped to 4th place with over 2.9 million followers. In a 2017 Twitter poll, 92% of 57,814 voters said they would like Basshunter to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; 8% supported Theresa May.
Video games and films
Basshunter finished second place in a Swedish StarCraft tournament. He played Counter-Strike at semi-professional level and his clan won two tournaments in Sweden. He appeared during the Danmarks Bedste Gamer in 2008 and during The Gathering in 2019. After achieving commercial success, he could not publish songs as free downloads and started producing vlogs for YouTube. He initially planned to release a continuation of LOL album titled either ROFL or KTHXBYE for free but was unable to after signing with a record label. In 2011, Basshunter appeared in the film Playing with Arnold, in which he invites people to play the video game Mortal Online. Basshunter appeared in Arash's music video for "Melody". In 2021, he appeared in a promotional video, titled Basshunter Dota Revival for the Netflix series Dota: Dragon's Blood, performing "DotA" whilst playing Dota 2. In 2023, he said he no longer plays DotA due to reaction time at his age.
Legal issues
On 10 December 2010, Scotland's Fife Constabulary charged Basshunter over a sexual assault allegation made by two female fans during a party at a nightclub in Kirkcaldy. He was released on bail. His manager said the allegations were "totally untrue". Basshunter pleaded not guilty to two charges of sexual assault against the two women at a hearing at the town's court on 12 January 2011. On 14 June 2011, he was found not guilty, with the sheriff describing his accusers as "neither credible nor reliable" and their testimony as "riddled with inconsistencies and improbabilities".
Personal life
During their time together on the British reality television show Celebrity Big Brother in 2010, Basshunter and Kazakhstani-born Russian model Ekaterina Ivanova began an intimate relationship. He began dating Tina Makhia Khayatsadeh in 2014, and they were married on 19 January 2017 at the Dubai Polo & Equestrian Club in the presence of his brother Joakim, his manager Henrik Uhlmann, Iranian-Swedish singer Arash, Polish singer Margaret, Swedish diplomat Jan Thesleff, Warner Music Sweden chief executive officer Jonas Siljemark. The couple divorced after a year. He has stated he did not enjoy life as a married man and described the need to numb his emotions with work and alcohol.
Basshunter has Tourette syndrome and has described himself as a spontaneous person, though he has also said he has a sensitive side.
Awards and nominations
During his career, Basshunter has won several awards including Musikförläggarnas pris (2006) and NRJ Radio Award (2007). His debut album LOL was nominated for Emma, Grammis and won the European Border Breakers Award. Single "Boten Anna" was nominated for Rockbjörnen and won Eurodanceweb Award and Telia awards. Basshunter's song "Now You're Gone" won an Eska Music Award and was nominated for an MTV Europe Music Award. "Every Morning" was nominated for International Dance Music Award.
Discography
The Bassmachine (2004)
LOL (2006)
Now You're Gone – The Album (2008)
Bass Generation (2009)
Calling Time (2013)
Notes
References
External links
1984 births
Living people
Musicians from Halmstad
Singers from Halmstad
Songwriters from Halmstad
Swedish electronic musicians
Eurodance musicians
Electro musicians
Swedish trance musicians
Swedish pop musicians
Swedish male singers
Swedish record producers
Swedish songwriters
Swedish DJs
Swedish Internet celebrities
Extensive Music artists
Warner Music Sweden artists
Ultra Records artists
Dance Nations artists
3 Beat Records artists
Musikförläggarnas pris winners
World Music Awards winners
Swedish-language singers
English-language singers from Sweden
Electronic dance music DJs
People with Tourette syndrome
Swedish expatriates in the United Arab Emirates
FL Studio users
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stromatoporoidea
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Stromatoporoidea
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Stromatoporoidea is an extinct clade of sea sponges common in the fossil record from the Middle Ordovician to the Late Devonian. They can be characterized by their densely layered calcite skeletons lacking spicules. Stromatoporoids were among the most abundant and important reef-builders of their time, living close together in flat biostromes or elevated bioherms on soft tropical carbonate platforms.
Externally, some species have raised bumps (mamelons) and star-shaped crevices (astrorhizae), which together help vent exhalant water away from the living surface. Internally, stromatoporoids have a mesh-like skeletal system combining extensive horizontal layers (laminae), vertical rods (pillars), and boxy spaces (galleries), along with other features. The most common growth forms range from laminar (flattened) to domical (dome-shaped). Spheroidal, finger-like, or tree-like species also occur, though they are rare in most environments.
Stromatoporoids competed and coexisted with other reef-builders such as tabulate and rugose corals. Some stromatoporoid species are useful as environmental proxies, since their form and distribution can help approximate the depositional environment of sedimentary strata. They hosted a diverse fauna of encrusting symbionts both within and outside their skeletons. Some studies have argued that stromatoporoids were mixotrophs (engaged in a mutualistic relationship with photosynthetic algae), similar to modern scleractinian corals. Though this hypothesis is plausible, circumstantial evidence is inconclusive.
Prior to the 1970s, stromatoporoids were most frequently equated with colonial hydrozoans in the phylum Cnidaria (which also includes corals, sea anemones, and jellyfish). They are now classified as sponges in the phylum Porifera, based on their similarity to modern sclerosponges. True Paleozoic stromatoporoids (sensu stricto) encompass seven orders. Two or three of these orders appeared in the Ordovician while the rest evolved in the Silurian. They rediversified subsequent to mass extinctions at the end of the Ordovician and Silurian, but a more profound decline began in the Late Devonian. With a few putative exceptions, they apparently died out during the Hangenberg event at the end of the Devonian. A number of hypercalcified Mesozoic sponges have been classified as stromatoporoids, but they are likely unrelated to the Paleozoic radiation, thus making 'stromatoporoids' (in the broad sense) a polyphyletic group if they are included.
Morphology
Stromatoporoids are robust sponges with a dense calcite skeleton lacking spicules. Like other sponges, they grow outwards and upwards from a single base attached firmly to the substrate. Most were ambitopic (occupying soft substrate such as mud or sand for most of their life), though some were encrusting (concreted onto hard substrates such as rocks or other organisms). The base was stabilized by a crust-like layer covered with concentric wrinkles. The basal layer has historically been termed an epitheca or peritheca, names used for a similar attachment layer in sessile cnidarians.
In many species, the upper surface of the skeleton is ornamented with small mounds known as mamelons. A few species may supplement the mamelons with radiating cracks or grooves known as astrorhizae. Internally, the astrorhizae diverge as independent tapering tubes that intersect smaller open spaces within the skeletal frame. Astrorhizae are generally equated with the exhalant canals of other sponges, while the mamelons help to channel waste water away from the surface. This mechanism works via Bernoulli's principle, which states that flow pressure increases as speed decreases, such as when the flow is redirected by a vertical barrier. The surface may also be covered with even smaller bumps known as papillae. In contrast to mamelons, papillae are simply external extensions of internal pillars, rather than stacked deflections of the skeleton's outer surface.
Internal structures
By comparison to modern sponges with a similar anatomy, living tissue was likely only present at the outer surface of the stromatoporoid skeleton. By volume, the majority of the organism was a dead mesh of internal cavities and support structures. Since most stromatoporoid fossils are only visible in vertical or horizontal cross-section, the internal form of the skeleton is usually the most important region for the purpose of species differentiation. In all species, the most conspicuous internal features are laminae, layers arranged transversely (parallel to the living surface of the sponge). Laminae have an intermediate width and spacing (on average around four per millimeter) relative to other layers with the same orientation. Significantly thinner layers, when present, are termed microlaminae, while thickened irregular plates are termed pachystromes. Another universal type of internal structure are pillars, cylindrical rods oriented longitudinally (i.e., perpendicular to the laminae). Laminae and pillars are often straight and internally solid, but they can exhibit distinctive textures and distortions in some subgroups.
The cubical open spaces among the laminae and pillar meshwork are known as galleries. In life the galleries would have been filled with seawater, while in fossils the spaces are filled by recrystallized calcite. The galleries may be supplemented by very fine curved plates, termed dissepiments. Some species have more complex skeletons with broader pockets beyond the narrow galleries. Pachysteles are longitudinal walls which demarcate maze-like corridors, as visible in a transverse cross-section through the skeleton. Stacked dome-shaped pockets, known as cysts, are defined by large convex plates, known as cyst plates.
Growth forms
Stromatoporoids can show a variety of growth forms, with low domes or plates as the most common varieties. Whenever an influx of sediment buries the edge of the skeleton, the buried portion ceases growing while the exposed central portion expands outwards to cover the sediment once more. This can create a ‘ragged’ appearance for some fossils, akin to an inverted stack of bowls or plates with sharp lower edges and smoothly curved upper edges. This is one example of how stromatoporoid growth forms can vary somewhat through the animal's lifespan. A single species can acquire a taller, narrower form to survive high sedimentation rates, while acquiring a flatter and more stable form to survive in energetic shallow waters. Some stromatoporoids appear to grow intermittently in a ‘ragged’ style even without sediment burial, as indicated by an abundance of encrusters under the overhanging 'shelves'.
Stromatoporoid growth forms include:
Laminar – Sheet- or plate-shaped, with a broad base and a thin, flat skeleton expanding outwards along the substrate. Sheet-like forms with a slightly thicker profile are sometimes labelled 'tabular'.
Domical – Dome- or mound-shaped, with a curved surface developing both outwards and upwards from a broad base. Domes occupy a spectrum from low (height less than half of the base's diameter) to high (height up to double the diameter). Some high domical species taper significantly, acquiring a conical shape.
Bulbous – Bulb-shaped, with a narrow base widening upwards into a semi-spherical mass.
Columnar – Cylindrical, tall (height more than double the diameter) and trunk-like, without branches. In many cases the outer wall of the column is reinforced with laminar outgrowths. One example of a columnar stromatoporoid is Aulacera, a very large aulaceratid from the Late Ordovician of Anticosti Island, Quebec.
Digitate – Hand-shaped, with finger-like columns clustered together above a broad shared base.
Dendroid – Bush-shaped, with a thicket of narrow columns branching away from a narrow base.
Digitolaminar – A composite form combining both digitate and laminar characteristics. Finger-like projections are superimposed onto one or more flat plate-like platforms.
Irregular – A composite form without an easily characterized shape. Both vertical and horizontal growth habits may be apparent in a single skeleton, with domes, platforms, and columns interspersed throughout the development of the sponge.
Classification
Taxonomy
From Stearn et al. (1999) and The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology:
Order Actinostromatida [Upper Ordovician? (Katian) – Upper Devonian (Frasnian)]
Order Amphiporida [late Silurian (Ludlow) – Upper Devonian (Famennian)]
Order Clathrodictyida [Upper Ordovician (Katian) – Upper Devonian (Famennian), Upper Mississippian? (Serpukhovian)]
Order Labechiida [Lower Ordovician (Floian) – Upper Devonian (Famennian), Triassic?]
Order Stromatoporellida [latest Silurian (Pridoli) – Upper Devonian (Famennian)]
Order Stromatoporida [early Silurian (upper Llandovery) – Upper Devonian (Frasnian)]
Order Syringostromatida [middle Silurian (Wenlock) – Middle Devonian (Givetian), Upper Devonian? (Famennian)]
incertae sedis:
Clavidictyon
Eostachyodes
Lamellistroma
Paschkoviella
Perplexostroma
Praeidiostroma
Pseudactinostroma
Pseudostromatopora?
Taymyrostroma
Affinities
Like many fossil invertebrates, stromatoporoids have long been regarded as an enigmatic group with an uncertain relationship to modern taxa. For much of their history of study, stromatoporoid fossils could only be observed externally or through natural cross-sections. Several hypotheses developed in the 19th and 20th centuries based on this limited set of data. A few authors suggested that stromatoporoids were sponges or relatives of Gypsina (an encrusting foraminifera). However, for much of their history the mainstream interpretation was that stromotoporoids were colonial cnidarians, most closely related to mineralized hydrozoans such as Hydractinia and Millepora. Hydractinia in particular has a thinly encrusting layered skeleton, augmented by internal rods, external knobs, and radiating nutrient canals. These features were equated with pillars, mamelons, and astrorhizae, respectively.
In 1970, several living sponges were found to possess a calcareous skeletal framework very similar to Hydractinia and stromatoporoids. The modern sponges, collectively termed sclerosponges, immediately reinvigorated the hypothesis that stromatoporoids were sponges. Moreover, closer investigations of stromatoporoid fossils were able to determine that an individual mound represents a single animal, rather than a colonial congregation of polyps. Among the strongest evidence for sponge affinities was the degree of similarity between astrorhizae and exhalant canals, which were easier to homologize than the more integrated canal system of Hydractinia.
Proponents of the sponge hypothesis admitted that sclerosponges and stromatoporoids were not identical in structure; for example, sclerosponges have spicules while true Paleozoic stromatoporoids do not. Several other enigmatic calcareous fossils (archaeocyathids, disjectoporids, ‘chaetetids’) have been reclassified as sponges thanks to this new information. The sponge hypothesis quickly met widespread acceptance, with a few detractors. Up until the 1990s, some Soviet and Eastern Bloc specialists continued to regard stromatoporoids as cnidarians or cyanobacterial accumulations akin to stromatolites or thrombolites.
Evolution
Origination
The first unambiguous stromatoporoids appeared in the Ordovician, but superficially similar organisms have been reported from the Early Cambrian. These are most likely cases of convergent evolution rather than true forerunners. One example were the Kazachstanicyathida, an order of archaeocyath sponges with low growth habits and porous internal domes comparable to cyst plates. In addition, some colonial coralomorphs or algae (Maldeotaina, Yaworipora, and the ‘khasaktiids’) acquired mesh-like encrusting skeletons with a set of internal rods and domes similar to those of early stromatoporoids.
