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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliud%20Kipchoge
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Eliud Kipchoge
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Eliud Kipchoge (born 5 November 1984) is a Kenyan long-distance runner who competes in the marathon and formerly specialized at the 5000 metre distance. Regarded as one of the greatest marathon runners of all time, he is the 2016 and 2020 Olympic marathon champion, and was the world record holder in the marathon with a time of 2:01:09 set at the 2022 Berlin Marathon, until that record was broken by Kelvin Kiptum at the Chicago Marathon on 8 October 2023 with a time of 2:00:35. He has run five of the nine fastest marathons in history.
Kipchoge claimed his first individual world championship title in 2003 by winning the junior race at the World Cross Country Championships and setting a world junior record over 5000 m on the track. At the age of eighteen, he became the senior 5000 m world champion at the 2003 World Championships with a championships record, then followed with an Olympic bronze for Kenya in 2004 and a bronze at the 2006 World Indoor Championships. A five-time World Championship 5000 m finalist, Kipchoge took silver medals at the 2007 World Championships, 2008 Beijing Olympics and 2010 Commonwealth Games.
He switched to road running in 2012 and made the second-fastest half marathon debut ever, at 59:25. In his marathon debut, he won the 2013 Hamburg Marathon in a course record time. His first victory at a World Marathon Major came at the Chicago Marathon in 2014, and he went on to become series champion a record five times – for 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2022. He has won the London Marathon a record four times and also holds the record for most Berlin Marathon wins with five, his latest coming in September 2023. With 15 victories out of his 18 marathons, Kipchoge's only losses have been a second-place finish behind Wilson Kipsang Kiprotich at the 2013 Berlin Marathon, where Kipsang broke the world record, an eighth-place finish at the 2020 London Marathon and a sixth place in his debut at the Boston Marathon in 2023. Kipchoge's current world record run broke by 30 seconds his own 2018 world record, which was in turn a 78-second improvement over the existing best, the greatest improvement in a marathon world record time since 1967.
On 12 October 2019, Kipchoge ran the marathon distance for the Ineos 1:59 Challenge in Vienna, achieving a time of 1:59:40.2, becoming the first person in recorded history to do a sub-two-hour marathon. The run did not count as a new marathon record, as standard competition rules for pacing and fluids were not followed, and it was not an open event.
Kipchoge was appointed Elder of the Order of the Golden Heart by President Uhuru Kenyatta on 20 October 2019 in recognition of his sub-two-hour marathon. He was also named the 2019 BBC World Sport Star of the Year. In 2023 he was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award in the category "Sports".
Personal life
Kipchoge was born on 5 November 1984 in Kapsisiywa, Nandi County, in Kenya. He graduated from the Kaptel Secondary School in Nandi County in 1999 but did not run seriously or as a profession then. He ran to school on a daily basis. Kipchoge was raised by a single mother (a teacher), and only knew his father from pictures. He is the youngest of four children. He met his trainer Patrick Sang (a former Olympic medalist in the steeplechase) in 2001 at the age of 16.
Kipchoge's wife and three children live in Eldoret, Kenya. He lives and trains in Kaptagat, 30 km (19 miles) from Eldoret. He is a devout Catholic.
Career
2002–2004
In 2002, he won at the Kenyan trials for the 2002 IAAF World Cross Country Championships junior race. At the World Cross Country Championships, held in Dublin, Kipchoge finished fifth in the individual race and was part of the Kenyan junior team that won gold. Kipchoge also won the 5000 metres race at the Kenyan trial for the 2002 World Junior Championships in Athletics but fell ill and missed the championships. He won the junior race at the 2003 IAAF World Cross Country Championships.
He set a world junior record in the 5000 m at the 2003 Bislett Games, running a time of 12:52.61 minutes. This stood as the world and African junior record until 2012 when it was improved to 12:47.53 minutes by Hagos Gebrhiwet of Ethiopia.
Kipchoge won a gold medal at the 5000 m final at the 2003 World Championships in Paris, outsprinting runner-up Hicham El Guerrouj, the world record holder in the 1500 metres and mile, by four hundredths of a second in 12:52.79.
In July, he participated in the Golden League 2004 Roma Meeting. In the 5000 m event, he dipped first among the starters with 12:46.53, which made him the sixth-fastest ever in the event.
In 2004, Kipchoge won a bronze medal at the 5000 m final at the 2004 Athens Olympics, behind El Guerrouj and Kenenisa Bekele. He also won the Trofeo Alasport cross country race earlier that season.
2006
Kipchoge won the bronze in the 3000 metres indoor at the 2006 World Championships in Moscow.
At the end of the year, Kipchoge won the San Silvestre Vallecana New Year's Eve 10 km road race in a time of 26:54 minutes, which beat his own course record by 40 seconds. This time was also better than the 10K road world record at the time but was run on a downhill course.
2007
Kipchoge won a silver medal at the 5000 m final of the 2007 World Championships at Osaka in 13:46.00, behind Bernard Lagat (13:45.87).
2008
During the 2008 Olympics held in Beijing, China, Kipchoge won a silver medal in the 5000 m event with a time of 13:02.80; although better than the previous Olympic record of 13:05.59, it was not enough to match Kenenisa Bekele's pace, who won the gold medal for this race. On the circuit, he won the Great Yorkshire Run 10K and Campaccio Cross Country that year.
2009
He failed to reach the podium at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics, finishing in fifth place. He also finished ninth in the 3000 m at the 2009 IAAF World Athletics Final.
2010–2011
He made his debut on the 2010 IAAF Diamond League by winning the 5000 m Qatar Athletic Super Grand Prix in a meet record time.
Kipchoge then entered the Carlsbad 5000 in California, United States. The Carlsbad 5 km road race is the venue for the world's best times for a 5k road race for men and women, respectively. The fastest to cover the track was Sammy Kipketer in 2000, with 12:59.52 min. Kipchoge made a world best attempt, and although he won the race, weather affected his chances, and he finished in 13:11, the fourth-fastest ever for the course up to that point in time.
In the first athletics final of the 2010 Commonwealth Games, he attempted to win the 5000 m Commonwealth title. Ugandan runner Moses Kipsiro held a slender lead over him in the race's final stages, and Kipchoge ended up in second place, taking the silver medal some seven-hundredths of a second behind. He flew back to Europe immediately after to take part in the Belgrade Race through History the following day. His shoe fell off in the first kilometre, and, after putting it back on, he made up much ground on the field to eventually take second place two seconds behind Josphat Menjo.
At the start of 2011, he won the short race at the Great Edinburgh Cross Country, ahead of Asbel Kiprop. He attempted to retain his title at the Carlsbad 5000 in April but came a close second behind Dejen Gebremeskel. In May he raced the 3000 metres (finished third) in Doha, with a time of 7:27.66 and ranked him as the 12th-fastest at the distance up to this point. Kipchoge was chosen to represent Kenya at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics and reached the 5000 m final for the fifth consecutive time, although he only managed seventh place on this occasion.
2012
Kipchoge returned to the Edinburgh Cross Country in 2012, but this time he finished third behind Asbel Kiprop and Britain's Jonathan Hay. He was also third at the Carlsbad 5000 in March. He attempted to gain a place on the 10,000 m Olympic team at the Prefontaine Classic, but fell back in the late stages of the Kenyan trial race, finishing seventh. A seventh-place finish in the Kenyan 5000 m trial race meant he would not make a third consecutive Olympic team.
He made his half marathon debut in the Lille Half Marathon. The run was won by a new course record time of 59:05 (previously 59:36 by ilahun Regassa set in 2008) by Ezekiel Chebii (former pb 59:22), trailed by Bernard Koech 59:10, and Kipchoge earned a third place with 59:25. His time of 59:25 became the second fastest Half Marathon debut, only second to Moses Mosop's 59:20 in Milan in 2010.
On 6 October 2012, Kipchoge ran at the 2012 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships in Kavarna, Bulgaria. Zersenay Tadese of Eritrea won in 1:00:19 and Kipchoge placed sixth in 1:01:52.
2013
Kipchoge opened his 2013 season with a win at the Barcelona Half Marathon in a time of one hour and four seconds. Making his marathon debut in April, he demonstrated a smooth transition to the longer distance by taking the Hamburg Marathon title with a run of 2:05:30 hours, beating the field by over two minutes and setting a new course record. In August 2013, he won the Half Marathon of Klagenfurt in 1:01:02 minutes.
Then, he raced in the 2013 Berlin Marathon and finished second in 2:04:05, the fifth-fastest time in history, in his second-ever marathon, behind Wilson Kipsang, who set a new marathon world record with 2:03:23. Third place went to Geoffrey Kamworor of Kenya with 2:06:26. This was the ninth world record set at the Berlin Marathon.
2015
On 2 February, Kipchoge participated in the Ras al-Khaimah Half Marathon. He placed sixth with a time of 1:00:50. The run was won by Mosinet Geremew (Ethiopia) in 1:00:05. Kipchoge ran 2:04:42 to win the 2015 London Marathon in April. He also won the 2015 Berlin Marathon later in the year. His win and then-personal best time (2:04:00) occurred even though his shoes malfunctioned, causing his insoles to flap out of both shoes from 10 km onward; rather than risk time lost from an adjustment, he finished the race with bloodied, blistered feet.
2016
In April, Kipchoge won the 2016 London Marathon for the second consecutive year in a time of 2:03:05. His performance broke the course record in London and became the second-fastest marathon time in history, missing Dennis Kimetto's world record by 8 seconds.
Rio Olympic Games
As the prerace favourite, during the 2016 Rio Summer Olympics, Kipchoge gained a gold medal in the marathon event. On the last day of the Olympic Games on 21 August 2016, he won in a time of 2:08:44. The runner up was Feyisa Lilesa (Ethiopia) in 2:09:54 and the bronze medal went to Galen Rupp (USA), doing his second marathon, crossing the finish line in 2:10:05. When the halfway point after 21.0975 km was reached, 37 men were within 10 seconds of the lead runner. The participants' field diminished to 3 lead runners shortly before 34 km. Kipchoge made his final move on silver medal winner Lilesa around 36 km into the race. He covered the first half of the race in 1:05:55 while doing the second half in 1:02:49, which amounts to a difference of more than 3 minutes, a negative split. The winning gap between Kipchoge and Lilesa by 70 seconds was the largest victory margin since the 1972 Olympic marathon. Kipchoge's winning time of 2:08:44 was, as of August 2021, his slowest marathon time. One hundred fifty-five runners started the race, the largest field in Olympic history; 140 of them finished the race. With this win, Kipchoge became the second Kenyan male after Sammy Wanjiru in Beijing 2008 to win an Olympic marathon gold medal. At the same Olympics, the women's marathon was won by Jemima Sumgong, who became the first female Kenyan winner.
On 20 November 2016, Kipchoge ran in the Airtel Delhi Half Marathon, winning the race, clocking a time of 59:44.
2017
On 6 May, Kipchoge, along with Zersenay Tadese (then world record holder in the half marathon) and Lelisa Desisa (2-time Boston Marathon winner), attempted the first sub-two-hour assisted marathon in the Nike Breaking2 project on the Monza Formula 1 racetrack near Milan, Italy. All three runners ran a test 2 months before the attempt. The target time was 1 hour for a half Marathon. Kipchoge finished first in 59:17. The course was measured at 2400 m per lap. During the 2-hour attempt, the runners were paced by a lead car and 30 supporting pacers joining in stages (both considered illegal under IAAF rules). The race started at 5:45h local time on the 2.4 km track. Kipchoge finished in 2:00:25, while the other two had to slow and finished far behind. The runners planned even 14:13 5k splits to break 2 hours. His 5k splits were: 14:14, 14:07, 14:13, 14:15, 14:14, 14:17, 14:17, 14:27, and 6:20 to finish. The 5k split times from 25k and further would be world records: 25k in 1:11:03, 30k in 1:25:20, 35k in 1:39:37, 40k in 1:54:04.
On 24 September, he won the 2017 Berlin Marathon in a time of 2:03:32. In rainy conditions, he finished 14 seconds ahead of Guye Adola who ran his first marathon, and set the fastest marathon debut ever. Former marathon world record holder Wilson Kipsang and 2016 winner Kenenisa Bekele failed to finish.
2018
Kipchoge won the London Marathon against a field that included Mo Farah, Kenenisa Bekele, and defending champion Daniel Wanjiru.
2018 Berlin and first world marathon record
On 16 September, Kipchoge won the 2018 Berlin Marathon in a time of 2:01:39, breaking the previous world record by 1 minute and 18 seconds (2:02:57 set by fellow countryman Dennis Kimetto at the Berlin Marathon in 2014). It was the greatest improvement in a marathon world record time since 1967. He finished 4:43 min ahead of second-placed fellow Kenyan Amos Kipruto. The world record holder from 2013, Wilson Kipsang of Kenya, came in third at 2:06:48. It was 11th world record set at the Berlin Marathon.
2018 accolades
Following his performances in the 2018 season, Kipchoge received numerous accolades and awards. He was named IAAF World Athlete of the Year together with Caterine Ibargüen, who received the female World Athlete of the Year award. On 11 January 2019, Kipchoge was named the 2018 Sportsman of the Year at the Kenyan Sports Personality of the Year Awards in Mombasa, Kenya.
2019
Kipchoge won the 2019 London Marathon in a time of 2:02:37, the second fastest marathon of all time, behind his 2018 Berlin Marathon win. He became the first man to win the event four times and set a new course record, beating his own 2016 London Marathon best by 28 seconds. The lead runner passed the half marathon mark in 1:01:37. Mosinet Geremew (Ethiopia) finished as the runner up in 2:02:55 and Mule Wasihun (Ethiopia) came in third place in 2:03:16. The British runner Mo Farah, a four-time Olympic gold medalist and a pre-race favourite, finished 5th.
Ineos 1:59 Challenge
In May 2019, a few days after his London Marathon win, Kipchoge announced another take on the sub-two-hour marathon, named the Ineos 1:59 Challenge. On 12 October 2019 in Vienna's Prater park, he ran 4.4 laps of the Hauptallee in 1:59:40, becoming the first person in recorded history to break the two-hour barrier over a marathon distance.
The effort did not count as a new world record under IAAF rules due to the setup of the challenge. Specifically, it was not an open event; Kipchoge was handed fluids by his support team throughout; the run featured a pace car and included rotating teams of other runners pacing Kipchoge in a formation designed to reduce wind resistance and maximise efficiency. The achievement was recognised by Guinness World Records with the titles 'Fastest marathon distance (male)' and 'First marathon distance run under two hours'.
2020
Kipchoge placed 8th in the 2020 London Marathon in October with a time of 2:06:49, the lowest finish of his marathoning career.
2021
In preparation for the delayed 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games, he won the NN Mission Marathon, which was held at Enschede Airport Twente in the Netherlands on 18 April 2021 in a time of 2:04:30. Jonathan Korir finished as the runner up with a personal best of 2:06:40.
Kipchoge successfully defended his title from the Rio Olympics by winning the gold medal in the men's marathon at the Tokyo Games in a time of 2:08:38, becoming only the third person to successfully defend their gold medal in the men's marathon, after Abebe Bikila in 1960 and 1964, and Waldemar Cierpinski in 1976 and 1980. He was the favourite to win and attacked around the 30 km mark, looking back only once afterwards. He won by 80 seconds, the largest margin in 49 years. The silver medal went to Abdi Nageeye (Netherlands), while Bashir Abdi (Belgium) came in third for a bronze medal with 2:10:00. Kipchoge was the oldest Olympic marathon winner since Carlos Lopes won in 1984 at the age of 37. The run was staged 500 miles north of Tokyo in Sapporo, with 106 runners participating. A documentary on the Ineos 1:59 Challenge, titled Kipchoge: The Last Milestone, was released digitally on-demand on 24 August 2021.
2022
On 20 January, Kipchoge announced his desire to win all six World Marathon Majors (he had already won three, the London, Berlin, and Chicago marathons by that time). This was followed up by an announcement on 18 February that he would be participating in the 2021 Tokyo Marathon (which took place on 6 March 2022 due to COVID-19 restrictions in 2021) and that the majority of his recent training has been dedicated towards this goal. He won the Tokyo Marathon with a time of 2:02:40 – a course and all-comers' record. Amos Kipruto of Kenya finished second with a personal best of 2:03:13, and Tamirat Tola from Ethiopia came in third in a time of 2:04:14.
2022 Berlin and current/second world marathon record
On 25 September, Kipchoge won the Berlin Marathon decisively in a time of 2:01:09, beating by 30 seconds his own previous world record, which he set on the same course in 2018. With his fourth victory in Berlin, he equalled the record achievement of Haile Gebrselassie. He finished 4:49 min ahead of second-placed compatriot Mark Korir while Ethiopia's Tadu Abate took third place with a time of 2:06:28. Kipchoge achieved halfway in 59:51 which, being at the time, the fastest split in marathon history, would have been a world record in the standalone half-marathon in 1993, and was only 26 seconds off his best in that distance. He slowed down later with second half in 61:18. It was the eighth time in a row that men's record was set in Berlin and 12th record there overall.
2023–present
At the 2023 Boston Marathon, Kipchoge aimed to win his fifth of the six major marathons. However, after missing his water bottle and due to a left leg problem, the 38-year-old was unable to stay with the lead group on a hilly section after the 30 km mark. He suffered the third defeat of his marathon career, finishing sixth with a time of 2:09:23. Evans Chebet was the winner in 2:05:54, successfully defending his title. At the 2023 Berlin Marathon, his first race since the Boston defeat, he won the race for a record fifth time, finishing at 2:02:42. He ran alone from 32 kilometers (20 miles) onward after Ethiopia's Derseh Kindie dropped away, but fell short of breaking his own world record he set the previous year. With the victory, Kipchoge became the first man in history to win the Berlin Marathon five times, having already won in 2015, 2017, 2018 and 2022.
International
Marathons
* Not eligible for record purposes. Kipchoge was the fastest runner out of three.
** Not eligible for record purposes.
(*) Officially billed as the 2021 Tokyo Marathon, the race took place on 6 March 2022 after the 2021 edition was postponed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. As a consequence of this postponement, the 2022 Tokyo Marathon was cancelled.
(x) Cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
(p) Postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
National titles
Kenyan Cross Country Championships
Senior race: 2004, 2005
Junior race: 2002, 2003
Kenyan Junior Championships
5000 m: 2002
Kenyan Olympic Trials
5000 m: 2004
Circuit wins
1500 m
FBK Games: 2004
3000 m
Qatar Athletic Super Grand Prix: 2004, 2005, 2007, 2009
Memorial Van Damme: 2004
British Grand Prix: 2006
BW-Bank-Meeting: 2006
Sparkassen Cup: 2006, 2010
Two miles
Prefontaine Classic: 2005
Birmingham Indoor Grand Prix: 2012
5000 m
Notturna di Milano: 2003, 2009
DN Galan: 2003
Golden Gala: 2004
Memorial Van Damme: 2005, 2008
Ostrava Golden Spike: 2008
Qatar Athletic Super Grand Prix: 2010
5K run
Carlsbad 5000: 2010
4 miles
4 Mile of Groningen: 2005, 2006, 2007
10K run
San Silvestre Vallecana: 2005, 2006
Great Yorkshire Run: 2009
Half marathon
Barcelona Half Marathon: 2013, 2014
Kärnten Läuft: 2013
Delhi Half Marathon: 2016
Cross country
Trofeo Alasport: 2004
Great Edinburgh International Cross Country: 2005, 2011
Campaccio: 2009
Personal bests
All information taken from World Athletics profile.
Awards
AIMS Best Marathon Runner Award – Men: 2015, 2016, 2017
2018 United Nations Kenya Person of the Year.
2018, 2019 IAAF Male athlete of the year award.
2019 BBC World Sport Star of the Year.
Kipchoge was cited as one of the Top 100 most influential Africans by New African magazine in 2019.
2021 Association of National Olympic Committees Best Male Athlete Tokyo 2020 Olympics.
2021 Abebe Bikila Award.
2023 Princess of Asturias Award.
See also
List of Olympic medalists in athletics (men)
List of World Championships in Athletics medalists (men)
List of Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics (men)
List of winners of the Chicago Marathon
List of winners of the London Marathon
List of winners of the Rotterdam Marathon
List of 2004 Summer Olympics medal winners
List of 2008 Summer Olympics medal winners
List of 2016 Summer Olympics medal winners
List of African Olympic medalists
List of middle-distance runners
5000 metres at the Olympics
Kenya at the World Championships in Athletics
References
External links
1984 births
Athletes (track and field) at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2020 Summer Olympics
BBC Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners
Berlin Marathon male winners
Chicago Marathon male winners
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Kenya
Elders of the Order of the Golden Heart of Kenya
Kalenjin people
Kenyan male cross country runners
Kenyan male long-distance runners
Kenyan male marathon runners
Kenyan male middle-distance runners
Living people
London Marathon male winners
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for Kenya
Olympic bronze medalists for Kenya
Olympic bronze medalists in athletics (track and field)
Olympic gold medalists for Kenya
Olympic gold medalists in athletics (track and field)
Olympic male long-distance runners
Olympic male marathon runners
Olympic silver medalists for Kenya
Olympic silver medalists in athletics (track and field)
People from Nandi County
Sportspeople from Rift Valley Province
Recipients of the Association of International Marathons and Distance Races Best Marathon Runner Award
Tokyo Marathon male winners
Track & Field News Athlete of the Year winners
World Athletics Championships athletes for Kenya
World Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics Championships winners
World Athletics record holders
Medallists at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian%20passport
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Malaysian passport
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The Malaysian passport () is the passport issued to citizens of Malaysia by the Immigration Department of Malaysia.
The main legislation governing the production of passports and travel documents, their possession by persons entering and leaving Malaysia, and related matters is the Passport Act 1966.
Processing of Malaysian passport applications and renewals is very rapid, with new passports usually issued one hour after payment for normal cases. The introduction of passport renewal kiosks (KiPPas) at Immigration Department branches across the country allow passport applicants to apply and pay for their passports without queuing at the passport application counters.
Biometric passport
Malaysia was the first country in the world to issue biometric passports in March 1998, after a local company, IRIS Corporation, developed the technology. In December 2002, thumbprint data was added to the biometric data on the passport chip. Similar technology is used in the Malaysian identity card, MyKad.
The biometric data included on the Malaysian passport is a digital photograph of the bearer's face, and images of their two thumbprints. Malaysian immigration checkpoints were the only ones with the technology to read and authenticate the data from the RFID chip using a fingerprint scanner and facial recognition technology, but widespread adoption of ePassport technology around the world has seen the technology installed in international airports in the US, the UK and other countries.
In addition to biometric data and the personal information stored on the information page, the chip also records the bearer's travel history of the last ten entry and exits at Malaysia border control points.
Concern about possible "cloning" of the data from the passport chip for the purposes of identity theft prompted IRIS to issue a press release in 2006, stating that the chip and data had never been successfully cloned, and that digital keys stored on each chip made such duplication and forgery impossible.
On 2 February 2010, Malaysia started issuing ICAO compliant e-Passports, valid for five years or two years. It was the 75th nation in the world to adopt the ICAO standard. The implementation of the new passport began at offices across Klang Valley, Johor and Pahang before expanding nationwide between March and May 2010 and to foreign missions abroad between July and August 2010.
Types of Malaysian passports
In Malay language, the name were formerly designated 'Paspot Malaysia', but the spelling was changed to 'Pasport Malaysia' in the 1980s.
Regular international passport
The regular international passport (Malay: pasport antarabangsa) is the ordinary passport issued to Malaysian citizens for international travel. It features a red cover.
The regular international passport has incorporated biometric features since 1998. The biometric passport contains an 8 kB microchip which was developed by a Malaysian technology firm, IRIS Corporation. In February 2010, the passport was updated to comply with the ICAO standard on biometric and machine-readable passports, while the pages in a 32-page passport was increased to 48 pages. Beginning April 2013, the passport underwent another round of updating by introducing a polycarbonate sheet that holds the passport bearer's information. The information is laser engraved into the polycarbonate sheet for added security, including a hologram mini-photo of the passport bearer. With this the passport now holds 50 pages instead of 48 pages. There is no more 64 pages option since 2011. A redesign of the passport's interior pages along with new security features was launched on 15 November 2017.
A 50-page ICAO e-passport valid for five years costs RM200. Senior citizens, children below 12 years old, Hajj pilgrims, and students below 21 years old with proof to study abroad are entitled to half price from normal price. Disabled people are entitled to have their passports issued free of charge.
Previously, a 50-page ICAO e-passport valid for two years was available for RM100. On 15 January 2015, the two-year passport option was scrapped in conjunction with the announcement that reduced the normal five-year passport issuance fee from RM300 to RM200.
The passport is also used by citizens from Peninsular Malaysia to enter the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, as these two states have autonomy in immigration affairs. However, citizens travelling directly from Peninsular Malaysia may produce a Malaysian identity card, or birth certificate for children below 12 years, obtain a special immigration printout form (Document in Lieu of Internal Travel Document, IMM.114) at immigration counters for social/business visits up to 3 months, and keep the form until departure.
As of September 2023, Malaysian passports were ranked 11th in the Henley Passport Index.
Restricted passport
The restricted passport (pasport terhad) is issued to Malaysian citizens for travel to a specific country only. They have blue covers.
Currently only a restricted passport for travel to Brunei is issued. Malaysian citizens residing in the East Malaysian areas of Sarawak, Sabah and Labuan are eligible to apply for the restricted passport. The passport is valid for five years and costs RM50.
Official passport
The official passport (pasport rasmi) is issued exclusively to Malaysian government officials travelling on official business. It is issued by the Immigration Department of Malaysia upon request through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Wisma Putra).
Diplomatic passport
The diplomatic passport (pasport diplomatik) is issued to diplomatic officers.
Other travel documents
Malaysia also issues a few travel documents that has similar but more limited purpose than those of passports, for internal or external usage related with the border control of the country.
Border passes
Border passes are similar to restricted passports, in terms of limited applicable citizens, limited country access and also its appearance (a passport book with a blue cover) however compared to restricted passports or other passports, they can only be used for short visits and are not valid for other purposes. They also have a shorter validity period.
Border Pass (Pas Sempadan) for Thailand is limited to citizens living in Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, and the Hulu Perak District of Perak for land entry into Thailand and applicable only when travelling into its 5 southern provinces by sea or land: Songkhla, Satun, Narathiwat, Yala and Pattani for 30 days of each entry. It has a validity of 1 year and costs RM10 each time.
Border Crossing Pass (Pas Lintas Sempadan) is another border pass issued only for citizens in East Malaysian districts that has close proximity to Indonesian land borders: Kuching, Bau, Lundu Serian, Simanggang and Lubuk Antu in Sarawak and Pensiangan, Tawau, Tenom and Sipitang in Sabah and limited for short visits via land or sea entry in the Indonesian Kalimantan provinces (mainly the checkpoints in West and North Kalimantan). It also has a validity of 1 year and cost RM10 each.
Group travel document
A group travel document is issued as a singular replacement for international passport for groups in 5 to 20 members for land travels to Thailand and Singapore. It is only valid for single entry up to 9 months prior to its issuance and costs RM200 for each copy.
Internal travel documents
Due to unique circumstances of Sabah and Sarawak in terms of immigration control, internal documents has been issued for domestic travellers in Malaysia when going in or out these two states without using regular international passport.
Document in Lieu of Internal Travel Document, IMM.114 (Dokumen Gantian Perjalanan) is a printout document issued by the Immigration at Sabah and Sarawak entry checkpoints for citizens out of their respective states when the Malaysian identity card is used on entry. This document, allow visitors a 90-days social visit pass, and is valid for single entry. This printout need to be kept by its holders until their departure from each of those states, where it will be returned on clearance.
For visitors who intended to stay for a longer period, or are working instead in these states, a document called Restricted Travel Document (Dokumen Perjalanan Terhad) is used instead. It is a passport book with a blue cover which records arrival and departure record of entering Sabah and/or Sarawak and stores any type of visa information given by the two states when applicable. It costs RM5 for each application and can be applied beforehand in selected issuing offices in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak, with validity is for multiple entries up to 5 years, extendable to another 5 years.
Sabah and Sarawak citizens who are entering their respective state are not required to use or keep these documents otherwise on checkpoint (identity card is sufficient), nor they are needed to apply for any if they are staying or working in Peninsular Malaysia.
Emergency Certificate
An Emergency Certificate (Sijil Perakuan Cemas) is a type of travel document issued by selected embassies, high commissions or consulates of Malaysia in other countries in case of its citizens losing their passports outside of Malaysia, for them to be able to have a proper document while still staying in those countries and going back to Malaysia.
It is only valid for a single journey to Malaysia, with valid countries follows the departing countries, transiting countries (if any), and Malaysia immigration only.
Discontinued passport types
Previously, a restricted passport was issued for travel to Singapore. From 1 January 2005, the Immigration Department stopped issuing and renewing the restricted passport to Singapore, with existing passports to remain valid until 31 December 2006. However, as Singapore requires travel documents to be valid for a minimum of six months, Singapore announced it would stop accepting Malaysian restricted passports from 1 July 2006. Following a meeting between the home affairs ministers of both countries, Singapore agreed to extend the deadline to 1 November 2006. Malaysian citizens travelling to Singapore now use the regular international passport.
The green cover Hajj passport (pasport haji) was formerly issued to Malaysian Muslim citizens for a Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Applications were made through Tabung Haji, the Malaysian Hajj pilgrims fund board. Hajj passports were discontinued in 2009 and pilgrims now use the regular international passport.
The British-era Federation of Malaya passports were issued when Malaysia was Malaya and under British rule.
Passport note
The passports contain a note, written in Malay and English, from the issuing state that is addressed to the authorities of all other states, identifying the bearer as a citizen of that state and requesting that he or she be allowed to pass and be treated according to international norms. In Malay, the note inside Malaysian passports reads:
and in English, the note reads:
Languages
The data page/information page are printed in Malay and English.
Identity information page
The Malaysian passport includes the following data:
Type/Jenis ('P' for Passport)
Country code/Kod Negara ('MYS' for Malaysia)
Passport number/Nombor Pasport
Name of bearer/Nama (see below for details of the naming scheme)
Nationality ('Malaysia')
Identity number (see below for more information) or Birth certificate number (for minors under 12 only)
Place of birth (State of birth for citizens born in Malaysia)
Date of birth (in DD-MMM-YYYY format, such as 24-JUN-1988)
Sex ('M' or 'F')
Date of issue (in DD-MMM-YYYY format)
Date of expiry (in DD-MMM-YYYY format, 5 years from date of issue, or a maximum of 5 years 6 months for renewals)
Issuing office
Height/Tinggi (in centimetres)
Passport number
The passport number is the serial number that uniquely identifies a passport. The passport number changes every time a person is issued a new passport, with the previous passport number noted in an endorsement on the last page of the new passport.
The passport number is alphanumeric, with a letter followed by an eight-digit number, e.g. A00000000. The letter prefix depends on the residency status of the bearer: "A" for Peninsular Malaysia and Labuan, "H" for Sabah and "K" for Sarawak. From 1964 to 1965, when Singapore was a part of Malaysia, Singapore citizens were issued Malaysian passports with the prefix "E".
Naming scheme
Due to Malaysia's heterogeneous ethnic demographic, including substantial Chinese and Indian minorities as well as Malays, the name of the bearer on the Malaysian passport is displayed using that person's customary naming practice as it is on the person's identity card (MyKad) or birth certificate (with exception of ethnic Indian and Thai names). Surname and given name fields are not differentiated on the passport, and this can cause difficulties or confusion in some countries as the placement of the surname is not consistent.
Technically speaking, every Malaysian name regardless of the ethnicity is of this type: SURNAME, FIRST NAME UNKNOWN (FNU) when only the Machine Readable Zone (MRZ) area of the Passport Biodata Page is considered. There is no '<<' to isolate what is technically a 'Surname' from the 'Given Name' (Please note that ICAO standards require that the name that immediately follows the three-letters country code in the Machine Readable Zone (MRZ) to be the surname of the passport holder). When swiped at international airports for border security purposes, for example: the Advanced Passenger Information System (APIS) for countries such as Australia, New Zealand and United States, the name of a Malaysian passport holder in its entirety will be captured in the 'Surname' field of the border security system, and this can sometimes cause a mismatch with how the passport holder's name is captured in the country of destination's visa system or electronic travel authority protocol. Examples of Malaysian names as printed on the Machine Readable Zone (MRZ) of the passport:
(for ALI AKBAR BIN MOHAMAD)
(for DAVID WONG KIM SIONG)
(for MEGAT HASAN BIN MEGAT TERMIZI)
(for SUGUMARAN A/L SIVANATHAN)
(for FATIMAH BINTI HUSIN)
(for JOHN ANAK LANGKAU)
(for STANLEY BIN JOSEPH)
(for SIVASANGEETHA A/P THANABALAN)
(for ABDUL AZIZ RAHMAN KHAN BIN SULTAN KHAN)
(for LORENZO LUCA ROSSI)
(for ELENA ANAIS HADID)
As can be seen from the above examples, it's evident that a name in a Malaysian Passport technically does not contain 'Given Name(s)' because '<<' is not used at all to isolate Surname from Given Names.
Below is a comparison of how similar names are recorded in the Australian Passport:
The Australian Passport also does not explicitly differentiate 'Surname' from 'Given Name'. However, the Machine Readable Zone (MRZ) is very clear as regards to the passport holder's Surnames. Examples of Australian names as printed on the Machine Readable Zone (MRZ) of the passport:
(for John William SMITH)
(for John Ahmed IBRAHIM)
(for Phillipa Siew Mei WONG)
(for David Isaak MALOUF)
(for Evelyn Lily Elizabeth MORAN)
(for Paulo Antonio RIZZI)
(for John David VAN DER BERGH)
(for Saeman Ngasri ABU HASSAN)
(for Haryanto Wira SUPARMAN)
(for Bae Jyeon KIM)
Notes: 'P' stands for Passport. 'MYS' and 'AUS' stand for Malaysia and Australia respectively in the Machine Readable Zone. For clarity: Surnames in block letters and Given Names in title case for examples of Australian names.
Indian and Thai names: On the national identity card MyKad and birth certificates, Indian and Thai names are generally in the format "X A/L Y" or "X A/P Y" where 'A/L' stands for 'anak lelaki' (Malay for 'son of') and 'A/P' stands for 'anak perempuan' (Malay for 'daughter of'). On the passport detail page, the "A/L" or "A/P" designation is omitted. However, the bearer's full name as on his/her MyKad is noted on the observation page.
Chinese names: Can be listed in three ways according to the individual's preference: surname first as is customary (surname first, then Chinese given names: "WONG Kim Siong"), surname between given names (non-Chinese derived name, surname, Chinese given names: "David WONG Kim Siong"), or in the Western style of surname last (David WONG)
Malay names: Generally in the format "X BIN/BINTI Y", where 'BIN' means 'son of' and 'BINTI' means 'daughter of', similar to the Arabic name system. This practice is not limited to Muslim Malays however, and can also be found in Christian indigenous Sabahans and Melanaus of Sarawak.
Native Sarawakian and Orang Asli names: Generally in the format "X ANAK Y" or "X AK Y" where 'Anak' or 'AK' means 'child of'. 'AK' abbreviation for 'ANAK'
Western/European names: Eurasian Malaysians, or those descended from British, Portuguese or Dutch settlers, have the person's hereditary surname last ("Robert SMITH").
Identity number
The Malaysian identity number is a unique ID number allocated to each Malaysian, and is the same number on the bearer's MyKad, the Malaysian national identity card. The number is in the following format:
YYMMDD-BP-###G
The first six digits (YYMMDD) are the date of birth of the holder, so for example 24 June 1988 would be represented as 880624.
The next two digits (BP) are the numeric code indicating the state or country of birth.
The last four digits are randomly generated serial numbers, and the last digit (represented above by 'G') is a gender indicator: an odd number for males and an even number for females.
On the passport information page, the identity number is written without hyphens, e.g. YYMMDD-BP-###G is written as YYMMDDBP###G.
Visa requirements
Visa requirements for Malaysian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Malaysia. As of August 2023, Malaysian citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 181 countries and territories, ranking the Malaysian passport 11th in the world according to the Henley Passport Index, making it the 2nd highest-ranked passport in Southeast Asia after Singapore, the 4th highest-ranked in Asia and the highest-ranked passport in the developing world and among Muslim-majority countries. Additionally, Arton Capital's Passport Index ranked the Malaysian passport 9th in the world in terms of travel freedom, with a visa-free score of 167 countries & territories as of January 2023.
Restrictions on travel
Israel
As Malaysia does not recognise nor have diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, Malaysian passports bear the inscription: "This passport is valid for all countries except Israel". Israeli passport holders are not permitted to enter Malaysia without written permission from the Malaysian Ministry of Home Affairs.
Officially, the Malaysian government allows Christians to visit Israel for religious purposes. In 2009, the government imposed a ban on visits to Israel, ostensibly due to heightened security risks posed by the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The ban was lifted in 2011, albeit with restrictions such as a quota of 700 pilgrims per year with not more than 40 pilgrims per church group, and pilgrims must be at least 18 years old and not visiting Israel more than once every three years with each stay a maximum of 10 days. On 20 December 2013, the government announced a relaxation of the ban, which lifted most of the restrictions while increasing the maximum duration of stay to 21 days, subject to the security situation in Israel.
However, the restrictions imposed by the Malaysian government do not prevent Israel from issuing visa on a separate sheet of paper to Malaysian citizens for entering Israel, and Malaysians are known to have visited Israel with or without permission from the Malaysian government.
North Korea
In September 2017, Malaysia announced a ban on all Malaysian citizens from travelling to North Korea, in the wake of strained Malaysia–North Korea relations following the assassination of Kim Jong-nam at Kuala Lumpur International Airport.
Former restrictions
Previously, Malaysian passports were not valid for travel to various communist countries, and South Africa due to its apartheid system. Following the fall of communism in Eastern Europe and improving ties with the remaining communist countries, as well as the end of apartheid in 1994, the countries were removed from the list.
See also
Visa requirements for Malaysian citizens
References
External links
Immigration Department of Malaysia: Malaysian Passports (in English)
Malaysian Passport Processing Office Overseas
Security Document World: Technical specifications for the Malaysian biometric passport
Wikivisa: Malaysia
Images of a 1963 Federation of Malaya passport from www.passportland.com
Passport from Federation of Malaya (1962) from www.PaperToTravel.com
Passport from Federation of Malaya (1965) from www.PaperToTravel.com
Passport from Malaysia - Series III (1984-1989-1993) from www.PaperToTravel.com
Passport from Malaysia - Non-ICAO Biometric Passport, First Generation (2009-2014) from www.PaperToTravel.com
Passport from Malaysia - Non-ICAO Biometric Official Passport (2007) from www.PaperToTravel.com
Passport from Malaysia - Biometric ICAO ePassport (2013-2015) 2-Year Validity from www.PaperToTravel.com
Passport from Malaysia - Biometric ICAO ePassport (2018) New Design from www.PaperToTravel.com
Passports by country
Passport
Malaysian nationality law
Foreign relations of Malaysia
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4939073
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homomorphic%20encryption
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Homomorphic encryption
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Homomorphic encryption is a form of encryption that allows computations to be performed on encrypted data without first having to decrypt it. The resulting computations are left in an encrypted form which, when decrypted, result in an output that is identical to that produced had the operations been performed on the unencrypted data. Homomorphic encryption can be used for privacy-preserving outsourced storage and computation. This allows data to be encrypted and out-sourced to commercial cloud environments for processing, all while encrypted.
Homomorphic encryption eliminates the need for processing data in the clear, thereby preventing attacks that would enable a hacker to access that data while it is being processed, using privilege escalation.
For sensitive data, such as health care information, homomorphic encryption can be used to enable new services by removing privacy barriers inhibiting data sharing or increasing security to existing services. For example, predictive analytics in health care can be hard to apply via a third party service provider due to medical data privacy concerns, but if the predictive analytics service provider can operate on encrypted data instead, these privacy concerns are diminished. Moreover, even if the service provider's system is compromised, the data would remain secure.
Description
Homomorphic encryption is a form of encryption with an additional evaluation capability for computing over encrypted data without access to the secret key. The result of such a computation remains encrypted. Homomorphic encryption can be viewed as an extension of public-key cryptography. Homomorphic refers to homomorphism in algebra: the encryption and decryption functions can be thought of as homomorphisms between plaintext and ciphertext spaces.
Homomorphic encryption includes multiple types of encryption schemes that can perform different classes of computations over encrypted data. The computations are represented as either Boolean or arithmetic circuits. Some common types of homomorphic encryption are partially homomorphic, somewhat homomorphic, leveled fully homomorphic, and fully homomorphic encryption:
Partially homomorphic encryption encompasses schemes that support the evaluation of circuits consisting of only one type of gate, e.g., addition or multiplication.
Somewhat homomorphic encryption schemes can evaluate two types of gates, but only for a subset of circuits.
Leveled fully homomorphic encryption supports the evaluation of arbitrary circuits composed of multiple types of gates of bounded (pre-determined) depth.
Fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) allows the evaluation of arbitrary circuits composed of multiple types of gates of unbounded depth and is the strongest notion of homomorphic encryption.
For the majority of homomorphic encryption schemes, the multiplicative depth of circuits is the main practical limitation in performing computations over encrypted data. Homomorphic encryption schemes are inherently malleable. In terms of malleability, homomorphic encryption schemes have weaker security properties than non-homomorphic schemes.
History
Homomorphic encryption schemes have been developed using different approaches. Specifically, fully homomorphic encryption schemes are often grouped into generations corresponding to the underlying approach.
Pre-FHE
The problem of constructing a fully homomorphic encryption scheme was first proposed in 1978, within a year of publishing of the RSA scheme. For more than 30 years, it was unclear whether a solution existed. During that period, partial results included the following schemes:
RSA cryptosystem (unbounded number of modular multiplications)
ElGamal cryptosystem (unbounded number of modular multiplications)
Goldwasser–Micali cryptosystem (unbounded number of exclusive or operations)
Benaloh cryptosystem (unbounded number of modular additions)
Paillier cryptosystem (unbounded number of modular additions)
Sander-Young-Yung system (after more than 20 years solved the problem for logarithmic depth circuits)
Boneh–Goh–Nissim cryptosystem (unlimited number of addition operations but at most one multiplication)
Ishai-Paskin cryptosystem (polynomial-size branching programs)
First-generation FHE
Craig Gentry, using lattice-based cryptography, described the first plausible construction for a fully homomorphic encryption scheme in 2009. Gentry's scheme supports both addition and multiplication operations on ciphertexts, from which it is possible to construct circuits for performing arbitrary computation. The construction starts from a somewhat homomorphic encryption scheme, which is limited to evaluating low-degree polynomials over encrypted data; it is limited because each ciphertext is noisy in some sense, and this noise grows as one adds and multiplies ciphertexts, until ultimately the noise makes the resulting ciphertext indecipherable.
Gentry then shows how to slightly modify this scheme to make it bootstrappable, i.e., capable of evaluating its own decryption circuit and then at least one more operation. Finally, he shows that any bootstrappable somewhat homomorphic encryption scheme can be converted into a fully homomorphic encryption through a recursive self-embedding. For Gentry's "noisy" scheme, the bootstrapping procedure effectively "refreshes" the ciphertext by applying to it the decryption procedure homomorphically, thereby obtaining a new ciphertext that encrypts the same value as before but has lower noise. By "refreshing" the ciphertext periodically whenever the noise grows too large, it is possible to compute an arbitrary number of additions and multiplications without increasing the noise too much.
Gentry based the security of his scheme on the assumed hardness of two problems: certain worst-case problems over ideal lattices, and the sparse (or low-weight) subset sum problem. Gentry's Ph.D. thesis provides additional details. The Gentry-Halevi implementation of Gentry's original cryptosystem reported a timing of about 30 minutes per basic bit operation. Extensive design and implementation work in subsequent years have improved upon these early implementations by many orders of magnitude runtime performance.
In 2010, Marten van Dijk, Craig Gentry, Shai Halevi and Vinod Vaikuntanathan presented a second fully homomorphic encryption scheme, which uses many of the tools of Gentry's construction, but which does not require ideal lattices. Instead, they show that the somewhat homomorphic component of Gentry's ideal lattice-based scheme can be replaced with a very simple somewhat homomorphic scheme that uses integers. The scheme is therefore conceptually simpler than Gentry's ideal lattice scheme, but has similar properties with regards to homomorphic operations and efficiency. The somewhat homomorphic component in the work of Van Dijk et al. is similar to an encryption scheme proposed by Levieil and Naccache in 2008, and also to one that was proposed by Bram Cohen in 1998.
Cohen's method is not even additively homomorphic, however. The Levieil–Naccache scheme supports only additions, but it can be modified to also support a small number of multiplications. Many refinements and optimizations of the scheme of Van Dijk et al. were proposed in a sequence of works by Jean-Sébastien Coron, Tancrède Lepoint, Avradip Mandal, David Naccache, and Mehdi Tibouchi. Some of these works included also implementations of the resulting schemes.
Second-generation FHE
The homomorphic cryptosystems of this generation are derived from techniques that were developed starting in 2011-2012 by Zvika Brakerski, Craig Gentry, Vinod Vaikuntanathan, and others. These innovations led to the development of much more efficient somewhat and fully homomorphic cryptosystems. These include:
The Brakerski-Gentry-Vaikuntanathan (BGV, 2011) scheme, building on techniques of Brakerski-Vaikuntanathan;
The NTRU-based scheme by Lopez-Alt, Tromer, and Vaikuntanathan (LTV, 2012);
The Brakerski/Fan-Vercauteren (BFV, 2012) scheme, building on Brakerski's cryptosystem;
The NTRU-based scheme by Bos, Lauter, Loftus, and Naehrig (BLLN, 2013), building on LTV and Brakerski's scale-invariant cryptosystem;
The security of most of these schemes is based on the hardness of the (Ring) Learning With Errors (RLWE) problem, except for the LTV and BLLN schemes that rely on an overstretched variant of the NTRU computational problem. This NTRU variant was subsequently shown vulnerable to subfield lattice attacks, which is why these two schemes are no longer used in practice.
All the second-generation cryptosystems still follow the basic blueprint of Gentry's original construction, namely they first construct a somewhat homomorphic cryptosystem and then convert it to a fully homomorphic cryptosystem using bootstrapping.
A distinguishing characteristic of the second-generation cryptosystems is that they all feature a much slower growth of the noise during the homomorphic computations. Additional optimizations by Craig Gentry, Shai Halevi, and Nigel Smart resulted in cryptosystems with nearly optimal asymptotic complexity: Performing operations on data encrypted with security parameter has complexity of only . These optimizations build on the Smart-Vercauteren techniques that enable packing of many plaintext values in a single ciphertext and operating on all these plaintext values in a SIMD fashion. Many of the advances in these second-generation cryptosystems were also ported to the cryptosystem over the integers.
Another distinguishing feature of second-generation schemes is that they are efficient enough for many applications even without invoking bootstrapping, instead operating in the leveled FHE mode.
Third-generation FHE
In 2013, Craig Gentry, Amit Sahai, and Brent Waters (GSW) proposed a new technique for building FHE schemes that avoids an expensive "relinearization" step in homomorphic multiplication. Zvika Brakerski and Vinod Vaikuntanathan observed that for certain types of circuits, the GSW cryptosystem features an even slower growth rate of noise, and hence better efficiency and stronger security. Jacob Alperin-Sheriff and Chris Peikert then described a very efficient bootstrapping technique based on this observation.
These techniques were further improved to develop efficient ring variants of the GSW cryptosystem: FHEW (2014) and TFHE (2016). The FHEW scheme was the first to show that by refreshing the ciphertexts after every single operation, it is possible to reduce the bootstrapping time to a fraction of a second. FHEW introduced a new method to compute Boolean gates on encrypted data that greatly simplifies bootstrapping and implemented a variant of the bootstrapping procedure. The efficiency of FHEW was further improved by the TFHE scheme, which implements a ring variant of the bootstrapping procedure using a method similar to the one in FHEW.
Fourth-generation FHE
In 2016, Cheon, Kim, Kim and Song (CKKS) proposed an approximate homomorphic encryption scheme that supports a special kind of fixed-point arithmetic that is commonly referred to as block floating point arithmetic. The CKKS scheme includes an efficient rescaling operation that scales down an encrypted message after a multiplication. For comparison, such rescaling requires bootstrapping in the BGV and BFV schemes. The rescaling operation makes CKKS scheme the most efficient method for evaluating polynomial approximations, and is the preferred approach for implementing privacy-preserving machine learning applications. The scheme introduces several approximation errors, both nondeterministic and deterministic, that require special handling in practice.
A 2020 article by Baiyu Li and Daniele Micciancio discusses passive attacks against CKKS, suggesting that the standard IND-CPA definition may not be sufficient in scenarios where decryption results are shared. The authors apply the attack to four modern homomorphic encryption libraries (HEAAN, SEAL, HElib and PALISADE) and report that it is possible to recover the secret key from decryption results in several parameter configurations. The authors also propose mitigation strategies for these attacks, and include a Responsible Disclosure in the paper suggesting that the homomorphic encryption libraries already implemented mitigations for the attacks before the article became publicly available. Further information on the mitigation strategies implemented in the homomorphic encryption libraries has also been published.
Partially homomorphic cryptosystems
In the following examples, the notation is used to denote the encryption of the message .
Unpadded RSA
If the RSA public key has modulus and encryption exponent , then the encryption of a message is given by . The homomorphic property is then
ElGamal
In the ElGamal cryptosystem, in a cyclic group of order with generator , if the public key is , where , and is the secret key, then the encryption of a message is , for some random . The homomorphic property is then
Goldwasser–Micali
In the Goldwasser–Micali cryptosystem, if the public key is the modulus and quadratic non-residue , then the encryption of a bit is , for some random . The homomorphic property is then
where denotes addition modulo 2, (i.e., exclusive-or).
Benaloh
In the Benaloh cryptosystem, if the public key is the modulus and the base with a blocksize of , then the encryption of a message is , for some random . The homomorphic property is then
Paillier
In the Paillier cryptosystem, if the public key is the modulus and the base , then the encryption of a message is , for some random . The homomorphic property is then
Other partially homomorphic cryptosystems
Okamoto–Uchiyama cryptosystem
Naccache–Stern cryptosystem
Damgård–Jurik cryptosystem
Sander–Young–Yung encryption scheme
Boneh–Goh–Nissim cryptosystem
Ishai–Paskin cryptosystem
Joye-Libert cryptosystem
Castagnos–Laguillaumie cryptosystem
Fully homomorphic encryption
A cryptosystem that supports on ciphertexts is known as fully homomorphic encryption (FHE). Such a scheme enables the construction of programs for any desirable functionality, which can be run on encrypted inputs to produce an encryption of the result. Since such a program need never decrypt its inputs, it can be run by an untrusted party without revealing its inputs and internal state. Fully homomorphic cryptosystems have great practical implications in the outsourcing of private computations, for instance, in the context of cloud computing.
Implementations
A list of open-source FHE libraries implementing second-generation (BGV/BFV), third-generation (FHEW/TFHE), and/or fourth-generation (CKKS) FHE schemes is provided below.
There are several open-source implementations of fully homomorphic encryption schemes. Second-generation and fourth-generation FHE scheme implementations typically operate in the leveled FHE mode (though bootstrapping is still available in some libraries) and support efficient SIMD-like packing of data; they are typically used to compute on encrypted integers or real/complex numbers. Third-generation FHE scheme implementations often bootstrap after each operation but have limited support for packing; they were initially used to compute Boolean circuits over encrypted bits, but have been extended to support integer arithmetics and univariate function evaluation. The choice of using a second-generation vs. third-generation vs fourth-generation scheme depends on the input data types and the desired computation.
Standardization
In 2017, researchers from IBM, Microsoft, Intel, the NIST, and others formed an open consortium, the Homomorphic Encryption Standardization Consortium (Homomorphicencryption.org), that maintains a community security Homomorphic Encryption Standard (The Standard).
See also
Homomorphic secret sharing
Homomorphic signatures for network coding
Private biometrics
Verifiable computing using a fully homomorphic scheme
Client-side encryption
Confidential computing
Searchable symmetric encryption
Secure multi-party computation
Format-preserving encryption
Polymorphic code
Private set intersection
References
External links
FHE.org Community (conference, meetup and discussion group)
Daniele Micciancio's FHE references
Vinod Vaikuntanathan's FHE references
A list of homomorphic encryption implementations maintained on GitHub
Homomorphic encryption
Cryptographic primitives
Public-key cryptography
Information privacy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Simpsons%20%28season%2010%29
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The Simpsons (season 10)
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The tenth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons was originally broadcast on the Fox network in the United States between August 23, 1998, and May 16, 1999. It contains twenty-three episodes, starting with "Lard of the Dance". The Simpsons is a satire of a middle-class American lifestyle epitomized by its family of the same name, which consists of Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa and Maggie. Set in the fictional city of Springfield, the show lampoons American culture, society, television, and many aspects of the human condition.
The showrunner for the tenth season was Mike Scully. Before production began, a salary dispute between the main cast members of The Simpsons and Fox arose. However, it was soon settled and the actors' salaries were raised to $125,000 per episode. In addition to the large Simpsons cast, many guest stars appeared in season ten, including Phil Hartman in his last appearance due to his death months earlier in May 1998.
Despite winning an Annie Award for "Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Television Program", season 10 has been cited by several critics as the beginning of the series' decline in quality. It ranked twenty-fifth in the season ratings with an average of 13.5 million viewers per episode. The tenth season DVD boxset was released in the United States and Canada on August 7, 2007. It is available in two different packagings.
Production
The tenth season was the second during which Mike Scully served as show runner (he had previously run the ninth season), with the season being produced by Gracie Films and 20th Century Fox Television. As show runner and executive producer, Scully headed the writing staff and oversaw all aspects of the show's production. However, as he told UltimateTV in January 1999, he did not "make any decisions without the staff's input. We have great staffs in all the departments from animation to writing. So I don't want to make it sound like a dictatorship." Scully was popular with the staff members, many of whom have praised his organization and management skills. Writer Tom Martin has said that he was "quite possibly the best boss I've ever worked for" and "a great manager of people". Scully's aim while running The Simpsons was to "not wreck the show". In addition to his role as show runner during the tenth season, he co-wrote the episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday".
In 1999, there were around sixteen staff writers working on The Simpsons. Many of them had written for the show for several years, including John Swartzwelder and George Meyer. The third episode of the tenth season, "Bart the Mother", was the last full-length episode written by David S. Cohen, a longtime writer on the show. He left to team up with The Simpsons creator Matt Groening to develop Futurama, a series on which he served as executive producer and head writer. The tenth season marked the full-time return of staff member Al Jean, who had departed from the show after the fourth season to create the animated series The Critic. Between seasons four and ten, he had only worked periodically on the show, writing four episodes.
The main cast of the season consisted of Dan Castellaneta (Homer Simpson, Grampa Simpson, Krusty the Clown, among others), Julie Kavner (Marge Simpson), Nancy Cartwright (Bart Simpson, Ralph Wiggum, Nelson Muntz), Yeardley Smith (Lisa Simpson), Hank Azaria (Moe Szyslak, Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, Chief Wiggum, among others) and Harry Shearer (Ned Flanders, Mr. Burns, Principal Skinner, among others). Up until the production of season ten in 1998, these six main voice actors were paid $30,000 per episode. In 1998, a salary dispute between them and the Fox Broadcasting Company (which airs The Simpsons) arose, with the actors threatening to go on a strike. Fox went as far as preparing for casting of new voices, but an agreement was soon made and the actors' salaries were raised to $125,000 per episode. Groening expressed his sympathy for the cast members in an issue of Mother Jones a while after the salary dispute had been settled. He told the magazine: "They are incredibly talented, and they deserve a chance to be as rich and miserable as anyone else in Hollywood. It looked for a while there like we might not have a show, because everyone was holding firm on all sides. That's still my attitude: Hold out for as much money as you can get, but do make the deal."
Other cast members of the season included Pamela Hayden (Milhouse Van Houten, among others), Tress MacNeille (Agnes Skinner, among others), Maggie Roswell (Helen Lovejoy, Maude Flanders, among others), Russi Taylor (Martin Prince), and Karl Wiedergott. Season ten also featured a large number of guest stars, including Phil Hartman in his final appearance on the show in the episode "Bart the Mother" that originally aired in September 27, 1998. Hartman was shot dead by his wife four months before the episode aired and it was dedicated to his memory. Rather than replacing Hartman with a new voice actor, the production staff retired two of his recurring characters, Troy McClure and Lionel Hutz, from the show. Hutz and McClure still appear in various Simpsons comics.
Voice cast & characters
This is the last season to feature the character Troy McClure, voiced by Phil Hartman. Following Hartman's death on May 28, 1998, McClure was retired along with Hartman's other recurring character Lionel Hutz; his final speaking role as McClure was in the third episode "Bart the Mother", which aired four months after his death. The episode was dedicated to Hartman.
Main cast
Dan Castellaneta as Homer Simpson, Grampa Simpson, Krusty the Clown, Groundskeeper Willie, Barney Gumble, Santa's Little Helper, and various others
Julie Kavner as Marge Simpson, Patty Bouvier, Selma Bouvier and various others
Nancy Cartwright as Bart Simpson, Nelson Muntz, Ralph Wiggum and various others
Yeardley Smith as Lisa Simpson
Harry Shearer as Mr. Burns, Waylon Smithers, Ned Flanders, Principal Skinner, Lenny Leonard, Kent Brockman, Reverend Lovejoy, and various others
Hank Azaria as Moe Szyslak, Chief Wiggum, Professor Frink, Comic Book Guy, Apu, Bumblebee Man and various others
Recurring
Pamela Hayden as Milhouse van Houten, Jimbo Jones
Maggie Roswell as Maude Flanders, Helen Lovejoy and Miss Hoover
Russi Taylor as Martin Prince and Sherri and Terri
Tress MacNeille as Agnes Skinner
Marcia Wallace as Edna Krabappel
Karl Wiedergott as additional characters
Guest stars
Lisa Kudrow as Alex Whitney("Lard of the Dance")
William Daniels as KITT("The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace")
Phil Hartman as Troy McClure("Bart the Mother")
Robert Englund as Freddy Krueger("Treehouse of Horror IX")
Ed McMahon as himself("Treehouse of Horror IX")
Jerry Springer as himself("Treehouse of Horror IX")
Regis Philbin as himself("Treehouse of Horror IX", live-action sequence)
Kathie Lee Gifford as herself("Treehouse of Horror IX", live-action sequence)
Alec Baldwin as himself("When You Dish Upon a Star")
Kim Basinger as herself("When You Dish Upon a Star")
Ron Howard as himself("When You Dish Upon a Star")
Brian Grazer as himself("When You Dish Upon a Star")
Yo La Tengo perform the end theme in "D'oh-in' in the Wind"
George Carlin as Munchie("D'oh-in' in the Wind")
Martin Mull as Seth("D'oh-in' in the Wind")
Mark Hamill as himself and Leavelle("Mayored to the Mob")
Joe Mantegna as Fat Tony("Mayored to the Mob")
Dick Tufeld as Lost in Space Robot("Mayored to the Mob")
The Moody Blues as themselves ("Viva Ned Flanders")
Cyndi Lauper as herself ("Wild Barts Can't Be Broken")
Troy Aikman as himself ("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday")
Rosey Grier as himself ("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday")
John Madden as himself ("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday")
Dan Marino as himself ("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday")
Rupert Murdoch as himself ("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday")
Dolly Parton as herself ("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday")
Pat Summerall as himself ("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday")
Fred Willard as Wally Kogen ("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday")
Ed Begley Jr. as himself ("Homer to the Max")
Jan Hooks as Manjula Nahasapeemapetilon ("I'm with Cupid")
Elton John as himself ("I'm with Cupid")
John Kassir as Possum ("Marge Simpson in: 'Screaming Yellow Honkers'")
Hank Williams Jr. as Canyonero singer ("Marge Simpson in: 'Screaming Yellow Honkers'")
Isabella Rossellini as Astrid Weller ("Mom and Pop Art")
Jasper Johns as himself ("Mom and Pop Art")
Jack LaLanne as himself("The Old Man and the 'C' Student")
Michael McKean as Jerry Rude ("Monty Can't Buy Me Love")
Stephen Hawking as himself ("They Saved Lisa's Brain")
George Takei as Wink ("Thirty Minutes over Tokyo")
Denice Kumagai as Japanese Mother ("Thirty Minutes over Tokyo")
Karen Maruyama as Japanese Stewardess ("Thirty Minutes over Tokyo")
Gedde Watanabe as Japanese Father and Waiter ("Thirty Minutes over Tokyo")
Keone Young as Sumo Wrestler ("Thirty Minutes over Tokyo")
Release
Broadcast and ratings
The tenth season of The Simpsons was originally broadcast in the United States on the Fox network between August 23, 1998, and May 16, 1999. Although "Lard of the Dance" aired on August 23 to increase ratings for the early premieres of That '70s Show by serving as a lead-in, "The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace" (airing on September 20, 1998) was the official premiere of the tenth season. The season aired in the 8:00 p.m. time slot on Sundays. It ranked twenty-fifth (tied with Dharma & Greg) in the ratings for the 1998–1999 television season with an average of 13.5 million viewers per episode, dropping twelve percent in number of average viewers from the last season. The Simpsons was Fox's third-highest-rated show of the television season, following The X-Files (ranked twelfth) and Ally McBeal (ranked twentieth).
Critical reception
The tenth season has been cited by some critics and fans as the beginning of the series' decline in quality. By 2000, some long-term fans had become disillusioned with the show and pointed to its shift from character-driven plots to what they perceived as an overemphasis on zany antics and gags. Chris Turner wrote in his book Planet Simpson that "one of the things that emerged was that [the staff] began to rely on gags, not characters, wherever that switch got flipped, whether it's the ninth or tenth season." Jesse Hassenger of PopMatters named the tenth season of The Simpsons the series' "first significant dip in quality, a step away from its golden era [...] with broader gags and more outlandish plots," and a BBC News writer commented that "the common consensus is that The Simpsons golden era ended after season nine". Similarly, Tyler Wilson of Coeur d'Alene Press has referred to seasons one to nine as the show's "golden age." On Rotten Tomatoes, however, the tenth season of The Simpsons has a 100% approval rating based on 5 critical reviews. DVD Verdict's Mac McEntire noted in a review that while the tenth season contains "a lot of laughs", it is missing the emotional core of the earlier seasons. Chris Barsanti of Filmcritic.com has commented that around the time the tenth season aired, "not only did the show start losing its status as untouchable—read: everyone stopped expecting every episode to be a masterpiece—it also developed the bad habit of building episodes around celebrity guests, who were practically never as amusing as they were meant to be." Michael Passman of The Michigan Daily wrote in 2007 that "in hindsight, the 10th season can now be seen as a tipping point of sorts for a number of the show's less attractive plot devices. Homer's get-rich-quick schemes start to become all too prevalent, and there are an inordinate amount of unnecessary celebrity cameos." Passman did not only have negative things to say about the tenth season, though. He commented that it "is not the last great 'Simpsons' season ever. The last great season was the eighth. The last really good season was the ninth. But the tenth is just pretty good, nothing more, nothing less."
Mike Scully, who was showrunner during seasons nine through twelve, is held responsible by many critics and fans for the decline. An op-ed in Slate by Chris Suellentrop argued that The Simpsons changed from a realistic show about family life into a typical cartoon when Scully was the show runner: "under Scully's tenure, The Simpsons became, well, a cartoon. Episodes that once would have ended with Homer and Marge bicycling into the sunset now end with Homer blowing a tranquilizer dart into Marge's neck. The show's still funny, but it hasn't been touching in years." John Ortved wrote in his book The Simpsons: An Uncensored, Unauthorized History that "Scully's episodes excel when compared to what The Simpsons airs nowadays, but he was the man at the helm when the ship turned towards the iceberg." The Simpsons under Scully has been negatively labeled as a "gag-heavy, Homer-centric incarnation" by Jon Bonné of MSNBC, and many fans have bemoaned the transformation in Homer's character during the era, from sweet and sincere to "a boorish, self-aggrandizing oaf", dubbing him "Jerkass Homer".
The Simpsons writer Tom Martin said in Ortved's book that he does not understand the criticism against Scully because he thinks Scully ran the show well. He also commented that he thinks the criticism "bothered [Scully], and still bothers him, but he managed to not get worked up over it." Ortved noted in his book that it is hard to tell how much of the decline is Scully's fault, and that blaming a single show runner for lowering the quality of the show "is unfair." He also wrote that some of the episodes from Scully's first two seasons (nine and ten), such as "The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace" and "When You Dish Upon a Star", are better than certain episodes of the two previous seasons.
UGO Networks' Brian Tallerico has defended the season against the criticism. He wrote in a 2007 review that comparing "tenth-season Simpsons episodes to the prime of the series (3–7) is just unfair and really kind of self-defeating. 'Yeah, I laughed, but not as hard as a couple of years ago. So it sucks.' That's nonsense. The fact is that even the tenth season of The Simpsons was funnier than most [other] show's best years." PopMatters Hassenger commented in his review that although the show had declined in quality, "this is not to say that these episodes are without their charm; many, in fact, are laugh-out-loud funny and characteristically smart." Similarly to Tallerico, he also noted that "weaker Simpsons seasons are superior to most television."
Despite the criticisms of season ten, it has been included in some definitions of The Simpsons golden age, usually as the point where the show began to decline but still put out some of the last great episodes. Ian Nathan of Empire described the show's classic era as being "the first ten seasons", while Rubbercat.net believes that "discussing what constitutes The Simpsons 'golden era' is a universal constant," in this case being seasons 3–10. Jon Heacock of LucidWorks states that while season ten was "the season in which, according to many, the show starts to go sour," it was also the final season where "the show was consistently at the top of its game," with "so many moments, quotations, and references—both epic and obscure—that helped turn the Simpson family into the cultural icons that they remain to this day."
In an article written for the Modern Day Pirates titled "In Search of The Last Classic Simpsons Episode", author Brandon listed "Homer to the Max" and "They Saved Lisa's Brain", both from the tenth season, as contenders for the latest episode that made him feel like he was "watching The Simpsons in their heyday."
Awards and nominations
The season and its episodes gathered some awards and award nominations. The Simpsons won the 1999 Annie Award for "Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Television Program", beating Batman Beyond, Futurama, King of the Hill, and The New Batman/Superman Adventures. That same year, Tim Long, Larry Doyle, and Matt Selman received an Annie Award in the "Outstanding Individual Achievement for Writing in an Animated Television Production" category for writing "Simpsons Bible Stories", the eighteenth episode of the tenth season. The trio faced competition from writers of Futurama ("The Series Has Landed"), King of the Hill ("Hank's Cowboy Movie"), Batman Beyond ("Rebirth Part I"), and Space Ghost Coast to Coast ("Lawsuit"). The Simpsons was also nominated for two Emmy Awards in 1999, though the show did not win either. The season ten episode "Viva Ned Flanders" lost in the "Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour)" category to "And They Call It Bobby Love" of King of the Hill. Alf Clausen was nominated in the "Outstanding Music Composition for a Series" category for his work on "Treehouse of Horror IX", the fourth episode of the tenth season, but lost the award to Carl Johnson of Invasion America.
Episodes
DVD release
The DVD boxset for season ten was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on August 7, 2007, eight years after it had completed broadcast on television. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material including audio commentaries for every episode, deleted scenes, and animatics. The set was released in two different packagings: a standard rectangular cardboard box featuring Bart on the cover driving through a security checkpoint gate at the 20th Century Fox movie studio, and a limited-edition plastic packaging molded to look like Bart's head.
References
General
Specific
Notes
External links
Episode guide at The Simpsons.com
Episode guide at the BBC
Simpsons season 10
1998 American television seasons
1999 American television seasons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sechs%20Kies
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Sechs Kies
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Sechs Kies (pronounced as ; ) is a first generation South Korean boy band. Making their debut on April 15, 1997, they are one of the first K-pop idol groups, credited with pioneering the idol scene and fandom culture. The group currently consists of the following active members Eun Ji-won, Lee Jai-jin, Kim Jae-duck, and Jang Su-won.
Sechs Kies formally disbanded on May 20, 2000 and re-united on April 14, 2016. On May 10, 2016, they signed a contract with YG Entertainment and continue to promote as a team.
Formation
Eun Ji-won was scouted at a nightclub by DSP Entertainment's CEO while studying abroad in Hawaii, along with Kang Sung-hoon. The agency originally planned to debut Eun Ji-won and Kang Sung-hoon in South Korea as a duo, but with the success of SM Entertainment's male idol group H.O.T., the agency shifted gears to debut a six-member male idol group instead.
Kim Jae-duck and Lee Jai-jin at the time were members of a dance crew called Quicksilver in Busan and trainees at Seo Taiji and Boys Lee Juno's company. Daesung Entertainment's CEO Lee Ho-Yeon recruited the two through recommendation of Lee Juno. Jang Su-won was cast during an open audition, and lastly, Ko Ji-yong, a childhood friend of Kang Sung-hoon, was cast as the final member of Sechs Kies.
Career
1997: Debut, School Anthem and Welcome to the Sechskies Land
Sechs Kies debuted on April 15, 1997 on KMTV Show! Music Tank with their first single, "School Anthem" (also known as "School Byeolgok", "School Song", or "학원별곡" in Korean). Their debut album School Anthem, named after the title track, was released on May 15.
Multiple songs from School Anthem became immensely popular, including "School Anthem", "Remember Me", and "The Way This Guy Lives - Pomsaengpomsa". OhmyNEWS reported that over 1,800,000 copies of the album were sold. The physical sales of Sechs Kies's albums remain unclear because of DSP's under-reporting and official records being unavailable for albums released before September 1998. For further information on Sechs Kies's album sales record, read Sechs Kies discography.
Shortly afterwards, Sechs Kies made their much anticipated comeback in October on KMTV's Recharge 100% Show and began promotional activities for their second album release. Their second album was titled Welcome to the Sechskies Land, featuring 20 tracks formatted as a tour around a fictional amusement park known as "Sechskies Land", and was released on November 1. They quickly began promoting the album's title track "Chivalry" (기사도) on various music programs, which gave the group their first number one spot on SBS Inkigayo on December 7.
Sechs Kies quickly achieved recognition as rookies of the year and received several awards at various music award shows. In December, they won the 12th Korea Visual and Records Grand Prize (later named Golden Disc Awards) Bonsang, the KMTV Korean Music Awards New Artist Award, the Seoul Music Awards Bonsang, the KBS Music Awards Bonsang, the Best 10 Artist Awards at the MBC and the SBS Music Awards.
On December 21, Sechs Kies held their first concert in Seoul at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts; tickets were reportedly sold out within five hours. Sechs Kies was the first dance group to hold a concert at the center.
1998: Rising popularity, Road Fighter and Special Album
Sechs Kies's fanbase and general popularity continued to grow rapidly in 1998. After wrapping up their second album promotions in February, they began a spring nationwide tour, including concerts in Busan, Ulsan, Gwangju, and Daegu.
In March, Sechs Kies became the first idol group to film their own movie, titled Seventeen. On July 17, it was released nationwide, and the group held promotional fan signing events for the film's premiere release Moreover, Sechs Kies starred in the children's musical, Alibaba and the 40 Thieves, alongside singer Jinjoo. The musical ran from April 25 to May 5 at the Sejong Center. On May 5, Sechs Kies performed the musical in front of President Kim Dae-jung at Blue House to celebrate Children's Day.
On July 15, Sechs Kies released their third studio album Road Fighter, which had more hybridized elements of hip-hop and electronica, as leader Eun Jiwon participated in the production of the album. Sechs Kies began promotions for their third album, returning with "Crying Game" on SBS Inkigayo. Sechs Kies held consecutive wins for the title track "Road Fighter" on SBS Inkigayo and KBS Music Bank in July and August. They also won for the number one spot on SBS Inkigayo and KBS Music Bank for the follow-up track "Reckless Love" (무모한 사랑) in September and October.
On October 30, Sechs Kies released a soundtrack for Seventeen, titled Special Album, also known as the group's 3.5 album release. They began promotions for Special Album on KBS Music Bank, promoting two songs from the album, "Couple" (커플) and "Letting You Go" (너를 보내며). They also won the #1 spot on SBS Inkigayo, KBS Music Bank and MBC Music Camp for the title track "Couple" which was the most popular song. A special photo book was released in conjunction with the album in November.
With the huge success of the song, "Couple", Sechs Kies won the 9th Seoul Music Awards Daesang along with rival boy group H.O.T. Sechs Kies also won the 13th Korea Visual and Records Grand Prize Award Bonsang, the KBS Music Awards Artist Of The Year (Teen Category), the 9th Seoul Music Awards Bonsang, the Popularity Awards at the MBC and the KMTV Korean Music Awards, and the SBS Music Awards Best 10 Artist Awards.
1999: Musical outreach, Com' Back
Sechs Kies toured Korea in February, 1999. On April 5, Sechs Kies released their first concert video, recorded at the Seoul Concert on February 25. They also released a live concert album with the video on April 10. After their concert tour, Sechs Kies returned to the studio to record their fourth album, Com’Back.
On November 30, Sechs Kies participated in the 1st Korea China Music Festival, co-hosted by KBS and CCTV in Beijing. On December 5, Sechs Kies also performed in the 2000 Peace Friendship Music Concert in Pyongyang, North Korea, becoming one amongst a group of the first South Korean dance groups to perform in North Korea.
At the end of the year, Sechs Kies won several awards including the 14th Korea Visual and Records Grand Prize Award Bonsang, the 10th Seoul Music Awards Bonsang, Bonsang at the KMTV Korean Music Awards and KBS Music Awards, and the Best 10 Artist Awards at the MBC and the SBS Music Awards.
2000: Disbandment, Blue Note
On January 12, 2000, Sechs Kies had a 1000th day celebration party with their fans. On February 28, Sechs Kies's Seoul Concert was held in Olympic Gymnastics Arena; tickets were reportedly sold out within a few hours. Sechs Kies members participated in directing the concert and performed self-composed songs. A concert DVD was also released.
On May 18, Sechs Kies held a sudden press conference to officially announce their disbandment. Sechs Kies's final performance was at the Dream Concert on May 20. On May 31, Sechs Kies released Blue Note, a compilation of "Best Of" songs that served as a farewell album to fans. In August, the members of Sechs Kies self-released one final track and music video titled "Thanks" for their fans, which was uploaded online.
2016: Reunion, "Three Words" and 2016 Re-ALBUM
On April 14, 2016, as part of the popular Korean variety show Infinite Challenge, Sechs Kies re-united through a guerilla reunion concert at the Seoul World Cup Stadium, which was attended by approximately 6,000 fans who were alerted of the concert only five hours before it was held. On May 11, YG Entertainment announced that the company had signed contracts with five of the members, with the exception of Ko Ji-yong, who is now a businessman and no longer active in the entertainment industry. Lee Jai-jin and Kang Sung-hoon also signed individual contracts with YG Entertainment. Concerts on September 10 and 11 at the Olympic Gymnastics Arena were sold out within five minutes.
On October 7, Sechs Kies released their new digital single "Three Words" (세 단어). It topped all eight major domestic music charts (Bugs, Genie, Melon, Mnet, Monkey3, NAVER Music, Olleh, and Soribada) shortly after release. "Three Words" also topped the Gaon Digital Chart, Download Chart and BGM (Background Music) Chart for the first week of October. It also took the number one spot on QQMusic, the largest music streaming site in China.
A new album, 2016 Re-ALBUM, was released on December 1. It contained ten rearranged old songs, along with "Three Words" as a bonus track. Multiple songs on the album performed well on the domestic charts.
Sechs Kies held their first national concert tour since their reunion, titled "Yellow Note", from September 10 to January 22, 2017. Concerts were held in Busan, Daegu, and Seoul. The last two concerts, named "Yellow Note Final in Seoul", were held on January 21 and 22 at the Jamsil Indoor Stadium. On December 22, all 13,000 tickets were sold out within three minutes.
At the end of the year, Sechs Kies won several awards including Click! Star Wars Awards Hall of Fame, the 6th Gaon Chart Music Awards K-pop Contribution/Lifetime Achievement, the 8th Melon Music Awards Hall of Fame, the 31st Golden Disc Awards Best Male Group Performance, and the 26th Seoul Music Awards Bonsang.
2017: A new beginning, The 20th Anniversary and Another Light
The 20th Anniversary was released on April 28, 2017. The anniversary album entered the Billboard World Albums chart at number nine. "Be Well" (아프지 마요), one of the title songs, reached number one on several domestic music charts upon its release.
As part of their 20th anniversary celebrations, a Sechs Kies exhibition entitled "Yellow Universe" ran from April 28 to May 28, showcasing artwork by Lee Jai-jin, collected items from the band's earlier active years, as well as contents from their comeback. Additionally, Sechs Kies held two fan meetings, both named "YellowKies Day" after their official fan club, at the SK Olympic Handball Gymnasium in Seoul on July 15. On June 26, minutes after YellowKies Day tickets were released, all 14,000 tickets were sold out.
On May 12, YG Entertainment announced Sechs Kies's debut in Japan, 20 years after their debut in South Korea. The Japanese edition of the anniversary album, which contained the Japanese versions of title songs "Be Well", "Sad Song" (슬픈 노래), and "Three Words" was released on July 19. Fan meetings were held for Japanese fans at the Yokohama Bay Hall in Kanagawa on July 23 and at the Namba Hatch in Osaka on September 3; all 4,400 tickets were sold out within a few minutes.
On September 21, Sechs Kies released their long-awaited fifth album, Another Light. It entered the Billboard World Albums chart at number 10, and was successful domestically as well, ranking at number 10 on the Gaon October album chart. The title song "Something Special" (특별해) held the number 1 spot on the Gaon BGM Chart for six consecutive weeks, and achieved a double crown on Gaon for the month of October, ranking number 1 on both the digital and BGM charts, as well as reaching number 2 on the Gaon monthly download chart.
Sechs Kies held their 20th anniversary concert on September 23 at the Seoul Gocheok Sky Dome.
On August 16, YG Entertainment announced that it had signed an exclusive contract with Eun Ji-won. On November 6, Jang Su-won became the fourth member to sign an exclusive contract with YG Entertainment.
Following their Seoul anniversary concert, Sechs Kies held a 20th anniversary concert tour, performing across Korea in Gwangju (December 9), Goyang (December 23 to 24), Busan (December 30), and in Daegu (January 6 of the following year).
Sechs Kies performed as the closing act at the Busan One Asia Festival (BOF) opening ceremony on October 22. At the BOF closing ceremony, they received the Legend Star award together with YellowKies, who were awarded "Best Fandom" for their support of the group over the past 20 years.
2018: Sechskies Eighteen
Sechs Kies successfully concluded their 20th anniversary concert in Daegu on January 6.
On January 17, it was announced that YG Entertainment had successfully registered "Sechs Kies" with the Korea Intellectual Property Rights Information Service (KIPRIS) as an official trademark on April 24, 2017, allowing Sechs Kies members to exercise exclusive rights to the band name.
Towards the end of December 2017, a teaser for the film Sechskies Eighteen was released. The film release was officially announced on January 5.The documentary follows Sechs Kies as they prepared for their fifth studio album Another Light; it was filmed using ScreenX technology and opened in select CGV theaters on January 18 in Seoul, Incheon, Jeju, Changwon and Yongin. On January 9, tickets for a January 11 preview screening of the film sold out in 4 minutes. According to the Korean Film Council, the film ranked first in seat sales for the month of February, selling 91.4% of seats available. By March 25, over 50,000 tickets to Sechskies Eighteen were sold; to commemorate the milestone as well as the band's 21st anniversary, Sechs Kies announced that a "Fan Festival" would be held from April 1 to 15 across 7 cities (Seoul, Daejeon, Jeonju, Daegu, Ulsan, Gwangju, and Busan), offering free screenings of the 2016 Yellow Note concert, the 2017 Yellowkies Day fan event, and both New Kies shows (New Kies on the Busan and New Kies on the Honolulu) in collaboration with Danaflix.
On February 14, Sechs Kies received the Song of the Year - September award at the 7th Gaon Chart Music Awards for the title song "Something Special" from their fifth album Another Light.
On May 28, at the request of Yellowkies (Sechs Kies dcinside fan gallery), Ko Ji-yong was removed from Sechs Kies profile by YG Entertainment.
On September 21, YG Entertainment announced that Kang Sunghoon would not be participating in Sechs Kies activities due to ongoing scandals, and in their statement, mentioned that the group was recording new music at the time, having to push back the release date as the result of the scandals. The group later performed without Sunghoon on October 14 of that year, where they confirmed they would soon come back, and were in the midst of picking new songs for the album.
As of December 31, Kang Sung-hoon left the team because of the scandals that he made. with the termination of his exclusive contract from YG and from this time onwards Sechskies became a four-member group.
2019: New formation of Sechskies
Eun Ji-won's solo album was released on June 27, and preparations for a new song for Sechskies are in progress, and various contents are prepared in the summer. They are preparing for a comeback with a new formation of four-member.
On November 14, it was confirmed that the comeback video was filmed and the group had yet to decide on a release date for the album.
2020-present : First EP and Three Meals For Four
The album release date was eventually revealed on January 7. The album titled, All for You was announced on January 12, 2020, with the title track's details released two days later. They made a comeback on January 28. It is also the first album after reorganization as a four-member and the first mini-album after 23 years of debut. The title songs are ALL FOR YOU, ALL FOR YOU, DREAM, MEANINGLESS, ROUND & ROUND, and WALKING IN THE SKY. On the February 6, 2020 episode of "M Countdown", Sechs Kies won first place with "All For You".
Eun Jiwon asked Na Young Seok PD to make a variety show for Sechskies as the compensation for channel 채널 십오야 commitment to the moon, as the first project related to Eun Jiwon. The program started airing from May 15, 2020. It is a high-speed camping life for 3 days and 2 nights to eat three meals of four Sechskies, who have never been in a camp since their debut! Self-sufficient high-speed camp life <삼시네세끼 - Three meals for Four>. This is Na Young-seok PD's fourth hybrid platform broadcast. Again, only part of the entire volume is edited and broadcast for 5 minutes on TV. After the TV broadcast ends, the entire volume will be released through the YouTube channel '채널 십오야 '.
During the front yard live on the recording day of 3 meals for four, Yoo Hee-yeol and PD Na Young-suk made a pledge, but Yoo Hee-yeol made a pledge to let Sechskies come to the antenna and record a ballad song if the number of antenna music subscribers exceeds 150,000. The number of subscribers to Antenna Music exceeded 150,000, so Yoo Hee-yeol decided to give Sechskis a new song. In the live broadcast of PD Na Young-seok, which was held at the end of December, he mentioned that this is the first time after 7 years Yoo Hee-yeol wrote and composed the song, and the song was for Sechskies. In addition, it was mentioned that the related contents would be broadcast on January 22 (Fri), 2021 with the title of Don't Look Back, with a five-minute broadcast and the subtitle as : Yoo Hee-yeol x Jekki decided to sing a ballad as a pledge, but somehow, things got bigger and a new song was made, and a song containing the feelings of all of us came out.
The digital single "Don't Look Back" (뒤돌아보지말아요) was released on February 5, 2021 on major music platforms with the MV was released during the live on channel with Sechskies members and Na PD. And couple hours after the song reached number 1 realtime in Genie and Bugs music chart.
Controversy
Sechs Kies' disbandment was suddenly announced without a clear explanation at the height of their career, resulting in a widespread rumor that disbandment was enforced by DSP. However, each member has talked about the truth of disbandment several times through various media channels. Lee Jai-jin stated similar to the rumor, but other members clearly stated that it was not true. Lee Jai-jin mentioned that what Sechs Kies members wanted was to change their agency and not disband at a Korean variety show in 2005. Eun Ji-won, on the other hand, said that the members had decided it would be best to disband at the peak of their career. In 2015, Kang Sung-hoon mentioned that the members had agreed to disband at the peak of their career. At a concert in 2015, Kang Sung-hoon stated that Sechs Kies seems to have left a strong impression for having disbanded at the peak of their career. However, he also added that he had disliked the idea of disbandment as well. Jang Su-won and Kim Jae-duck have also mentioned several reasons for disbandment. They had an opportunity to talk about the disbandment all together during an interview on October 17, 2016. Eun Ji-won stated that the disbandment was decided upon agreement by a majority of the members, though Lee Jai-jin was one of the members that stood against the disbandment.
At Sechs Kies' last performance, fans mistook reporter Jo Young Goo's car for CEO of DSP Lee Ho-yeon's car, vandalizing the property. Given the young age of the fans, Jo Young Goo opted against filing a complaint against them. Lee Ho-yeon paid him 11 million won as compensation on their behalf.
Members
Current
Black Kies
Eun Ji-won – leader, rapper, vocalist
Lee Jai-jin – rapper, dancer
Kim Jae-duck – rapper, dancer
White Kies
Jang Su-won – vocalist
Former
Kang Sung-hoon – vocalist
Ko Ji-yong – vocalist, rapper
Discography
Studio albums
School Anthem (학원별곡) (1997)
Welcome to the SechsKies Land (1997)
Road Fighter (1998)
Special Album (1998)
Com’Back (1999)
Another Light (2017)
Remake albums
2016 Re-ALBUM (2016)
The 20th Anniversary (2017)
Tours
The South Korean idol group Sechs Kies (also known as SechsKies or Sechskies) has held four tours and four fan meetings since their debut in 1997.
Filmography
Reality Show
Film
Awards
References
External links
YG Entertainment
Musical groups established in 1997
Musical groups disestablished in 2000
Musical groups reestablished in 2016
YG Entertainment artists
DSP Media artists
South Korean boy bands
South Korean dance music groups
Melon Music Award winners
Grand Prize Seoul Music Award recipients
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Cluedo%20characters
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List of Cluedo characters
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This is a list of characters in the game of Cluedo (UK) / Clue (US).
The Victim
The victim of Cluedo/Clue is Dr. Black (UK) / Mr. Boddy (US), the wealthy owner of Tudor Mansion (formerly known as Tudor Close/Tudor Hall (UK) and Boddy Mansion/Boddy Manor(US)). In Cluedo, he is the unseen host who is murdered, which inspires the quest to discover who murdered him, with what weapon, and what room in his mansion the crime occurred. Dr. Black was listed in the original patent filing as one of the ten characters created for the game, in which one character was drawn from the suspect cards to be the new victim before the start of a game. Mr. Boddy's name is a pun on the fact that the character is a dead body.
In the 2002 US edition, Mr. John Boddy, also known as Dr. Black, is an eminent anthropologist and the heir of his late uncle's estate, which he is set to fully inherit on the day of his thirtieth birthday. Before then, Boddy discovered a series of secret allowances bequeathed to some of his uncle's former associates. Vowing to get to the bottom of these murky financial dealings, he invites his uncle's associates to Tudor Mansion for a weekend visit. However, Mr. Boddy is murdered by one of them.
In the 2023 edition of the game, the two names are combined into the character, Boden "Boddy" Black Jr, a man who acquired his significant wealth by inheritance. At the time of his murder in the game's updated story, he has used connections to government officials in Hue County, the game's setting, to push through permitting and construction on Boden Black Hotel, a luxury hotel which the public opposes.
In the film, Mr. Boddy is primarily portrayed by Lee Ving while Tim Curry portrays him in one of the film's three endings. He blackmailed the six guests of Hill House and his butler Wadsworth's wife until he is murdered. In Ending A, he was murdered by his maid Yvette on Miss Scarlet's orders. In Ending B, he was murdered by Mrs. Peacock. In Ending C, Boddy is seemingly murdered by Professor Plum, but Wadsworth reveals himself as the real Mr. Boddy while the person Plum killed was his butler. Boddy plans to continue blackmailing the guests before he is shot by Mr. Green.
Suspects
The following are the known suspects in the Cluedo / Clue franchise:
Original suspects
These are the original suspects from the board game in rolling order:
Miss Scarlett
Miss Scarlett is a stereotypical femme fatale, typically portrayed as young, cunning, and attractive. Known as "Miss Scarlet" in North America between 1963 and 2016, she rolls first in the game.
In Clue Master Detective, Miss Scarlet is depicted as an Asian woman nicknamed the "Mercenary of Macau".
In the film, she is portrayed by Lesley Ann Warren and is depicted as a sassy Washington DC madame who runs an underground brothel. In Ending A, she orders her former call girl and Mr. Boddy's maid, Yvette, to murder her employer and the cook before murdering her in turn, along with a cop she was bribing and a passing motorist and singing telegram girl. Nonetheless, Scarlet is eventually exposed, subdued, and arrested. In Ending C, she only murders the cop before being exposed and arrested.
In the 1990s ITV game show Cluedo, Vivienne Scarlet is the stepdaughter of Mrs. Peacock.
In the 1996 musical, Miss Scarlet used to work as a lounge singer in Las Vegas.
In the 2023 edition, she is a Black British gossip columnist who writes under the pen name "Cyan".
Colonel Mustard
Colonel Mustard is a stock military officer who rolls second. He is usually portrayed as a dignified, dapper, and dangerous military man. Originally known as Colonel Yellow, his name was changed before the game's first edition was published.
In Clue Master Detective, his full name is Algernon Mustard and is known to sleep with a revolver under his pillow.
In the film, he is portrayed by Martin Mull and is depicted as a war profiteer who sold stolen air force radios on the black market and was later involved in a top-secret fusion bomb project. In Ending C, he kills a passing motorist after recognizing him as his driver from World War II before he is exposed and arrested.
In the 1990s ITV game show Cluedo, Colonel Mike Mustard is a ex-officer of the Special Air Service and a regular visitor of Arlington Grange who is in a love triangle with Mrs. Peacock and her step-daughter Miss Scarlett.
In the 2002 US edition, he is Michael Mustard, a former officer of the Royal Hampshire Regiment, where he first met Sir Hugh. He is very nostalgic for his war days and has convinced a publisher that his military exploits would make for a good book.
In the 2016 edition, Colonel Mustard is a successful and popular officer. However, behind his medals of honor, are rumors of treason and war profiteering which he has paying someone to hide for far too long. Believing Mr. Boddy is blackmailing him, Mustard eagerly comes to Tudor Mansion in search of evidence.
Mrs. White / Chef White
Mrs. White is usually portrayed as a frazzled servant who worked as Mr. Boddy's cook and housekeeper. Originally known as Nurse White before her name was changed following the first edition's publication, she rolls third in the game. Various variations have been made to the character, diverging from her working class origins.
In Clue Master Detective, she is Blanche White, who has been a long-time maid to Mr. Boddy and has an eye squint from spying in keyholes.
In the film, she is portrayed by Madeline Kahn and is depicted as the widow of a nuclear physicist, an illusionist, and three other men, all of whom died under mysterious circumstances. In Ending C, she kills Yvette out of jealousy upon discovering she had an affair with one of her previous husbands before being exposed and arrested.
In the 1990s ITV game show Cluedo, housekeeper and cook Mrs. Blanche White has worked for Mrs. Peacock at Arlington Grange for the past 25 years. Additionally, series one featured her husband Mr. White before the character was dropped.
In the 1998 musical, Mrs. White is the chief domestic at Boddy Manor.
In the 2002 edition, Mrs. Blanche White is the housekeeper and cook of Tudor Mansion. She also served as the nanny of her current employer, Mr. John Boddy, during his childhood. For all her years of dedicated service, she has little to show for it.
In Clue: Discover the Secrets, Diana White is a former child celebrity who desires to be in the spotlight again.
In the 2012 edition, White is an alias given to Alexis Villenueve, a lawyer who will do anything for justice, including turning vigilante.
Although originally planned to be in the 2016 edition, Mrs. White was replaced as a suspect by a new character, Dr. Orchid.
In the 2023 edition of the game, the character returned as Chef White, a younger character with short white hair and a white chef's uniform coat. She worked for Boddy Black at one point before starting her own restaurant, using the budget money she skimmed from her old boss to fund it.
Reverend Green / Mr. Green / Mayor Green
Originally patented as "The Reverend Mr Green", he is a hypocritical Anglican priest who wavers when the subject is murder. In North America, Mr. Green has taken money-oriented roles from mobster to businessman. Parker Brothers insisted on the name change, believing that the American public would object to a parson as a murder suspect. He rolls fourth in both versions.
In Clue Master Detective, he is a mobster named Thallo Green.
In the film, Mr. Green is portrayed by Michael McKean. For most of the film and Endings A and B, he is depicted as a closeted homosexual who is concerned that his secret might cost him his job as a State Department employee. In Ending C, he is a heterosexual, undercover FBI agent working to expose Mr. Boddy.
In the 1990s ITV game show Cluedo, Jonathan Green is a regular visitor at Arlington Grange.
In the 1996 musical, Mr. Green is an entrepreneur.
The 2002 edition attempted to combine the two variations of the character. Mr. John Green, also known as "Reverend Green", has a reputation for fraud, money laundering, and smuggling.
In the 2016 edition, Green is a charming con artist who is in hiding, disguised as a priest.
The 2023 edition updated the character to Mayor Green, the Mayor of Hue County who sports a goatee and a green business suit.
Mrs. Peacock / Solicitor Peacock
Mrs. Peacock is a stock grande dame and a middle-aged woman who nearly always maintains her dignity and rolls fifth in the game.
In Clue Master Detective, her full name is Henrietta Peacock and is depicted as an elderly ornithologist with a specialty in birds of prey who wanted Mr. Boddy to turn his manor into a bird sanctuary as part of a donation to the Peacock Salvation Society.
In the film, she is portrayed by Eileen Brennan and is depicted as the wife of a U.S. Senator who is accused of taking bribes. In the film's second ending, or Ending B, she kills Mr. Boddy, Yvette, her former cook Mrs. Ho, who became Mr. Boddy's cook, as well as a passing motorist, cop, and singing telegram girl to prevent her secrets from being exposed as she was taking bribes from foreign powers. While the others discover her crimes, Mrs. Peacock attempts to escape, only to be arrested on her way out. In Ending C, she only kills the cook before she is exposed and arrested.
In the 1990s ITV game show Cluedo, Elizabeth Peacock is the stepmother of Vivienne Scarlet who resides in Arlington Grange.
In the 1997 musical, Mrs. Peacock is the wife of Mr. Boddy, her sixth husband, who is also pursuing an affair with Colonel Mustard.
In the 2002 edition, Mrs. Patricia Peacock is a socialite and former actress who left England after becoming involved in a love triangle with two politicians.
In the 2023 edition, Solicitor Peacock is a successful and tenacious attorney who knows how to command a room, court or otherwise. Using her tendency to tamper with witness testimonies, Boden Black blackmails her into representing him in his hotel dealings.
Professor Plum
Professor Plum is the stock absent-minded professor character, who rolls last in the game.
In Clue Master Detective, his full name is Edgar Plum and is depicted as a shady archaeologist and the head of the local school's archaeology department.
In the film, he is portrayed by Christopher Lloyd and depicted as a disgraced former psychiatrist of the World Health Organization who lost his medical license for having an affair with one of his patients and became an employee at the United Nations. In Ending C, he seemingly kills Mr. Boddy, only to later learn it was actually Boddy's butler, before being exposed and arrested.
In the 1990s ITV game show Cluedo, Professor Peter Plum is a regular visitor at Arlington Grange.
In the 1996 musical, Professor Plum disguises himself as the orchestra's piano player while an imposter masquerades as a "dorky school teacher" and has three random audience members serve as accomplices in choosing the culprit, location, and murder weapon.
In the 2002 edition, Professor Peter Plum is an archaeologist and Egyptologist who formerly worked as the curator of the British Museum before he was fired due to allegations of plagiarizing his article on the dynasties of ancient Egypt from a deceased colleague.
Additional suspects
Parker Bros. released the Clue VCR Mystery Game in 1985, introducing four new characters to the lineup, the first change in Cluedo characters in 36 years. The new characters also appeared in a number of spin-off games and licensed products, such as Clue Master Detective (1988).
Miss Peach
Miss Peach is a Southern belle who usually manipulates others with her charm.
In the VCR Game, Melba Peach is the daughter of M. Brunette who arrives by "accident".
In Clue Master Detective, Georgia Peach claims to be the long-lost grand-niece of Mr. Boddy.
In Clue Mysteries, Amelia Peach is the daughter of a wealthy American businessman and a famed British stage actress who had a happy childhood in America until her father's finances were ruined, causing her to drop out of law school. She now works as a secretary for her uncle's law firm in Hampshire, England.
Monsieur Brunette
Monsieur Brunette is a foreign con artist with many talents, passports, and accents who is usually a Frenchman intent on personal gain. His name is derived from "Mr. Brown", one of the game's oldest patented but unused player names.
In the VCR Game, M. Brunette is a con artist posing as a lawyer. He was originally named "Dr. Brown" in the prototype of the game.
In Clue Master Detective, Monsieur Alphonse Brunette is a fraudulent art dealer and arms dealer who nearly made a killing selling the missing arms of the Venus de Milo.
Madame Rose
Madame Rose is a stock fortune-teller.
In the VCR Game, Madame Rose is Mr. Boddy's sister.
In Clue Master Detective, Madame Rhonda Rose is Mr. Boddy's ex-secretary of Hungarian heritage whose real name is Rhoda Rosengarten.
Sergeant / Inspector Gray
Sergeant Gray is a corrupt police officer. The name "Grey" was one of ten characters filed with the game's original patent. "Miss Grey" and "Mrs. Silver" are some of the oldest colour names previously unused, and "Gray" is one of the most enduring names in later editions, albeit with different characters depending on the edition.
In the VCR Game, Sergeant Gray is a crazed mental patient who escaped from the nearby asylum and evaded discovery by posing as a police officer.
In Clue Master Detective, Sergeant Gray is a no-nonsense, corrupt, unimaginative, and colorblind police officer who stumbles onto the crime scene while collecting funds for the Police Blackmail Awareness Fund.
Renamed Inspector Gray in the mobile game, he secretly worked with Dr. Black to drop tax evasion charges in exchange for a cut.
In Waddingtons' Cluedo Super Sleuth, Inspector Gray appears as a police inspector.
Dr. Orchid
Released in 2016, Hasbro introduced Dr. Orchid in place of Mrs. White. The former is a biologist of East Asian heritage who specializes in plant toxicology, dresses in her namesake color, and is introduced as the adopted daughter of Mr. Boddy/Dr. Black. After being expelled from an exclusive Swiss boarding school after a near-fatal poisoning incident, Orchid was home-schooled by the housekeeper, Mrs. White.
One-time suspects
In 1986, Super Cluedo Challenge and Super Sleuth were released in the UK, introducing the second wave of new board-game characters:
Captain Brown (Super Cluedo Challenge) - A lower-class, drunk seaman who arrived at the mansion under mysterious circumstances.
Mr. Slate-Grey (Super Cluedo Challenge) - A middle-aged lawyer or accountant in a grey suit.
The Thief (Clue: The Great Museum Caper) - A thief who broke into a museum to steal paintings who is represented by a grey pawn.
Millennial suspects
Released in 2003, Clue FX is an electronic talking version with audio voices and clues. Other new characters are:
Lady Lavender - An honorable herbalist and occasional troublemaker of Asian heritage who may have poisoned her husband, Sir Laurence Lavender, and works to investigate Mr. Meadow-Brook's death. In Clue Mysteries, she is known as Su Sian.
Mr. Meadow-Brook - The murder victim who served as Dr. Black/Mr. Boddy's unseen solicitor. In Clue Mysteries, he is known as Miles and is an occasional theft victim.
Mrs. Meadow-Brook - Wife of the deceased Mr. Meadow-Brook. In Clue Mysteries, she is known as Jane. She is also a playable character in the 2006 Clue DVD game.
Prince Azure - An "aristocratic" art and arms dealer. In Clue Mysteries, he is known as Philippe.
Rusty Nayler - The bitter, old Tudor Mansion gardener.
Lord Gray - A former army cartographer who designs gardens. In Clue Mysteries, he is known as Alfred.
Parker Brothers Mystery Game suspects
Released in 2017 by Hasbro, Parker Brothers Mystery Game is a budget board game which plays with virtually identical mechanics to Clue/Cluedo, with some exceptions. While the murder victim is unnamed, the six suspects are close analogues of the original characters or their canonical replacements:
Madame Rubie - A red-headed femme fatale dressed in ruby, similar to Miss Scarlett, who is described as a cold yet elegant woman who "enjoys the finer things in life".
General Umber - A gray-haired and bearded military man dressed in his namesake, similar to Colonel Mustard, who is described as a hero with "hard-won wisdom" who is potentially hiding a sinister secret.
Mrs. Azul - A brunette dressed in a blue (Spanish: ) party dress and a young analogue of Mrs. Peacock who is described as innocent yet "a mystery in her own right".
Mr. Pine - A man dressed in a vest and analogue of Mr. Green. Nicknamed "the Hunter", he is described as "little more than a scoundrel" and someone who has "always gotten by on his good looks".
Sir Ube - A dapper gentleman dressed in a purple suit and analogue of Professor Plum who is described as a charismatic yet shy academic who is "more comfortable in his research" than anywhere else. He is named for the ube.
Dr. Rose - A woman dressed in a black dress and a rose top and pumps. She is a hybridization of Mrs. White and Dr. Orchid. In her bio, she is described as "the life of any party", though she is hinted as possessing "something dark behind her laughter".
Clue: Conspiracy suspects
In 2023, Hasbro Pulse released Clue: Conspiracy, which introduces five new characters in addition to the classic six and is set at a remote island retreat.
Mr. Coral - The manager of the Black Adder Resort and business partner of the late Boden Black Jr who invites the same guests to the resort to investigate Black's death.
Director Rosewood - A middle-aged corporate execuctive who is dishonest about her investments. She wears a dark pink color similar to that of Madame Rose.
Agent Gray - An intimidating middle-aged government agent with a fake badge who wears a gray suit.
Analyst Hyacinth - A young forensic analyst who is the only one skilled enough to recognize tampered evidence. She wears a light purple-blue color similar to that of her namesake.
Dean Celadon - A private school dean who pays for his students to get into the colleges of their dreams. He wears a teal jacket over a celadon shirt.
Other characters
In 1995, Waddingtons released Cluedo Super Sleuth which introduced two new characters:
Hogarth (Super Sleuth) - The butler and a non-playable character who blocks spaces.
The Black Dog (Super Sleuth) - An NPC dog who blocks spaces.
In Clue FX, two new characters were introduced:
Mr. Ash - The butler of Tudor Mansion and narrator of the game.
Inspector Brown - A police inspector who comes to investigate the murder of Miles Meadow-Brook. In Clue Mysteries, released in 2005, Brown informs the players which suspects are lying.
In 2009, Electronic Arts released an iOS version of Clue.
Editor Braunman (Cluedo iOS) - Appearing only on the menu screens, he is the editor-in-chief who sends the reporter to gather material and solve the murder case in an allotted time.
The Reporter (Cluedo iOS) - The player character.
Children's editions
Several variants of the game have been developed for children, most notably Clue Jr. and Cluedo Jr., which usually involve the disappearance of something or someone rather than a murder. These variants generally use the standard six surnames with different first names or titles, often changing the gender of the original character.
The UK edition of Cluedo Jr. introduced the first animal players or suspects: Samantha Scarlett, Mustard the Dog, Wendy White, George Green, Polly Peacock, and Peter Plum.
Cluedo Junior Detective introduced Inspector Cluedo and his bloodhound Watson, who invites his eight nieces and nephews: Jake Plum, Natalie Peacock, Jessica Scarlett, Spike Mustard, Robbie Green, Megan White, and Beth Peach; as well as investigator Tom Black.
Film
In 1985, Cluedo / Clue began expanding its character roster and served as the premise for a film of the same name:
The Butler - Rarely used, the butler is usually the character most connected with the audience. He has appeared anonymously and as Wadsworth, Didit, Ashe, and Hogarth in related official media. In the film, Wadsworth is primarily portrayed by Tim Curry while Lee Ving portrays him in one of the film's three endings. In two of the endings, Endings A and B, he is revealed to be an undercover FBI agent. In Ending C, Wadsworth is revealed to be the true Mr. Boddy while the "Mr. Boddy" Professor Plum killed earlier was the real butler.
The Inspector - Typically working for Scotland Yard, the inspector appears anonymously or as Pry, Brown, or Gray in related official media. In the film, the Chief of Police is portrayed by an uncredited Howard Hesseman and first appears disguised as an evangelist. In all three endings, he leads the police in raiding Hill House and arresting the murderer or murderers depending on the ending.
Yvette - A young French maid at Hill House, portrayed by Colleen Camp. She is murdered in the billiard room with the rope by Miss Scarlett (Ending A), Mrs. Peacock (Ending B), or Mrs. White (Ending C), though she is considered a suspect beforehand. In Ending A, Wadsworth reveals Yvette was ordered by Miss Scarlett to murder Mr. Boddy and Mrs. Ho as the maid worked for Scarlett as a call girl. She also had Colonel Mustard as a client and an affair with Mrs. White's husband.
Mrs. Ho - The cook at Hill House, portrayed by Kellye Nakahara. She is murdered in the kitchen with the dagger by Yvette on Miss Scarlett's orders (Ending A) or her former employer Mrs. Peacock (Endings B and C) early in the film.
The Motorist - A middle-aged man who is later revealed to be Colonel Mustard's driver during World War II, portrayed by Jeffrey Kramer. He comes to Hill House after his car breaks down and is murdered in the lounge with the wrench by Miss Scarlett (Ending A), Mrs. Peacock (Ending B), or Colonel Mustard (Ending C).
The Cop - An unnamed police officer, portrayed by Bill Henderson. He seemingly arrived at the mansion to investigate the motorist's abandoned car and make a phone call, but he is later revealed to have been invited. He is murdered in the library with the lead pipe by Miss Scarlett, whom he had been taking bribes from (Endings A and C), or Mrs. Peacock (Ending B).
The Singing Telegram Girl - An unnamed singing telegram girl as well as a former patient of Professor Plum's, with whom he had an affair, portrayed by Jane Wiedlin. She arrives at Hill House to deliver a message, only to be shot with the revolver by Miss Scarlett (Ending A), Mrs. Peacock (Ending B), or Mr. Boddy (Ending C).
Television
In 1990, Cluedo inspired several television series which (in addition to the standard six characters) created additional characters – primarily victims. The most notable recurring character in the UK series was Mr. White while the Australian series introduced Det. Sgt. Stanley Bogong (who also appeared in French, German and Swedish versions).
Books
Clue Jr., a "Let's Read and Play" book written by Sara Miller and illustrated by Jim Talbot released in 2004, introduced five new suspects: a butler, a cook, a gardener, a maid, and a repairman.
Characters in other media
In the first half of 1985, Mobil joined Cluedo to introduce three new characters as part of its "Mobil £5 Million Cluedo Mystery" contest game: Sir Peach, Lady Oakwood, and Dr. Prussian. The characters were added along with three additional murder weapons to balance the game's playing elements. Of the three, only the name "Peach" would be re-used for other characters.
Clue Chronicles: Fatal Illusion, Hasbro's short-lived interactive video game series set in 1938, added five characters to the usual six: Ian Masque, an eccentric millionaire who invites the original suspects and new characters to his isolated Swiss mountain estate for a mysterious dinner party; Marina Popov, an attractive, blonde Russian psychic; Martin Urfe, a mediocre magician hired by Masque to entertain his guests who may be a fraud; Sabata, a deranged Spanish artist; and Dr. Julia Kell, an aging German psychoanalyst who may have Nazi ties.
References
External links
50th-anniversary website
List of foreign-edition character name variations
1985 film credits
1990–93 series credits
1992 Australian series credits
Clue the Musical cast list
Clue at theartofmurder.com
The Changing Face of Clue's Miss Scarlett
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parylene
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Parylene
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Parylene is the common name of a polymer whose backbone consists of para-benzenediyl rings –– connected by 1,2-ethanediyl bridges –––. It can be obtained by polymerization of para-xylylene ==.
The name is also used for several polymers with the same backbone, where some hydrogen atoms are replaced by other functional groups. Some of these variants are designated in commerce by letter-number codes such as "parylene C" and "parylene AF-4". Some of these names are registered trademarks in some countries.
Coatings of parylene are often applied to electronic circuits and other equipment as electrical insulation, moisture barriers, or protection against corrosion and chemical attack (conformal coating). They are also used to reduce friction, and in medicine to prevent adverse reactions to implanted devices. These coatings are typically applied by chemical vapor deposition in an atmosphere of the monomer para-xylylene.
Parylene is considered a "green" polymer because its polymerization needs no initiator or other chemicals to terminate the chain; and the coatings can be applied at or near room temperature, without any solvent.
History
Parylene was discovered in 1947 by Michael Szwarc as one of the thermal decomposition products of para-xylene –– above 1000 °C. Szwarc identified para-xylylene as the precursor, by observing that reaction with iodine yielded para-xylylene di-iodide as the only product. The reaction yield was only a few percent.
A more efficient route was found in 1965 by William F. Gorham at Union Carbide. He deposited parylene films by the thermal decomposition of [2.2] paracyclophane at temperatures exceeding 550 °C and in vacuum below 1 Torr. This process did not require a solvent and resulted in chemically resistant films free from pinholes. Union Carbide commercialized a parylene coating system in 1965.
Union Carbide went on to undertake research into the synthesis of numerous parylene precursors, including parylene AF-4, throughout the 1960s into the early 1970s. Union Carbide purchased NovaTran (a parylene coater) in 1984 and combined it with other electronic chemical coating businesses to form the Specialty Coating Systems division. The division was sold to Cookson Electronics in 1994.
There are parylene coating service companies located around the world, but there is limited commercial availability of parylene. The [2.2]paracyclophane precursors can be purchased for parylene N, C, D, AF-4 and VT-4. Parylene services are provided for N, C, AF-4, VT-4 and E (copolymer of N and E).
Varieties
Parylene N
Parylene N is the un-substituted polymer obtained by polymerization of the para-xylylene intermediate.
Chlorinated parylenes
Derivatives of parylene can be obtained by replacing hydrogen atoms on the phenyl ring or the aliphatic bridge by other functional groups. The most common of these variants is parylene C which has one hydrogen atom in the aryl ring replaced by chlorine. Another common variant is parylene D, with two such substitutions on the ring.
Parylene C is the most used variety, due to its low cost of its precursor and to the balance of its properties as dielectric and moisture barrier properties and ease of deposition. A major disadvantage for many applications is its insolubility in any solvent at room temperature, which prevents removal of the coating when the part has to be re-worked.
Parylene C is also the most commonly used because of its relatively low cost. It can be deposited at room temperature while still possessing a high degree of conformality and uniformity and a moderate deposition rate in a batch process.
Also, the chlorine on the phenyl ring of the parylene C repeat unit is problematic for RoHS compliance, especially for the printed circuit board manufacture. Moreover, some of the dimer precursor is decomposed by breaking of the aryl-chlorine bond during pyrolysis, generating carbonaceous material that contaminates the coating, and hydrogen chloride that may harm vacuum pumps and other equipment. The chlorine atom leaves the phenyl ring in the pyrolysis tube at all temperatures; however, optimizing the pyrolysis temperature will minimize this problem. The free-radical (phenyl radical) generated in this process is not resonance-stabilized and mitigates the deposition of a parylene-like material on the downside of the pyrolysis tube. This material becomes carbonized and generates particles in situ to contaminate clean rooms and create defects on printed-circuit boards that are often called 'stringers and nodules'. Parylene N and E do not have this problem and therefore are preferred for manufacturing and clean room use.
Fluorinated parylenes
Another common halogenated variant is parylene AF-4, with the four hydrogen atoms on the aliphatic chain replaced by fluorine atoms. This variant is also marketed under the trade names of parylene SF (Kisco) and HT parylene (SCS). The –– unit that comprises the ethylene chain is the same as the repeating unit of PTFE (Teflon), consistent with its superior oxidative and UV stability. Parylene AF-4 has been used to protect outdoor LED displays and lighting from water, salt and pollutants successfully.
Another fluorinated variant is parylene VT-4 (also called parylene F), with fluorine substituted for the four hydrogens on the aryl ring. This variant is marketed by Kisco with the trademark Parylene CF. Because of the aliphatic -CH2- units, it has poor oxidative and UV stability, but still better than N, C, or D.
Alkyl-substituted parylenes
The hydrogen atoms can be replaced also by alkyl groups. Substitution may occur on either the phenyl ring or the ethylene bridge, or both.
Specifically, replacement of one hydrogen on the phenyl ring by a methyl group or an ethyl group yields parylene M and parylene E, respectively.
These substitutions increase the intermolecular (chain-to-chain) distance, which makes the polymer more soluble and permeable. For example, compared to parylene C, parylene M was shown to have a lower dielectric constant (2.48 vs. 3.2 at 1 kHz). Parylene E had a lower tensile modulus (175 kpi vs. 460 kpsi), a lower dielectric constant (2.34 vs. 3.05 at 10 kHz), slightly worse moisture barrier properties (4.1 vs. 0.6 g-mil/atom-100in2-24hr), and equivalent dielectric breakdown 5-6 kvol/mil for a 1 mil coating) but better solubility. However, the copolymer of parylene N and E has equivalent barrier performance of parylene C.
Replacement of one hydrogen by methyl on each carbon of the ethyl bridge yields parylene AM-2, (not to be confused with an amine-substituted variant trademarked by Kisco). The solubility of parylene AM-2 is not as good as parylene E.
Reactive parylenes
While parylene coatings are mostly used to protect an object from water and other chemicals, some applications require a coating that can bind to adhesives or other coated parts, or immobilize various molecules such as dyes, catalysts, or enzymes.
These "reactive" parylene coatings can be obtained with chemically active substituents. Two commercially available products are parylene A, featuring one amine substituent – in each unit, and parylene AM, with one methylene amine group – per unit. (Both are trademarks of Kisco.)
Parylene AM is more reactive than the A variant. The amine of the latter, being adjacent to the phenyl ring is in resonance stabilization and therefore less basic. However, parylene A is much easier to synthesize and hence it costs less.
Another reactive variant is parylene X, which features an ethinyl group – attached to the phenyl ring in some of the units. This variant, which contains no elements other than hydrogen and carbon, can be cross-linked by heat or with UV light, and can react with copper or silver salts to generate the corresponding metalorganic complexes Cu-acetylide or Ag-acetylide. It can also undergo 'click chemistry', and can be used as an adhesive, allowing parylene-to-parylene bonding without any by-products during processing. Unlike most other variants, parylene X is amorphous (non-crystalline).
Colored parylenes
It is possible to attach a chromophore directly to the [2.2]paracyclophane base molecule to impart color to parylene.
Parylene-like copolymers
Copolymers and nanocomposites (SiO2/parylene C) of parylene have been deposited at near-room temperature previously; and with strongly electron withdrawing comonomers, parylene can be used as an initiator to initiate polymerizations, such as with N-phenyl maleimide. Using the parylene C/SiO2 nanocomposites, parylene C could be used as a sacrificial layer to make nanoporous silica thin films with a porosity of >90%.
Properties
Transparency and crystallinity
Parylene thin films and coatings are transparent; however, they are not amorphous except for the alkylated parylenes. i.e. parylene E. As a result, of the coatings being semi-crystalline, they scatter light. Parylene N and C have a low degree of crystallinity; however, parylene VT-4 and AF-4 are highly crystalline ~60% in their as-deposited condition (hexagonal crystal structure) and therefore are generally not suitable as optical materials.
Parylene C will become more crystalline if heated at elevated temperatures until its melting point at 270 °C.
Parylene N has a monoclinic crystal structure in its as-deposited condition and it does not appreciably become more crystalline until it undergoes a crystallographic phase transformation at ~220 °C to hexagonal, at which point it becomes highly crystalline like the fluorinated parylenes. It can reach 80% crystallinity at anneal temperatures up to 400 °C, after which point it degrades.
Mechanical and chemical
Parylenes are relatively flexible (parylene N 0.5 GPa) except for cross-linked parylene X (1.0 GPa) and they have poor oxidative resistance (~60-100 °C depending on failure criteria) and UV stability, except for parylene AF-4. However, parylene AF-4 is more expensive due to a three-step synthesis of its precursor with low yield and poor deposition efficiency. Their UV stability is so poor that parylene cannot be exposed to regular sunlight without yellowing.
Nearly all the parylenes are insoluble at room temperature except for the alkylated parylenes, one of which is parylene E and the alkylated-ethynyl parylenes. This lack of solubility has made it difficult to re-work printed circuit boards coated with parylene.
Permeability
As a moisture diffusion barrier, the efficacy of halogneated parylene coatings scales non-linearly with their density. Halogen atoms such as F, Cl and Br add much density to the coating and therefore allow the coating to be a better diffusion barrier; however, if parylenes are used as a diffusion barrier against water then the apolar chemistries such as parylene E are much more effective. For moisture barriers the three principal material parameters to be optimized are: coating density, coating polarity (olefin chemistry is best) and a glass-transition temperature above room temperature and ideally above the service limit of the printed-circuit board, device or part. In this regard parylene E is a best choice although it has a low density compared to, for example, parylene C.
Coating process
Parylene coatings are generally applied by chemical vapor deposition in an atmosphere of the monomer para-xylylene or a derivative thereof. This method has one very strong benefit, namely it does not generate any byproducts besides the parylene polymer, which would need to be removed from the reaction chamber and could interfere with the polymerization.
Parts to be coated need to be clean in order to ensure good adherence of the film. Since the monomer diffuses, areas that are not to be coated must be hermetically sealed, without gaps, crevices or other openings. The part must be maintained in a relatively narrow window of pressure and temperature.
The process involves three steps: generation of the gaseous monomer, adsorption on the part's surface, and polymerization of adsorbed film.
Polymerization
Polymerization of the adsorbed p-xylylene monomer requires a minimum threshold temperature. For parylene N, its threshold temperature is 40 °C.
The p-xylylene intermediate has two quantum mechanical states, the benzoid state (triplet state) and the quinoid state (singlet state). The triplet state is effectively the initiator and the singlet state is effectively the monomer. The triplet state can be de-activated when in contact with transition metals or metal oxides including Cu/CuOx. Many of the parylenes exhibit this selectivity based on quantum mechanical deactivation of the triplet state, including parylene X.
Polymerization may proceed by a variety of routes that differ in the transient termination of the growing chains, such as a radical group – or a negative anion group :
Physisorption
The monomer polymerizes only after it is physically adsorbed (physisorbed) on the part's surface. This process has inverse Arrhenius kinetics, meaning that it is stronger at lower temperatures than higher temperatures. There is critical threshold temperature above which there is practically no physisorption, and hence no deposition. The closer the deposition temperature is to the threshold temperature the weaker the physisorption. Parylene C has a higher threshold temperature, 90 °C, and therefore has a much higher deposition rate, greater than 1 nm/s, while still yielding fairly uniform coatings. In contrast, the threshold temperature of parylene AF-4 is very close to room temperature (30–35 °C), as a result, its deposition efficiency is poor.
An important property of the monomer is the so-called 'sticking coefficient', that expresses the degree to which it adsorbs on the polymer. A lower coefficient results more uniform deposition thickness and a more conformal coating.
Another relevant property for the deposition process is polarizability, which determines how strongly the monomer interacts with the surface. Deposition of halogenated parylenes strongly correlates with molecular weight of the monomer. The fluorinated variants are an exception: the polarizability of parylene AF-4 is low, resulting in inefficient deposition.
Monomer generation
From the cyclic dimer
The p-xylylene monomer is normally generated during the coating process by evaporating the cyclic dimer [2.2]para-cyclophane at a relatively low temperature, then decomposing the vapor at 450–700 °C and pressure 0.01–1.0 torr. This method (Gorham Process) yields 100% monomer with no by-products or decomposition of the monomer.
The dimer can be synthesized from p-xylene involving several steps involving bromination, amination and Hofmann elimination.
The same method can be used to deposit substituted parylenes. For example, parylene C can be obtained from the dimeric precursor dichloro[2.2]para-cyclophane, except that the temperature must be carefully controlled since the chlorine-aryl bond breaks at 680 °C.
The standard Gorham process is shown above for parylene AF-4. The octafluoro[2.2]para-cyclophane precursor dimer can be sublimed below <100 °C and cracked at 700-750 °C, higher than the temperature (680 °C) used to crack the unsubstituted cyclophane since the -CF2-CF2- bond is stronger than the -CH2-CH2- bond. This resonance-stabilized intermediate is transported to a room temperature deposition chamber where polymerization occurs under low pressure (1–100 mTorr) conditions.
From substituted p-xylenes
Another route to generation of the monomer is to use a para-xylene precursor with a suitable substituent on each methyl groups, whose elimination generates para-xylylene.
Selection of a leaving group may consider its toxicity (which excludes sulfur and amine-based reactions), how easily it leaves the precursor, and possible interference with the polymerization. The leaving group can either be trapped before the deposition chamber, or it can be highly volatile so that it does not condense in the latter.
For example, the precursor α,α'-dibromo-α,α,α',α'-tetrafluoro-para-xylene yields parylene AF-4 with elimination of bromine.
The advantage to this process is the low cost of synthesis for the precursor. The precursor is also a liquid and can be delivered by standard methods developed in the semiconductor industry, such as with a vaporizer, vaporizer with a bubbler, or a mass-flow controller. Originally the precursor was just thermally cracked, but suitable catalysts lower the pyrolysis temperature, resulting in less char residue and a better coating. By either method an atomic bromine free-radical is given off from each methyl end, which can be converted to hydrogen bromide and removed from monomer flow. Special precautions are needed since bromine and HBr are toxic and corrosive towards most metals and metal alloys, and bromine can damage viton O-rings.
A similar synthesis for parylene N uses the precursor α,α'-dimethoxy-p-xylene. The methoxy group – is the leaving group; while it condenses in the deposition chamber, it does not interfere with the deposition of the polymer. This precursor is much less expensive than [2.2]para-cyclophane. Moreover, being a liquid just above room temperature, this precursor can delivered reliably using a mass-flow controller; whereas the generation and delivery of the gaseous monomer of the Gorham process are difficult to measure and control.
The same chemistry can generate parylene AM-2 can be generated from the precursor α,α'-dimethyl-α,α'-dimethoxy-p-xylene.
Another example of this approach is the synthesis of parylene AF-4 from α,α'-diphenoxy-α,α,α',α'-tetrafluoro-para-xylene. In this case, the leaving group is phenoxy –, which can be condensed before the deposition chamber.
Characteristics and advantages
Parylenes may confer several desirable qualities to the coated parts. Among other properties, they are
Hydrophobic, chemically resistant, and mostly impermeable to gases (including water vapor) and inorganic and organic liquids (including strong acids and bases).
Good electrical insulator with a low dielectric constant (average in-plane and out-of-plane: 2.67 parylene N and 2.5 parylene AF-4, SF, HT)
Stable and accepted in biological tissues, having been approved by the US FDA for various medical applications.
Dense and pinhole free, for thickness above 1.4 nm
Homogeneous and uniformly thick, even within cavities.
Stable to oxidation up to 350 °C (AF-4, SF, HT)
Low coefficient of friction (AF-4, HT, SF)
Since the coating process takes place at ambient temperature in a mild vacuum, it can be applied even to temperature-sensitive objects such as dry biological specimens. The low temperature also results in low intrinsic stress in the thin film. Moreover, the only gas in the deposition chamber is the monomer, without any solvents, catalysts, or byproducts that could attack the object.
Parylene AF-4 and VT-4 are both fluorinated and as a result very expensive compared to parylene N and C, which has severely limited their commercial use, except for niche applications.
Applications
Parylene C and to a lesser extent AF-4, SF, HT (all the same polymer) are used for coating printed circuit boards (PCBs) and medical devices. There are numerous other applications as parylene is an excellent moisture barrier. It is the most bio-accepted coating for stents, defibrillators, pacemakers and other devices permanently implanted into the body.
Molecular layers
The classic molecular layer chemistries are self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). SAMs are long-chain alkyl chains, which interact with surfaces based on sulfur-metal interaction (alkylthiolates) or a sol-gel type reaction with a hydroxylated oxide surface (trichlorosilyl alkyls or trialkoxy alkyls). However, unless the gold or oxide surface is carefully treated and the alkyl chain is long, these SAMs form disordered monolayers, which do not pack well. This lack of packing causes issues in, for example, stiction in MEMS devices.
The observation that parylenes could form ordered molecular layers (MLs) came with contact angle measurements, where MLs thicker than 10 Å had an equilibrium contact angle of 80 degrees (same as bulk parylene N) but those thinner had a reduced contact angle. This was also confirmed with electrical measurements (bias-temperature stress measurements) using metal-insulator-semiconductor capacitors (MISCAPs). In short, parylene N and AF-4 (those parylenes with no functional groups) are pin-hole free at ~14 Å. This results because the parylene repeat units possess a phenyl ring and due to the high electronic polarizability of the phenyl ring adjacent repeat units order themselves in the XY-plane. As a result of this interaction parylene MLs are surface independent, except for transition metals, which de-activate the triplet (benzoid) state and therefore the parylenes cannot be initiated. This finding of parylenes as molecular layers is very powerful for industrial applications because of the robustness of the process and that the MLs are deposited at room temperature. In this way parylenes can be used as diffusion barriers and for reducing the polarizability of surface (de-activation of oxide surfaces). Combining the properties of the reactive parylenes with the observation that they can form dense pin-hole-free molecular layers, parylene X has been utilized as a genome sequencing interface layer.
One caveat with the molecular layer parylenes, namely they are deposited as oligomers and not high polymer. As a result, a vacuum anneal is needed to convert the oligomers to high polymer. For parylene N that temperature is 250 °C, whereas it is 300 °C for payrlene AF-4.
Typical applications
Parylene films have been used in various applications, including
Hydrophobic coating (moisture barriers, e.g., for biomedical hoses)
Barrier layers (e.g., for filter, diaphragms, valves)
Microwave electronics (e.g., protection of PTFE dielectric substrates from oil contamination)
Implantable medical devices
Sensors in rough environment (e.g., automotive fuel/air sensors)
Electronics for space travel and defense
Corrosion protection for metallic surfaces
Reinforcement of micro-structures
Protection of plastic, rubber, etc., from harmful environmental conditions
Reduction of friction, e.g., for guiding catheters, acupuncture needles and microelectromechanical systems.
See also
Conformal coating
References
Polymers
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Transport in Delhi
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Delhi has significant reliance on its transport infrastructure. The city has developed a highly efficient public transport system with the introduction of the Delhi Metro, which is undergoing a rapid modernization and expansion since 2006. There are 16.6 million registered vehicles in the city as of 30 June 2014, which is the highest in the world among all cities, most of which do not follow any pollution emission norm (within municipal limits), while the Delhi metropolitan region (NCR Delhi) has 11.2 million vehicles. Delhi and NCR lose nearly 42 crore (420 million) man-hours every month while commuting between home and office through public transport, due to the traffic congestion. Therefore, serious efforts, including a number of transport infrastructure projects, are under way to encourage usage of public transport in the city.
History
Prior to independence in the 1940s, public transport in the city was in private hands, with people relying mainly on tongas and the bus service of the 'Gwalior Transport Company' and 'Northern India Transport Company'. But with the growing city, it soon proved inadequate, thus Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) bus system was established in May 1948. The next big leap in city transport was the opening of Delhi Metro, a rapid transit system in 2002.
Overview
Public transport in the metropolis includes the Delhi Metro, the Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) and DIMTS (Delhi Integrated Multi Modal Transit System) bus system, auto-rickshaws, cycle-rickshaws, e-rickshaws, Grameen Seva and taxis. With the introduction of Delhi Metro, a rail-based mass rapid transit system, rail-based transit systems have gained ground. Other means of transit include suburban railways, inter-state bus services and private taxis which can be rented for various purposes. However, buses continue to be the most popular means of transportation for intra-city travel, catering to about 60% of the total commuting requirements.
Private vehicles account for 30% of the total demand for transport, while the rest of the demand is met largely by auto-rickshaws, taxis, rapid transit system and railways.
Indira Gandhi International Airport (IGI) serves Delhi for both domestic and international air connections, and is situated in the south-western corner of the city. In 2009–2010, IGI recorded a traffic of more than 25.01 million passengers, both Domestic and International. Heavy air traffic has emphasised the need for a secondary airport, which is expected to be Taj International Airport near Greater Noida, alongside the Delhi-Agra highway.
The only international rail service in Delhi was the Samjhauta Express to Lahore,which was stopped in 2019 following a standoff. It is possible to change trains to board rail services to Bangladesh and Nepal which commence in other cities of India. For the future, a high-speed rail link is being considered that would link New Delhi with Kunming, China via Myanmar
Intra-city Transport
Road transport
Roads in Delhi are maintained by the Municipal Corporation of Delhi, New Delhi Municipal Council, Delhi Cantonment Board, Public Works Department and Delhi Development Authority. At 1749 km of road length per 100 km2, Delhi has one of the highest road densities in India. Major roadways include the Ring Road and the Outer Ring Road, which had a traffic density of 110,000 vehicles per day in 2001. Total road length of Delhi was 28,508 km including 388 km of National Highways. Major road-based public transport facilities in Delhi are provided by DTC buses, auto-rickshaws, taxis and cycle-rickshaws.
Buses
Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) operates the world's largest fleet of CNG-powered buses. After Pune, Delhi was the second city in India to have an operational Bus rapid transit (BRT) system. However the BRT was dismantled in 2016 due to accidents and congestion.
Delhi has one of India's largest bus transport systems. Buses are the most popular means of transport catering to about 60% of Delhi's total demand. Buses are operated by the state-owned Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC), which owns largest fleet of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)-fueled buses in the world, private Blueline bus operators and several chartered bus operators. It is mandatory for all private bus operators to acquire a permit from the State Transport Authority. The buses traverse various well-defined intra-city routes. Other than regular routes, buses also travel on Railway Special routes; Metro Feeder routes. Mudrika (Ring) and Bahri Mudrika (Outer Ring) routes along Ring and Outer-Ring road respectively are amongst the longest intra-city bus routes in the world. The DTC has started introducing air-conditioned buses and brand new low-floor buses (with floor height of 400 mm and even higher on one third area as against 230 mm available internationally.) on city streets to replace the conventional buses. A revamp plan is underway to improve bus-shelters in the city and to integrate GPS systems in DTC buses and bus stops so as to provide reliable information about bus arrivals.
In 2007, after public uproar concerning the large number of accidents caused by privately owned Blueline buses, the Delhi government, under pressure from the Delhi High Court decided that all Blueline Buses shall be phased out and be eventually replaced by low floor buses of the state-owned DTC. The Delhi Government has decided to expedite this process and will procure 6,600 low floor buses for the DTC by commonwealth games next year in mid 2020.
As of May 2023, the fleet size of buses in Delhi is as follows:
Auto-rickshaws
The auto-rickshaws (popularly known as Auto) are an important and popular means of public transportation in Delhi, as they are cheaper than taxis. Hiring an Auto in Delhi is very tricky, as very few auto-drivers agree to standard meter charges. The typical method is to haggle for an agreeable rate.
Taxis
Though easily available, taxis are not an integral part of Delhi public transport. There are over 113 registered taxis. The Indian Tourism Ministry and various private owners operate most taxis. The Tourism Ministry grants private companies permits to operate taxis. Recently, Radio Taxis have started to gain ground in Delhi. Some companies provide an on-call radio taxi service, which is slightly more expensive than conventional Black and Yellow taxis.
Cycle-rickshaws
Cycle-rickshaws are a popular mode of travel for short distance transits in the city. The pedal-powered rickshaws are easily available throughout the city and reckoned for being cheap and environment friendly. Often, tourists and citizens use them for joyrides, too. Of late, they have been phased out from the congested areas of Chandni Chowk because of their slow pace, which often leads to traffic snarls on the streets of Old Delhi. Still, they are the great source of public transport in Delhi.
Major Arteries
Inner Ring Road
Inner Ring Road is one of the most important "state highways" in Delhi. It is a 51 km long circular road, which connects Northern, eastern, Western and Southern areas in Delhi. Owing to more than 2 dozen grade-separators/flyovers, the road is almost signal-free. The road is generally 8-laned with a few bottlenecks at certain stretches, which are being removed. The road has already achieved its carrying capacity of 110000 vehicles per day and would require an addition of more lanes to fulfill needs of increasing traffic by 2011.
Outer Ring Road
Outer Ring Road is another major artery in Delhi. The road which was almost neglected till the early 2000s is now an important highway that links far-flung areas of Delhi. The road is 6-8 lane and has grade-separators and a large number are under construction as a part of project to make the artery signal free. The road along with the ring road forms a ring which intersects all the National Highways passing through Delhi.
Expressways and National Highways
Delhi is connected by NH 1, NH 2, NH 8, NH 10 and NH 24. It also has three expressways (six- and eight-lane) that connect it with its suburbs. Delhi–Gurgaon Expressway connects Delhi with one of its financial hubs, Gurgaon, DND Flyway connects Delhi with its other financial hub, Noida and Delhi–Faridabad Skyway which connects Faridabad, major suburb to Delhi. Four more expressways are also planned.
Noida–Greater Noida Expressway connects Noida with Greater Noida, which is an upcoming financial and commercial hub and is also to have a new Jewar International Airport. A 135.6-km long Western Peripheral Expressway, also known as the Kundli–Manesar–Palwal Expressway, which became operational on 19 November 2018, will relieve Delhi of the congestion of heavy night traffic and will act as a bypass for the night vehicles.
NH 24 or Ghaziabad Road is a four-lane national highway which connects Delhi to Lucknow via Ghaziabad. As the Commonwealth Village is located close by Yamuna bridge on this highway, underpasses and flyover being built will help facilitate traffic between the eastern areas of Delhi/ Western UP and the rest of the city.
Rail transport
Rail based transport in the city has started to gain popularity with the introduction of Delhi Metro. Ring-Railway, which runs parallel to the Ring-Road system is another rail-based intra-city transport facility in Delhi.
Metro Railway
The Delhi Metro is being built in phases. Rapid increase of population coupled with large-scale immigration due to high economic growth has resulted in ever increasing demand for better transport, putting excessive pressure on the city's existent transport infrastructure. Like many other cities in the developing world, the city faces acute transport management problems leading to air pollution, congestion and resultant loss of productivity. In order to meet the transportation demand in Delhi, the State and Union government started the construction of a Mass Rapid Transit system, known as Delhi Metro in 1998. The project started commercial operations on 25 December 2002 between Shahdara and Tis Hazari) on the Red Line. It has set performance and efficiency standards and is continuously expanding. As of January 2022, the network consists of nine colour-coded regular lines along with the faster Airport Express line, with a total length of serving 254 stations. The system has a mix of underground, at-grade, and elevated stations using both broad-gauge and standard-gauge. Phases III (112 km) and IV (108.5 km) will be completed by 2018 and 2025 respectively, with the network totaling 413.8 km, making it longer than the London Underground.
Phase I consisted of 58 stations and of route length, of which is underground and surface or elevated. The inauguration of the Dwarka–Barakhamba Road corridor of the Blue Line marked the completion of Phase I in October 2006.
Phase II of the network consists of of route length and 85 stations, and is fully completed, with the first section opened in June 2008 and the last line opened in August 2011.
Phase-III has 28 underground stations, 2 new lines and 11 route extensions, totaling , with a cost of and having an expected completion date of mid 2019. Phase IV () is planned to be completed by 2025.
Delhi Metro lines that operate as of January 2022:
Ring & Suburban Railway
Ring railway is a 35-kilometre circular railway network in Delhi that runs parallel to the Ring Road. It was laid back in 1975 primarily to service freight trains that could bypass the crowded and passenger-heavy Old Delhi and New Delhi railway stations. The network was upgraded for the 1982 Asian Games with the introduction of 24 additional services. Its circular route is 35 km (22 mi) long, which the trains takes 90–120 minutes to complete, both clockwise and anti-clockwise, via the Hazrat Nizamuddin Railway Station. The ring railway service was quite popular through the 80s and 90s when Delhi's transport infrastructure was just gathering pace, but since then, with the rapid expansion of the Delhi Metro coupled with an extensive bus network, the ring railway has remained neglected by the city as well as the Railways. On average, only 3700 passengers take the trains every day. The biggest reason for the failure of the railway is a lack of a feeder network, such as approach roads and feeder buses to the stations. The stations are situated at remote locations and are difficult to access by passengers. There is also a problem of security as many stations have been encroached. The trains on this network also run behind schedule most of the time. The network is now utilized as a freight corridor and limited passenger train services are available during peak hours.
Inter-state transport
Railway connectivity
Delhi is connected to whole of the nation through Indian Railways vast network. New Delhi Railway Station which is one of the most busiest stations in Indian Railway system serves as headquarters of Northern Railways. A large load of inter-state transport is borne by railways. A large number of local passenger trains connect Delhi to its sub-urban areas and thus provide convenient travel for daily commuters. Railways also share a large amount of freight traffic in Delhi.
Train Services
Regular train services available from railway stations in the city. The services are extended to all the states in the country. Services are provided by the national railway operator Indian Railways. The 5 railway stations in the city are:
New Delhi Railway Station, Paharganj & Ajmeri Gate, Central Delhi district
Delhi Junction, Mori Gate, Central Delhi district
Hazrat Nizamuddin Railway Station, Nizamuddin East, South East Delhi district
Delhi Sarai Rohilla Railway Station, Sarai Rohilla, Central Delhi district
Anand Vihar Terminal Railway Station, Anand Vihar, Shahdara district
Road
Highways
The city is believed to have the highest road density in the country and is well connected to the rest of the nation through five major national highways, namely NH 1, NH 2, NH 8, NH 10 and NH 24. The highways around city are being upgraded into expressways with ultra-modern facilities.
Bus services
Regular bus services are available from interstate bus terminals in the city. The services are extended to all the northern states and the neighbouring areas of Delhi. Services are provided by state transport corporations and several private operators. The 3 interstate terminals in the city are:
Maharana Pratap Interstate Bus Terminus, Kashmere Gate, Central Delhi district
Swami Vivekanand Interstate Bus Terminus, Anand Vihar, Shahdara district
Veer Hakikat Rai Interstate Bus Terminus, Sarai Kale Khan, South East Delhi district
Airports
Indira Gandhi International Airport (IGI) serves Delhi for both domestic and international connections, and is situated in the southwestern corner of the city, alongside Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway. In the year 2015–16, IGI recorded a traffic of over 48 million passengers. Being the busiest airport in the South Asian region, IGI airport has three terminals - Terminal 1 & Terminal 2 for domestic operations only and Terminal 3 - with mixed use i.e. primary International and the rest of the domestic operations(Vistara and Air India) - in addition of T1 & T2
The airport was and still witnessing massive expansion and modernisation by a consortium led by GMR Infra. The new Terminal T3 was inaugurated in 2010 in line of the historic Commonwealth Games being held and Delhi is today India's only city to have an airport of this size. Terminals 4, 5 and 6 will be built in a phased manner. By 2024, airport will have four runways and will handle more than 100 million passengers per year.
Hindon Domestic Airport in Ghaziabad was inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi as the second airport for the Delhi-NCR Region on the 8 March 2019.
Apart from the expanded IGI airport, Delhi might also receive a second international airport by 2024. The airport, being named as Taj International Aviation Hub, is proposed to be located in Jewar in Greater Noida. It would be around 75 km from IGI airport.
East-west connectivity bridges
Yamuna bridges in Delhi
The total length of the Yamuna inside Delhi is 22 km from the Wazirabad barrage to the Okhla barrage. This stretch of the river has 14 bridges (nine of them for road traffic), including those built by Delhi Metro (4) and Indian Railways (1). 4 bridges are under construction — 1 for road traffic and 3 for rail traffic.
Road Bridges
Old Wazirabad bridge (barrage-cum-bridge)
Signature Bridge
Yudhishthir Setu
Rajghat/Geeta Colony bridge
Old ITO bridge, Vikas Marg (barrage-cum-bridge)
New Nizamuddin Bridge
DND Flyway
Okhla barrage bridge
Barapullah Phase-III extension (under construction)
Road-Rail Bridges
Old Yamuna Bridge (Lohe-ka-Pul)
Rail bridges
Delhi Metro
Kashmere Gate to Shastri Park (Red Line)
Indraprastha to Yamuna Bank (Blue Line)
Nizamuddin to Mayur Vihar (Pink Line)
Kalindi Kunj to Okhla Bird Sanctuary (Magenta Line)
Jagatpur to Sonia Vihar (Pink Line) (under construction)
Indian Railways
New Yamuna Bridge (under construction)
Delhi-Meerut RRTS
Under construction
Other bridges in NCR
IIT Flyover
Future projects
There are many transport infrastructure projects underway in Delhi. Most had their deadlines set in late 2009 and early 2010, just before the 2010 Commonwealth Games. As of 2023, most of them have been completed. They are listed below -
Rail
Upgrading of New Delhi and Old Delhi railway stations of Northern Railways.
Delhi metro has new line of super-fast Delhi Airport Express Line having maximum speed of 135 km/h line to connect to IGI Airport.
Introduction of Monorail (45 km) and Light Rail Transit has been aborted till 2010.
Reintroducing Trams in the Chandni Chowk and Red Fort areas of the city.
Anand Vihar Railway Terminal to reduce the train loads over Old Delhi Station and New Delhi Railway Station. Besides that the station will also serve the densely populated Eastern part of Delhi, along with the neighbouring suburbs of Ghaziabad and Noida.
A high-speed rail link that would link New Delhi with Kunming, China via Myanmar
Road
Two upcoming bridges over Yamuna will connect Faridabad to Noida and Greater Noida. One of the bridges would connect Faridabad-Noida-Ghaziabad (FNG) expressway from Noida's Sector 150 to National Highway 1 in Faridabad. The other bridge is proposed to link Noida's Sector 168 with Faridabad's Badoli village (Near Bypass Road) Government has already approved construction of the road connecting Faridabad and Greater Noida that will improve the connectivity with clearances received from both Haryana and Uttar Pradesh Governments The much-awaited FNG (Faridabad-Noida-Ghaziabad Expressway) is finally coming on track and will provide fast connectivity to daily commuters of the area once complete; apart from this, it is also emerging as an excellent stretch for real estate development. FNG Expressway is around 56 km long with 19.9 km in Noida–Greater Noida region, 8 km in Ghaziabad, while the rest 28.1 km is in the Faridabad region, especially the developing sectors of Neharpar Faridabad or Greater Faridabad. According to the plan, FNG from Noida side will become operational in the next 14 months while it would take three years for the whole stretch to become fully operational. The completed expressway designed by IIT-Roorkee will offer commuters direct connectivity between Noida and Greater Faridabad
DND–KMP Expressway project has been approved in March 2019 which will connect DND Flyway at Maharani Bagh, Delhi to Faridabad bypass road near Badarpur border. According to Public Works Department officials, the bypass will connect the DND Flyway, cutting across the Agra Canal along the Yamuna, which runs perpendicular to Sarita Vihar and ends near Badarpur border, which further connects to Faridabad. "Commuters heading from east Delhi, South Delhi and Noida to Faridabad will be able to avoid the road to Ashram Chowk completely and that will help de-congest the area for local users. The estimated cost of the project is INR 3,580 crores and will be completed in three phases. In the first phase, the stretch from Maharani Bagh (at DND Flyway) to Kalindi Kunj will be completed. In the second phase, the stretch from Kalindi Kunj to Faridabad will see completion. The third phase will be from Sector-62/65 dividing road in Faridabad to KMP Expressway interchange near Sohna." The bypass will dramatically reduce travel time between Delhi and Faridabad as it will serve as an alternative to Mathura Road. Unified Traffic and Transportation Infrastructure (Planning and Engineering) Centre gave the Public Works Department its consent to move ahead after Lieutenant-Governor Najeeb Jung gave the approval to the project.
Air
Revamp of IGI Airport is underway to improve its infrastructure, passenger capacity and efficiency.
Jewar Airport in Gautam Budhh Nagar district will start operations in 2025.
Union Civil Aviation Minister Ashok Gajapathi Raju inaugurated the Rohini Heliport on February 28, 2017.
Delhi Traffic Police transport helpline
Owing to a large number of complaints from consumers, the Delhi Government in association with Delhi Traffic Police runs a staffed transport helpline which can be reached at 011-23010101 while dialing from within the city. Citizens can make traffic related complaints and suggestions. One can also report traffic violations observed and misbehavior/refusal/overcharging by autorickshaws, buses and taxis.
See also
Transport in India
Bus rapid transit (BRT)
Clean development mechanism
Delhi Metro
Delhi Transport Corporation
Highways passing from Delhi
References and notes
External links
Department of Transport, Government of Delhi (Official Website)
Delhi Integrated Multi Modal Transit System Ltd. (DIMTS)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20the%20Philippines%20Diliman%20people
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List of University of the Philippines Diliman people
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The following is a list of notable alumni and faculty from the University of the Philippines Diliman.
Notable students and alumni
Arts and humanities
Business, economics and finance
Engineering, sciences and medicine
Politics, law and governance
Benigno Aquino Jr. – Senator (1967–1972), Marcos opposition leader, Governor of Tarlac; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Arturo Tolentino – Philippine Vice President, 12th Senate President, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, and Metro Manila Representative; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Salvador Laurel – Philippine Vice President, Prime Minister, Senator, and Secretary of Foreign Affairs; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Richard Gordon – Senator (2004–2010; 2016–Present) and Tourism Secretary (2001-2004); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Francis Pangilinan – Senator (2001–2007; 2016–Present), Senate Majority Floor Leader (2004-2008); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Gil Puyat – 13th Senate President (1967-1972), Senator (1951–1972); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Sotero Laurel – President Pro Tempore (1991-1992), Senator (1987–1992); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Domocao Alonto – Senator (1956–1961), Islamic leader; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Juan Liwag – Senator (1963–1969) and Justice Secretary; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Gerry Roxas – Senator (1963–1972), Senate Minority Floor Leader, Capiz Representative; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Mamintal A.J. Tamano – Senator (1969–1972, 1987–1992), Lanao del Sur Vice Governor; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Joker Arroyo – Senator (2001–2013), Executive Secretary, and Makati Representative; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Martin Romualdez – Leyte Representative (2007–2016; 2019–Present); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Jesus Crispin Remulla – Cavite Representative (2004–2013; 2019–Present); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Roman Romulo – Pasig Representative (2007–2016; 2019–Present); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Arnulf Bryan Fuentebella – Camarines Sur Representative (2019–Present); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Isagani Amatong - Zamboanga del Norte Representative (2019–Present); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Victor Yap - Tarlac Representative (2019–Present); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Rimpy Bondoc - Pampanga Representative (2019–Present); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
José Laurel Jr. – 9th Speaker of the House of Representatives; Batangas Representative (1941-1957; 1961–1972; 1984–1986); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Nicanor Yñiguez – 15th Speaker of the House of Representatives; Southern Leyte Representative (1957–1972; 1984–1986); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Wenceslao Vinzons – Camarines Norte Representative (1941–1942); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Gerardo Roxas Jr. – Capiz Representative (1987–1993); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Gilbert Remulla – Cavite Representative (2001–2004); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Roque Ablan, Jr. – Ilocos Norte Representative (1967–1973; 1987–1998; 2001–2010); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Felix William Fuentebella – Camarines Sur Representative (2001–2004; 2013–2016) ; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Roberto S. Benedicto - Ambassador to Japan (1972-1978); First Class, Order of the Rising Sun (1977); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Querube Makalintal – 11th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines; 14th Speaker of the House of Representatives; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Enrique Fernando – 13th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Estanislao Fernandez – Associate Justice, Supreme Court of the Philippines; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Carmelino Alvendia Sr. – Associate Justice, Court of Appeals; Founder, Quezon City Academy; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Gregorio Pio Catapang – Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Jolly R. Bugarin – Director, National Bureau of Investigation (NBI); President, International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL); member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Alfonso Calalang – Governor, Central Bank of the Philippines; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Christian Monsod – COMELEC Chairman; Commissioner, 1987 Constitutional Commission; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Delia Albert – Secretary of Foreign Affairs (2003–2004)
Leandro Alejandro – student council leader,
Edgardo J. Angara – Senator, Senate president (1993–1995); University of the Philippines president (1981–1987)
Juan Edgardo Angara – House of Representatives member
Bellaflor Angara-Castillo – Governor of Aurora; House of Representatives member (1995–2004); Majority Floor Leader of the House of Representatives (2000–2001)
Ma. Alicia Austria-Martinez – Supreme Court associate justice (2002–2009)
Lauro Baja – Ambassador to the United Nations (2003–2007); member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Robert Barbers – Senator (1998–2004); member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Herbert Bautista – Mayor of Quezon City; movie and TV actor
Jejomar Binay Jr. – Mayor of Makati
Antonio Carpio – Supreme Court associate justice
Alan Peter Cayetano – Senator and House of Representatives member (1998–2007)
Pia Cayetano – Senator
Rene Cayetano – Senator (1998–2003)
Edgardo Chatto – Governor of Bohol; House of Representatives member (2001–2010); lawyer
Minita Chico-Nazario – Supreme Court associate justice (2004–2009)
Nikki Coseteng – Senator (1992–2001) and House of Representatives member (1987–1992)
Simeon Datumanong – House of Representatives member and Cabinet secretary
Hilario Davide Jr. – Supreme Court chief justice (1998–2005)
Teresita de Castro – Supreme Court associate justice
Arthur Defensor Sr. – Governor of Iloilo; House of Representatives member (2001–2010)
Michael Defensor – Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources (2004–2006); House of Representatives member (1995–2001); Presidential Chief of Staff (2006–2007)
Franklin Drilon – Senator
Emilio Ramon Ejercito – actor; Mayor of Pagsanjan, Laguna (2001–2010); Governor of Laguna
Juan Ponce Enrile – Senator and Senate president, former Defense Minister
Francis Escudero – Senator and House of Representatives member (1998–2007); member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Erlinda Fadera-Basilio – Ambassador and Permanent Representative of the Philippines to the United Nations and Other International Organizations in Geneva ; Undersecretary for Policy, Department of Foreign Affairs; Ambassador to China
Marcelo Fernan – Supreme Court chief justice (1988–1991); Philippine senator (1995–1999); Senate president (1998–1999)
Cancio Garcia – Supreme Court associate justice (2004–2007)
Gwendolyn Garcia – Governor of Cebu
Pablo John Garcia – House of Representatives member; member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Carolina Griño-Aquino – Supreme Court associate justice (1988–1993)
Roseller Guiao – Vice Governor of Pampanga;head coach of the Red Bull Barako team in the PBA
Magtanggol Gunigundo – House of Representatives member
Constantino Jaraula – House of Representatives member (1998–2007)
Francis Jardeleza – Solicitor General
Edcel C. Lagman – House of Representatives member; member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Salvador H. Laurel – Vice President of the Philippines (1986–1992)
Katrina Legarda – lawyer
Loren Legarda – Senator and broadcast journalist
Marvic Leonen – Supreme Court associate justice
Cardozo Luna – Undersecretary of Department of National Defense (2016–Present); former Philippine Ambassador to the Netherlands (2009–2010); former Vice Chief of Staff and Lieutenant General of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (2008–2009)
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo – President of the Philippines (2001–2010); House of Representatives member
Catalino Macaraig Jr. – Executive Secretary (1987–1990)
Liza Maza – House of Representatives member (2001–2010)
Heidi Mendoza – Undersecretary General for the United Nations Office of Internal Oversight and former commissioner and officer-in-charge of the Commission on Audit
Nur Misuari – former leader of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF)
Conchita Morales – Ombudsman; Supreme Court associate justice (2002–2011)
Oscar Orbos – lawyer, Executive Secretary (1990–1991); Governor of Pangasinan (1995–1998), and TV host; member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Rey Pagtakhan – Canadian cabinet minister and Parliament of Canada member (1988–2004)
Aquilino Pimentel III – Senator
Reynato Puno – Supreme Court chief justice (2006–2010); member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Romero Quimbo – House of Representatives member
Leonardo Quisumbing – Supreme Court associate justice (1998–2009); member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Gilbert Remulla – House of Representatives member (2001–2007); broadcast journalist
Juanito Victor Remulla – Governor of Cavite
Jesse Robredo – Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (2010–2012); Mayor of Naga City (2001–2010)
Leni Robredo – Vice President of the Philippines (2016–2022)
Rufus Rodriguez – House of Representatives member; lawyer
Flerida Ruth Romero – Supreme Court associate justice (1991–1999)
Rafael Salas – first head of the United Nations Population Fund
Miriam Defensor Santiago – Senator, Cum Laude
Abraham Sarmiento – Supreme Court associate justice (1987–1991)
Abraham Sarmiento Jr. – martial law activist; editor-in-chief of the Philippine Collegian; member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
Ma. Lourdes Sereno – Supreme Court chief justice
Jose Maria Sison – Communist Party of the Philippines founder
Victor Sumulong – House of Representatives member (1998–2007)
Ruben D. Torres – Secretary of Labor and Employment (1990–1992); Executive Secretary (1995–1998)
Antonio Trillanes IV – Senator; Oakwood mutiny and Manila Peninsula mutiny leader
Niel Tupas Jr. – House of Representatives member
Niel Tupas Sr. – Governor of Iloilo (2001–2010); House of Representatives member (1978–1984; 1987–1998)
Presbitero Velasco Jr. – Supreme Court associate justice
Luis Villafuerte – House of Representatives member
Manuel Villar – Senator, Senate president (2006–2008); Speaker of the House of Representatives (1998–2000)
Liwayway Vinzons-Chato – House of Representatives member (2007–2010)
Perfecto Yasay – Chairperson of the Securities and Exchange Commission (1995–2000)
Consuelo Ynares-Santiago – Supreme Court associate justice (1999–2009)
Haydee Yorac – Chairwoman of the Commission on Elections (1989–1991) and the Presidential Commission on Good Government (2001–2005)
Nancy Binay- Senator of the Philippines (2013–present)
Social sciences
Sports
Chito Salud – President/CEO/Commissioner, Philippine Basketball Association; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Eric Altamirano – basketball coach, former member of the UP Fighting Maroons basketball team
Jun Bernardino – former member of the UP Fighting Maroons basketball team, and former commissioner of the NCAA and PBA
Marvin Cruz – former UP Fighting Maroons basketball player; former player of the Burger King Whoppers in the PBA
Ryan Gregorio – former UP Fighting Maroons player; former head coach of the Meralco Bolts basketball team in the PBA
Yeng Guiao – current head coach of the Rain or Shine Elasto Painters team in the PBA; Pampanga vice governor
Jireh Ibañes – former UP Fighting Maroons basketball player; former player of Rain or Shine Elasto Painters in the PBA
Joe Lipa – former UP Fighting Maroons basketball player; commissioner of the UAAP; former UP Fighting Maroons basketball team coach; commissioner of the NCAA
Ronnie Magsanoc – former UP Fighting Maroons basketball player; current assistant coach of the Purefoods Tender Juicy Giants team in the PBA
Paolo Mendoza – former UP Fighting Maroons player; current player of the Sta. Lucia Realtors in the PBA
Benjie Paras – TV actor, comedian and host; former member of the UP Fighting Maroons basketball team and the PBA
Bo Perasol – former UP Fighting Maroons basketball player; former head coach of the Air21 Express basketball team; current UP Fighting Maroons basketball program director; member, Alpha Phi Beta Fraternity
University and college student council leaders
UP Diliman
Lean Alejandro - USC Chairperson
Atom Araullo - USC Councilor, ABS CBN Reporter
Jejomar Binay - USC Councilor
Alan Peter Cayetano - USC Councilor
Randy David - USC Vice Chairperson
Michael Defensor - USC Vice Chairperson
Franklin Drilon - USC Councilor
Marcelo Fernan - USC Chairperson
Richard Gordon - USC Councilor; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Raymond Palatino - USC Chairperson; National Union of Students of the Philippines National President; former Representative of Kabataan Partylist in the Congress
Francis Pangilinan - USC Chairperson; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Alfredo Pascual - USC Councilor; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Leonardo Quisumbing - USC Chairperson
Rafael Salas - USC Chairperson
Miriam Defensor Santiago - USC Vice Chairperson, Philippine Collegian Editor-in Chief
Eric de Guia (aka Kidlat Tahimik ) - Student Union Chairperson; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Wenceslao Vinzons - USC Chairperson; member, Upsilon Sigma Phi
Notable past and present faculty
Maria Ressa - journalist and Rappler CEO; included in the Times Person of the Year 2018 and first Filipina Nobel Peace Prize laureate
Romulo Davide - National Academy of Science and Technology, Nematology/Plant Pathology; Upsilon Sigma Phi
Jose Juliano - National Academy of Science and Technology, Nuclear Chemistry and Physics; Upsilon Sigma Phi
Vicente Abad Santos - former Supreme Court justice
Nicanor Abelardo - Filipino musician, composer of "U.P. Naming Mahal" ("U.P. Beloved"), the University of the Philippines hymn
José Abueva - former University of the Philippines president
Napoleon Abueva - sculptor and National Artist
Virgilio S. Almario - National Artist; former director of the U.P. Institute of Creative Writing; current UP College of Arts and Letters dean
Walden Bello - sociologist
Henry Otley Beyer - co-founder, UP Department of Anthropology
Emilia Boncodin - former Budget and Management secretary; Hyatt 10 member
Clarita Carlos - political analyst; president of Center for Asia Pacific Studies, Inc.; pioneer of political psychology in the country
Ryan Cayabyab - musician, artistic director of the San Miguel Foundation for the Performing Arts
Irene Cortes - lawyer and former Supreme Court of the Philippines justice
Adrian Cristobal - writer, columnist
Isagani R. Cruz - literary critic and playwright
Randy David - professor of sociology; newspaper columnist; former TV public affairs host
Malou de Guzman - film and TV actress, former senior lecturer at the UP Film Institute
Juan R. Francisco - indologist and professor
N. V. M. Gonzalez - fictionist and National Artist
Margarita Holmes - renowned psychologist and sex expert, TV personality
Jun Lana - playwright, screenwriter and director
Cheche Lazaro - broadcast journalist; founding president of Probe Productions, Inc.
Salvador P. Lopez - writer, journalist, diplomat, former University of the Philippines president
Alexander Magno - political scientist, TV host, newspaper columnist
Rogemar Mamon - mathematician, quantitative analyst, British and Canadian academic
Paz Márquez-Benítez - fictionist
Felipe B. Miranda - founder of Pulse Asia; Professor Emeritus at University of the Philippines Diliman Department of Political Science
Solita Monsod - professor of economics, former Economic Planning secretary, newspaper columnist, broadcast journalist
Ambeth R. Ocampo - historian, writer, Chairman National Historical Institute, TOYM History, decorated by Spain and France
Cristina Padolina - professor of chemistry; current President of Centro Escolar University
Raymundo Punongbayan - geologist, former Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) director
Henry J. Ramos - first Filipino plasma physicist, inventor
Nicanor Reyes Sr. - economist, one of the founders of Far Eastern University
Temario Rivera - political scientist
Carlos P. Romulo - Pulitzer Prize winner, president of the United Nations General Assembly 1949–1950, former chairman of the United Nations Security Council and University of the Philippines president
Caesar Saloma - applied physicist, Dean of College of Science, recipient of 2004 International Commission for Optics' Galileo Award, 2008 ASEAN Outstanding Scientist and Technologist Award
E. San Juan Jr. - poet and cultural critic
Bienvenido Santos - poet and fictionist
Rogelio R. Sikat - writer
Cesar Virata - former Philippines prime minister and Finance secretary; former dean and professor at the UP College of Business Administration
Haydee Yorac - professor of law; former Philippine Commission of Elections; chairperson of the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG) commissioner
Prescillano Zamora - professor of biology
Faculty members who are writers
Gémino Abad
Mila Aguilar
Virgilio Almario
José Wendell Capili
Lourdes Castrillo Brillantes
Conchitina Cruz
Jose Dalisay Jr.
J. Neil Garcia
Luis Katigbak
Domingo Landicho
Bienvenido Lumbera
Paolo Manalo
Ambeth R. Ocampo
Cristina Pantoja-Hidalgo
Ligaya Tiamson-Rubin
Nicanor Tiongson
Ricardo de Ungria
Rene Villanueva
National Artists
Of the 66 National Artists of the Philippines thus far honored, the majority are UP alumni, including three former students who did not earn their degree at the university. The honored league of National Artists from UP are:
Architecture
Juan Nakpil
Ildefonso Santos
Dance
Ramon Obusan
Francisca Reyes-Aquino
Film
Ishmael Bernal
Lino Brocka
Eddie Romero
Literature
Francisco Arcellana
Virgilio S. Almario
N.V.M. Gonzalez
Amado V. Hernandez
F. Sionil José
Bienvenido Lumbera
Carlos P. Romulo
Edith Tiempo
José García Villa
Music
Ryan Cayabyab
Levi Celerio
Jose Maceda
Antonio Molina
Ramon Santos
Lucio San Pedro
Andrea Veneración
Felipe Padilla de Leon
Theater
Daisy Avellana
Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero
Severino Montano
Rolando S. Tinio
Visual Arts
Napoleon Abueva
Fernando Amorsolo
Benedicto Cabrera
Botong Francisco
Abdulmari Asia Imao
José Joya
Cesar Legaspi
Vicente Manansala
Guillermo Tolentino
National Scientists
Several UP alumni and faculty members have been named as National Scientists of the Philippines. This is the highest award accorded to Filipino scientists by the Philippine government.
Juan Salcedo Jr. (1978)
Fe del Mundo (1980)
Eduardo Quisumbing (1980)
Carmen Velasquez (1983)
Teodoro Agoncillo (1985)
Encarnacion Alzona (1985)
Julian Banzon (1986)
Dioscoro Umali (1986)
Luz Oliveros-Belardo (1987)
Jose Encarnacion Jr. (1987) – National Scientist, Economics; Dean, UP School of Economics; Upsilon Sigma Phi
Alfredo Lagmay (1988)
Paulo Campos (1989)
Jose Velasco (1998)
Benito Vergara (2001)
Onofre Corpuz (2004) – National Scientist, Political Economy and Government; 13th President, University of the Philippines; Upsilon Sigma Phi
References
External links
U.P. System
University of the Philippines Diliman
University Of The Philippines
Lists of alumni by university or college in the Philippines
Lists of Filipino people by school affiliation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Phaeton%20%281782%29
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HMS Phaeton (1782)
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HMS Phaeton was a 38-gun, fifth rate of Britain's Royal Navy. This frigate was most noted for her intrusion into Nagasaki harbour in 1808. John Smallshaw (Smallshaw & Company) built Phaeton in Liverpool between 1780 and 1782. She participated in numerous engagements during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars during which service she captured many prizes. Francis Beaufort, inventor of the Beaufort Wind-Scale, was a lieutenant on Phaeton when he distinguished himself during a successful cutting out expedition. Phaeton sailed to the Pacific in 1805, and returned in 1812. She was finally sold on 26 March 1828.
Early years
Phaeton was commissioned in March 1782. Within a year she had been paid off.
Service in the Channel
In December 1792 Phaeton was commissioned under Sir Andrew Snape Douglas. In March 1793 Phaeton captured the 4-gun privateer lugger Aimable Liberté.
Then on 14 April Phaeton sighted the French privateer Général Dumourier (or Général Du Mourier), of twenty-two 6-pounder guns and 196 men, and her Spanish prize, the St Jago, 140 leagues to the west of Cape Finisterre. Phaeton was part of Admiral John Gell's squadron and the entire squadron set off in pursuit, but it was Phaeton that made the actual capture.
St Jago had been sailing from Lima to Spain when General Dumourier captured her on 11 April. In trying to fend off General Dumourier, St Jago fought for five hours, losing 10 men killed and 37 wounded, before she struck. She also suffered extensive damage to her upper works. St Jagos cargo, which had taken two years to collect, was the richest ever trusted on board a single ship. Early estimates put the value of the cargo as some £1.2 and £1.3 million. The most valuable portion of the cargo was a large number of gold bars that had a thin covering of pewter and that were listed on the manifest as "fine pewter". General Dumourier had taken on board 680 cases, each containing 3000 dollars, plus several packages worth two to three thousand pounds.
The ships that conveyed St Jago to Portsmouth were , , , and Phaeton. The money came over London Bridge in 21 wagons, escorted by a party of light dragoons, and lodged in the Tower of London.
On 11 December the High Court of Admiralty decided that the ship should be restored to Spain, less one eighth of the value after expenses for salvage, provided the Spanish released British ships held at Corunna. The agents for the captors appealed and on 4 February 1795 the Lords of the council (the Privy council) put the value of the cargo at £935,000 and awarded it to the captors. At the time, all the crew, captains, officers and admirals could expect to share in the prize. Admiral Hood's share was £50,000.
On 28 May Phaeton took the 20-gun off the Spanish Coast. The Royal Navy took Prompte into service under her existing name.
Together with , Phaeton took two privateers in the Channel in June - Poisson Volante, of ten guns, and Général Washington. On 27 November Phaeton and were among the six vessels of a squadron that captured the 28-gun off Ushant.
In February 1794 Phaeton was paid off, but the next month Captain William Bentinck recommissioned her.
During the battle of the Glorious First of June, Phaeton came to the aid of the dismasted . While doing so, Phaeton exchanged broadsides with the French ship-of-the-line . Phaeton suffered three men killed and five wounded. She was the only one of the support vessels there to suffer casualties. In 1847 the Admiralty awarded the survivors to that date of all the vessels at the battle, including Phaeton, the Naval General Service Medal with clasp "1 June 1794".
Captain Robert Stopford
In September, Phaeton came under the command of Captain Stopford. In May 1795 Phaeton escorted Princess Caroline of Brunswick to England. Then began what would become a spectacular string of prize-taking. During Stopford's service in the Channel, Phaeton captured some 13 privateers and three vessels of war, and also recovered numerous vessels that the French had taken.
On 10 March 1796, Phaeton engaged and captured the French corvette Bonne Citoyenne off Cape Finisterre. She was armed with twenty 9-pounder guns and had a crew of 145 men. She had left Rochefort on 4 March in company with the French frigates , , and , and the brig , all sailing for the Île de France with troops and military supplies. Stopford took her back to England as his prize. The Royal Navy then bought her in as , a sixth-rate sloop-of-war.
While cruising in the Channel, on 6 March 1797, Phaeton took the French privateer Actif. She was armed with 18 guns and had a crew of 120 men. She had sailed from Nantes on 17 February and ten days later had captured the packet ship Princess Elizabeth, which was her only prize.
On 28 May, Phaeton, , and the hired armed lugger detained Frederickstadt.
On 16 September Phaeton took the 6-gun Chasseur. Then two days later she took the privateer Brunette. Then with Unite she took 16-gun Indien on 24 September off the Roches Bonnes. On 9 October Unite captured Découverte, with the 32-gun frigate and Phaeton in company.
Phaeton also recaptured three British vessels. These were Adamant (24 September), Arcade (3 October), and Recovery (20 October).
Then on 28 December Phaeton took the 12-gun Hazard in the Bay of Biscay. The next day, the 44-gun Anson, Captain Philip Charles Durham, with Phaeton, retook the 20-gun , which the French had captured almost exactly three years earlier. Out of a crew of 276, including 30 passengers of various descriptions, Daphne, lost five men killed and several wounded before she surrendered. Anson had no casualties.
On New Year's Day, 1798, Phaeton took Aventure. On 19 February she took the 18-gun Légère in the Channel. On 22 March she participated in damaging the 36-gun frigate Charente near the Cordouan lighthouse. Phaeton fired on Charente, chasing her first into range of the guns of the 74-gun third rate , under the command of Captain Sir John Borlase Warren, with whom she exchanged broadsides. Charente grounded, but then so did Canada. Phaeton and Anson had to abandon the chase to pull Canada free. In the meantime, Charente threw her guns overboard, floated free, and reached the river of Bordeaux, much the worse for wear.
With Anson, Phaeton took the 18-gun privateer Mercure on 31 August. Mercure was pierced for 20 guns and had a crew of 132 men. She was one day out of Bordeaux and had captured nothing.
A week later, Anson and Phaeton captured the 32-gun privateer Flore after a 24-hour-long chase. Stopford, in his letter, described Flore as a frigate of 36 guns and 255 men. She was eight days out of Boulogne on a cruise. Flore had also served the Royal Navy in the American Revolutionary War.
Then on 8 October Phaeton took the 16-gun privateer Lévrier. Together with and , on 20 November she took Hirondelle.
On 24 November 1798, Phaeton captured the French privateer brig Resolue (or Resolu). Resolue was armed with 18 guns and carried a crew of 70 men. She had previously captured the English merchant ship General Wolfe, sailing from Poole to Newfoundland and an American sloop sailing from Boston to Hamburg. Stag later recaptured the American.
On 6 December, Phaeton and Stag captured the French privateer brig Resource. She was armed with 10 guns and carried a crew of 66 men. She had sailed from La Rochelle two days previously and was sailing for the African coast. shared in the prize money for both Resolu and Resource.
Mediterranean
In July 1799 Captain Sir James Nicoll Morris took command of Phaeton and sailed with Lord Elgin, of the eponymous Elgin Marbles, for Constantinople. Elgin would be Britain's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire until 1803. In May 1800 she participated in the blockade of Genoa as part of Lord Keith's squadron. The Austrian general besieging the city, Baron d'Ott, particularly appreciated her fire in support of the Austrian army.
On 14 April 1800 Phaeton and captured the St. Rosalia. Phaeton had to share her share of the proceeds with five vessels due to a prior agreement.
On 3 May, , Phaeton and captured eight vessels in Anguilla Bay:
Stella de Nort;
Santa Maria;
Nostra Senora del Carmine;
Fiat Volantes Deus;
Nostra Signora del Assunta;
Nostra Signora de Sonsove;
San Nicolas; and
San Joseph (San Giuseppe).
Five days later they captured eleven Genoese vessels. They captured the first eight at St Remo:
Polacre ship St. Giovanni, which was sailing in ballast from St Remo;
Polacre brig Achille, which was sailing from Marseilles to Genoa with a cargo of corn and wine;
Polacre barque St. Antonio, which was sailing from Cette to Genoa with a cargo of wine;
Polacre brig Santa (Assunta), which was sailing from Ard to Port Maurice with a cargo of wine;
Polacre ship Conception, sailing in ballast to Port Maurice;
Polacre ship Madona del Carmine, sailing from Cette to Genoa with a cargo of wine;
Settee Signora del Carmine, which was sailing from Marseilles to Genoa with a cargo of corn;
Settee St. Giuseppe, which was sailing from Marseilles to Port Maurice with a cargo of corn;
Settee Immaculate Conception, which was sailing from Cette to Genoa with a cargo of wine;
Settee Amina Purgatorio, which sailing from Cette to Genoa with a cargo of wine; and
Settee Virgine Rosaria, which was sailing from Cette to Genoa with a cargo of wine.
On 25 October Phaeton chased a Spanish polacca to an anchorage under a battery of five heavy guns at Fuengirola, where she joined a French privateer brig. The following night the brig escaped while the polacca tried twice, unsuccessfully, to escape to Málaga. On the night of 27 October, Francis Beaufort led Phaeton's boats on a cutting out expedition. Unfortunately the launch, with a carronade, was unable to keep up and was still out of range when a French privateer schooner, which had come into the anchorage unseen, fired on the other boats. The barge and two cutters immediately made straight for the polacca and succeeded in securing her by 5 am. The captured ship was San Josef, alias Aglies, of two 24-pounder iron guns, two brass 18-pounder guns as stern chasers, four brass 12-pounder guns and six 6-pounder guns. She was a packet, carrying provisions between Málaga and Velilla. She had a crew of 49 seamen, though 15 were away, and there were also 22 soldiers on board to act as marines.
The boarding party suffered one man killed and three wounded, including Beaufort who received, but survived, 19 wounds. The Spanish sustained at least 13 wounded.
Once Morris was sure that his men had secured the prize he sailed Phaeton in pursuit of a second polacca that had passed earlier, sailing from Ceuta to Málaga. Phaeton was able to catch her under a battery at Cape Molleno. While Phaeton was returning to pick up Beaufort, his men and their prize, the French privateer schooner sailed past, too far away for Phaeton to intercept.
The British immediately commissioned San Josef as a British sloop-of-war under the name , the ancient name for Gibraltar. Although it would have been usual to promote Beaufort, the successful and heroic leader of the expedition, to command Calpe, Lord Keith chose instead George Dundas who not only was not present at the battle, but was junior to Beaufort. In 1847 the Admiralty awarded the survivors to that date of the boarding party the Naval General Service Medal with clasp "27 Oct. Boat Service 1800".
On 16 May 1801, boats from Phaeton and under the direction of Naiads first lieutenant, entered the port of Marín, Pontevedra, in Galicia in north west Spain. There they captured the Spanish corvette Alcudia and destroyed the armed packet Raposo, both under the protection of a battery of five 24-pounders. Alcudia, commanded by Don Jean Antonio Barbuto, was moored stem and stern close to the fort. Her sails had previously been taken ashore so the boats had to tow her out but soon after a strong south-west wind set in and it was necessary to set her on fire. Only four men from the two British ships were wounded.
Phaeton then returned to Britain and was paid off in March 1802.
East Indies
In July 1803 Captain George Cockburn recommissioned Phaeton for service in the Far East. Later in 1804 she and chased the French privateer back to Port Louis. Also, Phaeton recaptured the , which the French privateer Nicholas Surcouf in had captured on 14 August 1804; Captain Fallonard of the brig Île de France recaptured Mornington. The British recaptured Mornington again as she continued to sail under the British Ensign until she was burnt in the Bay of Bengal in 1816.
On 2 August 1805, under Captain John Wood, Phaeton fought the 40-gun , Captain Léonard-Bernard Motard, in the San Bernardino Strait off San Jacinto, Philippines, together with the 18-gun , Captain Edward Ratsey. After exchanges of fire first with Harrier and then with Phaeton, Sémillante took refuge under the guns of a shore battery. Unable to dislodge her, the two British vessels eventually sailed off, each having suffered two men wounded. Sémillante was reported to have suffered 13 killed and 36 wounded. After resupplying at San Jacinto, Sémillante intended to sail for Mexico in March 1805 to fetch specie for the Philippines; the encounter with Phaeton and Harrier foiled the plan. Motard returned to the Indian Ocean, operating for the next three years against British shipping from Île de France.
On 18 November 1805 Phaeton was at Saint Helena. There she took on board 32 officers and crew from the East Indiaman , which the French had captured. The French had released them at the Cape of Good Hope and a cartel had delivered them to St Helena. Phaeton was already carrying the Marquis of Wellesley and his suite, who was returning to England after having served as Governor General of India. They arrived at Spithead on 13 January 1806.
In October 1806 Captain John Wood took command of Phaeton. Then in July 1808, Captain Fleetwood Pellew succeeded him.
Nagasaki Harbour Incident
After the French had annexed the Dutch Republic and Napoleon began to use its resources against Britain, Royal Navy ships started to attack Dutch shipping. In 1808, Phaeton, by now under the command of Pellew, entered Nagasaki's harbour to ambush some Dutch trading ships that were expected to arrive shortly.
Phaeton entered the harbour on 4 October surreptitiously under a Dutch flag. Despite the arrival of the "Dutch" ship being later in the season than normal, the Japanese and Dutch representatives did not suspect anything. So, Dutch representatives from their Nagasaki trading enclave of Dejima rowed out to welcome the visiting ship. But, as they approached, Phaeton lowered a tender and captured the Dutch representatives, while their Japanese escorts jumped into the sea and fled. Pellew held the Dutch representatives hostage and demanded supplies (water, food, fuel) to be delivered to Phaeton in exchange for their return. The cannons in the Japanese harbour defenses were old and most could not even fire. Consequently, the meager Japanese forces in Nagasaki were seriously out-gunned and unable to intervene.
At the time, it was the Saga clan's turn to uphold the policy of Sakoku and to protect Nagasaki, but they had economized by stationing only 100 troops there, instead of the 1,000 officially required for the station. The Nagasaki Magistrate, , immediately ordered troops from the neighbouring areas of Kyūshū island. The Japanese mobilized a force of 8,000 samurai and 40 ships to confront the Phaeton, but they could not arrive for a few days. In the meantime, the Nagasaki Magistrate decided to respond to the ship's demands, and provided supplies.
Phaeton left two days later on 7 October, before the arrival of Japanese reinforcements, and after Pellew had learned that the Dutch trading ships would not be coming that year. He left behind a letter for the Dutch director Hendrik Doeff. The Nagasaki Magistrate, Matsudaira, took responsibility by performing seppuku.
Following the attack of the Phaeton, the Bakufu reinforced coastal defenses, and promulgated a law prohibiting foreigners coming ashore, on pain of death (1825–1842, Muninen-uchikowashi-rei). The Bakufu also requested that official interpreters learn English and Russian, departing from their prior focus on Dutch studies. In 1814, the Dutch interpreter Motoki Shozaemon wrote the first English-Japanese dictionary (6,000 words). Although the incident revealed the vulnerability of the Tokugawa system to foreign interference, the Bakufu did not enter into more fundamental reform of its defenses because of its priority on maintaining the internal balance of power with the country's daimyo.
After Nagasaki
Pellew was confirmed in his rank of post captain on 14 October 1808, and went on to see action in the Invasion of Île de France in 1810 and the reduction of Java in 1811.
In May, Phaeton escorted the second division of British troops, commanded by Major-General Frederick Augustus Wetherall, from Madras to Prince of Wales Island, and then on to Malacca. Once the expedition reached Batavia, Phaeton and three of the other frigates patrolled for French frigates known to be in the area.
On 31 August a landing party from Phaeton and , together with marines from , captured a fort from the French at Sumenep on the island of Madura, off Java. The British lost three men killed and 28 wounded.
Pellew sailed Phaeton home in August 1812, escorting a convoy of East Indiamen. For his services he received a present of 500 guineas and the thanks of the East India Company.
Post-war
In 1816, Capt. Frances Stanfell sailed Phaeton from Sheerness, bound for Saint Helena and the Cape of Good Hope. She arrived at St Helena on 14 April 1816, where she delivered its newly appointed military governor, Lieutenant-General Sir Hudson Lowe, his wife, Susan de Lancey Lowe, and her two daughters by a former marriage. Lowe had been expressly sent to the island to serve as the gaolor of Napoleon Bonaparte, who would die there in exile in 1821.
In April 1818, Capt. W. H. Dillon commissioned Phaeton. In the autumn of 1818 Lieutenant John Geary, who had joined Phaeton at her re-commissioning, faced a court martial. The charges were that he had concealed two deserters from the band of the 18th Regiment of Foot. More formally, the charges were: "Inveigling musicians from one of the Regiments in garrison and with practicing deception towards the officers who were sent on board to search for them." The board found him guilty. He was severely reprimanded and dismissed from Phaeton. Robert Cavendish Spencer, late of , a captain on the board, thought enough of Geary to shake his hand and offer him a job in the future. Several years later Spencer made good on his offer.
Phaeton went on to the East Indies. In October 1819 she was paid off and then recommissioned within the month under Captain William Augustus Montagu, for Halifax. She was paid off in September 1822. She was immediately recommissioned under Captain Henry Evelyn Pitfield Sturt. She sailed for Gibraltar and Algeciras and was paid off some three years later.
Fate
Phaeton was sold on 11 July 1827 to a Mr. Freake for £3,430, but the Navy Office cancelled the sale, "Mr. Freake having been declared insane." She was finally sold on 26 March 1828 for £2,500 to Joshua Cristall for breaking up.
In popular media
The Nagasaki Harbour Incident plays a role in the novel The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet by David Mitchell. However this depiction is highly fictionalised; the ship in the novel is HMS Phoebus, the incident occurs in 1800 and finding no Dutch ships the Phoebus of the novel bombards Dejima.
The Nagasaki Harbour Incident plays a role in the novel Blood of Tyrants by Naomi Novik. This depiction is historical fantasy; the Japanese sink HMS Phaeton with dragons stationed at Nagasaki at the time.
See also
Anglo-Japanese relations
Notes
Citations
References
External links
General Information - The Perry Expedition
The Role of English in Japan: Past and Present, by Marek M. Koscielecki
Korea in the Eye of the Tiger, Chapter 16 - The End of Asian Isolation
Sailing Ships of the Royal Navy
Ships of the Old Navy
Minerva-class frigates
1782 ships
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1981 World Snooker Championship
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The 1981 World Snooker Championship, (officially the 1981 Embassy World Snooker Championship) was a ranking professional snooker tournament which took place from 7 April to 20 April 1981 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The tournament was the 1981 edition of the World Snooker Championship, and was the fifth consecutive world championship to take place at the Crucible Theatre since 1977. It was sanctioned by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association. The total prize fund for the tournament was £75,000, of which £20,000 went to the winner.
Qualifying rounds for the tournament took place from 23 March to 4 April 1981 at two locations — Redwood Lodge Country Club, near Bristol, and at Romiley Forum, near Stockport. The main stage of the tournament featured 24 players: the top 16 players from the snooker world rankings and another eight players from the qualifying rounds. Jimmy White, Tony Knowles and Dave Martin were debutants at the main stage. The defending champion and top seed in the tournament was Cliff Thorburn, who had defeated Alex Higgins 18–16 in the 1980 final.
Thorburn lost by 10 to 16 to Steve Davis in the semi-finals. In the other semi-final, Doug Mountjoy defeated second seed Ray Reardon 16–10. Davis went on to achieve the first of his six world titles, taking a 6–0 lead in the final and winning four consecutive frames at the end of the match to win 18–12. There were 13 century breaks made during the tournament, including a new championship record break of 145 by Mountjoy. The cigarette manufacturer Embassy sponsored the tournament, which received daily coverage on BBC television.
Overview
The World Snooker Championship is the official world championship of the game of snooker. The first world championship final took place in 1927 at Camkin's Hall, Birmingham, England. Joe Davis won the inaugural title. Each year since 1977, the event has been held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England.
The 1981 tournament brought together 24 professional snooker players, selected through a mix of the snooker world rankings and a pre-tournament qualification competition. Seedings were based on players' performances in the previous three editions of the world championship. The draw for the event took place on 5 January 1981, in West Bromwich. There were a total of eight qualifying groups, each with one winner meeting a player seeded into the first round, followed by the eight winners of the first-round matches meeting one of eight new players seeded into the second round. Despite not winning any major tournament since the 1978 World Snooker Championship, Ray Reardon was the bookmakers' favourite to win at the time of the draw with bets priced at 3–1. Steve Davis was the second-favourite and priced at 5–1, followed by Terry Griffiths and Alex Higgins both priced at 6–1, and defending champion Cliff Thorburn, who had defeated Higgins 18–16 in the 1980 final, at 10–1. Bookmakers assessed Doug Mountjoy's odds of winning as 20–1. By the time the main event started on 7 April, Davis — who during the season had won his first professional title at the 1980 UK Championship, as well as the 1980 Classic, 1981 Yamaha Organs Trophy and 1981 English Professional Championship — had become the bookmakers' favourite to win, at 7–2.
Mike Watterson promoted the championship tournament, with the authority of the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA). It was broadcast in the United Kingdom on the BBC, with over 80 hours of programming scheduled. Cigarette company Embassy sponsored the event.
Prize money allocation
The breakdown of prize money for the 1981 tournament is shown below:
Winner: £20,000
Runner-up: £10,000
Semi-final: £5,000
Quarter-final: £2,500
Last 16: £1,800
Last 24: £875
Highest break: £1,200
Maximum break: £10,000
Total: £75,000
Tournament rounds
Qualifying
Qualifying matches took place from 23 March to 4 April, and were held at two locations — Redwood Lodge Country Club, near Bristol, and at Romiley Forum, near Stockport. All qualifying matches were scheduled in best-of-17 format with the first player to win nine progressing to the next round. Former champion John Pulman lost 2–9 to Dave Martin, who was accepted by the WPBSA as a professional only a few days before entries closed. Chris Ross — who experienced a nervous breakdown in his first year playing professionally after winning the 1976 English Amateur Championship — found that his was unsteady, and he was unable to control his properly, resulting in his conceding the match to opponent Tony Knowles when 0–7 behind.
First round
The first-round matches took place from 7 to 10 April and were played as best-of-19 frames. Jimmy White, who turned professional after winning the 1980 World Amateur Championship, made his World Snooker Championship debut at the tournament, as did Tony Knowles and Dave Martin.
Steve Davis made the first century break of the tournament, 119, in the fifth frame of his match against White, while building a 4–2 lead by the end of their first . He compiled another century, 102, in their second session, and led 8–4 by the end of that session. In the last session, White closed the gap to one frame, but from 9–8 ahead, Davis won the next and prevailed 10–8. Knowles constructed a 101 in his match against Graham Miles, but lost the match after being tied at 6–6 and 8–8. In the eighteenth frame, at one frame behind, Knowles played a forceful shot on the final , to get a position on the . He failed to pot the black, which would have left Miles unable to win the frame without Knowles conceding penalty points. Miles won that frame, then took the next to win 10–8.
David Taylor, the 1968 World Amateur Champion, won the first three frames against Cliff Wilson, the 1978 World Amateur Champion, but then lost the next four. Taylor finished the first session 5–4 ahead and went on to defeat Wilson 10–6. Tony Meo was 4–2 ahead, then later 4–5 behind and 7–5 ahead of John Virgo, before securing his progression to the next round 10–6. Meo made a break of 134 during the match. From 5–4, Kirk Stevens won the next five frames to defeat John Dunning 10–4. Doug Mountjoy was a frame ahead of Willie Thorne at 5–4, and extended his lead to 9–4 before winning 10–6. Bill Werbeniuk eliminated Martin 10–4.
Ray Edmonds, twice World Amateur Champion, had never recorded a victory against John Spencer in a significant match and had lost to him twice in the final of the English Amateur Championship, in 1965 and 1966. Edmonds led 5–4 after the first session of their match but then found himself 5–7 behind as Spencer won three consecutive frames. Edmonds equalised the score at 7–7, before Spencer drew ahead again to lead 9–7. Edmonds, aided by fluking a , won the next two frames to force the match to go to a deciding frame. Jack Karnehm, a snooker commentator and author, later suggested that Spencer was able to win the last frame, in which he made a break of 38, because he had the ability to handle pressure better than Edmonds did.
Second round
The second-round matches took place from 10 to 14 April and were played as best-of-25 frames.
Steve Davis led 6–2 against Alex Higgins after their first session, but in the second session Davis lost five of the eight frames and made only one break over 30. By the end of the session, Davis led by two frames, 9–7. In the third session, Higgins made a break of 47 in the first frame, but Davis responded with a 45 break and won the frame to move into a three-frame lead rather than having only a one-frame advantage, saying afterwards that his 45 was "the most important break [he had] made for months." Higgins won the second frame of the session before Davis won the third with a break of 71. Davis then took the next two frames for a 13–9 victory. Doug Mountjoy took the first four frames, then lost the next four, against Eddie Charlton. Mountjoy went on to lead 9–6, and won 13–7 to reach his first world championship quarter-final since 1977.
Graham Miles only gained a single frame in each of the two sessions against defending champion Cliff Thorburn. He lost the first session 1–7 and the match 2–13. Eight-time former world snooker champion Fred Davis, who was also the reigning world billiards champion, also lost his first session 1–7, and was eliminated 3–13 by David Taylor. Terry Griffiths and Tony Meo finished their first session all-square at 4–4, but Griffiths added nine of the next eleven frames to his tally, and won 13–6.
Dennis Taylor went from 9–11 against Kirk Stevens to progress to the next round with a 13–11 scoreline; he compiled breaks of 135 and 133 during the match. Stevens had been unable to use the practice table at the venue before the match because it was being used to record a programme for a television broadcast. According to Karnehm, Stevens was "frustrated and bitterly hot-tempered when he came out for the second session... his pots missed by fractions, his safety shots would unluckily stay in the open, his judgement was becoming erratic." Bill Werbeniuk led Perrie Mans 6–2 after their first session, and went on to win 13–5. Former champions Ray Reardon and John Spencer were level at 11–11, with Reardon then winning 13–11.
Quarter-finals
The tournament's quarter-final matches took place from 10 to 12 April and were played as best-of-25 frames. Steve Davis and Terry Griffiths shared the first eight frames, finishing their first session 4–4. After that, Davis pulled ahead to 9–5, Griffiths compiled a break of 100 in the first frame of the third session, making the scoreline 6–9. The players then won alternate frames until Davis took the match 13–9. Snooker historian Clive Everton later wrote that "strongly as the opposition resisted, Davis never really looked like being broken". David Taylor, who had lost to Cliff Thorburn in the semi-finals in 1980, won two of the first three frames in their quarter-final. Taylor took a lead of 4–3, but Thorburn then had the better of the second session, establishing a 10–6 advantage. He eliminated Taylor 13–6. Doug Mountjoy was 5–3 ahead of Dennis Taylor, before falling 5–6 behind, and defeated Taylor 13–8. The highest break of the match was 100, by Thorburn in the 15th frame. Ray Reardon defeated Bill Werbeniuk 13–8, to reach his first semi-final since 1978, and compiled a 112 break in the 16th frame.
Semi-finals
The semi-final matches took place from 17 to 18 April and were played as best-of-31 frames. Doug Mountjoy made a new record world snooker championship break of 145 in the 12th frame against Ray Reardon, pocketing blacks after all reds except the eighth, when he potted the . Mountjoy won the match 16–10. Everton's analysis was that whilst in previous matches between the players Reardon had been able to prevail due to his superior tactics, by 1981 Mountjoy's tactical capacity had improved greatly, and his break-building was better than Reardon's.
The second semi-final match, which was played between Davis and Thorburn, was described by Karnehm as the best of the 1981 World Championship. Two weeks before the tournament, Thorburn lost 0–6 to Davis in a challenge match in Romford, Davis's home area. According to Karnehm, Thorburn "was still seething at this result and the remarks of the gloating Romford fans in their own stronghold." According to Karnehm, the players barely acknowledged each other's presence in the first session of the semi-final. Davis went 4–3 ahead of Thorburn after the first session, extending his lead to 6–4 after the break, but went 6–8 behind as Thorburn won four frames in succession, scoring 347 points across these frames to Davis's 35. It was level at 9–9, before Davis won 16–10. In the 22nd frame, Davis was ahead with a score of 80–23 with only the pink and black remaining, leaving Thorburn no realistic chance of winning the frame. However, when Davis offered Thorburn a handshake, the acceptance of which would have been an acknowledgement by Thorburn that the frame was lost, Thorburn declined, started to aim for the pink, and "in an elaborate mockery of the Steve Davis habit, went over to his chair, [and] took a minute sip of water." Thorburn later apologised for this behaviour to Davis and, on television, to the public. In his autobiography, Playing for Keeps (1987), Thorburn wrote that in the third session he had been distracted by Davis's supporters in the arena whistling when he was playing, and that he was frustrated that Davis did nothing to stop this.
Final
The final was played across four sessions on 19 and 20 April as a best-of-35 frames match. It was the first world professional snooker championship final for both players, Steve Davis and Doug Mountjoy. Mountjoy led 40–0 in points in the first frame, but Davis made a break of 59 to win the frame. Davis went on to take all of the first six frames, making breaks of 52, 49, 56, and 40. In the eighth frame, Davis was 49–48 ahead with only the last three balls left on the table. The black ball was very close to the , with the blue ball nearby. The two players had a total of 37 turns playing whilst three were left, before the frame was abandoned and restarted due to the stalemate. Mountjoy won the restarted frame with a break of 76 – which was the highest of the first session. Mountjoy won the last frame of the first session, leaving Davis 6–3 ahead.
In the second session, Davis won the first frame, then Mountjoy the next two, and Davis took the following one, leaving Davis 8–5 ahead at the mid-session interval. Mountjoy compiled a break of 129, his fourth century of the event, in frame 14, and a couple of frames later, Davis fluked the blue to win the 17th. Mountjoy won the last frame of the second session to finish 8–10 behind.
On the second day of the final, Davis compiled a break of 83 to win the first frame and took the next frame, making it 12–8. Mountjoy then won two consecutive frames to halve Davis's lead. He subsequently won two of the session's last four frames to leave Davis 14–12 ahead of the fourth and final session. Mountjoy led by 46 points in the 24th frame before Davis made a break of 55 to win it. Davis made a break of 84 in the first frame of the fourth session, followed by a break of 119 in the second, and won the next two frames to defeat Mountjoy 18–12. After his win, Davis's manager Barry Hearn ran excitedly into the arena, lifting Davis in celebration. In a post-match interview, Mountjoy said of Davis, "He's the player to beat from now on. The top players are all on a par, but he is a black better."
It was the first of a total of six World Snooker Championship wins for Davis as he dominated the sport in the 1980s, the last of them in 1989. In 1982, the number of players in the main tournament increased to 32; the level of public interest in the 1981 tournament was high enough for the BBC to decide to increase its television coverage to 17 days, the full duration of the championship, in 1982.
Main draw
The tournament ladder and results are shown below. The numbers in brackets to the right of players' names indicate the top 16 seeds, whilst match winners are noted by bold type.
Final
The final was played as a best-of-35 frames match at the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield, on 19 and 20 April 1981, refereed by John Williams. Two sessions were held each day. Davis won the match by 18 frames to 12. Both players compiled one century break during the final; Mountjoy compiled a 129, and Davis made a 119. Davis had a further eight breaks of fifty or more, against two by Mountjoy.
Qualifying matches
The results from the qualifying competition are shown below with match winners shown in bold type.
Qualifying matches were held at Redwood Lodge Country Club, near Bristol, and at Romiley Forum, Stockport.
Century breaks
There were 13 century breaks during the championship, equalling the record from 1979. Mountjoy set a World Championship record by compiling a 145 break, surpassing the 142 breaks by Rex Williams in 1965 and Bill Werbeniuk in 1979. Mountjoy earned a £5,000 bonus for his achievement, and his record stood until the 1983 tournament, when Thorburn compiled a maximum break.
145, 129, 110 Doug Mountjoy
135, 133 Dennis Taylor
134 Tony Meo
119, 119, 106 Steve Davis
112 Ray Reardon
101 Tony Knowles
100 Terry Griffiths
100 Cliff Thorburn
Notes
References
External links
The last frame of the final (video) from World Snooker Tour's official YouTube Channel.
World Snooker Championships
World Championship
World Snooker Championship
Sports competitions in Sheffield
World Snooker Championship
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1980 World Snooker Championship
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The 1980 World Snooker Championship, officially known as the 1980 Embassy World Snooker Championship for sponsorship reasons, was a ranking professional snooker tournament that took place from 22 April to 5 May 1980 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The tournament was the 1980 edition of the World Snooker Championship and was the fourth consecutive world championship to take place at the Crucible Theatre since 1977. It was authorised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association. The total prize fund for the tournament was £60,000, of which £15,000 went to the winner.
There were 53 entrants to the competition, although four later withdrew. Qualifying rounds for the tournament took place at Romiley Forum, Stockport, from 5 to 18 April 1980; at the Redwood Lodge Country Club, Bristol, from 11 to 16 April; and at Sheffield Snooker Centre from 12 to 17 April. The main stage of the tournament featured 24 players: the top 16 players from the snooker world rankings and another eight players from the qualifying rounds. Ray Edmonds, Jim Meadowcroft, Tony Meo, Cliff Wilson and Jim Wych made their Crucible debuts. The defending champion and top seed in the tournament was Terry Griffiths, who had defeated Dennis Taylor 24–16 in the 1979 final.
Griffiths lost in his first match, by 10 to 13 against Steve Davis. Canadian Cliff Thorburn met the 1972 champion Alex Higgins from Northern Ireland in the final, which was a best-of-35-frames match. Thorburn won the match 18–16 to become the first world champion from outside the United Kingdom in the sport's modern era. There were 11 century breaks compiled during the championship, the highest of which was 136, achieved by both Kirk Stevens and Steve Davis. The cigarette manufacturer Embassy sponsored the tournament. It received 70 hours of television coverage by the BBC in the United Kingdom, attracting 14.5 million viewers for the conclusion of the final. Coverage of the final was interrupted by the broadcast of live coverage of the Iranian Embassy Siege, which caused numerous viewers to complain to the broadcaster.
Overview
The World Snooker Championship is the preeminent tournament in professional snooker. Joe Davis won the first World Championship in 1927, organised by the Billiards Association and Control Council, the final match being held at Camkin's Hall in Birmingham, England. Staged annually until 1940, the tournament was put on hiatus during World War II and went into decline in the post-war era; the 1952 World Snooker Championship was contested by only two players and was replaced by the World Professional Match-play Championship, which was also discontinued in 1957. The title was contested on an occasional challenge basis until 1969, when the World Championship reverted to a knockout tournament format. Staged annually since then, the tournament moved in 1977 to the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England, which remains the venue for the tournament as of 2023. The 1980 event, organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA), was the fourth edition of the World Championship to be staged at the Crucible.
The 1980 championship featured 24 professional players competing in one-on-one snooker matches in a single-elimination format, each match played over several . The number of participants who played at the Crucible was increased from 16 in 1979. The competitors in the main tournament were selected using a combination of the top players in the world rankings, which were based on performances at the three preceding editions of the world championship, and the winners of a pre-tournament qualification stage. In all, 53 players entered the championship, but four later withdrew. The top eight seeded players were placed in round two of the draw. The next eight seeds were placed in round one, each to meet a player that emerged from the qualifying competition. At the start of the main event, defending champion Terry Griffiths and six-time champion Ray Reardon were joint bookmakers' favourites, both priced at 3–1, with Alex Higgins the third-favourite priced at 7–1.
The duration of the event, which had been 13 days in each of the three previous years, was increased to 14 days, with the semi-finals being reduced to best-of-31 frames (from best-of-37 in 1979) and the final to the best-of-35 frames (from best-of-47 in 1979). There had been a third place playoff in 1978 and 1979, but this was not continued in 1980. The competition was promoted by Mike Watterson and received 70 hours of television coverage by the BBC in the United Kingdom, attracting 14.5 million viewers for the conclusion of the final. The tournament was a ranking event and was sponsored by cigarette company Embassy.
Prize fund
The breakdown of prize money for this year is shown below:
Winner: £15,000
Runner-up: £8,000
Semi-final: £4,000
Quarter-final: £2,000
Last 16: £1,500
Last 24: £750
Highest break: £1,000
Championship record break (143 or above): £5,000 (not awarded)
Maximum break: £10,000 (not awarded)
Total: £60,000
Tournament summary
Qualifying
Qualifying matches took place across three venues: at Romiley Forum, Stockport, from 5 April to 18 April 1980; at the Redwood Lodge Country Club, Bristol, from 11 April to 16 April; and at Sheffield Snooker Centre from 12 April to 17 April 1980. The qualifying rounds produced eight players who progressed to the main event, where they met the 16 invited seeded players.
The 1957 runner-up Jackie Rea defeated Bernard Bennett 9–1 before being eliminated 1–9 by Willie Thorne. Thorne was on course to make a maximum break in the first frame but missed a after eleven and ten blacks. Steve Davis qualified after defeating Chris Ross 9–3 and Paddy Morgan 9–0. Kingsley Kennerley, in his first competitive match since 1974, lost 2–9 to Mike Hallett. Pat Houlihan, playing without his contact lenses due to conjunctivitis, compiled the only century break of the qualifying rounds—108—during a 9–6 victory over Joe Johnson; however he lost 1–9 in his following match to Tony Meo. Jim Wych progressed to the main event with a 9–7 win against Rex Williams, the world champion of English billiards.
First round
The first round took place between 22 and 25 April, each match played over either two or three scheduled sessions as the best of 19 frames. Meo, Wych, Cliff Wilson, Ray Edmonds, and Jim Meadowcroft made their Crucible debuts. Steve Davis led Patsy Fagan 6–3 after their first session and won 10–6. Fagan had led 2–0 but, from 5–6, lost four of the following five frames. Meo was 5–4 ahead of Higgins after their first session and, at 9–8, was a frame away from winning before Higgins took the last two frames with breaks of 77 and 62 to progress. Kirk Stevens compiled a break of 136 in the third frame against Graham Miles, missing the final black that would have made it an all-time championship record 143. After leading Miles 6–0 then 9–3 after the first two sessions, Stevens won 10–3. John Virgo won all six frames of his first session against Meadowcroft, with Meadowcroft winning two of the first three frames in the second session before being eliminated 2–10.
Wilson, the reigning World Amateur Snooker Champion, won the first frame against Doug Mountjoy on the black as part of a 66 clearance and took a 4–1 lead before finishing the first session at 5–4. Wilson then lost six of the last seven frames, resulting in a 6–10 loss. Mountjoy recorded a break of 104 in the fourteenth frame. Wych won 10–5 against former champion John Pulman after leading 5–4. This was Pulman's final appearance at the World Championship. Edmonds had replaced his the night before the match; playing with the unfamiliar tip, he lost the first four frames, then went 2–7 behind David Taylor before losing 3–10. Thorne, having led 3–1, took a 5–4 lead over Bill Werbeniuk with a 97 break in the ninth frame. He led in the match until Werbeniuk, who compiled a break of 101 in the thirteenth frame, made it 7–7. The contest went to a which Werbeniuk won 84–8 with breaks of 39 and 36.
Second round
The second round, which took place between 24 and 29 April, was played as best-of-25-frames matches spread over three sessions. Defending champion Griffiths lost the first seven frames against Steve Davis and ended the first session trailing 1–7. Davis won the opening frame of the second session to extend his lead to 8–1, and had a seven frame lead again at 10–3, before Griffiths won three frames to end the session 6–10 behind. In the third session, Griffiths won the first four frames to level at 10–10, with Davis then winning the next three to secure a 13–10 victory, which included a 116 break in the 22nd frame. The failure of first-time world snooker champions to defend their title has become known as the "Crucible curse".
Higgins won six of the eight frames in each of the first two sessions against Perrie Mans and eliminated Mans 13–6. Despite leading 4–1 after making breaks of 95 and 108 in consecutive frames, former champion John Spencer lost in his first match for the third consecutive year, 8–13 to Stevens. Virgo took an early lead of 4–1 against Eddie Charlton, with their first session finishing 4–4. At 11–10 ahead, Virgo missed a pot on the , and Charlton then levelled the match 11–11. The match went to a deciding frame, where Charlton made a break of 33, and Virgo missed a black that allowed Charlton back in to win 13–12. The report in Snooker Scene characterised the match as one where the "famed tenacity" of Charlton overcame the "brittle, edgy side of Virgo's temperament".
Cliff Thorburn finished the first session against Mountjoy 3–5 behind. In the evening, Thorburn played cards and drank alcohol with friends until 5:00 am, resuming the match by winning the first five frames in succession and going on to win 13–10. From 10–10 Thorburn won two frames on the and one on the black. The match featured a 69-minute 18th frame, including 21 minutes for the brown ball to be potted, and a 123 break in the 19th frame by Mountjoy, The previous year's runner-up Dennis Taylor was eliminated by Wych, who won the first three frames, and, after Taylor had equalised, took the seventh frame on a . The pair were level again at 8–8 before Wych won 13–10. Ray Reardon had session-end leads of 5–3 and 11–5 against Werbeniuk, and won 13–6. Fred Davis compiled a 106 break, the highest of the match, but lost 5–13 to David Taylor.
Quarter-finals
The quarter-finals were played as best-of-25-frames matches over three sessions on 29 and 30 April. Davis compiled a 136 break in the third frame against Higgins. In the eighth frame, Higgins was on course to achieve a maximum break, when he became the first player in the history of the world championship to pot black balls after each of the fifteen red balls during a break. After running out of position on the fifteenth black, he managed to pot the , but failed in an attempt to then the . The pair finished their first session tied at 4–4. In the second session, the players were level at 7–7 before Higgins won the next two frames to carry a 9–7 lead into the last session, in which he won the match 13–9. It was the first time that Higgins had reached the semi-finals since 1976.
Having lost the first two frames to Wych, Thorburn built a 5–3 lead at the end of their first session and, after having led 9–3 and 10–6, progressed 13–6. With Stevens's "all-out attacking" play featuring "brilliant" potting, according to snooker historian Clive Everton, he was 5–3 and 10–6 in front of Charlton after the first and second sessions, and won 13–7, becoming the youngest-ever world championship semi-finalist, aged 21. Reardon had three breaks over 40 in the first frame against Taylor and won three of the next four for 4–1 before losing the next two and then finishing the first session 5–3 up. He extended his lead to 7–3, but Taylor then won six successive frames leaving Reardon 7–9 behind at the start of the last session. Taylor added a frame, but Reardon tied at 10–10 by winning the next three. From 11 to 11, Reardon missed several shots as Taylor won 13–11 for what Snooker Scene described in their match report as "the best win of his career".
Semi-finals
The semi-finals took place between 1 and 3 May as best-of-31-frames matches played over four sessions. Stevens led 5–2 against Higgins after winning four frames in a row from 1–2. Their second session finished at 7–7. Stevens made a number of mistakes during the third session, including missing a black from its spot when he was 8–9 behind and the session ended with him 9–13 in arrears. Higgins won the first frame of the fourth session. Stevens successfully potted a number of long-distance shots in taking the next two frames. He then won the 26th frame on the black to make it 12–14. Although Higgins appeared tense, he won the 27th frame on the pink and went on to secure a 16–13 victory.