A more probable set of stromatoporoid ancestors evolved in the Ordovician. These forerunners or close relatives are grouped in the incertae sedis sponge order Pulchrilaminida. Pulchrilaminids existed from the late Tremadocian stage (near the end of the Early Ordovician) up to the early Darriwilian stage (about mid-way through the Middle Ordovician). They were low-profile hypercalcified sponges which were similar to stromatoporoids in many respects, with one key difference: pulchrilaminids had spine-like projections (probably homologous with spicules) between the laminae of the skeleton.
The first stromatoporoids to evolve belonged to the order Labechiida, which rapidly acquired worldwide diversity in the Middle Ordovician. The oldest reported labechiid species is from the Floian stage (the latter part of the Early Ordovician), but abrupt diversification was delayed until the mid-to-late Darriwilian stage, simultaneous with the disappearance of pulchrilaminids. The oldest stromatoporoid ‘reefs’ are known from the Chazy Group of eastern North America and the Machiakou Formation of North China.
Diversity through time
Labechiids were by far the most diverse stromatoporoids of the Ordovician, and some paleontologists have even ventured to reconstruct lines of descent in this preliminary stage of stromatoporoid evolution. The next order to appear were the Clathrodictyida, in the early Katian stage of the Late Ordovician. It has been suggested that clathrodictyids are descended from labechiids, as part of an evolutionary lineage starting at the Siberian species Priscastroma gemini. Though less diverse than their labechiid relatives, Ordovician clathrodictyids were widespread and locally abundant in some areas. The third stromatoporoid order, Actinostromatida, may have originated in the Late Ordovician or the Llandovery Epoch (early Silurian). The precise timing depends on the status of Plumatalinia, a Late Ordovician Estonian genus often considered a ‘missing link’ between the ancestral labechiids and their presumed descendants, the actinostromatids.
Labechiid diversity contracted during the Late Ordovician mass extinction and throughout the Silurian, while clathrodictyids and actinostromatids diversified substantially. The other four stromatoporoid orders (Amphiporida, Stromatoporellida, Stromatoporida, and Syringostromatida) also originated in the Silurian, though they remained fairly subdued compared to the three older groups. Silurian stromatoporoids would face a second round of extinction in the late Silurian (Pridoli Epoch), which reduced the number of genera back to Middle Ordovician levels.
Stromatoporoids recovered strongly in the Early and Middle Devonian, reaching their overall maximum diversity in the Eifelian stage. Clathrodictyids, stromatoporellids, stromatoporids, and syringostromatids benefited the most from this renewal of biodiversity. The arrival of the Late Devonian disrupted this apex of stromatoporoid evolution. Syringostromatids were the first to be affected, virtually disappearing from the fossil record at the start of the Frasnian stage. Actinostromatids, stromatoporellids, and stromatoporids were next in line, with their diversity and reef extent collapsing at the end of the Frasnian in accordance with the Kellwasser event (Late Devonian mass extinction). Diversity loss prior to the Kellwasser event was likely a factor of both falling origination rates and slightly elevated extinction rates. Other groups presented unexpected patterns: the formerly rare amphiporids reached their highest diversity in the Frasnian, while labechiids staged a remarkable comeback in the Famennian stage, acquiring levels of diversity not seen since the Ordovician. This would not last, as stromatoporoids appear to have been completely extinguished during the Hangenberg event (end-Devonian mass extinction) at the end of the Famennian.
Post-Devonian identifications
Putative post-Devonian stromatoporoid fossils have been reported, though their referral to the group is ambiguous at best. A supposed labechiid species (Labechia carbonaria) is known from the Viséan stage of England. Some sources consider this species to be based on misinterpreted coral fragments, while others certify its legitimacy as a Carboniferous stromatoporoid. Fossils of the Ordovician labechiid Lophiostroma have been reported from sediments as young as the Triassic, but this is another case of poor preservation and uncertain identity. Finally, the calcitic sponge Kyklopora, from the Serpukhovian stage (upper Mississippian) of Russia, has tentatively been identified as a clathrodictyid.
Over 60 valid genera of small hypermineralized Mesozoic sponges have been described as stromatoporoids based on their anatomical similarity to stromatoporids, actinostromatids, clathrodictyids, or syringostromatids. One hypothesis suggests a direct line of descent between Paleozoic and Mesozoic forms. Under this interpretation, the Devonian extinctions merely prompted stromatoporoids to abandon mineralization until the Jurassic, explaining their lack of fossils between the two time intervals. Most paleontologists disagree with this idea, since Paleozoic and Mesozoic ‘stromatoporoids’ differ in several key aspects. In contrast to true Paleozoic stromatoporoids, Mesozoic species have recognizable spicules and a more complex microstructure within the laminae and pillars which make up the skeleton. Mesozoic ‘stromatoporoids’ are a polyphyletic group, with different species referrable to the Demospongiae (demosponges) and Calcarea (calcareous sponges). Sponges in this category are understudied and many proposed genera have proven to be dubious.
Paleoecology
Stromatoporoid reefs
Like modern corals, stromatoporoids were gregarious filter feeders which congregated into closely packed patches. They were adaptable and could thrive at a variety of depths, light levels, and fluctuating sea level regimes. In these regards, they were more similar to corals than to modern calcareous sponges, which generally occupy a narrow selection of rocky habitats with high nutrient supply and low light levels.
Unlike corals, stromatoporoids usually settled on soft substrates, so their ‘reefs’ occupied only a single level rather than a multi-tiered vertical framework of built-up skeletons. Flat, horizontally-extensive ‘reefs’ are formally known as biostromes. Stromatoporoid reefs had fairly low diversity, with only a few species making up the majority of an assemblage by volume. The most diverse stromatoporoid assemblages were biostromes on carbonate platforms at intermediate depths, away from muddier basins or saltier shallows. The predominant species were usually laminar or low domical in form. High domical species and other complex forms only developed in calmer settings, where there is little risk of toppling. In a stable environment, stromatoporoids could grow to very large sizes exceeding several meters in width or height. The largest singular stromatoporoid fossil ever reported is a 30-meter (98 feet) wide Actinostroma expansum from the Frasnian-age Shell Rock Formation of Iowa.
Despite their preference for soft flat sediment, stromatoporoids occasionally contributed to built-up skeletal mounds (bioherms) with successive waves of burial and recolonization or regrowth. Shelf-margin stromatoporoid bioherms are particularly well-developed in the Devonian. Notable examples can be found in the Canning Basin of Australia, the Miette Complex of Alberta, the Eifel Region of Germany, and southern Belgium. Raised bioherms would have been strengthened by microbial carbonate and other reef-building organisms living between the sponges.
Ectosymbionts and encrusters
As hard sessile objects, stromatoporoids were used as a substrate for ectosymbionts, organisms which attach or encrust onto the outer surface of the skeleton. Most encrusting organisms were cryptobionts, meaning that they inhabited shaded spaces and cavities. These hidden areas could be found in gaps between the base of the stromatoporoid and its substrate, or on the underside of shelf-like projections. Displaced or toppled sponges had the potential to host cryptic encrusters on any part of the skeleton. Bryozoans, tabulate corals, crinoids, brachiopods, and clusters of coiled ‘spirorbids’ all occupied the cryptic niche. The rim of the hidden areas hosted the greatest diversity of encrusters, most of which were filter feeders reliant on a current to feed. More exposed areas were also encrusted by corals (both tabulate and rugose), crinoids, bryozoans, and tentaculitids.
Endosymbionts
Like many modern or prehistoric reef-builders, stromatoporoids were host to endosymbionts, organisms living fully within the skeleton. The most abundant were syringoporids, a type of tube-building tabulate coral. Stromatoporoid fossils with syringoporid burrows are so common that some historical sources have misclassified them as a distinct genus, Caunopora. Syringoporids were able to grow at the same rate as their host in order to prevent being overgrown. Other tabulate corals, rugosan corals, and algal fossils have been found wedged between growth zones within the stromatoporoid skeleton. Worm borings such as Trypanites are also common endosymbionts, though they apparently only took root in the skeleton after the sponge had died.
A persistent question for stromatoporoid ecology is how they were able to compete with corals in shallow, brightly lit areas. One hypothesis is that heavy laminar growth forms were more resistant to damage from waves and storms, yet laminar stromatoporoids were equally common in deep or undisturbed waters. Another hypothesis argues that stromatoporoids benefited from a mutualistic (mutually beneficial) relationship with endosymbiotic microbes. Modern scleractinian corals are mixotrophs, deriving energy from both tiny prey items and zooxanthellae, photosynthetic algae which live within their cells. Zooxanthellae additionally assist the corals’ biochemical processes, allowing for expeditious growth rates. No equivalent organisms are known in modern sponges, though some demosponges do host a high volume of cyanobacteria within their skeletons.
Several lines of evidence suggest a mixotrophic lifestyle for stromatoporoids, though none are unambiguous. Their ratios of oxygen and carbon isotopes overlap with corals to an extent. If one assumes that latilaminae (growth interruptions parallel to laminae) are annual (like tree rings), stromatoporoid growth rates can reach 2 to 10 mm per year, equivalent to corals and much higher than modern calcareous sponges. On the other hand, most stromatoporoid growth forms emphasized stability and horizontal breadth rather than a vertical ‘race for sunlight’, as exhibited by sessile organisms which rely on photosynthesis, such as land plants and corals.
Gallery
References
External links
University of California, Berkeley 2019 museum blog post on Stromatoporoidea
Digital Atlas of Ancient Life page on Stromatoporoidea
Ordovician invertebrates
Devonian animals
Late Devonian animals
Silurian animals
Prehistoric animal classes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Madeira
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History of Madeira
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The history of Madeira begins with the discovery of the islands by Portugal in 1419. There is no record of anyone living on the islands at that time. Portugal began populating the island in 1420.
Pre-Portuguese times
Pliny mentions certain Purple Islands, the position of which with reference to the Fortunate Islands or Canaries might seem to indicate Madeira islands. Plutarch (Sertorius, 75 AD) referring to the military commander Quintus Sertorius (d. 72 BC), relates that after his return to Cádiz, "he met seamen recently arrived from Atlantic islands, two in number, divided from one another only by a narrow channel and distant from the coast of Africa 10,000 furlongs. They are called Isles of the Blest." The estimated distance from Africa, and the closeness of the two islands, seem to indicate Madeira and Porto Santo, which is much smaller than Madeira itself, and to the north east of it.
Tenth- or eleventh-century fragments of mouse bone found in Madeira, along with mitochondrial DNA of Madeiran mice, may indicate that the Vikings have come to Madeira (bringing mice with them), prior to colonisation by Portugal. However, because of “widespread trade routes, a mouse from Scandinavia could easily have boarded a ship in what today is Portugal and sailed over to Madeira, as well as the Azores” (as pointed out by the geographer Simon Connor). The geographer concludes that there is no evidence of a Scandinavian settlement or sighting of the islands and that the Portuguese were the ones that brought those mice from northern Europe to Madeira.
There is a romantic tale about two lovers, Robert Machim and Anna d'Arfet in time of the King Edward III of England, fleeing from England to France in 1346, were driven off their course by a violent storm, and cast on the coast of Madeira at the place subsequently named Machico, in memory of one of them. On the evidence of a portolan contained in the Medici Atlas dated 1351, preserved at Florence, Italy, it would appear that Madeira had been discovered long before that date, possibly by Portuguese vessels under Genoese captains.
15th and 16th centuries
In 1419 two captains of Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were driven by a storm to the island they called Porto Santo, or Holy Harbour, in gratitude for their rescue from shipwreck. The next year an expedition was sent to populate the island, and, Madeira being described, they made for it, and took possession on behalf of the Portuguese crown, together with captain Bartolomeu Perestrello.
The discoveries of Porto Santo and Madeira were first described by Gomes Eanes de Zurara in Chronica da Descoberta e Conquista da Guiné. (Eng. version by Edgar Prestage in 2 vols. issued by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1896–1899: The Chronicle of Discovery and Conquest of Guinea.) Arkan Simaan relates these discoveries in French in his novel based on Azurara's chronicle: L’Écuyer d’Henri le Navigateur, published by Éditions l’Harmattan, Paris.
The islands started to be settled circa 1420 or 1425. On September 23, 1433, the name Ilha da Madeira (Madeira Island or "island of wood") appears in a map, by the first time, in a document. Since its discovery, the archipelago was property of the Order of Christ, which promoted its settlement.
The three captain-majors had led, in the first trip, their respective families, a small group of people of the minor nobility, people of modest conditions and some old prisoners of the kingdom. The settlement of Madeira and Porto Santo islands was a process defined by stages involving people from all over the kingdom.
In 1425 King John I officially made Madeira a full province of Portugal, handing it as a gift to Henry the Navigator. Settlement then began in earnest. Three strapping young nobles were sent to marry Zarco's daughters, and members of some of Portugal's grandest families came along to help increase the population.
It was from the Algarve that some of the early settlers set out. Many came with the important task of the landlord system employment. Servants, squires, knights and noblemen are identified as the ones who secured the beginning of the settlement. Later on, settlers came in big numbers from the north of Portugal, due to overpopulation, namely from the region of Entre Douro and Minho, who intervened specifically in the organization of the agricultural area.
The majority of settlers were fishermen and peasant farmers, who willingly left Portugal after it had been ravaged by the Black Death, and where the best farmlands were strictly controlled by the nobility. To gain the minimum conditions for the development of agriculture, they had to rough-hew a part of the dense forest of laurisilva. Fires were started, which are said to have burned for seven years. The settlers constructed a large number of canals (levada]s), since in some parts of the island there was water in excess, while in other parts it was scarce. In the earliest times, fish constituted about half of the settlers' diet, together with vegetables and fruit. The first local agricultural activity with some success was the production of wheat. Initially, the settlers harvested wheat for their own sustenance, but later began to export it to Portugal.
According to a Portuguese legend, Polish King Władysław III survived the Battle of Varna (although the Ottomans claimed to have his head, his body in royal armor was never found) and later settled in Madeira. King Afonso V of Portugal granted him the lands in the Madalena do Mar district of Madeira, for the rest of his life. He was known there as Henrique Alemão (Henry the German) and married Senhorinha Anes (the King of Portugal was his best man), who gave him two sons. He established the church of Saint Catherine and Saint Mary Magdalene in Madalena do Mar (1471). There he was depicted in a painting as Saint Joachim meeting Saint Anne at the Golden Gate on a painting by Master of the Adoration of Machico (Mestre da Adoração de Machico) in the beginning of the 16th century.
In the decade of 1450, the wheat production began to fall. To get past the ensuing crisis, at the discretion of Infante Dom Henrique, settlers began the planting of sugarcane – rare in Europe and, therefore, considered a spice – promoting, for this, the introduction of Sicilian beets as the first specialized plant and the technology of its agriculture. Sugarcane production quickly afforded the Funchal metropolis economic prosperity. The production of sugarcane attracted adventurers and merchants from all parts of Europe, especially Italians, Basques, Catalans, Genoese, Portuguese and Flemish. This meant that, in the second half of the fifteenth century, the city of Funchal became a mandatory port of call for European trade routes.
Some years before his voyages across the Atlantic, Christopher Columbus, who at the time was a sugar trader, visited Madeira. It is generally accepted that he was born in Genoa, Italy, as Cristoforo Colombo. In Portugal it has been claimed that he was born in that country, as Salvador Fernandes Zarco but this is disputed. Columbus married the daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, Filipa Moniz, in Porto Santo and so was well aware of the profits to be made. He also understood the necessary growing conditions for sugar and the navigational technique known as the Volta do mar. Christopher Columbus lived and studied navigation in Madeira after his marriage.
Sugarcane cultivation and the sugar production industry developed until the 17th century. It became a leading factor in the island's economy, and increased the demand for labor. Apparently it was in Madeira that, in the context of sugar production, slaves were first used in plantations, sharing the work with waged settlers. The colonial system of sugar production was first put into practice on the island of Madeira, on a much smaller scale, and then successively applied, on a large scale, to other overseas production areas. Slaves consisted of Guanches from the nearby Canary islands, captured Berbers, and after further exploration of the African coast, West Africans. This pattern for sugar cultivation became the model that would soon be transferred to the Caribbean and Brazil. In Madeira it became evident that a warm climate, winds to work windmills for sugar crushing and easy access to the sea (for transportation of the raw sugar to Europe) were, together with slave labour, important components in what became a huge and highly profitable industry, which funded industrialisation and European expansion.
The first slaves that were brought to Madeira happened in 1452 and were Berbers and Guanches. According to historical records, slaves to Madeira were mainly imported from Northern Africa. Madeiran aristocracy at no point bred slaves or subjected them to the harsh regimented conditions found on slave plantations in Brazil, the West Indies or the rest of the Americas. Slave owners were only a small minority of the Madeiran population, and those who did own slaves owned only a few. There are recorded 2,232 slave owners in Madeira between 1400 and 1700, with their distribution being 1% in the XV century, 34% in the following and 65% in the XVII century. 89% of slavers owned one to five slaves. The most slaves ever owned by any individual was 14 belonging to João Esmeraldo. Slave prices kept rising each year, taking a toll even more in the slave population in Madeira. There are almost no traces of lineage coming from slaves in Madeira, due to low numbers and fertility rate. After the sugar trade collapsed in Madeira, there was no place for the slave, stranger to the European society ramified in the island. Many of them were sold to the more appealing American colonies and few that remained became house servants for aristocrats or fed the indigent and criminal class. Alberto Vieira, a highly respected expert in trans-Atlantic slavery, states that in the period of a deteriorated sugar trade in Madeira "the records show a high slave concentration in the urban areas revealing that we are faced with slavery of a domestic nature, with little or no relation to rural life." This meant that the slaves' daily life unrolls around the city near their masters, with their connection to rural life being nearly non-existent as guardians and workers of the land, both given to settlers.
In conclusion, this small scale of sugar production in the island was completely outmatched by Brazilian and São Tomean plantations. Madeiran sugar production declined in such a way that it was not enough for domestic needs, so that sugar was imported to the island from other Portuguese colonies. Sugar mills were gradually abandoned, with few remaining, which gave way to other markets in Madeira.
17th, 18th and 19th centuries
Since the 17th century, Madeira's most important product has been its wine, sugar production having since moved on to Brazil, São Tomé and Príncipe, and elsewhere. Madeira wine was perhaps the most popular luxury beverage in the colonial Western Hemisphere during the 17th and 18th centuries.
With the increase of commercial treaties with England, important English merchants settled on the Island and, ultimately, controlled the increasingly important island wine trade. The English traders settled in the Funchal as of the seventeenth century, consolidating the markets from North America, the West Indies and England itself. The Madeira Wine became very popular in the markets and it is also said to have been used in a toast during the Declaration of Independence by the Founding Fathers.
In the eighteenth and the nineteenth century, visitors to the island integrated four major groups: patients, travellers, tourists and scientists. Most visitors belonged to the moneyed aristocracy, with an endless list of aristocrats, princes, princesses and monarchs. As a result of a high demand for the season, there was a need to prepare guides for visitors. The first tourist guide of Madeira appeared in 1850 and focused on elements of history, geology, flora, fauna and customs of the island.
The British Empire occupied Madeira as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, a friendly occupation which concluded in 1814 when the island was returned to Portugal. The British first amicably occupied the island in 1801 whereafter Colonel William Henry Clinton became governor. A detachment of the 85th Regiment of Foot under Lieutenant-colonel James Willoughby Gordon garrisoned the island. After the Peace of Amiens, British troops withdrew in 1802, only to reoccupy Madeira in 1807 until the end of the Peninsular War in 1814. In 1846 James Julius Wood wrote a series of seven sketches of the island. In 1856, British troops recovering from cholera, and widows and orphans of soldiers fallen in the Crimean War, were stationed in Funchal, Madeira.
When, after the death of king John VI of Portugal, his usurper son Miguel of Portugal seized power from the rightful heir, his niece Maria II, and proclaimed himself 'Absolute King', Madeira held out for the Queen under the governor José Travassos Valdez until Miguel sent an expeditionary force and the defence of the island was overwhelmed by crushing force. Valdez was forced to flee to England under the protection of the Royal Navy (September 1828).
In 1891 a census revealed the population on Madeira to be 132,223 inhabitants.
Twentieth century
Just before this the Germans were constructing what is today the "Hospital dos Marmeleiros" (the only building the Germans began to build), the Germans were given a tax break and did not need to pay tax on anything needed to construct the hospital. The site was left abandoned until 1930 when the Madeirans continued to build the Hospital dos Marmeleiros.
Locals say that the reason that the hospital construction was abandoned by the Germans was not just because of their colonization plans being discovered. It was that during the construction of the hospital the Germans needed special materials not available on Madeira, so it was agreed that Madeirans would take the materials up to the site from the German ship in the harbour. The strongest horses were used to bring up the wooden barrels. The local Madeiran with the strongest horses bringing up the materials was suspicious that what he was taking up the hill was heavier than what should be needed to construct the hospital, so he on purpose let one of the barrels roll down the hill and smash open. It is alleged that it was filled with rifles. When the locals looked inside what was already constructed they found ammunition and more guns. This caused the Madeirans to confiscate all German property in Madeira and stop the construction of the hospital.
World War I
In 1914 all German property was confiscated in Madeira, including the ship, the Colmar, built in 1912 which was interned in Madeira in 1914. In 1916 it was renamed Machico and in 1925 it was bought from the Portuguese Government and renamed Luso; in 1955 it was scrapped after grounding damage.
On 9 March 1916, Germany declared war on Portugal, followed by Portugal declaring war on Germany and starting to organise Portuguese troops to go to the Western Front. The effect of the Portuguese participation in World War I was first felt in Madeira on 3 December 1916 when the German U-boat, , captained by Max Valentiner went into Funchal harbour on Madeira and torpedoed and sank 3 ships, CS Dacia (1,856 tons), (2,493 tons) and Surprise (680 tons). The commander of the French Gunboat Surprise and 34 of her crew (7 Portuguese) died in the attack. The Dacia, a British cable laying vessel, had previously undertaken war work off the coast of Casablanca and Dakar, was in the process of diverting the South American cable into Brest, France. Following the attack on the ships, the Germans proceeded to bombard Funchal for two hours from a range of about . Batteries on Madeira returned fire and eventually forced the Germans to withdraw.
In 1917 on December 12, two German U-boats, and (captained by Max Valentiner) again bombarded Funchal, Madeira. This time the attack lasted around 30 minutes. Forty, 4.7 inch and 5.9 inch shells were fired. There were 3 fatalities and 17 wounded, In addition, a number of houses and Santa Clara church were hit.
A priest, José Marques Jardim, promised in 1917 to build a monument should peace ever return to Madeira. In 1927 at Terreiro da Luta he built a statue of Nossa Senhora da Paz (Our Lady of Peace) commemorating the end of World War I. It incorporates the anchor chains from the sunken ships from Madeira on 3 December 1916 and is over 5 metres tall.
Charles I, the last Emperor of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, went into exile in Madeira after his second unsuccessful coup d'état in Hungary. He died there on 1 April 1922 is buried in the Church of Our Lady of Monte. Charles I had tried in 1917 to secretly enter into peace negotiations with France. Although his foreign minister, Ottokar Czernin, was only interested in negotiating a general peace which would include Germany as well, Charles himself, in negotiations with the French with his brother-in-law, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, an officer in the Belgian Army, as intermediary, went much further in suggesting his willingness to make a separate peace. When news of the overture leaked in April 1918, Charles denied involvement until the French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau published letters signed by him. This led to Czernin's resignation, forcing Austria-Hungary into an even more dependent position with respect to its seemingly-wronged German ally. Determined to prevent a restoration attempt, the Council of Allied Powers had agreed on Madeira because it was isolated in the Atlantic and easily guarded.
World War II
Portugal in World War II was neutral and become non-belligerent in 1943. Salazar's decision to stick with the oldest alliance in the world, cemented by the Treaty of Windsor (1386) between Portugal and England (still in force today), meant that the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance allowed Madeira to take in refugees on a humanitarian basis; in July 1940, around 2,000 Gibraltarian evacuees were shipped to Madeira due to the high risk of Gibraltar being attacked by either Spain or Germany; the Germans had planned but never initiated an attack on the British colony, code-named Operation Felix.
The Gibraltarians are fondly remembered on the island, where they were called Gibraltinos. Some Gibraltarians had married Madeirans during this time and stayed after the war was over. Tito Benady, a historian on Gibraltar Jewry, noted that when some 200 Jews of the 2000 evacuees from Gibraltar were evacuated as non-combatants to Funchal at the start of World War II, they found a Jewish cemetery that belonged to the Abudarham family. This is the same family after whom the Abudarham Synagogue in Gibraltar was named.
On November 12, 1940, Adolf Hitler issued Führer Directive No. 18, which provided the possibility to invade Portugal. He stated "I also request that the problem of occupying Madeira and the Azores should be considered, together with the advantages and disadvantages which this would entail for our sea and air warfare. The results of these investigations are to be submitted to me as soon as possible."
On the May 28th 1944, the first party of evacuees left Madeira for Gibraltar; by the end of 1944, only 520 non-priority evacuees remained on the island.
In 2008, a monument was made in Gibraltar and shipped to Madeira, where it has been erected next to a small chapel at Santa Caterina park in Funchal. The monument is a gift and symbol of everlasting thanks given by the people of Gibraltar to the island of Madeira and its inhabitants.
The city of Funchal and Gibraltar were twinned on 13 May 2009 by their then-mayors, the mayor of Funchal Miguel Albuquerque and the mayor of Gibraltar, who had been an evacuee from Gibraltar to Madeira Solomon Levy, respectively. The mayor of Gibraltar then had a meeting with the then-President of Madeira Alberto João Jardim.
Autonomy
On 1 July 1976, following the democratic revolution of 1974, Portugal granted political autonomy to Madeira, celebrated on Madeira Day. The region now has its own government and legislative assembly.
On September 1978, the Madeira flag was adopted. The blue part symbolizes the sea surrounding the island and the yellow represents the abundance of life on the island. The red cross of the Order of Christ, with a white cross on it, is identical to the one on the flag of Prince Henry's ships that discovered the island. On September 1980, the official anthem was adopted.
In 1980, the Madeira International Business Centre was created.
From 1976 to 2019, the center-right Social Democratic Party (PPD/PSD) had a majority of MPs in the regional parliament and ruled on its own. During most of that time, from 1978 to 2015 (37 years), the regional government was headed by Alberto João Jardim, making him one of the longest-serving democratically elected leaders in the world.
In the 2019 election, PPD/PSD won once again, but lost the majority it had always held. Now it governs in coalition with the Popular Party.
See also
History of the Azores
Funchal history and timeline
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeunesses%20Musicales%20International
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Jeunesses Musicales International
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Jeunesses Musicales International (JMI) is the largest youth music non-governmental organisation in the world, created in Brussels, Belgium in 1945, with the mission to "enable young people to develop through music across all boundaries". JMI has established four priority activity fields: Young Musicians, Young Audiences, Youth Empowerment and Youth Orchestras & Ensembles.
With member organisations currently in almost 40 Countries, JMI is a "global" network with over 36,000 diverse musical events annually. The events embrace all styles of music, reaching almost 5 million young people up to the age of 30. The work of JMI is supported by the Federal Government of Belgium – Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO), and the Creative Europe Programme of the EU.
Founders
Marcel Cuvelier
Early years and education
Marcel Jules Léon Cuvelier was born in Brussels on 22 May 1899. After having attended classic high school education, he frequented the courses of law school at the Université Libre de Bruxelles and was named Doctor of Law. He was passionate about sports and participated at the Olympic Games of 1920 and 1924 as part of the national fencing team.
Musical studies
Cuvelier studied the violin from an early age and took musical lessons at the Music Academies of Etterbeek and Anderlecht and the Royal Conservatory of Brussels. A jazz aficionado, Cuvelier also played the saxophone in a university band called the Doctor's Mysterious Six.