Thorburn was 5–3 ahead of Taylor after their first session and, having won eight consecutive frames to lead 10–3, was 11–4 up at the end of the second session. Thorburn extended his lead to 15–7 by the end of the third session, then won 16–7 with a break of 114 in the 23rd frame.
Final
The final, between Canadian Cliff Thorburn and Alex Higgins from Northern Ireland, took place on 4 and 5 May, as a best-of-35 frames match scheduled for four sessions. Higgins and Thorburn had an ongoing rivalry during their playing careers and were perceived as adversaries. Thorburn became the first player to reach a second final at the Crucible; he lost to Spencer in the first final played at the Crucible, in 1977. After Thorburn won the first frame, Higgins won the next five. Thorburn won the seventh to make it 5–2, with Higgins complaining after the frame that Thorburn had been standing in his line of sight, a claim that author and sports statistician Ian Morrison called "unfounded". Higgins led 6–3 at the end of the first session, extending this to 9–5 before Thorburn levelled the match at 9–9. Writing in The Times, Sydney Friskin described the match to this point as a contrast of styles: "the shrewd cumulative processes of Thorburn against the explosive break-building of Higgins". He also noted that each player had accused the other of distracting them during the match. Thorburn won the 19th and 20th frames, with Higgins taking the following two to level at 11–11. Thorburn went ahead at 12–11 and 13–12, with Higgins then levelling the match both times, with the third session ending 13–13. In the final session, Higgins won the first frame; Thorburn then won the next two before Higgins equalised at 15–15.Thorburn led 16–15 and missed a brown ball that let Higgins in to make it 16–16. With a break of 119, Thorburn moved within a frame of victory at 17–16. In the 34th frame, leading 45–9 in points, he laid a for Higgins, and made a 51 break after that to win the title.
The BBC's television coverage of the final had been interrupted by the broadcast of live coverage of the Iranian Embassy Siege, which caused numerous viewers to complain to the broadcaster. The conclusion of the final was watched by 14.5 million television viewers. Thorburn is generally regarded as the first player from outside Britain to win the world championship, with Horace Lindrum's victory in the 1952 World Snooker Championship usually being disregarded. After the match, Higgins said of Thorburn, "he's a grinder", and the nickname "The Grinder" was subsequently associated with Thorburn, seen as apt for his slow, determined style of play. Higgins also posed for pictures with a cake decorated with icing reading "World Champion 1980" that his wife Lynne had brought for him. In the snooker world rankings 1980/1981, based on the results at the three world championships from 1978 to 1980, Thorburn was ranked second (behind Reardon) and Higgins was placed fourth. Higgins won a second world championship in 1982, and Thorburn made the World Championship's first maximum break in 1983.
Main draw
The results for the tournament are shown below. The numbers in brackets denote players seedings, whilst players in bold are match winners.
Qualifying
The results from the qualifying competition are shown below, with match winners denoted in bold.
indicates a player that was in the original draw (in January 1980) but did not compete.
Century breaks
There were 11 century breaks at the main championship. Kirk Stevens and Steve Davis each made a 136 break, the highest of the tournament. There was also a £5,000 bonus on offer for compiling a higher break than the championship record of 142. The only century break in the qualifying competition was a 108 scored by Pat Houlihan in his match against Joe Johnson.
136, 116 Steve Davis
136 Kirk Stevens
123, 104 Doug Mountjoy
122 Alex Higgins
119, 114 Cliff Thorburn
108 John Spencer
106 Fred Davis
101 Bill Werbeniuk
Notes
References
1980
World Championship
World Snooker Championship
Sports competitions in Sheffield
World Snooker Championship
World Snooker Championship
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem%20rust
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Stem rust
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Stem rust, also known as cereal rust, black rust, red rust or red dust, is caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis, which causes significant disease in cereal crops first found in Beijing China in 2009 by an Italian scientist, and Ken Deng. Crop species that are affected by the disease include bread wheat, durum wheat, barley and triticale. These diseases have affected cereal farming throughout history. The annual recurrence of stem rust of wheat in North Indian plains was discovered by Prof. K.C. Mehta. Since the 1950s, wheat strains bred to be resistant to stem rust have become available. Fungicides effective against stem rust are available as well.
In 1999 a new virulent race of stem rust was identified against which most current wheat strains show no resistance. The race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate Ug99). An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK spread across Africa, Asia and the Middle East, causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance, thus threatening global food security.
An outbreak of another virulent race of stem rust, TTTTF, took place in Sicily in 2016, suggesting that the disease is returning to Europe. Comprehensive genomic analysis of Puccinia graminis, combined with plant pathology and climate data, has pointed out the potential of the re-emergence of stem wheat rust in UK.
History of stem rust
The fungal ancestors of stem rust have infected grasses for millions of years and wheat crops for as long as they have been grown. According to Jim Peterson, professor of wheat breeding and genetics at Oregon State University, "Stem rust destroyed more than 20% of U.S. wheat crops several times between 1917 and 1935, and losses reached 9% twice in the 1950s," with the last U.S. outbreak in 1962 destroying 5.2% of the crop.
Stem rust has been an ongoing problem dating back to Aristotle's time (384–322 BC). An early ancient practice by the Romans was one where they would sacrifice red animals such as foxes, dogs, and cows to Robigus (fem. Robigo), the rust god. They would perform this ritual in the spring during a festival known as the Robigalia in hopes of the wheat crop being spared from the destruction caused by the rust. Weather records from that time have been reexamined and it has been speculated that the fall of the Roman Empire was due to a string of rainy seasons in which the rust would have been more harsh, resulting in reduced wheat harvests. Laws banning barberry were established in 1660 in Rouen, France. This was due to the fact that European farmers noticed a correlation between barberry and stem rust epidemics in wheat. The law banned the planting of barberry near wheat fields and was the first of its kind.
The parasitic nature of stem rust was discovered in the 1700s. Two Italian scientists, Fontana and Tozzetti, first explained the stem rust fungus in wheat in 1767. Italian scientist Giuseppe Maria Giovene (1753–1837), in his work Lettera al dottor Cosimo Moschettini sulla ruggine, also thoroughly studied the stem rust. Thirty years later it received its name, Puccinia graminis, by Persoon, and in 1854 brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne discovered the characteristic five-spore stage that is known in some stem rust species. The brothers were also able to make a connection between the red (urediniospore) and black (teliospore) spores as different stages within the life cycle of the same organism, but the rest of the stages remained unknown.
Anton de Bary later conducted experiments to observe the beliefs of European farmers regarding the relationship between the rust and barberry plants, and after connecting the basidiospores of the basidia stage to barberry, he also identified that the aeciospores in the aecia stage reinfect the wheat host. Upon de Bary's discovery of all five spore stages and their need for barberry as a host, John Craigie, a Canadian pathologist, identified the function of the spermogonium in 1927.
Due to the useful nature of both barberry and wheat plants, they were eventually brought to North America by European colonists. Barberry was used for many things like making wine and jams from the berries to tool handles from the wood. Ultimately, as they did in Europe, the colonists began to notice a relationship between barberry and stem rust epidemics in wheat. Laws were enacted in many New England colonies, but as the farmers moved west, the problem with stem rust moved with them and began to spread to many areas, creating a devastating epidemic in 1916. It was not until two years later in 1918 that the United States created a program to remove barberry. The program was one that was supported by state and federal entities and was partly prompted by the threat it posed to food supplies during the war. The "war against barberries" was waged and called upon the help of citizens through radio and newspaper advertisements, pamphlets, and fair booths asking for help from all in the attempt to rid the barberry bushes of their existence. Later, in 1975–1980, the program was reestablished under state jurisdiction. Once this happened, a federal quarantine was established against the sale of stem rust susceptible barberry in those states that were part of the program. A barberry testing program was created to ensure that only those species and varieties of barberry that are immune to stem rust will be grown in the quarantine area.
In 1969 two races not detected before in Australia were found and for decades one hypothesis was an African origin, and in 2018 DNA analysis confirmed that, specifically South African.
South Africa itself has an ongoing problem with various stem rust outbreaks which requires better response, including an indigenous breeding for resistance program.
Taxonomy
There is considerable genetic diversity within the species P. graminis, and several special forms, forma specialis, which vary in host range have been identified.
Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae, oat
Puccinia graminis f. sp. dactylis
Puccinia graminis f. sp. hordei, barley
Puccinia graminis f. sp. lolii
Puccinia graminis f. sp. poae
Puccinia graminis f. sp. secalis, rye and barley
Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici / Pgt, wheat and barley
P. graminis is a member of the phylum Basidiomycota within the kingdom Fungi. The characteristic rust color on stems and leaves is typical of a general stem rust as well as any variation of this type of fungus. Different from most fungi, the rust variations have five spore stages and alternate between two hosts. Wheat is the primary host, and barberry is the alternate host.
The rust is sometimes termed "red rust" or "red dust" owing to the spores on the leaf surfaces that range from orange to dark-red in color. Later, the spores change and become dark in color, which gives rise to another common name, "black rust".
Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici
The North American race nomenclature system was introduced in 1988 by Roelfs and Martens. This nomenclature is a series of letters each of which indicate virulence/avirulence against one resistance gene, as diagnosed by performance against a group of cultivars known to bear that gene.
Ug99
Pgt contains many races of wheat diseases, including some of the most significant in the world. Ug99 began as a race (TTKSK) of Pgt and now has proliferated into a large number of races of its own.
The virulent new race, against which most current wheat strains show no resistance, was identified in 1999. The race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate Ug99), named after the country where it was identified (Uganda) and the year of its discovery (1999). It spread to Kenya, then Ethiopia, Sudan and Yemen, and becomes more virulent as it spreads. An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK spread across Africa, Asia and the Middle East, causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance, thus threatening global food security. In 2011, after it had spread into southern Africa, the Bill Gates Foundation donated $40 million towards research into Ug99, to be spent on critical infrastructure in Africa. Scientists are working on breeding strains of wheat that are resistant to UG99. However, wheat is grown in a broad range of environments. This means that breeding programs would have extensive work remaining to get resistance into regionally adapted germplasms even after resistance is identified. Similarly, in 2014, a Ug99 race called "Digalu" emerged and devastated the Digalu variety in Ethiopia.
JRCQC
JRCQC is a race affecting Durum in Ethiopia.
MCC
Affects barley.
QCC
Affects barley.
Successfully overwintered in Kansas in 1989/90, and in Texas and Kansas in 1990/91, and so was expected to thereafter be a permanent part of the North American Pg population. Further pathogen adaptation, resulting in widening of the host range, is expected.
QCCJ
Synonymous with QCCJB or known as QCC-2 by some classifications.
Most common Pg race in 1991 in the United States, 68% of all Pg samples, and 67% in 1990. Afflicted spring-sown barley in the northern Great Plains in 1990. Was the first barley stem rust to show up in the United States in 1991, in southern Texas in Uvalde. Thought to be responsible for rusting of wild Hordea in the Midwestern United States and Great Plains, and overall was 94% of Pgs on Hordea in 1991. 67% of QCCJ was from barley and 95% of Pg on barley was QCCJ. On wheat, QCCJ was still the most common race but only at 38% of Pg. Continues to threaten barley in the Red River Valley in North Dakota and Minnesota. Higher than normal inoculum production in South Central Oklahoma and the adjacent part of North Texas before the 1991 season resulted in an epidemic in North Central and northwestern Kansas. Virulent against barley bearing Rpg1. Down to 26% of Pgs afflicting wheat in the US in 1995, 1% in 1996, and not at all in 1997 or 1998. Not found on barley in 1997 but found again in 1998.
QCCJB
The first QCC race (since renamed QCCJ or QCCJB) was detected in the northwest Great Plains in 1988, and by 1990 was over 90% of Pgs on barley in the United States. Also afflicted wheat until a mass switch away from vulnerable cultivars resulted in complete absence in 1997 or 1998. Barley virulence is temperature-sensitive: from rpg4 and Rpg5 are highly effective, but above they are ineffective. Not necessarily distinguishable from QCCJ, used synonymously by some practitioners.
QCCS
Found in the US on wheat in 1997 and 1998 – but only in the West across both years. On barley in 1997 but not 1998.
QFCS
25% of Pgs on wheat in 1991. Traces found growing in northwest Illinois fields, also in 1991. 8% of all Pgs on wheat, barley, and oat in the US in 1997, and 31% in 1998. Displaced the previously-dominant TPMK suddenly in 1998.
TPMK
36% of Pg samples from wheat in 1991 in the United States. Unusually severe in southern Illinois in the first week of June, and in west central Indiana, in 1991. TPMK was the worst at 69% of Pgs on wheat in 1997 in the United States – being absent only from the southern Great Plains and the west, but then was down to 10% in 1998. In the upper Great Plains it was already declining – to 26% of samples in 1997, and 12% in 1998. In the most fertile areas of the eastern US it was 96% of Pgs in 1997 but then suddenly fell to 29% in 1998. In a few other locations in the US, and overall across the US, this race declined 97–98 in favor of other races, and not because of overall Pg decline.
Synonyms
As listed by Species Fungorum;
Aecidium berberidis
Aecidium berberidis var. cyathiforme Aecidium berberidis var. cylindricum Caeoma berberidis Dicaeoma anthistiriae Dicaeoma anthoxanthi Dicaeoma graminis Dicaeoma phlei-pratensis Dicaeoma vilis Epitea dactylidis Lycoperdon berberidis Puccinia albigensis Puccinia anthistiriae Puccinia anthoxanthi Puccinia brizae-maximae Puccinia cerealis Puccinia culmorum Puccinia dactylidis Puccinia dactylidis Puccinia elymina Puccinia favargeri Puccinia graminis f. macrospora Puccinia graminis subsp. graminicola Puccinia graminis subsp. major Puccinia graminis var. phlei-pratensis Puccinia graminis var. stakmanii Puccinia graminis var. stakmanii Puccinia graminis var. tritici Puccinia jubata Puccinia linearis Puccinia megalopotamica Puccinia phlei-pratensis Puccinia vilis Roestelia berberidis Uredo frumenti
Pathology
The stem rust fungus attacks the parts of the plant that are above ground. Spores that land on green wheat plants form a pustule that invades the outer layers of the stalk. Infected plants produce fewer tillers and set fewer seed, and in cases of severe infection the plant may die. Infection can reduce what is an apparently healthy crop about three weeks before harvest into a black tangle of broken stems and shriveled grains by harvest.
Stem rust of cereals causes yield losses in several ways:
Fungus absorbs nutrients that would otherwise be used for grain development.
Pustules break through epidermis, which disrupt the plant's control of transpiration and can lead to desiccation and infection by other fungi.
Interference with plant vascular tissue leads to shriveled grains.
The fungus weakens the stems, which can lead to lodging (falling over). In severe cases lodging can make mechanical harvesting impossible.
Signs and symptoms
On wheat
Stem rust on wheat is characterized by the presence of uredinia on the plant, which are brick-red, elongated, blister-like pustules that are easily shaken off. They most frequently occur on the leaf sheaths, but are also found on stems, leaves, glumes and awns. On leaves they develop mostly on the underside but may penetrate to the upperside. On leaf sheaths and glumes pustules rupture the epidermis, giving a ragged appearance.
Towards the end of the growing season black telia are produced. For this reason stem rust is also known as "black rust". The telia are firmly attached to the plant tissue.
The site of infection is a visible symptom of the disease.
On barberry
Pycnia appear on barberry plants in the spring, usually in the upper leaf surfaces. They are often in small clusters and exude pycniospores in a sticky honeydew. Five to ten days later, cup-shaped structures filled with orange-yellow, powdery aeciospores break through the lower leaf surface. The aecial cups are yellow and sometimes elongate to extend up to from the leaf surface. So important is its role in maintenance of prevalence that since the near extermination of the alternate host from the northern Great Plains in the United States, epidemics in crops have become rare.
Life cycle
Like other Puccinia species, P. graminis is an obligate biotroph (it colonizes living plant cells) and has a complex life cycle featuring alternation of generations. The fungus is heteroecious, requiring two hosts to complete its life cycle – the cereal host and the alternate host. There are many species in Berberis and Mahonia (and their hybrid genus x Mahoberberis) that are susceptible to stem rust, but the common barberry (B. vulgaris) is considered to be the most important alternate host. P. graminis is macrocyclic (exhibits all five of the spore types that are known for rust fungi).P. graminis can complete its life cycle either with or without barberry (the alternate host).P. g. triticis obligately biotrophic lifestyle involves the dramatic up-regulation of particular gene transcriptions, constituting its biotrophy genomic features. These genomic regions have parallels in other eukaryotic plant pathogens. These parallels – between these independently evolved and unrelated sets of genes – show a strong and broad pattern of convergent evolution around the plant pathogenic lifestyle.
Life cycle on barberry
Due to its cyclical nature, there is no true 'start point' for this process. Here, the production of urediniospores is arbitrarily chosen as a start point.
Urediniospores are formed in structures called uredinia, which are produced by fungal mycelia on the cereal host 1–2 weeks after infection. The urediniospores are dikaryotic (contain two un-fused, haploid nuclei in one cell) and are formed on individual stalks within the uredinium. They are spiny and brick-red. Urediniospores are the only type of spores in the rust fungus life cycle that are capable of infecting the host on which they are produced, and this is therefore referred to as the 'repeating stage' of the life cycle. It is the spread of urediniospores that allows infection to spread from one cereal plant to another. This phase can rapidly spread the infection over a wide area.
Towards the end of the cereal host's growing season, the mycelia produce structures called telia. Telia produce a type of spore called teliospores. These black, thick-walled spores are dikaryotic. They are the only form in which Puccinia graminis is able to overwinter independently of a host.
Each teliospore undergoes karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) and meiosis to form four haploid spores called basidiospores. This is an important source of genetic recombination in the life cycle. Basidiospores are thin-walled and colourless. They cannot infect the cereal host, but can infect the alternative host (barberry). They are usually carried to the alternative host by wind.
Once basidiospores arrive on a leaf of the alternative host, they germinate to produce a mycelium (which is haploid) that directly penetrates the epidermis and colonises the leaf. Once inside the leaf the mycelium produces specialised infection structures called pycnia. The pycnia produce two types of haploid gametes, the pycniospores and the receptive hyphae. The pycniospores are produced in a sticky honeydew that attracts insects. The insects carry pycniospores from one leaf to another. Splashing raindrops can also spread pycniospores. A pycniospore can fertilise a receptive hypha of the opposite mating type, leading to the production of a mycelium that is dikaryotic. This is the sexual stage of the life cycle and cross-fertilisation provides an important source of genetic recombination.
This dikaryotic mycelium then forms structures called aecia, which produce a type of dikaryotic spores called aeciospores. These have a worty appearance and are formed in chains – unlike the urediniospores that are spiny and are produced on individual stalks. The chains of aeciospores are surrounded by a bell-like enclosure of fungal cells. The aeciospores are able to germinate on the cereal host but not on the alternative host (they are produced on the alternative host, which is usually barberry). They are carried by wind to the cereal host where they germinate and the germ tubes penetrate into the plant. The fungus grows inside the plant as a dikaryotic mycelium. Within 1–2 weeks the mycelium produces uredinia and the cycle is complete.
Life cycle without barberry
Since the urediniospores are produced on the cereal host and can infect the cereal host, it is possible for the infection to pass from one year's crop to the next without infecting the alternate host (barberry). For example, infected volunteer wheat plants can serve as a bridge from one growing season to another. In other cases the fungus passes between winter wheat and spring wheat, meaning that it has a cereal host all year round. Since the urediniospores are wind dispersed, this can occur over large distances. Note that this cycle consists simply of vegetative propagation – urediniospores infect one wheat plant, leading to the production of more urediniospores that then infect other wheat plants.
Spore dispersalPuccinia graminis produces all five of the spore types that are known for rust fungi.
Spores are typically deposited close to the source, but long-distance dispersal is also well documented commonly out to hundreds of kilometres/miles. The following three categories of long-distance dispersal are known to occur:
Extremely long-distance dispersal
This can occur unassisted (the robust nature of the spores allows them to be carried long distances in the air and then deposited by rain-scrubbing) or assisted (typically on human clothing or infected plant material that is transported between regions). This type of dispersal is rare and is very difficult to predict. This is especially known to rarely occur across thousands of km/mi from South Africa to Western Australia.
Step-wise range expansion
This is probably the most common mode of long-distance dispersal and usually occurs within a country or region.
Extinction and recolonisation
This occurs in areas that have unsuitable conditions for year-round survival of Puccinia graminis – typically temperate regions where hosts are absent during either the winter or summer. Spores overwinter or oversummer in another region and then recolonise when conditions are favorable.
Wheat stem rust resistance genes
A number of stem rust resistance genes (Sr genes) have been identified in wheat. Some of them arose in bread wheat (e.g. Sr5 and Sr6), while others have been bred in from other wheat species (e.g. Sr21 from T. monococcum) or from other members of the tribe Triticeae (e.g. Sr31 from rye and Sr44 from Thinopyrum intermedium).
None of the Sr genes provide resistance to all races of stem rust. For instance many of them are ineffective against the Ug99 lineage. Notably Ug99 has virulence against Sr31, which was effective against all previous stem rust races. Recently, a new stem rust resistance gene Sr59 from Secale cereale was introgressed into wheat, which provides an additional asset for wheat improvement to mitigate yield losses caused by stem rust. Singh et al. (2011) provide a list of known Sr genes and their effectiveness against Ug99.
There has been significant uptake of resistant wheat varieties among Ethiopian farmers since 2014 – a great deal of which is thanks to CGIAR and CIMMYT (the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center).
Although Sr5, Sr21, Sr9e, Sr7b, Sr11, Sr6, Sr8a, Sr9g, Sr9b, Sr30, Sr17, Sr9a, Sr9d, Sr10, SrTmp, Sr38, and SrMcN are no longer effective in Lebanon, Sr11, Sr24, and Sr31 still are which is diagnostic for the presence of various races of stem rust – but the complete absence of Ug99 specifically – from Lebanon.
Sr9h
Discovered and found to provide Ug99 resistance by Rouse et al., 2014. However Ug99 isolates from South Africa and Zimbabwe, both in 2010, already had virulence when retested against this new gene. Both Rouse and Wessels et al., 2019 find the Ug99 resistance of cv. 'Matlabas' is probably due to this gene. Wessels finds it is present in less than 5% of breeding lines.
Sr14 Sr14 does not protect seedlings against TTKSK but does provide moderate resistance at later stages. It is effective against TTKST.
Sr22
There is considerable variation among Sr22 alleles, with some conferring resistance and some susceptibility.
Sr27 Sr27 is originally from rye (Imperial Rye), now () widely found in triticale and rarely in hexaploid wheat. Located on the 3A chromosome arm, originally from 3R. Virulence has been observed in field Pgs and in an artificial Pgt Pgs. When successful, Sr27 is among the few Srs that does not allow the underdeveloped uredinia and slight degree of sporulation commonly allowed by most Srs. Instead there are necrotic or chlorotic flecks. Pgt virulent on wheat with this gene was found in Kenya in 1972. Deployment in triticale in New South Wales and Queensland, Australia, rapidly produced virulence between 1982 and 1984 – the first virulence on this gene in the world. (This was especially associated with the cultivar Coorong.) Therefore, CIMMYT's triticale offerings were tested and many were found to depend solely on Sr27. Four years later, in 1988, virulence was found in South Africa. Sr27 has become less common in CIMMYT triticales since the mid-'80s.
Sr31
Ug99 is virulent against Sr31, which was effective against all previous stem rust races.
Sr33
An introgression from a wild wheat Aegilops tauschii orthologous to Mla in barley. Confers broad resistance to multiple races including Ug99.
Sr35 Sr35 is an introgression from Triticum monococcum conferring some resistance. AvrSr35 – a Pgt gene so named because it was discovered causing avirulence on Sr35 – is the ancestral allele to all Pgt alleles that are virulent on Sr35. AvrSr35 came first, followed by the selective pressure of widespread adoption of Sr35 wheat races, followed by the evolution of virulence on Sr35 by way of nonfunctionalization mutations of AvrSr35.
Sr59
Recently, a new stem rust resistance gene Sr59 from Secale cereale was introgressed into wheat, which provides an additional asset for wheat improvement to mitigate yield losses caused by stem rust.
Sr62
An NLR (or NB-LRR, or R gene) from Aegilops sharonensis, one of only three resistance genes from that species. Was discovered by Yu et al., 2017 and then introgressed into hexaploid by Millet et al., 2017. Sr62 encodes for a unique tandem protein kinase which is composed of domains which are common among plants. Yu et al.'', 2022
SrTmp
Originally from the widespread Ethiopian ''. Resistant to Ug99, susceptible to .
Weaponization
In the 1950s, the United States Air Force developed Operation Steelyard, a plan to drop wheat stem rust mixed with feathers over wheat farms in the Soviet Union. If the plan were enacted, Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers would drop 500-pound M115 bombs over Soviet farms, with the intention of destroying up to 50% of the Soviet winter wheat harvest.
Future
Alone amongst cereals, rice is naturally immune to rusts. If a genetic source of this resistance could be identified, transgenic wheats with rice as the gene donor could be the future.
See also
Chilean wheat cycle
List of Puccinia species
References
Further reading
External links
Borlaug Global Rust Initiative
Stem rust by FAO (the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Animation of stem rust life cycle
Cereal diseases
Puccinia
Fungi described in 1794
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4942028
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mine%20clearance%20organization
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Mine clearance organization
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A mine clearance organization, or demining organization, is an organization involved in the removal of landmines and unexploded ordnance (UXO) for military, humanitarian, or commercial reasons. Demining includes mine clearance (actual removal and destruction of landmines/UXO from the ground), as well as surveying, mapping and marking of hazardous areas.
The broader realm of mine action also includes advocacy, victim assistance, antipersonnel mine stockpile destruction, mine risk education and research. The aim is to clear land so that civilians can return to their homes and their everyday routines without the threat of landmines and unexploded remnants of war (ERW), which include unexploded ordnance and abandoned explosive ordnance. This means that all the mines and ERW affecting the places where ordinary people live must be cleared, and their safety in areas that have been cleared must be guaranteed. Mines are cleared and the areas are verified so that they can say that the land is now safe, and people can use it without worrying about the weapons.
Government
After the Second World War, large-scale multinational naval mine clearance operations were carried out by the International Central Mine Clearance Board, and, in northern European waters, by the German Mine Sweeping Administration. A French officer of the Int'l Central Mine Clearance Board's subordinate Mediterranean Zone Board witnessed "Operation Retail" on 12–13 November 1946, the Royal Navy clearance of sea mines during the Corfu Channel incident.
In the 21st century, the main governments that fund humanitarian mine clearance are the United States (US), the European Union (EU), Japan, Norway, and the Netherlands, which accounted in 2014 for 72% of all international funding. Germany, the UK, and Denmark are also significant donors.
Danish Demining Group
Danish Demining Group (DDG) was established in 1997 and today functions as a humanitarian mine action unit within the Danish Refugee Council (DRC), hence benefiting from synergies in cooperation. As of August 2012, DDG is operating with clearance of mines and explosive remnants of war in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Somalia (including Somaliland), Sri Lanka, South Sudan, Uganda, Ukraine and Yemen. DDG also works with armed violence reduction in several countries.
Non-Governmental organizations (NGOs)
APOPO
APOPO trains Giant pouched rats from East Africa to detect landmines. This unusual idea has been developed into a competitive technology by a group of Belgian and Tanzanian researchers and animal trainers. APOPO is a non-profit organization that has partnered with the Belgian Government, Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD), the European Union (EU), the Province of Antwerp (Belgium), the Flemish Community, the US Army, the World Bank and private donors. It has further partnered in demining with Menschen gegen Minen (MgM), Norwegian People's Aid (NPA), Accelerated Demining Programme (ADP), Handicap International (HI) and Empresa Moçambicana de Desminagem (EMD).
DanChurchAid
DanChurchAid (Folkekirkens Nødhjælp) is one of the major Danish humanitarian non governmental organisations (NGO), working with churches and non-religious civil organizations to assist the poor with dignity. DCA mine action is currently involved in comprehensive mine action programmes in Albania, Eritrea, Lebanon, Sudan and Ingushetia.
Demining Research Community
The Demining Research Community is an American nonprofit organization that researches and develops uses of remote sensing and machine learning to improve the efficiency and safety of landmine and unexploded ordnance (UXO) detection.
DEMIRA
DEMIRA (Deutsche Minenraeumer e.V.) is an international, humanitarian, non-governmental organization (NGO) registered in Germany. DEMIRA NGO was founded in 1996 in order to provide humanitarian mine clearance, EOD (Explosive Ordnance Disposal), emergency medical aid and disaster relief to people living in postwar countries and to victims of natural disasters and civil unrest.
Golden West Humanitarian Foundation
The Golden West Humanitarian Foundation is an American nonprofit organization that developed mine clearance technology.
HAMAP-Humanitaire
Created in 1999, HAMAP-Humanitaire is a French non-governmental organization (NGO) for development aid. Its vocation is to take concrete action so that more men, women and children can access drinking water, sanitation, education, health and safety (demining). The NGO HAMAP-Humanitaire currently has projects in 14 countries.
The HALO Trust
The Hazardous Area Life-Support Organization (HALO Trust) is a non-political, non-religious, non-governmental mine clearance organisation registered in Britain and the United States. Founded in 1988, it is the world's oldest international humanitarian demining NGO, and it is the largest with over 8,000 deminers and support staff operational in over 20 countries. By early 2006 HALO had cleared over 5,000,000 mines and UXO around the world. HALO's mission is to "protect lives and restore the livelihoods of those affected by conflict."
Humanity and Inclusion
Humanity and Inclusion (formerly Handicap International) is one of the 6 founding members of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines which received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997. Handicap International France and Belgium are involved into Mine Risk Education and demining projects in Afghanistan, Kosovo, Mozambique, and Somalia.
Horizon
Horizon Organisation for Post Conflict Environment Management (OPCEM) is an ex-servicemen's endeavour NGO (Charitable Trust) founded by senior retired Indian Army Officers in 2001. Horizon OPCEM is the first Indian NGO by, of and for Indian Ex Servicemen, dedicated to Post Conflict Environment Management with core competence in Humanitarian Demining. Founded by retired officers of the Indian Army in 2001, it was registered as a Society on 16 Jan 2002. Horizon OPCEM has done seven Humanitarian Demining Projects in Sri Lanka and has received funding from the Norwegian People's Aid.
INTERSOS
INTERSOS is an independent no-profit humanitarian organization committed to assist the victims of natural disasters and armed conflicts. It was founded in 1992 with the active support of Italian Trade Unions. INTERSOS has a flexible operational structure, with the central headquarters in Rome which is in charge of planning and coordination of operations, and various field offices in the countries of operation.
Japan Mine Action Service
Japan Mine Action Service (JMAS) is a Japanese nonprofit organization established in 2002 that is headed by a mine expert who retired from the Self-Defense Force. The JMAS is active mainly in Cambodia and Afghanistan.
Mine Awareness Trust
The Mines Awareness Trust (MAT) is a charitable organisation that endeavours to save the lives and limbs of ordinary people from the unexploded debris of war. Ben Remfrey formed the Trust in May 1999 as a direct response to the war in Kosovo.
Mines Advisory Group
The Mines Advisory Group (MAG) has operated since 1989. Having worked on a variety of conflict-related projects in around 35 countries, MAG was co-laureate of the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize, awarded for their work with the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. MAG has worked in over 40 countries since 1989 and currently has operations in Angola, Burundi, Cambodia, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Honduras, Iraq, Lao P.D.R., Lebanon, Libya, Republic of Congo, Somalia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam.
Mineseeker Operations and Mineseeker Foundation
The Mineseeker Foundation claims that it can locate mined areas more quickly and at a fraction of the cost of systems currently employed, using techniques that are significantly safer for the operators than most other methods. Initially the company will focus on identifying designated mined areas where there are, in fact, no mines, in order to release this land back to the community for agricultural or commercial development and rapidly reduce the overall scale of the clearance problem.
Menschen gegen Minen (MgM)
Menschen gegen Minen (People against Landmines) was founded on January 16, 1996, in Germany. The goal was to establish a humanitarian mine clearance organization which would offer its services to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) dedicated to re-establishing the infrastructure of dangerous regions in post war scenarios. Hendrik Ehlers and Hans Georg Kruessen founded MgM together with others in 1996. Today they are Managing Directors and active Managers of all demining operations at the same time. They have been working since 1992 in the field of humanitarian mine clearance and the destruction of dangerous ammunition in Southern Africa. They possess a wealth of practical experience through operations management, mined area survey, demining and the destruction of explosives (EOD).
No More Landmines
No More Landmines was a United Kingdom-based humanitarian landmine relief charity. The charity focused on landmine and unexploded ordnance removal, mine risk education programmes, and rehabilitation of survivors of landmine injuries. No More Landmines was established in May 2005 as the UK administrator of the United Nations Association Adopt-A-Minefield campaign, which has cleared over of affected land since 1999. The trust ceased trading on 15 June 2009 and passed its assets on to the Mines Awareness Trust.
Norwegian People's Aid
Norwegian People's Aid (NPA) is one of Norway's largest non-governmental organisations, founded in 1939. Based upon the principles of solidarity, unity, human dignity, peace and freedom, NPA is involved in more than 400 projects in 30 countries. NPA has been involved in mine action since 1992. Cambodia was the first country where NPA started mine clearance and the organisation has grown considerably since then. NPA sits in the CC of the ICBL and the core group of LM and participates in different activities with SWG and SAC. As of December 2011, NPA was involved in mine action in sixteen countries in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.
Response International
Response International is a UK registered charity established in 1993 to support victims of violent conflict. Over the last decade successful multi-sector programmes have been implemented in Angola, Bosnia, Chechnya, Kosovo, Lebanon and Pakistan. The objective of these programmes is to design and implement projects that offer immediate relief to victims of conflict and provide sustainable conditions to enable longer term development. Response International's projects have included landmine clearance and landmine awareness and victim rehabilitation.
Saint Barbara Foundation
Stiftung Sankt Barbara Deutschland - Saint Barbara Foundation (SBF) is a humanitarian foundation registered in Germany. Since 1995 SBF clears landmines and ERW and supports different projects in rehabilitation and assistance for mine victims. Former countries of engagement were Angola, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somaliland, actually SBF is working in Libya. SBF's projects include landmine clearance, landmine awareness and victim rehabilitation.
Fondation suisse de déminage (FSD)
The Fondation suisse de déminage (FSD) was formed in 1997 in Geneva, Switzerland. FSD is a humanitarian organisation specialising in the removal of the hazardous remnants of war, such as land mines, unexploded shells from artillery and tank fire, air-dropped bombs, and all manner of dangerous, unexploded military ordnance. FSD's work is conducted for humanitarian purposes. FSD is a non-political, non-aligned, independent, non-government organisation based in Geneva.
FSD also conducts disaster relief work, with major interventions in Sri Lanka following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and during the January–March 2008 cold weather crisis in Tajikistan. FSD has conducted interventions in 21 countries since 1998, and is currently engaged in implementing 8 programmes worldwide, these are Afghanistan, Centrafrican Republic, Chad, Colombia, Iraq, Philippines, Tajikistan and Ukraine. FSD also conducted support operations for the World Food Programme (WFP) as a stand-by partner from 2001.
Corporate
1st Line Defence
1st Line Defence is an Unexploded Ordnance (UXO), Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) and Landmine clearance company. 1st Line Defence operate globally and they are the risk mitigation consultants chosen by many organisations due to being UK Home Office Authorised and Police Licensed – and add invaluable expertise and support to construction projects of all sizes and scopes.
6 Alpha Associates
6 Alpha Associates provides independent consultancy in mine clearance, unexploded ordnance (UXO) and Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD). The company is based in the UK and operates globally, primarily working with the energy, extractives and construction industries. 6 Alpha also provides advice on security, risk management, business continuity and crisis management.
G4S Ordnance Management
G4S Ordnance Management is a commercial leader in the environmental remediation of landmine, unexploded ordnance (UXO) and Explosive Remnants of War (ERW) pollution, clearing battlefields and the management of conventional weapons. Over the past 14 years, G4S Ordnance Management has operated in over 20 different countries including Afghanistan, Bosnia, Chile, Cyprus, Iraq, Lao PDR, Lebanon, Mozambique, Nepal, Sakhalin Island (Russia) and Sudan. G4S Ordnance Management was originally part of ArmorGroup International, which was acquired by G4S plc in April 2008.
BACTEC International (rebranded to become SafeLane Global in 2018)
BACTEC rebranded to become SafeLane Global on October 1, 2018. It is an explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) and landmine clearance company. BACTEC was established in 1991 to provide risk mitigation services for unexploded ordnance and landmine clearance, supporting construction projects and worldwide explosive ordnance clearance initiatives. It was awarded the clearance contracts to demine the Falkland Islands.
Crosstech SA
Crosstech SA is a commercial company that is 100% owned by the FSD. It was set up to serve the needs of customers (such as the UN in Sudan) who prefer to deal with a commercial entity, rather than a non-governmental organisation. The aim of Crosstech SA is to provide mine action services, and to provide services to FSD. Even though Crosstech SA is a commercial company, it has to exercise its activity under the supervision of the Swiss government's department for foundations.
The Development Initiative
The Development Initiative (TDI) is a project management organisation managing projects in remote, extreme or post-conflict environments. TDI provided landmine clearance, battle area clearance, explosive ordnance disposal and consultancy, detection dogs, logistics and remote operations support. TDI has experience of working in theatres such as Afghanistan, Iraq, Bosnia, Laos, Sudan, Somalia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Taiwan and Kuwait.
Horizon Assignments
Horizon Assignments (India) Pvt Ltd was founded as an adjunct to Horizon OPCEM with a view to realizing its objectives of service to humanity and supplement its funding. The Organisation was registered on 23 October 2003 under Companies Act 1956. The organization is ISO 9001-2008 certified and accredited globally by United Nations for Humanitarian Demining. HORIZON has undertaken 16 demining projects in Sri Lanka from 2003 till 2012 and a project in Jordan in 2006-07. Horizon had received funding from The Government of India for the demining projects in Sri Lanka. Since September 2012, Horizon has been working on Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) / UXO survey and detection as a part of soil remediation project under taken by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India for Kuwait Oil company (KOC) in Kuwait. In Nov- Dec 2014, HORIZON successfully completed UXO Anomaly Avoidance Project for AMEC's Soil sampling Activity. In Kuwait, Horizon has carried out EOD/UXO survey of more than 400,000 sq m and Radiological Survey of more than 270,000 sq m area. HORIZON has so far detected and destroyed around 124,630 land mines/UXO's/devices and have cleared 100,050,554 sq m of infected area along with Radiological Survey of more than 320,000 sq m of area in Kuwait Oil Company. Horizon's website is www.horizon-groupindia.com.
Mechem Demining
Mechem Demining is a division of the South African state-owned aerospace and defence equipment company Denel. Active in the field of humanitarian demining since 1991, Mechem utilises the considerable experience gained through three decades of involvement with the SANDF and other clients in providing landmine countermeasures and mine resistant vehicles and equipment. Mechem's demining operations are in full compliance with the International Mine Action Standards (IMAS).
Mine Clearing Corp.
Mine Clearing Corp. is developing a landmine detection and mapping system. The system will scan contaminated areas using an Unmanned Airborne Vehicle using patented sensor arrays and GPS software. The results will produce a detailed map of land mine locations thus increasing the productivity of landmine detection.
Minefree
Minefree is Israel's biggest demining contractor. MINEFREE is specialized in conducting high complexity projects in the fields of demining, UXO Clearance, BAC, Stockpile Destruction and EOD. MINEFREE's leadership consists of ex-IDF Generals, holding more than 40 years experience in combat engineering related fields.
MineTech International (rebranded to become SafeLane Global in 2018)
Along with BacTec, MineTech International rebranded to become SafeLane Global in 2018. It was established in 1989 and is a mine and unexploded ordnance clearance company. It works for commercial companies and humanitarian organisations to enable them to conduct business in countries plagued by mines and UXO.
MineTech offers services including manual, mechanical and canine mine detection and clearance, mine risk education and explosive detection dog teams. Its headquarters are in the UK, and it has a canine training school in South Africa.
RELYANT Global, LLC
RELYANT Global is a Service-Disabled Veteran-Owned Business delivering locally tailored solutions with the world class strength, stability, and resources of a global operator. As an active-conflict, post-conflict, contingency and high-threat tolerant organization, RELYANT provides risk-mitigating turn-key solutions for the awareness, reporting, avoidance, safe handling, clearance and disposal of Unexploded Ordnance (UXO), Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), Humanitarian Mine Action (HMA), landmines, and improvised explosive devices (IED) globally. RELYANT has operational experience in over 35 Countries, and has performed EOD/CIED efforts in Iraq, Afghanistan, Ukraine, Libya, Mali, Burkina Faso, Chad, Nigeria, Togo, Guam, Saipan, Tinian and other Pacific Islands.
RELYANT, through a partnership with the University of TN, provides commercial UXO Tech 1 and IMAS Level I training and certifications, offering a live-detonation and hands-on-training experience at our training facility. UT-UXO Training Program
RONCO Consulting
RONCO Consulting has undertaken mine and unexploded ordnance (UXO) clearance operations in over 35 countries since 1989. RONCO employs nearly 200 technical advisors skilled in the training and implementation of mine/UXO clearance and disposal and improvised explosive ordnance disposal programs. RONCO specializes in the following fields: Manual Demining, Mine Detection Dogs, Explosives Detection Dogs, Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Improvised Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Basic /Advanced Trauma Life Support, Security Management. Ronco was acquired by G4S/Wackenhut in March 2008.
Ukroboronservice
Ukroboronservice is a Ukrainian state-owned company for export and import of military and special purpose products and services that includes a Humanitarian Demining Centre. The center performs Manual and Mechanical Demining, demining with the use of MDD and EDD, EOD, IEDD, BAC, MRE, First aid courses, Refresher trainings.
Other commercial organisations
DynCorp International
EOD Technology, Inc.
UXB International
Westminster International ltd
Military
Military mine clearance agencies focus on the process undertaken by soldiers to clear a safe path so they can advance during conflict. The military process of mine clearance only clears mines that block strategic pathways required in the advance or retreat of soldiers at war. The military term used for mine clearance is breaching. This process accepts that limited casualties may occur.
Area cleared
The survey teams of MCPA have identified, marked and mapped more than of mine contaminated area and about of former battle area contaminated by UXO.
See also
Cluster bomb
Improvised explosive device
Unexploded ordnance
References
Further reading
External links
MgM Demining - Robots and other research
TDI - the development initiative
The International Committee of the Red Cross on Landmines
Center for International Stabilization and Recovery
Safety organizations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryville%20High%20School%20%28Missouri%29
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Maryville High School (Missouri)
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Maryville High School is the public high school for Maryville, Missouri. It is the only institution to have the Spoofhound for a mascot. It is a Missouri State High School Activities Association Class III school. The present high school building on the southwest side of Maryville opened in the 1965-66 school year.
The school is officially Maryville R-II High School. The R-II refers to 1959 consolidation when 23 school districts voted to reorganize as one district. The reorganization involved the main Maryville school along with 22 rural districts that had one-room school houses. Several other communities in Nodaway County voted in the same election (e.g., R-I, R-II, R-III, etc.) and Maryville was the R-II district in that consolidation.
History
Founding 18471867
1847 - The first school was part of the first courthouse of Nodaway County in Maryville which had specifically been created to be the county seat of Nodaway County because of its central location in the county. The log building which was 32 feet by 20 feet and was at Second and Main Streets (a block south of the current courthouse). A new frame court building was subsequently constructed.
Washington campus 18671965
First building 18671882
1867 - The land for the first school what would become the Washington campus at what First and Vine was acquired and built for $7,000. The school was a 2-story building with 4 rooms and was both an elementary school and high school. Average attendance in 1881 was 11 males and 44 females. A description of the campus says "It is located between Wall and Vine Streets, north of and bordering on State Street, fronting west. With the building there are two acres of ground set in blue grass and shade trees, the whole presenting a handsome appearance." The school block is staggered off the grid so that all the school buildings would all be situated so they looked head on into the oncoming street which gave it a grand boulevard appearance. Wall Street would subsequently be renamed Dewey and State Street would be renamed First Street once the Maryville numbered streets took effect in the 1880s. The school property over the years would push further east eventually tripling the acreage of the initial area.
1874-All black Frederick Douglass school created. The school would never be incorporated into the traditional Maryville High School and would dissolve in 1934.
1882 - James B. Prather pays $1,200 to acquire the remains of the torn down school to be used to build a stable to house 120 horses and being one of the biggest stables in Missouri. Prather is owner of Faustiana Farms noted for its racing horse breeding—notably Elwood which won the 1901 Kentucky Derby and Faustus which was great grandfather of Black Gold which won the 1924 Derby. Prather was one of the original 1868 founders of Nodaway Valley Bank.
Second building 18821908
1882 - The new school was constructed at a cost of $43,000. The new two-story building had 12 rooms.
1894 - Maryville's system of elementary schools dubbed ward schools were created with the Thomas Jefferson school at 1st and Charles; James A. Garfield school at Thompson and Mulberry; and Benjamin Franklin school at 7th and North Main (now site of Franklin Park). The elementary school by the new building was in a small white building (dubbed the White House) and called the George Washington school. The high school area was referred to in news reports as the Central School or Central High School.
1906 - The first classes of the Fifth District Normal School (which became Northwest Missouri State University) were held in the school while preparations for the new buildings for the campus were underway.
1908 - Janitor W.L. Robey fell into a pool of boiling water that had leaked from the furnace while trying to fix the building furnace. He pulled himself out and finished the repairs, went to the superintendent to report the problem and then walked two blocks to his room where he died from the scalding.
Third building 19081965
1908 - The second building was torn down and the white house grade school moved to a residence. A bond issue for $75,000 resulted in the construction of a three-story building with the basement being used by the high school and the first floor by the Washington grade school. Gymnasiums were at opposite sides of the building with boys on one side and girls on the other. The gymnasiums had no seats. It was designed by Maryville architect A.A. Searcy (Alexander A. Searcy 1852-1916) who designed more than 100 churches in northwest Missouri and southeast Iowa. he designed the Burlington Junction school and the Elks Club on Main Street. The design was to closely follow the earlier structure but make major improvements to ventilation.
1921 - A gymnasium was added to the north side
1923 - Football coach Leslie Edward Ziegeler (1894-1957) called his team a bunch of Spoofhounds. The name stuck and became the mascot.
1931 - Construction of the new $108,000 Eugene Field elementary school on land just east of the high school. The new school consolidates the four elementary schools into one school. The Washington name becomes the name of the high school (although in news reports of school games the high school is always referred to as Maryville High School).
1934 - Frederick Douglass all-black school formally dissolves for lack of students.
1934 - On October 23 a tornado hit the school about 5:30 p.m. during football practice. The team under coach Wallace Croy went from the practice field adjoining the school to the dressing rooms on the north wing which had its roof ripped off. The school was held at churches and other buildings in Maryville during repairs. The tornado killed five at a Civilian Conservation Corps camp at what today is Beal Park which was six blocks northeast of the school (Beal Park would later be a football venue for the school after moving from a field adjacent to the high school). The CCC was building grain elevators (and not the park). Harry S. Truman was campaigning in Maryville at the courthouse for U.S. Senate at about the time of the storm.
1937 - Undefeated Maryville defeats Central High School (Springfield, Missouri) 51-27 to win the Missouri state basketball championship at a time when there were no divisions in the state. Maryville placed third in the state tournaments in 1936 and 1938 also when there were no divisions.
1937 - Maryville, Tarkio, Mound City, and Savannah begin playing in the Northwest Missouri Conference. Maryville would stay in the conference until 1962.
1942 - Harlem Globetrotters play local team dubbed the Shamrocks in two games in the gymnasium (beating the locals in the rematch 34-30).
1953 - A cafeteria was added to the Eugene Field building to feed both the elementary and high school students on a staggered schedule. Students from the high school walked in all weather the block-long distance from the high school to the elementary for the meals.
1953 - The Varsity football team played its first night home game under the newly installed lights at Beal Park. This is a change from playing home games in the bowl field by the high school. One of Beal Park's most unique features is that it designed so that parking on top of a hill overlooking the field in the 102 River bottoms permits spectators to watch the game from inside their cars.
1959 - Voters in Maryville and the surrounding 22 rural schools approve "reorganization" of the county school system so that the 22 rural schools are rolled into the Maryville school district. The consolidation would start Maryville on the path for looking for a bigger school. The consolidation would also prompt the college to close its Horace Mann high school.
1961 - The varsity basketball teams began playing their home games in the newly built Bearcat Arena (then called Lamkin Gym) after outgrowing the limited seating of the Washington School gym.
1962 - Maryville which had been playing much smaller neighboring rural schools in the Northwest Missouri Conference is a founding member of the Midland Empire Conference which pits it against more comparably sized schools in Savannah and St. Joseph.
1963 - High school varsity teams begin playing most home games at Bearcat Stadium (then called Rickenbrode Stadium/Memorial Stadium). The practice field and junior varsity continue to play at Beal Park. They would eventually play all of most of their home games at the stadium until the new field by the high school opened in 1976.
1965 - The last class graduates. The school is repurposed as a middle school with the 5th and 6th grades moving from Eugene Field to join the 7th and 8th grades which had been in the Washington school before.
1998 - The building is torn down with the construction of a new middle school adjoining the south campus. Portions of the auditorium's classical plaster relief is on display at the Nodaway County Historical Society Museum.
2018 - The school district ends its 151-year ownership of the Washington school property by selling it to the city of Maryville for a new $4 million Maryville Public Safety police and fire headquarters. The Eugene Field elementary school on the east end of the property continues its education mission.
South campus 1965present
1965 - After the construction of a new school on the south campus, the last class to graduate is 1965. Cost for construction was $950,000. The bond issue was approved in March 1963. The cost of the original 40 acres was $31,000 and school officials said it would have cost $150,000 if they had to condemn land around the Washington school. The original footprint was 64,300 square feet and on a 40-acre campus. Among other locations that were considered were expanding at the original location Washington location and just west of the Northwest Missouri State University campus. Joe Radotinsky is the architect. Radotinsky was the architect of several schools and office buildings throughout the Midwest several of which are on the National Register of Historic Places including Wyandotte High School, Sumner Academy of Arts & Science, the American Hereford Association headquarters (now HNTB headquarters). A Hereford bull which has become a Kanas City landmark was part of the design. The Richard Bolling Federal Building in Kansas City which he designed was completed in 1965 the same year as the high school. Among the additions was a gymnasium where the school could play its home basketball games. Home varsity games had been played at Bearcat Arena after it opened in 1959 rather than in the limited confines of the old Washington School gymnasium.
1970 - Vocational school building opens south of the main building.
1976 - Football field (dubbed the Hound Pound) opens down the hill east of the high school ending an era when games were played at Bearcat Stadium. The field was made possible by the approval of a $340,000 bond issue to build it.
1977 an "M" is placed on the banks of the field.
1999 - Middle school opens about a quarter-mile southeast of high school but joined via a trail to the high school. Washington school is torn down.
2006, the school moved from its traditional category of medium size Class 3 school to Class 2. It was runner-up in the state championship football in 2008 and won the title in 2009.
2010 - School moved back to Class 3
2016 - Lee and Nina Schneider Performing Arts Center opens on the east side towering over the school prompting the school to switch its official entrance from the east side to the west side. It is named for Lee Schneider who directed the school band for many years. It is 19,000 square feet and seats 698 people. Concerts had been held in the gymnasium prior. The earlier Washington school building had a separate auditorium. Schneider (1926-2013) taught music at the school from 1960 to 1992 and developed the Marching Spoofhounds into a powerhouse that performed at half time in 1973 of a Kansas City Chiefs football game and made a 1990 appearance in the Macy's Thanksgiving Parade in 1990.
2019 - School drops back to Class 2.
2020 - School moves back to Class 3.
Athletics
The school's original colors were red and white. When Northwest Missouri State University opened in 1905, the college colors were also red and white. The college changed its colors to green and white. The high school later changed its colors to green and gold. Maryville High School football games were played initially by the school at First and Vine, from 1953 to 1962 were played at the football field at Beal Park east of the municipal swimming pool (now the Aquatics Center); and then mostly at Bearcat Stadium from 1963 to 1975 on the college campus. In the late 1976 the high school began playing its football games in a stadium on its own campus which has been nicknamed the "Hound Pound".
Since 1962 Maryville has played in the Midland Empire Conference. From 1937-1962 it played in the Northwest Missouri Conference.
State Championships
1937 - Men's Basketball (no divisions at the time)
1971 - Wrestling (AAA)
1972 - Wrestling (AAA)
1982 - Football (AAA)
1982 - Baseball (AAA)
2000 - Men's Golf (AAA)
2009 - Football (Class 2)
2012 - Football (Class 3)
2013 - Football (Class 3)
2017 - Football (Class 3)
2020 - Women's Volleyball (Class 3)
Runners Up
1959 - Men's Basketball (M)
1981 - Men's Baseball (AA and AAA)
1984 - Football (AAA)
1985- Wrestling (1A-2A)
1995 - Men's Basketball (AAA)
1996 - Football (AAA)
2001 - Men's Golf (AAA)
2004 - Men's Basketball (Class 3)
2008 - Football (Class 2)
2011 - Men's Golf (Class 2)
2011 - Women's Golf (Class 1)
2016 - Football (Class 3)
2017 - Men's Track and Field (Class 3)
2020 - Football (Class 3)
Maryville Marching Spoofhounds
The school's marching band has won many awards and has gained national recognition in its past years. Including appearing on the Today Show before marching in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in 1990. They have been invited to march in the New Year's Day Parade in London, United Kingdom. In 2008, they were invited to the National Adjudicator's Convention (The Dixie Classics) in Chicago, Illinois. They have also participated in the Independence Day Parade in Washington, DC. In the 1980s90's over a third of the student body was involved in the Spoofhound Marching Band. In 2011, the Marching Spoofhounds marched in a Magic Kingdom Parade at Disney World in Orlando, Florida.
Mascot
The school mascot Spoofhound is based on a Plaster of Paris souvenir mascot that was distributed in 1921 during the American Legion convention in Kansas City, Missouri that was held in conjunction with the dedication of the Liberty Memorial. That mascot was based on a drawing by World War I veteran James D. Laingor who made a drawing that was a compilation of 20 photographs of mascot dogs of various World War I units. Laingor copyrighted the image of "Spoof hound and Goof" in 1921. The image was turned into a statue which Laingor sold via his company "Spoof Hound Novelty Company" at Room 360, 2006 Central Street, Kansas City, Missouri. The headline on its advertisement in American Legion Magazine said, "Meet the Spoof-Hound, the ugliest critter in existence." The text said, "You buddies who are coming to Kansas City are going to meet the onriest looking Son-of-A-Gun that ever came down a Company street. He's the Spoof-Hound." Laingor was a University of Missouri Journalism School student and said he had originally used the name to describe his coffee club.
Spoofhound statues left over from the convention sold at carnivals in 1922.
Leslie Edward Ziegeler (1894-1957), who coached high school team said his players looked like a bunch of Spoofhounds. The name stuck and as the 1923 football season began the team was called the Spoofhound by the Maryville Daily Forum.
In the 1940s, Ziegler became the superintendent of schools for Columbia, Missouri where the mascot is also named for an early 20th-century doll—the Kewpies. The image of the Spoofhound has evolved over the years. From the 1950s to the mid 1970s, drawings of it showed a softer more filled out creature called Spoofy.
In 1977 the "Hi Lights" the high school publication which appeared weekly in the Forum ran a contest entitled, "Spoofy - Does he have a face?" in which they sought a redesign to a more aggressive Spoofhound. The winner of this contest was the school art instructor Brian L. Lohafer. Lohafer was also a coach and he led the football Spoofhounds to state championship appearances in 1984, 1994, 1996 and a basketball state championship appearance in 1995. A variation of the mascot he designed is still the mascot of the school.
ESPN recognized the Spoofhound as one of its top mascot names and enshrined the Spoofhound in their "Mascot Hall of Fame." As of 2016, no other academic institution or sports club had adopted the nickname.
Notable alumni
Dale Carnegie (attended system through 1904), motivational author (attended Rose Hill one room school near Bedison, Missouri that would be consolidated into the high school)
Charles J. Colden (Class of 1888) - U.S. Representative from California
Edwin H. Colbert (Class of 1923) - Paleontologist
Daisy Coleman (attended in 2012) - student whose sexual assault was topic of Netflix documentary Audrie & Daisy which was filmed at the school
Homer Croy (Class of 1901) - screenwriter who wrote about Maryville
Forrest C. Donnell (Class of 1900) - Governor of Missouri and U.S. Senator
Adam Dorrel (Class of 1993) - head coach of Abilene Christian football; formerly coach of Northwest Missouri State Bearcats
Harold Hull (Class of 1938) - Akron Goodyear Wingfoots professional basketball player was on the 1937 team that won the state championship when there were no divisions.
Bud Millikan (Class of 1938) - University of Maryland basketball coach who was on the 1937 Maryville state championship basketball team that played at a time when there were no divisions in the state tournament Millikan later coached high school ball at Maryville.
Steve Schottel (Class of 1966)- Coach of Baker University Wildcats and 1970 assistant football coach.
Jim Spainhower (Class of 1946) - Missouri State Treasurer
Bill Stauffer (Class of 1948) - First University of Missouri basketball player to have his number retired by school and first round draft pick of Boston Celtics
Bill Tobin (American football) (Class of 1959) - NFL general manager of Chicago Bears and Indianapolis Colts (played on the 1959 basketball team that was undefeated until losing the state class M title game).
Vince Tobin (Class of 1961) - Head coach of Arizona Cardinals (brother of Bill Tobin - both played multiple sports at the high school at the same time). Both commuted to Maryville from Burlington Junction, Missouri.
Notable faculty
H. Frank Lawrence - Football coach in the 1920s and who became Northwest Missouri football coach.
Bud Millikan - Maryville grad who went on to coach basketball and football for two years in the 1940s before going on to coach basketball at University of Maryland.
Steve Schottel Maryville grad who was head coach of Baker University Wildcats and 1970 student teacher in the football program.
Mike Thomson - Coach and instructors in the 1980s and 1990s who became Missouri State Representative
Other Maryville high schools
Following the closing of the Missouri Academy in 2018, Maryville High School is the only high school remaining in the community. In addition to the schools listed below the Maryville system also historically had 22 rural one-room school houses that were consolidated in 1959.
Missouri Academy of Science, Mathematics and Computing (2000-2018), a school associated with Northwest Missouri State University and on the college campus that was devoted college preparation for juniors and seniors. It was closed because it was no longer considered financially viable. Students lived in the dormitories in the North Complex (Cooper Hall and Douglas Hall) which also house the classrooms.
Mount Alverno High School (1963-1971), Catholic girls' school built on the grounds of the Sisters of St. Francis motherhouse east of Maryville on Highway 46. Its building is now part of the Maryville Treatment Center. The school started with a single class in 1960 and when it formally opened its new structure in 1963 with an enrollment of 109. The school was designed to handle 250 and included a dormitory for students from all over the world.
Horace Mann High School (1923-1960), a "teaching laboratory" for Northwest Missouri teachers college. It originally operated in the college Administration Building. In 1939 a new building was built just east of what today is Bearcat Arena and just west of the J.W. Jones Student Union. The school building today is still an elementary school and is in what is called the Horace Mann Laboratory School. The high school team placed second in the 1956 Class M state championship game. The school dissolved after Maryville consolidated its school system effective 1960. The school mascot was the Cubs.
St. Patricks High School (1910-1937) - Catholic high school associated with the Atchison, Kansas, Benedictine Sisters at Highway 46 (First Street) and Buchanan. The building was subsequently used as a K-8 through for St. Gregory's School until a new school was built near the new St. Gregory's Church in 1963. The building was converted into the Carson Apartments and was destroyed in a catastrophic fire in 2007 that killed two. In 1929 the co-ed school graduated 9 students.
Frederick Douglass School (1872-1934) - Maryville's separate but equal one-room K-12 school with an area of 20 foot by 20 foot. It was originally called School No. 3. Although having a relatively small number of students, residents on multiple instances voted against integrating it. It was located at Water and East Jenkins on Maryville's east side. Maryville's black population in 1931 dwindled very quickly following after a mob burned Raymond Gunn alive atop the one-room rural school Garrett school house where he was accused of killing white school teacher Velma Cutler. The school still stands and is a house.
See also
Education in Missouri
List of colleges and universities in Missouri
List of high schools in Missouri
Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education
References
Public high schools in Missouri
Schools in Nodaway County, Missouri
Midland Empire Conference
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4943396
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaune%20Quick-to-See%20Smith
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Jaune Quick-to-See Smith
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Jaune Quick-to-See Smith (born 1940) is a Native American visual artist and curator. She is an enrolled member of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes and is also of Métis and Shoshone descent. She is also an art educator, art advocate, and political activist. She has been prolific in her long career, and her work draws from a Native worldview and comments on American Indian identity, histories of oppression, and environmental issues.
In the mid-1970s, Smith gained prominence as a painter and printmaker, and later she advanced her style and technique with collage, drawing, and mixed media. Her works have been widely exhibited and many are in the permanent collections of prominent art museums including the Museum of Modern Art, the Whitney Museum of American Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Denver Art Museum, and the Walker Art Center as well as the Smithsonian American Art Museum and National Museum of Women in the Arts. Her work has also been collected by New Mexico Museum of Art (Santa Fe) and Albuquerque Museum, both located in a landscape that has continually served as one of her greatest sources of inspiration. In 2020 the National Gallery of Art announced it had bought her painting I See Red: Target (1992), which thus became the first painting on canvas by a Native American artist in the gallery.
Smith actively supports the Native arts community by organizing exhibitions and project collaborations, and she has also participated in national commissions for public works. She lives in Corrales, New Mexico, near the Rio Grande, with her family.
Biography
Early life
Jaune Quick-to-See Smith was born on January 15, 1940, in St. Ignatius Mission, a small town on the Flathead Reservation on the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Indian Reservation, Montana. Her first name, Jaune, means "yellow" in French, pointing to her French-Cree ancestry. Her Indian name, "Quick-to-See," was given to her by her Shoshone grandmother as a sign of an ability to grasp things readily.
As a child, Smith had an itinerant life. Her father, a single parent who traded horses and participated in rodeos, frequently moved between several reservations as a horse trader. As a result, Jaune lived in various places of the Pacific Northwest and California. Growing up in poverty, Smith worked alongside migrant workers in a Seattle farming community between the ages of eight and fifteen years old, when school was not in session.
However, Smith knew very early on that she wanted to be an artist. She remembers drawing on the ground with sticks as a four-year old, and in first grade, she recalls the first time she encountered tempera paints and crayons:I loved the smell of them. It was a real awakening. I made a painting of children dancing around Mount Rainier. My teacher raved about it. Then with Valentine's Day approaching, I painted red hearts all over the sky. ... I see it as my first abstract painting."
Education
In 1960, Smith began her formal art education in Washington State, earning an associate of arts degree from Olympic College in Bremerton and taking classes at the University of Washington in Seattle. Her education, however, was interrupted because she had to support herself through various jobs as a waitress, Head Start teacher, factory worker, domestic, librarian, janitor, veterinary assistant, and secretary. In 1976, she completed a bachelor's degree in Art Education from Framingham State College, Massachusetts, and then moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to start graduate school at the University of New Mexico (UNM). Her initial attraction to the university was its comprehensive Native American studies program, but after applying three times and being successively turned down, she decided to continue taking classes and making art. After an eventual exhibition at the Kornblee Gallery in New York City and its review in Art in America, she was finally accepted into the Department of Fine Arts at UNM where in 1980 she graduated with a Masters in Art. This liberal arts education formally introduced her to studies on the classical and contemporary arts, focusing on European and American artistic practices throughout the millennia, which served as her most influential point of access to the contemporary global art world.
From this background of her childhood and formal arts education, Smith has actively negotiated Native and non-Native societies by navigating, merging, and being inspired by diverse cultures. She produces art that "follows the journey of [her] life as [she moves] through public art projects, collaborations, printmaking, traveling, curating, lecturing and tribal activities." This work serves as a mode of visual communication, which she creatively and consciously composes in layers to bridge gaps between these two worlds and to educate about social, political and environmental issues existing deeper than the surface.
Artistic style
Smith has been creating complicated abstract paintings and lithographs since the 1970s. She employs a wide variety of media, working in painting, printmaking and richly textured mixed media pieces. Such images and collage elements as commercial slogans, sign-like petroglyphs, rough drawing, and the inclusion and layering of text are unusually intersected into a complex vision created out of the artist's personal experience. Her works contain strong, insistent socio-political commentary that speaks to past and present cultural appropriation and abuse, while identifying the continued significance of the Native American peoples. She addresses today's tribal politics, human rights and environmental issues with humor. Smith is known internationally for her philosophically centered work regarding her strong cultural beliefs and political activism.
Smith's collaborative public artworks include the terrazzo floor design in the Great Hall of the Denver Airport; an in-situ sculpture piece in Yerba Buena Gardens, San Francisco; and a mile-long sidewalk history trail in West Seattle.
1980s
Smith's initial mature work consisted of abstract landscapes, begun in the 1970s and carried into the 1980s. Her landscapes often included pictographic symbolism and was considered a form of self-portraiture; Gregory Galligan explains in Arts Magazine in 1986, "each of these works distills decades of personal memory, collective consciousness, and historical awareness into a cogent pictorial synthesis." The landscapes often make use of representations of horses, teepees, humans, antelopes, etc.
These paintings touch on the alienation of the American Indian in modern culture, by acting as a sum of the past and something new altogether. She does this by beginning to saturate her work with the style of Abstract Expressionists. Smith explains, "I look at line, form, color, texture, etc., in contemporary art as well as viewing old Indian artifacts the same way. With this I make parallels from the old world to contemporary art. A Hunkpapa drum become a Rothko painting; ledger-book symbols become Cy Twombly; a Naskaspi bag is Paul Klee; a Blackfoot robe, Agnes Martin; beadwork color is Josef Albers; a parfleche is Frank Stella; design is Vasarely's positive and negative space."
1990s
In the 1990s, Smith began her I See Red series, which she has continued on and off through this day. Paintings in this series were initially exhibited at Bernice Steinbaum Gallery in 1992, in conjunction with protests regarding the Columbian quincentenary. As Erin Valentino describes in Third Text in 1997, "The paintings in this series employ numerous kinds of imagery from an abundance of sources and in a variety of associations: high, mass, consumer, popular, national, mainstream and vernacular cultures, avant-garde (modernist) imagery and so-called Indian imagery in the form of found objects, photographs, scientific illustrations, fabric swatches, bumper stickers, maps, cartoon imagery, advertisements, newspaper cut-outs and visual quotations of her own work, to name some." Here, she juxtaposes stereotypical commodification of native American cultures with visual reminders of their colonizer's legacies. The style of these paintings, with their collage, layered, and misty environments, are reminiscent of that of Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns, their subject matter reminiscent of Andy Warhol, too.
2000s
Smith has consistently addressed respect for nature, animals, and human kind. Her interest in these topics lies in her exploration of the adverse socio-cultural circumstances created for Native Americans by the government; this umbrella term refers to the health, sovereignty, and rights of Native Americans. She is able to put her studies into practice by avoiding toxic art supplies and minimizing excessive art storage space.
Today, Smith's paintings still contain contemporary cultural signifiers and collaged elements. References to the Lone Ranger, Tonto, Snow White, Altoids, Krispy Kreme, Fritos, etc., all serve to critique the rampant consumerism of American culture, and how this culture benefits off of the exploitation of Native American cultures. She uses humor in a cartoonish way to bemoan the corruption of nature and mock the shallowness of contemporary culture.
War is Heck (2002)
Jaune Quick-to-See Smith creates a unique art piece called, War is Heck (2002). Smith uses her gift to strongly address how her people were treated in the past. "War is Heck" is a lithograph that details the cross-cultural experiences of Smith. Smith adds details such as Native American, European, and American art. Smith uses a "horse" to represent herself, and by doing so she's attaching herself to her artwork. Smith refers to the Americans by using the American Flag and she uses the "Buffalo" to represent the Native Americans who lived here first before anyone. She also includes "El Soldado'' which translates as "the soldier." She depicts a soldier with wings that appears to be riding the horse. At first glance the red and blue seem to represent the United States of America, but when you take a closer look at the top of the page under the blue it states, "peace." The display of red could be a representation of all the lives that were lost. This painting has many attributes regarding the people who once roam the land and the people who came to take the land.
Nomad Art Manifesto
As an active environmentalist, Smith often critiques the pollution created through art-making such as toxic materials, excessive storage space, and extensive shipping. The Nomad Art Manifesto, designed based on the aesthetic of parfleches, consists of squares carrying messages about the environment and Indian life, made entirely from biodegradable materials.
The Nomad Art Manifesto:
Nomad Art is made with biodegradable materials
Nomad Art can be recycled
Nomad Art can be folded and sent as a small parcel
Nomad Art can be stored on a bookshelf, which saves space
Nomad Art does not need to be framed
Nomad Art is convenient for countries which may be disbanding or reforming
Nomad Art is for the new diaspora age.
Awards and honors
Smith has received attention for her work as an artist, educator, art advocate, and political activist throughout her career and she has received multiple honors, awards and fellowships.
Smith has been awarded several honorary degrees. These include doctorates in art granted by the Minneapolis College of Art and Design in 1992, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in 1998, Massachusetts College of Art in 2003, and University of New Mexico in 2008; a professorship in art by Washington University in St. Louis in 1989; and, a degree in Native American Studies by Salish Kootanai College, Pablo, Montana in 2015.
Among lifetime achievement awards acknowledging dedication to her career, she has received the Women's Caucus for Art Award in the Visual Arts in 1997, the College Art Association Committee on Women in the Arts Award in 2002, and the Woodson Foundation Award in 2014 as well as being inducted into the National Academy of Design in 2011. She has also been the recipient of the Women's Vision Award for the National Women's History Project in Women's Art in 2008 and the Visionary Woman Award from Moore College of Art & Design in 2011. Other notable awards throughout the years have been the Wallace Stegner Award for art of the American West in 1995, the Joan Mitchell Foundation Award in 1996 to archive her work through the Painters Grant, the Eiteljorg Museum Fellowship for Native American Fine Art in its inaugural year of 1999, ArtTable award in 2011, the Switzer Distinguished Artist Award in 2012, and a United States Artists fellowship in 2020.
Her adoptive state of New Mexico has also lauded her contribution to the arts and local community with praise and continuous recognition over the decades. This began early in her state residency (with her first career honor) when she was named one of "80 Professional Women to Watch in the 1980s" by New Mexico Women's Political Caucus for her local civic engagement in 1979. Subsequent esteemed credits of distinction are: SITE Santa Fe fellowship award in 1995; the New Mexico Governor's Outstanding New Mexico Woman's Award and the New Mexico Governor's Award for Excellence in the Arts (Allan Houser Memorial Award) both in 2005; the Living Artist of Distinction award by the Georgia O'Keeffe Museum in 2012; the aforementioned doctorate from University of New Mexico (Albuquerque) and the Woodson Foundation award in Santa Fe. Smith was also admitted to the New Mexico Women's Hall of Fame in 2014.
Exhibitions
Smith has participated in a large number of solo shows in the United States and internationally. Her solo shows include Jaune Quick-to-See Smith (1979), Kornblee Gallery, New York; Parameters Series (1993), Chrysler Museum of Art, Norfolk, Virginia; Jaune Quick-to-See Smith: Poet in Paint (2001), Neuberger Museum of Art, Purchase, New York; Jaune Quick-to-See Smith: Made in America (2003-2009), originating at Belger Arts Center, Kansas City, Missouri; and Jaune Quick-to-See Smith: In the Footsteps of My Ancestors (2017-2019), originating at Yellowstone Art Museum, Billings, Montana. Memory Map, the largest survey of the artist's oeuvre to date, opened at the Whitney Museum in New York in 2023, making Smith the first Native American artist to have a solo retrospective at the Whitney.
She has also participated in a large array of group exhibitions, including the 48th Venice Biennale (1999) and the Havana Biennial (2009).
In 2023, Smith was announced as the curator of an exhibition of contemporary art by Native American artists at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. Smith is the first artist to curate an exhibition at the National Gallery.
Notable works in public collections
Nirada #16 (1982), Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
The Courthouse Steps (1986), Albuquerque Museum, New Mexico
August Encampment (1989-1999), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Salish Spring (Montana Memories Series) (1988-1989), Missoula Art Museum, Montana
Tamarack (1989), Birmingham Museum of Art, Alabama
Sources of Strength (1990), Minneapolis Institute of Art
I See Red: Herd (1992), Detroit Institute of Arts
I See Red: Salmon Recovery? (1992), Fralin Museum of Art, Charlottesville, Virginia
I See Red: Target (1992), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Mischief, Indian Land Series (1992), Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas
The Red Mean: Self Portrait (1992), Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts
Trade (Gifts for Trading Land with White People) (1992), Chrysler Museum of Art, Norfolk, Virginia
Fish For a Lifetime (1993-1994), Museum of Modern Art, New York
The Vanishing American (1994), Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
Genesis (1995), High Museum of Art, Atlanta
I See Red: Migration (1995), Saint Louis Art Museum
All American (1996), Chazen Museum of Art, Madison, Wisconsin
I See Red: Flathead Vest (1996), Colby College Museum of Art, Waterville, Maine
Survival (1996), Cleveland Museum of Art
Famous Names (1998), Memorial Art Gallery, Rochester, New York
Target: The Wild West (1999), Autry Museum of the American West, Los Angeles
Browning of America (Map) (2000), Crocker Art Museum, Sacramento, California
Echo Map I (2000), Baltimore Museum of Art
State Names (2000), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Tribal Map (2000), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Tribal Map (2000-2001), Walter E. Washington Convention Center, Events DC, Washington, D.C.
The Rancher (2002), Hood Museum of Art, Hanover, New Hampshire
Song and Dance (2003), Missoula Art Museum, Montana
What is an American? (2003), Detroit Institute of Arts; Minneapolis Institute of Art; Spencer Museum of Art, Lawrence, Kansas; and Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Trade Canoe for Don Quixote (2004), Denver Art Museum
Who Leads? Who Follows? (2004), Albuquerque Museum, New Mexico
Trade Canoe: Adrift (2015), National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian institution, Washington, D.C.
Adios Map (2021), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Personal
Smith's son, Neal Ambrose-Smith, is a contemporary painter, printmaker, sculptor and educator.
References
Further reading
Kastner, Carolyn. (2013) Jaune Quick-To-See Smith : An American Modernist. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.
External links
Official site
1940 births
20th-century American painters
20th-century American printmakers
20th-century American women artists
American women painters
American women printmakers
Artists from Montana
American contemporary painters
Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes
Interior Salish people
Living people
Native American painters
Native American printmakers
Native American women artists
University of New Mexico alumni
People from Corrales, New Mexico
21st-century American painters
21st-century American women artists
20th-century Native American women
20th-century Native American artists
21st-century Native American women
21st-century Native American artists
Framingham State University alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma%20Thomas
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Alma Thomas
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Alma Woodsey Thomas (September 22, 1891 – February 24, 1978) was an African-American artist and teacher who lived and worked in Washington, D.C., and is now recognized as a major American painter of the 20th century. Thomas is best known for the "exuberant", colorful, abstract paintings that she created after her retirement from a 35-year career teaching art at Washington's Shaw Junior High School.
Thomas, who is often considered a member of the Washington Color School art movement but alternatively classified by some as an Expressionist, earned her teaching degree from University of the District of Columbia (known as Miner Normal School at the time). She was the first graduate of Howard University's art department, and maintained connections to that university through her life. She achieved success as an African-American female artist despite the segregation and prejudice of her time.
Thomas's reputation has continued to grow since her death. Her paintings are displayed in notable museums and collections, and they have been the subject of several books and solo museum exhibitions. In 2021, a museum sold Thomas's painting Alma's Flower Garden in a private transaction for $2.8 million.
Life and work
Childhood, education, and early teaching positions
Alma Thomas was born on September 22, 1891, in Columbus, Georgia, as the oldest of four daughters, to John Harris Thomas, a businessman, and Amelia Cantey Thomas, a dress designer. Her mother and aunts, she later wrote, were teachers and Tuskegee Institute graduates. She was creative as a child, although her serious artistic career began much later in life. While growing up, Thomas displayed her artistic capabilities, and enjoyed making small pieces of artwork such as puppets, sculptures, and plates, mainly out of clay from the river behind her childhood home. Despite a growing interest in the arts, Thomas was "not allowed" to go into art museums as a child. She was provided with music lessons, as her mother played the violin.
In 1907, when Thomas was 16, the family moved to the Logan Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C., to escape racial violence in Georgia and to seek the benefits of the public school system of Washington. Her parents made this move despite that the family "kind of came down a bit," socially and economically, in leaving their upper-middle class life in Georgia. Describing the reason for the family move, she later wrote, "When I finished grade school in Columbus, there was nowhere that I could continue my education, so my parents decided to move the family to Washington." Other writers have pointed to the Atlanta race riots and racial massacre of 1906 as among the reasons her family left Georgia. As another example of the racial violence that her family faced in Georgia, Alma's father had an encounter with a lynch mob shortly before Alma was born, and her family attributed her poor hearing to the fright from that incident. Although still segregated, the nation's capital was known to offer more opportunities for African-Americans than most other cities. As she wrote in the 1970s, "At least Washington's libraries were open to Negroes, whereas Columbus excluded Negroes from its only library."
In Washington, Thomas attended Armstrong Technical High School, where she took her first art classes. About them, she said "When I entered the art room, it was like entering heaven. . . . The Armstrong High School laid the foundation for my life." In high school, she excelled at math and science, and architecture specifically interested her. A miniature schoolhouse that she made from cardboard using techniques learned in her architecture studies at Armstrong was exhibited at the Smithsonian in 1912. Although she expressed an interest in becoming an architect, it was unusual for women to work in this profession and this limited her prospects.
After graduating from high school in 1911, she studied kindergarten education at Miner Normal School (now known as University of the District of Columbia), earning her teaching credentials in 1913. In 1914, she obtained a teaching position in the Princess Anne schools on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, where she taught for four months. In 1915, she started teaching kindergarten at the Thomas Garrett Settlement House in Wilmington, Delaware, staying there until 1921.
Thomas entered Howard University in 1921, at age 30, entering as a junior because of her previous teacher training. She started as a home economics student, planning to specialize in costume design, only to switch to fine art after studying under art department founder James V. Herring. Her artistic focus at Howard was on sculpture; the paintings she produced during her college education were described by Romare Bearden and Henry Henderson as "academic and undistinguished." She earned her Bachelors of Science in Fine Arts in 1924 from Howard, becoming the first graduate from the university's fine arts program, and also "possibly the first African-American woman" to earn a bachelor's degree in art—or the first American woman of any racial background, as the artist Keith Anthony Morrison wrote that "it was said [in 1924] that she was the first woman in America ever to gain a bachelor’s degree in art."
Post-college career
In 1924, Thomas began teaching art at Shaw Junior High School, a Black school in the then-segregated public schools of Washington, D.C., where she worked until her retirement in 1960; she wrote, "I was there for thirty-five years and occupied the same classroom." She taught alongside fellow artist Malkia Roberts. While at Shaw Junior High, she started a community arts program that encouraged student appreciation of fine art. The program supported marionette performances and the distribution of student designed holiday cards which were given to soldiers at the Tuskegee Veterans Administration Medical Center. Also, according to her reminiscences, "At Shaw, I organized the first art gallery in the D.C. public schools in 1938, securing paintings by outstanding Negro artists from the Howard Gallery of Art."
The three and a half decades of Thomas's teaching career, from 1924 to 1960, were described by Thurlow Tibbs, the D.C. African-American art dealer (and grandson of Thomas's friend Lillian Evans, the opera singer) as Thomas's "fermenting period;" during them she absorbed many ideas and influences, and after 1960 from those ideas and influences she would create her own distinctive art. While she taught at Shaw Junior High, Thomas continued to pursue her art, her formal and informal education, and activities with the Washington, D.C. art community, the latter often in ways connected to Howard University.
During this time Thomas painted, especially in watercolor; while her style in the 1930s was described as still "quite traditional" and naturalistic, she has been called a "brilliant watercolorist." Over summers, she would travel to New York City to visit art museums, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and galleries.
During the summers of 1930 through 1934, she attended Teachers College of Columbia University, earning her Masters in Art Education in 1934; her studies focused on sculpture, and she wrote her thesis on the use of marionettes.
In the summer of 1935, she further studied marionettes in New York City with the German-American puppeteer Tony Sarg, known as the father of modern puppetry in America.
In 1936, she founded an organization, called the School Arts League Project, to bring art opportunities to children.
In 1943, Thomas helped James W. Herring, her former professor at Howard, and Alonzo J. Aden found the Barnett-Aden Gallery, the first successful Black-owned private art gallery in the United States. She served as the gallery's vice president. Thomas's association with the Barnett-Aden Gallery has been described as "critical to" and, according to curator Adelyn Dohme Breeskin, the "pivotal" development in, her development as a professional artist." It put her into contact with leading contemporary national artists, which "heightened her awareness of art trends and directions," and it provided exposure to local artists which "both challenged and inspired her."
In the 1940s Thomas also joined Lois Mailou Jones's artist community, "The Little Paris Group (or "Little Paris Studio," or "Little Paris Studio group"). This group of Black Washington artists was founded by Jones and Céline Marie Tabary, both artists and members of the Howard University art faculty (Jones from 1930 to 1977, and Tabary beginning in 1945). The date of the group's founding is described variously as during the German occupation of Paris (i.e., 1940 to 1944), "the late 1940s," 1945, 1946, or 1948. It met either weekly or twice per week, at Jones' studio, the "Little Paris studio," in her home at 1220 Quincy Street NE, in Washington's Brookland neighborhood. It existed for five years. It offered developing artists an opportunity to paint from the model, to improve their techniques -- "developing skills and styles," and "to hone their skills and exchange critiques"—as well as a salon, or discussion forum—to "talk about the latest developments in modern art, particularly as it was centered in Paris." Other members of the group in addition to Jones and Tabary included Delilah Pierce and Thomas, as well as Bruce Brown, Ruth Brown, Richard Dempsey, Barbara Linger, Don Roberts, Desdemona Wade, Frank West, and Elizabeth Williamson. A photo, from Thomas's archives, of a 1948 gathering of the group shows thirteen artists and a male model.
In 1958, Thomas visited art centers in Western Europe with Temple University students in an extensive tour arranged by that university's Tyler School of Art.
Her involvement with the Little Paris Group is said to have inspired Thomas to seek further academic training at American University. One source states that in the early 1950s, "the A.U. art department was regarded in many quarters as 'the' avant-garde art department in the nation." Accordingly, in 1950, at the age of 59, she began a decade of studies at that university, taking night and weekend classes, studying Art History and painting. At American University she studied painting with Robert Franklin Gates and Ben "Joe" Summerford. But Jacob Kainen was her most influential teacher there, and would become a close friend for the rest of her lifetime. When Tomas studied with Kainin in fall 1957, he considered her as a fellow artist rather than as a student. Kainen had met Thomas in 1934, at the Barnet-Aden Gallery, and in 1957, he agreed to take over teaching an intensive year-long A.U. class for six selected top painting students, including Thomas, but the administration allowed 32 students, many of them beginners, to take the class and Kainen quit in frustration after one term.
When Thomas began her advanced studies at American University in 1950, she was still a figurative painter. During the 1950s her style evolved in several major shifts, from figurative painting to cubism and then to abstract expressionism, with "monumental," dark paintings largely in blue and brown tones, to beginning to embrace the bright colors that she would later use in her signature style.
Artistic career
"Creative art is for all time and is therefore independent of time. It is of all ages, of every land, and if by this we mean the creative spirit in man which produces a picture or a statue is common to the whole civilized world, independent of age, race and nationality; the statement may stand unchallenged."-Alma Thomas, 1970
Thomas would not become a full-time, professional artist until she was 68 or 69 years old, in 1960, when she retired from teaching.
Within twelve years after her first class at American, she began creating Color Field paintings, inspired by the work of the New York School and Abstract Expressionism.
Thomas was known to work in her home studio (a small living room), creating her paintings by "propping the canvas on her lap and balancing it against the sofa." She worked out of the kitchen in her house, creating works like Watusi (Hard Edge) (1963), a manipulation of the Matisse cutout The Snail, in which Thomas shifted shapes around and changed the colors that Matisse used, and named it after a Chubby Checker song.
In contrast with most other members of the Washington Color School, she did not use masking tape to outline the shapes in her paintings. Her technique involved drawing faint pencil lines across the canvas to create shapes and patterns, and filling in the canvas with paint afterwards. Her pencil lines are obvious in many of her finished pieces, as Thomas did not erase them.
Thomas's post-retirement artwork had a notable focus on color theory. Her work at the time resonated with that of Vasily Kandinsky (who was interested in the emotional capabilities of color) and of the Washington Color Field Painters, "something that endeared her to critics . . . but also raised questions about her 'blackness' at a time when younger African-American artists were producing works of racial protest." She stated, "The use of color in my paintings is of paramount importance to me. Through color I have sought to concentrate on beauty and happiness in my painting rather than on man's inhumanity to man." Speaking again about her use of color she said: "Color is life, and light is the mother of color."
In 1963, she walked in the March on Washington with her friend, the opera singer Lillian Evans. Although Thomas was largely an apolitical artist, she portrayed the 1963 event in a 1964 painting. A detail from that painting became a 2005 U.S. postage stamp commemorating the March on Washington.
Her first retrospective exhibit was in 1966 (April 24–May 17) at the Gallery of Art at Howard University, curated by art historian James A. Porter. It included 34 works from 1959 to 1966. For this exhibition, she created Earth Paintings, a series of nature-inspired abstract works, including Resurrection (1966), which in 2014 would be bought for the White House collection. Thomas and the artist Delilah Pierce, a friend, would drive into the countryside where Thomas would seek inspiration, pulling ideas from the effects of light and atmosphere on rural environments.
To meet the challenge posed by the Howard show, according to Romare Bearden and Henry Henderson, her style changed again, in a crucial way: "Thomas evolved the specific style now recognized as her signature - playing color against color and over color with small, irregular rectangular shapes of dense, often intense color." This exhibition received a supportive review from Helen Hoffman in The Washington Post of May 4, 1966, titled "colorful abstract reflects her spirit".
Inspired by the Moon landing in 1969, Alma Thomas began her second major theme of paintings. The series Space, Snoopy and Earth were applying pointillism. She evoked mood by dramatic contrast of color with mosaic style, using dark blue against pale pink and orange colors, depicting an abstraction and accidental beauty through the use of color. Most of the works in these series have circular, horizontal and vertical patterns. These patterns are able to generate a conceptual feeling of floating. The patterns also generate energy within the canvas. The contrast of colors creates a powerful color segregation, and maintain visual energy.
In 1972, at the age of 81, Thomas was the first African-American woman to have a solo exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art, and later the same year a much larger exhibition was also held at the Corcoran Gallery of Art. Thomas denied labels placed upon her as an artist and would not accept any barriers inhibiting her creative process and art career, including her identity as a black woman. She believed that the most important thing was for her to continue to create her visions through her own artwork and work in the art world despite racial segregation. Despite this, Thomas was still discriminated against as a black female artist and was critiqued for her abstract style as opposed to other Black Americans who worked with figuration and symbolism to fight oppression. Her works were featured alongside many other African-American artists in galleries and shows, such as the first Black-owned gallery in the District of Columbia.
After her show at the Whitney, Thomas's fame within the fine arts community immediately skyrocketed. Her newfound recognition was due in part to Robert Doty's vocal support of her, as he organized Thomas's Whitney show as part of a series of African-American artist exhibitions, intended to protest their lack of representation. New York critics were impressed with Thomas's modern style, especially given the fact that she was a nearly 80-year-old woman at the time of her national debut. The New York Times reviewed her exhibit four times, calling her paintings "expert abstractions, tachiste in style, faultless in their handling of color." Many white critics complimented her as “the Signac of current color painters” and as “gifted, ebullient abstractionist”. Alma Thomas's philosophy of her own art is that her works are full of energy, and those energies cannot be destroyed or created.
New York art curator and editor Thomas B. Hess bought Thomas's 1972 painting Red Roses Sonata, and in 1976 his family's foundation gave the piece to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Joshua Taylor, director from 1970 to 1981 of the National Collection of Fine Arts (now the Smithsonian American Art Museum), also purchased some of her work, and wrote to Thomas in 1975, thanking her for a painting that hung in his living room: "It's like having Spring well before its appointed date."
Mary Beth Edelson's Some Living American Women Artists / Last Supper (1972) appropriated Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper, with the heads of notable women artists collaged over the heads of Christ and his apostles; Alma Thomas was among those notable women artists. This image, addressing the role of religious and art historical iconography in the subordination of women, became "one of the most iconic images of the feminist art movement."
Personal life
Thomas was, according to all evidence, never married. She told the New York Times in 1977 that she had "never married a man but my art. What man would have ever appreciated what I was up to?" She wrote, "Once upon a time it was said, don't die having a "Miss" on your tombstone. I feel very proud of having maintain[ed] my Miss. I say that Miss stand[s] for all the Jackasses I missed in life." She added, "A fine man is a delight, but for God sake don't get entangled with a Jackass." She had an active social life, with many artist friends. She reportedly "rarely missed" a museum or gallery opening in Washington.
Thomas lived in the same family house in Washington, at 1530 15th Street, NW, for nearly her entire life, from 1907 when her family moved from Georgia so she could attend high school until her death in 1978 (aside from a few years in her 20s when she worked elsewhere). Her younger sister John Maurice Thomas, who was named for their father and had a career as a librarian at Howard University, shared the house with her.) That home, now known as the Alma Thomas House, was built in about 1875 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Death and archives
Alma Thomas died on February 24, 1978, in Howard University Hospital, following aortal surgery.
Thomas' papers were donated in several periods between 1979 and 2004 to the Archives of American Art by J. Maurice Thomas, Alma Thomas' sister.
Artistic style
Alma Thomas' early work was representational in manner. As a black woman, she focused her work on creative spirit rather than race or gender. Thomas believed that creativity should be independent of gender or race, creating works with a focus on accidental beauty and the abstraction of color.
After further education at American University and influenced by James V. Herring and Lois Mailou Jones, her work became more abstract. Toward the end of her life, her style moved "to a color-filled, impastoed geometric abstraction of tessellated brushstroke patterns." These paintings have been compared to Byzantine mosaics and the pointillist paintings of Georges-Pierre Seurat. Thomas' style has qualities similar to West African paintings as well as Byzantine mosaics.
Her watercolor and oil paintings incorporated the use of (sometimes overlapping) colorful rectangles. She continued to use this technique, in works which explored colors found in trees, flowers, gardens, and other natural imagery. Her painting Evening Glow was inspired in part by Thomas's interest in the colors of natural world: "The holly tree outside her living room intrigued Thomas with designs formed by its leaves against the window panes, and with patterns of light and shade cast on the floor and walls
inside her home." She called her paintings 'Alma's Stripes,' as the overlapping shapes of paint created elongated rectangles. Later works were inspired by space exploration and the cosmos. The title of her painting Mars Dust (1972) alluded to news stories of a dust storm on Mars..
Later reactions, exhibits, and developments
Art historian Richard J. Powell wrote in 1997 about the position of Thomas and Sam Gilliam as the two best known African-American members of the Washington Color School, "While conversant with the works of fellow Washington Color School artists (Gene Davis, Morris Louis, and Kenneth Noland), they also addressed, through rhythmic and high key color abstract painting techniques, the social aspirations of Washington D.C.'s African American middle class." He continued by noting that in the 1960s Thomas "turned her back" on her earlier representational style "that would have been seen by D.C.'s arts community as ideologically conservative," in favor of "an abstract style inspired by horticulture, scientific color theory, and music." Powell described Thomas's 1976 Azeleas Singing and Dancing Rock and Roll Music as "skillfully negotiating the slippery pathways between nature and society," and "epitomize[ing] the integrationist mood of the times."
The Washington Post described her as "a force in the Washington Color School".
Writing in 1998, art historian Sharon Patton described Thomas's 1973 Wind and Crepe Myrtle Concerto as "one of the most Minimalist Color-Field paintings ever produced by an African-American artist."
Although Thomas did not receive a monograph until 1998 when the Fort Wayne Museum exhibited a retrospective on the artist, the lateness of in-depth scholarly attention is not representative of her legacy and influence on the realm of Visual Arts. Jacob Kainen, her teacher at American University in autumn 1957, asserts that "Thomas played a key role in the development of abstract painting throughout the mid 20th century." Kainen wrote in the catalog of the Fort Wayne show that he met Thomas in 1943, at an event at the Barnett-Aden Gallery. Kainen remembers her at that time as "a small, slim woman whose elegance of dress and manner and unmistakable firmness of character made the matter of her size irrelevant." In the program of the 1966 Howard University Art Gallery's show "Alma W. Thomas: A Retrospective Exhibition, 1959-1966," Kainen is quoted as describing her as "the Signac of current color painters."
In 2009, two paintings by Thomas, including Watusi (Hard Edge), were chosen by First Lady Michelle Obama, White House interior designer Michael S. Smith (interior designer), and White House curator William Allman to be exhibited in the White House during the Obama presidency. Watusi (Hard Edge) was eventually removed from the White House due to concerns about the piece fitting into the space in Michelle Obama's East Wing office. Sky Light, on loan from the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, hung in the Obama family private quarters.
In 2015, another of her paintings, Resurrection (1966), was prominently hung in the Old Family Dining Room of the White House, having been acquired for the White House collection in 2014 with $290,000 in funding from the White House Historical Association. It was "the first artwork by an African-American woman to hang in the public spaces of the White House and enter the permanent collection." The choice of Thomas for the White House collection was described as an ideal symbol for the Obama administration by The New York Times art critic Holland Cotter. Cotter described Thomas' work as "forward-looking without being radical; post-racial but also race-conscious."
In 2016, the exhibition Alma Thomas, described in promotional materials as "the first comprehensive look at the artist’s work in nearly twenty years," and as presenting "a wide range of evolution of Thomas's work from the late 1950s to her death in 1978," was organized by The Frances Young Tang Teaching Museum and Art Gallery at Skidmore College and The Studio Museum in Harlem. This exhibition was curated by Ian Berry, Dayton Director of the Tang Museum and Lauren Haynes, Associate Curator, Permanent Collection at the Studio Museum in Harlem and supported by the Friends of the Tang. The exhibit's promotional material noted that "Thomas's patterned compositions, energetic brushwork and commitment to color created a singular and innovative body of work." They also noted that it "includes rarely exhibited watercolors and early experiments." This exhibition was divided into four sections: Move to Abstraction; Earth, Space, and Late Work.
The Wall Street Journal described her in 2016 as a previously "underappreciated artist" who is more recently recognized for her "exuberant" works, noteworthy for their pattern, rhythm and color.
In 2019, Thomas's 1970 painting A Fantastic Sunset was auctioned at a Christie's sale. It sold for $2.655 million.
In 2021, a new record price was set for Thomas's work when Alma's Flower Garden, painted in approximately 1968 to 1970, was deaccessioned by the Greenville County Museum of Art, which sold it in a private sale to an unidentified purchaser for $2.8 million. The museum had bought the painting in 2008 for $135,000.
An exhibition of her art entitled "Alma W. Thomas: Everything is Beautiful," co-organized by the Chrysler Museum of Art in Norfolk, Virginia and the Columbus Museum in Columbus, Georgia, opened on July 9, 2021, at the Chrysler Museum. It is scheduled to run there to October 3, 2021, following which it will run at the Phillips Collection in Washington, D.C., in fall 2021, the Frist Art Museum in Nashville in spring 2022, and the Columbus Museum in summer 2022.
In collaboration with the exhibition, a short documentary, "Miss Alma Thomas: A Life in Color" was commissioned. The film, directed by Cheri Gaulke, and produced by Jon Gann has played over 40 film festivals worldwide, and has won awards and accolades.
In 2023 her work was included in the exhibition Action, Gesture, Paint: Women Artists and Global Abstraction 1940-1970 at the Whitechapel Gallery in London.
Notable exhibitions
Watercolors by Alma Thomas, 1960, Dupont Theatre Art Gallery
Alma Thomas: A Retrospective Exhibition (1959-1966), 1966, Howard University Gallery of Art
Alma Thomas: Recent Paintings, 1968, Franz Bader Gallery
Recent Paintings by Alma W. Thomas: Earth and Space Series (1961–1971), 1971, Carl Van Vechten Gallery, Fisk University
Alma W. Thomas, 1972, Whitney Museum of American Art
Alma W. Thomas: Retrospective Exhibition, 1972, Corcoran Gallery of Art
Alma W. Thomas: Paintings, 1973, Martha Jackson Gallery
Alma W. Thomas: Recent Paintings, 1975, Howard University Gallery of Art
Alma W. Thomas: Recent Paintings, 1976, H.C. Taylor Art Gallery, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
A Life in Art: Alma Thomas, 1891-1978, 1981, National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution
Alma W. Thomas: A Retrospective of the Paintings, 1998, Fort Wayne Museum of Art, Tampa Museum of Art, New Jersey State Museum, Anacostia Community Museum, Smithsonian Institution, and The Columbus Museum
Alma Thomas: Phantasmagoria, Major Paintings from the 1970s, 2001, Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, and Women's Museum: An Institution for the Future
A Proud Continuum: Eight Decades of Art at Howard University, 2005, Howard University
Color Balance: Paintings by Felrath Hines and Alma Thomas, 2010, Nasher Museum of Art
Alma Thomas, 2016, The Frances Young Tang Teaching Museum and Art Gallery at Skidmore College, and The Studio Museum in Harlem
Alma Thomas: Resurrection Exhibition, 2019, Mnuchin Gallery
Alma W. Thomas: Everything is Beautiful, 2021, Chrysler Museum of Art
Notable works in public collections
Watusi (Hard Edge) (1963), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Air View of a Spring Nursery (1966), Columbus Museum, Georgia
Breeze Rustling Through Fall Flowers (1968), Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.
Nature's Red Impressions (1968), Luther W. Brady Art Gallery, George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
Resurrection (1968), White House Historical Association, Washington, D.C.
Wind, Sunshine and Flowers (1968), Brooklyn Museum, New York
Iris, Tulips, Jonquils and Crocuses (1969), National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C.
Pansies in Washington (1969), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Lunar Surface (1970), American University Museum, Washington, D.C.
Snoopy Early Sun Display (1970), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Earth Sermon - Beauty, Love and Peace (1971), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Evening Glow (1972), Baltimore Museum of Art
Mars Dust (1972), Whitney Museum, New York
Red Atmosphere (1972), Tougaloo College, Jackson, Mississippi
Red Roses Sonata (1972), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Starry Night and the Astronauts (1972), Art Institute of Chicago
Fiery Sunset (1973), Museum of Modern Art, New York
Spring Embraces Yellow (1973), University of Iowa Stanley Museum of Art, Iowa City
Wind and Crêpe Myrtle Concerto (1973), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Wind Sparkling Dew and Green Grass (1973), Fort Wayne Museum of Art, Indiana
Hydrangeas Spring Song (1976), Philadelphia Museum of Art
Red Azaleas Singing and Dancing Rock and Roll Music (1976), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
White Roses Sing and Sing (1976), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Untitled: Music Series (1978), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Memorials
Alma Thomas Teen Space at the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library was named after her.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Patton, Sharon F. African-American Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1998).
"Alma Thomas papers, 1894-2000". Finding Aid. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Further reading
Alma W. Thomas: A Retrospective of the Paintings. Fort Wayne: Fort Wayne Museum of Art (1998).
Merry A. Foresta, A Life in Art: Alma Thomas, 1891-1978. Washington, D.C.: National Museum of American Art (1981).
Foresta, Merry A. A Life in Art: Alma Thomas, 1891-1978. Published for the National Museum of American Art by the Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981.
Alma Thomas. New York: Whitney Museum of American Art (1972).
External links
Alma Thomas's work at the Smithsonian
Alma Thomas, Skidmore University
Works by Alma Thomas at the National Gallery of Art
Swann Galleries, "Alma Thomas’s Journey to Abstraction" (Sep. 27, 2017) - five examples of paintings showing the evolution of her abstract style from the 1950s to the 1970s
"Miss Alma Thomas: A Life in Color" short documentary (2021)
1891 births
1978 deaths
Abstract expressionist artists
People from Columbus, Georgia
Painters from Washington, D.C.
Howard University alumni
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
Artists from Georgia (U.S. state)
20th-century American women artists
American women painters
African-American painters
African-American women artists
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20the%20Netherlands
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LGBT rights in the Netherlands
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) rights in the Netherlands rank among the most advanced in the world. Same-sex sexual activity was legalized in 1811 after France invaded the country and installed the Napoleonic Code, erasing any remaining sodomy laws. No more sodomy laws were enacted after the country received independence. An age of consent equal with that of heterosexual activity was put in place in 1971. During the late 20th century, awareness surrounding homosexuality grew and society became more tolerant of gay and bisexual people. The changes eventually led to homosexuality's declassification as a mental illness in 1973 and a ban on discrimination based on sexual orientation in the military. The Equal Treatment Act 1994 bans discrimination on account of sexual orientation in employment, housing, public accommodations, and other areas. This was extended in 2019 to include discrimination based on gender identity, gender expression and sex characteristics. After the country began granting same-sex couples registered partnerships benefits in 1998, the Netherlands became the first country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage in 2001. Same-sex joint and stepchild adoption are also permitted, and lesbian couples can access IVF as well.
The Netherlands has become one of the most culturally liberal countries in the world, with recent polls indicating that more than 90% of Dutch people support same-sex marriage. Amsterdam has frequently been named one of the most LGBT-friendly cities in the world, famous for its many accommodations specifically pertaining to the LGBT community, including its many gay bars, bathhouses, hotels, and venues as well as Pink Point, which provides LGBT-friendly information and souvenirs, and the national Homomonument, which was completed in 1987 and was the first monument in the world to commemorate homosexuals who were persecuted and killed during World War II. Since February 2023, protections against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and disability were formally added to the Netherlands Constitution.
Law regarding same-sex sexual activity
Same-sex activity has been legal since 1811. The age of consent is set at 16 regardless of gender and sexual orientation, having been equalised in 1971.
History
Between 1730 and 1811, sodomy was considered a capital crime by the Dutch Republic, resulting in widespread panic throughout the Netherlands and the persecution of hundreds of homosexuals. After the French invaded and installed the Napoleonic Code in 1811, all laws against same-sex sexual activity between consenting adults in private were repealed. After the Dutch received independence in 1813, no new sodomy laws were enacted. The Christian-based political parties enacted Article 248bis of the Penal Code in 1911, which raised the age of consent for same-sex sexual activity to 21 whilst the age of consent for heterosexual activity remained at 16. Laws citing public indecency were also often used against homosexuals.