The creation of Jeunesses Musicales
The idea of creating an organisation dedicated to young musicians sprang in Cuvelier's mind early, in 1928, as he was watching the construction of the Centre for Fine Arts, Brussels. "I always thought of giving concerts for young people… I remember that this idea haunted me already in 1928, during the construction of the Palace of Fine Arts, when I was walking over the beams and the bars, when I walked like an insect in that huge frame that would become a concert hall, meeting rooms, offices, halls. I thought about an audience that is demanding, worthy of respect, living: YOUNG. I saw it arrive from all sides, before the spotlight, from those balconies, out of those halls. I could already hear the shouts and the applause" (text from the program brochure "Twenty-fifth Birthday of the foundation of the movement Youth and Music" Brussels 11–16 January 1965, p. 7)
His lifetime dream would take shape in 1940 with the foundation of the organization Youth and Music (also known by the belgicism Jeunesses Musicales). The purpose of this organization was not only to give life concerts for youngsters, as was the case of previous organizations. Jeunesses Musicales was thought of as a real community of youngsters who loved music and were able to organize their concerts and manifestations.
Meeting René Nicoly brought to the foundation of the Jeunesses Musicales International in 1945. This society, today known as Jeunesses Musicales International, would, later on, acknowledge him as secretary-general.
Career
Marcel Cuvelier had many important functions in his lifetime. In 1927, he founded the Philharmonic Society of Brussels, of which he remained director until his death. He was the founder of Youth and Music France in 1940 and of Jeunesses Musicales International, together with René Nicoly, in 1945. Later on, he became the Secretary-general of the Society.
Other notable distinctions of Marcel Cuvelier were his becoming Director of the International Music Competition Queen Elisabeth of Belgium from its conception in 1953 and his naming as Secretary-general of the International Music Council of Unesco in Paris.
Death
During the thirteenth world conference, in 1958, Marcel Cuvelier was recovering from a heart attack he had had in the spring of the same year. The unfortunate incident happened in Tashkent (URSS) when he was accompanying Queen Elisabeth at the Tchaikovsky Competition. Although doctors advised him to take complete rest, Cuvelier continued to work with ardour and passion. He was found dead on Septembre 1959, in his hotel room in Venice, where he was attending a meeting of the International Music Council.
René Nicoly
Early years
René Eugène Joseph Nicoly was born on 22 September 1907, in Avon, Seine-et-Marne. His origins were humble, as his father was a manservant and his mother, Marguerite, a chambermaid.
Nevertheless, René Nicoly's path to a musical career started early, as his parents were employed by a famous Parisian music publisher, Jacques Durand. In his house, Durand taught Nicoly to play the clarinet. Although at that time it was unusual for the classes to mix, the two would play together at clarinet and piano. After having served in the military, René Nicoly was offered a place in Jacques Durand's publishing house as head of the orchestral musical department.
Musical concerts and courses
René Nicoly organized concerts and musical courses to introduce all people, of any social status, to the beauty of music. His initiative spread to Parisian high-schools and attracted many musicians and speakers: "From the very beginning, René Nicoly's idea had been that of a music awakening – introducing young people from all walks of life, including the least fortunate in society, to music by offering them programmes of a very high artistic standard in order to create a new generation of music-lovers."
René Nicoly meets Marcel Cuvelier
In the autumn of 1941, René Nicoly met Marcel Cuvelier, then the Director of the Brussels Philharmonic Society. This meeting would change both their lives. Then, Nicoly found out that Couvelier was organizing similar musical events dedicated to youngsters in Brussels. After sharing ideas, the two concluded that they should unite their forces to create a movement, which they named "Les Jeunesses Musicales".
Functions
René Nicoly had numerous functions in his life. He was the Managing Director of the Société Française de Diffusion Musicale et Artistique, Vice-chairman of the Comité Nationale de la Musique, head of coordination within the Ministry of Culture of symphonic concerts in the greater Paris region. Also, from 1969 until his death in 1971, he was the Director of the Paris Opera. Nevertheless, he always played an essential role in the affairs of the JMI.
History
1945 – 1960
Marcel Cuvelier and René Nicoly joined forces on 17 July 1945. Their creating Jeunesses Musicales International in the post-war context was a daring movement, but they both had vision and determination. The Palace of Fine Arts in Brussels, where Cuvelier first pondered upon this idea in 1928, would become the headquarters of the society.
The French composer Claude Delvincourt was the first international president of the society. Marcel Cuvelier was named Secretary-general, a status he would keep until his death, and Nicoly became treasurer in 1945.
The first General Meeting took place on 16 and 17 May 1946 in Brussels. Then and there, the first statutes of the society were accepted.
Jeunesses Musicales International was a promising initiative from the very beginning, as it already attracted delegates from 7 countries.
The first country to join was Luxembourg, in 1947. In that year, the second General Assembly gathered observers from another six countries. The following years saw the entry of the Netherlands (1948), Austria, Portugal and Switzerland (1949), Canada (as first non-European country, 1950), West Germany (1951), Spain and Thailand (1952), Cuba, Haiti and Brazil (1953), Great Britain, Italy and Uruguay (1954), Denmark (1958) and Israel (1959).
In the year 1957, it was decided to accept only politically independent countries – independence from the government and the participation of the young in committee were also demanded. Some organizations such as Thailand or Brazil later disappeared.
In 1958 the age limit of the members was decided. Although there was no minimum age, the members could not surpass 30 years. In the same year, projects that aimed at the exchange of young people and artists were drawn up. Also, Sir Robert Mayer proposed the realization of an international youth orchestra.
The fourth Conference took place at Scheveningen in 1949. The International Orchestra played there for the first time under the direction of Igor Markevitch.
Jeunesses Musicales International cooperated with UNESCO from its early years. 1949 marked the co-foundation of the International Music Council (IMC), that grew to become the most important coordinating music organization in the world.
The 1950 Conference marked the decision of one of the most important objectives of Jeunesses Musicales International: the society was meant not only to teach music but rather sensibilize the young towards it. The following year, a permanent judicial commission was formed and in 1952 the international emblem, a music note on a globe, was accepted. 1957 saw the organization of the transcontinental tours.
1960 – 1974
The 1960s were a period of many social, economic, technological and cultural changes. The JMI was already struck by the death of its founder, Marcel Couvelier, in 1959. The development of music was intertwined with the development of the media, which brought artists to the attention of the public more easily. In those times, the young were fascinated by the propagation of pop and rock music.
A change within the JMI would come along with Paul Willems, named secretary-general of the society in the interval 1960–1974. One of his main concerns was the growth of the organization. In those years Yugoslavia was admitted, followed by Eastern Bloc countries such as Hungary or Poland and Bulgaria in 1965 and 1966.
In its trying to overcome cultural barriers, the organization also admitted countries such as Japan, South Korea or Morocco.
The 1966 Conference was held in Paris, in the UNESCO building, and tackled the subject of musical education. Then, a world day of Jeunesses Musicales International was declared and the International Music Council took over the idea and turned 1 October into the International Music Day.
1969 would become a meaningful year for the visibility of the organization. The initiative came from Yugoslavia and it involved the creation of a summer camp for young students in Grožnjan. After World War II, the population of the Croatian city was drastically decreasing, but the year 1965 marked its renaissance, by painters and sculptors who came to help at its restoration. This Croatian city, with an Italian feel, was dominated by medieval architecture, vineyards and a bohemian atmosphere. Ever since, Grožnjan is known as The City of Artists and holds music courses from 15 June to 15 September: With the arrival of the Jeunesses Musicales in Grožnjan, renovation began of the houses rented by the organization, new life came to the town with the bustle of numerous participants, teachers and guests of the Centre, various events and entertainment activities were organized, word about Grožnjan spread far and wide.
Jeunesses Musicales International established the Cuvelier-Nicoly Foundation in 1972. It had the goal to help young musicians or to finance new exciting projects.
The General Assembly, which took place in Stockholm in 1974, helped include "contemporary music" in the objectives of JMI.
1974 – 1990
Although the "golden sixties" were over and the overall economic status hindered the joining of new countries, 1975 celebrated the thirtieth birthday of JMI. Founders Belgium and France organized the general assembly and conference that year. Held in Paris, it had the theme "music animation".
1977 marked the breaking of some cultural boundaries, with the conference being organized for the first time in the Far East – in Seoul (South Korea). Two years later, in 1979, the assembly would tackle the subject of pop music.
The following years marked the direct involvement in the conference organization of the Americas. Canada held in 1985 a conference dedicated to the "music of both the Americas" and two years later, the meeting would move South, at Cordoba (Argentina).
The eighties saw the rising of the global character of JMI. This was due to the joining of Australia and New Zealand, which counted as the fifth continent in the organization. Also, contacts were made with several countries in Africa (e.g. Egypt).
In 1985, the Jeunesses Musicales World Orchestra made a real trip around the world via Canada, Japan and Korea. Impressive was that in 1987, the World Orchestra performed Britten's "War Requiem" on both sides of the Berlin Wall, along with a boy choir from the United States and the Wiener Jeunesses Choir. This was a symbolic moment, which came to emphasize that music has the real ability to break down walls and build significant socio-cultural connections instead.
1990 – 1995
The 1990s were internationally marked by the fall of communism, a strong force in Western Europe. This crucial political evolution would also strike the Jeunesses Musicales. Then, former Yugoslavia split into independent states, which were immediately accepted as members. Because other countries came to join as well, on the eve of the fiftieth anniversary of the organization, a number of 50 member states was reached.
1991 saw the starting of the Ethno project, an initiative of JM Sweden. The project would run every summer in Falun. There, numerous folk singers would gather to share their music and life experiences with the youngsters of the organization.
One of the most important characteristics of the nineties was the pluralism of the genres. This was also reflected in the JMI's programs, as the organization had to move with the times.
The logo
The first international emblem of the JMI was determined in the year 1952. For this, the society organized a competition and the winner was Austria. Back then, the logo looked like a musical note on a globe.
The start of the nineties brought along another visual expression of JMI. The new emblem would better represent the dynamics of this worldwide music organization, built by and for youngsters – a red egg with a long, black stem. The sixteen note was being replaced by a more symbolic, bold and younger-looking emblem.
Although skeptical at first, representatives came to embrace the new and more vivid approach. The new design was meant to represent multiculturalism and they came to embrace the idea that music can break barriers to unite people. Cristoph Platen emphasizes on this idea of multiculturalism: "The choice of red and black indicates contrast, yet also represents a whole. The design has European, Mediterranean and even Far Eastern elements: the familiar and exotic blend into a colored and figurative New World Symphony, developing into a dialectic tension which carries into the shape, bringing to mind associations such as: Jeunesses Musicales thus stands for music and more; for encounters across political, ethnic, cultural and sexual divides; for a common challenging of frontiers: many voices crying más allá, right through to the United Sounds of JM, produced from the youthful spirit and capacity for enthusiasm about music."
The horizontal version of the logo, consisting of the red egg and black stem, was approved by the General Assembly in Milan, 2016.
International Programmes
EnCore
This program provides young musicians with professional musical opportunities. Worldwide musicians meet annually for 2–3 days to enable peer to peer teaching. The program ends with a concert.
Ethno
This project was formed in 1990 for traditional/folk musicians aged 15–30. It includes a series of summer music camps held annually in Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Slovenia, Sweden, Norway, France, Portugal, Germany, Bosnia and Herzegovina, India, Australia and Uganda, and additionally some touring projects for smaller ensembles. Each Ethno draws participants from around the globe.
At Ethno, young folk musicians meet to teach each other, by ear, traditional folk songs from their cultures. Through a combination of workshops, jam sessions, seminars, and performances, musicians have the opportunity to learn a variety of musical styles.
Ethno has been recognised as good practice in non-formal education for young people by the 2008 Sunshine Report on Non-Formal Education by the European Youth Forum. The program is managed by the JMI ETHNO Committee.
Euro-Arab Youth Music Center
Based on the belief that access to music is a fundamental human right and a factor contributing to the sustainable development of young people and our communities, Jeunesses Musicales International (JMI), the Cultural Movement EPILOGI of Limassol and the Arab Academy of Music (League of Arab States) have undertaken a joint venture to establish a Euro-Arab Youth Music Centre, in Limassol, Cyprus.
The EAYMC is the result of cooperation between the above-mentioned partners, that started in 2005 with ETHNO Cyprus, a youth music camp bringing together young traditional/folk musicians from the two regions.
The project continued with Ethno Cyprus in 2006 and 2008 (funded by Youth EuroMed and Cyprus Ministry of Education and Culture); Cyprus in Action in 2010 that brought together not only young musicians but also young cultural operators (funded by the European Cultural Foundation) and finally, the Euro-Mediterranean Youth Music Dialogues from 2011 to 2012 (funded by the EU "Culture 2007–2013" Programme).
During the last project, the partners have organised the Euro-Arab Youth Music Forum in Amman, Capacity Building Training Courses in Amman and Barcelona and the Euro-Med Youth Choral Fair: Choral Crossroads 2011 in Limassol with a total of over 500 participants and attendance of over 5000 people, mostly young audiences.
Fair Play
Anti Corruption Youth Voices is a global competition for original songs by young musicians under the age of 35 on the theme of anti-corruption and good governance. The competition is a 2010 initiative of the Global Anti-Corruption Youth Network, a worldwide network of civil society organisations with the specific agenda of fighting corruption.
Fair Play is an awareness-raising program and network building effort to connect socially conscious artists and citizens worldwide.
The Project won the 2012 European Youth Award and the World Summit Youth Award for outstanding digital content for social good in the "Create your culture!" Category.
Organised in partnership with the JMI Foundation, the Global Youth Anti-Corruption Network, the World Bank Institute and Transparency International.
Imagine Music Experience
The Imagine Music Experience is an all-styles music competition for young artists. All events have an educational/social dimension including training, workshops and master-classes from industry professionals.
Competitions are held annually on a national scale in Belgium, Croatia, France, Malawi, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden and Zimbabwe and culminate each year with the Imagine Experience and the International Imagine Final.
New entries as of 2015 include Spain, Netherlands, Brazil, Australia and the Czech Republic.