During World War II, the Nazis introduced Paragraph 175 into Dutch law, which prohibited any same-sex sexual activity once again. The law was repealed after the end of the war.
During the mid-20th century, society's attitude towards homosexuality, with psychiatrists and clergy beginning to view it less critically. In 1971, the age of consent for same-sex sexual activity was equalised. Article 248bis was repealed. In 1973, homosexuality was no longer treated as a mental illness, which paved the way for allowing gay people to serve in the military.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
Dutch law began granting same-sex couples registered partnerships on 1 January 1998 as an alternative for marriage. Registered partnerships are also allowed for opposite-sex couples. The Netherlands became the first country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage in 2001, with the law coming into effect on 1 April. That day, Job Cohen, the Mayor of Amsterdam, married four same-sex couples after becoming a registrar specifically to officiate at the weddings. The bill had passed the House of Representatives by 109 votes against 33. Although same-sex marriages can be performed in the European territory of the Netherlands and the Caribbean territories of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, same-sex marriages performed in Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, which are constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, are not officially valid. As a result of article 40 of the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, same-sex marriages performed anywhere else in the Kingdom must be recognized in all territories, however, they are not required to guarantee equal treatment of same-sex couples with valid marriage licenses.
Before 2014, civil servants could refuse to marry same-sex couples as long as the municipality ensured that other civil servants were available to solemnize the marriage. In 2014, a law was passed that made it illegal for all marriage officiants to refuse their services to same-sex couples.
In October 2021, it was clarified and investigated that "any memberships of the Dutch Royal Family" legally can enter into same-sex marriage in effect since 1 April 2001 – without losing any titles, rights and/or privileges whatsoever.
Adoption and parenting
Same-sex adoption was legalized alongside same-sex marriage in 2001, which includes joint and stepchild adoption. The Dutch Parliament also began allowing same-sex couples to adopt children overseas in 2009. Lesbian couples can get access to IVF treatment, as well as parentage rights for their children. Assisted insemination in case of infertility is covered by health insurance, whether concering single women, opposite-sex couples or lesbian couples.
Altruistic surrogacy is legal in the Netherlands. Commercial surrogacy is illegal, regardless of sexual orientation. Although altruistic surrogacy is legal, there are only a few hospitals that undertake these arrangements, and there are very strict rules. This makes a lot of couples seek their treatment outside the Netherlands. In 2019, at least two IVF clinics in the Netherlands started offering surrogacy services to same-sex couples; one in Leiderdorp helps with the fertilisation of the surrogate mother's eggs, while a second in Gemert-Bakel works with the family members of the couple for a better genetic match.
Discrimination protections
The Dutch Parliament enacted the Equal Treatment Act 1994 (; ) in March of that year, which bans (among others) discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation in employment, housing, and both public and private accommodations. Before March 2019, gender identity, gender expression and sex characteristics were not specifically mentioned, but discrimination was nonetheless banned. There had been cases where the Dutch Institute for Human Rights ruled that transgender people were protected under the clause of "gender". On 16 January 2017, a bill was introduced to explicitly add sex characteristics, gender identity and gender expression to the list of anti-discrimination grounds. The bill was approved by the House (127–23) on 3 July 2018 and by the Senate (64–11) on 12 March 2019. In addition, a motion was passed (123–27) that requested the Rutte Government to investigate whether it is possible to replace the term "heterosexual or homosexual orientation" with the term "sexual orientation" to include all orientations, including bisexual and asexual people.
Recently, a loophole was fixed in the Equal Treatment Act 1994. Before this, government-financed religious schools were not allowed to fire or deny promotions to teachers on the "single fact" of someone's sexual orientation. However, some schools had interpreted this so that they could fire a teacher for behaviours outside of the facility that went against the ethos of the school. This resulted in the termination of a teacher in 2005 for being in a same-sex relationship. This was called de enkelefeitconstructie ("the single fact construction"). A bill that removed the "single fact" rule and ensured that LGBT students and teachers cannot be fired because of their sexual orientation was debated in Parliament in 2014. On 27 May 2014, this bill was approved by the vast majority of the House of Representatives (141–9) and on 10 March 2015 the bill was approved by the Senate (72–3). It went into full effect on 1 July 2015.
A proposal to add disability and sexual orientation as prohibited grounds for discrimination to Article 1 of the Constitution of the Netherlands was approved in the House of Representatives on 30 June 2020 (124 to 26) and in the Senate on 9 February 2021 (58 to 15). The measure now requires approval by the House and Senate by a two-thirds majority following the March 2021 election. On 15 March 2022, the House of Representatives passed the same proposal a second time by a vote of 123 to 25 with 2 members not present. It now moves to the Senate for its second vote. On 17 January 2023, the bill was approved by the vast majority of the Senate (56-15) and now awaits royal assent. Since February 2023, both sexual orientation and disability was formally added to the Netherlands Constitution.
A 2018 survey by Statistics Netherlands showed that 11.4% of LGBT youth were confronted with online bullying and harassment. This was more than twice as often as heterosexual young people. A survey by the knowledge institute Movisie showed that there were an estimated 900 to 2000 homeless LGBT youth in the Netherlands in 2020. LGBT young people were three times as likely to be homeless that young heterosexual people. Movisie said that "LGBTI youth are often rejected at home and have difficulties accepting themselves".
Transgender and intersex rights
The Dutch parliament voted in favour of the law establishing the right of transgender people to change their legal gender in 1984 and 1985. The law required individuals to undergo gender-affirming surgery and forced sterilization in order to use this right.
In December 2013, the Dutch Parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill allowing transgender people to legally change their gender on birth certificates and other official documents without undergoing sterilization and gender-affirming surgery. The law took effect in 2014. Additionally, transgender people are allowed to serve openly in the military.
Since 1993, it has been possible to state on a birth certificate "sex cannot be determined" when the sex of a newborn baby is unclear. On 28 May 2018, the District Court of Limburg ruled in favour of a Dutch citizen who wished to be recognized as a "third gender" on their birth certificate. Although current laws do not provide for the possibility to be registered as a "third gender", the judge did grant the request for the wording "sex cannot be determined". The court urged lawmakers to provide more options than the current generic "male" (man) and "female" (vrouw) boxes, because the absence of a gender-neutral option is a violation of private life, the right to self-determination and personal autonomy for both transgender and intersex persons. The Dutch Government is currently examining the legal consequences of the ruling. The plaintiff in the case, Leonne Zeegers, received a Dutch passport with an "X" sex descriptor in October 2018. Despite this, as no legislation has been enacted yet, it currently remains a matter for the courts to decide if an individual should receive an "X" designation for gender. The second person to receive an "X" sex marker, Nanoah Struik, did so in July 2019. According to the Social and Cultural Planning Office of the Netherlands, there are an estimated 80,000 intersex people in the Netherlands.
In December 2019, the House of Representatives unanimously adopted a motion presented by Vera Bergkamp and Kirsten van den Hul calling on the Dutch Government to investigate the extent of intersex medical interventions in the Netherlands.
In February 2020, a class-action lawsuit was filed against the Dutch Government over previous sterilisation requirements for transgender individuals. The plaintiffs are also calling on the state to offer compensation to the individuals who were sterilised under the law. A formal apology was issued by the state in December 2020, and a compensation scheme for transgender victims of sterilization (€5,000 for each of the estimated 2,000 victims) was implemented that same month.
In July 2020, it was announced that the Netherlands was considering abolishing gender markers on official identity documents from 2025.
In November 2020, the Dutch cabinet officially apologized for the fact that between 1985 and 2014, transgender people who wanted to change their legal gender were forced to undergo surgery and sterilization. In November 2021 the cabinet announced that individuals who underwent surgery and sterilization because of the 1985 law would become eligible to receive compensation.
In July 2021, a district court granted and allowed a gender X birth certificate to a "self-identified non-binary individual". All non-binary people may now use a gender X birth certificate.
In December 2021, a court ruling dropped psychologist certification for non-binary people to use the X gender marker in passports.
Conversion therapy
Organizations offering conversion therapy, the pseudoscientific practice of attempting to change an individual's sexual orientation or gender identity using psychological or spiritual interventions, in the Netherlands are not eligible for subsidies. In addition, since June 2012, conversion therapies have been blocked from coverage by healthcare insurance.
On 17 May 2019, after television programme , which was broadcast on RTL 5 on 23 April 2019, showed that several organisations, including Dutch Pentecostal and Baptist groups, were offering conversion therapy, the Labour Party (PvdA) and Democrats 66 (D66) requested an investigation into the allegations. In May 2019, the Minister of Health, Welfare and Sport, Hugo de Jonge, informed the House of Representatives that he saw no need to ban conversion therapies in the Netherlands, adding that he was not planning to commission an "in-depth and independent investigation" into the extent to which young people in the Netherlands are exposed to such practices.
On 22 May 2019, the House of Representatives adopted a motion to investigate the extent of gay conversion therapy in the Netherlands. The motion was supported by D66, GroenLinks (GL) and the PvdA, while the ChristenUnie (CU), the Reformed Political Party (SGP) and the Party for Freedom (PVV) voted against. On 29 May, the House of Representatives adopted another motion; this time calling on the Minister of Justice and Security, Ferdinand Grapperhaus, to create a legislative proposal to explicitly ban conversion therapy. Parliamentarians called such 'treatments' "indigestible" and "harmful". The motion was proposed by the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD), and was supported by the VVD themselves, D66, GL, PvdA and the Socialist Party (SP), while the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), CU, PVV, SGP and Forum for Democracy (FvD) voted against. The adopted motion does not provide for a timetable.
Health and blood donation
In the Netherlands, as in many other countries, men who have sex with men (MSM) were previously not allowed to donate blood. The MSM population in developed countries tends to have a relatively high prevalence of HIV/AIDS infection, so a blanket ban was enforced until 2015. In April 2012, the House of Representatives voted on a motion that would make an end to this ban and would make sexual risk behaviour the criteria for blood donation; in response the government asked the blood bank Sanquin and Maastricht University to investigate whether men who have sex with men should be allowed to donate blood. The report presented on 6 March 2015 showed that there were medical scientific grounds to adjust the donor selection policies around men who had sex with other men. This took away the main argument of safety risks. On 28 October 2015, the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport announced that a 12-month deferral on donating blood would replace the existing lifetime ban. In February 2019, the Sanquin blood bank shortened this period to 4 months.
On 1 August 2019, the Dutch Government introduced full coverage of PrEP and other related care for gay and bisexual men. The drug is available at all Municipal Health Services (GGD) offices in the country, and can drastically decrease the risk of contracting HIV. In addition, the move would save an estimated €33 million on HIV treatments.
Since September 2021, gay men within monogamous relationships in the Netherlands can legally donate blood without any waiting periods. Gay men within non-monogamous relationships have to still legally undergo a 4-month waiting period.
Uganda relations
In May 2023, the Netherlands immediately stopped cooperation, political relationships and trade with Uganda following the passage of the Anti-Homosexuality Act.
Public opinion
According to a poll conducted in May 2013, Ifop indicated that 85% of the Dutch population supported same-sex marriage and adoption. A European Union member poll conducted in 2015 indicated that 91% of the Netherlands supported same-sex marriage, which was the highest amount of support during that time. In the Caribbean territories of the Kingdom, the citizens are mostly religious, resulting in larger opposition to same-sex marriage in comparison to the European territory.
The 2019 Eurobarometer showed that 97% of Dutch people believed gay and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as heterosexual people, and 92% supported same-sex marriage.
Living conditions and civil society
The first gay bars in Amsterdam opened in the early 20th century. The oldest place that still exists today is Café 't Mandje, which was opened in 1927 by Bet van Beeren. The gay magazine Wij ("We") also published during this period. Many of these bars and establishments were shut down during the German occupation of the Netherlands, and with the introduction of Paragraph 175 into Dutch law same-sex sexual activity was criminalized. Following the end of the war, the Shakespeare Club was established, with the goals of social emancipation and offering culture and recreation for gay and lesbian people. It changed its name to in 1949 and eventually in 2017 to COC Nederland. It is the oldest existing LGBT organization in the world. During the sexual revolution of the 1960s, many gay bars and clubs opened in a number of cities, and societal acceptance of LGBT people began to grow. The first gay and lesbian protest in the Netherlands took place on 21 January 1969 at the Binnenhof. In 1977, LGBT groups began organising annual marches under the name Pink Saturday (). In 1987, the world's first gay memorial, the Homomonument, commemorating LGBT people persecuted during the Nazi period, was opened in Amsterdam.
The Netherlands has frequently been referred to as one of the most gay-friendly countries in the world, on account of its early adoption of LGBT rights legislation and tolerance perception. Amsterdam has been referred to as one of the most gay-friendly cities in the world by publications such as The Independent. The annual gay pride festival has been held in Amsterdam every year since 1996. The festival attracts several hundred-thousand visitors each year and thus one of the largest publicly held annual events in the Netherlands. Amsterdam has also been the host city of the Europride twice, in 1994 and 2016. The latter attracted more than 560,000 visitors. Besides Amsterdam, there are also visible gay scenes in Rotterdam, Utrecht, The Hague and Scheveningen, with several bars, saunas and clubs catering to gay clientele.
A 2013 survey showed that 93% of Dutch people believed homosexuals should live their lives as they wish, with just 4% believing that homosexuality should be rejected. Other opinion polls have also found high levels of public and societal acceptance of LGBT people, again leading many to call the Netherlands one of the most gay-friendly countries in the world. According to a 2016 report from the Netherlands Institute for Social Research, most Dutch people have a positive attitude towards homosexuality. Only 7% of the Dutch viewed homosexuality and bisexuality negatively and 10% viewed transgender people negatively. However, 3.8% of gays and lesbians were victims of violence, compared to 2.4% of heterosexuals. And 32% of the respondents stated they would take offence when seeing two men kiss and 23% when seeing two women kiss (and 12% when seeing two people of the opposite sex kiss).
In April 2017, a same-sex couple was attacked by a group of Moroccan youth in the city of Arnhem. After the attack, several politicians, police officers, priests and many others showed their opposition to LGBT violence by holding hands in public. Displays also occurred in other countries, namely the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. Approximately 400 to 600 attacks against LGBT people occurred between 2011 and 2017, according to LGBT group COC.
In September 2019, King Willem-Alexander called on the UN General Assembly to support LGBT rights. In November 2019, the Dutch Government announced it would continue to support LGBT rights groups worldwide. The House of Representatives voted for a motion asking that LGBT rights be one of the three priorities of Dutch membership at the United Nations Human Rights Council. The Minister of Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation, Sigrid Kaag, has announced support for international LGBT rights groups, as well as organizations that campaign for food security, nature and climate, women's rights and freedom of expression. With Dutch support, local LGBT organizations in the Seychelles and Botswana were successful in having their anti-gay sodomy laws repealed or struck down.
In July 2020, the city of Nieuwegein ended its twin-city scheme with the Polish city of Puławy due to it enacting a "gay free zone".
Summary table
See also
Human rights in the Netherlands
Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands
Same-sex marriage in Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten
LGBT rights in Europe
LGBT rights in the European Union
References
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican%20religious%20order
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Anglican religious order
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Anglican religious orders are communities of men or women (or in some cases mixed communities of men and women) in the Anglican Communion who live under a common rule of life. The members of religious orders take vows which often include the traditional monastic vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, or the ancient vow of stability, or sometimes a modern interpretation of some or all of these vows. Members may be laity or clergy, but most commonly include a mixture of both. They lead a common life of work and prayer, sometimes on a single site, sometimes spread over multiple locations. Though many Anglicans are members of religious orders recognized by the Anglican Communion, others may be members of ecumenical Protestant or Old Catholic religious orders while maintaining their Anglican identity and parochial membership in Anglican churches.
Titles
Members of religious communities may be known as monks or nuns, particularly in those communities which require their members to live permanently in one location; they may be known as friars or sisters, a term used particularly (though not exclusively) by religious orders whose members are more active in the wider community, often living in smaller groups. Amongst the friars and sisters the term mendicant is sometimes applied to orders whose members are geographically mobile, frequently moving between different small community houses. Brother and Sister are common forms of address across all the communities. The titles Father and Mother or Reverend Father and Reverend Mother are commonly applied to the leader of a community, or sometimes more generally to all members who have been ordained as priests. In the Benedictine tradition the formal titles Right Reverend and Very Reverend are sometimes applied to the Abbot (leader) and Prior (deputy leader) of the community. Benedictine communities sometimes apply the titles Dom and Dame to professed male and female members, rather than Brother and Sister.
History
Overview
Religious orders were dissolved by King Henry VIII when he separated the Church of England from papal primacy. In 1626, Nicholas Ferrar, a protegé of William Laud (1573–1645), with his family established the Little Gidding community. Since there was no formal Rule (such as the Rule of Saint Benedict), no vows taken, and no enclosure, Little Gidding cannot be said to be a formal religious community, like a monastery, convent, or hermitage. The household had a routine according to high church principles and the Book of Common Prayer. Fiercely denounced by the Puritans and denounced as "Protestant Nunnery" and as an "Arminian heresy", Little Gidding was attacked in a 1641 pamphlet entitled "The Arminian Nunnery". The fame of the Ferrars and the Little Gidding community spread and they attracted visitors. King Charles I visited three times, including on 2 May 1646 seeking refuge after the Cavalier defeat at the Battle of Naseby. The community ended when its last member died in 1657.
Although the Ferrar community remained a part of the Anglican ethos (Bishop Francis Turner composed a memoir of Nicholas Ferrar prior to his death in 1700), not until the mid-nineteenth century with the Oxford Movement and the revival of Anglican religious orders did Little Gidding reach the consciousness of the average Anglican parishioner. Since that time, interest in the community has grown and not been limited to members of the Anglican Communion. According to ascetical theologian Martin Thornton, much of the appeal is due to Nicholas Ferrar and the Little Gidding community's exemplifying the lack of rigidity (representing the best Anglicanism's via media can offer) and "common-sense simplicity", coupled with "pastoral warmth", which are traceable to the origins of Christianity.
Between 1841 and 1855, several religious orders for women were begun, among them the Community of St Mary the Virgin at Wantage and the Society of Saint Margaret at East Grinstead. Religious orders for men appeared later, beginning in 1866 with the Society of St. John the Evangelist or "Cowley Fathers". In North America, the founding of Anglican religious orders began in 1842 with the Nashotah Community for men in Wisconsin, followed in 1845 by the Sisterhood of the Holy Communion under Anne Ayres in New York.
In recent decades, religious orders have been remarkably grown in other parts of the Anglican Communion, most notably in Tanzania, South Africa, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Papua New Guinea. About 2,400 monks and nuns are currently in the Anglican communion, about 55% of whom are women and 45% of whom are men.
Restoration
During the three centuries from dissolution to restoration some views expressed a desire for the restoration of the religious life within Anglicanism. In 1829 the poet Robert Southey, in his Colloquies (cxiii.), trusts that “thirty years hence this reproach also may be effaced, and England may have its Beguines and its Sisters of mercy. It is grievously in need of them.”
Practical efforts were made in the religious households of Nicholas Ferrar at Little Gidding, 1625, and of William Law at King's Cliffe, 1743; and under Charles II, says Fr. Bede in his Autobiography, “about 12 Protestant ladies of gentle birth and considerable means” founded a short-lived convent, with William Sancroft, then Dean of St Paul's, for director.
Southey's appeal had weight, and before the thirty years had passed, compassion for the needs of the destitute in great cities, and the impulse of a strong Church revival, aroused a body of laymen, among whom were included William Gladstone, Sir T. D. Acland, Mr A. J. Beresford-Hope, Lord Lyttelton and Lord John Manners (chairman), to exertions which restored sisterhoods to the Church of England. On 26 March 1845 the Park Village Community was set on foot in Regent's Park, London, to minister to the poor population of St Pancras. The “Rule” was compiled by Edward Pusey, who also gave spiritual supervision. In the Crimean War the superior and other sisters went out as nurses with Florence Nightingale. The community afterwards united with the Devonport Sisters, founded by Miss Sellon in 1849, and together they form what is known as Ascot Priory. The St Thomas's sisterhood at Oxford commenced in 1847; and the mother-superior of the Holy Trinity Convent at Oxford, Marian Hughes, dedicated herself before witnesses to such a life as early as 1841.
Activity
Four sisterhoods stand together as the largest: those of Clewer, Wantage, All Saints and East Grinstead; and the work of the first may stand as a specimen of that of others. The Community of St John Baptist at Clewer, near Windsor, arose in 1849 through the efforts of a Mrs Tennant and the vicar, afterwards warden of the society, the Revd T. T. Carter, to save "fallen women". Under the first superior, Harriet Monsell, the numbers steadily grew and at the beginning of the 20th century were over 200. Their services to society and the church include six houses for "fallen women", seven orphanages, nine elementary and high schools and colleges, five hospitals, mission work in 13 parishes and visiting in several “married quarters” of barracks. Many of these are notable institutions and their labours extend over a wide area; two of the settlements are in India and two in the United States. A list of 26 sisterhoods is given in the Official Year-Book of the C.E. (1900), to which may be added 10 institutions of deaconesses, many of whom live in community under a rule. In 1909 the number of women in religious orders in England was estimated as some 1300; whereas at the time of the dissolution under King Henry VIII there had only been 745.
The Episcopal Church of Scotland has three sisterhoods and they are found also in Toronto, Saint John the Divine; Brisbane, Sacred Advent. The Year-Book (1911) of the Episcopal Church of America mentions 18 American sisterhoods and seven deaconess homes and training colleges.
Practically all Anglican sisterhoods originated in works of mercy and this largely accounts for the rapidity with which they have won their way to the good will and confidence of the Church. Their number is believed to exceed 3,000, and the demand for their services is greater than the supply. Bishops are often their visitors, and Church Congresses, Convocation and Lambeth Conferences have given them encouragement and regulation. This change in sympathy, again, has gained a hearing from modern historians, who tend more and more to discredit the wholesale defamation of the dissolution period.
This charitable activity, however, distinguishes the modern sister from the nuns of primitive and medieval times, who were cloistered and contemplative, and left external works to deaconesses, or to laywomen of a third order, or to the freer societies like the Beguines. St Vincent de Paul is considered to have begun the new era with his institution of Sisters of Charity in 1634 . Another modern feature is the fuller recognition of family ties: Rule 29 of the Clewer sisters directs that the sisters shall have free intercourse with relations, who may visit them at any time. But in most essential respects modern sisterhoods follow the ancient traditions. They devote themselves to the celibate life, have property in common, and observe a common rule of prayer, fellowship and work. Government is by a sister superior, assisted by various officers. The warden and chaplain are clergy, and the visitor is commonly a bishop.
Types of orders and communities
Whilst there is no single central authority for all religious orders, and many member churches of the Anglican Communion have their own internal structures for recognising and regulating religious orders, some central functions are performed by the Anglican Religious Communities department at Church House, Westminster, the headquarters of the Church of England, Church Commissioners, General Synod, Archbishops' Council, and National Society. This department publishes the bi-annual Anglican Religious Life, a world directory of religious orders, and also maintains an official Anglican Communion website for religious orders. Anglican Religious Life defines four categories of community.
Traditional Celibate Religious Orders and Communities: Orders and communities in which members take a vow of celibacy (amongst other vows) and follow a common Rule of life. They may be enclosed and contemplative or open and engaged in apostolic works.
Dispersed Communities: These are orders or communities whose members, whilst taking vows (including celibacy), do not live together in community. In most cases the members are self-supporting and live alone, but follow the same Rule of life, and meet together frequently in assemblies often known as "chapter meetings". In some cases some members may share a common life in very small groups of two or three.
Acknowledged Communities: These communities live a traditional Christian life, including the taking of vows, but the traditional vows are adapted or changed. In many cases these communities admit both single and married persons as members, requiring celibacy on the part of those who are single, and unfailing commitment to their spouse on the part of married members. They also amend the vow of poverty, allowing personal possessions, but requiring high standards of tithing to the community and the wider church. These communities often have residential elements, but not full residential community life, as this would be incompatible with some elements of married family life.
Other Communities: This group contains communities which are ecumenical (including Anglicans) or that belong to non-Anglican churches which have entered into relationships of full communion with Anglican churches (particularly, but not only, certain Lutheran churches).
In the United States of America, there is a clear distinction between "orders" and "communities", since the Episcopal Church has its own two-fold definition of "religious orders" (equivalent to the first two groups above) and "Christian communities" (equivalent to the third group above). The Anglican Religious Life directory affirms this, stating "This distinction in not used in other parts of the Anglican Communion where 'communities' is also used for those who take traditional vows."
Anglican orders and interdenominational orders
Some religious orders are unique to the Anglican Communion. Certain large orders, such as the Society of Saint Margaret or the Community of the Sisters of the Church, are widespread and follow a rule of life written especially for the community. Other communities follow one of a number of historic rules predating the ecclesial divisions of the Reformation era. These rules are followed by different orders which often have manifestations within different current Christian denominations, particularly (in most cases) Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism and, in some cases, also Eastern Orthodoxy.
Augustinian orders
There are a number of Anglican communities of nuns following the Rule of St Augustine of Hippo. This rule has a particular focus on making all of one's thoughts and speech God-centred. There is no central Augustinian administration beyond the common rule.
Benedictine orders
The Benedictine order is active in all the Christian denominations mentioned above, including the Eastern Orthodox tradition. Within the Roman Catholic Church there is a central Benedictine Confederation (notwithstanding the autonomy of each abbey) and the Anglican Benedictine orders maintain close relations with this central organisation (although without actual membership). The rule has a particular emphasis on community life, hospitality for strangers and achieving a proper balance of work, prayer and recreation.
Carmelite orders
The Carmelite Rule has found more limited use in the Anglican Communion than some others. The Community of the Sisters of the Love of God in Oxford, England, are heavily influenced by Carmelite spirituality and follow elements of the Carmelite Rule, but their rule also has many other influences. The Episcopal Carmel of Saint Teresa in Maryland is a full expression of the Carmelite order and rule within Anglicanism, founded for that purpose with the support of the American House of Bishops. The sisters follow the Discalced Carmelite rule and therefore use the post-nominal initials OCD.
Cistercian orders
Although a number of cloistered Cistercian orders have been founded within Anglicanism, none has proved enduring. The longest Cistercian experiment was the community of Ewell Monastery (1966 to 2004). Some Anglican communities follow an adapted form of the Cistercian Rule and a single member of the former Ewell Monastery lived as a Cistercian solitary until 2022. Since 2010 there exists the Order of Anglican Cistercians who enjoy an ecumenical link with the Roman Catholic Cistercians.
Dominican orders
The Anglican Order of Preachers is a recognized "Christian Community" of the Episcopal Church in the United States and has spread to Canada, the United Kingdom and Europe, the Philippines, Australia and India. The friars and sisters live under a common rule of life and vows of simplicity, purity, and obedience. There are also Anglicans who are members of ecumenical and Old Catholic Dominican religious orders and priories.
Franciscan orders
A number of Anglican religious orders follow the Rule of St Francis of Assisi, although the Society of St. Francis is the largest and most widespread. The rule has a particular focus on poverty and identifying with the poor and the destitute as well as care of the environment and respect for all of creation.
Vincentian orders
The Vincentian Family of religious institutions founded by, or in the spirit of, Saint Vincent de Paul, is found within the Roman Catholic and Anglican traditions. In Anglicanism the main Vincentian Order for women is the Sisters of Charity, and the main order for men is the Company of Mission Priests. The rule has a particular emphasis on care for the poor and marginalised in society.
List of current orders
The following is a list of the religious orders in the Anglican Communion with their initials and locations:
Orders of men:
Brotherhood of the Ascended Christ (BAC), India
Community of Our Lady & Saint John Alton Abbey (OSB), England
Community of the Resurrection (CR), England
Elmore Abbey (OSB), England
Little Brothers of Francis (LBF), Australia
Melanesian Brotherhood (MBH), Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, the Philippines
Oratory of the Good Shepherd (OGS), England, Australia, United States, South Africa
Order of the Holy Cross (OHC), United States, Canada, South Africa
Order of St. Cuthbert (OSC), United States, Canada, Nigeria
Order of Saint Francis (OSF), United States, Canada
Saint Gregory's Abbey (OSB), United States
Society of the Sacred Mission (SSM), England, South Africa, Australia
Society of Saint Francis (SSF), England, United States, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands
Society of St. John the Evangelist (SSJE), England, United States
Society of St. Paul (SSP), United States
Orders of women:
All Saints Sisters of the Poor (ASSP), England
Benedictine Sisters of Bethany (EBSB), Cameroon
Chama Cha Mariamu Mtakatifu, Community of Saint Mary of Nazareth and Calvary (CMM), Tanzania, Zambia
Chita che Zita Rinoyera, Community of the Holy Name (CZR), Zimbabwe
Community of the Holy Family (CHF), United States
Christa Sevika Sangha Handmaids of Christ (CSS), Bangladesh
Community of All Hallows (CAH), England
Community of Christ the King (CCK), Australia
Community of Jesus' Compassion (CJC), South Africa
Community of Nazareth (CN), Japan
Community of St. Andrew (CSA), England
Community of St. Clare (OSC), England
Community of St. Francis (CSF), England, United States
Community of St John Baptist (CSJB), England, United States
Community of St. John the Divine (CSJD) (England)
Community of St. Laurence (CSL) (England)
Community of St. Mary (CSM) (United States, Malawi, the Philippines)
Community of St. Mary at the Cross (OSB) (England)
Community of St. Mary the Virgin (CSMV) (England)
Community of St. Peter (CSP) (England)
Community of St. Peter, Horbury (CSPH) (England)
Community of the Blessed Lady Mary (CBLM) (Zimbabwe)
Community of the Companions of Jesus the Good Shepherd (CJGS) (England)
Community of the Franciscan Servants of Jesus & Mary (England)
Community of the Good Shepherd (CGS) (Malaysia)
Community of the Holy Cross (CHC) (England)
Community of the Holy Name (Australia) (CHN) (Australia)
Community of the Holy Name (CHN) (England, Lesotho, South Africa)
Community of the Holy Spirit (CHS) (United States)
Community of the Sacred Name (CSN) (Fiji, New Zealand, Tonga)
Community of the Sacred Passion (CSP) (England)
Community of the Sisters of Melanesia (CSM) (Solomon Islands)
Community of the Sisters of the Church (CSC) (Canada, England, Solomon Islands, Australia)
Community of the Sisters of the Love of God (SLG) (England, New Zealand)
Community of the Transfiguration (CT) (United States, Dominican Republic)
Congregation of the Sisters of the Visitation of our Lady (CVL) (Papua New Guinea)
Daughters of St. Francis (DSF) (Korea)
Episcopal Carmel of Saint Teresa (OCD) (United States)
Fikambanan'ny Mpanompovavin l Jesoa Kristy (FMJK) (Society of the Servants of Jesus Christ) (Madagascar)
Malling Abbey (OSB) (England)
Order of St. Anne (OSA) (United States)
Order of St. Anne at Bethany (OSA) (United States)
Order of St. Helena (OSH) (United States)
Order of the Holy Paraclete (OHP) (England, Ghana, Swaziland)
Sisterhood of St. John the Divine (SSJD) (Canada)
Sisterhood of the Holy Nativity (SHN) (United States)
Sisters of Charity (SC) (England, United States)
Sisters of the Incarnation (SI) (Australia)
Sisters of the Love of God (SLG) (England)
Society of Our Lady of the Isles (SOLI) (Scotland)
Society of Saint John the Divine (SSJD) (South Africa)
Society of St. Margaret (SSM) (England, United States, Haiti)
Society of the Holy Cross (SHC) (Korea)
Society of the Precious Blood (SPB) (England, South Africa, and Lesotho)
Society of the Sacred Advent (SSA) (Australia)
Servants of the Sacred Cross SSC (Canada)
Society of the Sacred Cross (SSC) (Wales)
Society of the Sisters of Bethany (SSB) (England)
Mixed orders of men and women:
Anglican Order of Preachers (Dominicans) (OP)
Chita che Zvipo Zve Moto Community of the Gifts of the Holy Fire (CZM) (Zimbabwe)
Christ Mission Anglican Benedictines (OSB)
Community of Divine Love (CDL) (California)
Community of the Glorious Ascension (CGA) (England, France)
Community of the Holy Spirit Monastery (HSM) (Zimbabwe)
Community of the Holy Transfiguration (CHT) (Zimbabwe)
Community of the Mother of Jesus (CMJ) (Chicago)
Community of the Resurrection of our Lord (CR) (South Africa)
Community of the Servants of the Will of God (CSWG) (England)
Companions of Our Lady of Walsingham (OLW) (United States)
Mucknell Abbey (OSB) (England)
Order of Julian of Norwich (OJN) (United States)
Society of the Sacred Mission (SSM) (England, Lesotho, Japan, Australia, South Africa)
Order of Saint Benedict, Camperdown (Australia)
Third Order of Saint Francis (TSSF)
List of other communities
Anglican Order of Preachers (Dominicans)
Brotherhood of Saint Gregory
Community of Celebration
Community of the Gospel
Community of the Paraclete
Community of St. Denys
Companions of St. Luke (OSB)
Company of Mission Priests
Congregation of the Companions of the Holy Saviour
Little Sisters of Saint Clare
Order of Anglican Cistercians
Order of the Ascension (OA)
The Emmaus Community, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
Order of St Andrew
Holywell Community, Abergavenny.
Order of St Anthony the Great (OPC)
Rivendell Community
The Order of Mission (TOM)
The Servants of the Sacred Cross
Sisterhood of Saint Gregory
Worker Brothers of the Holy Spirit
Worker Sisters of the Holy Spirit
Moana St Clare (Diocese of Polynesia, Fiji)
Community of St Barnabas and Cecelia, South Australia
In popular media
In her autobiographical series Call the Midwife, British author Jennifer Worth portrayed her time working as a district nurse and midwife in the East End of London in the late 1950s alongside the Community of St. John the Divine. In the books, and the BBC television drama series of the same name, the order is renamed the Sisters of St. Raymond Nonnatus.
The 1939 novel Black Narcissus by Rumer Godden is about a group of Anglican Nuns (the Order of the Servants of Mary) who persist in trying to establish a religious community in the Palace of Mopu in the Himalayas, Nepal, despite the sisters feeling sexual repression and enduring forbidden love. Both the 1947 film Black Narcissus and the 2020 miniseries of the same name were adaptations of the book.
Gallery
See also
Augustinian nuns in the Anglican Communion
Franciscan orders in the Anglican Communion
Order of St Benedict (Anglican)
References
Further reading
External links
Historical documents on Anglican religious orders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20Walentynowicz
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Anna Walentynowicz
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Anna Walentynowicz (; ; 15 August 1929 – 10 April 2010) was a Polish free trade union activist and co-founder of Solidarity, the first non-communist trade union in the Eastern Bloc. Her firing from her job at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk in August 1980 was the event that ignited the strike at the shipyard, set off a wave of strikes across Poland, and quickly paralyzed the Baltic coast. The Interfactory Strike Committee (MKS) based in the Gdańsk shipyard eventually transformed itself into Solidarity; by September, more than one million workers were on strike in support of the 21 demands of MKS, making it the largest strike ever.
Walentynowicz's arrest became an organizing slogan (Bring Anna Walentynowicz Back to Work!) in the early days of the Gdańsk strike. She is referred to by some as the "mother of independent Poland." She was among the dignitaries killed in the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash near Smolensk in Russia, which also claimed the lives of Lech Kaczyński, the President of Poland and his wife, and the senior commanders of the Polish Armed Forces.
In 2006, she was awarded Poland's highest honour, the Order of the White Eagle. In 2020, Time magazine included her on the list of 100 Women of the Year who influenced the world over the last 100 years.
Early life and career
Walentynowicz was born in 1929 in the village of Sinne, Poland (today Sadove, Ukraine) in Rivne oblast, as Anna Lubczyk, to a family of Ukrainian Shtundists. During the Second World War at the age of ten she began to work as a maid. Later, after the war, she migrated into Poland. Walentynowicz began working in the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk, Poland in 1950, first as a welder, later as a crane operator. Recognized as a "Hero of Socialist Labor" or Stakhanovite for her hard work, Walentynowicz became disillusioned with the communist system in Poland, especially after the bloody events in December 1970 on the Baltic Coast. While she was an activist and a member of a socialist youth organization, she was never formally a member of the communist party. Anna was a devout Catholic, who believed in social justice and standing up against oppression, and who became deeply moved in her later years by the teachings of Pope John Paul II, with whom she developed a personal relationship. One of the last letters which John Paul II wrote was to Anna Walentynowicz wishing her speedy recovery from a back injury.
Anna began her quest for justice by speaking out publicly when one of her supervisors stole money from the workers' bonus fund to play the lottery. Instead of reprimanding the corrupt supervisor, the system turned on her—she was harassed by secret police. The 'exemplary worker' and 'Hero of Socialist Labor' had become a vocal dissident.
Trade union activism
Walentynowicz joined the newly formed WZZ or Free Trade Unions of the Coast in 1978, and in the early 1980s came to symbolize the opposition movement, along with her colleagues from the WZZ, Lech Wałęsa, Andrzej Gwiazda, Bogdan Borusewicz, Alina Pienkowska, Bogdan Lis, the Wyszkowski brothers and Andrzej Kołodziej. As editor of the Polish samizdat (bibuła) Robotnik Wybrzeża (The Coastal Worker), she distributed an underground newsheet at the shipyard; she often challenged the authorities, it was not uncommon for her to openly challenge her superiors.
Firing, and birth of Solidarity
For participation in the illegal trade union, Walentynowicz was fired by the shipyard on 7 August 1980, 5 months prior to her plan to retire. This management decision enraged the workers, who staged a strike action on 14 August, defending Anna Walentynowicz, and demanding her return. In early coverage of the Gdańsk strike by Western press (which was permitted into the shipyard), Anna Walentynowicz is mentioned earlier than Lech Wałęsa. She also headed the list of the strike committee of the Gdańsk shipyard typed by Lech Wałęsa. On the third day of the strike, 16 August 1980, management granted Lenin Shipyard workers their working and pay demands. Lech Wałęsa and others announced the end of the strike. The women of the shipyard, Anna Waletynowicz and Alina Pienkowska, are credited in most eye-witness accounts for transforming a strike over bread and butter issues into a solidarity strike in sympathy with other striking establishments. Walentynowicz and Pienkowska managed to close the gates of the shipyard and keep some workers inside, but many workers went home, only to return by the next day.
Wałęsa was stopped near the Gate no° 1 as he was leaving, and was persuaded to change his plans and return to the shipyard.
The Gdańsk Agreement was signed on 31 August 1980, recognizing the right to organize free trade unions independent of the Party for the first time in the Communist bloc. When the Solidarity trade union was registered shortly after the Gdańsk Agreement, it had nearly ten million members, the world's largest union to date.
Walentynowicz said:
Our aim should not be to secure a somewhat thicker slice of bread today, even if this would make us happy; we must not forget what our real aim is. Our main duty is to consider the needs of others. If we become alive to this duty, there will be no unjustly treated people in our midst, and we, in turn, shall not be treated unjustly. Our day-to-day motto should be: "Your problems are also my problems." We must extend our friendship and strengthen our solidarity.
Anna Walentynowicz was a member of the Presidium of MKS. After the strike, she became a member of the Presidium of Inter-Institute Founding Committee (MKZ – Międzyzakładowy Komitet Założycielski) of NSZZ Solidarity in Gdańsk. On 1 April 1981 the Presidium of the Lenin Shipyard Institute Commission (KZ – Komisja Zakładowa) of NSZZ Solidarity 'recalled' her from the Presidium of MKZ on trumped up accusations (inciting strike action, collecting signatures for a vote of no-confidence in Wałęsa, misrepresenting her constituents, and acting in a manner detrimental to the union). As a commission of inquiry determined, not only were all of these charges false, but the KZ Presidium had no jurisdictional right to remove Walentynowicz from her MKZ position. However, a number of Solidarity departmental cells in the shipyard promptly issued statements in support of the KZ Presidium's action. It was done in ignorance of the facts of the case, and in contradiction of the union's own statutes. There were no consultations with the rank-and-file as well. Europe-Asia Studies journal noted, "The case stood as an alarming example of how Solidarity's new activists were instantly ready not only to support each other in any dramatic new initiative but also to believe the worst about one of the First Wave strike leaders. That such a situation would arise concerning Walentynowicz, the very person for whose reinstatement at the Lenin Shipyard was the main point on which the strike originally began, goes beyond mere irony. It demonstrates just how much the movement had changed in under a year, and moreover, just how far apart were the new activists from the old strike leaders-and from the union's rank-and-file." The case against Walentynowicz in the KZ disciplinary commission was led by Jerzy Borowczak, a close associate of Wałęsa. PZPR was also involved in lobbying against Walentynowicz in this affair, with Jan Łabędzki, first Secretary of PZPR inside the Lenin Shipyard announcing publicly that Walentynowicz... destroys the unity of NSZZ Solidarity.
In October 1981, during a meeting with workers in Radom, two officers of the security police—in collaboration with the secret cooperant (TW) Karol—attempted to poison her.
She was acknowledged as the Woman of the Year in the Netherlands.
Martial law was declared in December 1981 and Solidarity was fragmented. The clique around Wałęsa assumed power as a Temporary Coordinating Committee. With western support held on, they abandoned the ideals of 1980.
Disagreements with Wałęsa
In September 1986, Lech Wałęsa created the first public and legal Solidarity structure since the declaration of martial law, the Temporary Council of NSZZ Solidarity (Tymczasowa Rada NSZZ Solidarność), with Bogdan Borusewicz, Zbigniew Bujak, Władysław Frasyniuk, Tadeusz Jedynak, Bogdan Lis, Janusz Pałubicki, and Józef Pinior. In October 1987, the Country Executive Committee of NSZZ Solidarity (Krajowa Komisja Wykonawcza NSZZ Solidarność) was created by Lech Wałęsa (chairman), Zbigniew Bujak, Jerzy Dłużniewski, Władysław Frasyniuk, Stefan Jurczak, Bogdan Lis, Andrzej Milczanowski, Janusz Pałubicki, Stanisław Węglarz.
Walentynowicz was critical about the development of Solidarity:
This distance between Solidarity and the workers is the major reason for my disagreement with Wałęsa. The Temporary Committee of Solidarity is something new. It is structured too much like the PZPR. They have privileges so the ideas of Solidarity have been dropped. During the seven years since martial law there have been no meetings with workers. They meet amongst themselves, on whose behalf?
In 1986 it was a surprise that such people as Bujak and Borusewicz instead of calling a National Commission nominated themselves. The opposition surprised even the Government. At this moment they broke the statutes. In the fall of 1987 Solidarity members, including myself, during the pilgrimage to Częstochowa sent a petition to Wałęsa to call a National Commission meeting. But Wałęsa wouldn’t accept it. So there have been no meetings, except amongst themselves.
From 14 to 16 December 1981 Walentynowicz was a co-organizer of the strike in the Lenin Shipyard and after its pacification she was detained. On 18 December 1981 she was interned in Bydgoszcz-Fordon and Gołdap and released in July 1982, but was again arrested and held from August 1982 (prisons in Gdańsk, Mokotów and Grudziądz) to March 1983 and from December 1983 to April 1984 (Katowice, Lubliniec, Bytom, Kraków). In total she spent 19 months in jail.
Walentynowicz criticized Wałęsa for taking too much individual credit, and not sufficiently acknowledging that the Solidarity union triumph was a group effort involving millions, saying that his "cult of personality" greatly damaged the movement. It is well documented the Wałęsa-inspired effort to cleanse the informant "Bolek" file during his presidency dealt a serious blow to lustration efforts in Poland. She denounced Wałęsa's conduct in her book Cień przyszłości (The Shadow of the Future) published in Poland in 1993 (the book was published in Germany in 2012 as Solidarność – eine persönliche Geschichte).
French journalist Jean-Marcel Bouguereau, who witnessed the events in Poland in 1980 and was expelled twice, wrote one of the first articles critical about Wałęsa in Libération. Bouguereau titled Walentynowicz "The real heroine of Gdańsk".
She talked about her expectations in an interview in 1985:
We must not wait passively. A free Poland is our aim, but no one will give us that freedom. Our passivity will result in their murdering more and more of us, in more and more people suffering. We must educate, because even when a free Poland is achieved, the nation will be so exhausted that there will be no one to lead it.
After the fall of Communism
While remaining active and outspoken after 1989, Walentynowicz distanced herself from various political parties allied with the new Solidarity. She felt the new Solidarity elites abandoned the workers and ordinary people, not living up to the core Solidarity values of social justice. She felt that Solidarity had been co-opted by self-interested individuals who reneged on their promises. Walentynowicz avoided anniversary celebrations organised by the new Solidarity. In 1995 she wrote an open letter to Wałęsa. In 2000 she declined an honorary citizenship of the city of Gdańsk. During the strike at the docks in Gdynia in February 2002 she said:
The 21 demands that we put up in 1980 are still relevant. Nothing was fulfilled. People still have to struggle to be treated with dignity. That's scandalous.
In 2003 she asked for compensation from the government for her 1980s persecution, eventually receiving part of the sum. Walentynowicz mostly donated all which she had to those who needed help. On 15 November 2004, Anna—along with other former strikers of 1980 activists from the first Solidarity and former political prisoners—an open letter prepared by Andrzej Gwiazda to the European Parliament about the development of Solidarity. The European Parliament took note of the open letter in a motion for a resolution in 2005, deploring the fact that the new Solidarity, created in 1989, did not pursue the aims of the first Solidarity.
Walentynowicz was vocal pointing bad conduct of the Civic Platform political party in Poland. On 11 December 2009 she organized in the Polish Sejm the conference "Poland after XX years 1989–2009".
On 13 December 2005 Walentynowicz accepted the Truman-Reagan Medal of Freedom in Washington on behalf of the first free trade union Solidarity and was personally honored along with John Paul II and General Edward Rowny, Chief US Nuclear Arms Control Negotiator with the Soviets. The columnist Georgie Anne Geyer called her the Rosa Parks of Solidarity and in the column, compared her to the likes of Indira Gandhi and Corazon Aquino. During her visit she met with vice president Linda Chavez Thompson and other leaders of AFL-CIO.
Wer ist Anna Walentynowicz? ("Who is Anna Walentynowicz?", directed by Sylke Rene Meyer, 2002, winner of the Sir Peter Ustinov Television Scriptwriting Award), Musimy się na nowo policzyć ("We Have to Count Ourselves Anew", directed by Grzegorz W. Tomczak, 2014), Podwójne dno ("Double Bottom", directed by Dariusz Małecki, 1994), Anna Proletariuszka ("Anna Proletarian", directed by Marek Ciecierski and Sławomir Grunberg, 1980/81) and Robotnicy '80 ("Workers '80", 1980) are documentary films in which she is portrayed. Anna Walentynowicz is played by Frances Cox in Leslie Woodhead's docudrama Strike: The Birth of Solidarity (1981). She appeared as herself in Man of Iron (1981), prompting some to call her "woman of iron." She was critical about the Schlöndorff's movie Strike.
Death
Walentynowicz died in a plane crash near Smolensk on 10 April 2010, along with President Lech Kaczyński, First Lady Maria Kaczyńska, and many other prominent Polish leaders, while en route to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the Katyn massacre during World War II. A plaque on her house in Wrzeszcz, a borough of Gdańsk, has recently been dedicated and the city of Gdynia named an intersection after her. Michael Szporer, Professor of Communications at University of Maryland wrote about her: "Her life was very much like Poland's, never nothing, but if you are not afraid to speak up for yourself and care for others, just look what you can become, Pani Ania, a worthier role model than most, because an honest one. Our caring and protective mother!"
Exhumation in 2012 revealed that a different person – Teresa Walewska-Przyjałkowska – was buried in Anna Walentynowicz's grave. Upon the discovery, the bodies were reburied in the correct graves.
In 2015 trial began over attempted poisoning of Anna Walentynowicz in 1981.
Remembrance
In 2011, a commemorative plaque dedicated to Anna Walentynowicz was unveiled in the city of Gdańsk. It was designed by artist Sławoj Ostrowski.
In 2013, the Anna Walentynowicz Square was ceremonially opened in Wrocław in order to commemorate her role in bringing an end to communism in Poland.
In 2015, a statue of Walentynowicz was unveiled at the Pantheon of National Heroes of the Cemetery of the Fallen at the Battle of Warsaw in Ossów.
In December 2015 the main room (The Column Room) in the Chancellery of the Prime Minister of Poland was named after Anna Walentynowicz.
In 2017, a street in Szczecin was renamed from General Berling to Anna Walentynowicz. A street bearing her name was also established in Lublin.
In 2018, the Sejm passed a resolution establishing 2019 as the "Year of Anna Walentynowicz".
On 12 October 2020, President of Poland Andrzej Duda officially unveiled a monument dedicated to Walentynowicz in Kyiv, Ukraine, and said that she is "a symbol of the Solidarity movement, a woman who, among all the men who were there at that time, was an element contributing to the female way of thinking about Poland and Polish affairs".
Quotes
From a brochure handed out to workers in Lenin Shipyard on 14 August 1980:
Bibliography
Works currently unavailable in English
The Shadow of the Future (Cień przyszłości) (1993)
Further reading
Michael Szporer, Solidarity: The Great Workers Strike of 1980, Lexington Books, 2012
Sławomir Cenckiewicz, Anna Solidarność (Anna Solidarity), Zysk i S-ka, Poznań, 2010
Shana Penn, Solidarity's Secret: The Women Who Defeated Communism in Poland, University of Michigan Press, 2005,
Kristi S. Long, We All Fought for Freedom: Women in Poland's Solidarity Movement, Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996
Tomasz Jastrun, Życie Anny Walentynowicz (The Life of Anna Walentynowicz), Independent Publishing House NOWA, 1985
References
External links
Who is Anna Walentynowicz?, a documentary film by Sylke Rene Meyer (2002)
Give Us Back Anna Walentynowicz, 2014
Where is the body of Smolensk crash victim and legendary Solidarity co-founder Anna Walentynowicz?, 13 May 2014
Anna Proletarian, short bio
Don't Wait for Instructions: An Interview with Anna Walentynowicz, in the underground publication Biuletyn Dolnośląski, no. 1 (59), January 1985
Interview with Anna Walentynowicz on the situation in Poland, August 1988
Interview with Janusz Walentynowicz, Anna Walentynowicz's son, January 25, 2012
Musimy się na nowo policzyć, a documentary film by Grzegorz W. Tomczak (2014)
Statement of the conference Polska po XX latach 1989–2009 (Poland after XX years 1989–2009) organized by Anna Walentynowicz, December 11, 2009, in the Sejm
An Open Letter to the European Parliament, about the development of Solidarity, signed by Anna Walentynowicz, 2004. Motion for a resolution (taking note of the open letter), 2005
An Open Letter to Lech Wałęsa, written by Anna Walentynowicz, September 25, 1995
Catalyst of Poland's Crisis, The New York Times, August 21, 1980; Firing of politically active worker set off Polish crisis, The Miami News, August 21, 1980
Robotnik Wybrzeża (The Coastal Worker), issues of the Free Trade Unions of the Coast underground newspaper of which Walentynowicz was an editor
Szczera dyskusja nad antrykotem, Walentynowicz's first article in the underground newspaper Robotnik (The Worker), 1979, no. 38–39, p. 4
Website dedicated to Anna Walentynowicz, includes text of her book in Polish
„Anna Solidarność". Anna Walentynowicz (1929–2010), article by Sławomir Cenckiewicz, Biuletyn IPN, no. 9–10 (118–119), September–October 2010
Exhibition Anna Walentynowicz. Legenda „Solidarności" 1929–2010
Solidarnosc – re-creating a legacy, article has a selection of information related to Anna
Polish news: Anna Walentynowicz Appeal
and: Anna Walentynowicz accepts Truman–Reagan Medal of Freedom
1929 births
2010 deaths
Solidarity (Polish trade union) activists
Workers' rights activists
Polish trade unionists
Crane operators
20th-century Polish journalists
21st-century Polish journalists
Polish women journalists
Victims of the Smolensk air disaster
Polish Roman Catholics
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century Roman Catholics
People from Rivne Oblast
People from Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939)
Polish dissidents
Recipients of Cross of Freedom and Solidarity
Polish people of Ukrainian descent
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Baptist denominations
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20th-century Polish women
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican%20Party%20of%20Wisconsin
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Republican Party of Wisconsin
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The Republican Party of Wisconsin is a conservative political party in Wisconsin and is the Wisconsin affiliate of the United States Republican Party (GOP). The state party chair is Brian Schimming. The state party is divided into 72 county parties for each of the state's counties, as well as organizations for the state's eight congressional districts.
History
After the introduction in Congress of the Kansas–Nebraska bill in January 1854, many meetings were held in protest across the country. The meeting held in Ripon, Wisconsin on March 20, 1854, is commonly cited as the birth of the Republican Party in the United States due to it being the first publicized anti-slavery meeting to propose a new party with its name being Republican.
Origins of the Republican Party in Wisconsin
Before the meeting in Ripon, an alliance existed between state Whigs, whose national party had weakened, and members of the Free Soil Party, with whom they formed a "people's ticket" as early as 1842. The coalition succeeded in electing the chief justice of the state supreme court, a Milwaukee mayor and aldermen. Many Wisconsin Democrats were also opposed to the Kansas–Nebraska bill, which not only would leave the question of slavery in the territories up to popular sovereignty, but as originally amended would also deny immigrants the right to vote or hold public office. The bill was roundly condemned in the Wisconsin press, as editors such as Horace Rublee (Wisconsin State Journal), Rufus King (Milwaukee Sentinel) and Sherman Booth (Waukesha Free Democrat) encouraged the formation of a new party by calling for an anti-Nebraska convention at the state capitol in Madison. At a large meeting in Milwaukee on February 13, Booth led a committee that drafted many of the resolutions that would later be the basis for other anti-Nebraska meetings in the state, including the famous meeting in Ripon.
Birth of the Republican Party
The organizer of the meeting that gave birth to America's Republican Party was New York state native Alvan Earle Bovay, a lawyer and mathematics teacher at Ripon College. In 1852 Bovay traveled to New York City during the national Whig Party convention and met with old friend and New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley. Bovay suggested the name "Republican" for a new anti-slavery party that would replace the fading Whigs. He favored it because it was a simple word rather than a compound name like Free Soil or Free Democrat, that it could be used as either a noun or an adjective, that it would remind people of Thomas Jefferson's affiliation, and that it symbolized what he believed the new party should represent: "Res Publica," synonymous with commonwealth. Bovay also believed that the name would attract immigrant voters that had recently fled monarchies.
On February 26, 1854, Bovay sent a letter to Greeley urging him to editorialize about a new Republican party, without result. In the meantime he organized a public meeting at the Congregational Church in Ripon on March 1, where resolutions were passed condemning the Nebraska bill and promising a new party if it became law. The Senate passed the bill two days later, which prompted Bovay to organize another meeting in Ripon at Schoolhouse Dist. No. 2 on March 20, 1854, at 6:30 p.m. Composed of Whigs, Democrats and Free Soilers, 54 of Ripon's 100 voters filled the schoolhouse to capacity and were nearly unanimous in their support of a new party with Bovay's suggested name Republican. Bovay wrote Greeley on June 4 urging him to publicize the name before Michigan and Wisconsin held their state anti-Nebraska conventions, which Greeley did in a Tribune editorial on June 24.
Organizing the Republican Party of Wisconsin
On June 9 Sherman Booth repeated the call for a mass convention in Madison, and suggested July 13, the anniversary of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 that had banned slavery in the Northwest Territory. Other Wisconsin editors concurred and publicized the convention.
Beginning in the capitol's assembly chamber, the state convention was moved outdoors due to the many delegates and supporters arriving, with the crowd topping one thousand. The proceedings were run by experienced Whigs and Free Soilers, with editors Booth and King controlling the platform and nominating officers from all three major parties. Resolutions included abrogating the Fugitive Slave Act, re-instating Kansas and Nebraska as free states and banning all future slave states. They also resolved to invite all persons "whether of native or foreign birth" to join the party, and a committee was assigned to establish a Republican German newspaper in Milwaukee. All resolutions were passed unanimously, and nine hearty cheers went up for the state's new Republican Party.
After winning over much of the foreign-language press, the new party was very successful in the fall elections, helped greatly by the fact that the state Democrats were deeply split over the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The Republicans elected two of Wisconsin's three congressmen (Cadwallader C. Washburn and Charles Billinghurst), as well as winning enough seats in the state legislature to elect the country's first Republican senator, Charles Durkee. By 1857 they not only controlled the governorship and the state legislature by large majorities, but also held all three Congressional seats and both U.S. Senate seats.
Despite such electoral domination, the Republican party was split over many issues. Many former Whigs pressed for temperance legislation, resulting in charges of nativism from many of the Germans brought into the party by Carl Schurz. United by national events like the Dred Scot decision, abolitionists still drove the party agenda, but were criticized for showing more concern for the black slave than for the white man. Following Sherman Booth's role in inciting the liberation of runaway slave Joshua Glover from a Milwaukee jail in 1854, many Republicans championed the issue of states' rights, declaring the Fugitive Slave Law effectively repealed in Wisconsin. Some in the party anticipated a confrontation with the federal government. Governor Alexander Randall ordered an Irish militia disbanded because he doubted their loyalty to Wisconsin. Many in the militia subsequently perished in the shipwreck of the Lady Elgin.
The Civil War era
The Wisconsin delegation to the 1860 Republican convention backed Senator William Seward for president, but quickly supported Abraham Lincoln once his nomination appeared inevitable. Following the outbreak of the Civil War, governors like Randall and Edward Salomon vigorously endorsed the war and mustered thousands of troops to meet the federal quotas, later resorting to a draft.
Politically, the Civil War was a boon to the Republicans. Returning officers like Brigadier General Lucius Fairchild, who had lost an arm at Gettysburg, were the perfect spokesmen for the party. Fairchild later became a three-term governor. Republicans could forever claim they fought to preserve the Union, and veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic became a powerful constituency.
The state Republican chairman from 1859 to 1869 was Wisconsin State Journal editor Horace Rublee, who with former governor Randall, Madison postmaster Elisha W. Keyes and others became known as the "Madison Regency." Randall later became President Andrew Johnson's postmaster general, and with Keyes they steered federal patronage jobs to political allies and strengthened the party's hold on the statehouse. Despite such power the state Republicans were divided into factions, with the more ideological members opposed to Johnson's vetoes of Freedman legislation and President Ulysses S. Grant's corrupt administration (many later joining Carl Schurz's Liberal Republican Party in 1872). Another faction of patronage-seekers and loyal veterans supported Grant as a bulwark against what they saw as a traitorous Democratic Party. Nevertheless, the Republicans would continue to dominate Wisconsin government for the next six decades with few interruptions.
The 1870s and 1880s
Rublee ran a quiet campaign in the legislature for possible election as U.S. Senator, but after losing to Matthew H. Carpenter, Rublee was appointed by Grant minister to Switzerland in 1869. The party machinery was left in the hands of "Boss" Keyes. Yet the Industrial Age hailed a shift of Republican power away from Madison, to wealthy men like Philetus Sawyer of Oshkosh, whose lumber fortune would help fund the party and advance him from mayor to state legislator to congressman to U.S. senator. Milwaukee's Henry C. Payne rose from dry goods dealer to the Young Men's Republican Club, where he engineered a voter registration drive among the city's immigrants to vote the Republican ticket. In 1876 Payne was appointed Milwaukee's postmaster, a powerful source of patronage jobs. He later became wealthy as a manager of banks, utilities and railroads. John C. Spooner of Hudson was the principal attorney for the West Wisconsin Railroad, and his manipulation of land grants into Sawyer's hands contributed to his future as party insider, and later, U.S. senator alongside Sawyer. Upon his return from Europe Rublee resumed the chairmanship of the party. With help from backers, he purchased the Milwaukee Sentinel in 1882 and was its editor until his death in 1896.
The Republicans briefly lost control of state government following the Panic of 1873, when a reform coalition of Democrats, Grangers and Liberal Republicans elected Democrat William Taylor as governor. Immigrant backlash against Republican-supported temperance legislation was also a major factor. In 1874 Republicans backed the weak railroad regulation of the Potter Law, but replaced the law with the even weaker Vance Law once they returned to power the next year.
Civil War veteran Jeremiah Rusk of Viroqua proved a popular Republican governor during his three terms (1882-1889). A farmer, Rusk supported measures that improved the state's agriculture, such as university-run experimental farms. He was later appointed the country's first Secretary of Agriculture by president Benjamin Harrison. In 1886, he issued the "shoot to kill" order to the National Guard in response to widespread May Day strikes in Milwaukee, resulting in the Bay View Tragedy that left seven people dead. Despite the loss of life, Rusk's decision was applauded in state newspapers as well as nationally. Rusk's administration was followed by that of another Republican farmer, William Hoard (1889-1891), who published a widely read journal on dairy farming.
In 1890 the Republicans were swept from state offices again when the party ran afoul of ethnic politics by supporting the Bennett Law, a compulsory school attendance measure that stipulated that all classes must be taught in English. Immigrant groups and supporters of parochial schools condemned the law while Governor Hoard and the Milwaukee Sentinel continued to defend it. Democrats won in a landslide, but the GOP returned to power two years later.
The Progressive Era
During the 1890s the state Republican party was split into two factions. The stalwart faction in power was led by wealthy men such as Sawyer, Payne, Spooner and Charles F. Pfister (who would purchase the Milwaukee Sentinel in 1900). The other faction (the "halfbreeds") was composed of reform-minded Republicans such as Dunn County's Albert R. Hall and Soldiers Grove's James O. Davidson who saw the powerful railroad and utility monopolies (such as The Milwaukee Electric Railway and Light Company (TMER&L)) cheating their customers and corrupting their politicians.
Following three terms as a stand-pat Republican congressman from Madison, Robert M. La Follette emerged as the leader of an insurgent movement to wrest control of the party from the stalwart machine. La Follette had backed other anti-machine Republicans for governor before first running for the office in 1896. He campaigned on a platform of election reform and corporate accountability while accusing the stalwarts of bribery. After being elected governor on his third attempt in 1900, he spent his three terms fighting for primary elections and taxation of corporations based on the value of property. In 1904 the stalwarts fought bitterly against his second re-election with the use of bribed editors and a rump convention, but La Follette prevailed and saw his reforms passed. The state legislature elected him U.S. senator in 1905.
Succeeding La Follette as governor was James O. Davidson, who supported and signed into law reforms such as state regulation of industries, insurance companies and other businesses. Governor Francis E. McGovern followed with an even more progressive program that resulted in a state income tax, workers compensation, child labor laws and encouragement of cooperatives. Regardless of Davidson and McGovern's successes, La Follette ran his own loyal candidates against them, splitting the state's progressive Republicans and resulting in the 1912 election of the stalwarts' candidate Emanuel Philipp as governor. Despite campaigning on promises to dismantle progressive programs, Philipp proved to be a moderate, leaving nearly all of the reforms intact.
World War I
As World War I raged in Europe, most Wisconsin Republicans moved cautiously from neutrality to preparedness. One exception was Sen. La Follette, an outspoken opponent of American participation in the war. In February 1917 he led a group of progressive senators in blocking President Woodrow Wilson's bill to arm merchant ships. La Follette's actions made him nationally notorious. After being misquoted in a speech as having no grievances against Germany, he was abandoned by many of his longtime associates and later threatened with expulsion from the Senate. Gov. Philipp also opposed arming merchant ships and conscription, but after war was declared he administered the state's war effort, marshaled state resources and formed councils to conduct the draft, sell Liberty bonds, generate propaganda and stifle dissent.
The war shattered the traditional alignments within the state's parties. Many progressives joined the stalwarts in supporting Wisconsin's war measures, while many immigrant voters abandoned Wilson's Democratic Party. Loyalty became a prime issue in political campaigns, to the detriment of farmers and others shortchanged by the war. Even after the Armistice, super-patriots like state senator Roy P. Wilcox of Eau Claire weren't above accusing party figures like Gov. Philipp and Sen. Irvine Lenroot of divided loyalties. To thwart Wilcox's run for governor in 1920, the Philipp and La Follette forces separately supported John Blaine, the former mayor of Boscobel and a La Follette progressive.
The 1920s
During the 1920s state Republicans racked up a decade of tremendous legislative majorities. For example, in 1925 the Democrats held no seats in the state senate and only one in the assembly, while the Republicans held 92 assembly seats. But with the end of the war, factions within the party began to re-assert themselves, and a second wave of progressives returned to power. La Follette was decisively re-elected senator in 1922, and two years later he ran for president on a Progressive Party ticket against President Calvin Coolidge. He received every sixth vote cast nationally, but only carried Wisconsin. He died in 1925, but the La Follette name and his brand of Republicanism were carried on by his two sons. Robert La Follette, Jr. defeated Wilcox in the special election to fill his father's senate seat, while his younger brother Philip F. La Follette was elected Dane County district attorney.
To fight the progressives, conservative Republicans organized the Republican Voluntary Committee as a political action group to strategize and raise large donations outside the state party. The RVC cited a Wisconsin Manufacturers Association-financed study that concluded that businesses were leaving the state due to high taxes, but the report was refuted by economists that proved manufacturing had grown in the state. The study backfired and Gov. Blaine succeeded in shifting the tax burden from property to income.
With help from the Republican Voluntary Committee the stalwarts returned to the governorship with the 1928 election of Walter J. Kohler of Kohler Company, a plumbing fixture manufacturer who practiced an industrial policy of benevolence towards his workers (including the planned community of Kohler) as a guard against unions. Like President Herbert Hoover, Kohler was stimied by the stock market crash of 1929, and his attempts to mitigate the effects of the Depression were ineffective. Running for re-election in 1930 Kohler was beaten decisively in the Republican primary by Phil La Follette, who led a successful slate of progressive allies to state office and Congress in the general election.
Decline of the Progressive faction
After the 1930s and 1940s, the influence of the progressive faction began to wane as many eventually left office or joined the Democrats and the conservatives gradually took control. In 1934, Philip La Follette and Robert M. La Follette, Jr. established the Wisconsin Progressive Party which was an alliance between the longstanding "Progressive" faction of the Republican Party of Wisconsin, led by the La Follette family and their political allies, and certain radical farm and labor groups active in Wisconsin at the time. The party served as a vehicle for Philip to run for re-election as Governor of Wisconsin and for Robert to run for re-election to the United States Senate. Both men were successful in their bids, and the party saw a number of other victories as well in the 1934 and 1936 election, notably winning several U.S. House seats and a majority of the Wisconsin State Senate and Wisconsin State Assembly in 1936. Their grip on power was short-lived, however, and they succumbed to a united Democratic and Republican front in 1938 which swept most of them out of office, including Philip. They were further crippled that year by attempting to expand the party to the national level. As the Progressives formed their own party, this allowed conservativism to increasingly dominate the Republican Party. The Progressive Party would continue to have an increasingly diminishing influence at the state level until the late 1940s when Robert M. La Follette Jr was defeating by Joe McCarthy and the last of the progressive party was out of office.
Cold War era
Following World War II many progressives were either defeated by or joined the Democratic Party. Conservatives increasingly began to dominate the Republican Party, though many more moderate members still continued to exert influence. This new conservative trend in the party was most famously exemplified by Joe McCarthy, who represented Wisconsin in the U.S. Senate from 1947 until his death in 1957. Initially described as "quiet," McCarthy eventually rose to national prominence over his stanch anti-communist views, and for being a primary instigator of the red scare during the early 1950s. McCarthy's wild and often false attacks against various government officials for being communist, including at one point targeting fellow Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower, eventually led him to be censured by his colleagues in the Senate in 1954, and also led to the creation of the term McCarthyism. By this point, public opinion throughout the country had generally turned against him.
Back at home, the state Republicans' dominance of Wisconsin politics began to wane during the second half of the 20th century, with the party now regularly alternating and sharing control with the state's Democrats. Several Republican governors were elected during this time, most prominently Walter J. Kohler, Jr. and Warren P. Knowles, both of whom were of the more moderate wing of the party. At the federal level, with the exception of U.S. Senate seats following the death of McCarthy, the Republicans continued to hold an edge. Between 1952 and 1972, Wisconsin voted for the Republican candidate in each presidential election except for 1964.
By the 1970s however, especially after the watergate scandal, Republican successes in Wisconsin began to diminish significantly. In 1976, the state voted for Democrat Jimmy Carter to become president, and by the late 1970s, the Republicans had been completely shut out of power at both the state and federal levels of government, with the Democrats controlling all statewide executive offices and holding a supermajority in the Wisconsin state legislature. During this time, more conservative factions of the party started to grow in power, with the moderates becoming increasingly irrelevant. This trend eventually led to the rise of Lee S. Dreyfus, who ran for governor as a Republican in 1978. Dreyfus, a party outsider who had become fearful of a one-party system after a visit to communist China, and ran because he believed Wisconsin was at risk of becoming a one-party state under the Democrats, moved the Republicans in a fiscal conservative direction, echoing the national trend that occurred with the rise of Ronald Reagan. Dreyfus's fiscal conservatism and populist sentiments, while still remaining generally moderate on social issues, would ultimately lead him to win the governorship, ending unified Democratic control of the state. Later in 1980, Wisconsin voted for Reagan in his successful presidential bid, and conservative Robert W. Kasten Jr. unseated three-term incumbent Democrat Gaylord Nelson in the state's election for U.S. Senate.
The 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s
With a faltering state economy and rising budget deficit, Dreyfus chose not to seek a second term in 1982, and the Republicans ultimately found themselves relegated to the minority once again, with the Democrats winning back the governorship and still maintaining wide majorities in the state legislature. In spite of this trend, Reagan would still manage to carry the state in his 1984 re-election as president, though this would mark the last time until 2016 where a Republican would carry Wisconsin in a presidential bid.
At the state level, by the mid-1980s, the conservative transformation of the Republicans was completed. Subsequently, the party began to break free of its status as a minority party in the state. In 1986, the party's candidate for governor Tommy Thompson successfully unseated one-term incumbent Anthony Earl by a wide margin. Having campaigned on a conservative platform, during his time in office Thompson become most well known for his welfare reform efforts, which would later serve as a national model for the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act in 1996. Following his initial election, Thompson would go on to win three more elections in the 1990s, each one by double digit margins, and would serve a record 14 years in office before leaving in 2001 to become U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services. The Republicans also won back control of the state legislature for the first time in over twenty years in the "Republican Revolution" of 1994, giving the party a governing trifecta for the first time since 1970. In spite of these gains however, the party continued to struggle with elections to federal offices, namely elections to the U.S. Senate. Following Republican Robert W. Kasten Jr.'s 1992 defeat in his bid for re-election by Russ Feingold, the party would fail to win another Senate race for nearly two decades.
For most of the 2000s, following the departure of Thompson from the governorship and the later defeat of his lieutenant governor Scott McCallum by Democrat Jim Doyle in the 2002 election, Wisconsin remained in a state of divided government with the Republicans continuing to control the legislature. The new decade also saw the rise of a new generation of Republicans, including conservative Scott Walker, who was first elected as Milwaukee County Executive in 2002. Wisconsin politics in the 2000s was partly dominated by the presidency of George W. Bush. This has the effect of benefitting Republicans early on, however as Bush's approval ratings sank in the latter part of the decade, largely due to his perceived lackluster response to Hurricane Katrina and the increasingly costly Iraq War, Wisconsin voters began to turn on the party at all levels of government. In the 2008 elections, this had the effect of allowing Democrat Barack Obama to carry the state by a landslide margin in the presidential election over Republican John McCain, and shutting Republicans completely out of power in state government for the first time since 1986 (with the exception of the state's Attorney General position, which was still held by Republican J.B. Van Hollen).
The rise and fall of Scott Walker
The Republican party of Wisconsin and the politics of the state in general during the 2010s were heavily dominated by the rise of stanch conservative Governor Scott Walker, backed by the then adescent Tea Party movement, a right-wing conservative movement that had formed in the late 2000s in response to Obama's election as President of the United States. In 2010, the Republicans, particularly those backed by the Tea Party movement, made sweeping gains in the state. Alongside Walker's victory in the 2010 governor's race, Republicans also won every other statewide seat up for election, including a U.S. Senate seat won by Tea Party-backed Ron Johnson, as well as both chambers of the state's legislature.
Shortly after taking power in 2011, Walker introduced his first budget which he stated was designed to fix the billion dollar budget deficit that the state was facing at the time. Protests soon erupted however over a measure in the budget known as Act 10, which was set to limit collective bargaining rights of public employees in the state. After signing the budget and Act 10 into law, Walker and several other Republicans, including State Senate majority leader Scott Fitzgerald, were faced with recall efforts. This eventually led to a 2012 recall election against Walker, where he defeated his opponent from 2010 in a rematch by a slightly wider margin than the previous time. In the other subsequent recall elections in June 2012, Republicans lost control of the State Senate by a single seat to the Democrats, though they gained back their majority the following November.
During his time in office, Walker signed numerous pieces of landmark (and often controversial) legislation into law, including laws restricting access to abortion, loosening labor regulations, and cutting property taxes. After being re-elected in 2014, Walker also signed a right-to-work law, for which he gained significant national attention. After a brief stint running for president himself in 2015, Walker eventually endorsed Ted Cruz in the 2016 presidential race, in a bid to stop Donald Trump from getting the nomination. Cruz later won the 2016 Wisconsin Republican primary, though Walker later supported Trump after he clinched the party's nomination, and Trump went on to be the first Republican to carry Wisconsin in a presidential election since 1984.
Later in 2018, Walker sought re-election to a third term as governor, however his glamour as a young energetic conservative by this point had largely worn off, and his rising unpopularity due to his policies concerning public education, infrastructure, and a deal his administration made with Taiwanese company Foxconn in 2017 to create jobs in the state in exchange for around $4.5 billion in taxpayer subsidies, made re-election in 2018 far difficult than in his previous races. His increasingly unpopular conservative policies, compounded by the relative unpopularity of Trump in Wisconsin, ultimately resulted in Walker's defeat by Democratic candidate Tony Evers. Republicans also subsequently lost all statewide executive offices, though in spite of this they maintained wide majorities in both chambers of the state legislature despite losing the overall statewide vote, which some people have attributed to gerrymandering that took place following the 2010 elections.
Wisconsin Republicans today
Following the defeat of Scott Walker, in December 2018, a special legislative session was called by Walker to pass a series of bills to limit the powers of his incoming successor Tony Evers, as well as incoming Democratic State attorney general Josh Kaul who had defeated incumbent Republican Brad Schimel. The bills were widely denounced by Democrats and others as a "power grab." Walker and other Republicans meanwhile argued that the bills were necessary "checks on power" and that they did not actually strip any real powers from the executive. Lawsuits were filed by Evers and various labor unions almost immediately after Walker signed the bills into law.
On October 22, 2020, the party noticed suspicious activity in its account used for Donald Trump's reelection campaign. It soon appeared that hackers had altered invoices so that, when the party paid its expenses, $2.3 million was paid to the hackers rather than to the actual vendors to whom it was owed.
During the 2022 Wisconsin elections, the Republicans gained a U.S. House seat, with Derrick Van Orden replacing Ron Kind, who did not run for re-election, and U.S. Senator Ron Johnson was re-elected to a third term, defeating Lieutenant Governor Mandela Barnes. Additionally, Republicans gained three seats in the State Assembly and one seat in the State Senate. However, Republicans lost elections for all statewide executive offices, with the exception of John Leiber who was elected State Treasurer.
Currently the Republican Party of Wisconsin controls one of two U.S. Senate seats and six of eight U.S. House seats, as well as majorities in both houses of the state legislature. The party holds one statewide executive office, State Treasurer.
Conventions
2009 Republican Party of Wisconsin Convention
The 2009 party convention was held in La Crosse on May 1, with the highlight being straw polls for the upcoming 2010 gubernatorial and senatorial elections.
2010 Republican Party of Wisconsin Convention
The 2010 party convention was held May 21–23 in Milwaukee. The convention was the largest in RPW history with over 1500 delegates registering and participating in the convention. The convention endorsed Milwaukee County Executive Scott Walker for Governor with 91% of the vote.
2011 Republican Party of Wisconsin Convention
The 2011 RPW convention was held May 20–22 in Wisconsin Dells. The convention was held at Glacier Canyon Lodge at the Wilderness.
2012 Republican Party of Wisconsin Convention
The 2012 RPW Convention was held May 11–13 at the KI Convention Center in downtown Green Bay. The convention will begin the final push for the Republican defense of the 2012 Recall Election of Governor Scott Walker.
Current elected officials
The Wisconsin Republican Party controls the statewide office of Treasurer and holds a majority in both the Wisconsin Senate and Wisconsin State Assembly. Republicans also hold one of the state's U.S. Senate seats and six of the state's 8 U.S. House of Representatives seats.
Members of Congress
United States Senate
Senator: Ron Johnson
United States House of Representatives
WI-01: Bryan Steil
WI-03: Derrick Van Orden
WI-05: Scott L. Fitzgerald
WI-06: Glenn Grothman
WI-07: Tom Tiffany
WI-08: Mike Gallagher
Statewide offices
State Treasurer John S. Leiber
Legislative leadership
President of the Senate: Chris Kapenga
Senate Republican Leader: Devin LeMahieu
Speaker of the Assembly: Robin Vos
Assembly Majority Leader: Tyler August
See also
Democratic Party of Wisconsin
Politics of Wisconsin
History of the United States Republican Party
References
External links
Republican Party of Wisconsin
"Wisconsin and the Republican Party" from the Wisconsin Historical Society
Wisconsin Republicans
Political parties in Wisconsin
Wisconsin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haunted%20attraction%20%28simulated%29
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Haunted attraction (simulated)
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A haunted attraction is a form of live entertainment that simulates visiting haunted locations or experiencing horror scenarios. They usually feature fearsome sets and characters, especially demons, ghosts, skeletons, zombies, monsters, possessed people, witches, serial killers, and slashers. Humorous characters may also be included.
Haunted attractions may be set up at many kinds of locations. Built attractions or existing structures in which attractions may be operated include temporarily constructed simulations of haunted houses; actual abandoned or dilapidated houses; abandoned asylums; defunct prisons; defunct or active amusement parks; defunct or active ships; defunct factories; defunct or active barns; and shopping malls. Outdoor places hosting such attractions include corn mazes or cornfields; hedge mazes; farms (often including "haunted" hayrides); wooded areas or forests; and parks.
Haunted attractions (also known as "haunts" or "mazes" within the industry) use many effects, such as intense lighting (strobe lights, black lights, etc.), animatronics, CGI, scent dispensers, fog machines, spinning tunnels, air blasters, spooky old antiques, gory images, and intense scenes of horror, terror, torment, murder, mischief, or comedy. Visitors often encounter actors in elaborate and often scary costumes, masks, and prosthetics. They may perform skits or lurk and come out unexpectedly to frighten, shock, disturb, or amuse the customer.
Haunted attractions typically operate from the last week of late September or early October to the last week in October or first week of November. In particular, they are especially active during the triduum of Allhallowtide. There is also a subculture of permanent haunted attractions that are open year-round, and a few that are open for special occasions, such as haunt conventions or Spring Break (also called Scream Break). Some attractions are run by charities as fundraisers.
In Japan, there is a tradition of making obakeyashiki (ghost houses) in the summertime, as fear is believed to ward off the heat by "giving you the chills". They typically feature frightening creatures from Japanese folklore, ghosts, demons, sinister crucifixes and other things that are brought to life thanks to decorations, sound effects and animatronics. A story is often told to visitors before they receive a mission that they must accomplish in the house.
History
One of the first recorded purpose-built haunted attractions was the Orton and Spooner Ghost House, which opened in 1915 in Liphook, England. Closely resembling a carnival fun house, it was powered by steam. It still exists, in the Hollycombe Steam Collection.
The background for the creation of the Orton and Spooner Ghost House might be seen in 18th- and 19th-century London and Paris, when literature, performances by magicians, spiritualists and psychics, as well as theatrical shows and attractions introduced the public to gruesome entertainment. In 1802, Marie Tussaud scandalized British audiences with an exhibition of wax sculptures of decapitated victims of the French Revolution, including King Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Robespierre and Jean-Paul Marat. Her exhibits exist today as the Chamber of Horrors in Madam Tussauds in London. In France, from 1897, the Grand Guignol theatre was scaring audiences with graphically staged horror entertainment. The Phantasmagoria show existed even earlier, but a well-known version in 1797 Paris was the Fantasmagorie, which made use of magic lantern projections and crude special effects.
Halloween-themed haunted houses in America seemed to begin emerging during the Great Depression, about the same time as trick-or-treating. During the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, it was common for magicians to use supernatural themes in their stage performances, which evolve into the tradition of a traveling ghost show, also referred to as a spook show or creep show, and incorporate comedy, displays of mentalism and theatrical special effects. During the 1950s these specialized shows were often performed as pre-show entertainment before screenings of popular horror movies.
The Haunted Mansion opened in Disneyland on August 9, 1969, and was highly successful, soon gaining a single-day record of 82,516 guests. In 1973, Knott's Berry Farm began hosting its own Halloween night attraction, Knott's Scary Farm. Evangelical Christians became early adopters of alternative Halloween attractions; Jerry Falwell and Liberty University introduced one of the first "Hell houses" in 1972.
During the late 1950s, California was a focus for Halloween haunts. In 1957, the San Mateo Haunted House opened, sponsored by the Children's Health Home Junior Auxiliary. The San Bernardino Assistance League Haunted House opened in 1958. In 1962 and 1963 home haunts began appearing across the country, including Oregon, California, Connecticut, Illinois, and several other states. On October 17, 1964, the San Manteo Haunted House opened as a walk-through haunted house. The Children's Museum Haunted House in Indianapolis, open every year since 1964, was Indiana's first haunted house and is currently the longest running in the nation.
Haunted houses quickly spread across the country via charity fundraisers conducted by The United States Junior Chamber ("the Jaycees") and others. The Jaycees encouraged its membership to construct haunted houses in abandoned buildings or fields as charity fundraising events, and the organization became known for these houses throughout America. In the late 1960s to early 1970s, haunted attractions were developed in larger American cities like Louisville, Kentucky, and Cincinnati, Ohio, with the creation of Jaycees haunted houses. These haunted houses are run by local chapters of the Jaycees. There are still many local chapter Jaycees haunted houses in towns such as Lombard, Illinois; Foxborough, Massachusetts; Raleigh, North Carolina; and Columbia, South Carolina. The former Huntington Jaycees Haunted House, now known as the Haunted Hotel-13th Floor, was operated by volunteers in October 1963. The first verifiable Jaycees haunted attraction as recognized by the Jaycees national office was The WSAI Haunted House in Cincinnati, Ohio, operated by the Sycamore-Deer Park Jaycees in 1970. In 1974, The Haunted Schoolhouse, located in Akron, Ohio, opened to the public and is still in operation to this day.
The March of Dimes copyrighted a "Mini haunted house for the March of Dimes" in 1976 and began fundraising through their local chapters by conducting haunted houses soon after. Although they apparently quit supporting this type of event nationally sometime in the 1980s, some MoD haunted houses have persisted until today. This includes the Spooky Acres Haunted House in Norfolk, Virginia. Others open during this period include one in Indio, California, in 1976, one in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1989, and one in Honolulu, Hawaii, in 1997. MoD Haunted Houses continuing much beyond the late 1980s would be considered outliers.
The beginning of the end for the charity haunts can be traced to a singular event: the Haunted Castle at Six Flags Great Adventure caught fire on the evening of May 11, 1984, in Jackson Township, New Jersey. Eight teenagers lost their lives in the fire. There were criminal charges filed, civil lawsuits, numerous investigations, and the inevitable result that fire safety laws, building codes, and inspections were tightened up considerably nationwide. The net effect was to make charity attractions less economically viable than they were before. Better construction materials were required, and fire safety equipment was required, making a temporary venue too expensive for many charities to afford. As a result, the larger, better funded for-profit operators moved in as the charities moved out. The fire caused wide-ranging changes for all amusement buildings. Previously, operators were able to avoid fire codes because such attractions were used temporarily. The Haunted Castle fire pointed to an unattractive reality that forced tighter regulation.
Professional haunted houses began to show up in the United States about the same time as the non-profits. However, subsequent to the Haunted Castle fire, many existing haunted attractions were shut down, as politicians and regulators enacted stronger safety codes. Volunteer (non-profit) organizations struggled to compete against the new for-profit competition under the tougher rules. Many were forced out of business either from the added competition or the inability to fund safety requirements. "The Jaycees got pushed out because their haunted houses were fairly basic." Currently, in the United States alone, there are over 4,000 October seasonal haunted houses and 300 theme parks that operate horror-themed events. Over 3,000 haunts are charity-run fundraisers.
In order to increase off-season attendance, theme parks entered the business seriously in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Six Flags launched Fright Fest in 1986-1989 and Universal Studios began Halloween Horror Nights in 1991. Although Knotts Berry Farm launched their Knott's Scary Farm in 1973, given America's obsession with Halloween as a cultural event surging in the 1990s, Knotts saw their attraction take off. Theme parks have played a major role in globalizing the holiday. Universal Studios Singapore and Universal Studios Japan both participate, while Disney now mounts Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween events at its parks in Paris, Hong Kong and Tokyo, as well as in the United States. The theme park haunts are by far the largest, both in scale and attendance.
Types of haunted attractions
There are many types of haunted attractions including Scream Parks. The following categories are generalizations; many "haunts" contain attributes from more than one type.
Haunted house, mansion or castle
A haunted house, haunted mansion, or haunted castle is a type of haunted attraction that usually takes place indoors. Visitors may experience intense animatronics, bloody and frightening set pieces, rustic antiques, scary music and sounds, dynamic lighting, fog, costumed actors with elaborate makeup or masks, and other special effects used to create scenes of terror.
Knoebels Amusement Resort in Elysburg, Pennsylvania, has a "Haunted House" dark ride. The Haunted Mansion is popular with patrons at Disney locations around the world. Miracle Strip Amusement Park in Panama City Beach, Florida, had a "Haunted Castle" ride until the amusement park itself closed down in 2004. Its prop elements became part of "The Terrortorium" in Oxford, Alabama, for annual Halloween events. Miracle Strip's former "Old House" walk-through attraction permanently transferred to Panama City Beach's amusement park, Race City, where it currently stands simply identified as "Haunted House". Many of Sally Corporation's Scooby-Doo's Haunted Mansion rides were replaced by Boo Blasters on Boo Hill.
Haunted houses or mansions for an annual Halloween season can be located in hospitals, grocery stores, shopping malls, warehouses, semi-trailers, factories, boats or ships, dilapidated homes, etc. Haunted house or haunted mansion events can range from a few minutes to many hours in length, with some permitting visitors to go at their own pace and others requiring group tours led by guides.
A number of the largest seasonal attractions feature multiple haunted houses on the same site. For example, in 2015, Pure Terror Screampark in Monroe, New York, was awarded the Guinness World Record for World's Longest Walk Through Horror Attraction.
In terms of appearance, the prototypical haunted house in America can probably trace its roots to the 1925 painting House by the Railroad by Edward Hopper.
Haunted trail or forest
A haunted trail or haunted forest is a type of attraction that takes place outside in the woods, at a park, at a theme park or other outside venue. Most haunted trails are close to a mile long and may include small buildings or huts that include various scenes visitors are forced to enter or walk past. The majority of haunted trails have lit paths or roped-off areas if there are no paths in the woods that have already been made. Haunted trails include various rooms or scenes such as hillbilly huts, a haunted cornfield, a clown maze, an alien invasion, or movie-themed rooms.
Haunted trails may use tour guides, or they may allow visitors to walk alone. Unlike haunted houses, weather determines if the attraction will be open or not during the month of October. Tour times may vary greatly depending on the customer's pace and the length of the trail.
Haunted hayride
A haunted hayride is a haunted attraction and a form of agri-entertainment that takes place during a hayride on a farm, park or large piece of land. Patrons climb on a wagon filled with hay or hay bales and are driven into the darkness as the tractor driver navigates through brush, cornfields, narrow paths, fields and barns. Throughout the trip, customers may come in contact with out-of-control farm equipment, fast-moving vehicles (hearses, hot rods), actors dressed up as monsters and traditional characters like the Headless Horseman from Washington Irving's The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.
The typical haunted hayride lasts from 10 to 45 minutes. Some use sound systems attached to the wagon or tractor. During the daytime, some haunted hayrides may have live shows, face painting, fun characters and may even sell pumpkins or other vegetables grown on the farm.
Haunted hayrides may be intertwined with any other type of haunted attraction, such as first being transported to the location with things to see along the way, before the guests are let off to walk through the rest of the attraction.
One of the more noted companies in this sector is Ten Thirty One Productions, which has hay rides in Los Angeles and New York. The haunted hayride was arguably started and popularized by the original Spooky World, which opened in Berlin, Massachusetts, in 1991.
Haunted ship
A haunted ship is a haunted attraction that takes place on a ship, battleship, destroyer, or any other type of ship. Patrons board these attractions via a gangway and walk through the ship that is usually lit with effects lighting, plays sound effects, and has thematic rooms meant to create a terrifying environment. Most of these types of attractions are found on the west coast or east coast, and are not as prevalent as typical haunted theme parks, hayrides, and haunted trails or forests.
Some of the more popular haunted ships in the United States are the USS Nightmare in Newport, Kentucky; Queen Mary's Dark Harbor in Long Beach, California; and Ghost Ship Harbor in Quincy, Massachusetts.
Haunted theme park (screampark)
A haunted theme park is an amusement park whose buildings and paths have been converted into haunted houses, haunted trails or hayrides during the fall season (September, October and early November). Many haunted theme parks include themed outdoor scare zones that feature costumed monsters who roam around scaring customers. It is not unusual to come in contact with actors known as sliders who wear special kneepads. When the actor slides on the ground, the kneepads make a scraping noise before the actor is inches away from the customer.
Additionally, a large percentage of haunted theme parks feature live shows, concession areas, rides and other typical amusement park attractions. Not all haunted theme parks take place inside an actual amusement park. There are quite a few events that include multiple attractions in one place and may be located on a farm, park, parking lot or anywhere suitable for a large-scale event, but strictly speaking, these are not considered theme parks.
The first haunted theme park was Knott's Scary Farm, which opened at Knott's Berry Farm in Buena Park, California, on October 31, 1973. Haunted theme parks are among the most popular haunted attractions since they offer multiple attractions for a single admission price, and are often of a high level of production value.
Haunted theme parks, whether they are set in true theme parks or set up within large spaces, typically contain a certain two types of area for their facilities, the hub area where food, drinks and merchandise can be purchased, the guests can relax and the live shows such as bands and magic shows are performed, actors can still appear throughout the hub area, where their scare factor may or may not be as high compared to the mazes themselves. The mazes themselves are typically accessed by large queue entrances, and the mazes for the most part contain the bulk of a haunted theme park's scare factor, encouraging the more elaborate special effects, scare tactics and traversal compared to the calmer hub area.
Dark maze and chain maze
A dark maze (or pitch-black maze) is a haunted attraction that consists of dark or pitch-black rooms with multiple paths that may contain dead ends. Some may feature actors, air cannons, loud sounds, sprays of water, moving walls or floors, hanging props, flashing lights and more. A dark maze can be a standalone attraction or an extension of a haunted house, haunted trail or hayride.
Some dark mazes can transition into a chain maze, which is similar to a dark maze but uses metal bars or chain-link fencing for its walls. Most chain mazes will utilize strobe lights and heavy fog to blind and disorient customers while they try to find the exit. A chain maze can also serve as a standalone attraction.
The amount of time spent inside a dark maze or chain maze may depend on the construction of the maze as well as one's skill at navigating mazes.
Pitch black areas such as dark mazes are quite common as sections for horror attractions, and are quite common in extreme haunted houses, they usually contain ropes for traversal and if a guest is going the wrong way or lost, an actor within the room may hold the guests arm to guide them to the rope in order to find the way out of the dark area.
Hell house
Hell houses are haunted attractions typically run by Christian churches or parachurch groups. These depict sin, the torments of the damned in Hell, and usually conclude with a depiction of heaven. They are most typically operated in the days preceding the triduum of Allhallowtide.
A hell house, like a conventional haunted-house attraction, is a space set aside for actors to frighten patrons with gruesome exhibits and scenes, presented as a series of short vignettes with a narrated guide. Unlike haunted houses, hell houses focus on occasions and effects of sin or the fate of unrepentant sinners in the afterlife.
The exhibits at a hell house often have a controversial tone focusing on issues of concern to Christians in the United States. Hell houses frequently feature exhibits depicting sin and its consequences. Common examples include abortion, suicide, use of alcoholic beverages and recreational drugs, adultery, occultism, and Satanic ritual abuse. Hell houses typically emphasize the belief that anyone who does not repent of their sin and accept Christ as their personal savior is condemned to Hell.
One of the first hell houses is Scaremare (still presented each October) in Lynchburg, Virginia; it was created by Jerry Falwell in the late 1970s. Similar events began in several regions during that period. Hell houses have faced criticism for advertising themselves as traditional haunted houses. Most involve biblical lessons and some ask customers to pray to Jesus Christ before exiting, regardless of their beliefs. Some hell houses are much more graphic than traditional haunted attractions and not appropriate for all audiences.
Dark ride
A dark ride or ghost train (United Kingdom and Australia) is an indoor amusement ride where riders in guided vehicles travel through specially-lit scenes that typically contain animatronics, sound, music, and special effects.
A dark ride is enclosed so all illumination is controlled, often using theatrical lighting to achieve special effects. Selective use of darkness helps hide ride mechanisms and increase visual drama. The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror is a popular dark ride at Walt Disney World's Hollywood Studios (Sunset Boulevard), Tokyo DisneySea (American Waterfront), and Walt Disney Studios Park (Production Courtyard).
Revenge of the Mummy roller coaster is the most popular dark ride at Universal Studios Florida (New York City), Universal Studios Hollywood (Lower Lot), and Universal Studios Singapore (Ancient Egypt). Another classic example of a haunted dark ride is the Phantom Theater Omnimover at Kings Island in Mason, Ohio.
Haunted cornfield maze
A cornfield maze is an attraction that uses cornstalks to form paths for people to walk through. Patrons can expect to experience turns, straight paths and dead ends. The cornfield maze might be designed to resemble a popular character, public figure, event or holiday. Most cornfield mazes are open during the day and are appropriate for all ages.
The largest corn maze in the world was located in Dixon, California, and is 45 acres in area . Although this corn maze holds distinction as the world's largest corn maze, Adventure Acres corn maze in Bellbrook, Ohio, consists of 62 acres of corn maze with 8.5 miles of trails. In 2003, a world record for the longest maze path, as recognised by Guinness World Records, was set on 10 July 2003 at in the Lobster Maize Maze, designed by Adrian Fisher, at Stewarts Gardenlands, Christchurch, Dorset, England.
A haunted cornfield maze is identical to a cornfield maze except that it may include actors, props, special effects, scary music and more. The majority of haunted cornfield mazes are open after dark.
Home and yard haunts
A home haunt is a simplified version of a haunted attraction that is created at a person's home. They often begin with a yard haunt (see below) before continuing into interior rooms, which may include garages. Visitors can expect to see homemade props or animatronics, detailed decor, special effects and costumed characters. The vast majority of home haunts are not for profit, or may ask for donations for charity or other local causes. They are usually open for a few hours on Halloween night, or for a few weekends in October. They do not require state-issued emergency lighting, fire alarms, or fire escapes if they are under a specific length.
Yard haunts take place in a yard, usually dressed to resemble a cemetery, adjacent to a home. They may feature prop tombstones, skulls, large inflatable characters, plastic light-up figures (a.k.a. blowmolds), strobe lights, fog machines, cobwebs, spooky music, animatronics, and other décor that can be purchased at Halloween stores. Some homeowners create their own props. Displays can include synchronized music and lighting effects using computer programs such as Light-O-Rama or Animated Lighting. They may utilize an FM transmitter so people can park their car, locate a low-frequency radio station, and watch and listen to the show without the sounds disturbing the neighbors. An example of this type attraction is The House at Haunted Hill in Woodland Hills, California.
Ghost run
A ghost run is a haunted event that takes place in a person's car. When a customer purchases a ticket for a ghost run, they are given various clues as to where different haunted attractions are. This haunted scavenger hunt usually includes a few local haunted attractions and other free items. At the end of the ghost run's season, the winner with the best mileage locating the haunts is revealed and they are given a prize.
Midnight ghost (or spook) shows
Between the 1930s–1960s, movie theaters would have live shows that featured magicians performing magic tricks, séances, special effects and scary skits. This was at a time when people were unaware of how these seemingly incredible tricks were done and it was a relatively new form of entertainment before the spread of the haunted attraction. Many of these spook shows doubled with horror movies and played at smaller movie theaters during the Halloween season or different parts of the year. Eventually these shows would incorporate bloody special effects and sometimes be referred to as Midnight Horror Shows. These shows were daring for their time, but would phase out by the end of the 1960s. A modern interpretation of the classic spook show was the Hauntings Ghost Show in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. This attraction was themed as a Victorian Seance, which took place in a small theater setting. During the show, the audience would encounter automated gags instead of live performers. The attraction was in operation from the early 1980s until September 2015.
Extreme haunted houses
As the haunted attraction industry has evolved, it has trended toward ever more elaborate settings, more sophisticated technology, more elaborate backstories and so-called "extreme" haunted houses. Most operators, from the mega-haunts down to local charity events have felt the competitive pressure to improve their events. Higher quality scenery and props and ever more elaborate concepts and writing have become the norm. Furthermore, the experiences have expanded in terms of sheer size, either by making the mazes longer, or by providing more than one attraction on the same site.
Some operators have tried to distinguish themselves by adding more extreme experiences. The most common upgrades beyond those cited above include blackout houses, interactive houses, and the inclusion of virtual reality, laser tag elements, or both.
Blackout houses are pitch-black mazes which the guests must feel their way through. This may involve crawling, and, sometimes, contact by the actors. This is usually not allowed in less extreme houses, and may require the guest to sign a waiver prior to entering.
Interactive houses may involve the guests being closed into an "escape room", where they have a time limit to try to figure out how to escape, and physical clues scattered around the space. There are scares also hidden in the space, and often guest escape efforts have consequences for wrong guesses.
VR and laser tag houses add an element of the first-person shooter video game experience to the guest's journey through the house.
The most extreme houses may feature full contact with the guests and include a chance that the guest may be subjected to mild torture, including simulated drowning, simulated assault, and light electric shock. Guests are often given a safeword for anyone who might not be able to complete the experience. Tennessee's McKamey Manor requires both an application process and a waiver. Unlike most of its rivals, there was no safeword until 2017. The tour, which is free, can take up to four hours to complete. In that time, guests have been tied and gagged, forced into coffins and freezers, and had their heads pushed into cages full of snakes. People have even been known to leave with scratches and bruises. Another example is Blackout, which has versions in Los Angeles, Chicago, Miami, and New York, and has been rated on several lists as the most extreme haunted house in the world. Additional extreme haunts include Heretic and Hvrting in Los Angeles, Miasma in Chicago, Shock Theater in New York, and Faceless Ventures in the UK.
The Naked and Scared Challenge was an adults-only experience at Shocktoberfest, a 27-acre fear park located in Sinking Spring, Pennsylvania. Visitors at least 18 years old were invited to disrobe before entering. After choosing the "nude" or "prude" (underwear-only) option, guests were asked to sign waivers prior to a clothes-free fright. The nude option was cancelled prior to opening, due to pressure from local authorities. There have been a few such houses around the country, but they have apparently not caught on. This event began during the 2013 season, and was still running as of 2017, as the Almost Naked and Scared Challenge.
A haunted experience is a relatively new type of haunted attraction that combines the concept of a haunted house with something like a scavenger hunt. These begin in one place and end in another, usually the haunted house itself. An example of a haunted experience is Nyctophobia on Long Island, New York; in 2010, ticket buyers were given a location that was not the physical haunted house, but a pick-up spot where they got into a van blindfolded and were driven to the real location. Other experiences such as Blackout have the participants sign liability waivers and feature scenes where the performers can physically touch the guests and perform actions that resemble various acts such as waterboarding.
Business environment
Haunted attractions can be categorized as follows: mega-haunt, professional haunt, charity haunt and home haunt. The mega-haunts would include the large theme park operators such as Universal Studios Halloween Horror Nights, Six Flags Fright Fest, and Walt Disney's Haunted Mansion. These largest operators are not members of any of the haunt trade groups, and are ignored by them in terms of reviews and awards. This mega-group also avoids publishing attendance or revenue figures.
The professional American haunt industry is a multibillion-dollar business with nearly 2,000 haunts open each year and over 12,000,000 customers attending those attractions. Throughout the year, there are many conventions held all over the United States. These include Midwest Haunters Convention (Ohio), National Haunters Convention (Pennsylvania), Haunted Attraction National Trade-show and Conference (HAuNTcon; moves to a new city each year), Indy Haunt Fest (Indiana), West Coast Haunters Convention (Oregon), Canandian Haunters Convention (Canada), Halloween & Attractions Show (Missouri), and many others. These annual conventions feature props, seminars, workshops, parties, and haunt tours. The biggest show of the year is the Transworld Halloween and Haunted Attraction show in St Louis, Missouri, each March drawing over 8000 buyers with over 100,000 square feet of vendors.
The haunt industry's first association, the International Association of Haunted Attractions (IAHA), started in 1998. The second was the Haunted House Association in 2008. In late 2010, both associations agreed to merge and form the Haunted Attraction Association. Other related groups are the Haunt Reviewers Association (HRA), Home Haunters Association, and the Halloween and Haunt Vendors Association (HHVA) and Haunted Attraction Association.
Many haunted attractions across the United States now feature high-quality animatronics and effects. It is not uncommon to come across towering monsters, movie-quality CGI, dynamic lighting, props that interact with customers, scent dispensers, intricate set pieces and figures, pneumatic props, or props that spray water or air.
Attractions are covered by industry trade magazines including Hauntworld Magazine, Haunted Attraction Magazine, and Fangoria. The industry has also been featured by television networks, and attractions are ranked by a variety of special-interest web sites.
, one source estimated there were more than 2,500 haunted attractions worldwide, most in the United States. It is estimated to be an 8.4 billion dollar industry in America alone in 2016, according to the National Retail Federation. This is up from estimated Halloween spending in the United States in 2011 at $6.8 billion, which itself was up from $3.3 billion in 2005. This growth shows few signs of slowing. "In the past two decades, haunted houses have become a booming national industry that generates hundreds of millions of dollars and includes family-friendly theme parks, huge high-tech productions and evangelical Christian hell houses."