Past international winners include: 2013: Were (Zimbabwe), 2012: Gustaf (Sweden), 2011: Algot (Sweden).
Supported by the CULTURE Programme of the EU. The programme is managed by the JMI IMAGINE Committee.
JM Jazz World
The JM Jazz program caters for the promotion of international summer jazz camps, international projects, jazz ensembles tours and international exchanges of jazz musicians between the JMI countries.
Its main objective is to provide young jazz musicians with the possibility to gain experience working to high professional standards in major concert halls, theatres and festivals, and with outstanding jazz musicians, sharing musical ideas in the field of jazz music. Its flagship program is the JM JAZZ World, an international ensemble of selected young jazz musicians.
JMI Global
It is an annual event that brings together member organizations through a conference and General Assembly. The event is held each year in a different country.
Music against Child Labour
The program was launched in 2013. The global initiative links the International Labour Organization (ILO) and its International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) with conductors, musicians, musicians' organisations and music education bodies.
The following founders support this initiative: Claudio Abbado; José-Antonio Abreu; Alessio Allegrini, Founder, Musicians for Human Rights; Daniel Barenboim; Pilar Jurado; Benoît Machuel, General Secretary of the International Federation of Musicians; Diego Matheuz; Rodolfo Mederos; Eduardo Mendez, Executive Director of the Simon Bolivar Music Foundation El Sistema; Antonio Mosca, Director of the Suzuki Orchestra, Turin; Guy Ryder, Director-General, ILO; and Blasko Smilevski, General Secretary of Jeunesses Musicales International.
Music Crossroads
This non-profit organization was initiated in 1995 by Jeunesses Musicales International (JMI) organizing annual festivals, international band tours, and training many young talents in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, with established independent Music Crossroads entities.
The project is supported by the Norwegian Foreign Affairs Ministry.
World Meeting Centres
JMI proudly recognises two international art centres – The International Cultural Centre of Jeunesses Musicales Croatia in Grožnjan (Croatia) and the Musikakademie Schloss Weikersheim (Germany).
These cultural centres, established by JM Croatia and JM Germany are open to young people from all over the world. They provide a unique musical environment for development, education, and exchange of ideas and offer various musical and artistic workshops and seminars with lecturers and professors.
World Youth Choir (WYC)
Started in 1989, it is made of up to 100 young singers between the ages of 17 and 26. Managed by the Foundation World Youth Choir (The Hague, the Netherlands), it was founded by three patron organisations: International Federation for Choral Music, Jeunesses Musicales International and the European Choral Association – Europa Cantat.
Yo!Fest Emerging Bands Contest
This is an annual political youth-led festival organised by the European Youth Forum.
Jeunesses Musicales cooperates with the EYF to organise the successful Emerging Bands Contest that is an essential part of the Yo!Fest.
Young Audiences Music (YAM)
This is an international platform for everyone working to bring live music to children and youth.
The program includes YAMsession, an international conference and showcase; the YAMawards, identifying and supporting cutting-edge live musical productions from all over the world that impact young people, both artistically and socially.
YAMspace is an online platform that provides industry professionals with an environment to share, discuss and access information that will enable them to better their work. YAM makes up over 40% of JMI's activities with 14,000 concerts annually across the world.
BLACKBOARD Music Project
Being one of the most popular activities within YAM, the main aim of the Blackboard Music Project (BbMP) is to increase the quantity as well as the quality of concerts for Young Audiences (YA, primarily school children) in the participating countries as well as improve the possibilities for the exchange of concerts between the European countries/regions.
The program is a partnership of JMI members and young audience producers from Denmark, Belgium, France, North Macedonia, Croatia, Norway and Sweden, co-managed by the JMI Young Audiences Committee and co-funded by the EU CREATIVE EUROPE Program.
National Member Sections
The Board
Presidents
Secretaries-general
Treasurers
Official relations and affiliations
United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (Ros C)
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
International Music Council
European Youth Forum
Culture Action Europe
See also
Jeunesses Musicales Czech Republic
References
External links
Youth organizations established in 1945
International music organizations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story%20Teller%20%28magazine%29
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Story Teller (magazine)
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Story Teller was a magazine partwork published by Marshall Cavendish between 1982 and 1985. It was sold as Story Time in Australia and New Zealand; in Italy Story Teller 1 was sold as I Raccontastorie while Story Teller 2 as C'era una volta)
Publishing history
The original collection
The original Story Teller was released from December 1982 and throughout 1983 as a fortnightly partwork. Each magazine contained a selection of children's stories, some traditional folk tales like "Anansi the Spiderman", some children's tales such as Gobbolino, the Witch's Cat, and some contemporary works written especially for the series, like "Timbertwig". Most issues contained a poem or two, as well. The stories were accompanied by lavish colour artwork, and inside each issue was an offer to purchase custom made binders for the magazine as well as cases to hold the tapes.
Each issue of Story Teller came with a cover-mounted cassette tape containing a reading of the stories, complete with music and sound effects. What set Story Teller apart from other partworks was the stories were read by professional actors and celebrities of the time, including Richard Briers, Sheila Hancock, Derek Jacobi, and Nigel Lambert.
Two distinguishing features of the audio cassettes were the "Story Teller" jingle that introduced and ended each tape and the characteristic "ping" that sounded when the time came to turn the pages to encourage children to read along. The "Story Teller" jingle is an existing track called "Children's Carnival" by Ted Atking and Alain Feanch.
Longer stories were split over multiple issues to encourage parents to buy the next issue. These were referred to as Story Teller Serials. As one serial came to end, another would start. Many of these would be simple two-part stories, but a selection of stories (usually well-known ones such as Peter Pan and the Wizard of Oz) were spread over several issues. Pinocchio was the longest serial, with seven installments.
The original collection was 26 issues long with each tape lasting up to 45 minutes. An exception was issue 26, which was 90 minutes long because it also contained the special preview issue for Story Teller 2, which immediately followed the original series.
(The New Zealand and Australian Story Time only ran for 1 series, so the final Issue 26 was the standard 45 minutes long and did not feature the special preview for the next series. This was the sole difference between its UK counterpart; the cassettes and artwork were otherwise identical. Similarly, the cassette carry case was available in Australia. However, in New Zealand, a smaller box was provided, made out of cardboard wrapped in a red plastic with small domes at the corners joining it all together and a piece of Velcro for the flap on the top).
Storyteller 2
Story Teller 2, which was previewed in issue 26 of the original Story Teller series in the UK, continued the tradition of the original by combining traditional and contemporary children's stories. (In New Zealand and Australia, Story Time only ran for 1 series.)
Little Story Teller
When Story Teller 2 ended, Marshall Cavendish followed it up with another 26-part series, Little Story Teller, which, as its title suggests, was aimed at a younger audience than the original series. Many of the stories in Little Story Teller featured the adventures of the inhabitants of the Magic Mountain, which included Leroy the Lion, Dotty the Dragon, and Morris and Doris the hamsters.
Christmas specials
Three Christmas specials were also published. Released annually along with each series, the Christmas Story Tellers featured festive stories and even songs. The third Christmas Story Teller included stories suited to both the original series and Little Story Teller. Of the Christmas specials only Christmas Story 2 was made available in New Zealand or Australia, under the title of Christmas Story Time.
Story Teller Song Book
Christmas Story 3 was widely assumed to be the last title from the Story Teller series but in 1986, Marshall Cavendish released the Story Teller Song Book. The 52-page publication contained 20 all-time sing-along favourites rather than stories but it still retained the Story Teller tradition of featuring colouring and activity pages as well as an accompanying cassette tape.
My Big Book of Fairy Tales
In 1987, Marshall Cavendish revisited the world of Story Teller by publishing a big hardback book called My Big Book of Fairy Tales. Although the publication lacked the Story Teller branding, it was essentially a compilation of the best stories from Story Teller; it contained 73 stories from the two series and three Christmas issues. The original text and illustrations were used, except for the story "The Frog Prince", which featured new artwork (for no apparent reason). The book was rereleased in 1989 with a different cover and again in 1994. Unlike the partwork, My Big Book of Fairy Tales was not accompanied by a cassette.
Story Teller: Members' Edition
Published online in December 2020, this was a special edition of Story Teller, created by members of the Story Teller Facebook Group and some of the original writers and artists of the original Story Teller. It is available online at stme.uk.
Availability
The partwork is now regarded as highly collectible, and issues can still be found today in secondhand and charity shops, but finding a complete set can be very difficult. Digital copies can also be found on auction sites such as eBay, but these are of dubious legality.
Stories and readers
Story Teller 1
Part 1
Gobbolino, the Witch's Cat: Sheila Hancock
The Hare and the Tortoise: Bernard Cribbins
The Shoe Tree: Sheila Hancock
The Emperor's New Clothes: Bernard Cribbins
The Red Nightcaps: Marise Hepworth
Aldo in Arcadia (1): Nigel Lambert & John Brewer
The Forest Troll: Nigel Lambert
Part 2
The Elves & the Shoemaker: Brian Blessed
Master Tiger: Nigel Lambert
Aldo in Arcadia (2): Nigel Lambert, John Brewer & John Green
The Last Slice of Rainbow: Sheila Hancock
Gobbolino the Ship's Cat: Sheila Hancock
The Greedy Fox: Brian Blessed
Sinbad & the Valley of Diamonds: Brian Blessed
Bring on the Clowns: Nigel Lambert
Part 3
The Great Big Hairy Boggart: Dermot Crowley
The Owl and the Pussycat: Susannah York
Gobbolino the Knight's Cat: Sheila Hancock
The Lion & the Mouse: Dermot Crowley
Simon's Canal: Susannah York
Hansel and Gretel: Susannah York
Aldo in Arcadia (3): Robert Powell, Susannah York, Nigel Lambert & John Brewer
Child of the Sun: Dermot Crowley
Part 4
Narana's Strange Journey: Roy Hudd
Rhubarb Ted: Nigel Lambert
Gobbolino the Kitchen Cat: Sheila Hancock
Noisy Neighbours: Nigel Lambert
Jester Minute (Part 1): Nigel Lambert
The Princess & the Pea: Tina Jones
The Ant and the Grasshopper: Marian Hepworth
Santa's Early Christmas: Roy Hudd
Part 5
Timbertwig: George Layton
The Fox and the Crow: Hayley Mills
Drummerboy & the Gypsy: George Layton
Rapunzel: Hayley Mills
Virgil's Big Mistake: Nigel Lambert
Jester Minute (Part 2): Nigel Lambert
'O Here It Is: Hayley Mills
Part 6
Beauty and the Beast: Hywel Bennett
Dodo & the Pot of Gold: Patricia Brake
Timbertwig & the Caravan of Surprises: George Layton
The Flying Piggy-Bank: Patricia Brake
The Land of the Bumbley Boo: Patricia Brake
The Moon and the Millpond: Dick Vosburgh
The Friendly Bear: Hywel Bennett
Part 7
The Billy Goats Gruff: Nigel Pegram
The Snow Queen: Liza Goddard
A Pocketful of Trouble: Nigel Pegram
Little Spook of Spook Hall: Liza Goddard
The Silly Tortoise: Nigel Pegram
Timbertwig Gets a New Hat: George Layton
Faster than Fairies: Liza Goddard
Part 8
Dot & the Kangaroo (Part 1: Dot Loses Her Way): Carole Boyd
Oliphaunt: Joss Ackland
The Goose that Laid the Golden Egg: Carole Boyd
The Selfish Giant: Joss Ackland
Jester Minute & the Vanishing castle (1): Nigel Lambert
The Creation of Man: Joss Ackland
Boffy & The Teacher Eater: Nigel Lambert
Part 9
Abdulla and the Genie: Nigel Lambert
Dot & the Kangaroo (Part 2): Carole Boyd
Jester Minute and the Vanishing Castle (2): Nigel Lambert
The Boy Who Cried Wolf: Robert Powell
Neville Toogood: Carole Boyd
The Pied Piper of Hamelin: Robert Powell
Part 10
Gulliver's Travels (Part 1): Joanna Lumley
Dot & the Kangaroo (Part 3): Carole Boyd
Mike's Bike (Part 1): Mick Ford
The Three Wishes: Carole Boyd
David and Goliath: Mick Ford
The Enchanted Horse: Joanna Lumley
Mr. Tom Narrow: Carole Boyd
Part 11
Gulliver's Travels (Part 2): Joanna Lumley
Pinocchio (Part 1): Ian Lavender
The Dog and the Bone: David Graham
Sleeping Beauty: Joanna Lumley
Walter Spaggot: Nigel Lambert
Growling at Tigers: David Graham
Mike's Bike (Part 2): Mick Ford
Part 12
The Mighty Prince: Una Stubbs
Ford's Toy Cars (Part 1): George Layton
Drummerboy Races for his Life: George Layton
First Flight: Ian Lavender
The Town Mouse & the Country Mouse: Una Stubbs
Pinocchio (Part 2): Ian Lavender
The Gingerbread Man: Una Stubbs
Part 13
The Tinder Box: Siân Phillips
Ford's Toy Cars (Part 2): George Layton
Warrior Girl: Floella Benjamin
Pinocchio (Part 3): Ian Lavender
Three Bald Spots: Carole Boyd
The Ugly Duckling: Siân Phillips
Part 14
The Monster in the Labyrinth: Dermot Crowley
Who's Stronger?: Diana Rigg
Pinocchio (Part 4): Ian Lavender
The Old Man of Torbay: Diana Rigg
Scarlet Braces: Dermot Crowley
Grogre the Ogre (Part 1): Nigel Lambert
Cinderella: Diana Rigg
Part 15
Pandora's Box: Morag Hood
A Fishy Tale: Morag Hood
Pinocchio (Part 5): Ian Lavender
Grogre the Ogre (Part 2): Nigel Lambert
The Parasol: Kay Parks
The Flying Jacket: Lionel Jeffries
The Three Little Pigs: Lionel Jeffries
Part 16
Sam's Big Break: Tommy Eytle
The Mango-Seller: Judy Geeson
Hen-Hustler Kluk: Tommy Eytle
Puss in Boots: Judy Geeson
Grogre the Ogre (Part 3): Nigel Lambert
Pinocchio (Part 6): Ian Lavender
Part 17
William Tell: Tom Baker
I Saw a Ship a-Sailing: Carole Boyd
Pinocchio (Part 7): Ian Lavender
Anansi and the Fancy Dress Party: Tom Baker
Jojo's Jigsaw Puzzle: Carole Boyd
Can You Keep a Secret?: Carole Boyd
The Lion and the Peacock: Tom Baker
Part 18
Heidi (Part 1): Denise Bryer
Father William: Steven Pacey
George and the Dragon: Steven Pacey
The Frog Prince: Gemma Craven
Bubble and Squeek: Steven Pacey
No Mules: Gemma Craven
Part 19
Jack & the Beanstalk: Brian Blessed
Why the Giraffe Can't Speak: Carole Boyd
Sinbad and the Amazing Islands: Brian Blessed
The Book of Beasts (Part 1): John Baddeley
Car Attack: Carole Boyd
Heidi (Part 2): Denise Bryer
Hedge's Problem Tree: Carole Boyd
Part 20
Rumpelstiltskin: Hayley Mills
Heidi (Part 3): Denise Bryer
The Green Maiden of the Lake: Hayley Mills
The Book of Beasts (Part 2): John Baddeley
It Makes a Change: Denise Bryer
Lutra the Otter: Michael Tudor Barnes
Part 21
The Bold Little Tailor: Michael Hordern
The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Nigel Lambert
Wiser than the Czar: Michael Hordern
Bobbie and the Magic Go-Cart: Nigel Lambert
Heidi (Part 4): Denise Bryer
The Mighty Rabbit: Nigel Lambert
Part 22
Waldorf's Fantastic Trip (Part 1): Gay Soper
The Midas Touch: Joanna Lumley
A Meal with a Magician: George Layton
Eleven Wild Swans: Joanna Lumley
Timbertwig Catches a Marrow: George Layton
The Human Fly from Bendigo: Joanna Lumley
Part 23
Timbertwig's Birthday: George Layton
Waldorf's Fantastic Trip (Part 2): Gay Soper
Goldilocks: Annette Crosbie
Dad and the Cat and the Tree: David Ashford
The Faery Flag: Annette Crosbie
The Runaway Piano: David Ashford
The Little Red Hen: Annette Crosbie
Part 24
I Wish, I Wish: Carole Boyd
Counting Chickens: Carole Boyd
A Hedgehog Learns to Fly: John Brewer, John Green and Steven Pacey
The Little Tin Soldier: Ian Holm
Kingdom of the Seals: Ian Holm
Aldo in Arcadia (4): Steven Pacey, Nigel Lambert, John Green & John Brewer
Part 25
Little Red Riding Hood: Denise Bryer
The Happy Prince: Tim Curry
Aldo in Arcadia (5): John Brewer, Tina Jones, Nigel Lambert & Steven Pacey
Mr Miacca: Denise Bryer
The Great Pie Contest: Steven Pacey
Stolen Thunder: Tim Curry
Part 26
The Goblin Rat: Liza Goddard
Thumbelina: Liza Goddard
Where Can an Elephant Hide?: Steven Pacey
A Lion at School: Liza Goddard
Captain Bones: Dermot Crowley
Aldo in Arcadia (6): John Brewer, Tina Jones, Nigel Lambert & Steven Pacey
Part 26 Story Teller 2 Special Preview Issue
The Wind in the Willows: Michael Jayston
Jack-in-the-Box: Steven Pacey
Campbell the Travelling Cat: Una Stubbs
Arthur the Lazy Ant: Steven Pacey
Dragon Child: Una Stubbs
The Magic Porridge Pot: Steven Pacey
The Lobster Quadrille: Una Stubbs
Story Teller 2
Part 1
The Wizard of Oz : Miriam Margolyes
The Creatures with Beautiful Eyes : Martin Shaw
The Circus Animal's Strike : David Tate
Yushkin the Watchmaker : Martin Shaw
Rumbles in the Jungles (1) : David Tate
The Dancing Fairies : Miriam Margolyes
There Once Was a Puffin : Martin Shaw
Part 2
The Magic of Funky Monkey : Gemma Craven
The Snake and the Rose : Gemma Craven
Rumbles in the Jungles (2) : David Tate
The Wizard of Oz: In The Forest : Miriam Margolyes
The Wind in the Willows: The Wild Wood : Michael Jayston
The Troll : Gemma Craven
Part 3
The Musicians Of Bremen : Nigel Hawthorne
Little Joe and the Sea Dragon : Dermot Crowley
The Lord of the Rushie River (1) : Denise Bryer
The Wizard of Oz: The Emerald City : Miriam Margolyes
Party in the Sky : Nigel Hawthorne
Kebeg : Denise Bryer
The Song of the Engine : Nigel Hawthorne
Part 4
Shorty the Satellite and the Lost Rocket : Nigel Lambert
The Wizard of Oz: Quest for the Wicked Witch : Miriam Margolyes
Petrushka : Janet Suzman
The Garden : Nigel Lambert
Master of the Lake : Janet Suzman
The Lord of the Rushie River (2) : Denise Bryer
Riloby-rill : Janet Suzman
Part 5
The Snow Bear : Derek Jacobi
The Inn of Donkeys : Derek Jacobi
Shorty the Satellite and the Brigadier : Nigel Lambert
The Nightingale : Derek Jacobi
Hugo and the Man Who Stole Colours : Nigel Lambert
The Wizard of Oz: A Great And Terrible Humbug : Miriam Margolyes
Recipe : Nigel Lambert
Part 6
Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (1) : Sheila Hancock
The Wizard of Oz: The Final Journey : Miriam Margolyes
The Farmer, the Tomt and the Troll : Carole Boyd
Shorty The Satellite And The Shooting Star : Nigel Lambert
The Fishing Stone : Carole Boyd
Silly Old Baboon : Nigel Lambert
Part 7
Traveller Ned : Morag Hood
Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (2) : Sheila Hancock
Little Bear And The Beaver : Ian Lavender
The Ju-Ju Man : Floella Benjamin
A Song for Slug : Ian Lavender
Larkspur Gets Her Wings : Morag Hood
Windy Nights : Ian Lavender
Part 8
The Most Beautiful House : Robin Nedwell
Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (3) : Sheila Hancock
The Orchestra That Lost Its Voice : Steven Pacey
Stone Soup : Debbie Arnold
The Man Who Knew Better : Robin Nedwell
How the Polar Bear Became : Debbie Arnold
The Marrog : Steven Pacey
Part 9
Diggersaurs (1) : Steven Pacey
Molly Whuppie : Eve Karpf
Young Kate : Eve Karpf
Upside-Down Willie (1) : Steven Pacey
Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (4) : Sheila Hancock
Meeting : Eve Karpf
Part 10
Toad of Toad Hall (1) : Richard Briers
Simeom the Sorcerer's Son (1) : George Layton
Anansi and the Python : Ysanne Churchman
Stone Drum : Ysanne Churchman
Upside-Down Willie (2) : Steven Pacey
Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (5) : Sheila Hancock
Hannibal : George Layton
Part 11
Grogre the Golden Ogre (1) : Nigel Lambert
Anya's Garden : Carole Boyd
Miss Priscilla's Secret : Carole Boyd
Simeom the Sorcerer's Son (2) : George Layton
The Tortoises' Picnic : David Adams
Toad of Toad Hall (2) : Richard Briers
Big Gumbo : Carole Boyd
Part 12
Box of Robbers : Patricia Hodge
The Challenging Bull : Nigel Lambert
Barney's Winter Present : Antonia Swinson
Toad of Toad Hall (3) : Richard Briers
Minnie the Floating Witch : Patricia Hodge
Grogre the Golden Ogre (2) : Nigel Lambert
An Eskimo Baby : Patricia Hodge
Part 13
Brer Rabbit and the Tar-Baby : Dick Vosburgh
Geordie's Mermaid : Susan Jameson
Grogre the Golden Ogre (3) : Nigel Lambert
Gatecrashers : Susan Jameson
Toad of Toad Hall (4) : Richard Briers
The Princess Who Met the North Wind : Susan Jameson
Part 14
Peter Pan (1) : Derek Jacobi
The Scrubs and the Dubs (1) : Windsor Davies
Horace's Vanishing Trick : Gay Soper
The Tumbledown Boy : Gay Soper
The Horn Flute : John Shrapnel
King Ferdinand's Fancy Socks : Gay Soper
The Flower Seller : John Shrapnel
Part 15
Peter Pan (2) : Derek Jacobi
Cath's Cradle : Una Stubbs
The Scrubs and the Dubs (2) : Windsor Davies
Willow Pattern : Anthony Jackson
Gary the Greatest : Anthony Jackson
Campbell Finds a Castle : Una Stubbs
A Child's Thought : Una Stubbs
Part 16
The Thin King and the Fat Cook : Patricia Brake
Peter Pan (3) : Derek Jacobi
Bored Brenda : Patricia Brake
The Swords of King Arthur : Mick Ford
Touching Silver : Patricia Brake
Noggin and the Birds : Oliver Postgate
Goblin Market : Mick Ford
Part 17
Longtooth's Tale (1) : Steven Pacey
Shubiki's Hat : Eva Haddon
Big Red Head (1) : Ruth Madoc
The Tree that Sang : Steven Pacey
Too Many Buns for Rosie : Eva Haddon
Peter Pan (4) : Derek Jacobi
The Moon : Eva Haddon
Part 18
Longtooth's Tale (2) : Steven Pacey
Galldora and the Woods-Beyond : Eve Karpf
Big Red Head (2) : Ruth Madoc
At the Forge : James Bryce
Mouse in the Snow : Eve Karpf
Peter Pan (5) : Derek Jacobi
I Had a Little Nut-Tree : James Bryce
Part 19
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1) : Patricia Hodge
Wonder Wellies : Nigel Lambert
Peter and the Mountainy Men : Carole Boyd
The Treachery of Morgan : Mick Ford
Pat's Piano : Carole Boyd
Danger in the Reeds : Nigel Lambert
My Uncle Paul of Pimlico : Nigel Lambert
Part 20
Arthur Gives Back His Sword : Mick Ford
Butterflies on the Moon : Geoffrey Matthews
Ginger's Secret Weapons : Cass Allen
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (2) : Patricia Hodge
A Great Escape : Cass Allen
The Miller and His Donkey : Geoffrey Matthews
Sheep-Dog : Geoffrey Matthews
Part 21
Never Tangle With aA Tengu : Christopher Timothy
Diggersaurs (2) : Steven Pacey
Nothing Like a Bath : Denise Bryer
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (3) : Patricia Hodge
The Neat and Tidy Kitchen : Denise Bryer
Tommy's Shadow : Steven Pacey
My Mother Said : Denise Bryer
Part 22
Quest of the Brave : Martin Jarvis
The Captain's Horse : Martin Jarvis
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (4) : Patricia Hodge
The City of Lost Submarines (1) : David Tate
Nogbad Comes Back : Oliver Postgate
Ostriches Can't Fly : Joanna Wake
The Cottage : Joanna Wake
Part 23
Cyril Snorkel - The Performing Beast : Denise Bryer
Dorrie and the Witch's Visit : Denise Bryer
What the Smoke Said : George Layton
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (5) : Patricia Hodge
The City of Lost Submarines (2) : David Tate
Simon Rhymon : George Layton
The Sunlight Falls Upon the Grass : Denise Bryer
Part 24
Harlequin and Columbine (1) : Leonard Rossiter
The City of Lost Submarines (3) : David Tate
The Kind Scarecrow : Maureen O'Brien
Seadna and The Devil : Anthony Jackson
The Birthday Candle : Maureen O'Brien
Superbabe : Anthony Jackson
Upon My Golden Backbone : Maureen O'Brien
Part 25
It Takes Time to Teach a King : Dermot Crowley
Harlequin And Columbine (2) : Leonard Rossiter
Cabbage and the Foxes : Carole Boyd
The Donkey Who Fetched the Sea : Dermot Crowley
Give It to Zico! (1) : Ian Lavender
The Electric Imps : Carole Boyd
If You Should Meet a Crocodile : Carole Boyd
Part 26
The Mermaid Who Couldn't Swim : Maureen O'Brien
Give It to Zico! (2) : Ian Lavender
Mandy and the Space Race : Maureen O'Brien
Somewhere Safe : Maureen O'Brien
Noggin and the Money : Oliver Postgate
Harlequin and Columbine (3) : Leonard Rossiter
Christmas Story Teller
Part 1
Bertie's Escapade : Bernard Cribbins
The Chocolate Soldier : Carole Boyd
Timbertwig's Christmas Tree : George Layton
King John's Christmas : Nigel Lambert
Snow White and the seven Dwarfs : Liza Goddard
Boo Ho Ho! : Bernard Cribbins
What Wanda Wanted : Carole Boyd
Aladdin and his Magic Lamp : George Layton
The Great Sleigh Robbery : Nigel Lambert
The First Christmas : Liza Goddard
Part 2
Gobbolino's Christmas Adventure : Sheila Hancock
Shorty and the Starship : Nigel Lambert
Mole's Winter Welcome : Richard Briers
Santa's Sunny Christmas : Miriam Margolyes
Good King Wenceslas : Sheila Hancock
Dick Whittington and His Cat : Richard Briers
The Tale of the Little Pine Tree : Miriam Margolyes
The Fairies' Cake : Miriam Margolyes
Grogre and the Giant Nasher : Nigel Lambert
A Christmas Carol : Joss Ackland
Part 3
Readers and singers: Derek Griffiths, Carole Boyd, Denise Bryer, Nigel Lambert, Steven Pacey, Claire Hamill, Tom Newman.