Legal and safety environment
Safety requirements generally include fire suppression systems, clearly marked exits, warning signs, and panic systems. Warning signs usually warn customers about heavy fog, intense strobes, loud sounds and music, crawling, and stress that people who are pregnant, disabled, have a heart condition or prone to epileptic seizures should not enter. Most attractions must be inspected by local authorities to confirm that they comply with building and fire codes.
International perspective
While many cultures have Halloween and Halloween-like traditions, many of which have been absorbed by Americans, physical locations where simulated haunted attractions are created seem to have been a uniquely American invention. The American Haunted attraction has recently begun to be exported elsewhere, from the early 2000s, with theme parks playing a major role in globalizing the holiday as they often have an international presence. The clearest examples are Universal Studios, which has exported its Halloween Horror Nights to its parks in Singapore (2011) and Japan (2012), and Six Flags, which has begun celebrating its Fright Fest at its locations in Mexico and Canada. Disney now mounts Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween events at its parks in Paris, Hong Kong and Tokyo, as well as the United States. Overseas operators of themed attractions have also followed the American trend. Examples include: Fright Nights at Thorpe Park Surrey, England, Scarefest at Alton Towers Staffordshire, England and Fright Nights at Warner Bros Movie World in Queensland, Australia.
See also
Escape room
Freak show
Funhouse
List of haunted attractions
References
External links
Halloween events in the United States
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Party%20of%20Wisconsin
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Democratic Party of Wisconsin
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The Democratic Party of Wisconsin is the affiliate of the Democratic Party in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. It is currently headed by chair Ben Wikler.
Important issues for the state party include support for workers and unions, strong public education, and environmental protection. Since the 2010 passage of the Affordable Care Act, Wisconsin Democrats have prioritized fully expanding Medicaid in the state, a policy that Republicans have blocked.
Current leadership
Party leaders are elected to two year terms at the state party conventions held in odd numbered years. The current leadership terms expire in June 2021.
Chair: Ben Wikler
1st Vice Chair: Felesia Martin
2nd Vice Chair: Lee Snodgrass
Secretary: Meg Andrietsch
Treasurer: Randy Udell
History
Territorial era
During Wisconsin's territory years, Jacksonian democracy was dominant and, thanks largely to Andrew Jackson's reputation and presidency, the Democratic Party was seen as the party of the common man. State and federal Democrats shared a claim of opposing the "money power" of eastern wealth and central banks, and other Jacksonian policies—such as the appropriation of new lands from Native American populations and the distribution of those lands to new settlers—bolstered Democratic politicians and helped to establish a durable voter base in the new territories. The early Democratic Party in Wisconsin was also seen as championing property, trade, and economic policies which favored the lead mining, fur trading, and lumber harvesting laborers who were coming to populate the new territory. This was the base of early Democrats such as Territorial Governor Henry Dodge.
Early statehood through the Civil War
The party continued to expand with the industrialization of cities along the rivers and coasts of Wisconsin and the growth of the urban workforce. The Democratic Party dominated the first decade of state government, winning 25 of the first 30 elections for statewide partisan offices, while holding large majorities in the Wisconsin Legislature and among the congressional delegations.
Frays began to appear in the Democratic coalition, however, as national Democrats were seen as favoring Southern priorities over new states' priorities—such as federal spending for harbor and railroad improvements. These issues persisted through the presidencies of Democrats James K. Polk and Franklin Pierce as petitions from Wisconsin Democrats fell on deaf ears in Washington.
Immigration would also become a fault line within the party and the state in these early years. The Democrats initially thrived on their appeal to immigrant laborers, bolstered by language they had added to the Wisconsin Constitution which allowed new immigrants to quickly attain voting rights. Their principal opposition, however, the Whig Party, held more nativist positions and over time began exploiting the resentments between immigrants and non-immigrants and between Protestants and Catholics. This division also involved the issue of prohibition, which was supported by a majority of the Wisconsin voting population in a nonbinding referendum in 1853, but was anathema to immigrant populations.
The issue of slavery further exacerbated internal Democratic Party divisions as national Democrats pushed policies to abolish the Wilmot Proviso and allow for the establishment of slavery in new U.S. states and territories. A formal split occurred in 1848, as anti-slavery Democrats broke off and formed the Free Soil Party along with members of the abolitionist Liberty Party. The Free Soil Party quickly found a foothold in southeastern Wisconsin, with a base of support from settlers who had arrived in Wisconsin from New England and New York. The splits significantly diminished the majority of the Democratic statewide vote, but left Democrats still in control of statewide offices. State Democrats were able to reclaim some Free Soil supporters and stave off further losses by publicly endorsing more free soil positions, such as a Joint Resolution from the legislature to instruct Wisconsin's congressional delegation to oppose any expansion of slavery into new territories. But national Democratic policies continued to undermine those efforts, as the Compromise of 1850 and its Fugitive Slave Act component further inflamed anti-slavery sentiment in Wisconsin and other northern states. Anti-slavery emotion was further excited with the arrest of Milwaukee abolitionist newspaper publisher Sherman Booth, who had led a mob to free Joshua Glover in defiance of the Fugitive Slave Act.
By 1853, internal factions were publicly lobbing accusations of corruption at fellow Democrats. Most notably Wisconsin circuit court judge Levi Hubbell was impeached at the instigation of fellow Democrat Edward G. Ryan, and William A. Barstow, who was seeking the Democratic nomination for Governor in 1853, was accused of having accepted bribes while in office as Secretary of State.
Despite the internal divisions, Barstow won the governorship and Wisconsin Democrats were able to maintain power in the state until anti-slavery factions finally coalesced with northern Whigs into the new Republican Party in 1854. The Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the anti-slavery components of the Missouri Compromise, was the final straw for anti-slavery northerners.
The 1855 gubernatorial election was tainted by more accusations of corruption and fraud and ultimately had to be settled by the state Supreme Court, where Democrat Edward G. Ryan took a leading role in prosecuting the case against Democratic Governor William Barstow. Democratic voting power in the state continued to wane as Republicans won full control of the Legislature in 1856 and retained the governorship in 1857. By the time the American Civil War started, Republicans held every statewide partisan office.
The Civil War further split the state Democratic Party between War Democrats and Peace Democrats. Despite a strong showing by Democratic candidates in the 1862 congressional elections, Republicans continued to hold full power over state government throughout the war. Democrats would only hold the governorship for 8 of the next 100 years.
Late 19th century
Republicans dominated statewide politics in Wisconsin through much of the post-war 19th century, and cultivated special interests in railroads, the lumber industry, and unionized labor. Their political power in the state was further enhanced with their ability to deliver significant funding from the Republican-dominated federal government for projects in Wisconsin. Democrats in these years were mostly limited to a few geographic power bases in Dane County, the city of Milwaukee, and in several of the counties along the eastern coast of the state.
Despite being in the ideological minority, Wisconsin Democrats did take advantage of several controversies and Republican excesses to win significant state-wide elections during this period.
Following the Panic of 1873, Democrats allied with Liberal Republicans and members of the Granger movement to create a coalition known as the Reform Party. The coalition elected a majority of the Wisconsin Assembly in 1873 and elected Democrat William Robert Taylor in the 1873 Wisconsin gubernatorial election. They went on to enact the so-called "Potter Law", which created the Wisconsin Railroad Commission and enabled significant new regulation of the railroad industry.
Later in the 1870s, as the Long Depression continued, the Greenback movement created another opportunity for Democrats to hold power in the state. The alliance between Democrats and Greenbackers in the 1878 Wisconsin Legislature led to the creation of the office of state insurance commissioner.
In 1889, the Republican-dominated state legislature responded to labor agitation by passing what became known as the Bennett Law. The law was primarily concerned with raising the legal working age to 13 and mandating that parents and guardians must ensure children between age 7 and 14 were receiving at least 12 weeks of school per year. However, section 5 of the law became a massive controversy in the state as it defined "schools" as only those institutions which gave instruction in the English language. Wisconsin, at the time, still contained a large number of schools which gave instructions in German, Polish, and Scandinavian languages.
The backlash against the Bennett Law unified disparate cultural, religious, and ideological factions of Wisconsin's German, Scandinavian, Irish, Polish, and Catholic communities, and fueled massive Democratic wave elections in 1890 and 1892. Democrats won all state-wide offices in those years and sustained majorities in both chambers of the legislature for the first time since 1854. The Legislative majorities also coincided with the expiration of Senate terms, which allowed them to choose two Democrats to represent Wisconsin in the U.S. Senate.
But as quickly as the Democratic majorities appeared, they evaporated with the Panic of 1893 and the resulting inter-party feuding over silver currency. Edward S. Bragg, who was one of the most prominent and influential Wisconsin Democrats of the late 19th century, famously quit the party after the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896 and went on to become a supporter of Robert La Follette, Theodore Roosevelt, and the rising Progressive wing in the Republican Party.
Between 1894 and 1932, no Democratic candidate for Governor of Wisconsin received more than 42% of the state-wide vote, and Republicans routinely held super-majority control of both chambers of the Legislature. Democrats won only 1 state-wide election during that forty year stretch, when Paul O. Husting won the 1914 election for United States Senate.
20th century
The Republicans led by La Follette, and later by his sons, employed many progressive policies in the state of Wisconsin but led to a split within the party, creating the Wisconsin Progressive Party. Nationally, progressive policies were also ascendant with the masses, and were adopted by prominent Republicans like Theodore Roosevelt and then by Democrats like Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Democratic Party was nearly relegated to third party status in the state during the early 20th century as Republicans and Progressives were stronger competitors for state offices, and even the Socialist Party surpassed the Democratic party in legislative representation for several years in the early 20th century. The Republicans' tight control of Wisconsin politics lasted until the late 1940s, when the Wisconsin Progressive Party began to collapse and many of the remaining progressives fled to the Democratic Party. This was facilitated in the creation of the Democratic Organizing Committee, which brought together young liberals and former progressives, such as like Gaylord Nelson, James Edward Doyle, Horace W. Wilkie, and Fred A. Risser. The new coalition brought the state party more in line with the progressive policies of the national party. The Democrats won their first major victory when William Proxmire was elected in the late 1950s. Wisconsin in the 1980s and 1990s was characterized by competitive two-party politics for control of the governorship, other state constitutional offices, the state legislature, and U.S. Senate seats.
21st century
In the first decade of the 21st century, Wisconsin was fairly evenly divided between Republican and Democratic parties, as both parties held statewide offices and at various times held control of one or both houses of the Legislature. This changed with the 2010 election when a national Republican wave helped elect a Republican Governor and Republican majorities in the Wisconsin Senate and Assembly. With full control of state government, one of the Republicans' first acts was the controversial 2011 Wisconsin Act 10, the "budget repair bill" which stripped collective bargaining rights from public employee unions. Following mass protests in the state capital, Democratic senators fled the state in an attempt to deny a quorum and slow down the passage of the bill. The attempt ultimately failed, but the controversy led to two years (2011 & 2012) of senate recall elections, and a gubernatorial recall election. The recalls gave the Democrats a brief senate majority in 2012, but it was lost to new senate maps in 2012.
The main effect of the 2010 election, however, was that it allowed Republicans to control the redistricting process following the 2010 census. They used this power to draw a substantially gerrymandered map for the 2011–2021 decade—a gerrymander that was frequently cited as the worst or one of the worst in the country. Under the maps implemented by the Republican redistricting law (2011 Wisconsin Act 43) Democrats have not been able to win more than 43% of either the State Assembly or Senate.
In 2018, Democrats swept all statewide offices, electing Tony Evers as Governor, Mandela Barnes as Lieutenant Governor, Josh Kaul as Attorney General, Sarah Godlewski as State Treasurer, and reelecting Doug La Follette as Secretary of State, while also reelecting United States Senator Tammy Baldwin. Despite this substantial victory, where Democrats received more than 52% of the popular vote in State Assembly elections, they won only 42% of the State Senate seats and only 36% of Assembly seats.
Ideology
The Democratic Party of Wisconsin is a proponent of the Wisconsin Idea and includes centrists, conservatives, liberals, and progressives. Top issues for the party include support for workers and unions, strong public education, and environmental protection. Since the 2010 passage of the Affordable Care Act, Wisconsin Democrats have prioritized fully expanding Medicaid in the state, a policy that Republicans have blocked.
Elected officials
Democrats hold all statewide offices in Wisconsin. The following is a list of Democratic statewide, federal, and legislative office holders as of January 7, 2019:
Members of Congress
Democrats hold two of Wisconsin's eight seats in the U.S. House of Representatives and one of Wisconsin's two seats in the U.S. Senate.
U.S. Senate
Democrats have controlled Wisconsin's Class I seat in the U.S. Senate since 1957:
U.S. House of Representatives
Statewide constitutional officers
Governor: Tony Evers
Lieutenant Governor: Sara Rodriguez
Attorney General: Josh Kaul
Secretary of State: Sarah Godlewski
Superintendent of Public Instruction: Jill Underly
State Senate
SD 3: Tim Carpenter
SD 4: Lena Taylor
SD 6: La Tonya Johnson
SD 7: Chris Larson (Caucus Chairperson)
SD 15: Mark Spreitzer
SD 16: Melissa Agard (Minority Leader)
SD 22: Robert Wirch
SD 26: Kelda Roys
SD 27: Dianne Hesselbein (Caucus Vice Chairperson)
SD 32: Brad Pfaff
SD 31: Jeff Smith (Assistant Minority Leader)
State Assembly
AD 7: Daniel Riemer
AD 8: Sylvia Ortiz-Velez
AD 9: Marisabel Cabrera
AD 10: Darrin Madison
AD 11: Dora Drake
AD 12: LaKeshia Myers
AD 14: Robyn Vining
AD 16: Kalan Haywood (Assistant Minority Leader)
AD 17: Supreme Moore Omokunde
AD 18: Evan Goyke
AD 19: Ryan Clancy
AD 20: Christine Sinicki
AD 23: Deb Andraca
AD 43: Jenna Jacobson
AD 44: Sue Conley
AD 45: Clinton Anderson
AD 46: Melissa Ratcliff
AD 47: Jimmy Anderson
AD 48: Samba Baldeh
AD 54: Lori Palmeri
AD 57: Lee Snodgrass
AD 64: Tip McGuire
AD 65: Tod Ohnstad
AD 66: Greta Neubauer (Minority Leader)
AD 71: Katrina Shankland
AD 76: Francesca Hong
AD 77: Shelia Stubbs
AD 78: Lisa Subeck
AD 79: Alex Joers
AD 80: Mike Bare
AD 81: Dave Considine
AD 90: Kristina Shelton
AD 91: Jodi Emerson
AD 94: Steve Doyle
AD 95: Jill Billings
Mayoral offices
City of Milwaukee: Cavalier Johnson
City of Madison: Satya Rhodes-Conway
City of Green Bay: Eric Genrich City of Kenosha: John Antaramian
City of Racine: Cory Mason
City of La Crosse: Tim Kabat
City of Wausau: Katie Rosenberg
City of Manitowoc: Justin Nickels
City of Superior: Jim Paine
City of Glendale:''' Bryan Kennedy
County parties
The Democratic Party of Wisconsin is a membership organization. Members are organized in 71 county Democratic parties in Wisconsin. Ashland and Bayfield counties are organized as the joint Chequamegon Democratic party.
Past chairs
See also
Republican Party of Wisconsin
Politics of Wisconsin
Political party strength in Wisconsin
History of the United States Democratic Party
References
Further reading
External links
Democratic Party of Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Political parties in Wisconsin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1964 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1964 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 32nd Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 20 and 21 June 1964. It was also the ninth round of the 1964 World Sportscar Championship season.
This year marked the arrival of American teams in force, with Ford V8 engines in ten cars. It also marked the last appearance of Aston Martin and Jaguar for twenty years. Over half the entrants were mid- or rear-engined, and almost half the field had a 3-litre engine or bigger. But the number of retirements due to gearbox and clutch issues from the increased power in the cars was noticeable.
Ferrari was the winner for a record fifth year in a row – the 275 P of Nino Vaccarella and former Ferrari-privateer Jean Guichet covered a record distance. The second was the Ferrari of Graham Hill and Jo Bonnier for the British Maranello Concessionaires team, ahead of the works 330 P of John Surtees and Lorenzo Bandini. Ferrari dominance of the GT category was broken for the first time however by the new Shelby Cobra of Dan Gurney and Bob Bondurant finishing in fourth ahead of two of the Ferrari 250 GTOs.
Regulations
Aside from a few adjustments to the sliding scale of minimum weight to engine capacity, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) made very few changes to its regulations this year. With the greatly disparate speeds, the minimum engine size was increased from 700cc to 1000cc. Otherwise, the final lap now had to be completed in fifteen minutes, down from twenty minutes.
Entries
The ACO received 71 entries and 55 cars arrived to practice, with 10 reserves. There was a strong turn-out from the current Formula 1 drivers, with the notable exception of Jim Clark and Jack Brabham. The proposed entry list comprised:
Defending champions Ferrari again arrived in force, with twelve entrants. To meet the Ford challenge, the factory team brought two new models. The 275 P was the next development of the previous year's race-winning 250 P and the new 3.3-litre V12 developed 320 bhp. Ludovico Scarfiotti, winner of that 1963 race was paired with Mike Parkes, Umberto Maglioli with Giancarlo Baghetti. Stalwart Ferrari privateer Jean Guichet was rewarded with a works drive this year alongside Nino Vaccarella. The team's F1 drivers, John Surtees and Lorenzo Bandini, drove the 330 P, a new model for this race. The 4.0-litre V12 developed 370 bhp capable of 305 kp/h (190 mph). Ferrari also supplied two 330 P's to their American and British customer teams, the North American Racing Team (NART) for Pedro Rodriguez and Skip Hudson, and Maranello Concessionaires for Graham Hill and Jo Bonnier. There was also a pair of 250 LM models run by the Equipe Nationale Belge and NART.
After a messy and unsuccessful attempt to purchase the Ferrari company (for US$16 million), Ford pledged to build their own sports car to beat the Ferraris. In 1963, Ford had almost won the Indianapolis 500 at its first attempt, with Lotus. Eric Broadley’s Lola had performed well in the 1963 race and was taken on board to work on the new GT design. The resulting GT40 (named for only being 40” high) bore a strong resemblance to the Lola Mk6. The Indianapolis powerplant, a 4.2L aluminium block Fairlane V8 engine developed 350 bhp capable of 340 kp/h (210 mph). The issue had been finding a gearbox robust enough to handle the raw engine power, and the Colotti 5-speed box was chosen. John Wyer, from Aston Martin, was brought on as project manager and three cars were entered for the race. Americans Richie Ginther and Masten Gregory had one car, while Phil Hill was paired up with Kiwi Bruce McLaren and Jo Schlesser drove with Richard Attwood (who had driven the Lola in the 1963 race).
Col. John Simone's Maserati France continued to fly the flag for the manufacturer. In turn, Maserati revised their Tipo 151 giving it fuel-injection and over 400 bhp now making it able to reach 310 kp/h (190 mph). Regular team driver André Simon, still recovering after a testing accident at Monza, was joined by fellow French veteran Maurice Trintignant.
New entrant Iso brought its new Grifo A3C, designed by Ferrari engineer Giotto Bizzarrini (who had previously designed the 250 GTO). Mounting a small-block, 327 cu in (5.35L), Chevrolet V8, it put out almost 400 bhp.
Porsche moved on from derivatives of the 356 and introduced a new racer, the 904, to counter the new threats from Abarth and Alfa Romeo. However the proposed 200 bhp Flat-6 engine was not ready yet, so the GT cars were fitted with the Flat-4 from the 356 Carrera. Two prototypes were entered using the Flat-8 engine from the concluded Formula 1 program. Putting out 225 bhp made them the fastest ever 2-litre cars at Le Mans, capable of 280 kp/h (175 mph). Regular team drivers Edgar Barth / Herbert Linge were joined by Gerhard Mitter / Colin Davis – who had earlier had a sensational win in the 1964 Targa Florio. The Porsche 2-litres were now being considered “dark horses” for an outright podium place.
If the medium-sized engines were sparse, the small-engine prototype field bulged with variety. Five works teams were contesting the P-1150 class. Charles Deutsch returned with Panhard, after a year away, with the remarkable LM64 CD-3. Made of fibreglass, it had one of the most aerodynamic profiles of any car ever at Le Mans. Deutsch had to supercharge the 864cc Panhard engine (putting out 70 bhp) to meet the new 1000cc minimum engine size, using the x1.4 equivalence formula but that could push the car up to 220 kp/h (137 mph).
René Bonnet, the previous year's class winner, returned with five cars including a pair of the victorious Aérodjet LM6s, now with an 1149cc Renault engine. Alpine returned after a tragic debut the previous year. They ran five cars – a mix of the updated M64 and the older M63 variants and running either 1149cc or 1001cc Renault engines.
The Ferrari 250 GTO had delivered Ferrari the GT victory for two years running. Four customer teams (NART, Maranello Concessionaires, Equipe Nationale Belge and privateer Fernand Tavano) entered the reliable 3-litre thoroughbred, now with new body-styling.
As well as the Ford GT, Ford engines were also supplied to AC and Sunbeam with varying success. The Shelby Cobras had been very successful in American racing, and for the new year, it was given new aerodynamic bodywork and the bigger 289 cu in (4.7L) Windsor engine. Putting out nearly 400 bhp it was capable of 295 kp/h (180 mph) making it 10 kp/h faster than its Ferrari GTO competition. Four cars were entered: two for Shelby American, and one each for Briggs Cunningham and Ed Hugus. In the end though only two arrived alongside a works-entry Cobra Coupé from AC Cars.
The Sunbeam Tiger was to be the Rootes Group answer to the AC Cobra. It used the 260cu in (4.3L) Windsor engine from Shelby American. The body was developed from the Alpine with Lister Cars, but being made of steel it was far too heavy. The 275 bhp could only get the car up to 230 kp/h (145 mph).
Aston Martin shut down their racing department when John Wyer left to manage the Ford program, selling off the three DP prototypes. Mike Salmon bought one of the DP214s and entered it as a privateer. Similarly, the Jaguar E-Type Lightweights were becoming obsolete and only two privateer entries arrived, from Peter Sargent and German Peter Lindner.
The new Porsche 904 had quickly been homologated to the GT-category with the requisite production of 100 cars, most pre-sold for customer orders. Even with only the old Flat-4 engine, it could still reach 260 kp/h (160 mph). Seven cars were entered for the race: aside from the works car there were entries from the new Racing Team Holland of Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema and the Scuderia Filipinetti. Jean Kerguen and Jacques Dewes also gave up their Aston Martin (badly damaged at the previous year's race) for Dewes’ new 904.
Their only competition in-class was a works MGB entry, driven by British rally ace Paddy Hopkirk and Andrew Hedges. In the GT-1600 class the new Autodelta motorsport division of Alfa Romeo set its first development project to be the Giulia TZ. Now homologated to the GT-category, the uprated 1570cc engine developed 135 bhp with a top speed of 245 kp/h (150 mph). Three cars were entered by the Milanese Scuderia Sant Ambroeus team who had already taken class victories at the Sebring, Targa Florio and Nürburgring races.
Practice
There was strong support at the Test Weekend on 18–19 April with 34 cars present, although the rain limited performance. Ludovico Scarfiotti put up the fastest time, of 3m43.8 in the new Ferrari 275 P, with John Surtees not far behind with 3m45.9 in his 330 P stablemate. A pair of Ford GTs made their first appearance but the results were disappointing. The car was unstable on the straight, with the nose lifting at speed. On the first day, Jo Schlesser had a major accident at the Mulsanne kink after hitting standing water. The door flew off Roy Salvadori’s car, and the next day he also had an accident approaching the Mulsanne corner. Although uninjured, it was enough to convince Salvadori to leave the program.
The Rover-BRM turbine car was at the April test weekend. But the car suffered damage on the trip back to the factory. This, as well as problems with the new heat-exchanger, meant it was not ready for the race itself.
By race week, the Fords had got aerodynamic improvements making them much more competitive, including a tail ‘lip’ to reduce rear-end lift. At scrutineering though their fuel-tanks were found to be bigger than the 140-litre limit and displacement blocks had to be added.
It was John Surtees who took pole position with a new record lap of 3m42.0 in his 330 P at dusk on the last practice. He also slightly damaged the car when he hit a fox coming up to Maison Blanche. Richie Ginther got his Ford into second with a 3m45.3, ahead of Pedro Rodriguez's NART Ferrari (3m.45.5) and Phil Hill's Ford (3m45.9). In fact the two manufacturers took the top nine grid positions. Dan Gurney was 10th in his Shelby Cobra (3m56.1) as the fastest GT car. The lead Shelby Cobra, along with the works AC and Aston Martin, were the only GTs to get under 4-minute laps.
The Davis/Mitter Porsche was the fastest 2-litre, qualifying 18th (4m02.1) and the Delageneste/Morrogh Alpine was the fastest of the smaller cars with a 4m34.3 (35th). But rally-specialist Pierre Orsini rolled his Alpine at Dunlop curve and broke his ankle.
Race
Start
The weather was cold but dry for the 4pm start. Just before the start ten spectators were seriously injured when an advertising hoarding they were on collapsed.
Pedro Rodríguez got the best start with the NART 330 P, with a power-slide and much tyre-noise. His teammate, David Piper's Ferrari, burst an oil-line immediately and left a trail of oil through the Esses to where the car stopped at Tertre Rouge. Phil Hill had trouble starting his GT40, and was last away almost 70 seconds behind. Giancarlo Baghetti bought in his SEFAC Ferrari with a chronic clutch problem, losing 75 minutes and 20 laps straight up. Maurice Trintignant also bought in the Maserati with a lack of power – a sponge was found in an air intake.
On the second lap with the cars wary of the oil flags, Ginther got a run on the three Ferraris ahead of him and blasted past them on the Mulsanne Straight doing 7200rpm (unofficially nearly 340kp/h). Dropping back the revs to the 6500rpm prescribed by the team, he still managed to pull out a 40-second lead in the first hour covering a record 15 laps. He led the Ferraris of Surtees, Rodriguez, Hill and Guichet. Then came the Cobras of Gurney and Sears, ahead of Attwood's Ford, Barth's Porsche and Tavano's Ferrari GTO rounding out the Top-10. But a bad first pit-stop dropped them to second behind the Surtees Ferrari. Phil Hill had made a half-dozen pit-stops with the troublesome Ford until the cause was traced to a blocked carburettor left uncleaned after an engine change the night before.
Just on 6pm, Mike Rothschild lost control of his Triumph when overtaken by a Cobra in the Dunlop Curve. Sliding off the road, he just missed Hudson's NART Ferrari as he rebounded back into the middle of the road. Although knocked unconscious Rothschild only suffered mild concussion.
By dusk the Maserati had made up its two laps lost at the start and was running in third behind the SEFAC Ferraris. It was then delayed ten laps with ignition problems and retired before midnight with a complete electrical failure. Edgar Barth became the first driver to do a sub-four minute lap in a 2-litre car with his Porsche prototype, an average speed just over 200 kp/h. In the fifth hour, the Rodriguez/Hudson NART 330 P had to retire from 5th when it blew a head gasket. The unreliability expected of a new car told as the Ginther/Gregory Ford was put out after 9.30pm with the gearbox only giving first or second gear. Dick Attwood had already retired from 6th when he had to bail out of his Ford when its engine caught fire on the Mulsanne Straight.
Night
Unusually for mid-summer, it was a bitterly cold night, with occasional patches of mist. Around 10.15pm Peter Bolton's AC Cobra had a tyre blowout (transmission failure) at Maison Blanche. The car spun and was then collected by the Ferrari of Giancarlo Baghetti. Tragically, the Ferrari (the Cobra) speared off into the barriers and crushed three young French spectators. James Gilbert, Lionel Yvonnick (both 19) and Jacques Ledoux (17) had been standing in a prohibited area when struck by the Ferrari. Baghetti was uninjured, and Bolton was taken to hospital with minor injuries.
At midnight the Ferraris were still running 1-2-3, with the Surtees/Bandini 330 P having done 119 laps, a lap ahead of the Vaccarella/Guichet 275 P and 3 laps ahead of the British 330 P of Hill/Bonnier. After alternator problems struck the Cunningham Cobra, their compatriots Gurney and Bondurant inherited their fourth place and heading the GT classes, five laps behind. Fifth, and a further lap back, was the 2-litre Porsche of Barth and Linge benefitting from the bigger cars’ issues, and leading the Index of Performance. The Hill/McLaren Ford had pushed its way back up to 6th In their hard driving Phil Hill set a new lap record of 3m49.2. Soon after midnight the grandstand spectators were stunned when the transmission of José Rosinski's Ferrari GTO just exploded as it roared past the pits. Although bits of the differential peppered Lindner's Jaguar in the pits (getting a driveshaft change) and flew off into the crowd, no-one was seriously injured.
Then Surtees and Bandini, who had held the lead since the second hour, started having fuel leak problems. Going into the twelfth hour, they were overtaken by the 275 P of teammates Vaccarella and Guichet, alternating the race-lead on the pit-stop cycles. At one point, Briggs Cunningham queried why more than the allowed number of mechanics were working on the car. Earlier Cunningham's Cobra had pitted to fix an alternator. A Ferrari mechanic saw them recharge the battery with a unit in the pits, informed the officials and the car was disqualified. This new accusation ignited an almighty row with team manager Dragoni chasing Cunningham out of the pits. The officials took no action against Bandini's Ferrari.
At 2.30am the clutch of the leading Porsche broke, stranding Herbert Linge out at Tertre Rouge. Their teammates, Davis/Mitter up in 6th were also suffering clutch problems.
Just before 4.30am there was a major accident on the front straight: Jean-Louis Marnat was seen slumped at the wheel of his Triumph. He had fallen unconscious from carbon monoxide poisoning after an earlier collision had damaged the exhaust. The car hit the barrier, veered across the track into the pits just missing the Alpine and Bonnet teams and then rolled on until hitting the barriers at the Dunlop curve. It just missed Phil Hill's Ford GT which itself retired around 5.30am with gearbox problems after having got back up to fourth and setting a new lap record.
Morning
Around dawn the big Iso Grifo, which had got up to 9th by halftime pulled in for a long stop to fix seized brakes. They got going again in 21st, and eventually finished 14th. The Lindner Jaguar was back in the pits just before 7am, overheating, but with 10 laps until its next permitted refill it was retired.
At 7am Surtees lost second place as they took 10 minutes to address their fuel issues. Hill and Bonnier, moving up, were also having niggling problems with the throttle and clutch. Twice they were lucky that problems happened within coasting distance of the pits. After stopping to adjust the gearbox early in the morning the Davis/Mitter Porsche had fallen from 8th back through the field. The clutch finally packed up after 11am.
By 8am, after 16 hours, Ferraris were in the top four places. Vaccarella/Guichet had done 235 laps, now with a 7-lap lead over Hill/Bonnier and Surtees/Bandini. The Tavano Ferrari was leading the GTs in 4th on 222 laps, with the pursuing Cobra of Gurney/Bondurant and Ferrari GTO of “Beurlys”/Bianchi each a lap further back.
Finish and post-race
Once again, with the pressure off the Ferraris could ease back. The Ferrari of Vaccarella and Guichet never missed a beat, gradually extending its lead, in the end winning comfortably by five laps setting a new distance record. It was a good reward for Jean Guichet who had previously finished third (1961) and second (1962) as a GT privateer. Ferrari swept the podium with the British 330 P of Graham Hill and Jo Bonnier second, seven laps ahead of Surtees and Bandini in the works car.
The Ferrari dominance in the GT-category was broken however. Despite having high engine temperatures through the second day, Dan Gurney and Bob Bondurant had a consistent run to bring home the Shelby American Daytona Coupé in fourth, first in the GT category, and a lap ahead of the nearest Ferrari GTOs. Those were the Equipe National Belge car of Bianchi/”Beurlys” and the Maranello car of Ireland/Maggs.
Porsche had a positive weekend. As well as Barth's lap-record for a 2-litre car, five of the six 904 GTs finished – in 7th, 8th, 10th, 11th and 12th led by French privateers Robert Buchet and Guy Ligier. Two of the Alfa Romeos finished, the leading one of Bussinello / Deserti just behind the Porsches and finally beating the class-distance record set by Porsche back in 1958.
In a race of records, there were five new distance records set in the competing classes, including all three Prototype winners. As in the previous year, the winning Ferrari also won the Index of Performance. Alpine got a 1–2 victory in the Index of Thermal Efficiency, the winners being Delageneste/Morrogh who finished 17th overall.
1964 proved to be a watershed for a number of manufacturers. Despite his racing success, it was the last time that René Bonnet bought his own cars to Le Mans. In financial trouble he sold his company to the new Matra car company a few months later. Formerly closely tied to Bonnet, It was also the last appearance at Le Mans for Panhard, whose racing pedigree went back to 1895. Although very aerodynamically advanced, the CD-3 never raced again.
Aston Martin had first raced in 1928, then had been at every race since 1931, including a victory in 1959. Although it briefly returned in 1977 and 1989, it would be 40 years until its reprise in 2005. Likewise Jaguar, so dominant in the 1950s with five victories would not be seen again for 20 years, culminating with two further victories in 1988 and 1990. It was also the last appearance for the Cunningham team. Briggs Cunningham had been the main American presence postwar, bringing his own roadsters to push for outright victory in the 1950s. Now as the American teams started arriving in force, after 11 races the Cunningham team passed the baton on.
Peter Lindner, who had brought his privateer Jaguar to the race, would be killed at the end of the year in that car when he crashed in heavy rain at Montlhéry. Dutchman Jonkheer Carel Godin de Beaufort, stalwart privateer Porsche driver in sports cars and F1 would also be killed later in the year, in practice for the German F1 Grand Prix.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
'Note *: Not Classified because Insufficient distance covered.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new Distance Record.
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Index of Performance
Taken from Moity's book.
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – Surtees, #19 Ferrari 330 P – 3m 42.0s;
Fastest Lap – P.Hill, #10 Ford GT40 – 3:49.2secs;
Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – 350 000
Challenge Mondial de Vitesse et Endurance Standings
Citations
References
Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1965) Automobile Year #12 1964-65 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
Clarke, R.M. - editor (2009) Le Mans 'The Ferrari Years 1958-1965' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Fox, Charles (1973) The Great Racing Cars & Drivers London: Octopus Books Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960-69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1964 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 2 February 2018
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 2 February 2018
Sportscars.tv – race commentary. Retrieved 14 December 2017
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 2 February 2018
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. As archived at web.archive.org
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 2 February 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1964 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 2 February 2018
Motorsport Memorial – deaths in motorsport events. Retrieved 12 February 2018
YouTube – 10min colour film looking at the American entries. Retrieved 2 February 2018
YouTube – 3min colour footage. Retrieved 2 February 2018
YouTube – 4min colour film about the new GT40. Retrieved 2 February 2018
YouTube – 4min black/white film (Italian coverage). Retrieved 2 February 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1964 in French motorsport
June 1964 sports events in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20NASCAR%20Craftsman%20Truck%20Series
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2003 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series
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The 2003 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series season was the ninth season of the third highest stock car racing in the United States. The season included twenty-five races, beginning with the Florida Dodge Dealers 250 at Daytona International Speedway and ending with the Ford 200 at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Steve Coulter won the Owners' Championship, while Travis Kvapil won the Drivers' Championship during the final race of the season at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Dodge won the Manufacturers' Championship with 179 points.
2003 teams and drivers
Full-time teams
Part-time teams
Note: If under "team", the owner's name is listed and in italics, that means the name of the race team that fielded the truck is unknown.
Notes
Schedule
Races
Florida Dodge Dealers 250
The Florida Dodge Dealers 250 was held February 14 at Daytona International Speedway. Jason Leffler won the pole.
Top ten results
14-Rick Crawford
16-Travis Kvapil
59-Robert Pressley
4-Bobby Hamilton
15-Andy Houston
52-Mike Wallace
46-Dennis Setzer
50-Jon Wood
29-Terry Cook
62-Brendan Gaughan
Failed to qualify: Eric Jones (#34), Geoff Bodine (#36), Brian Rose (#57), Ricky Sanders (#19)
Craftsman 200
The Craftsman 200 was held March 14 at Darlington Raceway. Travis Kvapil won the pole.
Top ten results
4-Bobby Hamilton
1-Ted Musgrave
62-Brendan Gaughan
16-Travis Kvapil
18-Chad Chaffin
2-Jason Leffler
14-Rick Crawford
29-Terry Cook
75-David Starr
59-Robert Pressley
Failed to qualify: none
Lucas Oil 250 presented by Glidden
The Lucas Oil 250 presented by Glidden was held March 23 at Mesa Marin Raceway. Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
46-Dennis Setzer
50-Jon Wood
62-Brendan Gaughan
4-Bobby Hamilton
1-Ted Musgrave
14-Rick Crawford
2-Jason Leffler
6-Brandon Miller
75-David Starr
29-Terry Cook
Failed to qualify: none
Advance Auto Parts 250
The Advance Auto Parts 250 was held April 12 at Martinsville Speedway. Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
46-Dennis Setzer
1-Ted Musgrave
6-Kevin Harvick
99-Carl Edwards
4-Bobby Hamilton
14-Rick Crawford
17-Darrell Waltrip
9-Rich Bickle
29-Terry Cook
33-Andy Petree
Failed to qualify: Conrad Burr (#87), Tina Gordon (#31), Dana White (#23), James Stephenson (#36), Randy Briggs (#53), Doug Keller (#27), Craig Wood (#11), Jody McCormick (#77), Ron Polodna (#13)
Hardee's 200
The Hardee's 200 was held May 16 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Bill Lester won the pole.
Top ten results
1-Ted Musgrave
62-Brendan Gaughan
14-Rick Crawford
16-Travis Kvapil
6-Kevin Harvick
07-Jeremy Mayfield
4-Bobby Hamilton
18-Chad Chaffin
88-Matt Crafton
15-Rich Bickle
Failed to qualify: Michael Dokken (#93), Phil Bonifield (#23)
MBNA Armed Forces Family 200
The MBNA Armed Forces Family 200 was held May 30 at Dover International Speedway. Bobby Hamilton won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Jason Leffler
4-Bobby Hamilton
75-David Starr
50-Jon Wood
16-Travis Kvapil
52-Ken Schrader
18-Chad Chaffin
14-Rick Crawford
46-Dennis Setzer
59-Robert Pressley
Failed to qualify: none
This was Jason Leffler's only Truck series victory.
O'Reilly 400K
The O'Reilly 400K was held June 6 at Texas Motor Speedway. Bobby Hamilton won the pole.
Top ten results
62-Brendan Gaughan
99-Carl Edwards
50-Jon Wood
16-Travis Kvapil
46-Dennis Setzer
75-David Starr
4-Bobby Hamilton
18-Chad Chaffin
29-Terry Cook
88-Matt Crafton
Failed to qualify: none
O'Reilly 200
The O'Reilly 200, the 200th race run in the truck series was held June 21 at Memphis Motorsports Park. Jon Wood won the pole.
Top ten results
1-Ted Musgrave
16-Travis Kvapil
46-Dennis Setzer
50-Jon Wood
99-Carl Edwards
2-Jason Leffler
4-Bobby Hamilton
62-Brendan Gaughan
29-Terry Cook
88-Matt Crafton
Failed to qualify: Stan Boyd (#51), Dennis Hannel (#94)
GNC 200
The GNC 200 was held June 28 at The Milwaukee Mile. Terry Cook won the pole.
Top ten results
62-Brendan Gaughan
2-Jason Leffler
14-Rick Crawford
1-Ted Musgrave
46-Dennis Setzer
16-Travis Kvapil
29-Terry Cook
75-Hank Parker Jr.
88-Matt Crafton
50-Jon Wood
Failed to qualify: Trevor Boys (#36), Nathal Wulff (#65), Conrad Burr (#87). Note: Trevor Boys replaced Michael Dokken in the #66 in the race.
O'Reilly Auto Parts 250
The O'Reilly Auto Parts 250 was held July 5 at Kansas Speedway. Chad Chaffin won the pole.
Top ten results
50-Jon Wood
99-Carl Edwards
46-Dennis Setzer
16-Travis Kvapil
59-Robert Pressley
03-Eric Jones
2-Jason Leffler
33-Paul Menard
62-Brendan Gaughan
8-Bill Lester
Failed to qualify: Doug Keller (#27), Aaron Daniel (#11), Wayne Edwards (#25), Bobby Dotter (#07)
Built Ford Tough 225
The Built Ford Tough 225 was held July 12 at Kentucky Speedway. Jon Wood won the pole.
Top ten results
99-Carl Edwards
1-Ted Musgrave
46-Dennis Setzer
50-Jon Wood
2-Jason Leffler
16-Travis Kvapil
88-Matt Crafton
59-Robert Pressley
29-Terry Cook
75-Hank Parker Jr.
Failed to qualify: Andy Hillenburg (#10), Blake Mallory (#36)
This was Carl Edwards' first Truck Series victory, but he suffered a 100-point penalty after the race due to cylinder head infractions.
Missouri-Illinois Dealers Ram Tough 200
The Missouri-Illinois Dealers Ram Tough 200 was held July 19 at Gateway International Raceway. Travis Kvapil won the pole.
Top ten results
62-Brendan Gaughan
2-Jason Leffler
16-Travis Kvapil
99-Carl Edwards
14-Rick Crawford
75-David Starr
1-Ted Musgrave
46-Dennis Setzer
29-Terry Cook
88-Matt Crafton
Failed to qualify: none
Sears 200
The Sears 200 was held July 26 at Michigan International Speedway. Jason Leffler won the pole.
Top ten results
62-Brendan Gaughan
1-Ted Musgrave
18-Chad Chaffin
2-Jason Leffler
99-Carl Edwards
50-Jon Wood
16-Travis Kvapil
46-Dennis Setzer
29-Terry Cook
4-Bobby Hamilton
Failed to qualify: none
Power Stroke Diesel 200
The Power Stroke Diesel 200 was held August 1 at Indianapolis Raceway Park. Terry Cook won the pole.
Top ten results
99-Carl Edwards
16-Travis Kvapil
4-Bobby Hamilton
62-Brendan Gaughan
50-Jon Wood
1-Ted Musgrave
52-Ken Schrader
46-Dennis Setzer
29-Terry Cook
88-Matt Crafton
Failed to qualify: Jason York (#93), Conrad Burr (#87), Casey Kingsland (#66), Jody McCormick (#77), Eric Jones (#03), Jay Sherston (#7), Scott Hall (#79), Doug Mahlik (#09), Ron Polodna (#13), Craig Wood (#11)
Federated Auto Parts 200
The Federated Auto Parts 200 was held August 8 at Nashville Superspeedway. Chad Chaffin won the pole.
Top ten results
99-Carl Edwards
1-Ted Musgrave
14-Rick Crawford
75-David Starr
62-Brendan Gaughan
18-Chad Chaffin
50-Jon Wood
46-Dennis Setzer
16-Travis Kvapil
88-Matt Crafton
Failed to qualify: none
O'Reilly 200 presented by Valvoline Maxlife
The O'Reilly 200 presented by Valvoline Maxlife was held August 20 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
16-Travis Kvapil
59-Robert Pressley
14-Rick Crawford
62-Brendan Gaughan
46-Dennis Setzer
88-Matt Crafton
18-Chad Chaffin
50-Jon Wood
2-Jason Leffler
6-Kevin Harvick
Failed to qualify: none
Virginia Is For Lovers 200
The Virginia Is For Lovers 200 was held September 4 at Richmond International Raceway. Travis Kvapil won the pole.
Top ten results
33-Tony Stewart
59-Robert Pressley
1-Ted Musgrave
50-Jon Wood
46-Dennis Setzer
14-Rick Crawford
62-Brendan Gaughan
4-Bobby Hamilton
16-Travis Kvapil
9-Johnny Sauter
Failed to qualify: Brian Sockwell (#51)
New Hampshire 200
The New Hampshire 200 was held September 13 at New Hampshire International Speedway. Jimmy Spencer won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Jimmy Spencer
99-Carl Edwards
4-Bobby Hamilton
46-Dennis Setzer
62-Brendan Gaughan
18-Chad Chaffin
16-Travis Kvapil
75-David Starr
50-Jon Wood
88-Matt Crafton
Failed to qualify: none
This was Jimmy Spencer's only Truck Series victory.
American Racing Wheels 200
The American Racing Wheels 200 was held September 20 at California Speedway. Brendan Gaughan won the pole.
Top ten results
1-Ted Musgrave
62-Brendan Gaughan
46-Dennis Setzer
14-Rick Crawford
75-David Starr
2-Andy Houston
99-Carl Edwards
16-Travis Kvapil
50-Jon Wood
39-Jason Small
Failed to qualify: Doug Keller (#77), Blake Mallory (#27), Ricky Sanders (#19), Aaron Daniel (#93)
Las Vegas 350
The Las Vegas 350 was held September 27 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. Brendan Gaughan won the pole.
Top ten results
62-Brendan Gaughan
75-David Starr
46-Dennis Setzer
16-Travis Kvapil
11-Jack Sprague
2-Andy Houston
29-Terry Cook
1-Ted Musgrave
88-Matt Crafton
4-Bobby Hamilton
Failed to qualify: J. C. Stout (#91), Jason Small (#39), Trevor Boys (#36), Chris Horn (#58), Kelly Sutton (#02), Conrad Burr (#94), David Gilliland (#09), Rick Bogart (#70), Loni Richardson (#0), Tina Gordon (#31), Jason York (#97), David Stover (#63), Ricky Sanders (#19), Kenny Hendrick (#9), Tim Woods (#54)
John Boy & Billy 250
The John Boy & Billy 250 was held October 4 at South Boston Speedway. Brendan Gaughan won the pole.
Top ten results
46-Dennis Setzer
16-Travis Kvapil
1-Ted Musgrave
50-Jon Wood
14-Rick Crawford
2-Andy Houston
99-Carl Edwards
4-Bobby Hamilton
75-David Starr
59-Robert Pressley
Failed to qualify: Randy Briggs (#51)
Silverado 350
The Silverado 350 was held October 11 at Texas Motor Speedway. Andy Houston won the pole.
Top ten results
62-Brendan Gaughan
16-Travis Kvapil
1-Ted Musgrave
99-Carl Edwards
2-Andy Houston
50-Jon Wood
29-Terry Cook
46-Dennis Setzer
14-Rick Crawford
4-Bobby Hamilton
Failed to qualify: Shane Wallace (#04), Loni Richardson (#0). Note: Shane Wallace replaced Jamie Aube in the #86 in the race.
Advance Auto Parts 200
The Advance Auto Parts 200 was held October 18 at Martinsville Speedway. Carl Edwards won the pole.
Top ten results
50-Jon Wood
99-Carl Edwards
46-Dennis Setzer
14-Rick Crawford
4-Bobby Hamilton
2-Jimmy Spencer
17-Darrell Waltrip
52-Ken Schrader
75-David Starr
1-Ted Musgrave
Failed to qualify: Jerry Hill (#51), Ron Polodna (#13), Wayne Edwards (#95), Jeremy Thompson (#92), Craig Wood (#73), Scotty Sands (#47). Note: Wayne Edwards replaced Dallas Norman in the #31 in the race.
Chevy Silverado 150
The Chevy Silverado 150 was held October 31 at Phoenix International Raceway. Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Kevin Harvick
1-Ted Musgrave
46-Dennis Setzer
99-Carl Edwards
4-Bobby Hamilton
75-David Starr
50-Jon Wood
59-Robert Pressley
16-Travis Kvapil
2-Andy Houston
Failed to qualify: Nathan Wulff (#65), Tim Woods (#54), Pete Harding (#36), Tommy Pistone (#28), Stan Boyd (#5), Cory Kruseman (#98)
Ford 200
The Ford 200 was held November 14 at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Bobby Hamilton won the pole.
This race saw the possibility of any one of the series' four top drivers in the points standings coming away with the championship. Going into the race Brendan Gaughan, driving the #62 Orleans Casino Dodge Ram for Orleans Racing, was leading the standings. Ted Musgrave, driving the #1 Mopar Dodge Ram for Ultra Motorsports, was sitting second. Third place was Dennis Setzer, in the #46 Acxiom Chevrolet Silverado for Morgan-Dollar Motorsports, and fourth was held by Travis Kvapil, driving the #16 IWX Motor Freight Chevrolet Silverado that Mike Bliss had won the series championship driving one year earlier for Xpress Motorsports.
Controversy was caused, however, by potential roadblocks caused by drivers' teammates. Setzer's team did not enter a second truck in the race. Kvapil's team was fielding the #11 IWX Silverado for Jack Sprague, who had joined the team after being fired by Haas CNC Racing in the Winston Cup Series. Gaughan's team was fielding the #61 Orleans Casino Ram driven by Scott Lynch, the team's developmental driver.
Ultra Motorsports, meanwhile, fielded a total of five trucks, two of which were cobbled together specifically for the event. In addition to Musgrave’s #1 Mopar Ram, Ultra fielded its other full time truck, the #2 Team ASE Ram driven by Andy Houston, and its usual part time #7 Dodge Motorsports Ram that was its driver development truck and was driven in this race by Tyler Walker. These trucks were joined by the #10 Team ASE Ram, which Smith tabbed Houston’s brother Marty to drive, and the #27 Ultra Wheels Ram that would be driven by former IndyCar driver P.J. Jones.
Among the critics of the move was the points leader, who felt that by fielding five trucks that Smith was trying to give Musgrave an unfair advantage; Marty Houston, who had been working on his brother’s pit crew at the time, had not raced in over two years and Jones, who ran primarily as a road course ringer in NASCAR, had not raced in the Truck Series since its inaugural season in 1995. Gaughan's complaints proved to be valid, as with thirty-four laps to go in the race, his day came to an end. The #62 made contact with the #10, who was running a lap down, and in the process Bryan Reffner in the #80 Emerson Electronics Ford F-150 was collected in the wreck. None of the three trucks were able to continue and the accident cost Gaughan his chance at the championship. An angry Gaughan blasted Houston for causing the accident and Smith for his tactics in an interview following the accident.
The next contender to run into trouble was Musgrave. With two laps to go in the race, the race restarted and Musgrave attempted to make a pass on Kvapil's inside before the cars reached the start/finish line. Musgrave completed the pass and then passed Setzer, but NASCAR threw the black flag as Musgrave was judged to have been in violation of race rules. Musgrave never answered the black flag, and when the checkered flag fell on the next lap he crossed it in sixth place behind Sprague and in front of Kvapil, who passed Setzer for seventh. With the penalty, however, Musgrave was listed as the last car on the lead lap in thirteenth place.
For several minutes, NASCAR held off on making the results official as they reviewed Musgrave's penalty. After a 23-minute delay, the black flag was upheld, and Kvapil was declared the series champion. The final margin was nine points, while Musgrave finished eighteen points behind and Gaughan forty (without the black flag, Musgrave would have been the champion over Kvapil by 12 points, with Setzer 21 behind, and Gaughan 52 back).
In a post-race interview, an obviously angry Musgrave, while acknowledging his infraction, blamed it on Kvapil putting the brakes on him and responded with, "That figures. Screw them. All I can say is that next year, you're going to see a whole new Ted Musgrave. He's going to be the dirtiest son of a gun going out there on the racetrack and you might as well throw that rulebook away. I ain't going by it no more."
Xpress Motorsports won its second consecutive Truck Series Championship as a team, as Mike Bliss had won the 2002 series championship driving the same truck Kvapil took to the championship.
Polesitter Bobby Hamilton won the race. Of the additional drivers that the Xpress, Ultra, and Orleans teams entered, Jack Sprague and P. J. Jones finished in the top ten, with Sprague fifth and Jones ninth. Scott Lynch finished twelfth, Tyler Walker twenty-third, and Marty Houston thirtieth. Gaughan finished the race in twenty-ninth.
IndyCar Series driver and future Indianapolis 500 winner Buddy Rice made his NASCAR debut in this race driving SealMaster Racing's #88 Chevrolet Silverado normally driven by Matt Crafton. Crafton drove the team's #98 entry for this race. Rice would finish 20th.
Top ten results (on the track)
4-Bobby Hamilton
14-Rick Crawford
75-David Starr
2-Andy Houston
11-Jack Sprague
1-Ted Musgrave
16-Travis Kvapil
46-Dennis Setzer
50-Jon Wood
27-P. J. Jones
Top ten results (official result)
4-Bobby Hamilton
14-Rick Crawford
75-David Starr
2-Andy Houston
11-Jack Sprague
16-Travis Kvapil
46-Dennis Setzer
50-Jon Wood
27-P. J. Jones
18-Chad Chaffin
Failed to qualify: Derrike Cope (#93), Jason Hedlesky (#51), Wayne Edwards (#95), Lance Hooper (#01), Dana White (#25), Jamie Aube (#23), Carl Long (#5), Danny Bagwell (#81)
Full Drivers' Championship
(key) Bold – Pole position awarded by time. Italics – Pole position set by owner's points. * – Most laps led.
Rookie of the Year
Gong Show winner Carl Edwards was named Rookie of the Year, winning three races and finishing eighth in points for Roush Racing. The first runner-up was Jody Lavender, who competed in 21 of 25 races for Green Light Racing. Tina Gordon, T. J. Bell and Doug Keller made limited attempts at the award, while Teri MacDonald drove part-time for her brother Randy MacDonald in the Truck Series.
See also
2003 NASCAR Winston Cup Series
2003 NASCAR Busch Series
External links
Truck Series Standings and Statistics for 2003
NASCAR Truck Series seasons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20titles%20in%20first%20DGS%20series
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List of Ace titles in first DGS series
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Ace Books' first series of paperbacks, the D/G/S series, began in 1952 and ran until 1965, by which time other series from Ace had begun. The D/G/S series used a serial number from 1-599, and a letter code to indicate price. D-series books cost 35 cents; S-series titles were 25 cents; and later there were several G-series books, priced at 50 cents.
Note that there is a separate G-Series, which began in 1964 with independent numbering from this series.
001 - 099
D-001 MY Samuel W. Taylor The Grinning Gismo / Keith Vining Too Hot For Hell (1952)
D-002 WE William Colt MacDonald Bad Man's Return / J. Edward Leithead Bloody Hoofs (1952)
D-003 MY Mel Colton The Big Fix / Kate Clugston Twist the Knife Slowly (A Murderer in the House) (1952)
D-004 WE Lewis B. Patten Massacre at White River / Walter A. Tompkins Rimrock Rider (1952)
D-005 MY Eaton R. Goldthwaite The Scarlet Spade / Harry Whittington Drawn To Evil (1952)
D-006 WE William E. Vance The Branded Lawman / Nelson C. Nye Plunder Valley (1952)
D-007 MY Stephen Ransome I, the Executioner (False Bounty) / Harry Whittington So Dead My Love! (1953)
D-008 WE Allan K. Echols Terror Rides the Range / Tom West Gunsmoke Gold (1953)
D-009 MY Michael Morgan Decoy / Sherwood King If I Die Before I Wake (1953)
D-010 WE Leslie Scott The Brazos Firebrand / Gordon Young Hell on Hoofs (1953)
D-011 MY Day Keene Mrs. Homicide / William L. Stuart Dead Ahead
D-012 WE Dudley Dean Mcgaughty (as Dean Owen) The Man From Boot Hill / Dan J. Stevens Wild Horse Range (1953)
D-013 NA Theodore S. Drachman Cry Plague! / Leslie Edgley The Judas Goat (1953)
D-014 WE Paul Evan Lehman Vultures On Horseback / George Kilrain Maverick With A Star (1953)
D-015 MY William S. Burroughs (as William Lee) Junkie / Maurice Helbrant Narcotic Agent (1953)
D-016 MY Edmond de Goncourt and J. De Goncourt Germinie' / Paul Bourget Crime D'Amour (1953)
D-017 MY William Campbell Gault (as Roney Scott) Shakedown / Howard Fast (as Walter Ericson) The Darkness Within
D-018 WE J. Edward Leithead The Lead-Slingers / Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Hanging Hills (1953)
D-019 MY Hal Braham (as Mel Colton) Never Kill A Cop / Leslie Edgley Fear No More (1953)
D-020 WE Roy Manning The Desparado Code / Allan K. Echols Double-Cross Brand
D-021 MY John N. Makris Nightshade / Lester Dent High Stakes (1953)
D-022 WE Bliss Lomax Maverick Of The Plains / Leslie Scott Badlands Masquerader (1953)
D-023 MY Louis Trimble (as Stuart Brock) Bring Back Her Body / Richard Sale Passing Strange (1953)
D-024 WE Tom West Vulture Valley / John Callahan The Sidewinders (1953)
D-025 NA P.G. Wodehouse Quick Service / The Code Of The Woosters (1953)
D-026 NA Harold Acton and Lee Yi-Hsieh (translators) Love In A Junk And Other Exotic Tales / Charles Pettit The Impotent General (1953)
D-027 MY Bruno Fischer The Fingered Man / Hal Braham (as Mel Colton) Double Take (1953)
D-028 WE Paul Evans Gunsmoke Kingdom / William E. Vance Avenger From Nowhere (1953)
D-029 MY Ross Laurence The Fast Buck / J.F. Hutton Dead Man Friday
D-030 WE George Kilrain South To Santa Fe / Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) Johnny Sundance (1953)
D-031 SF A. E. van Vogt The World of Null-A / The Universe Maker (1953)
D-032 NA Dorothy Malone Cookbook For Beginners (1953)
D-033 MY Carl G. Hodges Murder By The Pack / Frank Kane About Face
D-034 WE Ken Murray Hellion's Hole / Ken Murray Feud In Piney Flats (1953)
D-035 NA Rae Loomis The Marina Street Girls / Jack Houston Open All Night (1953)
D-036 SF Robert E. Howard Conan the Conqueror / Leigh Brackett The Sword of Rhiannon (1953)
D-037 MY Marvin Claire The Drowning Wire / Will Oursler Departure Delayed (1953)
D-038 WE Bliss Lomax Outlaw River / Louis L'amour (as Jim Mayo) Showdown At Yellow Butte
D-039 WE Frank Gruber Quantrell's Raiders / Frank Gruber Rebel Road (1953)
D-040 MY Cornell Woolrich (as William Irish) Waltz Into Darkness / Malden Grange Bishop Scylla
D-041 MY Day Keene Death House Doll / Thomas B. Dewey Mourning After (1953)
D-042 WE Walter A. Tompkins One Against The Bullet Horde / Charles M. Martin Law For Tombstone (1954)
D-043 NA George S. Viereck and Paul Eldridge Salome: My First 2000 Years Of Love (1953)
D-044 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) The Ultimate Invader and Other Science-Fiction / Eric Frank Russell Sentinels From Space (1954)
D-045 MY Martin L. Weiss Dead Hitches A Ride / Leslie Edgley Tracked Down (1954)
D-046 WE Chuck Martin Law From Back Beyond / Roy Manning Vengeance Valley (1954)
D-047 MY Joe Barry Kiss And Kill / Richard Powell On The Hook (1954)
D-048 WE Louis L'Amour (as Jim Mayo) Utah Blaine / Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) Desert Showdown (1954)
D-049 MY Dan Cushman Tongking! / Charles Grayson Golden Temptress
D-050 NA Wilene Shaw The Mating Call / Ozro Grant The Bad 'Un (1954)
D-051 MY Emmett Mcdowell Switcheroo / Lawrence Treat Over The Edge (1954)
D-052 WE William Colt Macdonald Boomtown Buccaneers / Louis L'Amour Crossfire Trail (1954)
D-053 SF Murray Leinster Gateway to Elsewhere / A. E. van Vogt The Weapon Shops Of Isher (1954)
S-054 NA Carl Offord The Naked Fear (1954)
D-055 MY Robert Turner The Tobacco Auction Murders / Michael Stark Kill-Box
D-056 WE Bliss Lomax Ambush At Coffin Canyon / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Hellbent For A Hangrope (1954)
D-057 MY A.S. Fleischman Counterspy Express / M. V. Heberden (as Charles L. Leonard) Treachery In Trieste (1954)
S-058 NA Joachim Joesten Vice, Inc. (1954)
D-059 MY Robert Bloch Spiderweb / David Alexander The Corpse In My Bed (1951)
S-060 WE Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Marshal Of Medicine Bend (1954)
D-061 SF L. Sprague de Camp Cosmic Manhunt / Clifford D. Simak Ring Around The Sun (1954)
D-062 NA Ken Murray Ken Murray's Giant Joke Book (1954)
D-063 MY Harry Whittington You'll Die Next! / Frederick C. Davis Drag The Dark
D-064 WE Paul Evan Lehman Bullets Don't Bluff / Chandler Whipple Under The Mesa Rim (1954)
D-065 NA Juanita Osborne Tornado Edward Kimbrough Night Fire (1954)
S-066 SF L. Ron Hubbard Return To Tomorrow
S-067 NA Robert Bloch The Will To Kill (1954)
D-068 WE Walker A. Tompkins Deadwood / William Hopson Bullet-Brand Empire (1954)
D-069 SF Lewis Padgett (Henry Kuttner) and C. L. Moore) Beyond Earth's Gates / Andre Norton Daybreak—2250 A. D. (1954)
S-070 NA Rae Loomis Luisita (1954)
D-071 MY John Creasey (as Gordon Ashe) Drop Dead! / Margaret Scherf The Case Of The Hated Senator (1954)
D-072 WE Ralph R. Perry Night Rider Deputy / Norman A. Fox The Devil's Saddle (1954)
D-073 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Adventures in the Far Future / Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Tales of Outer Space (1954)
S-074 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Heat Lightning (1954)
S-075 NA Ralph E. Shikes (ed.) Cartoon Annual (1954)
S-076 NA Émile Zola Shame
D-077 MY Leigh Brackett (as George Sanders) Stranger At Home / Stephen Marlowe Catch The Brass Ring (1954)
D-078 WE Nelson Nye The One-Shot Kid / Tom West Lobo Legacy (1954)
D-079 SF Francis Rufus Bellamy Atta / Murray Leinster The Brain Stealers (1954)
S-080 NA Wilene Shaw The Fear And The Guilt
D-081 MY John A. Saxon Liability Limited / Sheldon Stark Too Many Sinners
S-082 WE Louis L'Amour Kilkenny
S-083 MY Arnold Drake The Steel Noose (1954)
D-084 SF Isaac Asimov The Rebellious Stars / Roger Dee An Earth Gone Mad (1954)
S-085 NA Ernst-Maurice Tessier (as Maurice Dekobra) The Bachelor's Widow (1954)
D-086 WE Richard Brister The Shoot-Out At Sentinel Peak / Roy Manning Tangled Trail (1954)
S-087 NA Noland Miller Why I Am So Beat (1955)
D-088 NA Dexter Davis (author) 7-Day System For Gaining Self-Confidence (1955)
D-089 MY Stephen Marlowe Turn Left For Murder / Ruth Wilson and Alexander Wilson Death Watch (1955)
S-090 SF Robert Moore Williams The Chaos Fighters
S-091 NA Stanley Baron End Of The Line (1955)
D-092 WE Burt Arthur The Drifter / Richard Wormser and Dan Gordon The Longhorn Trail (1955)
S-093 NA H. T. Elmo Modern Casanova's Handbook (1955)
D-094 SF Murray Leinster The Other Side of Here / A. E. van Vogt One Against Eternity (1955)
S-095 NA Harry Whittington The Naked Jungle (1955)
D-096 SF Andre Norton (as Andrew North) The Last Planet / Alan E. Nourse A Man Obsessed (1955)
S-097 MY Norman Hershman (as Norman Herries) Death Has 2 Faces (1955)
D-098 WE Nelson Nye Texas Tornado / Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) The Lobo Horseman (1955)
D-099 SF Robert Moore Williams Conquest of the Space Sea / Leigh Brackett The Galactic Breed (1955)
100 - 199
S-100 NA Henry Lewis Nixon The Caves (1955)
D-101 MY Jack Karney Knock 'Em Dead / Hal Braham (as Mel Colton) Point Of No Escape
S-102 NA George Albert Glay Oath Of Seven (1955)
D-103 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery / Leigh Brackett The Big Jump (1955)
S-104 NA R.V. Cassill and Eric Protter Left Bank Of Desire (1955)
S-105 NA Edward De Roo The Fires Of Youth (1955)
D-106 WE D.L. Bonar Lawman Without A Badge / Lee Floren Four Texans North (1955)
S-107 NA C.P. Hewitt (as Peter Twist) The Gilded Hideaway (1955)
S-108 NA Leslie Waller (as C.S. Cody) Lie Like A Lady (1955)
D-109 MY Dale Clark Mambo To Murder / Sterling Noel I See Red (1955)
D-110 SF Isaac Asimov The 1,000 Year Plan (1955)
D-110 SF Isaac Asimov The 1,000 Year Plan / Poul Anderson No World of Their Own (1955)
S-111 NA Harry Harrison Kroll The Smoldering Fire (1955)
D-112 WE Frank Castle Border Buccaneers / Harry Sinclair Drago Trigger Gospel (1955)
D-113 SF Dwight V. Swain The Transposed Man / J. T. McIntosh One in 300 (1955)
S-114 NA Edward Adler Living It Up (1955)
D-115 MY Harry Whittington One Got Away / Cleve F. Adams Shady Lady (1955)
S-116 NA Brant House Words Fail Me (1955)
S-117 NA Kim Darien Dark Rapture (1955)
D-118 SF Charles L. Harness The Paradox Men / Jack Williamson Dome Around America (1955)
S-119 NA Lawrence Easton The Driven Flesh (1955)
D-120 WE John Mcgreevey Bounty Man / Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) The Call Of The Gun (1955)
D-121 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours! (1955)
D-121 SF Andre Norton The Stars are Ours! / Sam Merwin, Jr. Three Faces of Time (1955)
S-122 NA Ledru Baker Jr. The Preying Streets (1955)
D-123 MY Gil Brewer The Squeeze / Frank Diamond Love Me To Death (1955)
S-124 NA Rae Loomis House Of Deceit (1955)
D-125 SF Isaac Asimov The Man Who Upset The Universe (1955)
S-126 NA A.H. Berzen Washington Bachelor (1955)
D-127 NA Robert Payne Alexander And The Camp Follower (1955)
D-128 WE William Hopson High Saddle / William E. Vance Way Station West (1955)
D-129 MY Day Keene The Dangling Carrot / Norman C. Rosenthal Silenced Witnesses (1955)
S-130 NA Sidney Weissman Backlash (1955)
D-131 NA Eugene Wyble The Ripening
S-132 NA Brant House (ed.) Cartoon Annual #2 (1955)
S-133 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) Adventures On Other Planets
D-134 WE Gene Olsen The Outsiders / Nelson Nye Tornado On Horseback (1955)
D-135 MY Milton K. Ozaki Maid For Murder / Rene Brabazon Raymond (as James Hadley Chase) Dead Ringer (1955)
S-136 NA R.V. Cassill A Taste Of Sin
S-137 NA Ralph Jackson Violent Night (1955)
D-138 WE Paul Evan Gunsmoke Over Sabado / T.V. Olsen Haven Of The Hunted (1956)
D-139 SF Nick Boddie Williams The Atom Curtain / Gordon R. Dickson Alien From Arcturus (1956)
S-140 NA H. T. Elmo Honeymoon Humor (1956)
S-141 NA Oliver Crawford Blood On The Branches (1956)
S-142 NA Glenn M. Barns Masquerade In Blue (1956)
S-143 NA Harry Whittington A Woman On The Place (1956)
D-144 WE Jay Albert The Man From Stony Lonesome / Rod Patterson A Killer Comes Riding (1956)
S-145 NA Brant House (ed.) Little Monsters (1956)
D-146 SF Lee Correy Contraband Rocket / Murray Leinster The Forgotten Planet (1956)
D-146 SF Will F. Jenkins (As Murray Leinster) The Forgotten Planet (1956)
D-147 MY Gregory Jones Prowl Cop / Norman Herries My Private Hangman (1956)
S-148 WE Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Man From Andersonville (1956)
D-149 MY Ronald Kayser (as Dale Clark) A Run For The Money / Mark Macklin The Thin Edge Of Mania (1955)
D-150 SF Philip K. Dick The World Jones Made / Margaret St. Clair Agent of the Unknown (1956)
S-151 NA Robert Novak Climb A Broken Ladder (1956)
S-152 NA Henry Felsen Medic Mirth (1956)
S-153 NA Hallam Whitney The Wild Seed (1956)
D-154 NA Sloan Wilson Voyage To Somewhere (1956)
D-155 SF Jules Verne A Journey To The Center Of The Earth (1956)
D-156 WE Lee Floren Thruway West / Stephen C. Lawrence The Naked Range (1956)
D-157 MY Louis Trimble Stab In The Dark / Jonathon Gant Never Say No To A Killer (1956)
S-158 NA Kim Darien Golden Girl (1956)
S-159 NA Jack Webb (as John Farr) She Shark (1956)
D-160 WE Karl Kramer Action Along The Humboldt / Michael Carder Decision At Sundown (1956)
S-161 NA E. Davis Gag Writer's Private Joke Book (1956)
D-162 SF Jerry Sohl The Mars Monopoly / R. DeWitt Miller and Anna Hunger The Man Who Lived Forever, (1956)
D-163 NA Russell Boltar Woman's Doctor (1956)
D-164 SF Gordon R. Dickson Mankind on The Run / Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1956)
S-165 NA Brant House (ed.) Love And Hisses (1956)
D-166 WE Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) Terror At Tres Alamos / Stuart Brock Whispering Canyon (1956)
D-167 MY Milton K. Ozaki Never Say Die / John Creighton Destroying Angel (1956)
D-169 SF Jack Williamson And James E. Gunn Star Bridge
D-170 MY Day Keene Flight By Night / Lawrence Goldman Black Fire (1956)
S-171 NA Eddie Davis (ed.) Campus Joke Book (1956)
D-172 WE Robert J. Steelman Stages South / Ben Smith Johnny No-Name (1956)
D-173 SF Ray Cummings The Man Who Mastered Time / Joseph E. Kelleam Overlords of Space (1956)
S-174 NA Robert Novak B-Girl (1956)
D-175 NA Irving Settel (ed.) Best Television Humor Of The Year (1956)
D-176 SF Thomas Calvert McClary Three Thousand Years / Margaret St. Clair The Green Queen (1956)
D-177 MY Stephen Marlowe (as C.H. Thames) Violence Is Golden / Robert Turner The Girl In The Cop's Pocket (1956)
D-178 NA Jean Paradise The Savage City (1956)
S-179 NA Brant House (ed.) Squelches (1956)
D-180 WE Nelson C. Nye The No-Gun Fighter / Walt Coburn One Step Ahead Of The Posse (1956)
D-181 NA Arthur Conan Doyle and John Dickson Carr The Exploits Of Sherlock Holmes (1956)
D-182 NA Émile Zola Shame / Thérèse Raquin (1956)
S-183 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) The End Of The World
D-184 NA J. Mccague The Big Ivy (1956)
D-185 MY Geoffrey Holmes Build My Gallows High / Harry Whittington The Humming Box (1956)
D-186 WE Ray Hogan Ex-Marshall / Edward Churchill Steel Horizon (1956)
D-187 SF A. E. van Vogt The Pawns Of Null-A
S-188 NA Brant House (ed.) They Goofed! (1956)
D-189 MY Lawrence Treat Weep For A Wanton / Stephen Marlowe Dead On Arrival (1956)
S-190 NA Henry Lewis Nixon The Golden Couch (1956)
D-191 NA Frank Slaughter Apalachee Gold (1956)
D-192 WE Roy Manning Beware Of This Tenderfoot / John Callahan Bad Blood At Black Range (1956)
D-193 SF Philip K. Dick The Man Who Japed / E. C. Tubb The Space-Born (1956)
D-194 NA Theodor Plievier Moscow (1956)
D-195 MY Robert Colby The Quaking Widow / Dudley Dean Macgaughy (as Owen Dudley) The Deep End (1956)
D-196 WE Walt Coburn The Night Branders / Frank Gruber The Highwayman (1956)
D-197 MY James Byron TNT For Two / Charles Weiser Frey (as Ferguson Findley) Counterfeit Corpse (1956)
S-198 NA William Bender Jr. Tokyo Intrigue (1957)
D-199 SF Poul Anderson Planet of No Return / Andre Norton Star Guard (1956)
200 - 299
D-200 NA Edward J. Ruppelt Unidentified Flying Objects (1956)
D-201 MY Harry Whittington Across That River / Nathaniel E. Jones Saturday Mountain (1957)
D-202 NA Leonard Kauffman The Color Of Green (1957)
D-203 MY William Grote Cain's Girlfriend / William L. Rohde Uneasy Lies The Head (1957)
D-204 WE Paul Durst John Law, Keep Out! / Gordon Donalds The Desperate Donigans (1957)
D-205 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) The Earth in Peril / Lan Wright Who Speaks of Conquest? (1957)
D-206 WE Robert Hardy Andrews Great Day In The Morning (1957)
D-207 NA Charles Grayson Hollywood Doctor
D-208 WE Glenn Balch Blind Man's Bullets / Barry Cord The Prodigal Gun (1957)
D-209 MY John Jake A Night For Treason / F.L. Wallace Three Times A Victim (1957)
D-210 NA Stephen Longstreet The Lion At Morning (1957)
D-211 SF Philip K. Dick Eye In The Sky (1957)
D-212 NA H. T. Elmo Hollywood Humor (1957)
D-213 NA Peter J. Steincrohn, M.D. How To Stop Killing Yourself (1957)
D-214 NA Martin L. Weiss Hate Alley
D-215 SF Eric Frank Russell Three To Conquer / Robert Moore Williams Doomsday Eve (1957)
D-216 WE Barry Cord Savage Valley / William Colt Macdonald Ridin' Through (1957)
D-217 MY Bob McKnight Downwind / B.E. Lovell A Rage To Kill (1957)
D-218 NA Sasha Siemel Tigrero!
S-219 NA P.A. Hoover Backwater Woman (1957)
D-220 WE Ray Hogan The Friendless One / John Jakes Wear A Fast Gun (1956)
D-221 MY Gordon Ashe You've Bet Your Life / Robert Chavis Terror Package (1957)
D-222 NA R. Frison-Roche First On The Rope (1957)
D-223 SF Robert Silverberg The 13th Immortal / James E. Gunn This Fortress World (1957)
D-224 NA Shelby Steger Desire In The Ozarks (1957)
D-225 MY Kendell Foster Crossen (as M. E. Chaber) A Lonely Walk / Harry Giddings Loser By A Head (1957)
D-226 WE Edwin Booth Showdown At Warbird / Samuel A. Peeples Doc Colt (1957)
D-227 SF H. Beam Piper and John J. McGuire Crisis in 2140 / Cyril Judd (Cyril M. Kornbluth and Judith Merril) Gunner Cade (1957)
D-228 NA David Howarth We Die Alone (1957)
D-229 NA Walter Whitney Take It Out In Trade (1957)
D-230 WE Barry Cord Boss Of Barbed Wire / Lee Floren Burn 'Em Out! (1957)
D-231 MY Dudley Dean Macgaughy (as Owen Dudle) Murder For Charity / Edward S. Aarons (as Edward Ronn) Point Of Peril (1957)
D-232 NA Willard Manies The Fixers (1957)
D-233 SF Rex Gordon First On Mars
D-234 NA Robert L. Scott Look Of The Eagle (1957)
D-235 MY Jack Webb (as John Farr) The Lady And The Snake / Louis Trimble Nothing To Lose But My Life (1957)
D-236 WE Edwin Booth Jinx Rider / Ray Hogan Walk A Lonely Trail (1957)
D-237 SF Robert Silverberg Master of Life and Death / James White The Secret Visitors (1957)
D-238 NA Clellon Holmes Go (1957)
D-239 NA G. Harry Stine Earth Satellite And The Race For Space Superiority (1957)
D-240 WE Wayne C. Lee Broken Wheel Ranch / Tom West Torture Trail (1957)
D-241 MY Harry Whittington One Deadly Dawn / Wilson Tucker The Hired Target (1957)
D-242 SF A. E. van Vogt Empire of the Atom / Frank Belknap Long Space Station 1 (1957)
D-243 NA Michael Wells The Roving Eye (1957)
D-244 NA Terence Robinson Night Raider Of The Atlantic: The Saga Of The U-99 (1957)
D-245 SF Jules Verne Off On A Comet (1957)
D-246 NA John Harriman The Magnate (1957)
D-247 MY Ken Lewis Look Out Behind You / John Creighton Not So Evil As Eve (1957)
D-248 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Longhorn Law / Ray Hogan Cross Me In Gunsmoke (1957)
D-249 SF Philip K. Dick The Cosmic Puppets / Andre Norton (as Andrew North) Sargasso of Space (1957)
D-250 NA Arthur Steuer The Terrible Swift Sword (1957)
D-251 NA Hamilton Cochran Windward Passage (1957)
D-252 WE John Callahan The Rawhide Breed / Rod Patterson Prairie Terror (1957)
D-253 MY Bruce Cassiday The Buried Motive / Prentice Winchell (as Spencer Dean) Marked Down For Murder (1957)
D-254 NA Marcos Spinelli The Lash Of Desire (1957)
D-255 SF Kenneth Bulmer City Under the Sea / Poul Anderson Star Ways (1957)
S-256 NA Karl Ludwig Oritz The General (1957)
D-257 NA Louis Malley Tiger In The Streets (1957)
D-258 NA Sławomir Rawicz The Long Walk (1957)
D-259 MY Michael Avallone The Case Of The Violent Virgin / The Case Of The Bouncing Betty (1957)
D-260 WE Ray Hogan and Matt Slade Land Of The Strangers / Lee Floren The Saddle Wolves (1957)
D-261 SF Philip K. Dick The Variable Man And Other Stories (1957)
S-262 NA Leland Jamieson Attack! (1957)
S-263 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) See How They Run (1957)
D-264 WE Barry Cord Cain Basin / Lee E. Wells Brother Outlaw (1958)
D-265 MY Robert Bloch Shooting Star / Robert Bloch Terror In The Night (And Other Stories)
D-266 SF E. C. Tubb The Mechanical Monarch / Charles L. Fontenay Twice Upon A Time (1958)
D-267 NA Jim Bosworth Speed Demon (1958)
D-268 NA Brant House (ed.) Lincoln's Wit, Humorous Tales And Anecdotes By And About Our 16th President (1958)
D-269 NA Michael Powell Death in the South Atlantic
D-270 NA Bud Clifton D For Delinquent
D-271 NA Cliff Howe Lovers And Libertines (1958)
D-272 WE Lee Floren Riders In The Night / William Hopson Backlash At Cajon Pass
D-273 MY Ernest Jason Fredericks Shakedown Hotel / John Roscoe and Michael Roscoe (as Mike Roscoe) The Midnight Eye (1958)
D-274 SF David Mcilwain (As Charles Eric Maine) World Without Men (1958)
S-275 NA Brant House (ed.) Cartoon Annual #3- The Cream Of The Year's Best Cartoons (1958)
D-276 WE Barry Cord The Gunsmoke Trail / Tom West Lead In His Fists (1958)
D-277 SF Murray Leinster City on The Moon / Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Men on The Moon (1958)
D-278 NA Donald Barr Chidsey This Bright Sword (1957)
D-279 MY J. Harvey Bond Bye Bye, Baby! / Bob McKnight Murder Mutuel
D-280 NA James P.S. Devereux The Story Of Wake Island
D-281 NA Norman Vincent Peale (ed.) Guideposts (1958)
D-282 NA Cliff Howe Scoundrels, Fiends, and Human Monsters (1958)
D-283 SF Clifford D. Simak City (1958)
D-284 WE Barry Cord The Guns Of Hammer / Edwin Booth The Man Who Killed Tex (1958)
D-285 MY Bruce Cassiday Brass Shroud / Joseph Linklater Odd Woman Out (1958)
D-286 SF Robert Silverberg Invaders From Earth / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) Across Time (1958)
D-287 NA Holland M. Smith Coral And Brass (1958)
D-288 WE Edwin Booth Trail To Tomahawk / John Callhan Land Beyond The Law
D-289 MY Alan Payne This'll Slay You / John Hawkins and Ward Hawkins Violent City
D-290 NA P. A. Hoover A Woman Called Trouble (1958)
D-291 SF Robert Silverberg (as Calvin M. Knox) Lest We forget Thee, Earth / Raymond Z. Gallun People Minus X (1958)
D-292 NA Booth Mooney The Insiders (1958)
D-293 NA Vaino Linna The Unknown Soldier (1954)
D-294 WE John H. Latham Bad Bunch Of The Brasada / Walt Coburn Beyond The Wide Missouri (1958)
D-295 SF Jack Vance Big Planet / The Slaves of The Klau (1958)
D-296 NA John Clagett Run The River Gauntlet (1958)
D-297 MY Peter Rabe The Cut Of The Whip / Robert Kelston Kill One, Kill Two (1958)
D-298 WE Paul Evans Thunder Creek Range / William Vance Outlaws Welcome! (1958)
D-299 SF Andre Norton Star Born / H. Beam Piper and John J. McGuire A Planet For Texans (1958)
300 - 399
D-300 NA J. Walter Small The Dance Merchants (1958)
D-301 MY Jack Webb (as John Farr) The Deadly Combo / Russ Winterbotham (as J. Harvey Bond) Murder Isn't Funny (1958)
D-302 NA Maurice Druon The Iron King (1956)
D-303 SF Poul Anderson The Snows of Ganymede / War of the Wing-Men (1958)
D-304 WE Archie Joscelyn River To The Sunset / Ben Smith Trouble At Breakdam (1958)
D-305 MY Vic Rodell Free-Lance Murder / Louis King Cornered (1958)
D-306 NA Peyson Antholz All Shook Up (1958)
D-307 NA Brant House (ed.) From Eve On: Wit And Wisdom About Women (1958)
D-308 WE Jack M. Bickham Gunman's Gamble / Roy Manning Draw And Die! (1958)
D-309 SF H.G. Wells The Island Of Dr. Moreau (1958)
D-310 NA Marcos Spinelli Mocambu (1958)
D-311 SF Robert Silverberg Stepsons of Terra / Lan Wright A Man Called Destiny (1958)
D-312 NA Harlan Ellison The Deadly Streets (1958)
D-313 MY Samuel Krasney Design For Dying / J. M. Flynn The Deadly Boodle (1958)
D-314 NA Blair Ashton Deeds Of Darkness (1958)
D-315 SF Eric Frank Russell The Space Willies / Six Worlds Yonder (1958)
D-316 WE Rod Patterson A Time For Guns / Barry Cord / Mesquite Johnny (1958)
D-317 MY John Creighton The Wayward Blonde / Gerry Travis The Big Bite (1958)
D-318 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Captain Crossbones (1958)
D-319 NA Hans-Otto Meissner The Man With Three Faces (1958)
D-320 WE Robert Mccaig The Rangemaster / William Hopson The Last Shoot-Out (1958)
D-321 MY John Creighton Trial By Perjury / Louis Trimble The Smell Of Trouble (1958)
D-322 SF Robert Moore Williams The Blue Atom / The Void Beyond and Other Stories (1958)
D-323 NA Brant House The Violent Ones (1958)
D-324 SF Ray Cummings Brigands Of The Moon (1958)
D-325 NA Irving Werstein July 1863 (1958)
D-326 NA Wilhelm Johnen Battling The Bombers
D-327 SF Jeff Sutton First On The Moon
D-328 WE Merle Constiner The Fourth Gunman / Tom West Slick On The Draw (1958)
D-329 MY Robert Emmett Mcdowell (as Emmett Mcdowell) Stamped For Death / Robert Emmett Mcdowell (as Emmett Mcdowell) Three For The Gallows (1958)
D-330 NA Bud Clifton Muscle Boy (1958)
D-331 SF Kenneth Bulmer The Secret of Zi / Ray Cummings Beyond the Vanishing Point (1958)
D-332 WE Kermit Welles Blood On Boot Hill / Ben Smith Stranger In Sundown (1959)
D-333 MY Mike Brett Scream Street / John Creighton Stranglehold (1959)
D-334 NA Stanley Johnston Queen Of The Flat-Tops (1958)
D-335 SF Poul Anderson The War of Two Worlds / John Brunner Threshold of Eternity (1959)
D-336 NA Samuel A. Krasney Morals Squad
D-337 NA Jack Gerstine Play It Cool
D-338 NA Edward De Roo The Fires Of Youth
D-339 SF Clifford D. Simak Ring Around The Sun
D-340 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1959)
D-341 NA Rae Loomis The Marina Street Girls (1959)
D-342 NA Nicholas Gorham Queen's Blade (1959)
D-343 NA Edward de Roo The Young Wolves (1959)
D-344 NA Gordon Landsborough Desert Fury (1959)
D-345 SF Andre Norton (as Andrew North) Plague Ship / Voodoo Planet (1959)
D-346 WE Ray Hogan Wanted: Alive! / Barry Cord Sherriff Of Big Hat (1957)
D-347 MY Louis Trimble The Corpse Without A Country / Harry Whittington Play For Keeps (1957)
D-348 WE T.V. Olsen The Man From Nowhere / John L. Shelley The Avenging Gun (1959)
D-349 MY Leslie Frederick Brett (as Mike Brett) The Guilty Bystander / Russell Robert Winterbotham (as J. Harvey Bond) Kill Me With Kindness (1959)
D-350 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert
D-351 SF Edmond Hamilton The Sun Smasher / Robert Silverberg (as Ivar Jorgenson) Starhaven (1959)
G-352 NA Francis Leary Fire And Morning (1959)
D-353 NA Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) The Macabre Reader
D-354 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) The Hidden Planet: Science-Fiction Adventures On Venus (1959)
D-355 NA Bill Strutton and Michael Pearson The Beachhead Spies (1958)
D-356 WE Paul Durst Kansas Guns / Tom West The Cactus Kid (1958)
D-357 MY Lester Dent Lady In Peril / Floyd Wallace Wired For Scandal (1959)
D-358 SF Robert Silverberg (as Calvin M. Knox) The Plot Against Earth / Milton Lesser Recruit for Andromeda (1959)
D-359 NA John Croydon (as John Cooper) The Haunted Strangler (1959)
D-360 WE John H. Latham Johnny Sixgun / Barry Cord War In Peaceful Valley (1959)
D-361 MY James P. Duff Dangerous To Know / Robert Colby Murder Mistress (1959)
D-362 SF John Brunner The 100th Millennium / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) Edge of Time (1959)
D-363 NA Samuel A. Krasney The Rapist (1959)
D-364 NA Donald Barr Chidsey The Pipes Are Calling (1959)
D-365 NA Robert Eunson MIG Alley (1959)
D-366 SF Alan E. Nourse And J. A. Meyer The Invaders Are Coming
D-367 MY Louis Trimble Till Death Do Us Part / Charles E. Fritch Negative Of A Nude (1959)
D-368 WE Ray Hogan Hangman's Valley / Joseph Gage A Score To Settle (1959)
D-369 SF Brian W. Aldiss Vanguard From Alpha / Kenneth Bulmer The Changeling Worlds (1959)
D-370 NA Paul Ernst (as Ernest Jason Fredericks) Cry Flood (1959)
G-371 NA Theodor Plievier Berlin (1959)
D-372 WE Dan Kirby Cimarron Territory / Glenn Balach Grass Greed (1959)
D-373 MY Jack Karney The Knave Of Diamonds / Doug Warren Scarlet Starlet (1959)
D-374 NA Burgess Leonard The Thoroughbred And The Tramp (1959)
D-375 SF Damon Knight Masters of Evolution / George O. Smith Fire in the Heavens (1959)
G-376 NA J. Harvey Howells The Big Company Look (1959)
D-377 SF Jeff Sutton Bombs In Orbit (1959)
D-378 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Out For Kicks
D-379 MY William Woody Mistress Of Horror House / Jay Flynn (as J. M. Flynn) Drink With The Dead (1959)
D-380 WE William Heuman My Brother The Gunman / Barry Cord Concho Valley (1959)
D-381 SF Jerry Sohl One Against Herculum / Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race (1959)
G-382 NA C. T. Ritchie Willing Maid
D-383 NA David Stacton (as Bud Clifton) The Murder Specialist (1959)
D-384 WE Louis Trimble Mountain Ambush / Jack M. Bickham Feud Fury
D-385 SF John Brunner Echo In The Skull / Alan E. Nourse Rocket To Limbo (1959)
G-386 NA Richard O'Connor The Sulu Sword (1959)
D-387 MY Laine Fisher Fare Prey / Bob McKnight The Bikini Bombshell (1959)
D-388 SF H. G. Wells When The Sleeper Wakes (1959)
D-389 NA Cyril Henry Coles and Adelaide Manning (jointly as Manning Cole) No Entry (1959)
G-390 NA R. Foreman Long Pig
D-391 SF John Brunner The World Swappers / A. E. van Vogt Siege of the Unseen (1959)
D-392 WE Tom West Twisted Trail / Archie Joscelyn The Man From Salt Creek (1959)
D-393 MY Joseph L. Chadwick (as John Creighton) Evil Is The Night / Robert A. Levey Dictators Die Hard (1959)
D-394 NA Donald Barr Chidsey The Flaming Island (1959)
D-395 WE Allan Keller Thunder At Harper's Ferry (1959)
D-396 NA Rae Loomis Luisita
D-397 SF Jules Verne Journey To The Center Of The Earth
D-398 NA Noland Miller Why Am I So Beat
D-399 NA Edward Adler Living It Up (1955)
400 - 499
D-400 WE Barry Cord Last Chance At Devil's Canyon / Gordon D. Shirreffs Shadow Of A Gunman (1959)
D-401 MY Louis Trimble Obit Deferred / Tedd Thomey I Want Out (1959)
G-402 NA Daniel P. Mannix Kiboko (1959)
D-403 SF Murray Leinster The Mutant Weapon / The Pirates of Zan (1959)
D-404 NA Clifford Anderson The Hollow Hero (1959)
D-405 SF Rex Gordon First To The Stars
D-406 NA Edward Deroo Go, Man, Go! (1959)
D-407 SF Poul Anderson We Claim These Stars! / Robert Silverberg The Planet Killers (1959)
D-408 WE Edwin Booth Wyoming Welcome / Giles A. Lutz Law Of The Trigger (1959)
D-409 MY Louis Trimble Cargo For The Styx / Jay Flynn (as J.M. Flynn) Terror Tournament (1959)
D-410 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Buccaneer's Blade (1959)
D-411 MY Bob McKnight Swamp Sanctuary
D-412 WE E.A. Alman Ride The Long Night / Gordon D. Shirreffs Apache Butte (1959)
D-413 SF Harlan Ellison The Man With Nine Lives / A Touch of Infinity (1959)
D-414 NA Alexandre Dumas The Companions of Jehu (1960)
D-415 MY Prentice Winchell (as Stewart Sterling) 'Fire On Fear Street / Dead Certain (1960)
D-416 NA John Kenneth The Big Question (1960)
D-417 NA Edward de Roo Rumble at the Housing Project (1960)
D-418 WE C.S. Park The Quiet Ones / Tom West Nothing But My Gun (1960)
D-419 MY Bernard Thielen Open Season / Bob McKnight A Slice Of Death (1958)
D-420 NA John A. Williams The Angry Ones (1960)
D-421 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Futurity / John Brunner Slavers of Space (1960)
D-422 SF Anthony Boucher and J. Francis Mccomas (eds.) The Best From F & SF, 3rd Series
D-423 NA Browning Norton Tidal Wave (1960)
D-424 WE Lee Richards Shoot Out At The Way Station / Robert Mccaig Wild Justice (1960)
D-425 MY Roberta Elizabeth Sebenthal (as Paul Kruger) Dig Her A Grave / Joseph L. Chadwick (as John Creighton) A Half Interest In Murder (1960)
D-426 NA Robert S. Close Penal Colony
D-427 SF Robert Moore Williams World of the Masterminds / To the End of Time and Other Stories (1960)
D-428 NA P.A. Hoover Scowtown Woman
D-429 NA Charles Runyon The Anatomy Of Violence (1960)
D-430 WE William Hopson Born Savage / Ray Hogan The Hasty Hangman (1960)
D-431 SF A. E. van Vogt Earth's Last Fortress / George O. Smith Lost in Space (1960)
D-432 NA Donn Broward Convention Queen (1960)
D-433 MY Jack Bradley If Hate Could Kill / Talmage Powell The Smasher (1960)
D-434 NA Jules Verne The Purchase Of The North Pole (1960)
D-435 NA C.T. Ritchie Lady In Bondage (1960)
D-436 WE Tom West The Phantom Pistoleer / Giles A. Lutz The Challenger (1960)
D-437 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman / Richard Wilson And Then The Town Took Off (1960)
D-438 NA Charles Fogg The Panic Button (1960)
D-439 MY Duane Decker The Devil's Punchbowl / Owen Dudley Run If You Can (1960)
G-440 NA Andrew Hepburn Letter Of Marque (1960)
D-441 NA Lloyd E. Olson Skip Bomber (1960)
D-442 WE Jack M. Bickham Killer's Paradise / Rod Patterson Rider Of The Rincon (1960)
D-443 SF Manly Wade Wellman The Dark Destroyers / Brian W. Aldiss Bow Down to Nul (1960)
D-444 NA Shepard Rifkin Desire Island (1960)
D-445 MY Robert Emmett Mcdowell (as Emmett Mcdowell) Bloodline To Murder / In At The Kill (1960)
D-446 NA Edward Moore Flight 685 Is Overdue (1960)
D-447 MY Bob McKnight Kiss The Babe Goodbye / J. M. Flynn The Hot Chariot (1960)
D-448 WE Lee Floren Pistol-Whipper / Archie Joscelyn (as Al Cody) Winter Range (1960)
D-449 SF Gordon R. Dickson The Genetic General / Time to Teleport (1960)
D-450 WE Tom West Side Me With Sixes / Ray Hogan The Ridgerunner (1960)
D-451 MY Steve Ward Odds Against Linda / Robert Martin A Key To The Morgue (1960)
D-452 NA Joe L. Hensley The Colour of Hate (1960)
D-453 SF Kenneth Bulmer The Earth Gods Are Coming / Margaret St. Clair The Games of Neith (1960)
G-454 NA Anne Powers Ride East! Ride West! (1960)
D-455 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (Ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, 4th Series (1960)
D-456 WE Edwin Booth Danger Trail / Edwin Booth The Desperate Dude
D-457 SF Philip K. Dick Vulcan's Hammer / John Brunner The Skynappers (1960)
D-458 NA Harry Wilcox (as Mark Derby) Womanhunt (1960)
D-459 MY Howard J. Olmsted The Hot Diary / J. M. Flynn Ring Around A Rogue (1960)
D-460 NA James Macgregor When The Ship Sank (1960)
D-461 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1960)
D-462 WE Jack M. Bickham The Useless Gun / John H. Latham The Long Fuse (1960)
D-463 MY Prentice Winchell (as Stewart Sterling) Dying Room Only / The Body In The Bed (1960)
D-464 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Tame The Wild Flesh (1960)
D-465 SF John Brunner The Atlantic Abomination / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) The Martian Missile (1960)
D-466 WE Richard O'Conner Wild Bill Hickok (1960)
D-467 NA William C. Anderson Five, Four, Three, Two, One-Pfftt Or 12,000 Men And One Bikini (1960)
D-468 SF Eric Frank Russell Sentinel Of Space (1960)
D-469 MY Bob McKnight Running Scared / Talmage Powell Man-Killer (1960)
D-470 WE Gene Olsen The Man Who Was Morgan / Ben Smith The Maverick (1960)
D-471 SF John Brunner Sanctuary in the Sky / Jack Sharkey The Secret Martians (1960)
D-472 NA Harry Whittington A Night For Screaming
D-473 SF Eric Temple Bell (As John Taine) The Greatest Adventure
D-474 NA Leland Lovelace Lost Mines & Hidden Treasure
D-475 WE Samuel Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Marshal of Medicine Bend
D-476 WE Tom West Double Cross Dinero / Edwin Booth Last Valley (1960)
D-477 MY Louis Trimble The Duchess Of Skid Row / Love Me And Die (1961)
D-478 SF Jeff Sutton Spacehive (1960)
D-479 SF Wilson Tucker To the Tombaugh Station / Poul Anderson Earthman Go Home! (1960)
G-480 WE John Brick The Strong Men (1960)
D-481 NA Joseph F. Dinneen The Biggest Holdup (1960)
D-482 SF A. E. van Vogt The Weapon Shops Of Isher (1961)
D-483 MY Russell Robert Winterbotham (as J. Harvey Bond) If Wishes Were Hearses / Bruce Cassiday The Corpse In The Picture Window (1961)
D-484 WE Ray Hogan Ambush At Riflestock / Archie Joscelyn (as Al Cody) Dead Man's Spurs (1961)
D-485 SF Robert A. W. Lowndes The Puzzle Planet / Lloyd Biggle, Jr. The Angry Espers (1961)
D-486 NA Edward De Roo The Little Caesars
D-487 NA Leonard Sanders Four-Year Hitch
D-488 NA Dan Brennan Third Time Down (1961)
D-489 MY R. Arthur Somebody's Walking Over My Grave / John Miles Bickham (as John Miles) Dally With A Deadly Doll (1961)
D-490 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) Adventures On Other Planets (1961)
D-491 SF Fritz Leiber The Big Time / Fritz Leiber The Mind-Spider and Other Stories (1961)
D-492 WE William Hopson Winter Drive / Giles A. Lutz The Wild Quarry (1961)
D-493 NA Ellery Queen (ed.) The Queen's Awards, Fifth Series
D-494 WE Leslie T. White Log Jam (1961)
D-495 NA Samuel A. Krasney A Mania For Blondes (1961)
D-496 WE Steven G. Lawrence With Blood In Their Eyes / Tom West Killer's Canyon (1961)
D-497 SF John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) I Speak For Earth / Ray Cummings Wandl The Invader (1961)
D-498 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1961)
D-499 MY Frederick C. Davis Night Drop / High Heel Homicide (1961)
500 - 599
G-500 WE George D. Hendricks The Bad Man of the West (1961)
D-501 NA David Stacton (as Bud Clifton) Let Him Go Hang (1961)
D-502 WE Paul Evan Lehman Troubled Range / Archie Joscelyn (as Al Cody) Long Night At Lodgepole (1961)
D-503 NA Frances Nichols Hanna (as Fan Nichols) The Girl In The Death Seat (1961)
D-504 SF Jules Verne Master Of The World (1961)
D-505 MY Louis Trimble The Surfside Caper / Robert Colby In A Vanishing Room (1961)
D-506 NA Harry Harrison Kroll The Brazen Dream (1961)
D-507 SF Kenneth Bulmer Beyond the Silver Sky / John Brunner Meeting At Infinity (1961)
D-508 NA Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) More Macabre (1961)
D-509 SF Andre Norton The Beast Master / Star Hunter (1961)
D-510 WE Harry Whittington The Searching Rider / Jack M. Bickham Hangman's Territory (1961)
D-511 MY J. M. Flynn One For The Death House / Bob McKnight Drop Dead, Please (1961)
D-512 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Marooned (1961)
D-513 NA Harlan Ellison The Juvies
D-514 WE Gordon D. Shirreffs Hangin' Pards / Gordon D. Shirreffs Ride A Lone Trail (1961)
D-515 MY Robert Colby Kill Me A Fortune / Prentice Winchell (as Stewart Sterling) Five Alarm Funeral (1961)
D-516 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Swordsman Of Mars (1961)
D-517 SF Clifford Simak The Trouble With Tycho / A. Bertram Chandler Bring Back Yesterday (1961)
D-518 NA Bill Miller and Robert Wade (as Wade Miller) Nightmare Cruise (1961)
D-519 NA Carroll V. Glines and Wendell F. Moseley Air Rescue! (1961)
D-520 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) One Foot In Hell (1961)
D-521 NA Margaret Howe The Girl In The White Cap (1961)
D-522 NA Hal Ellson A Nest Of Fear (1961)
D-523 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Strike The Black Flag (1961)
D-524 NA Maysie Greig (as Jennifer Ames) Overseas Nurse (1961)
D-525 SF Murray Leinster This World Is Taboo (1961)
D-526 NA Kim Darien Obsession (1961)
D-527 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (1961)
D-528 SF Murray Leinster The Forgotten Planet
D-529 NA Leslie Turner White The Pirate And The Lady (1961)
D-530 SF Robert Moore Williams The Day They H-Bombed Los Angeles (1961)
D-531 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Outlaws Of Mars
D-532 NA Isabel Capeto (as Isabel Cabot) Nurse Craig (1961)
D-533 NA H. T. Elmo Mad. Ave. (1961)
D-534 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A. D. (1961)
D-535 SF Ray Cummings The Shadow Girl (1962)
D-536 NA Peggy Gaddis The Nurse And The Pirate (1961)
D-537 SF H. G. Wells The Island Of Dr. Moreau (1961)
D-538 SF Isaac Asimov The 1,000 Year Plan (1961)
D-539 NA Mary Mann Fletcher Psychiatric Nurse (1962)
D-540 NA Arlene Hale School Nurse (1962)
D-541 SF Alan E. Nourse Scavengers In Space (1962)
D-542 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet (1962)
D-543 NA Harriet Kathryn Myers Small Town Nurse (1962)
D-544 SF Frank Belknap Long Space Station #1 (1962)
D-545 NA Suzanne Roberts Emergency Nurse (1962)
D-546 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads Of Time
D-547 SF John Brunner The Super Barbarians (1962)
D-548 NA Dudley Dean Mcgaughty (as Dean Owen) End Of The World (1962)
D-549 NA Tracy Adams Spotlight On Nurse Thorne (1962)
D-550 SF Poul Anderson No World Of Their Own (1962)
D-551 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert
D-552 NA Patricia Libby Hollywood Nurse
D-553 NA William Hope Hodgson The House On The Borderland (1962)
D-554 NA Jean Francis Webb (as Ethel Hamill) Runaway Nurse (1962)
D-555 SF Jack Williamson The Trial Of Terra (1962)
D-556 NA Ruth Macleod A Nurse For Dr. Sterling (1962)
D-557 NA Florence Stuart Hope Wears White (1962)
D-558 NA Suzanne Roberts Campus Nurse (1962)
D-559 NA Jane L. Sears Ski Resort Nurse (1962)
D-560 NA Robert H. Boyer Medic In Love (1962)
D-561 NA Ann Rush Nell Shannon R. N. (1963)
D-562 NA Patricia Libby Cover Girl Nurse (1963)
D-563 NA Arlene Hale Leave It To Nurse Kathy (1963)
D-564 NA Harriet Kathryn Myers Prodigal Nurse
D-565 NA Ray Dorlen The Heart Of Dr. Hilary (1963)
D-566 NA Suzanne Roberts Julie Jones, Cape Canaveral Nurse (1963)
D-567 NA Isabel Moore A Challenge For Nurse Melanie (1963)
D-568 SF Poul Anderson Star Ways (1962)
D-569 NA Arlene Hale Dude Ranch Nurse (1963)
D-570 WE L. L. Foreman Spanish Grant (1963)
D-571 NA Katherine Mccomb Princess Of White Starch (1963)
D-572 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Arizona Rider
D-573 WE Louis Trimble (as Stuart Brock) Whispering Canyon (1963)
D-574 WE Louis L'Amour Kilkenny (1954)
D-575 NA Peggy Dern A Nurse Called Hope (1963)
D-576 NA Dorothy Karns Dowdell Border Nurse (1963)
D-577 NA Sarah Frances Moore Legacy Of Love (1963)
D-578 WE Brian Garfield The Lawbringers (1963)
D-579 NA Suzanne Roberts Hootenanny Nurse (1964)
D-580 NA Arlene Hale Symptoms Of Love (1964)
D-581 NA Suzanne Roberts Co-Ed In White (1964)
D-582 NA Joan Sargent My Love An Altar (1964)
D-583 NA Tracy Adams Hotel Nurse (1964)
D-584 NA Monica Edwards Airport Nurse (1964)
D-585 NA Arlene Hale Nurse Marcie's Island (1964)
D-586 NA Barbara Grabendike San Francisco Nurse
D-587 NA Arlene Hale Nurse Connor Comes Home (1964)
D-588 WE Merle Constiner Short Trigger Man
D-589 NA Virginia B. Mcdonnell The Nurse With The Silver Skates (1964)
D-590 WE Lin Searles Stampede At Hourglass (1964)
D-591 NA Monica Heath (as Arlene J. Fitzgerald) Northwest Nurse (1964)
D-592 WE Nelson Nye Gunslick Mountain (1964)
D-593 NA Suzanne Roberts Sisters In White (1965)
D-594 WE Louis Trimble The Desperate Deputy of Cougar Hill (1965)
D-595 NA Ruth Macleod Nurse Ann In Surgery (1965)
D-596 NA Arlene Hale Nurses On The Run (1965)
D-597 WE L. P. Holmes The Hardest Man In The Sierras (1965)
D-598 NA Arlene Hale Disaster Area Nurse (1965)
D-599 NA Patricia Libby Winged Victory For Nurse Kerry (1965)
DGS series, titles in first
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20titles%20in%20second%20G%20series
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List of Ace titles in second G series
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Ace Books began its second G-series in 1964, and it ran until 1968, with serial numbers from 501 to 766.
There had previously been nine titles with a G prefix published as part of the D/G/S-series. These nine are:
G-352 NA Francis Leary Fire And Morning (1959)
G-371 NA Theodor Plievier Berlin (1959)
G-376 NA J. Harvey Howells The Big Company Look (1959)
G-382 NA C. T. Ritchie Willing Maid
G-390 NA R. Foreman Long Pig
G-440 NA Andrew Hepburn Letter Of Marque (1960)
G-454 NA Anne Powers Ride East! Ride West! (1960)
G-480 WE John Brick The Strong Men (1960)
G-500 WE George D. Hendricks The Bad Man of the West (1961)
The nine titles above are also listed in the D/G/S-series, but are separated here for convenience.
After the numbers in the D/G/S-series reached 500, the G series began to use separate numbers. These are the titles listed below.
Some G-series numbers are not listed, and it is not known if a book corresponds to them; the missing numbers are: 516 and 517.
G-501 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) Incident At A Corner / The Unsuspected (1965)
G-502 WE Richard O'Connor Pat Garrett (1965)
G-503 MY Ursula Curtiss The Face Of The Tiger / The Stairway (1962)
G-504 NA Theodor Plievier Moscow (1965)
G-505 NA Ken Murray Ken Murray's Giant Joke Book
G-506 MY Doris Miles Disney Black Mail / Did She Fall Or Was She Pushed?
G-507 NA John M. Foster Hell In The Heavens
G-508 MY Ruth Fenisong The Schemers / But Not Forgotten (1965)
G-509 MY Elisabeth Sanxay Holding The Virgin Huntress / The Innocent Mrs. Duff (1951)
G-510 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) The Case Of The Weird Sisters (1965)
G-511 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) The Chocolate Cobweb / Who's Been Sitting In My Chair? (1965)
G-512 MY Elisabeth S. Holding The Blank Wall / The Girl Who Had To Die (1965)
G-513 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) Then Came Two Women / Catch As Catch Can (1965)
G-514 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) Something Blue
G-515 NA Slavomir Rawicz The Long Walk
G-518 MY Helen Reilly Follow Me / The Opening Door (1965)
G-519 MY Elisabeth Sanxay Holding The Old Battle Axe / The Obstinate Murderer (1965)
G-520 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Arena
G-521 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) Mischief / The Better To Eat You (1965)
G-522 NA Frederick Faust (as George Challis) The Firebrand
G-523 MY Ursula Curtiss The Forbidden Garden / Hours To Kill (1965)
G-524 MY Elisabeth Sanxay Holding Who's Afraid? / Widow's Mite (1965)
G-525 MY Dana Lyon The Tentacles / Spin The Web Tight (1965)
G-526 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) The Mark Of The Hand / The Dream Walker (1965)
G-527 NA Frederick Faust (as George Challis) The Bait And The Trap (1965)
G-528 MY Helen Reilly Certain Sleep / Ding Dong Bell (1965)
G-529 MY Dorothy Miles Disney Unappointed Rounds / Mrs. Meeker's Money (1965)
G-530 MY Elisabeth Sanxay Holding The Unfinished Crime / Net Of Cobwebs (1963)
G-531 MY Helen Reilly Not Me, Inspector / The Canvas Dagger (1965)
G-532 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Traitors’ Legion (1963)
G-533 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) The Black-Eyed Stranger / The One-Faced Girl (1965)
G-534 MY Elisabeth Sanxay Holding Kill Joy / Speak Of The Devil (1965)
G-535 MY Dana Lyon The Lost One / The Frightened Child (1965)
G-536 NA Helen Reilly The Day She Died
G-537 NA Edward J. Ruppelt Unidentified Flying Objects (1965)
G-538 NA Andre Norton Shadow Hawk (1965)
G-539 MY Hilda Lawrence Duet In Death: Composition For Four Hands / Duet In Death: The House (1965)
G-540 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) A Little Less Than Kind (1965)
G-541 NA Jean Potts The Evil Wish
G-542 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) Meet Me Tonight (1965)
G-543 MY Mildred Davis The Dark Place / They Buried A Man (1965)
G-544 NA Ruth Fenisong The Wench Is Dead (1964)
G-545 NA Dana Lyon The Trusting Victim (1965)
G-546 MY Helen Reilly Compartment K (1965)
G-547 SF Austin Hall and Homer Eon Flint The Blind Spot (1965)
G-548 MY Rohan O'Grady Let's Kill Uncle (1965)
G-549 MY Ursula Curtiss The Iron Cobweb (1965)
G-550 NA Theodora Du Bois The Listener (1965)
G-551 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction: 1965 (1965)
G-552 NA Theodora Du Bois Shannon Terror (1965)
G-553 NA Michael Avallone The Man From U.N.C.L.E.
G-554 NA Genevieve Holden The Velvet Target
G-555 MY Ursula Curtis The Wasp (1965)
G-556 NA Leonie St. John Love With a Harvard Accent (1965)
G-557 MY Ursula Curtiss Out of the Dark
G-558 NA Genevieve Holden Something's Happened To Kate
G-559 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) After Midnight (1965)
G-560 NA Harry Whittington The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 2: The Doomsday Affair (1965)
G-561 MY Ursula Curtiss Widow's Web (1965)
G-562 NA Helen McCloy The Long Body (1965)
G-563 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) A Day In Monte Carlo (1965)
G-564 NA John Oram Thomas (as John Oram) The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 3: The Copenhagen Affair (1965)
G-565 MY Ursula Curtiss The Deadly Climate (1965)
G-566 NA Irene Maude Swatridge and Charles John Swatridge (jointly as Theresa Charles) Lady In The Mist (1965)
G-567 NA Theresa Charles The Shrouded Tower (1965)
G-568 NA Melba Marlett Escape While I Can (1965)
G-569 NA David Howarth We Die Alone (1965)
G-570 SF Alan Garner The Weirdstone Of Brisingamen (1965)
G-571 NA David McDaniel The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 4: The Dagger Affair (1965)
G-572 NA Joy Packer The Man In The Mews (1966)
G-573 WE Tom West Rattlesnake Range / Merle Constiner Top Gun From The Dakotas (1966)
G-574 SF Avram Davidson The Kar-Chee Reign / Ursula K. Le Guin Rocannon's World (1966)
G-575 NA Margaret Summerton Quin's Hide (1966)
G-576 SF John Rackham Danger From Vega / Avram Davidson Clash of Star-Kings (1966)
G-577 WE Roger Spellman Big Man From The Brazos / Ray Hogan Killer's Gun (1966)
G-578 NA Dorothy Eden (as Mary Paradise) Shadow Of A Witch (1966)
G-579 WE Lee E. Wells Ride A Dim Trail / Louis Trimble Showdown In The Cayuse (1966)
G-580 SF Mack Reynolds Dawnman Planet / Claude Nunes Inherit the Earth (1966)
G-581 NA John T. Phillifent The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 5: The Mad Scientist Affair (1966)
G-582 SF Jules Verne Journey To The Center Of The Earth (1966)
G-583 NA Marie Garratt Festival Of Darkness (1966)
G-584 WE William E. Vance Son Of A Desparado / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Ruthless Breed (1966)
G-585 SF John W. Campbell The Planeteers / The Ultimate Weapon (1966)
G-586 SF William L. Chester Hawk Of The Wilderness (1966)
G-587 WE Lee Hoffman Gunfight At Laramie / Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) The Wolf Pack
G-588 SF Lin Carter The Star Magicians / John Baxter The Off-Worlders (1966)
G-589 NA Margaret Summerton Ring Of Mischief (1966)
G-590 NA David McDaniel The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 6: The Vampire Affair (1966)
G-591 WE Dan J. Stevens Stage To Durango / Tom West Hangrope Heritage (1966)
G-592 SF John Rackham The Beasts of Kohl / John Brunner A Planet Of Your Own (1966)
G-593 NA Dorothy Eden (as Mary Paradise) Face Of An Angel (1966)
G-594 NA Charles Runyon The Bloody Jungle (1966)
G-595 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime (1966)
G-596 WE Reese Sullivan The Demanding Land / John Callahan Hackett's Feud (1966)
G-597 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Planet of Exile / Thomas M. Disch Mankind Under the Leash (1966)
G-598 NA Barbara James Bright Deadly Summer (1966)
G-599 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (1966)
G-600 NA Peter Leslie The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 7: The Radioactive Camel Affair (1966)
G-601 WE John L. Shelley The Return Of Bullet Benton / Ray Hogan The Hellsfire Lawman (1966)
G-602 SF Howard L. Cory The Mind Monsters / Philip K. Dick The Unteleported Man (1966)
G-603 NA Carolyn Wilson The Scent of Lilacs (1966)
G-604 NA Jess Shelton Daktari (1966)
G-605 SF Jack Jardine (as Larry Maddock) The Flying Saucer Gambit - Agent Of T.E.R.R.A. #1 (1966)
G-606 SF John Rackham Time to Live / Lin Carter The Man Without a Planet (1966)
G-607 WE Merle Constiner Rain Of Fire / Tom West Bitter Brand (1966)
G-608 NA Jean Potts The Only Good Secretary (1967)
G-609 SF Philip E. High Reality Forbidden / A. Bertram Chandler Contraband From Otherspace (1967)
G-610 WE John L. Shelley The Siege At Gunhammer / Frank Wynee The Lusty Breed (1967)
G-611 SF Avram Davidson (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Twelfth Series (1967)
G-612 NA Leal Hayes Harlequin House (1967)
G-613 NA David McDaniel The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 8: The Monster Wheel Affair (1967)
G-614 SF Walt Richmond & Leigh Richmond Shock Wave / Frederick L. Shaw, Jr. Envoy to the Dog Star (1967)
G-615 WE Ray Hogan Legacy Of The Slash M / William Vance Tracker (1967)
G-616 NA Marion Zimmer Bradley Souvenir Of Monique (1967)
G-617 NA Peter Leslie The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 9: The Diving Dames Affair (1967)
G-618 SF Emil Petaja The Stolen Sun / H. Warner Munn The Ship From Atlantis (1967)
G-619 WE Barry Cord Gallows Ghost / Stephen Payne Room To Swing A Loop
G-620 SF Jack Jardine (as Larry Maddock) The Golden Goddess Gambit - Agent Of T.E.R.R.A. #2 (1967)
G-621 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Matravers Hall (1967)
G-622 WE Tom West Showdown At Serano / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Paxman Feud (1967)
G-623 SF Philip E. High These Savage Futurians / John Rackham The Double Invaders (1967)
G-624 NA Velma Tate (as Francine Davenport) The Secret Of The Bayou (1967)
G-625 SF Kenneth Bulmer To Outrun Doomsday (1967)
G-626 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City Of Illusions (1967)
G-627 SF Fritz Leiber The Big Time (1967)
G-628 WE Clifton Adams Shorty (1967)
G-629 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Nurse Missing (1967)
G-630 SF Andre Norton Warlock Of The Witch World (1967)
G-631 SF Neil R. Jones The Sunless World: Professor Jameson Space Adventure #2 (1967)
G-632 SF A. Bertram Chandler Nebula Alert / Mack Reynolds The Rival Rigelians (1967)
G-633 WE Wayne C. Lee Return To Gunpoint / Dan J. Stevens The Killers From Owl Creek
G-634 SF Poul Anderson War Of The Wing-Men (1967)
G-635 NA Lena Brooke Mcnamara Pilgrim's End (1967)
G-636 NA Joan C. Holly (as J. Holly Hunter) The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 10: The Assassination Affair (1967)
G-637 SF Philip K. Dick and Ray Nelson The Ganymede Takeover (1967)
G-638 WE Edwin Booth A Time To Shoot / Merle Constiner The Action At Redstone Creek
G-639 SF Edmond Hamilton The Weapon From Beyond: Starwolf Series #1 (1967)
G-640 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Weirwoods (1967)
G-641 SF Jack Williamson Bright New Universe (1967)
G-642 WE Louis Trimble Standoff At Massacre Buttes / Kyle Hollingshead Echo Of A Texas Rifle (1967)
G-643 NA Jean Vicary Saverstall (1967)
G-644 SF Jack Jardine (as Larry Maddock) The Emerald Elephant Gambit : Agent Of T.E.R.R.A. #3
G-645 NA Gene DeWeese and Robert Coulson (jointly as Thomas Stratton) The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 11: The Invisibility Affair (1967)
G-646 SF Andre Norton The X Factor (1967)
G-647 SF Will F. Jenkins (as Murray Leinster) S.O.S. From Three Worlds (1967)
G-648 WE William Vance The Raid At Crazyhorse / Tom West Crossfire At Barbed M (1967)
G-649 SF John Brunner The World Swappers (1967)
G-650 SF Neil R. Jones Space War: Professor Jameson Space Adventure #3
G-651 NA Elizabeth Salter Once Upon A Tombstone (1967)
G-652 NA Michael Bonner The Disturbing Death of Jenkin Delaney (1967)
G-653 NA Arlene Hale Doctor's Daughter (1967)
G-654 SF Andre Norton Catseye (1967)
G-655 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1967)
G-656 SF John Jakes When The Star Kings Die (1967)
G-657 WE Nelson C. Nye Rider on the Roan (1967)
G-658 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Leap In The Dark (1967)
G-659 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Oxbow Deed / John Callahan Kincaid (1967)
G-660 SF A. E. van Vogt The Universe Maker (1967)
G-661 SF James Holbrook Vance (as Jack Vance) Big Planet (1967)
G-662 NA Agnes Mary Robertson Dunlop (as Elisabeth Kyle) The Second Mally Lee (1967)
G-663 NA Gene DeWeese and Robert Coulson (jointly as Thomas Stratton) The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 12: The Mind-Twisters Affair (1967)
G-664 SF John Brunner Born Under Mars (1967)
G-665 WE L. L. Foreman Silver Flame
G-666 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Wayneston Hospital (1967)
G-667 SF David McDaniel The Arsenal Out Of Time (1967)
G-668 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) A Badge For A Badman / Ray Hogan Devil's Butte (1967)
G-669 SF Leigh Brackett The Coming Of The Terrans (1967)
G-670 NA David McDaniel The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 13: The Rainbow Affair (1967)
G-671 WE Lewis B. Patten The Star and the Gun (1967)
G-672 NA Arlene Hale University Nurse (1967)
G-673 SF Mark S. Geston Lords Of The Starship
G-674 WE William Vance No Man's Brand / Merle Constiner Two Pistols South Of Deadwood (1967)
G-675 SF James White The Secret Visitors (1967)
G-676 NA John Sawyer and Nancy Buckingham Sawyer (as Nancy Buckingham) Storm In The Mountains (1967)
G-677 SF Damon Knight Turning On: Thirteen Stories (1967)
G-678 WE L. L. Foreman The Plundering Gun
G-679 NA Willo Davis Roberts Nurse At Mystery Villa (1967)
G-680 SF Kenneth Bulmer Cycle Of Nemesis (1967)
G-681 SF Neil R. Jones Twin Worlds: Professor Jameson Space Adventure #4 (1967)
G-682 WE John Callahan Ride For Vengeance / Tom West Bandit Brand
G-683 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump (1967)
G-684 NA Barbara James Beauty That Must Die (1968)
G-685 WE Herbert Purdum My Brother John
G-686 NA Ray Dorien The Odds Against Nurse Pat (1968)
G-687 WE Dan J. Stevens Stranger In Rampart / Eric Allen The Hanging At Whiskey Smith
G-688 SF John Holbrook Vance (as Jack Vance) City Of The Chasch: Planet Of Adventure #1 (1968)
G-689 NA Ron Ellik and Fredric Langley (jointly as Fredric Davies) The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 14: The Cross of Gold Affair (1968)
G-690 SF Andre Norton The Beast Master (1968)
G-691 SF Andre Norton Lord Of Thunder
G-692 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Swordsman Of Mars (1968)
G-693 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Outlaws Of Mars (1968)
G-694 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Dolphin And The Deep (1968)
G-695 WE Theodore V. Olsen Bitter Grass
G-696 NA Arlene Hale Emergency Call (1968)
G-697 SF Poul Anderson We Claim These Stars (1968)
G-698 WE Ray Hogan Trouble At Tenkiller / Kyle Hollingshead The Franklin Raid (1968)
G-699 NA Cornell Woolrich The Bride Wore Black (1968)
G-700 NA Elizabeth Salter Will To Survive (1968)
G-701 SF Edmond Hamilton The Closed Worlds: Starwolf #2 (1968)
G-702 NA William Johnston Miracle At San Tanco: The Flying Nun (1968)
G-703 SF Andre Norton Victory On Janus (1968)
G-704 WE Carse Boyd Navarro (1962)
G-705 WE Barry Cord The Long Wire / Merle Constiner Killers' Corral (1968)
G-706 SF Samuel R. Delany The Jewels Of Aptor (1968)
G-707 NA T.E. Huff (as Edwina Marlowe) The Master of Phoenix Hall (1968)
G-708 WE Clifton Adams A Partnership With Death (1968)
G-709 SF John Brunner Bedlam Planet (1968)
G-710 WE Tom West The Face Behind The Mask / Louis Trimble Marshall Of Sangaree (1968)
G-711 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Nurse Stacey Comes Aboard (1968)
G-712 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) and J. Francis Mccomas (eds.) The Best From Fantasy and Science Fiction, Third Series
G-713 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best From F & Sf Fourth Series (1968)
G-714 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best From F & Sf Fifth Series (1968)
G-715 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Sixth Series (1968)
G-716 SF Andre Norton Web Of The Witch World
G-717 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A.D. (1968)
G-718 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1968)
G-719 SF Neil R. Jones Doomday On Ajiat: Professor Jameson Space Adventure #5 (1968)
G-720 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) Brand of the Gun (1968)
G-721 WE Don P. Jenison The Silver Concho / Lee Hoffman Dead Man's Gold (1968)
G-722 NA Gail Everett My Favorite Nurse (1968)
G-723 SF Andre Norton Star Hunter & Voodoo Planet (1968)
G-724 SF Philip José Farmer A Private Cosmos (1968)
G-725 NA William Johnston The Littlest Rebels: The Flying Nun #2 (1968)
G-726 WE Lee Hoffman The Valdez Horses (1968)
G-727 WE John Callahan Tracks Of The Hunter / Clay Ringold Return To Rio Fuego (1968)
G-728 SF Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell)Across Time (1968)
G-729 NA David McDaniel The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 15: The Utopia Affair (1968)
G-730 SF Alan E. Nourse Psi High And Others (1968)
G-731 WE Nelson C. Nye A Lost Mine Named Shelton (1968)
G-732 WE Reese Sullivan The Trouble Borrower / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Ambush Reckoning (1968)
G-733 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At The Earth's Core (1968)
G-734 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar (1968)
G-735 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar Of Pellucidar (1968)
G-736 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan At The Earth's Core (1968)
G-737 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back To The Stone Age (1968)
G-738 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land Of Terror (1968)
G-739 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar (1968)
G-740 SF Fred Saberhagen The Broken Lands (1968)
G-741 WE Wayne D. Overholser and Lewis B. Patten (jointly as Dean Owen) Red Is The Valley (1968)
G-742 WE Tom West Write His Name In Gunsmoke / Dean Owens Lone Star Roundup (1968)
G-743 NA Sharon Heath Nurse On Castle Island (1968)
G-744 NA Eula Atwood Morrison (as Andrea Delmonico) Chateau Chaumand (1968)
G-745 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid (1968)
G-746 WE William Colt Macdonald Marked Deck At Topango Wells (1968)
G-747 WE Ray Hogan Killer On The Warbucket / Dean Owen Sage Tower (1968)
G-748 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men (1968)
G-749 NA John Sawyer and Nancy Buckingham Sawyer (as Nancy Buckingham) Call Of Glengarron (1968)
G-750 NA Arlene Hale Dr. Barry's Nurse (1968)
G-751 NA Mildred Davies The Dark Place (1968)
G-752 NA Peter Leslie The Man From U.N.C.L.E. Number 16: The Splintered Sunglasses Affair (1968)
G-753 SF Alan Garner The Moon Of Gomrath (1968)
G-754 WE Jack L. Bickham The War On Charity Ross (1968)
G-755 WE Wayne C. Lee Trail Of The Skulls / Merle Constiner The Four From Gila Bend (1968)
G-756 SF Alexei Panshin Star Well (1968)
G-757 NA Helen Arvonen Remember With Tears (1968)
G-758 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Moondust (1968)
G-759 WE Giff Cheshire Wenatchee Bend (1968)
G-760 WE Reese Sullivan The Vengeance Ghost / X.X. Jones Bronc (1968)
G-761 SF John Brunner Catch A Falling Star (1968)
G-762 SF Alexei Panshin The Thurb Revolution (1968)
G-763 WE John Shelley and David Shelley Hell-For-Leather Jones (1968)
G-764 WE Louis Trimble West To The Pecos / John Callahan Jernigan Jernigan (1968)
G-765 NA Virginia Smiley Nurse Kate's Mercy Flight (1968)
G-766 SF Edmond Hamilton World Of The Starwolves: Starwolf #3 (1968)
G series, Titles in second
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20titles%20in%20F%20series
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List of Ace titles in F series
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Ace Books published its F-series of books, priced at 40 cents, from 1960 to 1967.
F-101 NA Joan Sargent Cruise Nurse / Margaret Howe Calling Dr. Merriman (1960)
F-102 MY Bob McKnight The Flying Eye / Clayton Fox Never Forget, Never Forgive (1961)
F-103 WE Harry Whittington A Trap For Sam Dodge / Lee Floren High Thunder (1961)
F-104 SF Kenneth Bulmer No Man's World / Poul Anderson Mayday Orbit (1961)
F-105 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Fifth Series
F-106 WE Brian Garfield Justice At Spanish Flat / Tom West The Gun From Nowhere (1961)
F-107 MY Chester Warwick My Pal, The Killer / John Trinian Scratch A Thief (1961)
F-108 SF G. McDonald Wallis The Light of Lilith / Damon Knight The Sun Saboteurs (1961)
F-109 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1961)
F-110 WE Ray Hogan Track The Man Down / Lee Wells Savage Range (1961)
F-111 MY J. M. Flynn The Girl From Las Vegas / Robert Martin To Have And To Kill (1960)
F-112 NA Jeanne Judson Barbara Ames - Private Secretary / Nell Marr Dean Ratzlaff (as Nell Marr Dean) Fashions For Carol (1961)
F-113 SF Charles L. Fontenay Rebels of The Red Planet / J. T. McIntosh 200 Years to Christmas (1961)
F-114 SF Wallace West The Bird of Time (1961)
F-115 MY John Creighton The Blonde Cried Murder / Fletcher Flora Killing Cousins (1961)
F-116 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Lurking Gun / Louis Trimble Deadman Canyon (1961)
F-117 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Door Through Space / A. Bertram Chandler Rendezvous on a Lost World (1961)
F-118 NA Jacob O. Kamm Making Profits In The Stock Market (1961)
F-119 SF Gordon R. Dickson Delivery / Delusion World (1961)
F-120 WE Jack M. Brickham Gunman Can't Hide / John Callahan Come In Shooting (1961)
F-121 MY Helen Nielson Sing Me A Murder / Helen Nielson Woman Missing And Other Stories (1961)
F-122 NA [Dorothy Worley] Dr. Kilbourne Comes Home/[Patti Stone] Calling Nurse Linda (1961)
F-123 SF Leigh Brackett The Nemesis From Terra
F-123 SF Robert Silverberg Collision Course / Leigh Brackett The Nemesis From Terra (1961)
F-124 WE Steven G. Lawrence Slatterly / Steven G. Lawrence Bullet Welcome For Slatterly (1961)
F-125 MY J. M. Flynn Deep Six / Frank Diamond The Widow Maker (1961)
F-126 WE Edwin Booth The Troublemaker / Ray Hogan A Marshall For Lawless (1962)
F-127 SF Marion Zimmer BradleySeven From The Stars / Keith Laumer Worlds Of The Imperium (1962)
F-128 WE Tom West The Buzzard's Nest / Louis Trimble Siege At High Meadow (1962)
F-129 SF William F. Temple The Automated Goliath / William F. Temple The Three Suns Of Amara (1962)
F-130 MY J. M. Flynn The Screaming Cargo / James A. Howard The Bullet-Proof Martyr (1961)
F-131 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Sixth Series
F-132 NA Mario Cappelli Scramble! (1962)
F-133 SF John Brunner Secret Agent of Terra / A. Bertram Chandler The Rim of Space (1962)
F-134 WE Rod Patterson A Shooting At Sundust / Gordon D. Shirreffs Tumbleweed Trigger (1962)
F-135 SF Leigh Brackett The Long Tomorrow (1962)
F-136 NA [Elyse Michaels Sommer (ed.)] Childbirth: True Accounts of Unusual Experiences (1962)
F-137 NA R. Dewitt Miller Impossible: Yet It Happened! (1962)
F-138 WE Steven G. Lawrence Walk A Narrow Trail / Steven G. Lawrence A Noose For Slattery (1962)
F-139 SF Poul Anderson The Makeshift Rocket/Un-Man and Other Stories (1962)
F-140 NA Leonie St. John Love With A Harvard Accent (1962)
F-141 SF Robert Moore Williams The Darkness Before Tomorrow / John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) The Ladder In The Sky (1962)
F-142 WE L. P. Holmes Wolf Brand / Smoky Pass (1962)
F-143 MY Bob McKnight A Stone Around Her Neck / Clayton Fox End Of A Big Wheel (1962)
F-144 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Massacre Basin / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) The Badge Shooters (1962)
F-145 SF Robert Silverberg Next Stop The Stars / The Seed of Earth (1962)
F-146 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Sir Scoundrel (1962)
F-147 SF Andre Norton The Sea Siege / The Eye of The Monster (1962)
F-148 WE Harry Whittington Wild Sky / Tom West Dead Man's Double Cross (1962)
F-149 SF Robert Moore Williams King of the Fourth Planet / Charles V. DeVet & Katherine MacLean Cosmic Checkmate (1962)
F-150 WE Nelson C. Nye Hideout Mountain / Rafe (1962)
F-151 NA Nedra Tyre Reformatory Girls (1962)
F-152 WE Gordon D. Shirreffs Rio Desperado //Voice Of The Gun (1962)
F-153 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Sword of Aldones / The Planet Savers (1962)
F-154 SF A. E. van Vogt The Wizard Of Linn (1962)
F-155 MY Lionel White A Death At Sea / The Time Of Terror (1961)
F-156 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At The Earth's Core (1962)
F-157 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid (1962)
F-158 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar (1962)
F-159 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men (1962)
F-160 WE Ray Hogan New Gun For Kingdom City / The Shotgunner (1962)
F-161 SF John Brunner Times Without Number / Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) Destiny's Orbit (1962)
F-162 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Seventh Series (1962)
F-163 NA Adele De Leeuw Doctor Ellen (1962)
F-164 WE Steven G. Lawrence Longhorns North / Slattery's Gun Says "No" (1962)
F-165 SF Philip José Farmer Cache From Outer Space / The Celestial Blueprint (1962)
F-166 MY Georges Simenon Maigret And The Reluctant Witness / Maigret Has Scruples (1958)
F-167 SF Andre Norton Catseye (1962)
F-168 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Thuvia, Maid Of Mars (1962)
F-169 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan And The Lost Empire (1962)
F-170 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Chessmen Of Mars (1962)
F-171 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar Of Pellucidar (1962)
F-172 WE Tom West Battling Buckeroos / Giles A. Lutz Gun Rich (1962)
F-173 SF James White Second Ending / Samuel R. Delany The Jewels of Aptor (1962)
F-174 SF S. B. Hough (as Rex Gordon) First Through Time (1962)
F-175 NA Evelyn Berckman Lament For Four Brides (1962)
F-176 WE Dan J. Stevens Gun Trap At Bright Water / Ray Hogan The Outside Gun (1963)
F-177 SF Terry Carr Warlord of Kor / Robert Moore Williams The Star Wasps (1963)
F-178 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) More Adventures On Other Planets (1963)
F-179 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates Of Venus (1963)
F-180 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan At The Earth's Core (1963)
F-181 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Master Mind Of Mars (1963)
F-182 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men (1963)
F-183 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents (1963)
F-184 WE Nelson C. Nye Death Valley Slim / The Kid From Lincoln County (1963)
F-185 SF Jack Vance The Five Gold Bands / The Dragon Masters (1963)
F-186 WE William O. Turner The High Hander / Louis Trimble Wild Horse Range (1963) (may be misprinted as F-185 on some copies)
F-187 SF Leigh Brackett Alpha Centauri or Die! / G. MacDonald Wallis Legend of Lost Earth (1963)
F-188 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D. (1963)
F-189 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan The Invincible (1963)
F-190 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs A Fighting Man Of Mars (1963)
F-191 SF Jules Verne Journey To The Center Of The Earth (1963)
F-192 SF Andre Norton Star Born (1963)
F-193 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Son Of Tarzan (1963)
F-194 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan Triumphant (1963)
F-195 SF Robert Silverberg The Silent Invaders / William F. Temple Battle on Venus (1963)
F-196 WE Harry Whittington Dry Gulch Town / Prairie Raiders (1963)
F-197 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1963)
F-198 NA Simenon The Short Cases Of Inspector Maigret
F-199 SF John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) The Psionic Menace / Samuel R. Delany Captives of the Flame (1963)
F-200 WE Tom West Triggering Texan / Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) The Big Snow (1963)
F-201 SF Robert James Adam (as Paul Mactyre) Doomsday, 1999 (1963)
F-202 NA Evelyn Berckman The Hovering Darkness (1963)
F-203 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Beasts Of Tarzan
F-204 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan And The Jewels Of Opar (1963)
F-205 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan And The City Of Gold (1963)
F-206 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Jungle Tales Of Tarzan (1963)
F-207 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours!
F-208 WE L. P. Holmes Side Me At Sundown / The Buzzards Of Rocky Pass
F-209 SF Kenneth Bulmer The Wizard of Starship Poseidon / Poul Anderson Let The Spacemen Beware! (1963)
F-210 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert
F-211 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Planet Of Peril (1963)
F-212 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan And The Lion Man
F-213 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot (1963)
F-214 WE Louis Trimble The Man From Colorado / Bill Burchardt The Wildcatters (1963)
F-215 SF John Brunner Listen! The Stars / Jane Roberts The Rebellers (1963)
F-216 SF Isaac Asimov The Man Who Upset The Universe (1963)
F-217 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, Eighth Series (1963)
F-218 NA Allen Churchill They Never Came Back (1960)
F-219 NA Henry Makow Ask Henry (1963)
F-220 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot (1963)
F-221 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost On Venus (1963)
F-222 SF Jeff Sutton First On The Moon (1963)
F-223 SF Keith Laumer Envoy to New Worlds / Robert Moore Williams Flight From Yesterday (1963)
F-224 WE Nelson C. Nye Bancroft's Banco / The Seven Six-Gunners (1963)
F-225 SF H. Beam Piper Space Viking (1963)
F-226 SF Andre Norton Huon Of The Horn (1963)
F-227 SF John Brunner The Astronauts Must Not Land / The Space-Time Juggler (1963)
F-228 NA David Howarth We Die Alone (1963)
F-229 MY Louis Trimble The Dead And The Deadly / Bob McKnight Homicide Handicap (1963)
F-230 WE Tom West Lobo Lawman / Ray Hogan Trail Of The Fresno Kid (1963)
F-231 SF Andre Norton Star Gate (1963)
F-232 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land Of Hidden Men (1963)
F-233 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Out Of Time's Abyss (1963)
F-234 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage (1963)
F-235 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lost Continent (1963)
F-236 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders
F-237 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Ship From Outside / Beyond the Galactic Rim (1963)
F-238 WE Stephen Payne Brand Him Outlaw / Gordon D. Shirreffs Quicktrigger (1963)
F-239 SF Clifford D. Simak Time And Again (1963)
F-240 SF H. G. Wells When The Sleeper Wakes (1963)
F-241 SF Jack Williamson and James E. Gunn Star Bridge (1963)
F-242 SF John Brunner The Rites of Ohe / Castaways World (1963)
F-243 SF Andre Norton Lord Of Thunder (1963)
F-244 WE Ray Hogan Last Gun At Cabresto / Edwin Booth Valley Of Violence (1962)
F-245 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back To The Stone Age (1963)
F-246 SF Thea von Harbou Metropolis (1963)
F-247 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson Of Venus (1963)
F-248 SF Ray Cummings Beyond The Stars (1963)
F-249 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Hand of Zei/The Search for Zei (1963)
F-250 WE Barry Cord The Masked Gun / Tom West Gallows Gulch (1963)
F-251 SF Philip K. Dick The Game-Players Of Titan (1963)
F-252 WE J. C. Bayliss (as John Clifford) The Shooting Of Storey James (1964)
F-253 SF Robert Silverberg (as Calvin M. Knox) One of Our Asteroids is Missing / A. E. van Vogt The Twisted Men (1964)
F-254 WE Philip Ketchum The Ghost Riders / William Heuman Hardcase Halloran (1964)
F-255 SF Philip E. High The Prodigal Sun (1964)
F-256 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land Of Terror (1964)
F-257 SF Fletcher Pratt Alien Planet (1964)
F-258 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl (1964)
F-259 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Prince Of Peril (1964)
F-260 WE Louis Trimble Trouble At Gunsight / Brian Garfield Trail Drive
F-261 SF Samuel R. Delany The Towers of Toron / Robert Moore Williams The Lunar Eye (1964)
F-262 WE Clifton Adams Reckless Men (1964)
F-263 SF Andre Norton Web Of The Witch World (1964)
F-264 WE Ben Elliott Contract In Cartridges / Tom West Don't Cross My Line (1964)
F-265 SF Jack Vance The Houses of Iszm / Son of The Tree (1964)
F-266 WE Allan Vaughan Elston Roundup On The Yellowstone
F-267 SF Robert P. Mills (ed.) The Best From Fantasy And Science Fiction, 9th Series (1964)
F-268 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape On Venus (1964)
F-269 SF J. H. Rosny Quest Of The Dawn Man (1964)
F-270 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King (1964)
F-271 SF Edmond Hamilton Outside The Universe (1964)
F-272 WE Ray Hogan The Man From Barranca Negra / Stephen Payne No Job For A Cowboy (1964)
F-273 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Falcons of Narabedla / The Dark Intruder (1964)
F-274 SF H. Beam Piper The Cosmic Computer (1964)
F-275 SF Philip E. High No Truce With Terra / Murray Leinster The Duplicators (1964)
F-276 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) Mr. Six Gun / William E. Vance The Wolf Slayer (1964)
F-277 SF John Brunner To Conquer Chaos (1964)
F-278 NA Frances Spatz Leighton Patty Goes To Washington (1964)
F-279 SF Andre Norton (as Andrew North) Sargasso of Space
F-280 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar (1964)
F-281 SF Pierre Benoit Atlantida (1964)
F-282 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond The Farthest Star (1964)
F-283 SF Arthur Sarsfield Ward (as Sax Rohmer) The Day The World Ended (1964)
F-284 WE Lin Searles Border Passage / Ben Smith The Homesteader (1964)
F-285 SF Fritz Leiber Ships to the Stars / Ken Bulmer The Million Year Hunt (1964)
F-286 WE Jim Bosworth The Long Way North (1964)
F-287 SF Andre Norton Key Out Of Time (1964)
F-288 NA Hal Sherman Fishing For Laughs
F-289 SF Kenneth Bulmer Demons' World / Tom Purdom I Want the Stars (1964)
F-290 WE D. B. Olsen Night Of The Bowstring (1954)
F-291 SF Andre Norton (as Andrew North) Plague Ship (1964)
F-292 WE Gordon D. Shirreffs The Hidden Rider Of Dark Mountain / Tom West The Man At Rope's End (1964)
F-293 SF E. C. Tubb Moonbase (1964)
F-294 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Port of Peril (1964)
F-295 SF A. E. van Vogt The World Of Null-A
F-296 SF Edwin L. Arnold Gulliver Of Mars (1964)
F-297 SF Henry Kuttner Valley Of The Flame (1964)
F-298 WE Nelson C. Nye Treasure Trail From Tucson / Sudden Country (1964)
F-299 SF John Brunner Endless Shadow/ Gardner Fox The Arsenal of Miracles (1964)
F-300 WE Brian Garfield Vultures in the Sun
F-301 SF Philip K. Dick The Simulacra (1964)
F-302 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Dragoon Pass
F-303 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Bloody Sun
F-304 SF Roger Sherman Hoar (as Ralph Milne Farley) The Radio Beasts (1964)
F-305 SF Robert E. Howard Almuric (1964)
F-306 SF C. L. Moore and Henry Kuttner Earth's Last Citadel (1964)
F-307 SF Gardner F. Fox Warrior Of Llarn (1964)
F-308 SF Andre Norton Judgment on Janus (1964)
F-309 SF Philip K. Dick Clans of the Alphane Moon (1964)
F-310 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1964)
F-311 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Swordsmen in the Sky (1964)
F-312 SF Roger Sherman Hoar (as Ralph Milne Farley) The Radio Planet
F-313 SF Ray Cummings A Brand New World (1964)
F-314 SF James H. Schmitz The Universe Against Her (1964)
F-315 SF Andre Norton The Beast Master
F-316 WE Robert McCaig The Burntwood Men (1964)
F-317 SF James White The Escape Orbit (1965)
F-318 SF Austin Hall The Spot Of Life (1965)
F-319 SF Edmond Hamilton Crashing Suns (1965)
F-320 SF John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) The Martian Sphinx (1965)
F-321 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Maza Of The Moon (1965)
F-322 SF Samuel R. Delany City Of A Thousand Suns (1965)
F-323 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A.D.
F-324 WE Brian Garfield Apache Canyon
F-325 SF Andre Norton Ordeal In Otherwhere (1965)
F-326 SF Lin Carter The Wizard Of Lemuria (1965)
F-327 SF Henry Kuttner The Dark World (1965)
F-328 SF Edward E. Smith The Galaxy Primes (1965)
F-329 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1965)
F-330 SF Avram Davidson What Strange Stars And Skies (1965)
F-331 NA Gahan Wilson Graveside Manner (1965)
F-332 SF Andre Norton Three Against The Witch World (1965)
F-333 SF L. Sprague de Camp Rogue Queen (1965)
F-334 SF Rex Dean Levie The Insect Warriors (1965)
F-335 SF Robert Moore Williams The Second Atlantis (1965)
F-336 WE Ernest Hacox Six-Gun Duo (1965)
F-337 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Bloodmoney, Or How We Got Along After The Bomb (1965)
F-338 NA Ace Crossword Puzzle Book No. 1 (1965)
F-339 NA Arlene Hale Private Duty for Nurse Scott (1965)
F-340 WE John L. Shelley and David Shelley The Relentless Rider (1965)
F-341 NA Suzanne Roberts A Prize For Nurse Darci (1965)
F-342 SF H. Beam Piper Lord Kalvan Of Otherwhen (1965)
F-343 SF Ray Cummings The Exile Of Time (1965)
F-344 SF Henry Kuttner The Well Of The Worlds (1965)
F-345 SF Homer Eon Flint The Lord Of Death And The Queen Of Life (1965)
F-346 SF John W. Campbell Jr. The Black Star Passes (1965)
F-347 SF Ian Wright The Last Hope Of Earth (1965)
F-348 WE Nelson C. Nye Guns Of Horse Prairie
F-349 NA Suzanne Roberts Celebrity Suite Nurse (1965)
F-350 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Star Of Danger (1965)
F-351 WE Louis Trimble The Holdout In The Diablos
F-352 NA Arlene Hale Nurse On Leave (1965)
F-353 SF Avram Davidson Rogue Dragon (1965)
F-354 SF Gardner F. Fox The Hunter Out Of Time (1965)
F-355 SF Homer Eon Flint The Devolutionist And The Emancipatrix (1965)
F-356 SF Henry Kuttner The Time Axis (1965)
F-357 SF Andre Norton Year Of The Unicorn (1965)
F-358 WE William Vance The Wild Riders Of Savage Valley (1965)
F-359 NA Sharon Heath Jungle Nurse (1965)
F-360 WE L. L. Foreman Rawhiders Of The Brasada (1965)
F-361 SF John Brunner The Day Of The Star Cities (1965)
F-362 NA Suzanne Roberts The Two Dr. Barlowes (1965)
F-363 SF Ray Cummings Tama Of The Light Country (1965)
F-364 SF John W. Campbell Jr. The Mightiest Machine (1965)
F-365 SF Andre Norton Night Of Masks (1965)
F-366 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet
F-367 SF Philip José Farmer The Maker Of Universes (1965)
F-368 NA Arlene Hale Chicago Nurse (1965)
F-369 NA Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) The Lobo Horseman (1965)
F-370 WE Samuel A. Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Man From Andersonville (1965)
F-371 NA Arlene Hale Camp Nurse (1965)
F-372 SF Edward E. Smith Spacehounds of IPC (1966)
F-373 SF Jack Jardine and Julie Anne Jardine (jointly as Howard L. Cory) The Sword Of Lankor (1966)
F-374 SF Jeff Sutton The Atom Conspiracy (1966)
F-375 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds Of Robert A. Heinlein (1966)
F-376 WE Lewis B. Patten The Odds Against Circle L (1966)
F-377 SF Philip K. Dick The Crack In Space (1966)
F-378 NA Mary Mann Fletcher Danger - Nurse At Work (1966)
F-379 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain (1966)
F-380 WE Lee Hoffman The Legend Of Blackjack Sam (1966)
F-381 NA Sharon Heath Nurse At Shadow Manor (1966)
F-382 SF Brian W. Aldiss Bow Down To Nul (1966)
F-383 SF Lin Carter Thongor Of Lemuria (1966)
F-384 NA L. P. Holmes The Savage Hours (1966)
F-385 NA Arlene Hale Emergency For Nurse Selena (1966)
F-386 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1966)
F-387 NA Arlene Hale Mountain Nurse (1966)
F-388 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1966)
F-389 WE William Colt MacDonald Shoot Him On Sight
F-390 SF James Holbrook Vance (as Jack Vance) The Languages of Pao (1966)
F-391 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1966)
F-392 SF Emil Petaja Saga Of Lost Earths (1966)
F-393 SF Roger Zelazny This Immortal (1966)
F-394 NA Gail Everett Journey For A Nurse (1966)
F-395 WE Nelson C. Nye Iron Hand
F-396 SF Kenneth Bulmer Worlds For The Taking (1966)
F-397 NA Willo Davis Roberts Nurse Kay's Conquest (1966)
F-398 SF Eric Frank Russell Somewhere A Voice (1966)
F-399 SF Gardner F. Fox Thief Of Llarn (1966)
F-400 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Jan Of The Jungle (1966)
F-401 WE Merle Constiner Outrage At Bearskin Forks (1966)
F-402 SF Paul Linebarger (as Cordwainer Smith) Quest Of The Three Worlds (1966)
F-403 SF Roger Zelazny The Dream Master (1966)
F-404 WE Clifton Adams The Grabhorn Bounty (1966)
F-405 NA Suzanne Roberts Vietnam Nurse (1966)
F-406 SF Ray Cummings Tama, Princess Of Mercury (1966)
F-407 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Day Of The Minotaur (1966)
F-408 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman (1966)
F-409 WE Lin Searles Cliff Rider (1966)
F-410 NA Arlene Hale Lake Resort Nurse (1966)
F-411 WE L. L. Foreman The Mustang Trail (1966)
F-412 SF Philip José Farmer The Gates Of Creation (1966)
F-413 NA Sharon Heath A Vacation For Nurse Dean (1966)
F-414 SF Emil Petaja The Star Mill (1966)
F-415 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) The Bravos
F-416 SF S. B. Hough (as Rex Gordon) Utopia Minus X (1966)
F-417 NA Willo Davis Roberts Once A Nurse (1966)
F-418 WE Nelson C. Nye Single Action (1967)
F-419 NA Suzanne Roberts Rangeland Nurse (1967)
F-420 SF Neil R. Jones Professor Jameson Space Adventure 1: The Planet Of The Double Sun (1967)
F-421 SF Donald E. Westlake (as Curt Clark) Anarchaos (1967)
F-422 SF Leigh Brackett The Sword Of Rhiannon (1967)
F-423 WE Lewis B. Patten Giant On Horseback (1967)
F-424 NA Arlene Hale Community Nurse (1967)
F-425 SF Poul Anderson World Without Stars (1967)
F-426 SF Gordon R. Dickson The Genetic General (1967)
F-427 SF Samuel R. Delany The Einstein Intersection (1967)
F-428 WE William Colt Macdonald Mascarada Pass (1967)
F-429 SF Philip K. Dick The World Jones Made (1967)
F-430 NA Arlene Hale Nurse On The Beach (1967)
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4946041
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnathan%20Joseph
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Johnathan Joseph
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Johnathan Lee Joseph (born April 16, 1984) is an American former professional football player who was a cornerback in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the South Carolina Gamecocks and was selected by the Cincinnati Bengals in the first round of the 2006 NFL Draft. Joseph also played for the Houston Texans, Tennessee Titans, and Arizona Cardinals.
College career
Joseph began his college football career at Coffeyville Community College in Coffeyville, Kansas in 2003. He was ranked the 31st-best JUCO player in the nation by College Football News and earned all-conference honors. Joseph recorded three interceptions, one for a touchdown, and 43 tackles. He also recorded a sack and two pass break-ups.
Joseph transferred to the University of South Carolina, where he played for South Carolina Gamecocks football team in 2004 and 2005. He started at cornerback his first two games of the 2004 season, recording two tackles in his first game against Vanderbilt and forcing a fumble. Joseph broke his foot in the first quarter against the Georgia Bulldogs, and spent the remainder of the year rehabilitating his injury.
Joseph was scheduled to have a big season in 2005, along with teammate and fellow defensive back Ko Simpson. He earned the Outstanding Defensive Back Award in spring practice and recorded two tackles and a broken up pass in the Garnet and Black Game. Joseph finished the season with 55 tackles, four interceptions, and nine broken up passes.
Professional career
A year before the NFL Draft, Joseph was not regarded as a highly touted prospect and wasn't on any big boards since he was still an underclassman and only had played two games at South Carolina. He began to improve his stock after playing well in 2005. Joseph was invited to the NFL Combine and after running a 4.31 40-yard dash, his draft stock immediately soared. Scouts and analysts projected him as a first or second-round pick. Joseph was ranked the third-best cornerback by NFLDraftScout.com.
Cincinnati Bengals
The Cincinnati Bengals selected Joseph in the first round (24th overall) of the 2006 NFL Draft. He was the third cornerback selected in the first round (15th Tye Hill, 19th Antonio Cromartie).
2006 season
On July 31, 2006, the Bengals signed Joseph to a five-year, $8.10 million contract with $4.82 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $1.09 million. He entered training camp competing with veteran Tory James and Deltha O'Neal for a starting cornerback position. Joseph was named the third cornerback on the depth chart behind O'Neal and James to begin the season and was named the nickelback.
Joseph earned the start over O'Neal in the season-opener against the Kansas City Chiefs and finished with three solo tackles in a 23–10 victory. On November 12, 2006, Joseph started his third game and made five solo tackles in a 31–16 victory over the New Orleans Saints. He started in place of Deltha O'Neal who suffered a shoulder injury the previous week and would miss the following three games. Joseph remained the starter the rest of the season. During a Week 13 matchup with the Baltimore Ravens, he recorded seven combined tackles and a season-high four pass deflections in a 13–7 victory. On December 31, 2006, Joseph made a season-high ten combined tackles and two pass deflections in a 23–17 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers.
Joseph finished his rookie season with 58 combined tackles (45 solo) and 20 pass break-ups in 16 games and nine starts.
2007 season
With the departure of Tory James in free agency and Deltha O'Neal receiving shoulder surgery in the off-season, Joseph was slated to be the Bengals' starting cornerback. He faced competition for his starting position after the Bengals drafted cornerback Leon Hall with the 18th overall pick in the 2007 NFL Draft. Joseph was named the starting right cornerback, opposite Deltha O'Neal, to begin the season. Hall and O'Neal were the starters for the season-opener against the Baltimore Ravens, but Joseph made two combined tackles in the 27–20 victory. The following week, he made his first start of the season and recorded three solo tackles in a 51–45 loss to the Cleveland Browns. On October 21, 2007, Joseph made five combined tackles and intercepted Chad Pennington for the first pick of his career. He returned it for a 42-yard touchdown and helped defeat New York Jets by a score of 38–31. On November 25, 2007, he recorded five combined tackles, three pass deflections, and intercepted Vince Young as the Bengals routed the Titans 35–6. The next game, Joseph made a season-high seven solo tackles and intercepted Ben Roethlisberger's pass during a 24–10 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. In Week 16, he made a season-high tying seven combined tackles and intercepted Cleveland Browns' quarterback Derek Anderson in a 19–14 victory. Joseph finished the 2007 season with 62 combined tackles (49 solo), 15 pass deflections, four interceptions, and a touchdown. He was second on the team with four interceptions, behind Leon Hall's five interceptions.
2008 season
After Deltha O'Neal left during free agency, Leon Hall and Joseph became the Bengals' starting cornerbacks. He was named the left cornerback to begin the regular season.
Joseph started the season-opener against the Baltimore Ravens and made five combined tackles and three pass deflections, and recovered Ray Rice's fumble and returned it for a 65-yard touchdown in a 17–10 loss. He missed three games (Weeks 3–5) with an ankle injury and returned as a starter in Week 6, making three solo tackles and three pass deflections in a 26–14 loss to the New York Jets. On November 2, 2008, Joseph recorded a career-high 15 combined tackle (11 solo) and two pass deflections in a 21–19 win against the Jacksonville Jaguars. In the next game, he made five combined tackles and three pass deflections, and intercepted Donovan McNabb in a 13–13 tie with the Philadelphia Eagles. On November 21, 2008, Joseph was added to injured-reserve after a recurring foot injury. Joseph finished with 42 combined tackles (31 solo), 13 pass breakups, an interception, a forced fumble, a fumble recovery, and a touchdown in eight games and seven starts.
2009 season
Joseph returned to his starting role in 2009 and combined with Leon Hall to become one of the better cornerback duos in the league.
On September 27, 2008, Joseph made six combined tackles and a pass deflection, and intercepted Ben Roethlisberger and returned it for a 30-yard touchdown, en route to a 22–19 victory against the Pittsburgh Steelers. The following game, he recorded two solo tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted Derek Anderson in a 23–20 victory over the Cleveland Browns. During a Week 5 matchup with the Baltimore Ravens, Joseph had three solo tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted Joe Flacco in a 17–14 victory. He had three consecutive games with an interception, which marked the longest streak of his career. On December 6, 2009, he made a season-high eight solo tackles and a pass deflection in a 23–13 defeat over the Detroit Lions. In Week 15, Joseph racked up six solo tackles and intercepted Matt Cassel for his sixth interception of the season, as the Bengals routed the Kansas City Chiefs 17–10. Joseph finished the season with 69 combined tackles (58 solo), 20 deflected passes, and a forced fumble in 16 games and starts. He also made a career-high six interceptions and returned one for a touchdown. He was ranked the sixth best cornerback by Pro Football Focus and posted a +14.5 in the measures.
The Bengals finished atop the AFC North with a 10–6 record. They faced the New York Jets in the AFC Wildcard game and Joseph made five combined tackles in the 24–14 loss. After the season, USA Today named Joseph to their annual "All-Joe" team which recognizes quality players that don't get their due. In December 2009, Sports Illustrated writer Peter King called Joseph and Hall "the best tandem in the NFL". Leon Hall and Joseph were named the Cincinnati Bengals' co-MVPS.
2010 season
The Bengals entered the season with high expectations after ranking fourth in yards allowed in 2009. With the addition of Adam Jones, they entered with one of the most talented cornerback teams in the league. Hall and Joseph were ranked the third best cornerback tandem in 2009 by the AFC North Blog, behind Al Harris and Charles Woodson of the Green Bay Packers and Darrelle Revis and Lito Sheppard of the New York Jets.
Joseph started the season-opener against the New England Patriots and made six solo tackles in a 38–24 loss. On October 10, 2010, he recorded two combined tackles and two pass deflections, and intercepted Josh Freeman in a 24–21 loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Joseph missed Weeks 7 and 8 with a sprained ankle and returned in Week 9 making four combined tackles in a 27–21 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. On November 21, 2010, he recorded two solo tackles and intercepted Ryan Fitzpatrick in a 49–31 loss to the Buffalo Bills.
Joseph finished the season with a career-lows 42 combined tackles (37 solo), eight pass deflections, three interceptions, and a touchdown in 12 games and starts. At the end of the season, he completed his rookie contract and became a free agent. Joseph entered negotiations with the Bengals and received two offers from them.
Houston Texans
On July 29, 2011, the Houston Texans signed Joseph to a five-year, $48.75 million contract with $23.50 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $12.50 million. Joseph and former Chicago Bears safety Danieal Manning were signed to help improve a defense that was ranked 30th overall and 32nd in pass defense.
2011 season
Joseph entered the 2011 season as the Texans' de facto starting cornerback, opposite Kareem Jackson. Joseph started the season-opener and made five combined tackles in a 34–7 victory over the Indianapolis Colts. The following week, he recorded four solo tackles and three pass deflections, and intercepted Miami Dolphins' quarterback Chad Henne in a 23–13 victory. It was his first interception as a Texan. During Week 3 against the New Orleans Saints, Joseph racked up three solo tackles and two pass deflections, and intercepted Drew Brees in the 40–33 loss. On October 16, 2011, Joseph made a season-high seven combined tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted Baltimore Ravens quarterback Joe Flacco in a 29–14 road loss.
Joseph finished his first season with the Texans with a total of four interceptions and 15 passes defended. He also registered 44 combined tackles (40 solo) and a forced fumble. On December 28, 2011, Joseph was invited to the 2012 Pro Bowl. and was named a second-team All-Pro by the Associated Press. On January 7, 2012, Joseph made six solo tackles and intercepted Andy Dalton in a 31–10 victory over his former team, the Cincinnati Bengals. marking the Texans first ever playoff victory. During the AFC Divisional Round, the Texans were defeated by the Ravens. Joseph made two solo tackles in the game. On January 29, 2012, he appeared in his first career Pro Bowl and intercepted Cam Newton, as the AFC defeated the NFC, 59–41.
2012 season
On May 9, 2012, Joseph was announced as the 73rd-ranked player on the NFL Top 100.
Joseph started the season-opener and finished the 30–10 victory over the Miami Dolphins with five combined tackles and a pass deflection, and intercepted Ryan Tannehill. On October 14, 2012, he made a season-high seven combined tackles in a 42–24 loss to the Green Bay Packers. The following week, Joseph made five combined tackles and a pass deflection, and intercepted Joe Flacco and returned it for a 52-yard touchdown in a 43–13 win over the Baltimore Ravens. Joseph missed Weeks 11 and 12 due to a groin injury.
Joseph finished the season with 57 combined tackles (52 solo), 11 pass deflections, two interceptions, and touchdown in 14 games and starts. He was selected to his second Pro Bowl along with eight of his Texans teammates.
2013 season
During the off-season, Joseph had surgery to repair two sports hernias he had endured through the year before and attributed the defensive passing game falling to 16th in 2012 to multiple hamstring, groin, and hernia injuries. He entered training camp at 100%.
Joseph started the season-opener against the San Diego Chargers and made two solo tackles and two pass deflections in a 31–28 victory. In Week 3, he made two solo tackles, three pass deflections, and intercepted Russell Wilson for his first pick of the season in a 23–20 loss to the Seattle Seahawks. On December 13, 2013, Joseph made a season-high nine combined tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted Andrew Luck in a 25–3 loss to the Indianapolis Colts. Joseph had a surgery in December to repair a torn ligament in his toe.
Joseph finished the season with a combined 47 tackles (43 solo), 16 pass deflections, and three interceptions in 15 games and starts. The Texans finished the season with a 2–14 record and head coach Gary Kubiak was fired after Week 15. Football Outsiders ranked him fifth among qualified corners with a 63% success rate.
2014 season
Joseph returned to his starting role, along with Kareem Jackson, under new head coach Bill O'Brien to begin 2014. In the season-opener, Joseph made 11 solo tackles in a 17–6 victory over the Washington Redskins. On November 23, 2014, he made three combined tackles, a pass deflection, and returned an interception for a 60-yard touchdown in a 22–13 loss to the Cincinnati Bengals. Joseph finished the season with a career-high 75 combined tackles (70 solo), 11 pass deflections, two forced fumbles, two interceptions, and a touchdown in 16 games and starts. Joseph's rank fell to 30th in Football Outsiders success rate. Pro Football Focus ranked him the 20th-best coverman in 2014.
2015 season
Joseph entered training camp facing competition from Kevin Johnson who was selected with the 16th overall pick in the 2015 NFL Draft and A. J. Bouye. Kareem Jackson and Joseph were able to maintain their starting roles to begin the season.
On June 18, 2015, the Texans signed him to a two-year, $13.50 million contract with $11.50 million guaranteed.
Joseph started the season-opener against the Kansas City Chiefs and made four solo tackles and a pass deflection in a 27–20 loss. On November 16, 2015, Joseph made four solo tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted Andy Dalton in a 10–6 victory over the Cincinnati Bengals. In Week 12, he made a season-high seven combined tackles in, as the Texans routed the New Orleans Saints 24–6. The Texans finished atop the AFC South with a 9–7 record. Joseph started the AFC Wildcard game and made two combined tackles as the Texans were defeated by the Kansas City Chiefs by a score of 30–0. He finished the season with 56 combined tackles (46 solo), a career-high 22 pass deflections, and a touchdown in 16 games and starts. Football Outsiders ranked him 31st with a 54% success rate.
2016 season
Joseph started the season-opener against the Chicago Bears and made four combined tackles and a pass deflection in a 23–14 victory. On November 13, 2016, Joseph recorded a season-high eight solo tackles and a pass deflection during a 24–21 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars. During Week 13 against the Green Bay Packers, he made four solo tackles but left in the third quarter of the 21–13 loss, due to a rib injury. Joseph missed the next two games with two cracked ribs and a bruised lung.
Joseph finishing the season with 45 combined tackles (38 solo), nine pass deflections, and posted his first season in his career without an interception in 13 games and 11 starts. The Texans finished atop the AFC South with a 9–7 record. On January 7, 2017, Joseph made ten solo tackles and three pass deflections in a 27–14 AFC Wildcard victory over the Oakland Raiders.
2017 season
In Week 5, Joseph collected a season-high six combined tackles in a 42–34 loss to the Kansas City Chiefs. In the next game, he recorded three combined tackles, a season-high three pass deflections, two interceptions, and a touchdown during a 33–17 victory against the Cleveland Browns. Joseph returned an interception by Kevin Hogan, that was intended for Duke Johnson, for an 82-yard touchdown in the second quarter. His performance in Week 6 earned him AFC Defensive Player of the Week. Joseph finished the 2017 season with 47 combined tackles (37 solo), nine pass deflections, two interceptions, and a touchdown in 16 games and starts. Pro Football Focus gave him an overall grade of 75.7, which ranked 65th among all qualifying cornerbacks in 2017.
2018 season
On March 15, 2018, the Texans signed Joseph to a two-year, $10 million contract with $3.90 million guaranteed.
During Week 6 against the Buffalo Bills, Joseph intercepted Nathan Peterman late in the fourth quarter and returned it for a 28-yard touchdown to win the game 20–13.
2019 season
In the 2019 season, Joseph recorded 51 tackles, 13 pass deflections, and an interception in 14 games and 11 starts.
On March 18, 2020, Joseph and the Texans mutually agreed to part ways, making him a free agent.
Tennessee Titans
On May 6, 2020, Joseph signed with the Tennessee Titans.
During Week 3 against the Minnesota Vikings, Joseph recorded his first interception and forced fumble as a Titan in the narrow 31–30 road victory. During a Week 8 31-20 road loss to the Cincinnati Bengals, he gave up eight completions for 92 yards and a touchdown. Joseph was released on November 3.
Arizona Cardinals
On November 11, 2020, Joseph was signed by the Arizona Cardinals. He made his Cardinals debut during a Week 10 32–30 victory over the Buffalo Bills. Joseph was placed on injured reserve on December 12, 2020.
Retirement
On June 10, 2021, Joseph announced his retirement after 15 seasons in the NFL.
NFL career statistics
Regular season
Postseason
Personal life
Joseph was a criminal justice major at the University of South Carolina. He and his wife, Delaina reside in Houston, Texas. Joseph has three children; Jay’vion, Johnathan II, and Danae. He is of Haitian descent. Joseph's father, John Joseph, worked at a cotton mill for over 30 years and died in 2014 at age 76 after having emphysema that developed into lung cancer from being a smoker. He credits his father for molding him into the man he is today and instilling core values. Joseph always practices yoga and pilates to help his body deal better with age.
References
External links
Houston Texans player profile
1984 births
Living people
Players of American football from Rock Hill, South Carolina
American Conference Pro Bowl players
American sportspeople of Haitian descent
American football cornerbacks
Coffeyville Red Ravens football players
South Carolina Gamecocks football players
Cincinnati Bengals players
Houston Texans players
Tennessee Titans players
Arizona Cardinals players
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4946168
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanne%20Pruett
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Jeanne Pruett
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Jeanne Pruett ( ) (born Norma Jean Bowman; January 30, 1937) is an American country music singer and songwriter. She also has credits as a published author. Pruett had several major hits as a music artist, but became best-known for 1973's "Satin Sheets". The song topped the country music charts and helped her secure a membership in the Grand Ole Opry cast.
Pruett was raised near Pell City, Alabama, and grew up with a large family. She performed with her family from an early age and learned several musical instruments. She married guitarist Jack Pruett before turning 20 years old. Soon after, the couple moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where he was hired to play guitar for country artist Marty Robbins. In the early 1960s, Pruett devoted more time to writing her own songs. Her material was heard by Robbins who recorded her early work. Her writing helped her gain her first recording contract with RCA Victor in 1963. After limited success she moved to Decca/MCA Records where 1971's "Hold on to My Unchanging Love" became her first charting single on the Billboard country list. Pruett's debut studio album was then released the following year.
In 1973, Pruett recorded "Satin Sheets" and the song became her biggest hit. An album of the same name topped the country albums chart and she was nominated for several major awards from the Academy of Country Music and Country Music Association. In July 1973, Pruett was made a member of the Grand Ole Opry and became a frequent performer on the broadcast for several decades. She had further hits following "Satin Sheets" with the songs "I'm Your Woman" and "You Don't Need to Move a Mountain". During the remainder of the 1970s, Pruett continued releasing material with little success. In 1979, Pruett returned with her fifth studio album. The record spawned three songs that became top ten hits on the country charts, including 1980's "Temporarily Yours".
Pruett continued recording and releasing music throughout the 1980s. Her sixth (and final) studio release was a self-titled effort in 1985. The following year, she was part of the Grand Ole Opry's first all-female segment. The same year, she began a second career as an author of cookbooks. In 1986, Pruett published the first in a series of works entitled Feedin' Friends. She also hosted her own cooking show on The Nashville Network during this time. Pruett continued performing into the early 2000s before officially retiring in 2006.
Early life
Pruett was born Norma Jean Bowman outside of Pell City, Alabama, United States. She was raised on a farm and was one of 12 children. Pruett recalled the experiences of being raised on a farm in her 2017 autobiography. "The beauty of the farm, dotted with tall pine trees, sweet shrubs, and blooming dogwood trees, reminded me why they worked so hard, because there wasn't a more perfect sight in the world than that old farm," she explained. In 1947, the Bowman family farm caught fire which devastated the family. "The only sounds now were an occasional pop of the dying sparks and the sound of Mama softly crying, her tired arms holding on to Dad and the children," she recounted. With the support of neighbors, the Bowmans rebuilt their home on the same property within a year's time.
In her childhood, Pruett often informally performed music with her family. They often sang together on the front porch of their farmhouse where she also learned to harmonize. At home, Pruett also learned how to play musical instruments. She learned how to first play guitar from the song "Down the Trail of Achin' Hearts". She also frequently listened to the radio. "It seemed to me that the voices of the DJs were as recognizable to me as the voices of my favorite singers of the day," Pruett said. Outside of the home environment, Pruett joined her school's choral group and formed a trio in high school called "The Super Suds".
Pruett dropped out of high school in the tenth grade and got a job at a telephone company in Anniston, Alabama. While not working, she and her sister would attend dances at a local VFW hall. At these dances, she also became interested in performance opportunities. She started singing with the VFW's country band and appeared on a local television station. "Now the entertainment hook was really in my mouth," Pruett remembered. It was at these outings that she met guitarist Jack Pruett and they began dating. Jack enlisted in the military shortly after their relationship began. While awaiting his return, Jeanne moved into his sister's home. After Jack returned from the service, the couple married in 1955. Also in 1955, Jack became the touring guitarist for country artist Ray Price.
In 1956, the pair moved to Nashville, Tennessee, so that Jack continue performing in Price's band. The couple lived in a trailer park and were neighbors to country performers Lester Flatt, Hawkshaw Hawkins and Jean Shepard. While still living at the trailer, Pruett gave birth to their first child. Shortly after the birth, Jack Pruett accepted a job playing guitar in Marty Robbins' road band. After accepting the position, the family moved into a two-story house in Nashville.
Career
1963–1972: Early career
Pruett developed a songwriting hobby while raising her new family. She became increasingly devoted to it once her children entered school. In 1963, her husband brought her songs to Marty Robbins, who signed her to his publishing company. Several of her songs were demoed by a male singer, with the exception of the tune "Count Me Out". Pruett recorded the song's demo instead. Robbins heard it and was impressed. He later cut the track and had a major hit with it in 1966. He was also impressed by Pruett's singing. "I believe we've discovered a new girl singer!" he said after hearing her on record. Robbins brought Pruett's songs to the attention of producer Chet Atkins at RCA Victor Records. Atkins signed her to a recording contract with RCA in 1963. That year, her first single entitled "Just a Little After Heartaches" was issued. She first heard it on the radio the same day Patsy Cline (and several other performers) was killed in a March 1963 plane crash. "I'm sure my song release was so overshadowed by the shocking news of their death that the only two people who heard and remembered my song was Grant Turner and me," she recalled. Three singles by Pruett were issued on RCA between 1963 and 1964 but were unsuccessful.
Pruett returned to domestic life after her RCA singles were unsuccessful. "I just went to back to being a housewife and mother and writing more songs for Marty and his publishing company," she recounted. In 1969, she signed a new recording contract with Decca Records after Robbins brought two of her songs to producer Owen Bradley. "This girl's got a housewife sound, and I can sell her," Bradley told Robbins. In 1971, she gained moderate success with the single "Hold on to My Unchanging Love". It became Pruett's first chart entry, reaching number 66 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart. The following year, Pruett's self-penned "Love Me" was released and became her first top 40 entry on the country singles chart. Robbins recorded the track shortly after the original and make it a top ten hit on the same chart. In October 1972, Pruett's debut studio album was released on the Decca label. It was reviewed by Billboard magazine the same month, whI had praised the recording. "A sterling, stirring effort for the debut of Jeanne Pruett."
1973–1975: "Satin Sheets" and breakthrough at MCA Records
By 1973, Pruett's music career had gained more momentum. She worked several dates overseas booked by agent Hubert Long and made several appearances on the Grand Ole Opry. The same year she released the John Volinkaty's composition called "Satin Sheets". The song had first been cut as a duet by Bill Anderson and Jan Howard on their studio album Bill and Jan (Or Jan and Bill). However, their version was not released as a single. Pruett's producer, Walter Haynes, believed the song could be a hit if the lyrics were modified. According to Pruett, she rewrote the introduction to help make the song record-friendly. After rewriting the beginning, she presented it to Haynes. "Walter played it for Grady [Martin], and he flipped out. He picked up the guitar and played it back to Walter, note for note, and said, 'Here Walt, the damn intro is a hit,'" she recalled in her autobiography. Decca (now MCA Records) believed that "Satin Sheets" was too traditional in its production and chose not to promote it as a single. Instead, Pruett promoted it herself. She distributed the record by cutting squares of pink satin and mailing it to disc jockeys. The marketing method worked when "Satin Sheets" reached number one on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in May 1973. The song also rose to number 28 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song's success prompted an album of the same name to be released in June 1973. The album topped the Billboard Top Country Albums chart in July, becoming her highest-charting LP.
"Satin Sheets" gained positive responses and acclaim following its success. While reviewing her 1973 album, Billboard magazine stated that "Miss Pruett let's loose some of that talent that restrained in relative obscurity over the years." In later years, writer Kurt Wolff commented that the song "was far more country -sounding than most songs coming out of Nashville at the time." In addition "Satin Sheets" received positive response from the country community at large. In late 1973, Pruett was nominated for three accolades at the Country Music Association Awards including "Single of the Year" and "Female Vocalist of the Year". She was also nominated in similar categories by the Academy of Country Music. Pruett also accepted an invitation to join the Grand Ole Opry in June 1973. "Dolly Parton announced me and said, 'Tonight I'm introducing the newest member of the Grand Ole Opry, Miss Satin Sheets, Jeanne Pruett'."
After "Satin Sheets" became a number one hit, Pruett's schedule became increasingly demanding. "With Jeanne now a star, with hit records and so many signed contracts for road dates, I had to buy a briefcase to carry them all," she wrote. According to Pruett, she was making $135 per day, which was the "same as Dolly [Parton]". Pruett also went back into the recording studio. She had further success after "Satin Sheets". MCA records released a follow-up single in August 1973 called "I'm Your Woman". It became her second major hit, climbing to number eight on the Billboard country chart. The following year, Pruett's eponymous third studio album was released and peaked at number 19 on the country albums chart. The project included "You Don't Need to Move a Mountain", her third major hit on the country songs survey.
In 1975, MCA released Pruett's fourth studio recording, Honey on His Hands. Although the album peaked in a lower charting Billboard position, it included four singles that became top 40 country hits. This included the singles "A Poor Man's Woman" and "Welcome to the Sunshine (Sweet Baby Jane)". Despite a lower chart performance, the album's material received positive reception. Wolff praised the songs, calling them "deep country cuts". Billboard also praised the album, highlighting the title track as a standout.
1976–1983: Career decline and comeback
Pruett continued recording for MCA Records. The label released a series of singles by Pruett during the mid 1970s that failed to become major hits. Songs such as "My Baby's Gone", "I've Taken" and "She's Still All Over You" reached positions outside the top 40 of the Billboard country singles chart. In 1977, the single "I'm Living a Lie" reached number 30 on the country chart, becoming her highest-climbing single of the past several years. The same year, Pruett left MCA and signed with Mercury Records as part of the label's Nashville artist expansion. According to a Billboard article, Mercury developed a marketing plan to help promote its newer artists. The label also intended to release four LP's by their artists as part of the plan. However, the intended plans did not occur for Pruett. The label's only single release by Pruett was "I'm a Woman" (1978), which only climbed to number 94 on the country chart.
In 1979, Pruett signed a contract with the independent label, IBC Records. Her first IBC release was "Please Sing Satin Sheets for Me" (a song based on her 1973 signature tune). Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe commented that the tune "didn’t sound like the record of an artist serious about a comeback." The releases that followed that were more successful. Between 1979 and 1980, Pruett had a major comeback after three of her singles reached the top ten of the Billboard country songs chart. The first was the self-penned "Back to Back", which reached number six. The following single release, "Temporarily Yours", became her highest peaking IBC hit when it reached number five. "It's Too Late" would reach number nine on the country chart before the end of 1980. Billboard took notice of Pruett's return in an October issue of their magazine, calling it an "artist resurgence". "It all added up to remarkable comeback by this personable start of IBC Records and the 'Grand Ole Opry'," writers commented. With new success, IBC issued her fifth studio effort, Encore!. The album was her first since 1975 to reach the country albums chart where it peaked at number 18.
Pruett continued recording for IBC and briefly for the Audiograph label in the early 1980s. She also teamed up with Marty Robbins for what intended to be a duet album project. However, Robbins died in 1982 before the pair could record enough material to fill an album. Instead, the pair's duet version of "Love Me" was released as a single. The song only reached number 58 on the country chart in 1983. According to Pruett, Rick Blackburn of Columbia Records (Robbins' label) sued IBC in response to the duet single because Robbins "never intended" to release it. Pruett believed that Blackburn may have had other intentions behind suing the label. "I've always though he and Columbia Records were just pissed off, that Columbia would receive no money from sales. It seemed like a lame excuse to me," she commented in her autobiography.
1984–present: Musical slow down, cooking career and retirement
Pruett started slowing down her music career as the 1980s progressed. She remained a regular Opry member and dedicated time to regular appearances on the program. In 1985, she released her final studio album to date in a joint venture between Dot and MCA Records. The album was part of a project that included new album releases by other veteran country artists including Jan Howard and Billie Jo Spears. The record was produced Billy Strange. In 1987, she released a single titled "Rented Room", which was her final chart appearance on the Billboard country songs chart, peaking at number 81. During the same time frame, Pruett became part of the Grand Ole Opry's first "all-female" segment. The idea was formulated by Pruett who brought it to the attention of the organization after a 1985 television special honoring the 60th anniversary of the Opry. In 1986, the segment aired on the Grand Ole Opry broadcast and was hosted by Jean Shepard. It also included female Opry members Jan Howard, Jeannie Seely and Connie Smith.
In 1986, Pruett made a career shift into professional cooking. That year she released her first cookbook, which she entitled Feedin' Friends. To promote the book, Pruett made regular appearances on The Nashville Network's Nashville Now program with host Ralph Emery. In 1988, she published a second book as part of the Feedin' Friends cooking series. According to Pruett, the cookbooks sold hundreds of thousands of copies since their original release. Four books were eventually released as part of the series. The success of the cookbook series led to the opening of a restaurant named "JP's Feedin' Friends". The restaurant was located inside of the Opryland USA theme park in Nashville, Tennessee until its closing in 1997.
As she led a more active domestic life, Pruett maintained a semi-active role in her career in the 1990s and 2000s. She was inducted into the North American Country Music Association Hall of Fame during this time period. In the mid 2000s she also hosted the program's annual seminars in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee. In 2006, Pruett announced her retirement from performing and no longer makes regular appearances on the Grand Ole Opry. However, she still remains a member. She returned to domestic life and lived on a ranch outside of Nashville. After ten years of retirement, Pruett released an autobiography in 2018 entitled Miss Satin Sheets: I Remember. The book was released by Page Publishing.
Personal life
Pruett has been married two times. She married her first husband, Jack Pruett, on October 10, 1955. Shortly following their wedding, Jack left to embark on a several-week tour with Marty Robbins. For the remainder of their marriage, he would often be traveling on the road. The couple welcomed their first child shortly after moving to Nashville named Jack Pruett, Jr. After their son was born and Jack was making a more steady income, the family moved to a two-story house in Nashville. At their new home, the couple were neighbors to The Wilburn Brothers. In 1958, the couple welcomed their second child, Jael and moved to a larger estate in the Nashville area. In later years, Pruett's children became musicians themselves and often performed with her onstage.
In 1982, Pruett divorced her husband, citing his alcohol problems and busy schedules. In her 2017 autobiography, she explained her feelings behind the divorce. "Our divorce in the early 1980s was the most painful time in our lives. At that time, I would traded all my success and all his success for the divorce never to have happened," she recalled. According to Pruett, the couple remained "civil" towards one another. Jack Pruett later remarried and died in 2011.
Pruett moved to a nearby apartment following her divorce. Her road manager and occasional bus driver, Eddie Fulton, also lived in the same complex. The pair spent more time together and developed a romantic relationship. In 1985, the couple married and built a log-styled home. "We had lots in common, so we just fell in love," she recounted. Fulton died in July 2019. Pruett's only son, Jack Pruett, Jr., died on February 1, 2022
Musical styles and legacy
Pruett's musical style is rooted in country music. More specifically, it is rooted in the traditional country and country pop sub-genres. Pruett's traditional country style was inspired by the early Opry stars of her childhood. "As a young person growing up in a large family, I had the radio as a best friend, because it could give me so much pleasure," she recalled. In her autobiography, Pruett cited Eddy Arnold, Bill Monroe, Patsy Montana and Ernest Tubb as influences on her style. Writers and critics noticed Pruett's traditional sound but also identified pop influences as well. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic characterized her production influence when reviewing her 1998 "greatest hits" effort. "She did have a sound appealing to housewives -- something based in Loretta Lynn's pure country (appropriate, considering the Bradley connection), but also with a distinct pop undercurrent, creating a sound that was at once country and crossover.
Other writers recognized that many of her songs centered around themes associated with love, wealth and women's independence in relationships. Mary Bufwack and Robert K. Oermann considered her style to be associated with "womanhood", drawing comparisons to Melba Montgomery and Jean Shepard. "Jeanne Pruett always communicated womanly strength, backwoods country honesty, and intense emotional conviction," they wrote in 2003. Author Kurt Wolff found similar qualities associated with Pruett's songs. "She also evoked the wisdom of someone who knew what she wanted – her declarations of love, fidelity, and longing came from a place of strength," he noted.
Pruett is also recognized for her legacy in the country music genre. Her work as an early female songwriter has been recognized in recent years by writers and journalists. In 2018, Kevin John Coyne stated, "Pruett’s legacy is longer than just that hit and those that followed. She’s one of the first female country artists in history to start as a songwriter first, gaining credibility with her pen more than a decade before her voice was center stage." She is also recognized as a significant Grand Ole Opry member. "Jeanne is one of the warmest, funniest, earthiest female personalities in the Opry cast. Her dressing room backstage at the Opry is always a female gathering spot," Bufwack and Oermann commented.
Discography
Studio albums
Love Me (1972)
Satin Sheets (1973)
Jeanne Pruett (1974)
Honey on His Hands (1975)
Encore! (1979)
Jeanne Pruett (1985)
Awards and nominations
!
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| 1971
| Academy of Country Music Awards
| Top New Female Vocalist
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| rowspan="4"| 1973
| Grand Ole Opry
| Inducted as 147th member
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| rowspan="3"| Country Music Association Awards
| Album of the Year – Satin Sheets
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| Female Vocalist of the Year
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| Single of the Year – "Satin Sheets"
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| rowspan="3"| 1974
| rowspan="2"| Billboard Magazine
| Best Album – Satin Sheets
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| Best Female Artist
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| Academy of Country Music Awards
| Single Record of the Year – "Satin Sheets"
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Books
Feedin' Friends (1986)
Feedin' Friends Cookbook II (1991)
Feedin' Friends Cookbook III (1991)
References
Footnotes
Books
External links
Jeanne Pruett profile at Grand Ole Opry
1937 births
20th-century American singer-songwriters
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American women singers
American country singer-songwriters
American women country singers
Country musicians from Alabama
Decca Records artists
Grand Ole Opry members
Living people
MCA Records artists
Mercury Records artists
People from Pell City, Alabama
RCA Victor artists
Singer-songwriters from Alabama
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic%20Bullet%20Chronicles%20Ryukendo
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Magic Bullet Chronicles Ryukendo
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is a Japanese superhero-genre tokusatsu television series. It was Takara and We've Inc's first attempt at a tokusatsu series. This series aired at 7:00 JST on TV Aichi from January 8 to December 31, 2006. It is also a partial prequel to the Tomica Hero Series, the cast reprising their characters in the Tomica Hero Rescue Force movie.
Plot
Akebono City is a peaceful community overflowing with humanity. Since there was a Power Spot that released magical power in the community, the people were distressed by the threat of the demon army Jamanga who are gathering from the frightened masses for a sinister purpose. The secret organization SHOT was formed to protect the people of the community from the Jamanga, concealing their existence as ordinary members of the Akebono Police Station, which considers demons beyond their jurisdiction. Kenji Narukami, a student of the for fighting demons, arrives to Akebono to fight the demons, eventually getting his wish when he is transformed to Ryukendo and faces off against Jamanga's forces together with his friends in order to restore peace in the community.
Magic Bullet Warriors
Each Warrior has a set of keys to either use an attack or summon a , an animal spirit of the Earth. When Kenji and Fudou become God Ryukendo and Magna Ryuguno, their Beast Kings are strengthened into a form each.
Magic Bullet Fencer Ryukendo
/ Ryukendo ("Ryukendo" translates from "Dragon Sword Way"), the series' title protagonist, moves to Akebono and is mistaken for a demon upon arrival. After defending a dog in the street, he finds himself confronting a Demon Beast, being chosen by GekiRyuKen and becoming Ryukendo. Since then, he works at SHOT, saving the day more often than not. He is trained in the Narukami Ryujinryu technique. By inserting the RyuKen Key into GekiRyuKen, Kenji can synchronize with GekiRyuKen to transform into Ryukendo - the transformation call is . is Ryukendo's lion Beast King, which can turn into the three-wheeled motorcycle. His finishing move, activated by the Final Key, is the . When GekiRyuKen absorbs the combined powers of Ryuguno, Ryujino and the Jamanga GrimGoblin, he evolves into God GekiRyuKen. By transforming after GekiRyuKen's evolution, Ryukendo becomes . His Magic Bullet Keys are also upgraded as well while his Beast King becomes . His finishing move is .
(Transformation call: ) is Ryukendo's first powered-up form, activated by the Fire Key. The Beast King of this form is the gorilla-themed , which becomes a set of cannons. Fire Ryukendo utilizes a variety of flame-based attacks. His finishing move is . When Ryukendo becomes God Ryukendo, his Fire Key is upgraded into the Burning Key, resulting in his Fire Ryukendo transformation becoming , complete with Fire Kong becoming . His finishing move is .
(Transformation call: ) is Ryukendo's second powered-up form, activated by the Aqua Key. is Ryukendo's JuuOh in this form, which can turn into a hoverboard, and Ryukendo has powers over water and ice. His finishing move is . When God Ryukendo uses the Aqua Key's Blizzard Key form, his Aqua Ryukendo transformation is now . In this form, his Beast King is and his finishing move is .
When Kenji first used his (Transformation call: ) form, he found himself unable to transform. Eventually though, he not only got the Thunder Key working, but also found his Thunder Ryukendo transformation's Beast King, , which becomes a wing-pack for Ryukendo. Thunder Ryukendo's powers include lightning and electricity, and his finishing move is the . When God Ryukendo used this form, is the form granted from the upgraded Thunder Key: the Lightning Key. is Lightning Ryukendo's Beast King, and his finishing move is .
is a gold and silver power-up that made its appearance in episode 45. It was activated through the use of the Ultimate Key found in Rock Crimson's body. Ultimate Ryukendo is powered by the Ultimate Dragon, which attaches to God GekiRyuKen. His suit is white-and-gold, with a gray visor and a blue crystal on his chest. Ultimate Ryukendo can combine the four Beast Kings to create the more powerful .
In the series aftermath, with GekiRyuKen gone, Kenji resumes being a normal police officer, arresting Dr. Mad.
Magic Bullet Musketeer Ryuguno
/ made his entrance before Ryukendo, sending an army of Tsukaima to a quick defeat. He really doesn't like it when people call him "Old Man", a nickname that Kenji started despite the fact that Fudou is only 25 years old. It was eventually revealed that Fudou and Kenji are a combination destined by fate.
Fudou and GouRyuGun have a strong bond, much closer than that of Kenji and GekiRyuKen at first. When he inserts the RyuGun Key into GouRyuGun, he can synchronize with GouRyuGun to transform into Ryuguno - the transformation call is . His Shot Key allows him to use a rapid-fire attack called , and his Final Key activates his finishing attack, the , which releases a hundred of GouRyuGun's regular shots in one powerful blast in the shape of a fiery dragon. His JuuOh is , a wolf JuuOh. Buster Wolf can transform into a motorcycle known as Wolf Bike.
When Fudou loses GouRyuGun in an attack from Bloody's UFO, GouRyuGun is recreated as the , allowing Fudou to assume the corresponding stronger form of . He can also fire rapid-shots from GouRyuGun and the Magic Bullet Magnum simultaneously, known as the 'Double Shot'. is Magna Ryuguno's Beast King, transforming into the . Magna Ryugunou's finishing move is .
In Episode 50, with some of Kenji's power, Magna Ryugunou becomes , a golden-armor transformation. His finishing attack in this form is the "Ultimate Dragon Cannon". His Beast King in this form is . In the series aftermath, with GouRyuGun gone, Fudou resumes being a normal police officer, arresting Dr. Mad.
Magic Bullet Fighter Ryujino
/ isn't a member of SHOT but rather a mysterious wanderer, armed with ZanRyuJin. He's not on the side of the Jamanga either, as he demonstrated in his high-octane entrance battle with Lady Gold. Eventually, he comes to work with Kenji and Fudou. Koichi lived in England when he was a kid, and Commander Amachi of SHOT wanted his parents to work on the Madan Suits for Ryukendo and Ryuguno. Koichi lost his parents in the explosion, but kept his mother's pendant. He stole the Madan Ryu Core to give himself the power of a Madan warrior to avenge his parents, swearing a vendetta on SHOT until he learned that it was Baron Bloody who caused his parents' deaths. When he inserts the RyuJin Key into ZanRyuJin, the weapon synchronizes with the Madan Ryu Core to transform him into Ryujino - the transformation call is . When Beyond Dark revived spirits of the dead, Koichi gave his mother a heath flower he brought from Kaori, and realized that he needs to fight for himself, not for revenge.
Ryujino can turn ZanRyuJin from a halberd into a bow with the use of the Archery Key. His finishing move, activated by the Final Key, is in Axe Mode and in Archery Mode. His Beast King is the raven , which combines with Ryujino to give him the power of flight. Later, Delta Shadow gains the ability to turn into the .
In Episode 50, with some of Kenji's power, Ryujino transforms into , a golden-armor transformation. His Beast King in this form is . In the series aftermath, with ZanRyuJin gone, Koichi takes up work as a delivery boy for Kaori, arriving on the scene as his teammates arrested Dr. Mad.
Master Ryukendo
is an ancient Magic Bullet warrior who with his two allies fought against DaiMaOu in the first war. Unable to defeat DaiMaOu, as only Master Ryukendo went Ultimate, he and his allies combined with the dragons of light and Master Ryukendo became the Madan Ryu Core of GekiRyuKen, his allies becoming GouRyuGun, and ZanRyuJin, so the three could help the next generation. DaiMaOu was reduced to an egg and somehow obtained the three Ultimate Keys, and storing them in Rock Crimson, Lady Gold, and Baron Bloody's bodies, making them immortal. The Canon of light returned Master Ryukendo back to normal, with no memory until the Jamanga attacked. In human form, he wears ancient Japanese clothing, and his Madan Suit is similar to Ryukendo's, except with a cape and bronze accents. He wields a weapon similar to GekiRyuKen, except it uses no keys and dragon head, instead with a diamond replacing the dragon head and chanting Shadu Iraki Yuza to summon his sword and transform. Master Ryukendo showed Kenji the Ultimate Madan Slash before returning into GekiRyuken with no memory of the incident. By episode 50, however, GekiRyuKen recovered his memories as Master Ryukendo and emerged from GekiRyuKen encouraging Kenji to not give up hope, as well as teaching him the method to defeat DaiMaOu once and for all.
Magic Bullet Keys
are used by both the Magic Bullet Warriors and the Jamanga. The Warriors use them for transformation into Warrior form, weapon-summoning, Beast King-summoning and finishing abilities. Among the Keys are:
RyuKen Key
Final Key
Fire Key
Kong Key
Aqua Key
Thunder Key
Eagle Key
Dagger key
Knuckle key
RyuGun Key
Shot Key
RyuJin Key
Ultimate Key
Archery Key
Arsenal
Ryukendo
is Kenji's partner, transformation device, and primary weapon. Also used to activate the Keys that Kenji finds. Finishers include "Magic Bullet Slash" (Ryukendo), "Blazing Slash" (Fire Ryukendo), "Freezing Slash" (Aqua Ryukendo), "Thunder Lightning Slash" (Thunder Ryukendo). GekiRyuken was later powered-up into , a sword-and-shield combo, similar to Kamen Rider Knight Survive's Dark Visor Zwei from Kamen Rider Ryuki. Finishers include "RyuuOu MaDan Slash", "Exploding Burning Slash" (Burning Ryukendo), "Exploding Freezing Slash" (Blizzard Ryukendo) and "Exploding Lightning Slash" (Lightning Ryukendo). God GekiRyuKen was sacrificed to seal the Power Spot at the end of the series.
The is a golden dragon that attaches to God GekiRyuKen to create Ultimate GekiRyuKen. Called forth by the Ultimate Key, transforming Kenji into Ultimate Ryukendo. The dragon's body attaches to the shield and the tail to the sword. God GekiRyuKen Ultimate Mode uses the finisher "Ultimate MaDan Slash".
The is a double-edged sword made from the Magic Bullet Dagger and GekiRyuKen. Each of its finishers is a "Super" version of GekiRyuKen's own.
The small was used when Kenji couldn't figure out how to reveal his latest Key. Fudou went down into the power spot and brought the Dagger Key to life. He gave it to Kenji, who was fighting Rock Crimson on the surface. The Dagger is similar to GekiRyuKen and attacks with "Dagger Spiral Chain", or combines with GekiRyuKen to form Twin Edge GekiRyuKen.
Ryuguno
is Fudou's SPECIAL partner, transformation device, and primary weapon. He has a robotic voice and used primarily as a gun, but a small blade can be extended from the bottom for close-range combat. Finishers include "Dragon Shot" and "Dragon Cannon", although the latter wasn't gained until Fudou achieved it in Episode 6. GouRyuGun was destroyed by Bloody's UFO in Episode 23, and returned in Episode 27 when Fudou became Magna Ryuguno. GouRyuGun was sacrificed to seal the Power Spot at the end of the series.
The is formed by combining GouRyuGun with the MaDan Magnum. Magna Ryuguno's combined weapon. It's so powerful that Magna Ryuguno must hold it in both hands. Its finisher is the extremely strong "Magna Dragon Cannon."
The is a small gun with knife, similar to the Madan Dagger, used by Magna Ryuguno. It can attach to the GouRyuGun to make the Magna GouRyuGun.
Ryujino
is Koichi's partner, transformation device and weapon. Extremely talkative. Unlike the GekiRyuKen and GouRyuGun, the ZanRyuJin is worn as a brace, rather than around the belt. It serves as a battle axe for the most part, but a second mode, Archery Mode, fires fast-moving arrows at enemy targets. ZanRyuJin's attacks are "RanGeki" in Axe Mode and "RanBu" in Archery Mode. ZanRyuJin was sacrificed to seal the Power Spot at the end of the series.
Generic
The is summoned by the Knuckle Key, it can be used by any of the three Warriors as their wrist pad transforms into a powerful, long-distance blaster. Its primary attack is the "Knuckle Spark".
The is worn around the waist of the Magic Bullet Warriors, calling forth the appropriate Key for any situation. Ryukendo's is blue, Ryuguno's: red, and Ryujino's: black.
SHOT
SHOT, the Shoot Hell Obduracy Troopers, are the anti-demon force in Akebono. Since nobody believed that demons even exist, SHOT keeps itself in secret, placing their base beneath the Akebono police station through a special elevator that only its members know of. There are only four members in the Akebono branch, not counting the Madan Warriors. The police force is probably the best place to hide SHOT, because Akebono's real police force is hideously incompetent.
: Commander of SHOT, he poses as the "janitor" at the police station. Koichi Shiranami, Ryujinou, believed that Amachi had killed his parents, when in reality Amachi had protected a young Koichi from the explosion caused at the Madan Suits European Testing Facility.
: SHOT's operator and secretary at the Akebono Police Station. Had a brother, now deceased, who sought to protect the fireflies at his lake so that Rin could be happy. Appears to be close to Kenji, even though he couldn't get her name right when they first met. But she has deep feelings for him. When she was asked for a marriage interview by the mayor's only son Hiroshi, she was the one who was very angry on Kenji for allowing her to date Hiroshi San. She is very kind and caring as well as very bad tempered.
: SHOT's Magical Engineer, who sends the Keys and reads the writings that bring about developments against Jamanga in the Canon of Light. He doesn't really know anything, but does serve as a gateway between the Canon of Light and SHOT's purposes.
: A professor of magic that Kiichi respects.
Allies and civilians
: A florist that Kenji met on his first day in Akebono. She is Kenji's love interest too. But later in the series she developed feelings for Shiranami Koichi and Kenji for Rin. Later on, she was tricked by Lady Gold into believing that Ryukendo had cut down Ichiko and Ritsuko. There appears to be a romantic relationship going on between the two, since Kenji got jealous when Koichi neared her to get flowers for drawing out a Jamanga demon. Kaori was chosen as the leader of the Akebono vigilante group when she "won" the martial arts tournament (due to all of her opponents forfeiting when they refused to attack her). In episode 50 she turns into a Tsukaima and also thanks Kenji for defeating the demon probably knowing that Kenji is Ryukendo.
: A lady ghost in white that only those with a passion for justice, like Kenji and GekiRyuKen, can see. This doesn't do much for their reputation. She's actually a spirit of the first Head of the Akebono Police, a female detective. She assisted Kenji in his first fight against Jack Moon. When spirits were being resurrected, she lived again, and delayed giving Kenji the Akebono flower needed to defeat the demon. She left with the other spirits, but returned as she still wants to hang around. Komachi managed to gather enough energy to help Ryukendo out once in a while, as well as encourage the chief of police, to resume his old way of thinking in terms of justice.
& : A pair of lively, somewhat incompetent lady cops in Akebono that try to keep the town's peace. More often than not become victims of Jamanga's latest plan, though they are the only cops who actually attempt to fight the demons on a regular basis with a ridiculous supply of firearms ranging from standard police rifles and pistols to a bazooka and SWAT cannon. While Ritsuko was on vacation, Ichiko developed feelings for Rock Crimson before he recovered his memory.
: Kenji's fiancée, also trained in the Narukami Ryuujinryu technique. She occasionally visits Akebono, leaving Rin to watch over him. Was the one to inform Akebono of the Martial Arts tournament. Introduced in episode 10. She also knows the true identity of the Madan Warriors.
Maria(28): is one of Bloody's Jamadroids that was taken in by SHOT and removed of her battle systems. She obeyed Fudou's orders only, but never seemed to smile. When the Jamadroid control tower's barrier had trapped Fudou, Maria rushed in and took his place in the barrier, allowing Fudou to finish off the tower and delete all the androids. In her final moments, she smiled at last.
Jamanga
The army of demons called Jamanga serves as the principle enemy of the SHOT organization and the Madan Warriors. Their main purpose is to gather minus energy that is created when humans are in despair to resurrect their leader, Daimaou GrenGhost.
: Jamanga's "King of Demons" who fought Master Ryukendo long ago and lost enough energy to regress into a green orb-like egg hovering in the eternally black sky of the area where the Jamanga armies reside. Only when enough Minus Energy, brought about by negative human emotions, is collected, can he be revived. Though he was successfully revived, emerging from his egg to evade Ultimate Ryukendo, GrenGhost was in a larval state and attempt to fully mature at the metal factory, but was easily killed by Ultimate Ryukendo. However, GrenGhost's soul survived and absorbed Worm to create a new human-like body until he possess enough excess power from Ultimate Ryukendo taping into the Power Spot to rip out of his host and assume his true moth-like form before being destroyed by the Madan Warriors' final attack.
: Jamanga's monster-maker, who creates Demon Beasts from the Madan Keys. He performs the menial work, such as resurrecting Rock Crimson and telling Lady Gold not to sit on his demon creation pedestal. After his friend RockCrimson was killed, Worm revealed that he knew of the Ultimate Keys and hid the fact to protect his position. With the truth exposed, he was almost killed by Lady Gold and Baron Bloody, were not for the piece of Rock Crimson on his person. While performing Rock Crimson's funeral, he invited Ryukendo and gang out of his friend's final wish, seeing the true nature of humans. But to save face as a demon and not suffer the wrath of the Jamanga, he revoked his friendship with RockCrimson and defeated the Madan Warriors singlehandedly, now even more bent on solely reviving GrenGhost and nothing else. Now driven insane by his newfound conviction, Worm allowed himself to become GrenGhost's new body, only to meet his end once GrenGhost was powerful enough to assume his true form, tearing Worm's body to pieces in the process.
: A swordsman for Jamanga. Though he swore loyalty to GrenGhost, Jack Moon serves him because he's stronger than himself. Jack Moon's ideal were that the strong rule, refusing to destroy a foe he considers to be weaker, citing such actions as a waste of his time and energy. However, Jack Moon's demonic side has pleasure in attacking the weak. Though Ryukendo originally saw him as his rival, he came to see that Jack Moon has no actual warrior's code when he succumbed to his demonic nature and decided to attack Akebono from his Air Fortress while Ryukendo was unable to fight. After his fortress was destroyed by Thunder Ryukendo in Episode 12, Jack Moon was not seen until in Episode 21, when Baron Bloody saved him from being sacrificed to GrenGhost for betraying Jamanga. However, Jack Moon's body is dying from the conflict between his hearts and decides to his restore his honor by fighting Ryukendo on-on-one during the solar eclipse, restoring his fullpower. Though he fell the Twin Edge GekiRyuKen's Super Thunder Slash, Jack Moon was resurrected as , a cyborg version of himself with golden adornments to his armor and without any memories of himself and freewill, a slave under Bloody. But after GrenGhost's death, he was Jack Moon once more, and, in a final duel with Kenji under the black moonlit night of Christmas, he was defeated by the Narukami Ryuujinryu technique.
: A female warrior whose plans usually involve magic that effect the hearts of her victims as seen when she once made the entire town distrust SHOT, and invaded people's dreams with a special orb. She also has a habit of sitting on Dr. Worm's pedestal. Lady Gold usually lets her trio of personal Familiars fight in her stead. She later gains a Catwoman-like battle suit from Dr Worm when she attempt to steal back the MaDan Keys. When revealed to have Fudou's Ultimate Key in her body, Ryukendo removes it from her before Ryuguno finally destroyed LadyGold by blasting the source of her life, her earring, to bits.
: A warrior who transforms into a massive ball of stone, an old friend of Dr. Worm. Has amazing raw power, but gets set off if anybody calls him "idiot". He was broken into pieces by Ryukendo's Twin Edge GekiRyuKen, only to be revived later by Dr. Worm with Lady Gold's help, giving him a stone that allows Rock Crimson to regenerate even after he's blown to bits. It took a team effort and Fire Ryukendo with the Twin Edge GekiRyuKen to destroy RockCrimson. But using the Power Spot's magic, Rock Crimson was revived, though defeated by the three Maden Warriors, and Magna Ryuguno's trinity attack. before Dr. Worm took RockCrimson's remains to rebuild him. Rock Crimson was revealed to have Kenji's Ultimate Key in his body, unwillingly creating Ultimate Ryukendo, who defeated him once and for all.
: A robotic Demon who saved JackMoon, only to use him as part of his plan. Once Jack Moon died, Bloody took JackMoon's sword and used it to eventually revive JackMoon into MechaniMoon, under his control. He made his attack on Akebono with his AsteRoids before revealing himself, intent on destroying the Maden Ryu Cores. Baron Bloody was the one responsible for killing Koichi Shiranami's parents ten years ago in an attempt to destroy the Madan RyuCores that became Gekiryuu and GouryuuGun, destroying all of Europe if he succeeded. As a result, Bloody became Koichi's mortal enemy. Bloody soon began his part with collecting Minus energy with his Jamadroids and then the construction of Grenstar. He attempted to kill Ryuujinou, but ended up being killed by him, with only his drill staff remaining. But once revived and revealed to have Koichi's Ultimate Key in his body, Bloody was finally destroyed when Ryukendo removes the key before Ryujino lands the deathblow.
: Jamanga's never-ending supply of cannon fodder. These purple-bodied, yellow-striped, one-eyed, bat-eared soldiers appear when there's trouble to be caused. However, with the exception of special Familiars, the regular kinds are neither bright nor difficult to defeat.
Ganymede, Phobos and Europa, familiars to Lady Gold
Mecha Familiar, familiars to Baron Bloody
Fire Familiar (4)
Swordsman Familiar (4)
When fighting a Swordsman Familiar at Akebono Temple, it proved to be a match for Ryukendo's normal form. Ryukendo defeats it with his Fire Mode, but the Jamanga somehow took in the fire attack's source and powered up another Swordsman Familiar with Ryukendo's fire power. In this form, the Fire Familiar gains a flaming sword as well as a large shield that could move telepathically. The Fire Familiar overpowered Ryugunou and Ryukendo in his Fire Mode. Fire Ryukendo, while getting in a sword fight with the Familiar, caused large fireballs to launch and burn Akebono City. In the end, Ryugunou captures the Familiar's shield, and Ryukendo transforms into Aqua Ryukendo, destroying the Fire Familiar. Akebono City also snows from the Freezing Slash made from Aqua Ryukendo.