Jingle Bells
A Carol for Gobbolino
Leroy Learns to Skate
Snow
Snow Song
Mother Goose
Christmas Fun
Rudolph to the Rescue
Away in a Manger
I Saw Three Ships Come Sailing By
Dotty and the Teddy Bears
Clara and the Nutcracker Doll
O Little Town of Bethlehem
The Surprise Christmas
The Forgotten Toys
Minnie's Dinner Spell
Morris's Christmas Stocking
Hurray for Christmas!
Story Teller: Members' Edition
Timbertwig and the Dancing Dress: Peet Ellison
The Peacock and the Magpie: Caroline Usasz
Pip the Water Drop: Jo Huysamen
The Cloud Cook: Rebecca Harrison
How Night Came: Fiona Botham
The Twelve Dancing Princesses: Michael Sharmon
Bubble & Squeek: Deborah Breen
Zebra or Giraffe?: Chris Signore
Friendship in the Park: Jo Huysamen
The Battle of the Crabs: Antonio Pineda
Odysseus: Nicola Ni Craith
Lawton the Lion: Kathy Schmidt-Trajkovski
In other languages
Dutch "Luister Sprookjes en Vertellingen"
German "Erzähl mir was"
French "Raconte-moi des histoires"
Italian "I Racconta Storie" and "C'era una volta" (re-edited with CDs instead of cassette tapes)
Greek "Άμπρα Κατάμπρα" (Abracadabra) (re-edited 2007 with CDs instead of cassette tapes)
Spanish "Cuenta Cuentos"
Afrikaans "Storieman"
Similar partworks
Story Teller became such a huge success in the 80s that other publishers released similar partworks, including Fabbri's Once Upon a Time collection and Disney's Storytime series. In addition to "clones" of the Story Teller series, several paperback books containing selections from the actual Story Teller series were released (with accompanying cassettes) in the US, under the title "Look, Listen and Read". These compilations contained stories or themes that related to each other, either by author or content. Examples include The Best of Aesop, The Legend of King Arthur, Jack and the Beanstalk, and Rapunzel.
Disney's Storytime
The main differentiator between Story Teller and Disney's Storytime was the fact that the latter featured only Disney characters. Storytime hit newsagents' shelves soon after Story Teller proved to be a bestseller. It was published in 24 parts and customised binders and cassette boxes were produced to house the collection (just like Story Teller). Disney movies, such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and Sleeping Beauty (1959), were serialised. (Note: the Australian and New Zealand versions of Story Teller were published as Story Time - not to be confused with Disney's Storytime series.)
Part 1
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (Part 1) : Penelope Keith
Donald Duck Goes Climbing : John Alderton
The Three Little Pigs : John Alderton
Pooh and Piglet Have an Adventure : Paul Daneman
Old King Cole : John Alderton
Part 2
The Grasshopper and the Ants : Ray Brooks
Christopher Robin and His Friends Go for a Picnic : Paul Daneman
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (Part 2) : Penelope Keith
Pluto on the Trail : Ray Brooks
Toad's Hot Air Balloon : Ruth Madoc
Little Boy Blue : Ray Brooks
Part 3
The Murky, Misty Day : Paul Daneman
The Country Cousin : Ruth Madoc
King of the Jungle : Paul Daneman
Donald Duck's Picnic : Ray Brooks
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (Part 3) : Penelope Keith
Old Mother Hubbard : Ruth Madoc
Part 4
The Wise Little Hen : Ruth Madoc
Piglet's Honey Expedition : Paul Daneman
Dumbo Plays Cricket : Richard Briers
Mickey Mouse Goes Camping : Julia McKenzie
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (Part 4) : Penelope Keith
There Was a Crooked Man : Julia McKenzie
Part 5
Christopher Robin Plans a Surprise : Paul Daneman
The Aristocats : Julia McKenzie
The Rabbit with Big Feet : Paul Daneman
Donald in Trouble : Julia McKenzie
Robin Hood (Part 1) : Richard Briers
There Was an Old Woman : Julia McKenzie
Part 6
Bambi Grows Up : Una Stubbs
Pooh Has a Surprise : Paul Daneman
Robin Hood (Part 2) : Richard Briers
Pluto Plays Guard Dog : Wendy Craig
Paintbrush Tails : Julia McKenzie
Three Blind Mice : Julia McKenzie
Part 7
Robin Hood (Part 3) : Richard Briers
Merlin's Magic : Julia McKenzie
Donald's Dream Cottage : Julia McKenzie
The Ugly Duckling : Julia McKenzie
Pooh Knits a Jumper : Paul Daneman
I Had a Little Nut Tree : Julia McKenzie
Part 8
Mowgli Meets Baloo : Freddie Jones
Roo Paints His Masterpiece : Paul Daneman
Uncle Scrooge and His Hedgehog Brooms : Julia McKenzie
Policeman Goofy : Julia McKenzie
Robin Hood (Part 4) : Richard Briers
Pat-a-Cake Pat-a-Cake : Adele Spencer
Part 9
The Fox and the Hound : Wendy Craig
Custard or Mustard? : Anton Rodgers
Donald's Disastrous Day : Anton Rodgers
Dumbo the Elephant (Part 1) : Una Stubbs
Pancakes Can Be Dangerous Things : Paul Daneman
Hey Diddle Diddle : Adele Spencer
Part 10
Dumbo the Elephant (Part 2): Una Stubbs
Pooh Does Some Roo-Sitting: Paul Daneman
Toad, the Bargain Hunter: Anton Rodgers
Mickey and Donald Go Fishing: Andrew Sachs
Sleeping Beauty and the Evil Fairy's Spell: June Whitfield
Jack Sprat: Anton Rodgers
Part 11
Sleeping Beauty and Her Prince : June Whitfield
Pooh, the 'Poler' Bear : Paul Daneman
Pluto's Pigeon Pie : Anton Rodgers
Donald Joins the Army : Anton Rodgers
Dumbo the Elephant (Part 3) : Una Stubbs
Ride a Cock Horse : June Whitfield
Part 12
Pinocchio at the Puppet Theatre : Andrew Sachs
Mickey and Donald Go to a Wedding : Una Stubbs
Dopey's Heavy Boots : Andrew Sachs
Pooh's Busy Day : Paul Daneman
The Rescuers : Una Stubbs
Mary, Mary Quite Contrary : Una Stubbs
Part 13
Lady Leaves Home : June Whitfield
Piglet-in-the-Middle : Paul Daneman
Pinocchio on Pleasure Island : Andrew Sachs
Donald the Brave : Sheila Steafel
Thumper to the Rescue : Una Stubbs
Hickory Dickory Dock : June Whitfield
Part 14
Pinocchio Inside the Whale : Andrew Sachs
Mickey's New Sweater : Una Stubbs
Robin and the Golden Axe : Freddie Jones
Tigger's Accident : Paul Daneman
The Adventures of Mowgli : Freddie Jones
Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat : June Whitfield
Part 15
Cinderella and the Ugly Sisters : Penelope Keith
Piglet Gets Bigger : Paul Daneman
Bambi, King of the Forest : Una Stubbs
Donald and the Drummer Boys : Paul Daneman
The Christmas Tree : Penelope Keith
Little Miss Muffet : June Whitfield
Part 16
Cinderella Goes to the Ball : Penelope Keith
O'Malley's Breakfast : June Whitfield
A Stormy Time in the Wood : Paul Daneman
All the Fun of the Fair : June Whitfield
The Adventures of Beer Rabbit : Freddie Jones
Hush-a-Bye Baby : June Whitfield
Part 17
The Mad Hatter's Tea Party : June Whitfield
Donald's Winter Holiday : June Whitfield
Goofy's Birthday Bloomer : Bernard Cribbins
Cinderella and the Glass Slipper : Penelope Keith
Pooh and the Wishing Well : Paul Daneman
This Little Pig : June Whitfield
Part 18
Arthur Meets Merlin the Magician : Bernard Cribbins
Pluto's Bone : Angela Thorne
Uncle Scrooge's Morning Dip : June Whitfield
What Could Be Worse Than a Woozle : Paul Daneman
Mowgli and King Louie : Freddie Jones
Baa Baa Black Sheep : June Whitfield
Part 19
Pooh Keeps Fit : Paul Daneman
101 Dalmatians Escape : Angela Thorne
The Grand Sale : Angela Thorne
Donald's Wet Afternoon : Angela Thorne
Merlin and Madam Mim : Bernard Cribbins
One, Two, Three, Four, Five : June Whitfield
Part 20
The Sword in the Stone: Bernard Cribbins
Mickey's Musical Robot: Nerys Hughes
The Sticky Story of the Practical Pig: Nerys Hughes
The Easter Egg Hunt: Paul Daneman
Mary Poppins Comes to Stay: Nerys Hughes
Sing a Song of Sixpence: Nerys Hughes
Part 21
Peter Pan and Wendy : Martin Jarvis
Donald's New Toy : June Whitfield
Uncle Scrooge's Crystal : Nerys Hughes
Pooh's Rapid Recovery : Paul Daneman
Lady in Disgrace : June Whitfield
Monday's Child : Nerys Hughes
Part 22
Peter Pan to the Rescue : Martin Jarvis
Mickey and Minnie Go On Holiday : Andrew Sachs
Sleepy Saves the Day : June Whitfield
Tigger Loses His Bounce : Paul Daneman
Alice and the Queen of Hearts : June Whitfield
Goosey, Goosey, Gander : Andrew Sachs
Part 23
Captain Hook's Revenge : Martin Jarvis
Rabbit's Play : Paul Daneman
Noises in the Night : Andrew Sachs
Donald Duck: Super Salesman : Nerys Hughes
101 Dalmatians on the Run : Andrew Sachs
The Queen of Hearts : Nerys Hughes
Part 24
Peter Pan Against the Pirates : Martin Jarvis
Mickey's Circus : Nerys Hughes
Pinocchio Makes a House : Andrew Sachs
Pooh and Piglet Go Camping : Paul Daneman
The Magical Mary Poppins : Nerys Hughes
Girls and Boys Come Out to Play : Nerys Hughes
References
External links
There are three dedicated websites:
The Magical World of Story Teller
Story Teller Yahoo! Group - NO LONGER WORKS
Children's magazines published in Australia
Defunct magazines published in Australia
Magazines established in 1982
Magazines disestablished in 1985
Partworks
1982 establishments in Australia
1985 disestablishments in Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access%20to%20Information%20Act
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Access to Information Act
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The Access to Information Act (R.S., 1985, c. A-1) or Information Act () (the Act) is a Canadian Act providing the right of access to information under the control of a federal government institution. As of 2020, the Act allowed "people who pay $5 to request an array of federal files". Paragraph 2. (1) of the Act ("Purpose") declares that government information should be available to the public, but with necessary exceptions to the right of access that should be limited and specific, and that decisions on the disclosure of government information should be reviewed independently of government. Later paragraphs assign responsibility for this review to an Information Commissioner, who reports directly to parliament rather than the government in power. However, the Act provides the commissioner the power only to recommend rather than compel the release of requested information that the commissioner judges to be not subject to any exception specified in the Act.
Historical synopsis
By 1982, Australia, Denmark, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, and the U.S. (1966), had enacted modern Freedom of information legislation. Canada's Access to Information Act came into force in 1983, under the Pierre Trudeau government, permitting Canadians to retrieve information from government files, establishing what information could be accessed, mandating timelines for response. By the standards of that era, it came to be considered a model of good practice, having taken the implementation of the law more seriously than other countries. The Act created new offices staffed with trained professionals to manage the inflow of requests, and developed formal procedures to encourage prompt processing of requests. Furthermore, the Information Commissioner served as an easily accessible ombudsperson to arbitrate cases of possible maladministration.
A complementary Privacy Act also came into force in 1983. The purpose of this Act was to extend the present laws of Canada that protect the privacy of individuals with respect to personal information about themselves held by a federal government institution and that provide individuals with a right of access to that information. It is a Crown copyright. This Act stipulates that complaints about possible violations of the Act may be reported to the Privacy Commissioner.
In 1998, following the Somalia Affair, a clause was appended to the Act, making it a federal offence to destroy, falsify, or conceal public documents.
Canadian access to information laws distinguish between access to records generally and access to records that contain personal information about the person making the request. Subject to exceptions, individuals have a right of access to records that contain their own personal information under the Privacy Act but the general public does not have a right of access to records that contain personal information about others under the Access to Information Act.
From 1989 to 2008, requests made to the federal government were catalogued in the Coordination of Access to Information Requests System (CAIRS). Although CAIRS was not originally designed for public use, the information contained in the database generated substantial and continued public interest. Two non-governmental websites offered information from CAIRS to the public with a search facility. In April 2008, the Conservative government of Prime Minister Stephen Harper terminated the maintenance of this database.
Proposed refinements
Mulroney government
In 1987, the Solicitor General tabled a report to Parliament with the authorship and unanimous support of a "Justice Committee" consisting of the House of Commons Standing
Committee on Justice together with himself, entitled Open and Shut: Enhancing the Right to Know and the Right to Privacy. It contained over 100 recommendations for amending the ATI and Privacy Acts. Many of these dealt with exemptions from access, recommending the addition of a discretionary
injury test in most cases, which would evaluate "the harm to the interest (e.g., the conduct of international affairs) that could reasonably be expected to result from disclosure". The Committee proposed that the complete exclusion of Cabinet records from the operation of the Act be deleted and replaced with an exemption that would not be subject to an injury test. This crucial change would have allowed the Information Commissioner and the Federal Court of Canada to review alleged "cabinet documents" in order to determine whether or not they are, in fact, Cabinet confidences and eligible for exemption. The government response to the report, published in 1987 by the Minister of Supply and Services and entitled "Access and Privacy: The Steps Ahead", generally supported the administrative, but not the legislative, changes proposed in the Justice Committee report. The concept of significant injury as a basis for the application of exemptions was rejected and the exemption for information received in confidence from other governments was justified on the basis that, "[t]he willingness of other governments to continue to share their information with Canada would likely be adversely affected by the lesser degree of protection which would be given if these recommendations were implemented".