Demon Beasts
The are usually created by Dr. Worm using a Madan Key as the core of the monster's form. However, Lady Gold and Baron Bloody can also create their own monsters but without Madan Keys.
: A metal-eating insect Demon Beast impervious to most blades and guns, but was killed by Ryukendo, who acquired the Fire Key from it. A 2nd red version was created by Lady Gold and shrunk so it can infect people with a virus that turns their skin into iron and cause them to lash out violently before it was destroyed by Ryujino in Shadow Wing Mode.
: A flower Demon Beast that was planted by Dr. Worm in Akebono, and eventually grew to giant size under the watchful eye of a young boy, Shigeru. All it took to bring it down was Fire Ryukendo's Blazing Slash. After the battle, Kenji acquired the Aqua Key from it.
: A balloon Demon Beast, Balloon Gamma can shoot a beam that causes people to swell up like balloons, and would've made them explode within an hour of their ballooning. With a careful eye and steady hand, Ryuguno was able to defeat it with his new weapon at the time, Dragon Cannon.
: A monster who attacked with large weights, causing general havoc around Akebono before being defeated by Fire Ryukendo and Fire Kong's Fire Cannon. MegaNouma was later revived with Rock Crimson's Regeneration Key and defeated by Ryujinou and Aqua Ryukendo.
: A gillman Demon Beast, sent to pollute Akebono's water. He couldn't be detected whenever he's underwater, but it was revealed that his body temperature was much higher than normal, allowing him to slip by. Defeated by Aqua Ryukendo's Freezing Slash from atop the Aqua Board. Later revived with Rock Crimson's Regeneration Key and defeated by Ryujinou and Aqua Ryukendo.
: A Demon Beast modeled after Kanon, it uses its singing to bring people to pain though only the Akebono Shrinebell can negate the sound wave. Destroyed by Fire Ryukendo's Blazing Slash.
: A swarm of Demon Beasts that Dr. Worm created after the pre-historic monster of the same name, developing a name for themselves by bitting off the tops of things and attack people's heads. The entire swarm was frozen by Aqua Ryukendo's Freezing Slash.
: A Jack Moon clone powered by the Thunder Key, created on Jack Moon's request to Dr. Worm by giving him using a piece of his flesh. Being a copy of Jack Moon, Elemoon had half of his "father's" power augmented with the Thunder Key, and used his blade as a rifle. Though he gathered mass amounts of minus energy, SHOT managed to trap Elemoon in tank Dr. Worm had been driving in Episode 3, only for him to fully use the Thunder Key to get out. However, the power the key had proved too much for Elemoon as it killed him to Jack Moon's annoyance for his lowly clone to be put in such a predicament in the first place.
: A ghost-like Demon Beast that brought the spirits of the dead back to life, able to become intangible yet has a weakness for sunlight. Once rendered tangible, Ryukendo uses the Twin Edge GekiRyuKen to kill it. Dr. Worm later revived Beyonder as , only to be defeated by Ryujino and Aqua Ryukendo.
: A Lizard-like Demon Beast that steals items of sentimental value to increase his power, the Goryu Key being one of them. Once forcing the monster to sneeze everything out of his stomach, Ryuguno finishes the Demon Beast off with his Trinity Dragon Cannon.
: A series of androids created by Bloody, the first encountered posed as an alien named Angela with claims to protect people. Once revealed in its true form, Asteroid was destroyed by the Trinity Madan Slash. In following episode, more Asteroids were brought on Akebono in Angela's image, searching for the Madan Ryu Cores. Only one of them assumed its true form to fight Fudou and be destroyed by Ryukendo's Madan Slash.
: A giant clam Demon Beast who can create an alternate realm of Akebono city and trap children there using a computer game icon as the entrance gate. He used human-size illusions of himself until they were defeated and he revealed himself. Defeated by Magna Ryuguno's Magna Dragon Cannon, causing his dimension to fade in the process.
: A Demon Beast created from a part of Daimaou's body, to attack the Madan Warriors directly. He was able to defeat Magna Ryuguno and take GekiRyuKen as his own. However, the sword's power when out of control as Grem Goblin used it to absorb Magna Ryuguno and Ryujino's attacks until Kenji reclaims it. Grem Goblin was the first to be defeated by God Ryukendo's RyuuOu Madan Slash.
: A giant Demon Beast that targets indecisive people, teleporting them to her tunnel-like stomach, chasing them with a smaller version of herself. Her human-size aspect was surprisingly defeated by Ichiko & Ritsuko, while the actual Mazerome was killed by GodRyukendo and GodLeon's Trinity RyuuOu Madan Slash.
: A goofy-looking buddhist elephant Demon Beast who can play with human hearts. The beams of the four eyes on its trunk have a different effect: Yellow bring out happiness, blue bring fear, red brings anger and green brings sadness. Defeated by God Ryukendo's RyuuOu Madan Slash.
: A demon that uses mirrors to travel instantly to parts of Akebono and place cursed masks on people's heads. Defeated by Ryujino's Trinity RanBu attack.
: Created from Kobashiri's umbrella, filled with its owner's jealousy. Sent to Akebono Tower to blanket the shopping district and infect people with jealousy. Defeated by Burning Cannon/Trinity Exploding Slash combo.
: A Demon Beast that has a super soft body with rockhard armor, able to withstand mostly any attack on it. Though defeated in the first round by Komachi's interference, Macode was frozen/destroyed by Blizzard Ryukendo's Exploding Freezing Slash.
: A team effort by Dr. Worm and Baron Bloody to create a satellite to not only destroy the Madan Warriors, but to ensure no one else would dare challenge them in any way. Destroyed by Lightning Ryukendo's Exploding Lightning Slash.
(40): A shape-shifting Demon Beast created by Dr Worm using two Madan Keys that copied the attacks of Ryukendo and Ryuguno, to create a monster with their combined powers. However, it didn't come out as intended so Worm gave the "horrid thing" to Lady Gold, who used the "cute" Nemanon's transforming power to cause chaos and confusion among the townsfolk. When GodRyukendo and MagnaRyuguno fought him, Nemanon assumed their forms, but only use the attacks the Madan Keys recorded. After being defeated by Ryuguno, Nemanon removed his cloak and assumed his true fighting form, only to be destroyed by God Ryukendo's Trinity RyuuOu Madan Slash.
: A Demon Beast created by Lady Gold and destroyed by Blizzard Ryukendo's Exploding Freezing Slash.
: A machine created by Baron Bloody of using the pure steel that Akebono Tower is made of, the Madan Warriors were unable to use their final attacks as long as Rin was still inside the monster's body. Rin was rescued before Lightning Ryukendo destroyed Majuuki using his Exploding Lightning Slash, restoring it to its original form.
: A snipping machine created by Baron Bloody to kill the Madan Warriors and Dr. Worm. Gunneroid failed to kill them as it was destroyed by Trinity Magna Dragon Cannon.
Episodes
Specials
Cast
Kenji Narukami/Ryukendo:
Gekiryuken: (Voice)
Fudou Juushirou/Ryuguno:
Gouryugun: (Voice)
Koichi Shiranami/Ryujino:
Zandryujin: (Voice)
Yuuya Amachi:
Rin Sakyou:
Kichi Setoyama:
Kaori Nose:
Sen Komachi:
Gren Ghost: Keiji Hirai (Voice)
Dr. Worm:
Jackomoon: Mitsutoshi Kiko (Voice)
Lady Gold:
Rock Crimson: (Voice)
Baron Bloody Hirofumi Tanaka (Voice)
Ichiko Nakazaki:
Ritsuko Takakura:
Umi Saionji:
Guest appearances
: (ep. 20)
Angela: (ep. 23–24)
Songs
Opening themes
Title song
Lyrics & Composition:
Arrangement:
Artist: Hiroshi Kitadani
Episodes: 1-29
Lyrics & Composition: Takeshi Isozaki
Arrangement:
Artist: Kenji Ohtsuki
Episodes: 30-52
Ending themes
"EVERYBODY GOES"
Composition:
Arrangement: & D.I.E.
Lyrics & Artist: Nanase Aikawa
Episodes: 1-13
Lyrics & Composition:
Arrangement: Unknown
Artist:
Episodes: 14-28
"Prism of Eyes"
Lyrics:
Composition:
Arrangement:
Artist: MAX
Episodes: 30-39
Lyrics & Composition: Mariko Shibano
Arrangement: Unknown
Artist: Mariko Shibano
Episodes: (40-51)
Title song
Lyrics & Composition:
Arrangement:
Artist: Hiroshi Kitadani
Episodes: 29, 52
International broadcasts
Ryukendo airs in the Philippines on Hero TV during Super Patrol Force dubbed in Tagalog and on Cartoon Network Philippines during Toonami dubbed in English. It also airs in Hong Kong on ATV. It aired dubbed in Spanish on WKAQ-TV, a Telemundo affiliate on San Juan, Puerto Rico. In Brazil, the series was dubbed in Portuguese and was aired on RedeTV!'s TV Kids time-block from late 2009 through 2010. And Singapore, Mediacorp. It has also been dubbed in Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali, and Marathi, and was aired in India from 2011 to 2012 on Disney XD India, and is just called Ryukendo there. Episode 32 was skipped in India possibly because the demon Jemind resembled Hindu God Ganesha and Disney India wanted to avoid hurting religious sentiments. Scenes involving Jamind's shadow form were also removed in the final episode of Indian Dubs because for the same reason.
It was also the last broadcast program to air on the Mexican channel ZAZ TV before ceasing broadcast on July 31, 2012.
References
External links
TV Aichi's Ryukendo page (inactive)
Takara Tomy Ryukendo page (inactive)
Superhero television shows
Tokusatsu television series
Takara Tomy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20titles%20in%20numeric%20series
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List of Ace titles in numeric series
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In January 1969, Ace Books switched from a letter-series code for its books to a numeric series. The number does not indicate sequence of publication, unlike the number in the letter series codes; instead it identifies the alphabetic position of the title. It was assigned by dividing the range 00001-99999 into 26 sections, one for each letter of the alphabet, and then assigning the code depending on the first letters of the title. As can be seen from the list below, this approach was evidently not followed in every case, but it accounts for the great majority of the codes.
The number is also part of the ISBN, for the later titles; the ISBN for a book (if it has one) can be formed by prefixing "0" for English language/US, and "441" (Ace's publisher number), to the serial number, and then calculating the last digit with an ISBN check digit calculator. For example, Christopher Stasheff's Escape Velocity has serial number 21599; the ISBN is 0-441-21599-8.
This list is very incomplete.
00075 SF John Jakes When the Star Kings Die
00078 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert (1958)
00078 SF R.A. Salvatore The Dragons Dagger
00092 NA John Macklin Dwellers in Darkness
00093 SF Fred Saberhagen The Black Mountains
00094 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump
00104 SF Mack Reynolds Section G: United Planets
00106 NA John Macklin Passport to the Unknown
00107 SF James White The Secret Visitors
00108 SF Roger Zelazny Four for Tomorrow
00109 SF Mark S. Geston Lords of the Starship
00110 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
00111 SF John W. Campbell Invaders from the Infinite
00119 SF William Shatner Teksecret
00125 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
00142 SF Steve Perry The Forever Drug (1995)
00153 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
00241 NA Jack Luzzatto Ace Crossword Puzzle Book#2 (1969)
00265 SF Mack Reynolds Ability Quotient
00275 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Ace Science Fiction Reader (1971)
00289 SF William Shatner Tekpower
00348 SF Greg Bear Blood Music (1996)
00390 SF William Shatner Tekmoney
00950 SF Ron Goulart After Things Fell Apart (1970)
00958 SF Mack Reynolds After Utopia (1977)
00990 SF Susan K. Putney Against Arcturus / Dean R. Koontz Time Thieves (May 1972)
01000 SF John Brunner Age of Miracles
01040 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#1: The Flying Saucer Gambit
01041 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#2: The Golden Goddess Gambit
01042 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#3: The Emerald Elephant Gambit
01043 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#4: The Time Trap Gambit
01066 SF Poul Anderson Agent of the Terran Empire
01501 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein
01570 SF Fletcher Pratt Alien Planet
01625 NA Dick Lupoff and Don Thompson (ed.) All in Color for a Dime (1970)
01685 SF Gordon R. Dickson Alien Art / Arcturus Landing
01750 SF Robert E. Howard Almuric
01770 SF Leigh Brackett Alpha Centauri Or Die (1976)
02236 SF Stanley Schmidt (ed.) Analog Yearbook Ii
02255 SF A. E. van Vogt Anarchistic Colossus (April 1977)
02268 SF Joanna Russ And Chaos Died (1970)
02274 SF Donald R. Bensen And Having Writ... (1978)
02276 MY Philip Loraine The Angel of Death (1961)
02295 SF Keith Roberts Anita (1970)
02320 SF Alexei Panshin Masque World
02380 SF Tim Powers The Anubis Gates
02900 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Arena
02935 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D.
02936 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D.
02938 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D.
02940 NA Rona Randall The Arrogant Duke (1972)
03297 SF Jack Vance The Asutra
03300 SF John Brunner The Atlantic Abomination (1960)
03322 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core
03325 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core
03326 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1978)
03328 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1985)
04040 SF Joanna Russ Picnic on Paradise
04591 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1966)
04592 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1974)
04612 WE Tom West Bad Blood at Bonita Basin / Tom West Rattlesnake Range (1972)
04636 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back to the Stone Age
04722 SF Samuel R. Delany The Ballad of Beta 2
04745 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Bandit of Hell's Bend
04745 WE Edgar Rice Burroughs The Bandit of Hell's Bend
04755 NA E. Kelton Barbed Wire
04760 SF Tom Purdom The Barons of Behavior (1972)
04860 SF A. E. van Vogt The Battle of Forever (1971)
05330 SF Jack London Before Adam
05404 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker
05407 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man (April 1979)
05408 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker's Planet (1980)
05424 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man (December 1980)
05454 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 15th Series (1966)
05455 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 16th Series
05456 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 17th Series
05457 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 18th Series
05458 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 19th Series (1973)
05460 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: A Special 25th Anniversary Anthology
05461 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 22nd Series (1978)
05466 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man (August 1982)
05471 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man (May 1984)
05475 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (1st Annual Collection) (1972)
05476 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (2nd Annual Collection)
05477 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (3rd Annual Collection) (1974)
05478 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (4th Annual Collection) (1977)
05479 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (5th Annual Collection) (1977)
05481 SF Mack Reynolds The Best Ye Breed
05496 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man
05500 SF Robert A. Heinlein Between Planets
05586 SF John Varley The Golden Globe
05595 SF John Rackham Beyond Capella / Kenneth Bulmer Electric Sword-Swallowers (February 1971)
05655 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond the Farthest Star (1973)
05656 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond the Farthest Star
05785 NA Shepherd Mead The Big Ball of Wax
06061 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump (1976)
06171 SF Jack Vance Big Planet (1978)
06177 SF Keith Laumer The Big Show
06505 MY Cornell Woolrich The Black Angel (1965)
06530 SF Michael Moorcock The Black Corridor
06612 SF Mack Reynolds Blackman's Burden / Border, Breed Nor Birth (August 1972)
06615 SF Fred Saberhagen The Black Mountains
06701 SF John W. Campbell The Black Star Passes
06707 SF Brian M. Stableford The Blind Worm / Emil Petaja Seed of the Dreamers (February 1970)
06715 NA Charles Lefebure The Blood Cults (1969)
06760 WE Ray Hogan The Bloodrock Valley War / C. Hall Thompson The Killing of Hallie James (1969)
06854 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Bloody Sun
07012 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Catherine Crook De Camp The Bones of Zora
07080 NA Joyce Keener Border-Line (1979)
07162 SF John Brunner Born Under Mars
07180 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Brass Dragon
07200 SF Jack Vance The Brave Free Men: Book II of the Durdane Trilogy
07690 SF Murray Leinster The Brain-Stealers
07840 SF Ray Cummings A Brand New World
07895 SF Andre Norton Breed To Come (1973)
07921 MY Cornell Woolrich The Bride Wore Black
08145 SF John Rankine The Bromius Phenomenon
08215 SF Fred Saberhagen Brother Assassin
08560 WE Tom West The Buzzard's Nest / Louis Trimble Siege at High Meadow (1973)
09022 SF Robert O'Riodan Cadre One
09037 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Crosstime Saloon (1977)
09069 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Crosstime Saloon
09072 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Lady (1989)
09102 NA Nancy Buckingham Call of Glengarron
09128 SF Kenneth Von Gunden K-9 Corps
09135 WE Sam Bowie Canyon War / Clay Ringold The Hooded Gun (1969)
09200 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus
09203 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus
09205 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus (1982)
09265 SF Andre Norton Catseye
09281 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl
09284 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl
10150 SF Walt Richmond Challenge the Hellmaker
10258 SF Margaret St. Clair Change the Sky and Other Stories (1974)
10293 SF Ken Bulmer The Chariots of Ra / John Rackham Earthstrings (July 1972)
10307 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusions (1967)
10410 SF A. E. van Vogt Children of Tomorrow
10411 SF A. E. van Vogt Children of Tomorrow
10471 NA Sam Bowie Chisum (1970)
10600 SF Robert A. Heinlein Citizen of the Galaxy
10621 SF Clifford D. Simak City
10665 WE Giles A. Lutz The Challenger / Tom West The Phantom Pistoleer (1960)
10701 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusions (1967)
10702 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusions
11036 SF Philip K. Dick Clans of the Alphane Moon (1972)
11182 SF Ron Goulart Clockwork Pirates / Ghost Breaker (March 1971)
11222 NA Nancy Buckingham Cloud Over Malverton
11451 SF A. Bertram Chandler Coils of Time / Into the Alternate Universe (November 1972)
11457 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Freebooter
11467 SF Robert E. Howard, Björn Nyberg, and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Avenger (Conan #10)
11530 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Colt Wages / Louis Trimble The Lonesome Mountains (1970)
11546 SF Leigh Brackett The Coming of the Terrans (1976)
11555 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Commodore at Sea / Spartan Planet
11556 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Commodore at Sea / Spartan Planet (same cover as 11555-1)
11560 SF Suzette Haden Elgin The Communipaths / Louis Trimble The Noblest Experiment in the Galaxy (October 1970)
11603 SF Robert E. Howard (edited by L. Sprague de Camp) Conan the Conqueror (Conan #9)
11622 SF Anthony Boucher The Complete Werewolf & Other Stories of Fantasy & Science Fiction (1969)
11630 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan
11633 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Wanderer
11650 SF Mack Reynolds Computer War / Code Duello (February 1973)
11659 SF Andrew J. Offutt Conan the Mercenary (1981)
11669 SF L. Sprague de Camp (ed.) The Spell of Conan (1980)
11670 SF L. Sprague de Camp (ed.) The Blade of Conan (1979)
11671 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan (1967)
11672 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan of Cimmeria
11673 SF Robert Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Freebooter
11674 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Wanderer
11675 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Adventurer
11676 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan the Buccaneer
11677 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Warrior
11678 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Usurper
11679 SF Robert E. Howard (ed. L. Sprague de Camp) Conan the Conqueror
11680 SF Robert E. Howard, Björn Nyberg, and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Avenger
11681 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan of the Isles
11682 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan of Aquilonia
11684 SF Andrew J. Offutt Conan and the Sorcerer (1979)
11705 SF Robert Silverberg Conquerors from the Darkness / Master of Life and Death
11738 WE Tom West Corral This Killer / Dan J. Stevens Hunter's Moon (1973)
11759 SF H. Beam Piper The Cosmic Computer
11785 WE Phillip Ketchum The Cougar Basin War / Louis Trimble Trouble Valley
11863 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Freebooter
12126 SF Philip K. Dick The Crack in Space (1966)
12140 SF Brian M. Stableford Cradle of the Sun / Ken Bulmer The Wizards of Senchuria (August 1969)
12311 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time
12313 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1978)
13245 SF Alan Dean Foster Cyber Way
13600 SF Margaret St. Clair The Dancers of Noyo (1973)
13612 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Freebooter
13681 NA Marie Garratt Dangerous Enchantment
13783 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Dark Dimensions / Alternate Orbits (May 1971)
13793 SF Dean R. Koontz Soft Come the Dragons / Dark of the Woods (November 1970)
13795 SF Andre Norton Dark Piper
13798 SF A. E. van Vogt The Darkness on Diamondia
13805 SF John Rackham Dark Planet / Nick Kamin The Herod Men (June 1971)
13898 SF Robert Silverberg and Randall Garrett (jointly as Robert Randall) The Dawning Light (1982)
13902 SF Barry N. Malzberg The Day of the Burning
13921 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Day of the Minotaur
13960 SF Mack Reynolds Day After Tomorrow
13972 SF Brian M. Stableford Days of Wrath
13994 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A. D.
14000 SF Brian M. Stableford The Days of Glory
14153 MY Cornell Woolrich (as William Irish) Deadline at Dawn
14165 MY Jack Vance (as John Holbrook Vance) The Deadly Isles
14193 WE Nelson Nye Death Valley Slim / The Kid from Lincoln County
14194 WE Nelson Nye Death Valley Slim
14195 WE Merle Constiner Death Waits at Dakins Station / Kyle Hollingshead Ransome's Debt (1970)
14198 WE John Bickham Decker's Campaign
14215 SF Greg Benford Deeper Than the Darkness
14235 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents (1978)
14236 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents
14240 WE Wayne C. Lee Die-Hard
14244 SF James Schmitz The Demon Breed (1979)
14247 WE Edgar Rice Burroughs The Deputy Sheriff of Comanche County (1940)
14249 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents
14250 SF Mack Reynolds Depression Or Bust! / Dawnman Planet (October 1973)
14251 SF Poul Anderson, Mildred Downey Broxon, Michael Whelan, and Alicia Austin The Demon of Scattery (1979)
14256 NA Walter Scott Demonology & Witchcraft
14258 NA David Rome The Depraved (1968)
14265 WE Tom West Desperado Doublecross / Norman A. Daniels The Plunderers (1970)
14277 SF James Baen (ed.) Destinies Vol. 1, No. 3 (April – June, 1979)
14879 SF Timothy Powers Dinner at the Deviants Palace
14903 SF Frank Herbert Direct Descent
15238 SF George Warren Dominant Species
15670 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Bloodmoney, Or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1976)
15697 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Futurity / The Unteleported Man (September 1972)
15890 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Door Through Space / A. Bertram Chandler The Rim of Space (February 1972)
16600 SF Fred Saberhagen The Dracula Tape (1972)
16640 SF Jack Vance The Dragon Masters / 5 Gold Bands (April 1972)
16641 SF Jack Vance The Dragon Masters / The Last Castle (April 1973)
16647 SF Andre Norton Dragon Magic
16648 SF Jack Vance The Dragon Masters
16651 SF Jack Vance The Dragon-Masters
16668 SF John Brunner The Dramaturges of Yan
16669 SF Andre Norton Dread Companion (1970)
16670 SF Andre Norton Dread Companion (1970)
16701 SF Roger Zelazny The Dream Master
16728 SF Larry Niven and Steven Barnes Dream Park (1983)
17000 WE Dan J. Stevens The Dry Fork Incident / Reese Sullivan The Deadly Deputy (1969)
17235 WE Clay Ringold Duel in Lagrima Valley / Don P. Jenison South To New Range (1970)
17239 SF Ben Bova The Dueling Machine
17625 SF Frank Herbert Dune
17810 NA Jan Hoffman A Dying in the Night (1975)
18630 SF Gordon Eklund The Eclipse of Dawn (1970)
18770 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Master of Adventure (1968)
19640 NA Eliot Asinof Eight Men Out (1963)
19681 SF Samuel R. Delany The Einstein Intersection
19710 SF Bob Shaw A Wreath of Stars
20275 SF Alan Garner Elidor
20556 SF H. Beam Piper Empire
20563 SF Fred Saberhagen Empire of the East
20565 SF Barrington J. Bayley Empire of Two Worlds
20571 SF Samuel R. Delany Empire Star / The Ballad of Beta-2 (November 1973)
20656 SF Keith Laumer End As a Hero (1985)
20660 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Endless Universe (1975)
20661 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Endless Universe (1979)
20664 SF Jerry Pournelle Endless Frontier, Volume I
20670 SF Judith Merril (ed.) England Swings SF: Stories of Speculative Fiction
20724 SF Poul Anderson Ensign Flandry (1979)
20730 SF Keith Laumer Envoy To New Worlds
21430 SF Mack Reynolds Equality in the Year 2000
21562 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus
21567 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus
21590 SF James White The Escape Orbit (1983)
21599 SF Christopher Stasheff Escape Velocity
21803 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21804 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21806 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21885 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles to Glory (1977)
22215 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles to Glory
22216 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles to Glory
22327 NA Hans Holzer ESP and You
22365 SF Andre Norton Exiles of the Stars
22368 SF Andre Norton Exiles of the Stars
22374 SF Frank Herbert Eye
22375 SF Andre Norton Eye of the Monster
22386 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1975)
22387 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1980)
22388 SF Mike Connor Eye of the Sun (1988)
22500 SF Jack Vance The Faceless Man: Book One of the Durdane Trilogy
22576 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Falcons of Narabedla / The Dark Intruder & Other Stories (December 1972)
22577 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Falcons of Narabedla (1979)
22600 SF Dean R. Koontz The Fall of the Dream Machine / Kenneth Bulmer The Star Venturers (January 1969)
22640 SF Samuel R. Delany The Fall of the Towers
22680 NA Hershatter Fallout for a Spy
22690 SF Barry N. Malzberg The Falling Astronauts (1971)
22742 NA Margaret Erskine The Family at Tammerton
22811 SF A. E. van Vogt The Far-Out Worlds of Van Vogt (1968)
22812 SF A. E. van Vogt The Worlds of A. E. van Vogt
22819 SF Edmund Cooper A Far Sunset
22830 SF D. G. Compton Farewell, Earth's Bliss
23140 SF Dean R. Koontz Fear That Man / E. C. Tubb Toyman (May 1969)
23189 SF H. Beam Piper Federation (1982)
23419 SF H. Beam Piper (ed. Michael Kurland) First Cycle (1982)
23775 SF Barry N. Malzberg (as K.M. O'Donnell) Final War and Other Fantasies / John Rackham Treasure of Tau Ceti (October 1969)
23929 SF Dennis Schmidt Twilight of the Gods: The First Name
23998 SF Shariann Lewitt First and Final Rites
24035 SF Mack Reynolds The Five Way Secret Agent and Mercenary from Tomorrow
24100 SF John Rackham Flower of Doradi / Jeremy Strike A Promising Planet (May 1970)
24302 NA W. Johnston The Underground Picnic: The Flying Nun#5 (1970)
24415 NA John Michell The Flying Saucer Vision (1967)
24590 SF R. A. Lafferty Fourth Mansions (1969)
24800 SF Jules Verne For the Flag (1961)
24806 SF David C. Smith and Richard Tierney For the Witch of the Mists (1981)
24890 SF H. Beam Piper Four-Day Planet / Lone Star Planet
24892 SF H. Beam Piper Four-Day Planet / H. Beam Piper and John J. McGuire Lone Star Planet
24903 SF Roger Zelazny Four For Tomorrow
24925 WE Merle Constiner The Fourth Gunman / Tom West Slick on the Draw
24975 NA Jack Vance (as John Holbrook Vance) The Fox Valley Murders (1968)
25165 NA Michael Hervey Fraternity of the Weird (1969)
25300 NA Georgette Heyer Friday's Child (1946)
25306 SF Arsen Darnay A Hostage For Hinterland (1976)
25460 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
25461 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
25950 SF Suzette Haden Elgin Furthest (1971)
25980 SF A. E. van Vogt Future Glitter (1973)
26176 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzies and Other People
26181 SF William Tuning Fuzzy Bones
26192 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzy Sapiens
26194 SF H. Beam Piper The Fuzzy Papers
26196 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzy Sapiens
27226 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict
27228 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict
27229 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1978)
27232 SF Jack Vance Galactic Effectuator (1981)
27235 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Gallaghers Glacier / Positive Charge (April 1970)
27240 SF Mack Reynolds Galactic Medal of Honor
27251 WE Barry Cord Gallows Ghost / The Long Wire (1967)
27310 SF Philip K. Dick The Game-Players of Titan (1972)
27346 SF Philip K. Dick and Ray Nelson The Ganymede Takeover (1977)
27376 WE Tom West Gallows Gulch / The Man at Rope's End (1964)
27389 SF Philip José Farmer The Gates of Creation (1981)
27400 SF Neal Barrett, Jr. The Gates of Time / Barry N. Malzberg (as K.M. O'Donnell) Dwellers of the Deep (December 1970)
27415 SF Barry N. Malzberg (as "K.M. O'Donnell") Gather in the Hall of Planets / In the Pocket and Other S-F Stories (September 1971)
27419 SF Edmund Cooper A Far Sunset (1977)
27501 SF Samuel R. Delany The Fall of the Towers
27910 SF Howard Fast The General Zapped An Angel
28702 SF James P. Blaylock The Stone Giant (1989)
28911 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Girl from Hollywood
28914 NA Michael Avallone The Girls in Television (1974)
29350 NA Harlan Ellison The Glass Teat (1970)
29400 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Glory That Was (1979)
29525 SF Robert E. Howard The Gods of Bal-Sagoth
29741 NA Todhunter Ballard Gold in California (1965)
29743 NA Todhunter Ballard Gold in California (1965)
29786 NA Peter Bourne The Golden Pagans
30261 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30262 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30263 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30274 SF Lucius Shepard Green Eyes (1984)
30295 SF Charles de Lint Greenmantle (1988)
30300 SF Fritz Leiber The Green Millennium / Night Monsters (March 1969)
30301 SF Fritz Leiber The Green Millennium
30590 SF Louis Trimble and Jacquelyn Trimble Guardians of the Gate
30600 SF Edwin L. Arnold Gulliver of Mars (1905)
30701 WE Nelson Nye Rogue's Rendezvous / Gun Feud at Tiedown (1965)
30710 WE Giles A. Lutz Gun Rich
30850 WE Tom West Black Buzzards of Bueno / Ben Smith The Guns of Sonora (1969)
31557 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
31590 SF Leigh Brackett The Halfling and Other Stories (1973)
31725 NA Shirley Jackson Hangsaman
31739 WE Edwin Booth Hardesty / Reese Sullivan The Stranger (1972)
31755 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Hard Way Up / Robert Lory The Veiled World (October 1972)
31781 NA Leal Hayes Harlequin House
31800 SF Robert A. Heinlein Have Space Suit - Will Travel
31801 SF Robert A. Heinlein Have Space Suit - Will Travel
31930 NA Jane Blackmore Hawkridge (1976)
31940 NA John Swenson Headliners: Kiss: The Greatest Rock Show on Earth! (1978)
31941 NA Charley Walters Headliners: Fleetwood Mac (1979)
31986 SF David Drake Hammer's Slammers
32725 WE Nelson Nye Hellbound For Ballarat (1970)
32335 NA Anonymous The Young Rebels: The Hedgerow Incident (1970)
32575 NA Charles O. Locke The Hell Bent Kid
32718 WE Barry Cord Hell in Paradise Valley / Clay Ringold The Night Hell's Corners Died
32800 SF Frank Herbert Heretics of Dune (1987)
33460 WE Louis Trimble Wild Horse Range / William O. Turner The High Hander (1963)
33700 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery
33701 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery (1970)
33704 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery
33710 SF Neal Barrett Jr. Highwood / Barrington Bayley Annihilation Factor (January 1972)
34245 SF Fred Saberhagen The Holmes-Dracula File (1978)
34250 NA N. Fredrik Hollywood and the Academy Awards (1970)
34260 NA Mair Unsworth Home to My Love (1973)
34345 SF Orson Scott Card Hot Sleep: The Worthing Chronicle
34361 NA Nancy Buckingham The Hour Before Moonrise
34440 NA Barbara Lane Housewife Hookers (1973)
34441 NA Barbara Lane Housewife Hookers, Part II (1974)
34458 SF Glenn Lord (ed.) The Howard Collector
34900 SF Bruce Mcallister Humanity Prime
35241 SF Andre Norton Huon of the Horn
35804 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs I Am a Barbarian
35805 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs I Am a Barbarian (1978)
35840 SF Andre Norton Ice Crown (1970)
35843 SF Andre Norton Ice Crown
35844 SF Andre Norton Ice Crown (1993)
35854 SF Kim Stanley Robinson Icehenge (1984)
36300 NA Ron Goulart If Dying Was All (1971)
37062 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Inheritors / The Gateway to Never (June 1972)
37063 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Inheritors / The Gateway to Never
37064 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Inheritors / The Gateway to Never
37088 SF Walt Richmond The Probability Corner
37090 SF Mark Adlard Interface (1971)
37100 SF Arthur K. Barnes Interplanetary Hunter (1972)
37106 SF Brian M. Stableford In the Kingdom of the Beasts
37108 SF A. Bertram Chandler Into the Alternate Universe / Contraband from Otherspace
37109 SF A. Bertram Chandler Into the Alternate Universe / Contraband from Otherspace
37130 SF Robert Silverberg Invaders from Earth / To Worlds Beyond
37217 SF Colin Kapp The Ion War (1978)
37250 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Brass Dragon / John Rackham Ipomoea (April 1969)
37291 SF Andre Norton Iron Cage (1974)
37292 SF Andre Norton Iron Cage (1981)
37365 SF Robert E. Howard The Iron Man / The Adventures of Dennis Dorgan
37381 NA P. Agan Is That Who I Think It Is? Volume 1 (1975)
37382 NA P. Agan Is That Who I Think It Is? Volume 3 (1976)
37421 NA H. G. Wells The Island of Dr. Moreau (1977)
37425 SF Avram Davidson An Island Under the Earth (1969)
37465 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1969)
37466 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1974)
37468 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1976)
37470 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1982)
37598 NA Gil Brewer The Devil in Davos: It Takes a Thief#1 (1969)
37599 NA Gil Brewer Mediterranean Caper: It Takes a Thief#2 (1969)
37600 NA Gil Brewer Appointment in Cairo: It Takes a Thief#3 (1970)
37797 SF Esther Friesner Here Be Demons
38120 SF John Brunner The Jagged Orbit (1969)
38122 SF John Brunner The Jagged Orbit
38287 SF Jerry Pournelle The Janissaries
38500 WE Kyle Hollingshead Ransome's Move / L. L. Foreman Jemez Brand (1971)
38536 SF E. C. Tubb The Jester at Scar: Dumarest of Terra#5 (1982)
38570 SF C. L. Moore Jirel of Joiry
40590 NA Ron Goulart Too Sweet to Die (1972)
40850 SF Robert Sheckley The Journey of Joenes
41550 NA Jerry Bladwin Kept Man (1975)
41550 SF Andre Norton Judgement on Janus
41551 SF Andre Norton Judgement on Janus
41841 NA William Burroughs Junkie (1964)
42800 SF E. C. Tubb Kalin/ Alex Dain The Bane of Kanthos (September 1969)
42801 SF E. C. Tubb Kalin
42900 SF Lin Carter Tower of the Medusa / George H. Smith Kar Kaballa (November 1969)
43525 SF Dennis Schmidt Kensho
43672 SF Andre Norton A Key Out of Time (1978)
43679 SF Andre Norton A Key Out of Time
44470 SF Edgar Wallace and Merian C. Cooper King Kong (1976)
44485 SF Christopher Stasheff King Kobold
44489 SF Christopher Stasheff King Kobold Revived
44512 NA Bernhardt Hurwood Kingdom of the Spiders (1977)
45000 SF Andre Norton Knave of Dreams (1976)
45001 SF Andre Norton Knave of Dreams
46272 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lad and the Lion (1978)
46850 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Lady of the Bees
46996 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror
46997 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror
47000 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror
47013 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land of Hidden Men
47020 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47022 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47023 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47026 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47042 SF Jack Vance The Languages of Pao
47161 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet
47162 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet (1972)
47200 WE L. L. Foreman Last Stand Mesa / Phillip Ketchum Mad Morgan's Hoard (1969)
47440 SF Andre Norton Lavender-Green Magic (1977)
47800 SF Ursula K. Le Guin The Left Hand of Darkness (1969)
47805 SF Ursula K. Le Guin The Left Hand of Darkness (1976)
48245 SF John T. Phillifent Life With Lancelot / William Barton Hunting on Kunderer (August 1973)
48494 SF H. Beam Piper Little Fuzzy
48520 SF Fred Saberhagen The Berserker Wars
48755 WE Tom West Lobo of Lynx Valley / Louis Trimble The Ragbag Army (1971)
48862 NA Charles Fort Lo!
48877 WE Giles A. Lutz The Lonely Ride
48885 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) Gunslick Territory / John Callahan Loner With a Gun (1973)
48918 WE Nelson Nye Long Run
48970 SF Mack Reynolds Looking Backward, from the Year 2000 (1973)
49051 SF H. Beam Piper Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen
49236 SF Andre Norton Lord of Thunder
49252 SF Philip José Farmer Lord of the Trees / The Mad Goblin (May 1970)
49294 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lost Continent
49301 WE Lin Searles Saddle in the Wind / Tom West Lost Loot of Kittycat Ranch (1965)
49501 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49504 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49506 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49507 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49548 SF Fred Saberhagen Love Conquers All
49851 SF Allen Steele Orbital Decay
50485 SF Allen Steele Lunar Descent
50531 SF Jack Vance Madouc
51356 SF Steve Perry The Machiavelli Interface (1986)
51375 SF Philip José Farmer The Mad Goblins / Philip José Farmer Lord of the Trees (September 1970)
51388 SF Michael Moorcock The Mad God's Amulet
51401 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51402 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51403 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51404 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51409 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51544 SF Larry Niven The Magic Goes Away (1978)
51550 NA Adeline McElfresh The Magic of Dr. Farrar (1965)
51590 SF John Eric Holmes Mahars of Pellucidar
51624 SF Philip José Farmer The Maker of Universes
51626 NA Rachel Cosgrove Payes Malverne Hall (1970)
51642 WE Ray Hogan The Man from Barranca Negra
51647 SF Brian Aldiss The Malacia Tapestry (1976)
51700 NA David McDaniel The Hollow Crown Affair (1969)
51701 NA Peter Leslie The Unfair Fare Affair (1968)
51702 NA John T. Phillifent The Power Cube Affair
51702 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51703 NA John T. Phillifent The Corfu Affair (1967)
51704 NA Joel Bernard The Thinking Machine Affair (1967)
51705 NA John Oram Thomas (as John Oram) The Stone-Cold Dead in the Market Affair
51706 NA Peter Leslie The Finger in the Spy Affair (1966)
51910 SF Philip K. Dick The Man Who Japed (1975)
51918 SF Steve Perry The Man Who Never Missed (1986)
51941 NA Bruce Cassiday The Fire's Center; Marcus Welby#3 (1971)
51943 SF David Alexander Smith Marathon
52035 WE Eric Allen Marshall From Whiskey Smith / Gene Tuttle Imposters in Mesquite
52075 SF Henry Kuttner, Bob Pepper, and Alicia Austin The Mask of Circe (1971)
52077 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
52078 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
52110 NA Jennifer Sills Massage Parlor (1973)
52180 SF Robert Lory A Harvest of Hoodwinks / Masters of the Lamp (July 1970)
52207 SF Steve Perry Matadora (1986)
52400 SF John Brunner Meeting at Infinity
52470 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Men on the Moon
52560 SF Alan E. Nourse The Mercy Men
52740 WE L.P. Homes The Maverick Star (1969)
52975 SF Gerard F. Conway The Midnight Dancers
53151 SF John W. Campbell The Mightiest Machine
53167 SF Algis Budrys, Charles G. Waugh, and Martin Harry Greenberg (eds.) Space Dogfights (1992)
53183 SF John Varley Millennium
53299 SF Spider Robinson Mindkiller
53355 SF Ian Watson Miracle Visitors
53415 SF John T. Phillifent Hierarchies / Doris Piserchia Mister Justice (May 1973)
53503 SF Andrew J. Offutt The Mists of Doom
53540 SF George Zebrowski The Monadic Universe
53540 WE William E. Vance The Wolf Slayer / Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) Mr. Sixgun (1954)
53570 SF D. G. Compton The Missionaries (1972)
53587 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53588 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53591 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53701 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53702 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53703 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53705 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53719 SF Charles de Lint Moonheart (1984)
53753 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men
53756 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men
53780 SF John W. Campbell The Moon is Hell
54101 SF Andre Norton Moon of 3 Rings
54103 SF Andre Norton Moon of 3 Rings
54104 SF Andre Norton Moon of 3 Rings (July 1978)
54105 SF Andre Norton Moon of 3 Rings (May 1981)
54201 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Moondust
54325 NA Rona Randall Mountain of Fear (1971)
54378 NA Virginia Coffman Moura (1963)
54380 NA Virginia Coffman Moura (1963)
54460 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mucker (1974)
54462 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mucker (1914)
54484 SF Charles de Lint Mulengro: A Romany Tale (1985)
54500 SF Mark Adlard Multiface (1975)
55145 SF Fritz Leiber You're All Alone (1973)
55309 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
56010 SF Gordon R. Dickson Naked to the Stars
56940 SF Leigh Brackett The Nemesis from Terra (1976)
57140 WE Ray Hogan New Gun For Kingdom City / The Shotgunner
57601 WE Reese Sullivan Nemesis of Circle A / Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) The Night It Rained Bullets (1965)
57751SF Andre Norton Night of Masks
57752 SF Andre Norton Night of Masks
57975 NA Margaret Summerton Nightingale at Noon
58024 SF Mark E. Rogers The Nightmare of God (1988)
58050 SF R. A. Lafferty Nine Hundred Grandmothers (1970)
58601 WE Merle Constiner Two Pistols South of Deadwood / William Vance No Man's Brand
58875 NA Jesse Kornbluth Notes from the New Underground (1968)
58880 SF Sam Lundwall Alice's World / No Time For Heroes (January 1971)
60563 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Oakdale Affair
60564 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Oakdale Affair
60739 SF Fred Saberhagen Octagon (1981)
60990 WE Reese Sullivan Man on the Run / John Callahan Odds Against the Texan (1971)
61480 NA The Editors of Science & Mechanics (compilers) The Official Guide to UFO's (1968)
62160 SF Fred Saberhagen Old Friend of the Family (1979)
62380 SF George Zebrowski The Omega Point
62938 SF Bob Shaw One Million Tomorrows
63165 SF Kenneth Bulmer On the Symb-Socket Circuit (1972)
63410 SF Andre Norton Operation Time Search
63590 SF John Rankine Operation Umanaq (1973)
63780 SF Bob Shaw Orbitsville
64146 SF John Dechancie Paradox Alley (1987)
64240 SF Bob Shaw Other Days, Other Eyes
64400 SF Philip K. Dick Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1970)
64401 SF Philip K. Dick Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1977)
64484 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Out of Times Abyss
64512 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn
64514 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn
65050 SF Bob Shaw The Palace of Eternity
65125 SF Jack Williamson The Pandora Effect (1969)
65169 SF H. Beam Piper Paratime (1981)
65316 SF Larry Niven The Patchwork Girl (1981)
65353 SF Fred Saberhagen Octagon
65390 SF Colin Kapp Patterns of Chaos (1978)
65412 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn (1973)
65430 SF Keith Roberts Pavane (1966)
65442 NA Anne Maybury The Pavilion at Monkshood (1973)
65852 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar
65855 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar
65873 NA Eliot Asinof People vs. Blutcher (1971)
65874 SF Robert Sheckley The People Trap / Mindswap
65890 SF Jack Williamson People Machines
65941 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65942 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65946 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65948 SF Mack Reynolds Perchance to Dream
65970 SF K.H. Scheer & Walter Ernsting Perry Rhodan 1: Enterprise Stardust (1969)
65971 SF K.H. Scheer & Walter Ernsting Perry Rhodan 2: The Radiant Dome (1969)
65972 SF K.H. Scheer & W.W. Shols Perry Rhodan 3: Galactic Alarm (1969)
65973 SF Walter Ernsting & Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 4: Invasion from Space (1969)
65974 SF K.H. Scheer & Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 5: The Vega Sector (1970)
65975 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 6: The Secret of the Time Vault (1971)
65976 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 7: Fortress of the Six Moons (1971)
65977 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 8: The Galactic Riddle (1971)
65978 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 9: Quest thru Time and Space (1971)
65979 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 10: The Ghosts of Gol (1971)
65980 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 11: The Planet of the Dying Sun (1972)
65981 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 12: The Rebels of Tuglan (1972)
65982 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 13: The Immortal Unknown (1972)
65983 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 14: Venus in Danger (1972)
65984 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 15: Escape to Venus (1972)
65986 SF W.W. Shols Perry Rhodan 16: Secret Barrier X (1972)
65987 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 17: The Venus Trap (1972)
66988 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 18: Menace of the Mutant Master (1972)
66990 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 19: Mutants vs. Mutants (1972)
65991 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 20: The Thrall of Hypno (1972)
65993 SF K.H. Scheer & Walter Ernsting Perry Rhodan 1: Enterprise Stardust (1972) (second printing)
65994 SF K.H. Scheer & Walter Ernsting Perry Rhodan 2: The Radiant Dome (1972) (second printing)
65995 SF K.H. Scheer & W.W. Shols Perry Rhodan 3: Galactic Alarm (1972) (second printing)
65996 SF Walter Ernsting & Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 4: Invasion from Space (1972) (second printing)
65997 SF K.H. Scheer & Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 5: The Vega Sector (1972) (second printing)
65998 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 6: The Secret of the Time Vault (second printing)
65999 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 7: Fortress of the Six Moons (second printing)
66004 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 21: The Cosmic Traitor (1973)
66005 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 22: The Fleet of the Springers (1973)
66006 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 23: Peril on Ice Planet (1973)
66007 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 24: Infinity Flight (1973)
66008 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 25: Snowman in Flames (1973)
66009 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 26: Cosmic Traitor (1973)
66010 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 28: The Plague of Oblivion (1973)
66011 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 27: Planet of the Gods (1973)
66012 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 29: A World Gone Mad (1973)
66013 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 30: To Arkon! (1973)
66014 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 31: Realm of the Tri-Planets (1973)
66015 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 32: Challenge of the Unknown (1973)
66016 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 33: The Giant's Partner (1973)
66017 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 34: SOS: Spaceship Titan! (1973)
66018 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 35: Beware The Microbots (1973)
66019 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 36: Man and Monster (1973)
66020 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 37: Epidemic Center: Aralon (1974)
66021 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 38: Project: Earthsave (1974)
66022 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 39: The Silence of Gom (1974)
66023 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 40: Red Eye of Betelgeuse (1974)
66024 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 41: The Earth Dies (1974)
66025 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 42: Time's Lonely One (1974)
66026 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 43: Life Hunt (1974)
66027 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 44: The Pseudo One (1974)
66028 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 45: Unknown Sector: Milky Way (1974)
66029 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 46: Again: Atlan! (1974)
66030 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 47: Shadow of the Mutant Master (1974)
66031 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 48: The Dead Live (1974)
66032 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 49: Solar Assassins (1974)
66033 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 50: Attack from the Unseen (1974)
66034 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 51: Return from the Void (1974)
66035 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 52: Fortress Atlantis (1974)
66036 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 53: Spybot! (1974)
66037 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 54: The Blue Dwarfs (1974)
66038 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 55: The Micro-Techs (1974)
66039 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 56: Prisoner of Time (1974)
66040 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 57: A Touch of Eternity (1974)
66041 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 58: The Guardians (1974)
66042 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 59: Interlude on Siliko 5 (1974)
66043 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 60: Dimension Search (1974)
66044 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 61: Death Waits in Semispace (1975)
66045 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 62: The Last Days of Atlantis (1975)
66046 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 63: The Tigris Leaps (1975)
66047 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 64: The Ambassadors from Aurigel (1975)
66048 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 65: Renegades of the Future (1975)
66049 SF William Voltz Perry Rhodan 66: The Horror (1975)
66050 NA Cornell Woolrich Phantom Lady
66051 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 67: Crimson Universe (1975)
66052 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 68: Under the Stars of Druufon (1975)
66053 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 69: The Bonds of Eternity (1975)
66054 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 70: Thora's Sacrifice (1975)
66055 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 71: The Atom Hell of Grautier (1975)
66056 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 72: Caves of the Druufs (1975)
66057 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 73: Spaceship of Ancestors (1975)
66058 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 74: Checkmate: Universe (1975)
66059 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 75: Planet Topide, Please Reply! (1975)
66060 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 76: Recruits for Arkon (1975)
66061 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 77: Conflict Center: Naator (1975)
66062 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 78: Power Key (1975)
66063 SF William Voltz Perry Rhodan 79: The Sleepers (1975)
66064 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 80: The Columbus Affair (1975)
66065 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 81: Pucky's Greatest Hour (1975)
66066 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 82: Atlan in Danger (1975)
66067 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 83: Ernst Ellert Returns! (1975)
66068 SF William Voltz Perry Rhodan 84: Secret Mission: Moluk (1975)
66069 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 85: Enemy in the Dark (1975)
66070 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 86: Blazing Sun (1976)
66071 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 87: The Starless Realm (1976)
66072 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 88: The Mystery of the Anti (1976)
66073 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 89: Power's Price (1976)
66074 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 90: Unleashed Powers (1976)
66075 SF William Voltz Perry Rhodan 91: Friend to Mankind (1976)
66076 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 92: The Target Star (1976)
66077 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 93: Vagabond of Space (1976)
66078 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 94: Action: Division 3 (1976)
66079 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 95: The Plasma Monster (1976)
66080 SF William Voltz Perry Rhodan 96: Horn: Green (1976)
66081 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 97: Phantom Fleet (1976)
66082 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 98: The Idol from Passa (1976)
66083 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 99: The Blue System (1976)
66084 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 100: Desert of Death's Domain (1976)
66085 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 101: Blockade: Lepso (1976)
66086 SF William Voltz Perry Rhodan 102: Spoor of the Antis (1976)
66087 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 103: False Front (1976)
66088 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 104: The Man with Two Faces (1976)
66089 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 105: Wonderflower of Utik (1976)
66090 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 106: Caller from Eternity (1976)
66091 SF William Voltz Perry Rhodan 107: The Emperor & The Monster (1977)
66092 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 108: Duel Under the Double Sun (1977)
66093 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 109: The Stolen Spacefleet / Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 110: Sgt. Robot (1977)
66094 SF William Voltz Perry Rhodan 111: Seeds of Ruin / K. H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 112: Planet Mechanica (1977)
66095 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 113: Heritage of the Lizard People / Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 114: Death's Demand (1977)
66096 SF Kurt Brand Perry Rhodan 115: Saboteurs in A-1 / William Voltz Perry Rhodan 116: The Psycho Duel (1977)
66097 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 117: Savior of the Empire / Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 118: The Shadows Attack (1977)
66098 SF W.W. Shols Perry Rhodan: The Wasp Men Attack / Ernest Vlcek Atlan #1: Spider Desert (1977)
66099 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan: Menace of Atomigeddon / Clark Darlton Atlan #2: Flight from Tarkihl
66100 SF Avram Davidson The Phoenix and the Mirror
66101 SF K.H. Scheer & Walter Ernsting Perry Rhodan 1: Enterprise Stardust (1974) (third printing)
66102 SF K.H. Scheer & Walter Ernsting Perry Rhodan 2: The Radiant Dome (1974) (third printing)
66103 SF K.H. Scheer & W.W. Shols Perry Rhodan 3: Galactic Alarm (1974) (third printing)
66104 SF Walter Ernsting & Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 4: Invasion from Space (1974) (third printing)
66105 SF K.H. Scheer & Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 5: The Vega Sector (1974) (third printing)
66106 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 6: The Secret of the Time Vault
66107 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 7: Fortress of the Six Moons
66108 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 8: The Galactic Riddle
66109 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 9: Quest thru Time and Space
66110 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 10: The Ghosts of Gol
66111 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 11: The Planet of the Dying Sun
66112 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 12: The Rebels of Tuglan
66113 SF K.H. Scheer Perry Rhodan 13: The Immortal Unknown
66114 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 14: Venus in Danger
66115 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 15: Escape to Venus
66116 SF W.W. Shols Perry Rhodan 16: Secret Barrier X
66117 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 17: The Venus Trap
66118 SF Kurt Mahr Perry Rhodan 18: Menace of the Mutant Master (second printing)
66119 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan 19: Mutants vs. Mutants (second printing)
66121 SF W.W. Shols Perry Rhodan: Robot Threat: New York / Hans Kneifel Atlan #3: Pale Country Pursuit
66128 SF K.H. Scheer Atlan #4: The Crystal Prince / Clark Darlton Atlan #5: War of the Ghosts
66129 SF Clark Darlton Perry Rhodan: In the Center of the Galaxy (1978)
66141 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Phase 2
66160 SF Nick Kamin Earthrim / Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Phoenix Ship (December 1969)
66201 SF Joanna Russ Picnic on Paradise
66320 SF Robert E. Howard Pigeons from Hell (1978)
66502 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66503 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66505 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66509 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66525 SF Murray Leinster The Mutant Weapon / Pirates of Zan (October 1971)
66833 SF Andre Norton Plague Ship (1973)
66900 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#2: Servants of the Wankh
66901 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#3: The Dirdir (1969)
66902 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#4: The Pnume (1970)
66952 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Planet of Exile
66995 SF Mack Reynolds The Rival Rigelians / Planetary Agent X (September 1973)
67020 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers
67021 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers / The Sword of Aldones
67025 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers / The Sword of Aldones
67026 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers / The Sword of Aldones
67027 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers / The Sword of Aldones
67060 SF John Jakes The Planet Wizard
67061 SF John Jakes The Planet Wizard
67110 NA Jack Vance (as John Holbrook Vance) The Pleasant Grove Murder (1967)
67131 NA L. L. Foreman Plundering Gun
67145 SF Michael Kurland Pluribus
67402 SF Robert A. Heinlein Podkayne of Mars
67555 SF Andre Norton Postmarked the Stars (1969)
67580 WE Ray Hogan The Vengeance Gun / L. L. Foreman Powdersmoke Partners (1973)
67800 SF Philip K. Dick The Preserving Machine (1969)
67801 SF Philip K. Dick The Preserving Machine (1976)
67900 SF Thomas M. Disch The Prisoner (1969)
67901 SF David McDaniel The Prisoner#2
67902 SF Hank Stine The Prisoner#3 (1970)
67937 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Prisoner of Zhamanak
68023 SF Gordon R. Dickson Pro
68305 SF Stephen Robinette Projections
68310 SF John Glasby Project Jove / Ken Bulmer The Hunters of Jundagai (August 1971)
69168 SF Arsen Darnay The Purgatory Zone (1981)
69190 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Purple Pterodactyls: The Adventures of Wilson Newbury, Ensorcelled Financier (1980)
69540 SF D. G. Compton The Quality of Mercy
69658 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Queen of Zamba
69681 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69682 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69683 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69684 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69700 SF A. E. van Vogt Quest for the Future
69770 SF Poul Anderson Question and Answer
69992 SF Jack L. Chalker Quintara Marathon#1: The Demons at Rainbow Bridge
70350 WE Nelson Nye Hideout Mountain / Rafe (1962)
71000 NA Manfred von Richthofen The Red Baron (1969)
71001 NA Manfred von Richthofen The Red Baron
71065 SF Alfred Coppel (as Robert Cham Gilman) The Rebel of Rhada (1968)
71076 NA Clifton Adams Reckless Men
71082 SF Claude Nunes and Rhoda Nunes Recoil / E. C. Tubb Lallia (April 1971)
71083 SF E. C. Tubb Lallia: Dumarest of Terra#6 (1982)
71100 SF Andre Norton Red Hart Magic (1979)
71140 SF Robert A. Heinlein Red Planet
71156 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney The Ring of Ikribu: Red Sonja#1 (1981)
71157 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Demon Night: Red Sonja#2 (1982)
71158 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney When Hell Laughs: Red Sonja#3 (1982)
71159 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Endithor's Daughter: Red Sonja#4 (1982)
71160 SF D. D. Chapman and Deloris Lehman Tarzan Red Tide
71161 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Against the Prince of Hell: Red Sonja#5 (1983)
71162 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Star of Doom: Red Sonja#6 (1983)
71335 SF Philip José Farmer Behind the Walls of Terra (1970)
71372 WE Louis Trimble The Hostile Peaks / Tom West Renegade Roundup (1969)
71435 SF John T. Sladek Mechasm
71500 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
71502 SF Keith Laumer Retief at Large
71803 SF E. C. Tubb Lallia
71816 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Return of the Mucker
72260 WE Gordon D. Shirreffs Quicktrigger / Rio Desperado
72280 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Rider (1915)
72360 WE John Callahan Ride the Wild Land / Jernigan (1965)
72400 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Rim Gods / Laurence M. Janifer & S. J. Treibich The High Hex (February 1969)
72401 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Dark Dimension / The Rim Gods
72402 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Rim of Space / The Ship from Outside
72403 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Dark Dimension / The Rim Gods (August 1978)
72525 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Call Me Hazard / Dean Owen The Rincon Trap (1966)
73100 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Road to the Rim / The Hard Way Up
73101 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Road to the Rim / The Hard Way Up
73102 SF A. Bertram Chandler The Road to the Rim / The Hard Way Up
73291 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Rocannon's World (May 1972)
73292 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Rocannon's World (November 1974)
73293 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Rocannon's World (1976)
73330 SF Robert A. Heinlein Rocket Ship Galileo
73390 SF Avram Davidson The Kar-Chee Reign / Rogue Dragon
73425 WE L. L. Foreman Rogue's Legacy (1968)
73438 SF Kenneth Bulmer Roller Coaster World
73440 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Rolling Stones
73441 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Rolling Stones
73450 SF Mack Reynolds Rolltown
73471 NA Monica Dickens The Room Upstairs
73532 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
74180 WE Barry Cord Desert Knights / The Running Iron Samaritans (1973)
74860 SF Robert A. Heinlein To Sail Beyond the Sunset
74981 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space (1970)
74982 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space
74983 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space (1974)
74984 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space (July 1978)
74985 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space (1981)
74987 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space (September 1985)
75045 SF Mack Reynolds Satellite City
75131 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75134 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75136 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75150 WE Ray Hogan Track the Man Down / Lee. E. Wells Savage Range (1965)
75181 NA Jean Vicary Saverstall
75441 SF Sam J. Lundwall Science Fiction: What It's All About (1977)
75520 WE Tom West Scorpion Showdown / Clay Ringold Reckoning in Fire Valley (1969)
75617 NA Ray Hogan Showdown on Texas Flat
75690 SF George Bamber The Sea Is Boiling Hot
75695 SF Andre Norton Sea Siege
75696 SF Andre Norton Sea Siege
75750 NA Sax Rohmer The Secret of Holm Peel and Other Strange Stories (1970)
75781 SF Leigh Brackett The Secret of Sinharat / Leigh Brackett People of the Talisman (November 1971)
75800 SF George Bamber The Sea Is Boiling Hot (1971)
75830 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75831 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75832 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75833 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race (1978)
75834 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race (1981)
75835 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75836 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75860 SF Mack Reynolds Section G: United Planets
75875 SF Robert Silverberg The Seeds of Earth
75894 SF Eric Frank Russell Sentinels from Space
75940 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Seven from the Stars
75945 NA Ron Goulart The Same Lie Twice (1973)
75958 NA Brad Steiger Sex and Satanism (1969)
75968 WE Nelson Nye Bancroft's Banco / The Seven Six-Gunners (1963)
75980 NA Barbara Levins Sexual Power of Marijuana
75987 NA Ruth Abbey The Shadow Between (1974)
76015 WE Robert Mccaig The Shadow Maker (1970)
76096 SF Jeff Sutton Alton's Unguessable / Kenneth Bulmer The Ships of Durostorum (June 1970)
76098 SF Bob Shaw Ship of Strangers
76099 SF Robert E. Howard The She Devil (1983)
76181 NA Louis L'Amour (as Jim Mayo) Showdown at Yellow Butte
76219 SF Robert Silverberg and Randall Garrett (jointly as Robert Randall) The Shrouded Planet (1982)
76343 SF Charles Sheffield Sight of Proteus
76380 SF William F. Temple Battle on Venus / William F. Temple The Three Suns of Amara (June 1973)
76385 SF D. G. Compton The Silent Multitude
76390 SF Robert Silverberg The Silent Invaders
76391 SF Robert Silverberg The Silent Invaders (1977)
76500 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76501 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76502 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76701 SF Philip K. Dick The Simulacra (1976)
76801 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman
76802 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman
76836 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Siva! (1979)
76900 WE Dean Owens The Skull Riders / Merle Constiner The Man Who Shot "The Kid" (1969)
76942 SF Harry Harrison Skyfall (1978)
76960 SF Lester del Rey Badge of Infamy / The Sky is Falling (January 1973)
76972 NA Dorothy Eden Sleep in the Woods (1967)
77051 NA Margaret Erskine Sleep No More
77408 SF Rudy Rucker Software
77410 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1974)
77411 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1975)
77419 SF Gordon R. Dickson Soldier, Ask Not (1982)
77425 NA Betty Deforrest The Shows of Yesterday
77427 SF Brian Herbert (ed.) The Poetry of Frank Herbert: Songs of Muad'dib
77471 NA Anne Maybury Someone Waiting (1961)
77520 NA Wayne Lee Son of a Gunman / Barry Cord Gun Boss of Triangle
77525 SF Jack Vance Son of the Tree / The Houses of Iszm (December 1971)
77551 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (1970)
77553 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (1976)
77554 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (1977)
77555 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (November 1978)
77556 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (May 1983)
77558 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (1986)
77598 NA Kenneth Von Gunden The Sounding Stillness
77620 SF Robert E. Howard The Sowers of the Thunder (1979)
77710 SF Robert Lory The Eyes of Bolsk / Mack Reynolds The Space Barbarians (June 1969)
77730 SF Robert A. Heinlein Space Cadet
77780 SF H. Beam Piper Space Viking
77782 SF Mack Reynolds Space Visitor
77783 SF Mack Reynolds Space Visitor
77785 SF Eric Frank Russell Six Worlds Yonder 6 unrelated stories. / The Space Willies A spoof on Scientology. (July 1971)
77791 SF Fred Saberhagen Specimens
77841 NA S.E. Stevenson Spring Magic
77905 NA Jane Blackmore The Square of Many Colours
77910 WE Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Stage Line to Rincon / Ray Hogan A Man Called Ryker (1971)
77918 WE James Powell Stage to Seven Springs
77925 WE Stephen Payne Stampede on Farway Pass / Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Lynch Law Canyon (1965)
77953 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Star of Danger
78000 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Star Beast
78011 SF Andre Norton Star Born (1970)
78014 SF Andre Norton Star Born (July 1978)
78015 SF Andre Norton Star Born (February 1980)
78016 SF Andre Norton Star Born (May 1981)
78017 SF Andre Norton Star Born (September 1984)
78035 SF Keith Laumer Star Colony
78071 SF Andre Norton Star Gate (June 1971)
78072 SF Andre Norton Star Gate (February 1974)
78073 SF Andre Norton Star Gate (March 1977)
78131 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (June 1973)
78132 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (June 1974)
78133 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (March 1977)
78318 SF Pamela Sargent Starshadows
78400 SF John Jakes Mask of Chaos / Barrington Bayley The Star Virus (August 1970)
78432 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours
78477 SF Gerry Turnbull (ed.) A Star Trek Catalog: The Complete Guide to the Fantastic World of Star Trek (1979)
78479 SF Ben Bova Star Watchman
78500 NA Warren Smith Strange & Miraculous Cures (1969)
78537 SF Robert Sheckley The Status Civilization / Notions: Unlimited
78565 SF John Varley Steel Beach
78575 SF D. G. Compton The Steel Crocodile (1970)
78585 SF Jerry Pournelle A Step Farther Out
78650 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1970)
78651 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1973)
78652 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1975)
78653 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1979)
78654 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1980)
78657 SF Poul Anderson Dominic Flandry: A Stone in Heaven
78741 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock
78742 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1973)
78830 WE Giles A. Lutz The Stranger
78901 NA Brad Steiger Strange Guests (1966)
79001 NA Bernhardt J. Hurwood Strange Talents
79034 SF Robert A. Heinlein Stranger in a Strange Land
79112 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Survey Ship
79117 WE Tom West Sweetgrass Valley Showdown / Owen Gun Country (1971)
79141 SF Leigh Brackett The Sword of Rhiannon
79150 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Death
79157 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Death
79161 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
79165 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
79170 SF Fritz Leiber Swords and Deviltry
79176 SF Fritz Leiber Swords and Deviltry
79181 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
79185 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
79221 SF Fritz Leiber The Swords of Lankhmar
79222 SF Fritz Leiber The Swords of Lankhmar
79431 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours
79601 WE Roger Spellman Tall for a Texan / Big Man from the Brazos (1965)
79791 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar of Pellucidar
79797 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar of Pellucidar
79805 NA Roy Manning Tangled Trail
79854 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan at the Earth's Core
79970 NA Isobel Lambot A Taste of Murder
79975 SF E. C. Tubb Technos / E. C. Tubb A Scatter of Stardus (March 1972)
80010 SF William Shatner Teklords
80011 SF William Shatner Teklab
80012 SF William Shatner Tekvengeance
80180 SF James Tiptree, Jr. Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home
80208 SF William Shatner Tekwar
80400 WE Nelson Nye The Texas Gun
80575 WE Nelson Nye Thief River
80661 NA Mildred Davis The Third Half
80680 SF Robert Lory The Thirteen Bracelets
80691 SF Roger Zelazny This Immortal
80705 SF Robert E. Howard Tigers of the Sea
80780 SF Robert E. Howard Three-Bladed Doom (1979)
80801 SF Andre Norton Three Against the Witch World
80805 SF Andre Norton Three Against the Witch World (1978)
80855 SF Alexei Panshin The Thurb Revolution (1978)
80933 SF Spider Robinson Time Pressure (1988)
81000 SF Clifford D. Simak Time & Again
81001 SF Clifford D. Simak Time & Again
81012 SF Keith Laumer The Time Bender
81125 SF Robert A. Heinlein Time for the Stars
81126 SF Robert A. Heinlein Time for the Stars
81237 SF Gordon R. Dickson Time to Teleport / Delusion World
81251 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders
81253 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders
81254 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1984)
81270 SF John Brunner Times Without Number (1969)
81277 SF Spider Robinson Time Travelers Strictly Cash (1981)
81610 SF Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) To Venus! To Venus! / E. C. Tubb The Jester at Scar (March 1970)
81656 SF Bob Shaw Tomorrow Lies in Ambush
81670 SF Mack Reynolds Tomorrow Might Be Different
81680 SF John Jakes Tonight We Steal the Stars / Laurence M. Janifer and S. J. Treibich The Wagered World (July 1969)
81861 WE Merle Constiner Guns at Q Cross / Tom West The Toughest Town in the Territory
81900 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Tournament of Thorns
81973 SF E. C. Tubb Toyman: Dumarest of Terra#3
82101 WE Brian Garfield Trail Drive / Louis Trimble Trouble at Gunsight (1964)
82190 WE Harry Whittington A Trap For Sam Dodge / Valley of Savage Men (1965)
82210 SF John Brunner The Traveler in Black
82355 SF Andre Norton Trey of Swords (1978)
82401 NA Ernest Haycox Trigger Trio
82410 WE D.B. Newton Triple Trouble
82430 WE Nelson Nye Trouble at Quinn's Crossing
82435 WE Barry Cord The Coffin Fillers / Don T. Jenison Trouble on Diamond Seven (1972)
82660 SF Robert A. Heinlein Tunnel in the Sky
83360 WE Barry Cord Two Graves for a Lawman / The Deadly Amigos
84000 SF Andre Norton Uncharted Stars (1970)
84001 SF Andre Norton Uncharted Stars (1974)
84292 SF H. Beam Piper Uller Uprising
84331 SF John W. Campbell The Ultimate Weapon
84466 SF Andre Norton Uncharted Stars (1983)
84514 SF Andrew Offutt The Undying Wizard
84569 SF Axel Madsen Unisave
84581 SF A. E. van Vogt The Universe Maker
85456 SF Alan E. Nourse The Universe Between (1987)
85460 NA Harold E. Hartney Up & At 'Em
86022 NA Virginia Coffman Vampire of Moura
86050 SF Philip K. Dick The Variable Man and Other Stories (1976)
86064 SF Fred Saberhagen The Veils of Azlaroc
86065 SF Fred Saberhagen The Veils of Azlaroc
86180 SF E. C. Tubb Veruchia
86181 SF E. C. Tubb Veruchia: Dumarest of Terra#8 (1982)
86190 SF Ian Watson Very Slow Time Machine
86321 SF Andre Norton Victory on Janus (March 1973)
86322 SF Andre Norton Victory on Janus (1975)
86323 SF Andre Norton Victory on Janus (1977)
86465 WE Don P. Jenison Zero Hour at Black Butte / Dwight Bennett Newton (as Clement Hardin) Sherriff of Sentinel (1969)
86495 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Virgin of Zesh / The Tower of Zanid
86607 SF Mark Adlard Volteface (1972)
86608 SF Philip K. Dick Vulcan's Hammer (1972)
86610 SF Andre Norton, Wojciech Siudmak, and Alicia Austin Voorloper (1980)
87015 NA Philip Loraine One to Curtis (1967)
87060 SF Michael Moorcock The Warlord of the Air (1971)
87070 NA Daoma Winston Walk Around the Square (1975)
87101 NA Rona Randall Walk Into My Parlor
87180 SF A. E. van Vogt The War Against the Rull
87201 SF Poul Anderson War of the Wing-Men
87269 SF George Zebrowski Ashes & Stars
87300 SF Christopher Shasheff The Warlock in Spite of Himself
87301 SF Christopher Shasheff The Warlock in Spite of Himself
87319 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87321 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87322 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87323 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World (1978)
87325 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87328 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87332 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87370 NA Herman Raucher Watermelon Man
87625 SF Dennis Schmidt Way-Farer
87631 SF H.G. Wells The War of the Worlds (1988)
87718 NA Harlan Ellison Web of the City (1983)
87855 SF A. E. van Vogt The Weapons Shops of Isher
87873 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87874 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87875 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87941 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Weirwoods
88010 WE T.V. Olsen Westward They Rode
88065 SF Edmond Hamilton What's It Like Out There? (And Other Stories)
88075 NA Richard Lamparski Whatever Became Of.....? Volume I
88076 NA Richard Lamparski Whatever Became Of.....? Volume II (1970)
88091 SF H. G. Wells When the Sleeper Wakes
88270 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Where Is the Bird of Fire? (1970)
88440 NA Nelle McFather Whispering Island
88554 NA Dorothy Eden Whistle For the Grows
88564 SF Rudy Rucker White Light
88601 SF Clifford D. Simak Why Call Them Back from Heaven?
89250 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Winds of Darkover / John Rackham The Anything Tree (January 1970)
89251 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Winds of Darkover
89301 SF E. C. Tubb Derai / The Winds of Gath (July 1973)
89590 WE L. P. Holmes Smoky Pass / L. P. Holmes Wolf Brand (1962)
89701 SF Andre Norton Witch World
89702 SF Andre Norton Witch World (May 1974)
89703 SF Andre Norton Witch World
89704 SF Andre Norton Witch World
89705 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1978)
89706 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1982)
89707 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1984)
89708 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1986)
89851 SF James H. Schmitz The Witches of Karres
90050 NA Charles Lefebure Witness to Witchcraft (1970)
90075 SF Ursula K. Le Guin A Wizard of Earthsea
90110 NA Georgette Heyer Venetia (1958)
90190 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus and Pirate Blood
90191 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus (1973)
90194 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus and Pirate Blood
90426 NA Lee Hoffman Gunfight at Laramie
90701 NA Robert J. Hogan The Wolver
90872 SF R.A. Salvatore The Woods Out Back
90926 SF Frank Herbert The Worlds of Frank Herbert (1971)
90951 SF Philip K. Dick The World Jones Made (1975)
90955 SF Jack Vance The World of Jack Vance
91010 SF Gregory Frost Lyrec (1984)
91052 SF John Carr (ed.) The Worlds of H. Beam Piper
91055 SF Poul Anderson The Worlds of Poul Anderson
91060 SF Theodore Sturgeon The Worlds of Theodore Sturgeon
91170 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The World Wreckers
91352 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1969
91353 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, First Series
91354 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Second Series
91355 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Third Series
91356 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Fourth Series
91357 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1970
91358 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1971
91359 SF Fredrick Pohl Best Sf For 1972
91502 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein (1973)
91581 SF Keith Laumer Worlds of the Imperium
91640 SF Fritz Leiber The Worlds of Fritz Leiber
91706 SF Poul Anderson World Without Stars
91770 SF Robert E. Howard Worms of the Earth
92551 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
92553 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
93900 SF Ross Rocklynne The Sun Destroyers / Edmond Hamilton A Yank at Valhalla (March 1973)
94200 SF Wilson Tucker The Year of the Quiet Sun (1970)
94251 SF Andre Norton Year of the Unicorn
94254 SF Andre Norton Year of the Unicorn (1979)
95490 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane (November 1978)
95491 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane (1981 & 1983)
95492 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane (January 1984)
95493 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane (August 1986)
95501 NA Arch Whitehouse The Zeppelin Fighters
95941 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane
95960 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone
95961 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone
95964 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone (1981)
Numeric series, titles in
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4946471
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%27Annunzio%20University%20of%20Chieti%E2%80%93Pescara
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D'Annunzio University of Chieti–Pescara
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D'Annunzio University (, Ud'A) is a public research university located in Chieti and Pescara, neighbouring cities in the region of Abruzzo, Italy. Established in 1960 as a higher education institute and named after writer and poet Gabriele D'Annunzio, it was officially recognised as an independent university in 1965 by Minister Luigi Gui.
The university is formed from a variety of institutions which include thirteen academic departments organised into two schools. It provides undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate education, in addition to a range of international programs in multiple fields of study. Research is a component of each academic division, receiving funds for its scientific investigation from national and international institutions.
D'Annunzio University's main campus in Chieti features an eclectic mix of buildings encompassing 48.9 acres. A satellite campus is located in Pescara, while a distance learning centre is situated in Torrevecchia Teatina. It is one of the youngest national university in Italy to enter the U.S. News & World Report of the world's best universities.
History
Early years
In 1955, the municipal and provincial administrations of Chieti and Pescara, neighbouring cities in the region of Abruzzo in Central Italy, met to discuss about the foundation of a consortium in order to establish a non-state-owned university in the medieval town of Chieti. Their proposal, pursued by engineer Filippo de Apulia, was submitted to the Ministry of Public Education of Italy on 28 November 1955. The creation of the University Consortium of Abruzzi was officially approved in 1960 by the Prefect of Chieti, following the participation of the Chambers of Commerce and the Board of the Banks of the town, in association with over sixty municipalities from the region.
In 1961, the faculty of letters and philosophy was inaugurated at the National Archaeology Museum of Abruzzo by the technical organising committee, chaired by Professor Ettore Paratore. It preceded the inauguration ceremony of the free university courses that took place on 12 November 1961. The following month, commerce and economics courses were introduced with an adjoining foreign languages and literatures course, following an opening ceremony held at the Marble Hall of the Province of Pescara, in the presence of Professor Carlo Izzo.
Foundation
In January 1963, an official request for the establishment of the Free University of Abruzzi was proposed by the organising committee, prompting the institutions of Chieti, Pescara and Teramo to debate the unification of the three university consortia into a single interprovincial consortium. On 3 March 1965, Minister of Public Education Luigi Gui signed the decree of recognition of the Gabriele D'Annunzio Free University of Abruzzo, named after the Italian writer and poet from Pescara.
The registered administrative offices of the university and the rectorate were established in Chieti, along with the faculty of letters and philosophy; Pescara included the faculty of commerce and economics with an adjoining foreign languages and literatures course; the faculty of law was instituted in Teramo. Professor Renato Balzarini was elected as the first Rector of the university and chaired the first meeting of the board of trustees, which was originally composed of fourteen members.
The opening ceremony of the first academic year took place in Pescara on 19 March 1966, in the presence of the Minister Luigi Gui. During the following years, the university saw the inauguration of the faculty of medicine and surgery in Chieti, the institution of the faculties of architecture in Pescara and political sciences in Teramo. In addition, the course of foreign languages and literatures was finally established, after it definitely separated from the faculty of commerce and economics. In December 1979, Professor Aldo Bernardini was elected Rector.
Expansion
In April 1982, D'Annunzio Free University became state-supported, following the approval of the Senate of the Republic of Italy. It preceded the opening of the faculties of pharmacy, veterinary medicine, and natural sciences, which were placed in three provinces of the region. The seal of the university was inspired by a sculpture of Pietro Cascella located in the campuses of Chieti and Pescara; it reproduces the stylised form of the head of the Roman goddess of wisdom Minerva, placed on a simple base and bearing the words "Università degli Studi G. D'Annunzio", upon which the acronym "Ud'A" is superimposed. In June 1985, Professor Uberto Crescenti was elected Rector.
In the following years, D'Annunzio University saw increased emphasis on research, reorganization of administrative structure and construction of new facilities, leading to the establishment of the Museum of Biomedical Sciences and the opening of a research and training hospital. On 20 February 1988, Minister Giovanni Galloni inaugurated the Viale Pindaro campus in Pescara. The faculties based in Teramo separated from D'Annunzio University in 1993, establishing the University of Teramo. The Institute of Hospitalisation and Treatment for Scientific Purposes was launched at D'Annunzio University by Minister of Health Rosy Bindi in early 2000.
The Continuing Education Centre was also founded as a permanent training centre in the town of Torrevecchia Teatina, while the Teacher Training School (SSIS) opened in Chieti. The Centre for Research in Aging, supported by the Ministry of Universities and Research, gained national relevance as the first Italian centre dedicated to research into healthy aging and age-related diseases. In 2002, the university opened four new faculties, with a consequent increase in student numbers that led to the creation of a second teaching centre at the Madonna delle Piane campus in Chieti.
The following year saw the birth of the D'Annunzio University Foundation and the official opening of the Centre for Research in Aging, which took place in the presence of Minister Letizia Moratti. In 2004, the centre was recognized with a special advisory status by the United Nations Economic and Social Council. The university later funded and promoted the Leonardo da Vinci University, based in Torrevecchia Teatina, which was legally recognised in 2004. It forms the online campus of D'Annunzio University and delivers its services exclusively online. Following the approval of the Gelmini's reform in 2012, all faculties were replaced by thirteen departments organized into two schools.
Campus
Chieti
D'Annunzio University's 48.9 acres (19.8 ha) main campus is centered on Madonna delle Piane in Chieti Scalo, about 3 miles (5 km) northwest of downtown Chieti. Its facilities are organised within a unitary structure which includes natural elements and pre-existing buildings. It is the statutory seat of the university and contains the central administrative offices, including the rectorate and general directorate. Most of the D'Annunzio University's academic programs are located on the campus in Madonna delle Piane, which houses two schools and seven departments including the School of Advanced Studies. It contains the main libraries of the university as well as five research centres.
It is the home of Rectorate Auditorium which serves as the university's main venue for music concerts, lectures, and academic ceremonies. Giardino dei Semplici is a botanical garden operated by the D'Annunzio University. It is located on the southwest corner of the campus in Madonna delle Piane and hosts a collection of over 400 medicinal plant species. The Nature Trail is an educational trail running across the campus area and covering 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi). Many of the university's sports facilities are located in the campus.
D'Annunzio University provides housing for undergraduates, graduate students, and professional students at the Mediterranean Village, a residence hall located on the eastside of the main campus. It contains a library and conference hall as well as a medical centre. The residential house originally provided accommodation for athletes of the 2009 Mediterranean Games. The campus is served by Rete Ferroviaria Italiana at the Chieti–Madonna delle Piane railway station, which connects the university to the Rome–Sulmona–Pescara railway line.
Pescara
Viale Pindaro campus spans 6.29 acres (2.55 ha) in Porta Nuova, located immediately south of downtown Pescara. Situated within the urban area of the city, its academic buildings were designed according to modern architecture and through the use of environmentally friendly construction practices. Nature Reserve Pineta Dannunziana, Aurum Museum and Pescara's Citadel of Justice are located in its surrounding area. Viale Pindaro campus is the home of six departments and one school, as well as one library. It is also houses the university language centre and the local office of the Erasmus Student Network. Located at the intersection of the Citadel of Justice and Viale Pindaro, Palazzo Micara is perhaps the campus' most prominent structure. A residential hall is located in a neighbourhood half a mile northeast of the campus.
Other
D'Annunzio University provides a number of undergraduate and postgraduate detached courses in the cities of Vasto, Lanciano and Torre de' Passeri. Torrevecchia Teatina is the home of the Distance Learning Centre, structured in the research doctorate in e-learning, development and delivery. It also houses the Leonardo da Vinci University, which was created on the initiative of the D'Annunzio University Foundation.
Organization
The university's formal head is the Rector, currently Sergio Caputi. The Rector is elected every four years by the board of trustees. The role of the Rector is to represent the university and to convene and chair the board of directors, the executive committee, and the academic senate. The Rector may appoint one or more Vice Rectors to which it can delegate the exercise of certain functions. D'Annunzio University provides undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate education, in addition to a range of international programs in multiple fields of study. It is divided into thirteen departments, which are primary centres where teaching and research co-exist to promote scientific activities for different educational areas. Two or more departments, grouped according to criteria of disciplinary affinity, work as connecting structures referred to as schools.
Schools and departments
School of Medicine and Health Sciences
Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences
Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences
Department of Psychology, Humanistic Studies and Territorial Sciences
Department of Medical, Oral and Biotechnological Sciences
School of Economics, Business, Law and Sociological Sciences
Department of Economics
Department of Law and Social Sciences
Department of Architecture
Department of Business Economics
Department of Pharmacy
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
Department of Literature, Arts and Social Sciences
Department of Modern Languages, Literatures and Cultures
Department of Philosophy, Pedagogical Sciences and Quantitative Economics
Affiliations
D'Annunzio University is accredited by the European University Association and a number of additional professional and educational accrediting agencies, including the European Network of Physiotherapy in Higher Education, the International Long Term Ecological Research Network, and the Emblema Network. It is a member of the Mediterranean Universities Union, the Netval Research Universities Network, AlmaLaurea, and the Interuniversity Consortium of Northeastern Italy for Automatic Computing.
Academics
Libraries
The D'Annunzio University Library System consists of subject and interdisciplinary libraries as well as library funding of the sites of Chieti and Pescara. The collection covers virtually all disciplines and includes a wide array of formats – from books and journals to manuscripts and maps. Increasingly collections are digital and are accessible on the Internet via the library web page or the library catalog. The university library system also maintains subscriptions to a number of online databases which can be accessed from any student account on or off campus. There are also various specialized libraries and archives.
The Medical and Scientific Library is the main science library for D'Annunzio University. It is located on the campus in Chieti, which also houses the Ettore Paratore Library. Paratore's collections focus on Humanities, Social Sciences, and Education, and occupies three floors. The seat of Pescara is the home of a unified library centre with individual sections focusing on Architecture, Foreign Languages and Literatures, Economics and Management Sciences. It houses over 129,000 books and offers nearly 300 seats.
Museums
D'Annunzio University offers a wide range of collections which are organised into the Museum of Biomedical Sciences. It is located at Palazzo Arnaldo Mussolini in the historic centre of Chieti and was established in 1994 under the presidency of Luigi Capasso. The institution is dedicated to the knowledge and dissemination of natural sciences and history of science, focusing on biological and medical notions arising from research in archaeology, medicine and palaeontology. The permanent exhibition consists of more than 19,000 records and spans an area of over . The most celebrated items in the museum include vertebrate fossils from the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.
The Museum of Biomedical Sciences is also open to the general public and provides educational programming. It includes an auditorium and a special library, as well as a number of scientific laboratories for activities of archaeological conservation and research in anthropology. It receives about 13,000 visitors every year. The institution is a member of the International Council of Museums.
Rankings
In its 2017 report, Il Sole 24 Ore ranked D'Annunzio University as the 27th-best public university in Italy. The SCImago Institutions Rankings listed it at number 25 among the top universities nationwide, and number 502 overall among the world best universities. D'Annunzio University was included in the 2018 U.S. News & World Report of the world's top 1000 universities. Its School of Medicine and Health Sciences was also rated one of the world's top 600 medical institutions. According to the 2018 ANVUR report, it has the top-ranked department of physical sciences nationwide.
In the 2017 issue of the CWTS Leiden Ranking, D'Annunzio University was ranked 572nd among world universities. The University Ranking by Academic Performance ranked it 38th among national universities and 712nd overall among academic institutions worldwide. In addition, it was included among the top 500 universities of Europe by Webometrics Ranking of World Universities and is one of the 48 Italian higher education institutions to appear in the 2017 report of the Center for World University Rankings.
Research
D'Annunzio University has long been associated with basic and advanced scientific research. In addition to state funding, it receives financial support from the D'Annunzio University Foundation, an organization which exists to manage gifts and donations to the university. The Foundation manages the university's endowment, which helps provide support for long-term university goals and for other scientific purposes. In addition to research conducted in the individual academic schools and departments, D'Annunzio University includes a number of research centres and institutes, including the Centre for Research in Aging (CeSI), the Institute of Advanced Biomedical Technologies (ITAB), a clinical research center, the Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Centre, and the CeSI Biotech Department. The former is accredited by the United Nations Economic and Social Council. The institutes scientific works have been published on major academic journals, including PNAS and PLOS One. An operational unit of sports medicine is centred on the International Centre for Professional Training (CIAPI). D'Annunzio University has also established a botanical garden known as Giardino dei Semplici, containing a collection of herbs and woody plants related to traditional medicine which are used as an additional resource for scientific research.
Notable people
D'Annunzio University's faculty has included scholars such as linguist and politician Tullio De Mauro, teleologist Vincenzo Fagiolo, writers Antonio Porta and Carlo Vecce, architect Giorgio Grassi, athlete Pietro Mennea, biologist Alberto Oliverio, musicologist Diego Carpitella, historian John Foot, linguist Pietro Trifone, psychiatrist Rita El Khayat, lawyers Flavia Lattanzi and Franco Gaetano Scoca, philosopher Sergio Cotta, economist Fabio Fortuna, and physicians Giovanni Gasbarrini and Roberto Paganelli. D'Annunzio University has produced alumni distinguished in their respective fields. Many graduates have been notable in the political arena, including deputy Maurizio Acerbo and mayor Luciano D'Alfonso. Other notable alumni include journalist Giampiero Catone, writer Giada Trebeschi, and painter Luciano de Liberato, among others.
See also
List of universities in Italy
List of contemporary universities in Europe
Giardino dei Semplici, Chieti
Museum of Biomedical Sciences
Leonardo da Vinci University
Notes
External links
1960 establishments in Italy
Universities and colleges in Abruzzo
Universities and colleges established in 1960
Education in Abruzzo
Universities in Italy
Gabriele D'Annunzio
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4946476
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palau%20Nacional
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Palau Nacional
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The (Catalan for 'National Palace') is a building on the hill of Montjuïc in Barcelona. It was the main site of the 1929 International Exhibition. It was designed by Eugenio Cendoya and Enric Catà under the supervision of Pere Domènech i Roura.
Since 1934 it has been home to the National Art Museum of Catalonia.
With a ground surface of 32,000 m2, the Spanish Renaissance-inspired building has a rectangular floor plan flanked by two side and one rear square sections, with an elliptical dome in the centre. The fountains by the staircases leading to the palace are the work of Carles Buïgas.
Between 1996 and 2004, the palace was extended to accommodate the National Art Museum's entire collection of over 5,000 artworks.
First projects of the Palau Nacional
Ahead of the 1929 International Exhibition, Barcelona had already commenced urbanizing parts of Montjuïc. From the second half of the 19th century, projects were presented regarding the installation of public facilities in the area. Up until this time, Montjuïc had only been used for its resources: pockets of private properties and numerous quarries. The lack of roadways made it area difficult to access, however.
A project by Ildefons Cerdà and another by Josep Amargós in 1894 proposed to convert the mountain into a residential area. A similar later plan was Léon Jaussely's 1905 Pla d'Enllaços.
Another idea for the celebration of the exhibition in Montjuïc was proposed in 1909 when Manuel Vega i March suggested that the culminating point of the development should be 'a great Temple of Art, a summary and compendium of our most prodigious knowledge'.
Finally, in 1913, it was decided that Montjuïc would be the definite location for the Exhibition of Electric Industries (Exposició d'Indústries Electriques), promoted by the industry and the city council of Barcelona.
The initial plan proposed by architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch in 1915 was basic in design, depicting a large central avenue crowned by a rectangular palace with a great dome, the top of which had a statue of a winged Victory surrounded by eight towers.
In 1920, the same architect designed a detailed project named (Palace of Ancient Art), which later became known as (Palace of the Nations).
In order to construct the dome, a system was conceived to include a combination of a concrete and geodesic dome structure. The construction of this design began in 1923.
However, in September of the same year, the arrival general Miguel Primo de Rivera to power brought on the dismissal of Puig i Cadafalch from his position as president of the Commonwealth of Catalonia and his subsequent distancing from the Exhibition project.
The distancing of Puig i Cadafalch from the project was not only for political reasons, but financial ones as well.
In a document titled Advancement of the Budget of the Exhibition, the budget valued the Palace at 8,080,000 pesetas.
Another reason for the new organizational committee to avoid Puig i Cadafalch's continuation was the transfer of the contract from the construction company to another company , contradicting the statement of conditions previously agreed.
As a result, the new committee decided to suspend the construction works of the palace.
Competition of 1924
On the 18th of July 1924 the engineer Marià Rubió i Bellver, member of the organization and lawyer of J.M. Almirall Carbó, launched a competition of projects. The participation was open to all Spanish architects, who could present an individual project or one together with the proposal of a construction company. It was the latter option that gave way to the final winner.
Ten projects in total were presented. That of José María Martín was rejected, as it was considered outside of the scope of the project. The nine successful entries were made public in January 1925:
Benet Guitart i Trulls: The architect with the longest standing qualification, he proposed a structure made of iron that was based on an Islamic style of architecture.
Juan Brugera Rogent: An architect from Madrid who presented a purely neoclassical design, with the main façade consisting of a Corinthian colonnade and a dome 65 meters in diameter.
Salvador Soteras i Taberner: This project suggested a palace where the ground floor could not be seen from Plaça Espanya. The structure was reduced to a minimum; however it did include a dome and two towers. The architect received an honorable mention, although almost posthumously, as he died in the spring of 1925.
Rafael Bergamín, Luis Blanco Soler and Ricardo García Guereta: Three architects belonging to the school of Madrid, their project was one that deviated from the earlier design by Puig i Cadafalch. Classical in style, it presented a façade of columns and a pediment and was the only proposal which did not suggest a dome or towers. The project also included a rear façade which included a sculpture realized by Victorio Macho.
Eduardo Fernández Díaz: The design was one of a neoclassical style with a central cupola.
Eugenio Cendoya and Enric Catà: The winning project (see below for more details).
Nicolau Maria Rubió i Tudurí, Ramon Reventós and Francesc Folguera: Their design attempted to harmonize with the palaces constructed by Puig i Cadafalch. Curiously, this project and that of Eduardo Fernandez were the only ones which did not feature in the magazine Arquitectura, which published the results of the competition and their illustrations.
Ramon Térmens Mauri: One of the most disparate projects presented in relation to that designed by Puig i Cadafalch, it proposed the main façade be on the street of the stadium instead of facing Plaça Espanya. The Great Hall has a cruciform plan, with large vaults and a central dome.
Jaume Santomà and Mariano Romaní: The youngest architects of all the entries. Romaní was said to have not yet completed his architectural studies at the time. Their proposal was clearly based on that of Puig i Cadafalch, but with easier construction solutions. They received second prize.
The winning proposal was that of Eugenio Cendoya and Enric Catà, with honorable mentions given to Salvador Soteras and Santomà i Romaní.
The president of the presiding jury was the then-mayor of Barcelona, Darius Rumeu i Freixa. The winning project also included the collaboration of the constructor Antoni Montseny, and in some publications, the name Pere Domènech i Roura appears, who was already the general manager of construction of the Exhibition.
Executive project
During 1925 the competition, winners made the implementation plan of their project. One of the most important factors was the guarantee of development of the work in a given timeframe. A mechanism to bring the construction time forward was found in the rationalization of architectonic elements; searching for repetition that would serve to save time during the building process.
Three materials served to be most important during the construction; concrete, artificial stone and iron. According to the architects themselves, the artificial stone, manufactured on-site, is T-shaped in order to provide a good grip on the wall structures between which they are applied.
A norm was presented by which all walls and framework were to be realized in concrete and the lost formwork in artificial stone, incorporating the visible decoration.
The flat roofs were constructed using a system of reinforced concrete and coffering, which formed the final decoration. As a result, the interior comprises iron housing, filled with concrete to one side, and the other treated with decorative plaster work.
For the lobby, stairs and basement, the so-called 'Catalan Vault' was used, consisting of flat-laid brick work. Amongst the pieces of artificial stone made on-site are sixteen columns supporting the dome, each of one meter in diameter and ten in height, and hollow in structure. Each column is made from a singular piece of artificial stone. The structure of the Great Hall measures 46 x 74 meters with a height of 70 meters.
On the 30th of June 1926 the first stone of the construction was placed, an occasion marked by diverse authorities including the president of the executive committee of the Exhibition, Mariano de Foronda, the mayor of Barcelona Darius Rumeu i Freixa, and the director of construction Pere Domènech i Roura.
Architecture
The design of the National Palace is a unified style of Spanish Renaissance architecture with an air of academic classicism.
It is the result of different functional forms and construction procedures, resolved by a technical language attributed to the Barcelona School of Architecture.
The construction of the Palace consists of the combination of traditional systems based on symmetry, as clearly outlined in its composition and, that of the building procedure dominated by more modern techniques and materials such as the use of concrete.
The building has two floors: one base or ground floor and another main floor which holds double pilasters, marking the great blind wall panels. At the north-eastern part of the structure lies a subterranean space, which at the moment of construction was destined for the installation of kitchens. There was also a set of rooms constructed: the Throne Room, rooms for the King and Queen and, to the front of the building, the museum section. To the back of the building an area for events was created, with a small tea room or restaurant, located in the body of space which stands behind the Great Hall.
The façade consists of a central body flanked by two smaller side ones. The center topped by a large dome reminiscent of that of St. Paul's in London or that of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, with two smaller domes on each side. At the four angles corresponding to those of the Great Hall stand four towers that resemble those of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostella or the Giralda of Seville.
Interior decoration
The architectural project not only included architectural decoration such as columns, pediments and moldings but also considered such interior decoration as murals and sculptures.
The ornamentation of the interior spaces depended on the organizational committee who resulted in giving the amount of 1,200,000 pesetas towards its realization. Responsible for the project management was Louis Plenduira, curator of the Fine Arts Exhibition. The work commenced in winter of 1928, leaving the artists three months to carry out their pieces. The style of the art work produced belongs to that of which prevailed in Catalonia at the time namely the noucentisme style, which is found especially in the decoration of the main dome and the domes under the Throne Room, the Great Hall and the Tea Room.
The neo-Renaissance architecture contrasts with its 20th-century decoration by sculptors Enric Casanoves, Josep Dunyach, Federic Marès and Josep Llimona, and painters Francesc d'Ássís Galí, Josep de Togores, Manuel Humbert, Josep Obiols i Palau, Joan Colom i Augustí and Francesc Labarta.
The Great Hall
Beyond the lobby is the Great Hall (), or Oval Room (). Due to its large dimensions, it was conceived as a space for the hosting of great events; from the official ceremony to the inauguration of the Exhibition, as well as concerts, balls, galas and conferences.
The hall is 2,300 m2 and has standing room for 1,300 people.
The Oval Room hosted the opening ceremony of the Exhibition, presided by Alfonso XIII and Queen Victoria Eugenie.
The Great Hall is covered by an oval shaped coffered vault, with large columns dominating the decoration. The column's shafts are adorned with a Renaissance grotesque decoration. The decoration is simple, consisting of ornamental borders and basic vegetation motifs, which line both the arches and the coves of the vault.
Another design element of the Salon is the fifty-six small heraldic shields which occupy the space between the arches and represent the fifty Spanish provinces which existed in 1929. The six remaining shields depict musical instruments and are located in the part of the Salon where the organ is found.
For the Universal Exhibition of 1888 in Barcelona two electric organs were installed in the Salon of the Queen of Regent of the Palace of the Fine Arts (Palau de les Belles Arts); this initiative being faithful to the tradition undertaken in other Exhibitions such as that of Glasgow in 1901, of Saint Louis in 1904 and that of San Diego in 1915.
It was thus seen appropriate to continue this tradition and so install an organ for the new Exhibition in Barcelona. The organ was built in 1929 by E.F. Walcker & Cie. from Ludwigsburg (Germany). The mechanisms entirely electric and consisted of 154 music registers divided into five keyboards and a pedal keyboard of thirty-two notes, with more than two thousand organ pipes. It was inaugurated by Professor Alfred Sittard on the 6th of July 1929. The organ was restored and enlarged in 1955, wherein two thousand five hundred new pipes were added to the previous amount. With the expansion of the organ it now contains six keyboards and measures a total of eleven meters in height and 34 meters in width.
Throne Room
The Throne Room (), also known as the Conference or Proceedings Room (), is that decorated with the most noble of materials. Each wall surface is treated with different coloured marbles, realized in the formation of geometric designs. Above the throne hangs a portrait of King Alfonso XIII. It is an oil painting which was commissioned for the occasion of the 1929 Exhibition and was realized by the Barcelona painter Richard Canals. The lateral walls of the room are decorated with allegorical paintings referencing the Exhibition of 1888 and realized by Francesc Labarta; others relate to the Exhibition of 1929 and were painted by Xavier Nogués.
The painter Josep Obiols i Palau also contributed with a series of four frescos depicting the cardinal virtues: Fortitude, Temperance, Justice and Prudence, located in the four tympana of the arches in the Throne Room.
Principal dome
For the decoration of the dome, Lluís Plandiura suggested that is should be entrusted to one of the best Catalan artists of the time.
For this reason the central part of the dome (a surface area of about 300 m2) was realized by Francesc d'Assís Galí, who was contracted to represent 'in a tremendous way, the grandeur of Spain, justified in a symbolic composition defined by four fields: Religion, Science, Fine Arts and Land'.
Religion: The scene of Christ crucified, at his sides are the figures of a martyr and an angel, at his feet, an infidel. Another scene depicts a Saracen leader handing over the keys of a city to the Christian army.
Science: A female allegory of geometry and triumphs of science, accompanied by Miguel Servet and his investigation of the circulatory system; Blasco de Garay, the inventor of navigation with use of the paddle wheel; and an Arab from Córdoba observing the stars.
The Fine Arts: A woman with a rainbow and a laurel branch. Two female figures symbolising Architecture hold a building model. There are also representations of Painting, Sculpture, Literature and Music.
The Earth: A female figure holding the moon with one hand and the sun lying at her feet. There are also several painted fruits of the earth relating to agriculture, industry and livestock.
The drum of the dome consists of eight panels representing ancient civilization paintings, realized by Josep Togores and Manual Humbert. The shells were painted by the aforementioned artists in the grisaille technique and depict four allegories relating to the former kingdoms of León, Castille, Navarre and the Crown of Aragon. Under the shells, four sculptures are located in niches representing to one side, Law and Force by sculptor Josep Dunyach; and to the other side, Work and Religion, by sculptor Enric Casanovas.
Art in Spain
The 1929 International Exhibition was organised around three thematic areas: Industry, Sport and Art, the last of which led to a grand exhibition in the National Palace titled el arte en España ('Art in Spain').
A 'Regulation and Guarantee of the dedicated section of Art in Spain at the National Palace' was developed, whereby the purpose of the collection was outlined:
The organisers chose highlights of the history of art, particularly for their value and significance, soliciting the works from their owners as well as accepting proposals.
They gathered in total some 5,000 works of diverse nature from museums, individuals, religious institutions, libraries and archives from different parts of Spain. In total the works are said to have had a value of some 800 million pesetas.
The collection was organised in chronological order, from the epoch of Roman Spain to the period of Isabella II. Months later, a pre-historic section was added to the exhibition, which was located in the basement of the Palace.
Amongst the pieces created exclusively for the collection were a number of commissioned dioramas which highlight the history of Spain, realised by the same artists that had participated in the decoration of the Palace. There were fifteen final themes in total, part of the twenty-seven initially planned for the exhibition:
Recceswinth
Al-Mansur
The Exile of El Cid
Romanesque Painting
James I Cries at the Bodies of the Montcada Brothers
Alfonso X the Wise
Peter the Cruel
The Entrance of Alfonso V to Naples
The Arrival of Columbus to Barcelona
Friar Luis de León
Charles V at Yuste
Philip II and the Duchess of Alba
Quevedo on the Steps of San Felipe
Charles III
Inauguration of the first Barcelona-Mataró railway
Restoration
Architects Eugenio Cendoya, Enric Catà and Pere Domènech i Roura constructed Palau Nacional as a temporary building for the Exhibition of 1929. The speed of the construction and the modesty of the materials used meant that a restoration of the structure was called for in 1934, when it became the National Art Museum of Catalonia. It was the ground floor rooms which underwent the most important transformation.
The architect Ramon Reventós was appointed in charge of the renovation, in which they removed excess interior decorations and smoothed the wall surfaces to prepare for the display of paintings. They also undertook the creation of an exterior water collection network to prevent moisture leaks and repaired the cracks which had become visible on some of the wall surfaces.
The Palau Nacional has undergone many different interventions. A few years later the first-floor rooms were rendered unusable after damage to the roof during the Spanish Civil War. This damage was repaired during the restoration undertaken in the 1960s to prepare for the exhibition on Romanesque art, a project directed by the head of Museums of Art of Barcelona, Joan Ainaud de Lasarte.
From the 1960s until the 1980s the Italian architect Gae Aulenti was contracted to rectify the problems that surfaced during the exhibition. As a large number of artworks has accumulated, it became critical to make use of the spacious interiors and high ceilings as exhibition spaces. In 1990, at the hands of Enric Steegman, renovation began. It took longer than expected, however, due to technical complications. As a result, the works were carried out in phases, and the museum collections were opened gradually. For the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, they could only reveal part of the museum besides the Great Hall, where the inauguration of the Games was held.