Chretien government
In 2000, Information Commissioner John Grace presented his case for reform of the Act. He recognized that "while the Act has served well in enshrining the right to know, it has also come to express a single-request, often confrontational approach to providing information – an approach which is too slow and cumbersome for an information society." He made forty-three recommendations for updating the Act.
In August 2000, the Minister of Justice and the President of the Treasury Board launched a task force to review the Act. The committee's report delivered in June 2002, entitled, Access to Information: Making it Work for Canadians, found "a crisis in information management" within the government.<ref name="Task Force 2000">{{cite web|title=Strengthening the Access to Information: Making it Work for Canadians| url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/BT22-83-2002E.pdf|author=Access to Information Review Task Force|publisher=Government of Canada|date=June 2002|access-date=14 September 2014}}</ref> It made 139 recommendations for legislative, administrative and cultural reform. Nothing came of this report.
Martin government
In the fall of 2003, the Member of Parliament John Bryden attempted to initiate a comprehensive overhaul of the Act through a private members bill, Bill C-462, which died on the Order Paper with the dissolution of the 37th Parliament in May 2004. A similar bill was introduced by NDP MP Pat Martin on 7 October 2004 as Bill C-201. It met a similar fate.
In April 2005, the Minister of Justice Irwin Cotler introduced a discussion paper entitled A Comprehensive Framework for Access to Information Reform.
Later in 2005, a draft bill, entitled the Open Government Act, was tabled before the House of Commons Standing Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics. Developed by Information Commissioner John Reid at the request of the Standing Committee, the proposed act included substantial changes to the law.Some information about the development of this draft is available in a document of Notes, Sources and References. A primary objective was to address concerns about a "culture of secrecy" within political and bureaucratic environments. This draft bill initially received multi-party support, but not enough to result in the introduction by a government or passage in the form of either of two private member's bills based on this draft.
Harper government
Essentially this same draft bill with the same title "Open Government Act", but with the crucial addition of full order-making powers for record release, was introduced by NDP MP Pat Martin as Bill C-554 in 2008, and as Bill C-301 in 2011. The latter reached First Reading on 29 September in the first session of the 41st Parliament, and then was reinstated in the second session on 16 October 2013. As of September 2014, it remained on the Order Paper awaiting Second Reading.
In 2009, the Information Commissioner Robert Marleau appeared before the House of Commons Standing Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics. The Commissioner emphasized that "work [was] urgently needed to modernize" and strengthen the Act. He presented "a list of twelve specific recommendations that represent an important first step" to "address only the most pressing matters". (About 15 weeks later, Mr. Marleau abruptly resigned five years before his normal end of term, for "entirely personal and private" reasons. This was reported to have raised "doubts about the pace and direction of reforms to Canada's access to information laws that he was spearheading." )
On June 6, 2012, the Legal and Legislative Affairs Division of the Parliamentary Information and Research Service published a Library of Parliament Background Paper, entitled The Access to Information Act and Proposals for Reform. The purpose of the Paper was to identify the key points emerging from
the major studies of the Act that had been conducted over the previous two decades, and to analyze in some detail some recent proposals concerning the reworking of the legislation. The Paper summarized eleven significant efforts within parliament and the federal government from 1987 to 2009. It then concluded by noting that the Conservative government of Stephen Harper in power in 2011−2012 had proposed to improve access to information, not by amending the Act, but rather by introducing what it called "open government" and "open data" initiatives. The Paper goes on to report that, in response, Canada's information and privacy commissioners suggested that the Action Plan on Open Government represents a missed opportunity for comprehensive reform of the Act. Information Commissioner Suzanne Legault suggested in a letter that the government recognizes and supports the relationship between open government and a modernized Act. She observed, "Our investigations in recent years have demonstrated not only the obsolescence of the statute but also a number of deficiencies in it which may well impede or hamper the development of a truly open government that is receptive to the needs of its citizens and its economy and in step with other administrations."
Trudeau government
During his Campaign in 2015, candidate Justin Trudeau, and the Liberal Party he was representing, promised to change the Access to Information Act to include the Prime Minister's and Cabinet Office within its scope. However, his first proposed change to the act in June 2017 did not include anything about either offices. Instead, the proposed changes included promises to proactively release more information than in the past. The bill did include the courts within its scope, which meant that judge's travel and hospitality expenses were now made public. Additionally, briefing binders and mandate letters were also automatically made public.
Other changes that were proposed allowed the Information Commissioner to order specific government departments to publish information. If the department does not, the case is then to be taken to federal court. Another promise made by the Liberals was to hold reviews of the Access to Information Act every 5 years at a minimum. Additionally, under the new proposal the Information Commissioner has the right to refuse to address complaints judged to be "frivolous or vexatious". Under the previous version of the bill, anyone could appeal to the Information Commissioner's office.
Most critiques of the changes to the act concerned the broken promise from the election, while most of the people defending the proposal focused on expanded proactive disclosure. Treasury Board President Scott Brison said this in defense of the government's actions:
"Expanding and putting into law proactive release of government information is an important step in meeting and reflecting the principle of open by default, which we believe is the future of government information sharing." Trudeau did promise during the election to increase the power of the Information Commissioner, which he did. But, many times in the past government's have refused the request of the Information Officer and it has led to Federal Court cases. As expected, politician's representing other parties did were not happy about the broken commitment made during the election. "They left the really big promise broken", NDP Nathan Cullent said in response to the proposal. "By excluding the ability to request information from ministers' offices and the PMO, this government falls short of meeting their campaign promise to make government 'open by default,' was how Katie Gibbs felt about the changes. Gibbs is the executive director of the group Evidence for Democracy, and she publicly supported other parts of the act, but was overall disappointed with the Liberals not living up to their election promise.
Progressive erosion in accessibility of federal government information
Université de Moncton professor Donald Savoie's 2003 book, Breaking the Bargain, observes that in Canada there is a reluctance to put anything in writing, including e-mail, that might find its way into public discourse. As context, he argues that the role of bureaucracy within the Canadian political machine has never been properly defined, that the relationship between elected and permanent government officials is increasingly problematic and that the public service cannot function if it is expected to be both independent of, and subordinate to, elected officials.
In February 2005, the Canadian Newspaper Association published a report entitled In Pursuit of Meaningful Access to Information Reform: Proposals to Strengthen Canadian Democracy. The report was motivated by the increasing difficulty experienced by journalists employed by members of the Association in obtaining "information about government that they required to inform the public on matters of national interest". The report notes that "successive Information Commissioners have criticised a 'culture of secrecy' in Ottawa, in which government departments frustrate the will of Parliament with impunity." A set of twenty specific features of a revised Act were recommended, based on a set of seven "Core Principles".
In 2006, Alasdair Roberts, presently at the Suffolk University Law School and the author of several books on public affairs, presented a report entitled Two Challenges in Administration of the Access to Information Act to the Gomery Commission investigating the Sponsorship scandal in the federal government. In the context of 2006, Prof. Roberts found that "In many respects, Canadian practice [was] superior to practice under the U.S. Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), although the popular conception [was] often the reverse, and also superior to emerging practice under the more recently drafted UK FOIA". The Two Challenges that he identified were Adversarialism in the administration of the Act, and the excessively limited Scope of the Act. Regarding the former, the "balance of forces" between the "sharply opposed interests" for and against disclosure may not "be preserved over time; one side may prove more skilled at developing new strategies than the other. Evidence suggests that federal institutions have developed techniques for managing politically sensitive requests which now undercut basic principles of the ATIA." These techniques were observed to result in substantial delays in processing information requests perceived to be politically sensitive, possibly because they originated from journalists. Prof. Roberts observed that "such delays suggest that a basic principle of the ATIA is widely and routinely flouted by federal institutions. The ATIA is supposed to respect the rule of equal treatment: a presumption that requests for information will be treated similarly, without regard to the profession of the requester or the purpose for which the information is sought". Regarding Scope, Prof. Roberts observed that "a longstanding difficulty with the ATIA has been its failure to include many key federal institutions. For many years, the difficulty [had] centered on the exclusion of Crown Corporations; more recently, the problem has extended to include government contractors and a range of quasi-governmental entities that perform critical public functions."
In September 2008, a 393-page report, sponsored by several Canadian newspaper groups together with the B.C. Freedom of Information and Privacy Association and two Vancouver lawyers, compared Canada's Access to Information Act to the "Freedom of Information" laws of the provinces and of 68 other nations. As the title of the report implies: "Fallen Behind: Canada's Access to Information Act in the World Context", it concludes that "Canada surely needs to at least raise its own FOI laws up to the best standards of its Commonwealth partners–and then, hopefully, look beyond the Commonwealth to consider the rest of the world. This is not a radical or unreasonable goal at all, for to reach it, Canadian parliamentarians need not leap into the future but merely step into the present."
In 2009, Justice Minister Rob Nicholson was reported to have emphatically told the House of Commons Standing Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics on 4 May that: "I want you to know that I completely disagree with anybody who would suggest that this country has a dismal record on anything related to access to information issues". Mr. Nicholson went on to say "this country has an outstanding record, and if anyone has anything different to say, then I say they are completely wrong."
On 29 September 2009, Stanley Tromp, the Freedom of Information caucus coordinator of the Canadian Association of Journalists and author of the 2008 Fallen Behind report, addressed the Conference for Parliamentarians: Transparency in the Digital Era. Mr. Tromp reported that "FOI experts in other countries have publicly noted the forlorn status of our ATI Act in the world context". Examples he provided include:
David Banisar, Senior Legal Counsel for the London-based human rights organization ARTICLE 19, wrote in his 2006 Global FOI Survey "There is wide recognition that the ATI Act, which is largely unchanged since its adoption, is in need of drastic updating".
Australian law professor Rick Snell called the Canadian Act "fairly abysmal," and Ottawa's approach to providing information as a 19th-century, horse-and-buggy attempt at "managing secrecy."
A report from the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative found that the right of access in Canada "falls short" of compliance with Article 19 of the 1976 United Nations' International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
In October 2010, an international comparison of access to government information ranked Canada last among four commonwealth nations together with ireland; a significant change from only a decade earlier when the country often served as a model for freedom of information internationally. The University College London study comparing Canada, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland was published in Government Information Quarterly.
In September 2014, a book was published entitled Irresponsible Government: The Decline of Parliamentary Democracy in Canada. The author is Brent Rathgeber, sitting as an Independent Member of Parliament in 2014 since his resignation from the Conservative caucus in 2013. He had formerly been a Progressive Conservative member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. In the book, Mr. Rathgeber contrasted the current state of Canadian democracy to the founding principles of responsible government established by the Fathers of Confederation in 1867. He examined the consequences of the inability or disincentive of modern elected representatives to perform their constitutionally mandated duty to hold the prime minister and his cabinet to account and the resultant disregard with which the executive now views Parliament. With this as context, Mr. Rathgeber devoted Chapter 11 to Withholding the power: Canada's broken Access to Information laws. He conveyed the opinion of Information Commissioner Suzanne Legault that two of the most fundamental shortcomings of the present Act were that it was not updated to cope with either the impact of digital information technology or the increase in scale and complexity of government and the centralization and concentration of decision making. Another key problem is that the commissioner lacks the power to compel rather than only recommend the release of requested information that does not merit secrecy on the basis of limited, justifiable grounds, a power that exists in other jurisdictions including several Canadian provinces. To add to the problem, the list of exceptions available in the existing Act had grown much larger in recent years. Mr. Rathgeber reported the commissioner to have said that "Canada's access regime [was] so dysfunctional that the RCMP has actually stopped responding to access requests entirely, and the Department of National Defence has stated that it will require 1100 days to complete a single request it has been working on". He also noted "a growing body of evidence that government bureaucrats, and especially political staff, are conducting their business verbally, without retaining notes, or alternatively, are exchanging correspondences through private email addresses and/or employing digital devices that leave no trace". The commissioner was reported to recommend that a reworked Act should correct the aforementioned shortcomings as well as extend the act to cover Parliament, including parliamentary administration, and ministers' offices, where much of the policy development and decision making regarding taxpayer dollars is done.
In September 2014, Canadian Press reported that a previously obscure Treasury Board directive in the summer of 2013 introduced a policy that required federal bureaucrats to consult departmental lawyers about whether documents should be classified as secrets. Such decisions were formerly made by the Privy Council Office (PCO), the secretariat of the federal cabinet. After the policy change, the PCO is consulted in "complex cases only", a practice that was described as "outrageous" by professor Errol Mendes, a constitutional expert at the University of Ottawa and former Senior Advisor to the PCO. He stated that only the PCO is fully informed about whether a document has been prepared for — or seen by — the federal cabinet and is, therefore, eligible for exclusion. The effect of the directive was the suppression of a much wider range of documents, doubling the rate of complaints to the Information Commissioner, an independent ombudsman. Suzanne Legault, the Commissioner incumbent in this period, expressed concern, describing the scope of the new basis for exclusion from release as "extremely broad", and failing to "respect fundamental tenets of freedom of information". Liberal Member of Parliament John McKay described his attempts to extract information required to make "independent judgments" in the fulfillment of parliamentary duties as "an exercise in frustration". Complaints were expressed also by news media as well as federal officers responsible for oversight, including the Auditor General, the Parliamentary Budget Officer, and the military ombudsman. Michael Ferguson (Auditor General) said that his attempts in early 2014 to audit public pension plans to evaluate their long-term health had been stymied by bureaucrats at Department of Finance and Treasury Board. Kevin Page, the Parliamentary Budget Officer during the period 2008−2013, stated that neither Parliament nor his office could obtain the information that it needed. He elaborated: "the government was asking Parliament to vote on bills without relevant financial information and were hiding behind the veil of cabinet confidence. This undermined accountability for Parliament and the accountability of the public service." He concluded that the Act required a major revision.
See also
Freedom of information in Canada
Freedom of information legislation
Info Source - repository of information available through the Privacy Act and Access to Information Act''
References
External links
Information and links regarding Access to Information (Treasury Board Secretariat)
Access to Information Manual
Access to Information Act
European database of FOI legislation in many nations
Canadian federal legislation
Freedom of information legislation in Canada
1983 in Canadian law
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