In 2000 the final phase of the renovation began, which included the collaboration of architect Josep Benedito. In 2003 the newly complete temporary exhibitions space was inaugurated and finally in 2004 the work on the museum came to a close. Now with a total surface area of 51,600 m2, this added a total of 15,300 meters squared to the original surface area of the building. The water fountain located to the front of the Palau Nacional also underwent a restoration process. The official opening ceremony, attended by King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia, took place on the 16th of December 2004.
In 2009 work was again started on the Palau, this time under the direction of architects Enric Steegman and Joan Ardèvol, with the objective of restoring the exterior projections of the building, as well as the surrounding gardens, as explained by the administrator of the National Art Museum:
References
Bibliography
External links
Rehabilitació del Palau Nacional
Visita virtual de l'edifici
Palaces in Barcelona
1929 Barcelona International Exposition
World's fair architecture in Barcelona
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danton-class%20battleship
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Danton-class battleship
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The Danton-class battleship was a class of six semi-dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy (Marine Nationale) before World War I. The ships were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet after commissioning in 1911. After the beginning of World War I in early August 1914, five of the sister ships participated in the Battle of Antivari. They spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent warships of the Central Powers from breaking out into the Mediterranean. One ship was sunk by a German submarine in 1917.
The remaining five ships were obsolescent by the end of the war and most were assigned to secondary roles. Two of the sisters were sent to the Black Sea to support the Whites during the Russian Civil War. One ship ran aground and the crew of the other mutinied after one of its members was killed during a protest against intervention in support of the Whites. Both ships were quickly condemned and later sold for scrap. The remaining three sisters received partial modernizations in the mid-1920s and became training ships until they were condemned in the mid-1930s and later scrapped. The only survivor still afloat at the beginning of World War II in August 1939 had been hulked in 1931 and was serving as part of the navy's torpedo school. She was captured by the Germans when they occupied Vichy France in 1942 and scuttled by them after the Allied invasion of southern France in 1944.
Background and description
The Danton-class ships were ordered as the second tranche of a French naval expansion plan that began in response to the growth of the Imperial German Navy after 1900. Discussions began in 1905 for an enlarged version of the preceding design. French analyses of the Russian defeat by the Japanese at the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 credited the latter's victory to the large number of medium-caliber hits that heavily damaged the superstructures of the Russian ships and started many fires that the crews had difficulty extinguishing. The superior speed and handling of the Japanese ships was also credited with a role in their victory.
The French decided that the increasing range of naval combat dictated the use of the gun in lieu of the gun used on the Liberté class as the larger gun had a greater ability to penetrate armor at longer ranges while still having a good rate of fire. The navy also wanted a faster ship, but this could only be done by reducing armor thicknesses without exceeding the limit imposed by the Minister of the Navy, Gaston Thomson, for budgetary reasons. A preliminary design with the usual triple-expansion steam engines was accepted in March 1906, but various modifications were requested. One proposal was made to replace the 240-millimeter guns turrets with single turrets to create an "all-big-gun" ship, like the British battleship HMS Dreadnought, but this was rejected as it would have raised the displacement above the 18,000-metric ton limit and the slower-firing 305-millimeter guns would have reduced the volume and weight of fire to an unacceptable degree.
Initial parliamentary discussion of the design focused less on the anticipated cost of the ships than the idea that France was being left behind in the technological arms race, particularly in regard to the innovative Parsons steam turbines used by HMS Dreadnought. In response the navy sent a technical mission to inspect the Parsons factory, several shipyards, and gun factories as well as the Barr & Stroud rangefinder factory in May 1906 and concluded that the turbines offered more power in a smaller volume than triple-expansion steam engines at a significant increase in fuel consumption at low speeds. Two ships had already been ordered from the naval dockyards three months previously when the navy decided to use the turbines in July. To further complicate things, Thomson requested a study using the heavier and more powerful 45-caliber 305-millimeter Modèle 1906 gun on 3 August while not endorsing the navy's decision to use turbines. On 6 October the director of naval construction, M. Dudebout, urgently requested a decision while recommending that three ships use triple-expansion steam engines and the other three use steam turbines. He felt that this would minimize delays and expense as the design needed to be modified to accommodate the turbines and their four propeller shafts, no company in France knew how to build the turbines, and the latter were three times as expensive as steam engines. Thomson was inclined to accept Dudebout's recommendation, but prevaricated until December, after parliamentary debates showed overwhelming support for turbines in all six ships. Contracts for the remaining four ships were signed on 26 December, the day after the conclusion of the debate. Thomson also delayed in deciding on which boilers to use. He sent another technical mission to Britain to look at Babcock & Wilcox's design in April 1907, but did not make a decision in favor of French-built boilers until 3 June 1908, after all the ships had been laid down.
The design was estimated to displace before the adoption of the heavier Modèle 1906 gun required a new and larger turret to handle the gun which meant that the turret's supporting structure also had to be reinforced. In an unsuccessful bid to reduce the displacement, many sections of armor were reduced in thickness, but the ships exceeded even the design estimate as built.
General description
The Dantons were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Liberté class. The ships were long at the waterline and long overall, over longer than the earlier ships. They had a beam of and a draft of at deep load. The Danton-class ships were slightly overweight; they actually displaced at normal load. This was over more than the earlier ships. When serving as flagships, their crew consisted of 40 officers and 875 enlisted men. Without an admiral and his staff embarked, the crew numbered 28 officers and 824 enlisted men.
Propulsion
The Danton-class ships had four license-built Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, each of which drove a single propeller, using steam from 26 coal-fired Belleville or Niclausse boilers. Each boiler type was installed on three ships of the class. The boilers were housed in two large compartments, 17 in the forward boiler room that used the three forward funnels and 9 in the aft boiler which exhausted through the rear pair of funnels. The turbines were amidships, between the boiler rooms, in three compartments. The center engine room housed the turbines for the two center propeller shafts and the turbine for each of the outer shafts had their own compartment flanking the center engine room. The turbines were rated at a total of using steam provided by the boilers at a working pressure of . Designed for a maximum speed of , they handily exceeded that during their sea trials with speeds ranging from .
The Niclausse boilers were not well suited for use with turbines and burned more coal than the Belleville boilers. They also produced copious amounts of smoke and sparks; occasionally even flames from incomplete combustion of the coal. The Dantons carried a maximum of of coal which gave them an estimated range from at a speed of , depending on which boilers were fitted. Their endurance was almost half that of their predecessors due to the uneconomical fuel consumption of their turbines at low speeds and meant that they needed frequent coaling stops during the war.
Armament
The main battery of the Danton-class ships consisted of four 305 mm Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin-gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. Each turret could elevate up to +12° that gave the guns a maximum range of . The guns fired armor-piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of at a rate of 1.5 rounds per minute. Each turret stored eight rounds along the rear wall and their propellant was kept between the floor of the firing chamber and the bottom of the turret. The ships normally stowed 75 rounds per gun, but space was available for an additional 10 rounds. Their secondary armament consisted of twelve 240mm/50 Modèle 1902 guns in six twin-gun turrets, three on each side of the ship. Maximum elevation of the turrets was +13° and the shell could be fired to a range of . The guns could fire at a rate of two rounds per minute. Each turret had space for 12 shells and the necessary 36 propellant charges; 80 rounds per gun was normally carried, but maximum capacity was 100 rounds per gun.
The Dantons carried a number of smaller guns to defend themselves against torpedo boats. These included sixteen Modèle 1908 Schneider guns mounted in unarmored embrasures in the hull sides. These guns had a range of and could fire approximately 15 rounds per minute. Because the shell hoists were slow and the shells difficult to handle in their three-round cases in the magazines, a total of 576 rounds were stored close to the guns in ready-use lockers. Each gun was provided with 400 rounds, but the maximum storage available was 430 rounds per gun. The ships also mounted ten Hotchkiss guns in pivot mounts on the superstructure. They had the same rate of fire as the larger 75 mm guns, but only a range of . Each gun had 36 rounds nearby in ready-use lockers and the ships were provided with a maximum of 800 rounds per gun.
The battleships were also armed with two submerged torpedo tubes, one on each broadside. Each tube was angled 10° forward and 3° downward. Each ship carried six Modèle 1909R torpedoes. They had a warhead and two speed/range settings: at or at . The Dantons also had storage space for 10 Harlé Modèle 1906 mines, which had an explosive charge of of guncotton. These could not be laid by the ships themselves, but had to be off-loaded for use.
Fire control
Finding the British Barr & Stroud coincidence rangefinder design superior to existing French designs, the Dantons mounted a pair of FQ rangefinders atop the conning tower and a rangefinder on each turret top for use by the turret commanders. Integrating these into the overall fire-control system took some time, so eight Ponthus & Therrode stadimeters, which required knowledge of the target's mast height and overall length, were used in the interim. During the war, the rangefinders were replaced by longer, more precise instruments. A triple model was installed above the conning tower and 2-meter models replaced the smaller ones on the turret roofs.
Armor
The Danton-class ships were built with of armor, 36 percent of their designed displacement and almost more than their predecessors. Their waterline armored belt had a maximum thickness of between the fore and aft turrets that reduced to towards the bow and stern. The belt consisted of two strakes of armor, high, that covered the sides of the hull up to the main deck and extended below the normal waterline. Most of the lower armor plates tapered to a thickness of along their bottom edge and the upper plates tapered to amidships and down to at the ends of the ship. The belt armour was backed by of teak. It extended almost the entire length of the ship, with only the very stern unprotected. At the stern, the belt terminated in a transverse bulkhead; the forward transverse bulkhead connected the sides of the forward barbette to the belt.
The main gun turrets had of armor on their faces, sides, and roofs of three layers of mild-steel plates. Their barbettes were protected by of armor which thinned to below the upper protected deck. The secondary gun turrets had faces, sides, and a roof of three layers of plates. The 240-millimeter turret barbettes had sides . The front of the conning tower had armor thick and its sides were . The walls of its communication tube down to the fire-control center (poste central de tir) were 200 millimeters thick down to the upper protected deck.
The ships had two protected decks (the pont blindée supérieur and the pont blindée inférieur (PBI)), each formed from triple layers of mild steel or thick. The lower of these, the PBI, curved downwards towards the sides of the hull to meet the torpedo bulkhead and the curved portion was reinforced by the substitution of a plate of armor in lieu of the uppermost 15-millimeter plate of mild steel. The PBI also sloped downward toward the bow and was similarly reinforced to form an armored glacis. The Dantons had an internal anti-torpedo bulge deep along the side of the hull below the waterline. It was backed by a torpedo bulkhead that consisted of three layers of 15-millimeter armor plate. Inboard of the bulkhead were 16 watertight compartments, 12 of which were normally kept empty, but the 4 abreast the boiler rooms were used as coal bunkers. This system of protection had only mixed success in practice as Danton capsized in 40 minutes after two torpedo hits while Voltaire survived her two torpedoes.
Ships
Construction and careers
The Dantons took a long time to build. Construction was prolonged by a number of factors, chief of which were the 500 plus changes were made to the original design and in the inability of Thomson to make a timely decision. This meant that the builders sometimes had to rip out already completed sections to incorporate the modifications. Other problems were shortages of necessary infrastructure at the shipyards, lengthy delays in delivery of parts, and labor shortages and a lack of building slips in the naval dockyards. For example, water in the lower end of the newly completed Point-du-Jour slip at Brest meant that building Dantons stern was delayed four months after the bow began and construction of Mirabeau could not begin until the armored cruiser was launched.
After commissioning in 1911, all six ships were assigned to the First Battle Squadron (Première escadre de ligne) of the Mediterranean Fleet where they participated in the fleet maneuvers in May–June 1913. When the war began, the squadron, under the command of Vice Admiral Paul Chocheprat, was at sea preparing to escort troop convoys from French North Africa to France. Some of the ships unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser and the light cruiser in the Western Mediterranean and escorted convoys. Later that month, all of the ships, except Mirabeau, participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro-Hungarian protected cruiser. They spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent German, Austro-Hungarian and Turkish warships from breaking out. Mirabeau participated in the attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia in late 1916.
Post war
Diderot, Mirabeau and Vergniaud briefly participated in the occupation of Constantinople after the end of the war and the latter two ships were sent to the Black Sea in early 1919 during the Southern Russia Intervention. Vergniauds crew mutinied after one of its members was killed when a protest against intervention in support of the Whites was bloodily suppressed and forced the return of the French ships supporting the Whites. Mirabeau ran aground in February 1919 off the coast of the Crimea and could not be refloated until some of her guns and armor were removed.
All of the surviving ships except Condorcet were reduced to second-line roles by 1920. Mirabeau was not repaired after her salvage and was hulked for a few years before being sold. Vergniaud was in bad shape and became a target ship before she was sold for scrap. Voltaire and Diderot had their underwater protection modernized in the early 1920s and became training ships before they were condemned in the mid-1930s. Condorcet was assigned to the Channel Division in the early 1920s before she too had her underwater protection modernized. She also became a training ship after its completion, but she was hulked in 1931 and became a depot ship for the torpedo school. The ship was captured intact when the Germans occupied Toulon in November 1942 and was used by them as a barracks ship. Condorcet was scuttled by the Germans in August 1944 and refloated the following year before being scrapped.
Dantons wreck was discovered in 2007 between Algeria and Sardinia at a depth of over .
Notes
Bibliography
External links
page from Battleship-cruisers.co.uk
Battleship classes
Ship classes of the French Navy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy%20Flag
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Fairy Flag
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The Fairy Flag (Scottish Gaelic: Am Bratach Sìth) is an heirloom of the chiefs of Clan MacLeod. It is held in Dunvegan Castle along with other notable heirlooms, such as the Dunvegan Cup and Sir Rory Mor's Horn. The Fairy Flag is known for the numerous traditions of celtic fairies, and magical properties associated with it. The flag is made of silk, is yellow or brown in colour, and is a square of side about . It has been examined numerous times in the last two centuries, and its condition has somewhat deteriorated. It is ripped and tattered, and is considered to be extremely fragile. The flag is covered in small red "elf dots". In the early part of the 19th century, the flag was also marked with small crosses, but these have since disappeared. The silk of the flag has been stated to have originated in the Far East, and was therefore extremely precious, which led some to believe that the flag may have been an important relic of some sort. Others have attempted to associate the flag with the Crusades or even a raven banner, which was said to have been used by various Viking leaders in the British Isles.
There are numerous traditions and stories associated with the flag, most of which deal with its magical properties and mysterious origins. The flag is said to have originated as: a gift from the fairies to an infant chieftain; a gift to a chief from a departing fairy-lover; a reward for defeating an evil spirit. The various powers attributed to the Fairy Flag include: the ability to multiply a clan's military forces; the ability to save the lives of certain clanfolk; the ability to cure a plague on cattle; the ability to increase the chances of fertility; and the ability to bring herring into the loch at Dunvegan. Some traditions relate that if the flag were to be unfurled and waved more than three times, it would either vanish, or lose its powers forever.
Clan tradition, preserved in the early 19th century, tells how the Fairy Flag was entrusted to a family of hereditary standard bearers. Only the eldest male of this family was ever allowed to unfurl the flag; the first such hereditary standard bearer was given the honour of being buried inside the tomb of the chiefs, on the sacred isle of Iona. Tradition states that the flag was unfurled at several clan battles in the 15th and 16th centuries; the flag's magical powers are said to have won at least one of them. Another 19th-century tradition linked the flag to a prophecy which foretold the downfall of Clan MacLeod; but it also prophesied that, in the "far distant future", the clan would regain its power and raise its honour higher than ever before. In the mid-20th century, the Fairy Flag was said to have extinguished a fire at Dunvegan Castle, and to have given luck to servicemen flying bombing missions in the Second World War.
Description
In the 19th century, the writer Rev. Norman Macleod (1783–1862) recalled seeing the Fairy Flag during his childhood around 1799 (see relevant section below). He described the flag as then having crosses wrought in gold thread, and several "elf spots" stitched upon it. N. Macleod recollected that when the flag was examined, bits were taken off it from time to time; so much so, that later in his life he did not believe the flag still existed. In August 1814, Sir Walter Scott visited Dunvegan Castle on the Isle of Skye, and wrote of the visit in his diary. One of several items he mentioned seeing was the Fairy Flag. Scott described it as "a pennon of silk, with something like round red rowan-berries wrought upon it". John Francis Campbell saw the flag in 1871, and described it as being "made of yellow raw silk with figures and spots worked on it in red". In 1927, Roderick Charles MacLeod described the flag as then being square and brown. He measured it as about squared. He considered the flag to have originally been much larger; and remarked on its extreme fragility and the requirement for careful handling, if it should be handled at all. R. C. MacLeod noted N. Macleod's description of the flag, but observed that it now only contained the "elf spots"—there was then no evidence of any crosses upon what remained of the flag. R. C. MacLeod also observed that several tears in the flag had been carefully mended.
The flag was examined in the early 20th century by A. J. B. Wace of the Victoria and Albert Museum, who concluded that the silk was woven in either Syria or Rhodes, and the darns were made in the Near East. It was his opinion that the flag, in its original state, would have been quite precious, possibly a relic like the shirt of a saint. The belief at the time of this examination was the MacLeods were descended from Harald Hardrada, who spent some time in Constantinople in the 11th century. In line with this belief, it was suggested that the flag may have passed from Harald Hardrada down to the eponymous ancestor of the clan—Leod. The MacLeod Estate Office (Dunvegan Castle) website claims that experts have dated the flag to the 4th and 7th centuries—hundreds of years before the Crusades. The flag is currently held in Dunvegan Castle, along with other notable heirlooms such as the Dunvegan Cup and Sir Rory Mor's Horn.
Tradition and legend
Thomas Pennant (1772)
In 1772, Thomas Pennant made a tour of the Hebrides and later published an account of his travels. One of the things Pennant noted while visiting the Isle of Skye, was the Fairy Flag. According to Pennant, the flag was named "Braolauch shi", and was given to the MacLeods by Titania the "Ben-shi", wife of Oberon, king of the fairies. Titania blessed the flag with powers which would manifest when the flag was unfurled three times. On the third time, the flag and flag-bearer would be carried off by an invisible being, never to be seen again. The family of "Clan y Faitter" had the task of bearing the flag, and in return for their services, they possessed free lands in Bracadale. Pennant related how the flag had already been produced three times. The first occasion was in an unequal battle between the MacLeods and the Macdonalds of Clanranald. On the unfurling of the flag, the MacLeod forces were multiplied by ten. The second time the flag was unfurled to preserve the life of the lady of the clan, and thus saved the clan's heir. Pennant then declared that the flag was unfurled a third time to save his own life. He stated that the flag was by then so tattered that Titania did not seem to think it worth taking back. Pennant also noted the belief of the MacLeod's Norse ancestry and the magical raven banners said to have been used by the Vikings in the British Isles.
19th-century manuscript accounts of the flag
Much of the traditional history of the Fairy Flag is preserved in manuscript form. In the early part of the 20th century, Fred T. MacLeod noted one manuscript written around 1800, which he considered to be the most detailed description of the flag. The narrative which Fred T. MacLeod quotes is identical to that found in the Bannatyne manuscript, which documents the traditional history of Clan MacLeod. The Bannatyne manuscript dates to the 1830s but is thought to have been based upon earlier traditions.
Description
The c. 1800 manuscript stated that both the honour and the very existence of Clan MacLeod was thought to have depended upon the preservation of the Fairy Flag. Only the "highest and purest blood of the race" and the most renowned heroes, were selected to guard the flag when it was displayed. These twelve men, with a sword in hand, would stand just behind the chief who was always put in front. One family produced the hereditary keepers of the flag; and of this family, only the eldest living male could unfurl the flag. This family was called "Clan Tormad Vic Vurichie" ("the children of Tormod, son of Murchadh"), and was descended from Sìol Torcaill. The 20th century Hebridean author Alasdair Alpin MacGregor, when writing of the traditions of the flag, stated that the flag's bearers held lands on Skye near Bracadale for their services to the chiefs of Clan MacLeod. The first of the flag bearers from this family was buried within the same grave as the chief of the clan, on the island of Iona. The second, and last bearer, was buried at St Clements Church, in Rodel, on Harris. This man's remains were covered by a magnificent monument; the stone coffin in which his body was placed, was six feet deep. A movable iron grate rested about two feet from the lid, and the man's body rested upon the grate. The man's male descendants were also deposited within this coffin. This meant that when a newly deceased was placed within, the bones and dust of the previous occupant were sifted through the grate into the coffin below. The writer of the manuscript stated that in the time of his own father, the last male of this family was interred this way. The tomb was then sealed by this man's daughter. The c. 1800 manuscript also noted that this family, prior to its extinction, became miserably poor.
Unfurling at the Battle of Bloody Bay
The Bannatyne manuscript states that the flag was unfurled at the Battle of Bloody Bay in 1480. The manuscript related that during the battle, the clan's chief, William Dubh (c. 1415–1480), was slain, and in consequence his clan began to lose heart. A priest then ordered the flag's bearer, Murcha Breac, to unfurl the Fairy Flag to rally the clan. Up until this point, the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan were on the opposing side of their kinsmen, the MacLeods of Lewis. However, once the MacLeods of Lewis noticed that the flag had been unfurled, they switched sides to join forces with their kinsmen. Unfortunately for both MacLeod clans, the outcome of the battle had already been determined and they were on the losing side. Among the vast numbers of MacLeods slain were Murcha Breac and the twelve guardians of the flag. William Dubh is buried on the island of Iona with his predecessors, and the body of Murcha Breac is placed within the same tomb. The manuscript states that this was the greatest honour which could be bestowed upon his remains. R. C. MacLeod suggested that the MacLeod effigy within Iona Abbey may mark the burial of the first chiefs of the clan, as well as William Dubh, and the mentioned standard bearer. William Dubh is thought to have been the last MacLeod chief buried on Iona; his son, Alasdair Crotach (1450–1547), was buried in St Clements Church, on Harris.
Unfurling at the Battle of Glendale
According to the Bannatyne manuscript, the Fairy Flag was also unfurled during the Battle of Glendale, which the manuscript states to have been fought in about 1490. At one point during this conflict, both the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan, and the MacLeods of Lewis were on the verge of giving way to the invading MacDonalds. Just at this moment, the mother of Alasdair Crotach, chief of the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan, ordered the Fairy Flag to be unfurled. The result was that both MacLeod clans renewed the battle with redoubled fury and, despite immense losses, eventually won the battle. Among the MacLeod dead was the flag bearer, Paul Dubh, who carried the Fairy Flag throughout the conflict until his death. The Bannatyne manuscript relates that Paul Dubh was honourably buried in a deep stone coffin, with a metal grate — much like the account given in the c. 1800 manuscript. The writer of the Bannatyne manuscript states that each successive flag bearer was buried within this tomb, and that the writer's own grandfather saw the old ceremony performed for the last time, in the 18th century. The Bannatyne manuscript states that the tomb is located in the north-east corner of the chancel at St Clements Church, in Rodel. R. C. MacLeod noted that there was no trace of such a coffin or tomb, although he suggested that it could have been buried or possibly built within a wall.
Legend of origin
The c. 1800 manuscript presented a legend of the Fairy Flag's origin. This legend concerned a MacLeod who went on a Crusade to the Holy Land. On his journey homewards, the MacLeod attempted to cross a dangerous mountainous pass on the borders of Palestine. Here, he met a hermit who gave him food and shelter. The hermit warned the MacLeod of a dangerous spirit that guards the pass, which had never failed to destroy a true believer. However, with the aid of a piece of the True Cross and certain directions from the hermit, the MacLeod is able to defeat the "She Devil"—who is called "Nein a Phaipen, or Daughter of Thunder". In reward for conveying some secrets that the spirit wanted some friends to know, she revealed to the MacLeod "the future destinies of the Clan". The writer of the c. 1800 manuscript stated that this knowledge was said to have been held by this man's family until its extinction. The spirit then gave the Macleod her girdle, telling him to convert it into a banner. The MacLeod then used his spear as a flag pole. The writer of the c. 1800 manuscript stated that the spear was by then since lost, and that the secrets conveyed to MacLeod were lost forever. The writer also gave his own opinion on the origin of the Fairy Flag. The writer stated that the flag most probably originated as a banner used in the Holy Land, and that it was conveyed back home by the character portrayed in the legend.
Other episodes
The c. 1800 manuscript related that the spell of the banner meant that it would vanish when it was displayed for the third time. The final unfurling of the banner would either gain the clan a complete victory over their enemies or meant that the clan was to suffer total extinction. The writer of the c. 1800 manuscript went on to state that the temptation for unfurling the flag for the third and final time was always resisted; and that at the time of his writing, there was not much chance of it ever being unfurled again, since it was in such a reduced state. The writer stated that of the few shreds that remained, he himself possessed a fragment.
The c. 1800 manuscript also stated that the flag was once held in an iron chest, within Dunvegan Castle. The key to the chest was then always in the possession of the hereditary flag bearers. The c. 1800 manuscript related how, on the death of the MacLeod chief Tormod, son of lain Breac, the succession to the chiefship nearly fell to the family of the MacLeods of Talisker. The young widow of the last chief refused to give up Dunvegan Castle to the next heir, knowing herself to be pregnant (although she had only been married six weeks previous to her widowhood). In time, she gave birth to Tormod, the next chief. The c. 1800 manuscript stated that at around this time, a man who wished to curry favour with the expectant heir (MacLeod of Talisker) attempted to steal the flag. Even though the Fairy Flag was later found, both the staff and iron chest were never seen again. Historically, the old chief, Tormod (son of Iain Breac), died in the autumn of 1706, and his son, Tormod, was born in July 1705.
Reported partial fulfilment prophecy around 1800
Late in his life, the writer Norman Macleod (1783–1862) related to one of his daughters of having heard an old Gaelic prophecy concerning the flag, and of events which took place in his childhood which were reported as examples of the prophecy being partially fulfilled. A summarised version of this prophecy was published in the late 19th century, within an account of the life of one of his sons. Soon after, in 1878, Alexander Mackenzie proposed that the prophecy as dictated by N. Macleod, may have been a fragmented remembrance of one of the prophecies of Coinneach Odhar (who is popularly known as the Brahan Seer). N. Macleod's tale of the prophecy is as follows:
N. Macleod then related how as a child, he had been close to an English smith employed at Dunvegan. One day the smith told him in secrecy that the chest in which the flag was held was to be forced open the next morning, and that it had been arranged by Hector Macdonald Buchanan that the smith would be at the castle with the necessary tools. N. Macleod then asked Buchanan for permission to be present, and was granted leave on the condition that he not tell anyone—especially the chief—what was about to be done. The next morning the chest was forced open and the flag was found to be held within a wooden case. N. Macleod described the flag then as being a square-shaped piece of cloth with crosses wrought on it with gold thread, and several "elf spots" stitched onto it. After the flag had been examined, it was placed back into its case. N. Macleod stated that at around this time it was learned that the heir to the chiefship, Norman, was killed at sea. , on which he was a lieutenant, caught fire and exploded at sea killing 673 officers and men March 17, 1800 N. Macleod stated that at about the same time, MacLeod's Maidens were sold to Campbell of Ensay. He also stated that he personally saw a fox with cubs, which lived in the west turret of the castle. N. Macleod related how he was grateful that the worst part of the prophecy remained unfulfilled; and that the chiefly family still owned their ancestral lands.
R. C. MacLeod, who wrote in the early 20th century, considered that this prophecy seemed to have been fulfilled. At that time, the Macleod chief had no gentlemen of his clan as tenants on his estate; also, an heir to the family—named Ian Breac—was killed in the First World War. R. C. MacLeod noted that the prophecy stated that a "John Breac" (Gaelic: Iain Breac, "Iain the speckled") would restore the fortunes of the family. R. C. MacLeod stated his belief that this may still happen, when he lamented the loss of his son, stating that Iain Breac "showed that his race had not lost the loyalty and courage which were their chief claims to glory in ancient days".
Walter Scott, 1814
When Sir Walter Scott visited Dunvegan Castle in 1814, he learned of several traditional tales relating to the area and the clan. He was told that the Fairy Flag had three magical properties. The first was that it multiplied the number of men upon a battlefield. The second was that when it was spread upon a nuptial bed, it ensured fertility. The third was that it brought herring into the loch.
Other traditions
In the early 20th century, R. C. MacLeod noted several traditions concerning the flag. One told how the flag came into the possession of the MacLeods through a fairy. A similar tradition relates of a fairy-lullaby.
Fairy lover
The first of these traditions related by R. C. MacLeod tells how one of the chiefs of Clan MacLeod married a fairy; however, after twenty years she is forced to leave him and return to fairyland. She bade farewell to the chief at the Fairy Bridge (which stands about from Dunvegan) and gave him the flag. She promised that if it was waved in times of danger and distress, help would be given on three occasions. A similar tradition, related by John Arnott MacCulloch, stated that although the fairy's gift had the power to save both her husband and his clan, afterwards an invisible being would come to take both the flag and its bearer away—never to be seen again.
Fairy lullaby
R. C. MacLeod considered the above 'fairy lover' tradition to be connected to another about a lullaby. This tradition originated with Neil MacLeod, who was the clan bard in the last half of the 19th century; he obtained the tradition from several old women in 'MacLeod country'. This lullaby tradition related how on an autumn night, a beautiful fairy visited Dunvegan Castle. She passed through several closed doors and entered the nursery where the infant heir to the chief was lying in his cradle. The nursemaid, who was within the room as well, was rendered powerless by a spell and could only watch as the fairy took the infant on her knee and sang him a lullaby. This song was so remarkable that it was imprinted upon the nursemaid's memory, and later she lulled the baby asleep by singing the same song. R. C. MacLeod stated that, over time it was believed that any infant of the chiefly family to whom this lullaby was sung would be protected by the power of the fairies. For a while, no nurse was employed by the family who could not sing this song. A period of 200 years then passed before any chief had been born within the castle, and the custom of singing the fairy's lullaby ceased to be followed—but according to R. C. MacLeod, not completely forgotten. R. C. MacLeod claimed that a nursemaid sang this lullaby at the castle in the year 1847, for his infant elder brother, who would later become Sir Reginald MacLeod of MacLeod (1847–1935), 27th chief of the clan.
Fairy music
Another tradition, related by R. C. MacLeod, told of certain events which took place after an heir to the clan's chiefship was born. The story related how at this time, there was much rejoicing at Dunvegan Castle, and since the infant's nursemaid was anxious to join in the festivities in the hall below, she left the infant alone in her room. When the baby awoke, crying of cold, no human help could hear him in his secluded room; however, a host of fairies appeared and wrapped the infant in the Fairy Flag. Meanwhile, the clansmen banqueting below demanded to see the child and the maid was ordered to bring him forth. When she brought out the baby, wrapped in the flag, everyone gazed in wonder at the child and the garb wrapped around him. The room was filled with the fairies' song which declared that the flag had the power to save the clan three times. When the song ended, and silence fell across the crowded room, the flag was taken from the infant and locked in a chest where it has ever since been preserved.
Eastern origins
R. C. MacLeod listed another tradition, somewhat similar to the one that appeared in the c. 1800 manuscript. According to this version, a MacLeod joined a Crusading army, and went to the Holy Land. While in the desert-wilderness, he came across a witch, from whom he managed to escape. He then came upon a river, and proceeded to cross it at a ford. However, a fairy maiden appeared from the water and blocked his passage. After a struggle, MacLeod overcame the fairy and passed over the river. He then became friends with her. Before they parted, the fairy maiden gave him a box of scented wood; this box, she told him, held several other smaller boxes, which fitted inside one another. She told him that the innermost box contained a magic banner, which when waved would bring forth a host of armed men to aid its owner. The fairy warned the MacLeod, that if he were to open the box within a year and a day from then, that no crops would grow on his land, no livestock would be born, as well as no children. When the MacLeod returned home he gave the box to the chief's wife. The wife, however, ignored the MacLeod's warning, and opened the box. Immediately a host of armed men appeared and that year, no children were born. The tradition concluded that ever since that time, the flag had been preserved for a time when such an army might mean salvation for the clan.
Unfurled numerous times
R. C. MacLeod wrote of another tradition which stated that the flag was waved at a battle in Waternish, in about 1580; and of another which told of how it was waved during a time when a cattle plague was raging, and that it stopped the murrain. R. C. MacLeod stated his belief that the flag would only have been waved twice, and so rejected the tradition of it being unfurled at the Battle of Bloody Bay, because the MacLeods were on the losing side. R. C. MacLeod also wondered if it had been waved in 1600, when the clan was in a desperate state in the midst of warring with the Macdonalds of Sleat.
Supposed powers of the flag in the 20th century
In 1938, a fire broke out in a wing of Dunvegan Castle, and according to Sir Iain Moncreiffe of that Ilk, the flames were checked and extinguished when the flag was carried past to safety. During the Second World War, the chief of the clan, Dame Flora MacLeod of MacLeod, received a letter from a member of the clan who attributed his luck during bombing missions over Germany to a photo of the flag which he carried in his pocket.
Notes
References
Clan Macleod heirlooms
Fairies
Flag controversies
Flags of Scotland
Magic (supernatural)
Mythological powers
Scottish folklore
Isle of Skye
Silk
History of the Scottish Highlands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1963 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 31st Grand Prix of Endurance in the 24 Hours of Le Mans series and took place on 15 and 16 June 1963. It was also the tenth round of the 1963 World Sportscar Championship season.
Despite good weather throughout the race, attrition was high, leaving only twelve classified finishers. There were a number of major accidents, the most serious of which caused the death of Brazilian driver Christian Heins and bad injuries to Roy Salvadori and Jean-Pierre Manzon. This was the first win for a mid- or rear-engined car, and the first all-Italian victory – with F1 drivers Ludovico Scarfiotti and Lorenzo Bandini winning in their Ferrari 250 P. In fact, Ferrari dominated the results list filling the first six places, and the winners’ margin of over 200 km (16 laps) was the biggest since 1927.
Regulations
In 1963 the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulatory body) lifted the 4.0 litre engine restriction on its GT classes, as well as introducing a sliding scale for minimum weight versus engine size. That change again opened the field to large American V8s, used on the AC Cobras and Lola Mk6 that year. It also revised the equivalence ratio for forced induction/turbo engines from 1.2 up to 1.4. The minimum height for cars was increased to 850mm (33.5 inches).
The Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) renamed its ‘Experimental’ category as ‘Prototype’ and lifted the 4.0 litre engine restriction for those classes as well. The main change for the race was the starting positions on the grid were now to be determined by the fastest times in practice rather than in order of engine size. In a nod to driver safety, the wearing of safety-belts was now recommended.
Entries
The ACO received 80 entries but after a number of withdrawals there were 55 cars to practice. The proposed entry list comprised:
Once again Ferraris easily dominated the entry list with eleven cars. SEFAC Ferrari brought three new prototypes. The 250 P was an innovative mid-engined design of Mauro Forghieri that was a longer version of the Dino. The hefty 3-litre V12 generated 310 bhp. The team's regular Formula 1 drivers
were assigned: John Surtees with Willy Mairesse, and Ludovico Scarfiotti with Lorenzo Bandini. The third car was driven by sports-car regulars Mike Parkes and Umberto Maglioli
There were also three new 330 LMB 4-litre front-engined prototypes run by privateer teams. While Ferrari stalwart Pierre Noblet ran a works-supported entry, the North American Racing Team (NART) ran another (for Dan Gurney and Jim Hall) as well as the 330 TRI/LM, for Pedro Rodriguez and Roger Penske, that had won the race the previous year. There was also a new British team – Ronnie Hoare's Maranello Concessionaires entered a 330 LMB for Jack Sears and Mike Salmon.
Four manufacturers lined up against the big Ferrari prototypes: Aston Martin, Maserati, Lister and Lola. John Wyer had convinced the ACO to accept the Aston Martin DP214 prototypes as GT-derivatives of the DB4 cars. The successor DP215 had a new 4.0-litre engine capable of 323 bhp. It was driven by Phil Hill and Lucien Bianchi.
Maserati returned with an updated Tipo 151 coupé for their French agency. Lightened and now fitted with a fuel-injected 5-litre V8 engine, it was the biggest car in the field and produced an impressive 430 bhp capable of 290 kp/h (180 mph). It would be raced by French veteran André Simon and Lloyd ‘Lucky’ Casner (owner of the American Camoradi team racing Maserati cars).
For their second foray into Le Mans, Lola rushed their revolutionary Mk6 GT prototype. The Eric Broadley / Tony Southgate design had a steel monocoque chassis with fibreglass body and intricate suspension design. Initially fitted with a mid-mounted Ford 4.2-litre Indycar engine generated 350 bhp, it was subsequently uprated to the 4.7 litre Ford engine. The car was so light that it needed ballast to reach its 875 kg minimum weight. However it was undergeared and could only reach a maximum 240 kp/h (150 mph). The car would be raced by David Hobbs and debutante Richard Attwood
Porsche (now entered as Porsche System Engineering, a Swiss-registered entity for the works team) had the 2-litre class to itself. They arrived with a pair of developed 718-series cars that had won the Targa Florio when the Ferrari s had failed. One a coupé (for ‘Jo’ Bonnier/Tony Maggs), the other a spyder (for Edgar Barth/Herbert Linge), they used the new 2-litre flat-8 Formula 1 engine.
Once again the smaller-engined classes were strongly contested. Charles Deutsch (last year's victor), after the withdrawal of Panhard's engines, signed a deal with German manufacturer Auto Union-DKW. The 750cc three-cylinder, two-stroke engine could develop 80 bhp and with the streamlined body, could reach 225 kp/h (140 mph). His erstwhile partner, René Bonnet had four works entries. Their new streamlined version was now named the “Aerodjet”. Their French opposition however was from a new team: Jean Rédélé's Alpine marque (also running with 1-litre Renault engines). The new A110 came to Le Mans in its streamlined M63 longtail version.
Austin-Healey had a new body designed by Frank Costin for their Sebring Sprite. The 1100cc BMC engine developed 95 bhp. Another British boutique sports-car manufacturer, Deep Sanderson, entered its new 301 prototype.
Since 1953 the ACO had offered a prize for a turbine-drive car to complete the 24-hour event. Yet it was only this year that a formal entry was received. Rover had worked on turbines for twenty years and the previous year their fourth prototype had done demonstration laps at Le Mans. Based on a BRM Formula 1 car, the twin turbines generated 150 bhp but only gave a maximum speed of 230 kp/h (145 mph). Unable to run on regulation fuel, (it ran on paraffin) the car was not on the official entry list, and given number “00”. And without a heat exchanger, the turbine's fuel consumption was so great (7mpg) that it could not run with a regulation fuel-tank. BRM, in turn, released their grand prix drivers, Richie Ginther and current World Champion Graham Hill.
In the GT division there were four Ferrari 250 GTOs. The works car was driven by sports-car regulars Carlo Maria Abate and Fernand Tavano. The two Belgian teams, Ecurie Francorchamps and Equipe Nationale Belge, returned and NART ran a long-wheelbase version.
Aston Martin had got two of their DP214 cars homologated, running with the same 3.7-litre engine as the DB4. The works team had Grand Prix drivers Bruce McLaren and Innes Ireland in one and Bill Kimberly / Jo Schlesser in the second. Jean Kerguen also returned with his French Aston Martin for the third year.
Briggs Cunningham was back this year with three of the Jaguar E-type ‘Lightweight’ specials overseen by Lofty England. The fuel-injected 3.8-litre Straight-6 engine now developed 310 bhp. Cunningham drove with Bob Grossman while his other regular drivers Walt Hansgen and Roy Salvadori were paired with Augie Pabst and Paul Richards respectively.
After his success in winning the 1959 race, Carroll Shelby had been working with Derek Hurlock, owner of AC Cars, to fit the new 260cu in (4.2-litre) small-block Ford V8 to the AC Ace chassis that was already race-proven at Le Mans. Put into production, it was the Mk 2 version with the bigger 289cu in (4.7-litre) Ford Windsor engine that was entered for the race. One from AC Cars (for Ninian Sanderson and Peter Bolton) was managed by Stirling Moss and the other came from Ed Hugus, who had run the car's race development in America.
In the smaller categories the Porsche works team had a pair 356 B 2000 GS Carrera GT Dreikantschaber for their regular Dutch drivers Carel Godin de Beaufort and Ben Pon. The cars were now fitted with a new 2.0-litre flat-4 engine. They would be up against a privateer MG MGB, the manufacturer's latest model, driven by top British rally driver Paddy Hopkirk. In the 1600cc class a pair of works Sunbeam Alpines were matched against three Alfa Romeos run by the teams Scuderia Sant Ambroeus and Scuderia Filipinetti. The two Team Elite Lotuses had the 1300cc to themselves when the Equipe Nationale Belge Elite entry was withdrawn.
Practice
Twenty-three cars availed themselves of the testing weekend over 6–7 April. It was the first appearance of the Ferrari 330 LMB and in it works driver Mike Parkes became the first driver to officially break 300 kp/h (186 mph) on the long Mulsanne Straight. But it was John Surtees who put in the best time over the weekend, with a blistering 3 min 45.8 s. Later, in official qualifying, Phil Hill was also calculated to have hit that magical 300kp/h barrier on the Mulsanne in his Aston Martin prototype.
Rushing to have their Lola GTs ready in time, Eric Broadley drove the first car himself across from their Bromley factory. Although arriving after inspections had officially closed, the ACO, perhaps surprisingly, still allowed the car to enter. The second car, still unassembled, had to be scratched.
Further late withdrawals and no-shows left only 49 cars to practice. The honour of the first Pole Position by qualification went to Pedro Rodriguez in the NART Ferrari with a lap-time of 3 min 50.9 s on Wednesday night. The works Ferrari 250s were second and third (Bandini ahead of Parkes). In fact all eleven Ferraris qualified in the top sixteen places. Hill got his Aston Martin to 4th, with his teammates in 8th and 10th, while the big Maserati was 6th on the grid.
Jo Bonnier got his two-litre Porsche in a very credible 17th with a 4 min 07.9 s, well ahead of his nearest competition – his teammates in 23rd (4 min 13.2 s), and the GT Porsche in 26th with a distant 4 min 35.8 . The fastest of the small cars was the Alpine of Richard/Frescobaldi with 4 min 42.8 s (29th). The Rover turbine did a 4 min 22.0 s that would have qualified it mid-field, but being outside the field it had to start 30 seconds after flagfall at the back of the field.
Race
Start
It was a sunny start for the race at 4 pm. Phil Hill got his Aston Martin off the line first, ahead of the Ferraris. But it was the Frenchman André Simon in his Maserati who delighted the local crowd. He blasted past them, nudging Surtees out the way at Mulsanne then overtaking Hill before Arnage to lead the first lap. Pat Ferguson planted his Lotus Elite into the sandbank at Mulsanne on the first lap. He eventually managed to extricate it, only to drop it back in exactly the same spot on his next lap. On the second lap André Guilhaudin, owner-driver of the CD-DKW, crashed it at Indianapolis, and the damage was terminal. Then on only the fifth lap, as the leaders were lapping the tail-enders, Roger Masson's Bonnet clipped the verge on the brow after the Dunlop bridge. It spectacularly somersaulted twice but Masson got out unharmed. Both Phil Hill, now running fourth, and Peter Sargent's Lister hit debris and damaged their gearboxes trying to slow but were able to keep on running. Simon continued to lead throughout his opening 2-hour stint before handing over to his co-driver ‘Lucky’ Casner. However, only an hour into his race, Casner brought the Maserati in with terminal gearbox problems. Likewise the earlier stress on the Hill Aston Martin and Sargent Lister took its toll and they too retired early with broken transmissions.
Ferraris now assumed the top five positions. At the 4-hour mark the works 250s of Surtees/Mairesse and Parkes/Maglioli were ahead of the NART 330 TRI/LM then Scarfiotti/Bandini in the other 250 P and Noblet's privateer 330. Sixth place was Bruce McLaren in the Aston Martin, leading the GT category. However at 8.20pm, a piston shattered in the engine while he was at speed going into the Mulsanne kink. McLaren managed to get the car safely to the roadside but the long oil slick from the holed sump started a catastrophic chain reaction of accidents: Jean Kerguen's DB4 Aston Martin spun out into a ditch, wrecking its differential. Sanderson endured a series of spins in his Cobra but luckily hit nothing and carried on. Then Salvadori's Jaguar arrived and spun at 265 kp/h (165 mph) and crashed into the banking. Fortunately, Salvadori (who had been unable to do up his full harness) was thrown out the rear window as the car burst into flames, then helped by Kerguen. This was then hit by Jean-Pierre Manzon's little Bonnet which rebounded into the middle of the track. Manzon, son of the great French racer Robert Manzon, was seriously injured and thrown onto the road. Christian Heins, leading his class and the Index of Performance, managed to avoid Manzon and the wrecks but in doing so, his Alpine-Renault went out of control, rolled and hit a lamp-post then exploded into flames. ‘Bino’ Heins, whose Willys franchise built the Alpines in Brazil, was killed instantly.
Night
As night fell, Ferrari's fortunes began to change: the Noblet/Guichet car had to retire after a Ferrari mechanic forgot to replace the oil filler cap. Then Parkes and Maglioli were delayed, losing ten laps, to change the distributor. Carlo Abate, in the works-run GTO, was running third just about midnight when he got off-line going through the tricky Maison Blanche corner. He crashed at speed, wrecking the car, but was not injured. Not so fortunate was Bob Olthoff who crashed his Sebring Sprite there soon afterwards and was taken to hospital with a broken collarbone.
Through the night Surtees and Mairesse continued to build their lead over their teammates. The NART Ferrari had charged back up to third after being delayed. However around 2am an oil-line burst and destroyed Penske's engine. Jo Bonnier, whose Porsche was running 7th and leading the medium-sized classes, came through the huge plume of engine smoke unsighted and crashed heavily in the trees. Bonnier was lucky to get away uninjured.
An hour later, the Gurney/Hall NART Ferrari, now running third, suddenly slowed at Maison Blanche. Hall coasted towards the pits then pushed it the final distance only to be told that the half-shaft had broken. The Kimberly/Schlesser Aston Martin inherited the place but the curse of third place struck again soon before 2am, when they were forced to retire with piston problems, ending Aston Martin's challenge.
By the halfway mark at 4am, there were only 21 cars left running. However, Ferrari had the numbers to outlast their opposition. Surtees/Mairesse had done 189 laps, with a lap's lead over Scarfiotti/Bandini. The works cars already had a massive 10-lap lead over the remaining NART Ferrari of Gregory/Piper, and the two Belgian GTOs. Sixth was the Barth/Linge Porsche 718 moving past the Maranello Ferrari and Cunningham's Jaguar, with the Parkes’ Ferrari charging back up the field in 9th. The Rover was cruising quietly just outside the top-10
Morning
As dawn broke among the rising mist, David Hobbs in the Lola had a big accident at Maison Blanche. After running as high as 8th, the team had been battling the gearbox most of the night, losing two hours in the pits. Hobbs had been trying to change down for the corner when the gearbox finally jammed. A few hours later the leading Porsche of Barth/Linge, now up to 5th, lost a rear wheel coming up to the main straight. Edgar Barth pushed it the half kilometre to the pits where it was repaired and carried on.
Briggs Cunningham and Bob Grossman had steadily moved their Lightweight Jaguar into the top-10 through the night. However, on Sunday morning the brake pedal snapped as Grossman came to the end of the Mulsanne straight. The car slammed through three rows of haybales, scattering spectators, but he was able to get the car back to the pits. Stealing parts from their third car that had retired in the first hour, they lost two hours but got back into the race.
After leading for fifteen hours, Surtees and Mairesse had built up a two-lap lead. However at 10.45 Surtees pitted for fuel and a driver change. Mairesse got no further than the Esses when the car burst into flames. Fuel had carelessly been spilt in the engine bay and an electrics spark applying the brake lights ignited it. Mairesse got out, overalls on fire, before the car came to a halt. The mild burns to his face and arms kept him out of racing for two months.
Their teammates Scarfiotti and Bandini moved up to take the lead they would not cede.
Finish and post-race
In the end they won easily – by 16 laps. In a record distance, it was the widest winning margin since Bentley's epic 1927 win (350 km). With Scarfiotti, Bandini and Ferrari it was the first all-Italian Le Mans victory, as well as being the first win for a mid- or rear-engined car. In a dominant display Ferrari took the top six places. The Scuderia shared the top places with the two Belgian GT teams racing each other: Parkes and Maglioli chased hard and only failed to catch the Equipe Nationale Belge GTO, in second, by just over 100 metres. Fourth was the Ecurie Francorchamps GTO barely a lap behind. The Belgian drivers all celebrated together by driving to Paris two days later, and going to a nightclub until 4am leaving their respective racing cars parked outside.
The Maranello Concessionaires Ferrari came in 5th after battling overheating issues for most of the race. Sixth, and last surviving Ferrari, was the NART 250 GTO/LMB of Gregory and Piper. It had been out of alignment since 8am when Gregory had gone off at Arnage taking an hour to dig it out of the sand-trap.
After a remarkably trouble-free run (needing no mechanical work or even a change of tyres), the Rover turbine easily exceeded its 3600 km minimum distance (an average of 150 km/h) and was awarded the ACO's FF25000 prize. Although not classified, it covered sufficient distance that it would have finished 7th and beaten the 1958 winning car. In fact, classified 7th was the Sanderson/Bolton AC Cobra
After their troubles, the Barth/Linge Porsche came in 8th and Cunningham's Jaguar was 9th. After the race-start antics the Lotus Elite of Ferguson and Wagstaff, finished tenth and class-winner.
Despite the good weather, attrition was high and the number of major accidents meant there were only fourteen cars running at the end, of the 49 starters. The sole surviving Bonnet won the Index of Thermal Efficiency, driven by Claude Bobrowski and young debutante motorcyclist Jean-Pierre Beltoise
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class winners are in Bold text.
Note *: Not Classified as the entry was in the Experimental class.
Note **: Not Classified as insufficient distance had been covered.
Did not finish
Did not practise
Class winners
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Index of Performance
Taken from Moity's book, at odds with Quentin Spurring's book.
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest lap in practice – P.Rodriguez, #10 Ferrari 330 TRI/LM – 3m 50.9s;
Fastest lap – J.Surtees, #23 Ferrari 250 P – 3:53.3secs;
Distance –
Winner's average speed –
Attendance – 300 000
Challenge Mondial de Vitesse et Endurance Standings
Citations
References
Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1964) Automobile Year #11 1963-64 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
Clarke, R.M. - editor (2009) Le Mans 'The Ferrari Years 1958-1965' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960-69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1962 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 14 December 2017
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 14 December 2017
Sportscars.tv – race commentary. Retrieved 14 December 2017
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 14 December 2017
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Archived 3 March 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 14 December 2017
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1963 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 15 December 2017
Motorsport Memorial – article about Christian Heins. Retrieved 24 January 2018
YouTube – remastered, short British Pathé clip in colour (8 min). Retrieved 14 December 2017
YouTube – 4x 10min silent, colour clips from British Pathé of out-takes for anorther film. Retrieved 14 December 2017
YouTube – personal camera footage, silent, in colour (5 mins). Retrieved 14 December 2017
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1963 in French motorsport
June 1963 sports events in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark%20Shaughnessy
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Clark Shaughnessy
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Clark Daniel Shaughnessy (born Clark Daniel O'Shaughnessy; March 6, 1892 – May 15, 1970) was an American football coach and innovator. He is sometimes called the "father of the T formation" and the original founder of the forward pass, although that system had previously been used as early as the 1880s. Shaughnessy did, however, modernize the obsolescent T formation to make it once again relevant in the sport, particularly for the quarterback and the receiver positions. He employed his innovations most famously on offense, but on the defensive side of the ball as well, and he earned a reputation as a ceaseless experimenter.
Shaughnessy held head coaching positions at Tulane University, Loyola University New Orleans, the University of Chicago, Stanford University, the University of Maryland, the University of Pittsburgh, the University of Hawaii, and in the National Football League with the Los Angeles Rams. Shaughnessy also served in advisory capacities with the Chicago Bears and the Washington Redskins.
He reached the height of his success in 1940, in his first season at Stanford, where he led the Indians to an undefeated season that culminated with a Rose Bowl victory. That year, he also helped prepare the Chicago Bears for the 1940 NFL Championship Game, in which they routed Washington, 73–0. Shaughnessy's successes showcased the effectiveness of the T formation and encouraged its widespread adoption. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1968. Shaughnessy also coached college basketball at Tulane University. He played college football at the University of Minnesota.
In 2021, the Professional Football Researchers Association named Shaughnessy to the PFRA Hall of Very Good Class of 2021
Early life and college
Shaughnessy was born on March 6, 1892, in St. Cloud, Minnesota, the second son of Lucy Ann (Foster) and Edward Shaughnessy. He attended North St. Paul High School, and prior to college, had no athletic experience. When he attended the University of Minnesota, however, he played college football under head coach Henry L. Williams and alongside halfback Bernie Bierman. Shaughnessy considered Williams to be football's greatest teacher, and Williams considered him to be the best passer from the Midwest. Shaughnessy handled both the passing and kicking duties for the team.
He played on the freshman squad in 1910 and on the varsity squad from 1911 to 1913, first as an end, then a tackle in 1912, and finally as a fullback in 1913. Of the three, Shaughnessy said he preferred the tackle position. In 1912, he recovered three fumbles against Iowa, and Walter Camp named him an alternate on his All-America team. As a senior, Shaughnessy was named to the All-Big Ten Conference first team.
Shaughnessy played basketball as a guard and ran track in the 440- and 880-yard events. The Minnesota athletic director asked him to join the basketball team before a game against Illinois, despite the fact he had never played and did not know the rules. He joined the track and field team in similar fashion, and replaced a half-mile runner even though he did not own and had never worn track spikes. In The Big Ten: A Century of Excellence, Shaughnessy was called "one of the most versatile athletes in Minnesota's history." Shaughnessy also competed as a rower with the St. Paul Boat Club. He was a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity.
Coaching career
Tulane
After graduation, he remained at his alma mater, Minnesota, for one season as an assistant coach in 1914. Tulane University selected Shaughnessy as head football coach in 1915 over potential candidates Dana X. Bible and Charley Moran, among others. Notre Dame assistant coach Knute Rockne and Ray Morrison were both unable to travel to New Orleans for an interview, and Tulane officials required a face-to-face meeting with the applicants. The school offered Shaughnessy $1,875 ($ adjusted for inflation) to be its football, basketball, and track coach, and athletic director. When he arrived, he found the football field in a state of disrepair and the equipment to be woefully inadequate. Because the athletic department was in dire financial straits, Shaughnessy paid to purchase new equipment for the team. With only one opponent scheduled in the upcoming season, he wrote letters to sixty schools to secure additional games.
Shaughnessy introduced to Tulane the Minnesota shift, an innovation created by his former coach Henry L. Williams. By 1919, Shaughnessy had transformed Tulane into a competitor amongst Southern collegiate teams. That season, he guided them to a then school record of seven consecutive wins. In 1920, Germany Schulz was hired to take over duties as athletic director, and he also aided Shaughnessy as the line coach from 1923 to 1925.
In 1923, Shaughnessy hired his former teammate Bernie Bierman as an assistant coach. Bierman remained on the staff for three seasons before he left to become head coach at Mississippi A&M. In 1924, Tulane set a new school record for wins and finished with an 8–1 record. The following season, the Green Wave bested the prior year's mark and posted a 9–0–1 record. School officials declined an invitation to face Washington in the Rose Bowl, because they believed the Tulane players were too small. Indiana University attempted to hire Shaughnessy after his undefeated season, but he instead chose to sign a ten-year extension with Tulane.
In a 1926 article written for the NEA News Service, he responded to those who asked him how the "Shaughnessy System" worked so well. He said, "If there is a 'Shaughnessy system' at Tulane, if it has any 'secret,' two words tell the whole story—common sense. All that I have done at Tulane is take the material I found and train it in plays built around the individual abilities of each man."
Despite optimistic preseason predictions, Tulane suffered its first and only losing season of Shaughnessy's tenure in 1926. He was considered for the head job at Northwestern in February 1927 after Clarence Spears turned it down. Shaughnessy later received similar offers from Louisiana State and Wisconsin. On April 8, 1927, he tendered his resignation without a publicly stated reason and was subsequently released from his contract. Tulane replaced him with former assistant Bernie Bierman. The Milwaukee Journal credited Shaughnessy with building a formidable team at Tulane, and noted that he increased revenue and improved facilities, while he used the available players and did not pay them "a nickel". At the end of his tenure, Shaughnessy held a record of 59–28–7, and as of 2010, he continues to hold the record for the most wins of any Tulane football coach. He also coached the basketball team for three seasons between 1915 and 1918 and amassed a 27–15 record.
Loyola
In June 1927, nearby Loyola of the South hired Shaughnessy as its head football coach. According to The Wow Boys: A Coach, a Team, and a Turning Point in College Football, a New Orleans millionaire offered him $175,000 to coach Loyola for ten years ($ adjusted for inflation). This made him one of the highest paid football coaches in the nation at the time.
In 1928, Loyola traveled to South Bend, Indiana, to play Notre Dame in its season opener. The Wolves took a 6–0 halftime lead before they eventually fell, 12–6. After the game, Notre Dame head coach Knute Rockne reportedly said, "Never get me another 'warm-up game' against a team coached by that guy." The following year, Rockne was asked to name the best football coach and responded, "Modesty forbids ... But if I can name the two best football coaches in America, one of them is going to be Clark Shaughnessy."
At Loyola, Shaughnessy retained his emphasis on the forward pass. In 1930, the Wolves beat larger but unprepared Iowa State and Detroit teams in consecutive weeks with the same passing play. During his tenure, he was called "the greatest one man coaching staff in football." He also brought to Loyola his modified version of the Minnesota shift, which he claimed no opponent had been able to completely counteract. In 1931, California considered Shaughnessy as a candidate for its head coaching job. Despite opportunities to coach elsewhere, Shaughnessy remained in New Orleans because he liked the city and it was his wife's hometown. He compiled a 38–16–6 record at Loyola from 1927 to 1932.
Chicago
After the 1932 season, University of Chicago president Dr. Robert Maynard Hutchins forced out 70-year-old head coach Amos Alonzo Stagg, whom he considered too old for the position. Stagg then moved on to coach at the College of the Pacific. Athletic director T. Nelson Metcalf hired Shaughnessy to replace Stagg as head coach in 1933. Shaughnessy inherited a difficult situation at Chicago, and for the most part, lacked good material. He did, however, inherit from Stagg at least one important recruit: inaugural Heisman Trophy winner and future Hall of Fame back Jay Berwanger, whom many Midwest pundits considered the best back of the 1930s.
Under an academic program implemented in 1933 known as the New Plan or the Chicago Plan, annual comprehensive examinations replaced end-of-term testing. This new schedule conflicted with spring football practice, which was shortened each subsequent season until it was eventually eliminated altogether. Without that extra practice to learn Shaughnessy's complex system, time had to be devoted to basics in the fall. The New Plan also hindered the availability of suitable football players: It encouraged younger students to enroll, discouraged the transfer of student-athletes, and had stringent academic requirements to maintain athletic eligibility. Athletic director Metcalf said, "Others do legitimate recruiting, which we do not." Putting Chicago at further disadvantage to its Big Ten opponents, university president Hutchins would not countenance the establishment of a physical education major.
At the first practice in 1933, Shaughnessy assessed he would have a good line, but an undersized backfield. He told the assembled candidates that they would use an open game and fast passing attack to offset their disadvantages. In his first season, Shaughnessy awarded a box of candy to the Maroon player who made the first tackle of each game for the player to give to his girlfriend. The "C" men alumni organization created similar incentives for the most valuable player, best tackler, and best blocker.
In January 1934, Shaughnessy hired Marchmont Schwartz as an assistant coach. Schwartz had played on Shaughnessy's Loyola freshman team before he transferred to Notre Dame. In February, Shaughnessy declined interest from Ohio State to replace former head coach Sam Willaman, and said that he had already assembled his coaching staff and had no desire to leave Chicago. In 1935, offered Shaughnessy a job as its head coach, which he seriously considered. Chicago moved to retain him, possibly with a salary increase, and the Harvard job ultimately went to former coach Dick Harlow.
After breaking even in each of his first three seasons, Shaughnessy's Chicago teams suffered a losing record each year from 1936 to 1939. Chicago finished the 1939 season with a 2–6 record and were winless in the Big Ten Conference. The Maroons were outscored by their opponents, 308–37, and failed to tally in each loss. These included routs by Michigan, 85–0; Ohio State, 61–0; Illinois, 46–0; Harvard, 61–0; and Virginia, 47–0. President Hutchins, who hated the sport and said "there is no doubt that football has been a major handicap to education in the United States", successfully pushed to have the program disbanded. He said, "I did not de-emphasize football at the University of Chicago, I abolished it." Hutchins hoped the move would set an example for other universities to follow, but this did not occur.
Shaughnessy could have remained at Chicago, where he held a "lifetime sinecure" as a physical education professor and earned a comfortable salary of $7,500 ($ adjusted for inflation), but he was intent on continuing to coach. He described football as his passion and hobby. His final record at Chicago was 17–34–4.
During his coaching tenure at the University of Chicago, Shaughnessy befriended George Halas, the owner and coach of the Chicago Bears. In 1930, Halas had hired Ralph Jones, the athletic director and football coach at nearby Lake Forest College, who had been his freshman coach at the University of Illinois in 1914. Under head coach Robert Zuppke, Illinois employed the T formation in "its most rudimentary form". With the Bears, Jones experimented with the old T formation, and he spread the linemen, pushed out one receiver, and used a back as a man in motion, the latter usually being Red Grange. While these changes were innovative, they were not game-changing, and the T was used to complement the single-wing offense rather than replace it. In 1935, Shaughnessy described to Halas his vision of the T formation that used "hidden ball stuff, but with power". He had not employed it at the University of Chicago because he lacked the players to execute it. In 1937, Shaughnessy began to work part-time as a consultant to the Bears for $2,000 per year ($ adjusted for inflation). In that capacity, he helped refine the T formation and analyzed scouting reports. The Bears continued to experiment with the T, and after Shaughnessy left Chicago, the formation became the club's standard offensive formation in 1940. The media has sometimes erroneously credited Shaughnessy for the invention of the T formation. The Associated Press wrote that "he was, however, undeniably the father of the modern T-attack." Shaughnessy himself called it the oldest formation in football.
Stanford
In 1939, the Stanford Indians posted a 1–7–1 record to finish last in the Pacific Coast Conference, which resulted in the relief of head coach Tiny Thornhill. At the time, the 1939 Stanford Indians were considered the worst team to have ever represented the university. After the season, Stanford unsuccessfully attempted to hire Missouri coach Don Faurot. During the job search, Stanford officials were surprised to learn how well regarded Shaughnessy, a coach of only occasionally successful squads, was amongst his peers. Many considered him as a "mad scientist" of football experimentation. In January 1940, Stanford University awarded a five-year contract to Shaughnessy as its head football coach, passing over predicted frontrunner John Bain Sutherland. The move surprised even Shaughnessy, who said, "I didn't expect it."
Many Stanford alumni were upset with the decision to hire Shaughnessy. The most popular candidates for the vacant position were two Stanford alumni themselves: San Jose State coach Dudley DeGroot, and Santa Clara coach Buck Shaw. Some believed the Shaughnessy hiring was a ploy to eventually eliminate football at the school, as had happened at both Loyola and Chicago the year prior. The Bay Area media mocked the Shaughnessy hiring as comically inept. They believed that a prestigious academic school had foolishly hired an inveterate loser as its head coach. Prescott Sulivan of the San Francisco Examiner and Jack McDonald of the San Francisco Call-Bulletin coined the nickname "Soup" for Shaughnessy, which they sarcastically explained was a diminutive for the word "super". Sullivan wrote, "We have heard it said that Shaughnessy has developed the knack of losing to the point where, with him, it is an exact science. In light of his record, we aren't at all surprised at this." The Stanford players were also skeptical of Shaughnessy's abilities. Center Milt Vucinich said, "We'd been reading about all those beatings Shaughnessy's men had taken, so we were joking among ourselves that wasn't it just like Stanford to hire somebody like this to coach us."
Although Stanford had fared poorly during the previous seasons, Thornhill had left behind a team with a talented roster, which included 24 returning lettermen. Shaughnessy believed the players were good, but unsuited to the single-wing offense that his predecessor had employed. Perhaps most importantly, Shaughnessy inherited back Frankie Albert, whom he considered a prototypical T formation quarterback. In 1943, Shaughnessy wrote that he considered the 1940 Stanford backfield—quarterback Frankie Albert, fullback Norm Standlee, right halfback Hugh Gallarneau, and left halfback Pete Kmetovic—as the greatest in history. While he believed the Indians backfield was better than any such combination in the single-wing, double-wing, short punt, or box formations, he added the caveat that this held true only in the Stanford players' employment in the T-formation.
Shaughnessy assembled a competent coaching staff in line coach Phil Bengston and backfield coach Marchmont Schwartz. He also hired former Chicago Bears quarterback Bernie Masterson to mentor Frankie Albert. Shaughnessy's version of the T formation relied on motion and deception, and therefore differed from its earlier 19th-century incarnations, such as that used by Amos Alonzo Stagg at the University of Chicago, which emphasized power. In contrast to the single-wing, the new T did not use massed blocking formations for the ball-carrier. Instead, it utilized "brush blocking", where the linemen would only need to block a defender for one or two seconds. This scheme greatly reduced the disadvantage of an undersized line. Also different from the single-wing, the direct snap and position of the backs in the T formation shielded the ball from the view of defenders. This allowed for far more effective deception. Shaughnessy reportedly drew inspiration for his strategy from the Panzer tactics of Wehrmacht general Heinz Guderian.
Most sportswriters, unfamiliar with the T formation, called it the "Shaughnessy Formation" or "Shaughnessy's new razzle-dazzle attacks." Bill Leiser of the San Francisco Chronicle referred to it correctly when he wrote:"No one knows for sure what kind of football the Indians will play from this new T-Formation ... They start from the Notre Dame T and then stop looking like Notre Dame because they don't shift at all and never do get into the famous box formation. The man-in-motion may stop anywhere on the field. He changes the formation. [Quarterback Frankie] Albert parks himself right behind the center and takes the ball directly from his hands on nearly all plays. It's football unlike any previously played on the Coast."
1940 season
The team conducted intense preparations during the spring and fall practices before the 1940 season. On one occasion, Stanford athletic director Al Masters angrily complained that the maintenance department had left on the practice field lights, only to be told that the team was still practicing. In one scrimmage, the varsity offense managed only a single touchdown against the freshman team, which prompted Shaughnessy to secretly draft a single-wing playbook in the event that the T formation failed.
The 1940 season opened with Stanford facing the University of San Francisco Dons at Kezar Stadium as part of the first-ever major college football doubleheader. It also featured Santa Clara and Utah, but despite its unusual nature, the event was overshadowed by a concurrent game deemed much more significant between California and Michigan in nearby Berkeley. After Santa Clara defeated Utah, 34–14, the Stanford game began at 3:30 p.m. It started off sloppily, and the Indians failed to advance the ball in their first two possessions. In their third series, however, Albert connected with an uncovered receiver, Hugh Gallarneau, for a 17-yard pass. Fullback Norm Standlee then rushed for 20 yards. Halfback Pete Kmetovic ran untouched up the middle for the game's first touchdown. Stanford went on to win, 27–0, and outgained San Francisco by a margin of 247 yards to eight. After the game, San Francisco head coach George Malley said, "We were baffled, naturally, by all that running around in the backfield." After the game, convinced that the T formation worked, Shaughnessy discarded the single-wing playbook he had drafted.
The following week, Stanford defeated Oregon, 13–0. The Indians then beat Santa Clara, 7–6, which was the Broncos' only loss of the season. Stanford rallied to beat 19th-ranked Washington State, 24–13. A week later, the Indians defeated their fifth unbeaten opponent, 17th-ranked Southern California, 21–7. They continued on to beat UCLA, 20–14; 11th-ranked Washington, 20–10; 19th-ranked Oregon State, 28–14; and California, 13–7. Stanford, with a perfect 9–0 record, secured the Pacific Coast Conference championship and an invitation to the 1941 Rose Bowl, where they faced seventh-ranked Nebraska. The Indians won, 21–13, with the final score coming on a 39-yard punt return by Kmetovic.
Before the Rose Bowl, Shaughnessy lent help to his old associate George Halas of the Chicago Bears, which in Sid Luckman, had found a quarterback well suited to the T formation. Before the NFL Championship Game against the Washington Redskins, Shaughnessy devised a series of counter plays to confuse their opponent, which on game film had shown a tendency to shift linebackers in the direction of the motion man. His preparations helped Chicago rout Washington, 73–0.
At the end of the season, the Poling System named Stanford the national champions, and in later years, the Billingsley Report and Helms Athletic Foundation did likewise retroactively. Shaughnessy was voted the Scripps-Howard Coach of the Year by a wide margin, and Albert and Gallarneau were named to All-America first teams. The media nicknamed the 1940 squad the "Wow Boys", a play on their impressive feats and the earlier Stanford "Vow Boys", which were named for their promise to never lose to Southern California.
Stanford's and the Chicago Bears' unexpected success with the modern T formation prompted coaches around the nation to adopt it. Shaughnessy and Halas taught coaching clinics, and Bears quarterback Sid Luckman installed the formation at his alma mater, . Luckman also helped implement the T on national championship teams at both Army and Notre Dame. By 1944, more than half of the country's football teams at the collegiate and professional level were using the T. In 1949, the Pittsburgh Steelers were the only NFL team still using the single-wing. The T formation led to numerous derivatives, many of which remain in use today, including the power I, pro set, veer, wishbone, split T, wing T, and West Coast offense.
1941 season
Shaughnessy made the "pessimistic" prediction of at least two losses for his 1941 squad, which lost Gallarneau and Standlee to graduation. His forecast proved accurate, as injuries took their toll, and the team lost to Oregon State, Washington State, and California to finish with a 6–3 record. After the Indians fell in their penultimate game, Stanford, Washington, and Oregon State were tied for first-place in the Pacific Coast Conference with two losses each. California's upset win over Stanford, 16–0, in the finale ensured that Oregon State received the Rose Bowl bid.
In February 1942, Shaughnessy traveled to Yale University, which was considering three candidates for its vacant head coaching position. A month later, he said he was not interested in Yale, but that he might move to an unnamed Eastern school with little football tradition. Shaughnessy resigned in March 1942 to move to Maryland. A 1977 Sports Illustrated article reported that he decided to leave when he realized Stanford might discontinue its football program during World War II. He expressed disappointment about leaving, but believed the new job would provide a challenge. Maryland reportedly offered the same salary as Stanford, $9,000 ($ adjusted for inflation), and a position on its faculty.
First stint at Maryland
At Maryland, Shaughnessy served as the head football coach, athletic director, and director of physical education, under a "lifetime contract". Shaughnessy introduced a red and white color scheme for the Maryland uniforms, which replaced the longstanding combination of black and gold. He installed the T formation, and mentored quarterback Tommy Mont, whom he compared favorably with Frankie Albert. He also praised Terrapins fullback Jack Wright and likened him to Norm Standlee. In 1942, the Terrapins amassed a 7–2 record under Shaughnessy, and the Associated Press assessed it was a "pretty fair ball club". Mont finished the season as one of the top three passers in the nation. After the season, Shaughnessy left Maryland for Pittsburgh, a move he later called, "the worst thing I ever did."
Pittsburgh
In 1943, Shaughnessy replaced Pittsburgh head coach Charles W. Bowser, who had applied for a commission in the United States Navy. The University of Pittsburgh had de-emphasized football, a move with which Shaughnessy said he was in accordance. He also said he would not guarantee any number of wins as coach. During this time, Shaughnessy had to contend with the loss of players to the wartime draft. At Pittsburgh, his teams compiled a 10–17 record from 1943 to 1945 without a winning season. In 1943, the National Safety Council honored him with an award for "developing and applying coaching methods that provide maximum protection for the players."
In March 1944, Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall hired Shaughnessy as an advisor, a position he held concurrently with his duties at Pittsburgh. He mentored new head coach Dudley DeGroot in the T formation, in which quarterback Sammy Baugh excelled. Pittsburgh, however, disapproved of his affiliation with the professional franchise.
Second stint at Maryland
In February 1946, Shaughnessy accepted an offer to return to Maryland amidst mounting criticism at Pittsburgh, which included the threat of resignation from assistant coaches Charles Hartwig, Bobby Hoel and Stan Olenn. University of Maryland president Dr. H. C. Byrd, himself a former football coach, called Shaughnessy one of the top-three coaches in the nation. Shaughnessy complained that he was not given a fair chance to succeed at Pittsburgh and that controversy over his role with the Redskins was without basis. The Pittsburgh athletic board had recommended Shaughnessy be retained as coach if he resigned from the Redskins, but he refused.
Shaughnessy said, "The funny part of it is that I gave Maryland the roughest deal I have ever given anyone in my life, and when Dr. [Byrd] offered me a chance to come back, I accepted." Because of his repeated job changes, the Associated Press dubbed Shaugnessy "football's man in motion". At Maryland, he replaced Bear Bryant who had departed for Kentucky. Shaughnessy reintroduced his preferred red and white uniforms, which again replaced the black and gold scheme and remained the dominant colors until 1987.
His return to Maryland was far less successful than his first stint. The Terrapins amassed a 3–6 record in 1946. In November, he claimed a Washington Post story misquoted him as calling some of his ex-servicemen players "bums". The same article reported he would be fired at the end of the season. The Post ran another quote that Shaughnessy admitted was accurate: "There are some boys on this team who would have been fired a long time ago by another coach for their personal conduct."
After the season, it was rumored that the Redskins were interested in promoting him to replace head coach Turk Edwards, but the franchise denied it and Shaughnessy would not comment on his plans. In January 1947, he quit as Maryland coach, stating that he did not want to remain athletic director or resign from the Washington Redskins, both of which the school wanted. Shaughnessy said he would work full-time for the Redskins for the remaining year on his contract, and might return to coach only college football at the end of his term, possibly with Maryland. President Byrd affirmed that Shaughnessy's poor 1946 record was not related to his departure. He was replaced by split T proponent Jim Tatum.
Los Angeles Rams
In 1948, Shaughnessy joined the Los Angeles Rams as a "technical advisor" to head coach Bob Snyder. In the preseason, owner Dan Reeves was so impressed with Shaughnessy that Reeves promoted him to head coach and fired Snyder. At Los Angeles, Shaughnessy developed the pro set that used a three wide receiver set. He made this change to capitalize on running back Elroy "Crazy Legs" Hirsch, who he thought would make a better flanker. Los Angeles captured the Western Conference Championship in 1949.
Reeves fired Shaughnessy after two seasons, because he had created "internal friction". One source explained that Shaughnessy's eccentricities and continuously expanding playbook had taken its toll on the players. He was replaced by assistant coach Joe Stydahar. Shaughnessy said, "Stydahar coach the Rams? I could take a high school team and beat him." Stydahar, however, led the Rams to the National Conference Championship that season, and the team set numerous NFL passing and scoring records.
Chicago Bears
In 1951, Shaughnessy was rumored as a candidate for the vacant Washington Redskins head coaching job, but nothing came of it. From 1951 to 1962, Shaughnessy served on the staff of the Chicago Bears as a technical advisor, vice president, and defensive specialist. Halas retained responsibility for the offense, including the Bears' T formation. Ironically, Shaughnessy was tasked with developing a defense to counter the T formation. One of his solutions was the 5–3–3 defense, which left outside linebackers available to defend against end runs and passes in the flat.
In 1954, Shaughnessy attended the Blue–Gray Game in Montgomery, Alabama, scouting specifically for flankers. assistant Ray Wedgeworth told him the best receiver in the state was not playing in the game: Harlon Hill of Florence State Teachers' College. Shaughnessy requested game film from Hill's coach, and eventually, the Bears selected him with their 15th round pick in the 1954 NFL Draft. That season, Hill was named NFL Rookie of the Year, and in his second season he was named the NEA NFL MVP.
In October 1961, the Bears—utilizing Shaughnessy's complex, shifting defensive alignments—stifled San Francisco 49ers coach Red Hickey's new shotgun formation, 31–0. Chicago had learned lessons against the Baltimore Colts who had attempted to use the shotgun the previous week. Shaughnessy explained his Chicago defensive scheme in November 1961:"We can adjust to fit three things. We have defenses to fit the [offense] we face, the personnel we face and the situation in the game. Bill George calls the basic overall defense. Then Fred Williams calls the defense for the rush men. Richie Petitbon calls the defense for the backs. All of these are real bright boys, and they do a great job."
Shaughnessy mentored middle linebacker Bill George as the defensive play-caller. Bears coach Abe Gibron likened George to having Shaughnessy himself on the field. Shaughnessy worked to counter the increasing use of the forward pass. He emphasized man-to-man coverage, dropped linebackers or defensive ends into pass coverage, and utilized blitzes from multiple directions—which had previously consisted mostly of just a middle linebacker.
Former Chicago Bears head coach Hunk Anderson gave a highly critical account of his interactions with Shaughnessy in Notre Dame, Chicago Bears, and Hunk Anderson. He described one incident, during a game against the Cleveland Browns, where Shaughnessy implored Anderson to call an "end run". Anderson, thinking he noticed a vulnerability to exploit, asked which end run and which blocking assignments to use. Shaughnessy replied that any end run would do. Anderson asked in disgust for Shaughnessy to sit down and watch the rest of the game. He explained that the Bears had 28 different end runs to each side for each of the four backs, each of which had numerous blocking schemes. He added, "You just can't say 'any end run' ... You have to choose one." Anderson also claimed Shaughnessy plagiarized plays from other coaches, renamed them, and claimed them as his own.
At the end of the 1962 season, Shaughnessy tendered his resignation with a year remaining on his contract. He expressed regret in his departure and admiration for Halas, but said that he felt it was time for a change.
Hawaii
Shaughnessy briefly returned to coaching in 1965 when he took over at , where the football program was "in a moribund state" and "close to extinction". Hawaii amassed a 1–8–1 record during Shaughnessy's only season, but the Associated Press credited him with reviving the program. He was replaced by the school's first full-time coach, Phil Sarboe.
Personal life
In December 1917, he married L. Mae, with whom he had one son and two daughters: Clark Shaughnessy, Jr.; Janice Shaughnessy, and Marcia Wilson. He met his wife in New Orleans while coaching at Tulane. A teetotaler, Shaughnessy held a negative opinion of both drinkers and smokers. Marchmont Schwartz noted, "When he said, 'Let's go have a drink,' he meant, 'Let's go drink a milk shake ... He disappointed a lot of newspapermen that way." Aside from his declared hobby as a football coach and experimenter, he enjoyed long-distance driving. Shaughnessy preferred to devise plays late at night, between midnight and dawn, while his household slept. A 1977 Sports Illustrated article described him as an "ascetic" and his lifestyle as "Spartan". It noted he would go to bed as early as 7 o'clock, and wake up for work at three or four in the morning.
Shaughnessy did not take criticism well. In one incident, he demanded that a critical columnist leave a Northern California Football Writers' Association meeting. During a 1945 press conference while coach at Pittsburgh, Shaughnessy responded to criticism that he had been too conservative in a 6–0 win over Temple and taken too many risks in a 39–9 loss to Notre Dame. He said, "You tell me what to do. Shall we play a conservative game—hold down the score and play to look good—or shall we gamble, depending on a freak chance to win but losing by a big score if we fail?"
After he joined the Chicago Bears' staff, sportswriter Roger Treat said, "I always looked upon Clark Shaughnessy as a conscientious idealist who might better have followed the trail of Father Flanagan of Boys Town. He may never be entirely happy in the jovial thuggery of pro football, where every man has a little assassin in him." Illinois head coach Robert Zuppke said, "The world lost the greatest undertaker when Clark Shaughnessy decided on football coaching."
Shaughnessy's grandson is Grateful Dead drummer Bill Kreutzmann.
Later life
Shaughnessy retired to Santa Monica, California. On May 4, 1970, he was admitted to Santa Monica Hospital suffering from hypertension. He died there at the age of 78 on May 15.
The College Football Hall of Fame inducted Shaughnessy in 1968. Shaughnessy was a semifinalist in the 2010 Pro Football Hall of Fame class, but was not selected. Shaughnessy had been a finalist for induction in 1970, 1975, and 1976, but fell short in the voting each time. He was inducted into the University of Minnesota "M" Club Hall of Fame in 2010, the Tulane University Athletics Hall of Fame in 1977, and the Stanford University Athletic Hall of Fame.
Published works
The Modern "T" Formation with Man-in-Motion, Clark Shaughnessy, Ralph Jones, and George Halas, Chicago, 1941.
Football in War & Peace, Clark Shaughnessy, Clinton, SC: Jacobs Press, 1943.
Head coaching record
College football
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References
External links
1892 births
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Costanza
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Santa Costanza
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Santa Costanza is a 4th-century church in Rome, Italy, on the Via Nomentana, which runs north-east out of the city. It is a round building with well preserved original layout and mosaics. It has been built adjacent to a horseshoe-shaped church, now in ruins, which has been identified as the initial 4th-century cemeterial basilica of Saint Agnes. (Note that the much later Church of St Agnes, still standing nearby, is distinct from the older ruined one.) Santa Costanza and the old Saint Agnes were both constructed over the earlier catacombs in which Saint Agnes is believed to be buried.
According to the traditional view, Santa Costanza was built around the reign of Constantine I as a mausoleum for his daughter Constantina, later also known as Constantia or Costanza, who died in AD 354. However, more recent excavations have called this date (and therefore the original purpose of the building) into question. Ultimately, Constantina's sarcophagus was housed here, but it may have been moved from an earlier location.
The mausoleum is of circular form with an ambulatory surrounding a central dome. The fabric of Santa Costanza survives in essentially its original form. Despite the loss of the coloured stone veneers of the walls, some damage to the mosaics and incorrect restoration, the building stands in excellent condition as a prime example of Early Christian art and architecture. The vaults of the apses and ambulatory display well preserved examples of Late Roman mosaics. A key component which is missing from the decorative scheme is the mosaic of the central dome. In the sixteenth century, watercolours were made of this central dome so the pictorial scheme can be hypothetically reconstructed. The large porphyry sarcophagus of either Constantina or her sister Helena has survived intact, and is now in the Vatican Museum – an object of great significance to the study of the art of Late Antiquity.
History
Location
Santa Costanza is located a minute's walk to the side of the Via Nomentana, a short way outside the ancient walls of Rome. The road follows the ancient Roman route which runs north-east from Rome to Nomentum or Mentana. The area was an Imperial family estate, and the bodies of the sisters were both brought considerable distances to be buried there: Ammianus records that Constantina's body was brought back from Bithynia, and Helena's from Gaul (History XIV: 11, 6).
The mausoleum was built over the catacombs that contained the relics of Saint Agnes, who was martyred as a thirteen-year-old, and which was attached to the ancient basilica of Saint Agnese mid-way along the liturgical north side. The basilica was originally a "funerary hall" rather than a church in the modern sense. Later legend considerably elaborated Constantina's devotion to Saint Agnes, but it now cannot be determined if this was a factor in the choice of location, although in general terms early Christians believed that their souls benefited from being buried close to martyrs, which was almost certainly a major attraction of the funerary hall to those who paid to be buried in it. Attaching an important mausoleum as an annex to a church was a common practice in Rome and can be seen the cases of other Roman churches such as the Mausoleum of Helena (Constantine's mother, not his daughter), which was attached to the basilica of Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros, now a ruin.
Of the original Basilica of St Agnese, only about a third of the main outer wall survives, from the north side and the apse at the eastern end, but at less than the original height. By the 7th-century the basilica had fallen into ruins and was too large to be refurbished, and the current much smaller Basilica of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura was built to replace it, a few metres away.
Purpose
It was traditionally thought that construction began during the reign of Emperor Constantine I or shortly after, as an early history, the Liber Pontificalis, records that Pope Silvester I (d. 335) baptized Constantina and her paternal aunt in a baptistry built by Constantine there at the same time as the funerary hall. This was assumed to be the structure that survives. But excavations in 1992 discovered an earlier building beneath, and the existing building is now dated to around 350 AD.
The structure of Santa Costanza reflects its original function as the mausoleum of one or both Constantine's two daughters, Constantia and Helena, rather than as the church it became much later. The centralized design put "direct physical emphasis on the person or place to be honored" and was popular for mausoleums and places of baptisms at this time. Other early Christian buildings with a similar origin and a circular plan include Split Cathedral, built within Diocletian's Palace as his mausoleum, and the Rotunda of Galerius (now the Church of St. George]] in Thessaloniki built as a mausoleum for Galerius.
The huge funerary hall or Constantinian basilica gradually fell out of use and into ruins, with the base of the wall now surviving for about a third of the original circuit of exterior walls, but Santa Costanza has survived all but intact. It is documented that Pope Nicholas I celebrated mass there in 865, the first time that "Santa Costanza" is recorded as its name, but its consecration as a church was not until 1254, by Pope Alexander IV, who had what were believed to be the remains of Constantia removed from the larger sarcophagus and placed under a central altar.
Architecture
Structure
Santa Costanza is a circular, centralized structure, with a circular ambulatory ringing a high central space topped by a shallow dome, which is raised on a round drum, as can be seen from the exterior. It is built of brick-faced concrete and its structure is basically two rings supported by columns placed around a vertical central axis. The upper ring sits on the columns while the "lower ring encloses a circular ambulatory whose space flows between the columns into the axial cylinder." This design essentially creates two spaces or two worlds, that of the ambulatory and that of the upper dome. The screens of the ambulatory and inner ring create a dark contrast to the bright upper space of the dome. This contrast of light can be seen in the picture of the main interior. The single door, flanked by two arched niches, would originally have been an internal arch or doorway leading straight into the Constaninian basilica or funerary hall, half-way along its length. There is a short vestibule inside the door, opening to the ambulatory.
An arched arcade with twelve pairs of granite columns decorated with composite capitals supports the drum below the dome, and separates the area of the ambulatory beyond, which is much darker, as light from twelve windows in the clerestory does not reach this area as well. In contrast, the central area is well-lit, creating interplay between dark and light in the interior.
The number of arches, pairs of columns and windows could be a reference to the Twelve Apostles. Opposite the entrance in this central space there is "a kind of baldacchino...rises above a porphyry plaque which, below the middle arch of the center room, once seems to have carried the princess's sarcophagus". This is where the sarcophagus of Constantina, or perhaps the second one, would have rested. The ambulatory is barrel-vaulted and is 22.5 meters or 74 feet in diameter. The ambulatory has most of the surviving mosaics in the church. Larger arches mark the cardinal points in the mausoleum. The walls were probably covered in slabs of colourful marble, as was usual in imperial buildings. Santa Costanza was also to some extent a new type of building. It was different from earlier styles in that the roof, which would previously have been typically flat and made with wood, was instead designed as a dome and vault.
Decoration
Mosaics
The mosaics of Santa Costanza are important examples of Early Christian art, and even rarer examples of secular palace ceiling mosaics. The apses, central dome, and ambulatory all had mosaic decoration, though that in the dome no longer survives.
As evidenced by surviving Renaissance-era illustrations the church was likely once covered with mosaic decoration but today all that remains are those in the two apses and those in the ring barrel vault. In particular, the ring vault mosaics are well preserved and consist of eleven divisions of ornamental motifs, some of which are repeated. The mosaics here were composed using pieces of marble unlike the composition using glass cubes that would become popular in later works. The use of color is significant as the mosaics encompass a narrow range of colors including dark green, brown, red and yellow on a relatively plain light backdrop. This color scheme is comparable to earlier Roman mosaic compositions of the first half of the fourth century and dates these compositions to very soon after the completion of the structure as opposed to being later additions.
Mosaics in the apses
In the ambulatory wall there are two shallow apses, each with a mosaic showing Christ as the Pantocrator, the earliest surviving examples of this depiction; they probably date to the 5th or 7th century, though there has been much discussion of this. Like many mosaics of the period, both have suffered from restoration and both show elements of Roman imperial imagery, representing early examples of the conflation of this with Christian art. A mosaic with two women wearing white, reported as being behind the sarcophagus in the Renaissance, has now gone and was never drawn.
One of the apses shows a traditio legis: Christ is shown with Saints Peter and Paul giving Peter the scroll representing law, with the inscription, "DOMINUS PACEM DAT," or "The Lord is giving Peace." A few sheep represent his role as shepherd governing and leading his flock. Christ is clothed in golden robes, suggesting his power and supremacy. He is shown rising above paradise, which further shows his dominance over both heaven and earth.
In the second apse, Christ appears somewhat more simply but still as supremely powerful. His robes are not quite as rich as in the other apse, but still suggest power. He wears a simple tunic but it is purple and gold. This suggests not only holy power, but human power given that purple is the color of royalty and the gold stripes suggestion a connection to the Roman emperors. Peter also approaches Christ in supplication, like one would approach the Emperor. This is one of the first examples in Christian art of Christ being portrayed in the same way as the emperor or royalty. It is a concept that would later be prevalent in Christian art and architecture. In this apse Christ is not just portrayed as royalty but as the ruler of the world, of all existence. He sits atop a blue sphere, a clear symbol for the world or universe. From this perch he hands keys to Peter. This is a clear sign of Christ, and the power of heaven, giving authority and holy power to man. It is also important to note that Peter was Rome's first bishop so this meant Roman authority was sanctioned by God. This concept and picture of Christ as the almighty ruler and creator of the world would be the norm in the artwork of later churches, but it first appears here at Santa Costanza.
Mosaics in the ambulatory
The 4th-century mosaics on the ambulatory vault are contemporary with the building, and show a stark contrast to those in the apses, being essentially secular in appearance and make no obvious Christian allusions. The surface of area of many of these mosaic panels is occupied by a profusion of vine and plant ornament as well as containing geometric patterns, small heads or figures within compartmented frames, birds with branches of foliage, vases and other objects. The fifth and eighth panels depict circles with alternating floral and figurative designs and panel six displays representations of boughs and greenery accompanied by birds and vessels. These naturalistic ornaments suggest to the viewer ideas of beauty and abundance and reflect the decorations found in Early Christian catacombs, suggesting a theme of the promise of beauty and abundance to be found in Heaven following a Christian death.
Significantly one particular panel is especially pagan in character and depicts grapevine scrolls accompanied by cupids picking grapes and crafting them into wine, a depiction that seems to recall Bacchus, the Roman god of wine. It was because of the predominance of this imagery that during the Renaissance period the building came to be known as the “Tempio di Bacco” and believed to have a pagan origin. This type of scene also appears on Constantina's sarcophagus, as it does on the ends of the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus. The pagan appearance of such images of grapes, fruit, birds, and mythological figures represent the period of transition between paganism to Christianity that was taking place in Rome at this time. Bacchic motifs were often used in the funerary monuments of late antiquity and although a decided religious shift was taking place in Rome it would be logical that some traditional imagery would persist and be adopted by the new tradition. The theme continues in the floor mosaics which were similar in style to those in the ambulatory, filled with cupids, birds, and Bacchus and grapevines. This may reflect the merging of pagan and Christian values in Rome, or alternatively construction under the non-Christian Julian. These mosaics probably represent the sort of decoration found in the Imperial palaces of the period, and in general have needed little restoration.
Central dome
The mosaics of the central dome no longer exist, but a picture of them can still be reconstructed as between 1538 and 1540 Francisco de Holanda made watercolour copies of what then survived. In these several biblical scenes appear, resembling catacomb paintings from the 3rd century, including Susanna and the Elders, Tobias, the sacrifice of Cain and Abel, the sacrifice of Elias on Mount Carmel, possibly Lot receiving the angels, Moses striking the rock for water, and possibly even Noah building the ark. The upper row of mosaics, largely missing by the 16th century, is thought to have had scenes from the New Testament since it has the Miracle of the Centurion. These mosaics have caryatids and acanthus-scrolls and a calendar of saints in the upper row. This, in conjunction with the two apses is where the majority of Christian imagery occurs.
Sarcophagi
Two large porphyry sarcophagi from the church are now in the Vatican; the larger and more famous (illustrated) in the Vatican Museums, where it was moved during the late 18th century and is on display. The smaller was moved in St Peter's itself (left transept) in 1606. It is now thought that the larger sarcophagus traditionally related to Constantina may in fact have housed her sister Helena, and the less spectacular one, also removed to the Vatican, was actually Constantina's.
Constantina's sarcophagus has complex symbolic designs in relief: "the surface is dominated by an intricate pattern of stylized vine-stems into which are fitted cherubs...with this scene of Dionysiac exuberance, and the hope of future blessedness which it implies, two peacocks, birds of immortality, are completely in accord". The scene presents an image of nature and plenty complete with grape vines, sheep and birds. The putti are framed in acanthus scrolls, above which there are several images of masks. Aside from the natural scene, there are also four portraits including Constantia herself, "on the lid, four graceful portrait heads, one apparently that of Constantina, look calmly out over this assurance that the best is yet to be". The imagery presented of wine and nature are not inherently Christian but could be perceived as such considering the use of wine in the Eucharist. Or they could be perceived as a connection to Bacchus, the God of Wine. This style of sarcophagus would cease to be used in Rome by the end of the fourth century, and this sarcophagus of Constantia is a prime example of the style.
The sarcophagus is massive with the chest measuring 128 cm or 4 ft 2 in high, 233 cm or 7 ft 7 in long, and 157 cm or 5 ft 1 in wide. It is made of porphyry, a hard purple stone, reserved by the Romans for use only by the imperial family, whose colour purple was. It was quarried from only one place, Mons Porphyriticus (Coptos, Egypt), making it even more exclusive. It appears, but can not be certain, that the sarcophagus of Constantina is a copy of that of Constantine I, her father, which is now lost. A piece of what is believed to be his sarcophagus is similar in style and of the same material. A cast replica has been placed in the church, though in the ambulatory; presumably its original position was in the centre of the church, now occupied by the altar. There is another in the Museum of Roman Civilization in the city.
Alternative views
Some consider that the building was only later reassigned as a church dedicated to Santa Costanza. The veneration of Constantina as "Santa Costanza" (Saint Constance) is only known from the 16th century onward, and her name is not included in the Roman Martyrology. An original structure might be located underneath the current church, as a possibly triconch-shaped structure was partially excavated in 1987 and 1992 and computer-reconstructed by David J. Stanley.
That could suggest that the current church is the second Christian building on the site, and may be some decades later than traditionally thought, being built as a mausoleum for Constantina's sister Helena in the reign of her husband Julian the Apostate. (This would be odd, however, because Julian was a staunch pagan.) If true, the larger of the two porphyry sarcophagi there would belong to Helena, and the smaller to Constantina, the opposite of what has been traditionally thought. The earlier triconch building of the 330s was probably indeed built for Constantina, but she later had to take second place to her sister. Then, as Constantina's fame as a saintly figure developed in the Middle Ages, their roles became reversed in the popular mind.
See also
Architecture of ancient Rome
Early Christian sarcophagi
Early Christian art and architecture
History of Roman and Byzantine domes
Notes
References
Further reading
Blasen, Philippe Henri, "De sancta Agnete Romana e fontibus Latinis antiquissimis... Sainte Agnès de Rome dans les sources latines les plus anciennes jusqu'à Augustin d'Hippone", Acta Musei Napocensis 45–46 (2011): 253–281.
Stanley, David J., "New Discoveries at Santa Costanza", Dumbarton Oaks Papers 48 (1994): 257–261.
Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, no. 108 & 246, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
External links
Constantina – De Imperatoribus Romanis
Santa Costanza – Santa Costanza Photo Gallery
High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Santa Costanza | Art Atlas
4th-century churches
Costanza
Mausoleums in Rome
Early Christian art
Palaeo-Christian architecture in Italy
Rome Q. XVII Trieste
Round churches
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeper%20of%20the%20Flame%20%28film%29
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Keeper of the Flame (film)
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Keeper of the Flame is a 1942 American drama film directed by George Cukor, and starring Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn, released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). The screenplay by Donald Ogden Stewart is adapted from the 1942 novel Keeper of the Flame by I. A. R. Wylie. Hepburn plays the widow of a famous civic leader who has died in an accident. Tracy portrays a former war correspondent who intends to write a flattering biography of the dead man, only to find that his death is shrouded in mystery. Screenwriter Stewart considered the script the finest moment of his career, feeling vindicated by the assignment as he believed that Hollywood had punished him for years for his political views. Principal filming began in the last week of August 1942, four months after the release of the novel, published by Random House. The picture was filmed on a sound stage, with no location shooting. Hepburn had already begun a relationship with Tracy, and his heavy drinking led her to become his vigilant guardian during the filming.
The film was screened for the Office of War Information's Bureau of Motion Pictures on December 2, 1942, where it was disapproved of by the Bureau's chief, Lowell Mellett. Keeper of the Flame premiered to a poor reception at Radio City Music Hall on Thursday, March 18, 1943. MGM head Louis B. Mayer stormed out of the cinema, enraged by his having encouraged the making of a film that equated wealth with fascism. Republican members of Congress complained about the film's leftist politics and demanded that Will H. Hays, president of the Motion Picture Production Code, establish motion picture industry guidelines for propaganda. Cukor was dissatisfied with the film and considered it one of his poorest efforts.
Plot
On a rainy night, national hero Robert V. Forrest drives his car over a small bridge that has collapsed. He is killed, and the entire United States goes into deep mourning. Admirer and renowned journalist Stephen O'Malley (Spencer Tracy) returns from Europe to write a biography of the great man. Among the throngs covering the funeral, he finds his old friends and fellow reporters Jane Harding (Audrey Christie) and Freddie Ridges (Stephen McNally). They remain after the rest of the press leave.
Forrest's widow, Christine (Katharine Hepburn), refuses to speak to reporters throughout the proceedings. However, O'Malley befriends youngster Jeb (Darryl Hickman), son of the gatekeeper of the Forrest estate, Jason Rickards (Howard Da Silva). The grief-stricken boy shows him a way into the mansion, where he meets Christine. Though she is cordial, she refuses to cooperate with his biography. After O'Malley leaves, Forrest's private secretary, Clive Kerndon (Richard Whorf), fearful of how the reporter will react to the brush-off, convinces Christine to offer her help to O'Malley so that they can guide him in the direction they want.
Over time, O'Malley gains the widow's trust. Christine is the "keeper of the flame," protecting her husband's memory and reputation. O'Malley's instincts tell him that a secret is being kept from him. He discovers that Forrest's elderly, mentally ill mother (Margaret Wycherly) is living in a separate house on the vast estate. Despite her servants' attempts to keep them apart, O'Malley manages to speak with her and obtains more clues from her ramblings.
O'Malley notices "the arsenal," an old fortification near the Forrest mansion that served as Robert Forrest's office and library. One afternoon, O'Malley observes smoke rising from the arsenal's chimney. When he asks Kerndon about the building's purpose, Kerndon (who cannot see the smoke) tells him it is only a storehouse. O'Malley slips away to investigate. He discovers Christine burning what she claims are love letters, but he suspects otherwise. Later, Kerndon telephones somebody and assures the unnamed party that he will take care of the situation. As O'Malley learns more, he finds evidence implicating Christine in her husband's death and begins to wonder if she and her cousin, Geoffrey Midford (Forrest Tucker), are lovers and murderers. However, Geoffrey's announcement of his engagement to Rickards' daughter, and Christine's reaction, discounts that theory.
When O'Malley admits he cares for Christine, she finally breaks down and reveals the ugly truth. Her husband had been corrupted by the adulation he received and plotted to use his enormous influence to turn Americans to fascist ideals to gain control of the United States. She shows O'Malley papers stored in the arsenal that reveal how Forrest (backed by secretive, ultra-wealthy, power-hungry individuals) planned to use racism, anti-union sentiment, and antisemitism to divide the country, turning social groups against one another in order to create the chaos that would let him seize power. Christine discovered the plot the day before her husband's death. She went riding the next morning and, coming upon the washed-out bridge, could have warned her husband, but decided that a "clean death in the rain was the best thing that could happen to Robert Forrest." O'Malley convinces her to help him write a book detailing Forrest's scheme.
Kerndon eavesdrops, then locks the arsenal's door, sets the building ablaze, and shoots into it through an embrasure. Christine, fatally injured, urges O'Malley to write his book. A man rushes to the burning building carrying an axe, but Kerndon comes up behind him and knocks him out by hitting the man in the head with a gun. Then an automobile driven by Midford rushes to the scene and Kerndon stands in the middle of the road and shoots at the passengers, he is run down and killed. Midford leaves the car picks up the axe, rushes to the building, breaks through the door, and they rescue O'Malley.
O'Malley ultimately writes a book titled Christine Forrest: Her Life, which exposes the plot.
Cast
Spencer Tracy as Steven O'Malley
Katharine Hepburn as Christine Forrest
Richard Whorf as Clive Kerndon
Margaret Wycherly as Mrs. Forrest
Forrest Tucker as Geoffrey Midford
Frank Craven as Doctor Fielding, one of the few critical of Forrest
Stephen McNally as Freddie Ridges (billed as "Horace McNally")
Percy Kilbride as Orion Peabody, O'Malley's taxi driver
Audrey Christie as Jane Harding
Darryl Hickman as Jeb Rickards
Donald Meek as Mr. Arbuthnot
Howard Da Silva as Jason Rickards
William Newell as Piggot
Production
Script and casting
The script was based on an unpublished book by I. A. R. Wylie. RKO Pictures bought the book in outline form in April 1941 but encountered casting difficulties and sold the rights to MGM in December 1941 for $50,000. A day or two after they had obtained the rights, MGM Vice-president Eddie Mannix realized the source material was political in nature and tried to abandon the project. However, following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Mannix relented and the production went forward. Once the film went into production at MGM, the book was published by Random House in April 1942.
MGM studio head Louis B. Mayer assigned the script to Donald Ogden Stewart—one of his favorite screenwriters. Mayer's choice seemed unusual, because up to that time Stewart had written only light romantic comedies featuring wealthy East Coast socialites, but Mayer felt Stewart's strongly leftist political leanings would enable him to chalk out a better screenplay.
Stewart approached the project with gusto, remarking that he "wrote an adaptation from a novel that tells about the fascist mice who are nibbling away at our country while we're busy fighting a good war." Stewart believed Hollywood had punished him for years for his political views and felt vindicated by the assignment, declaring that "here was my compensation for the sabotage of my radical attempt to do my bit ...". The script was the proudest moment of his entire career. Stewart, however, had extensive problems adapting the novel for the screen, and filming—originally due to begin in June 1942—was delayed for several months while he worked on the screenplay. He consulted with the Bureau of Motion Pictures in the U.S. Office of War Information, an agency of the federal government created in June 1942 to promote patriotism and warn the public about domestic spying.
Spencer Tracy had been cast as the male lead in the film just days after MGM purchased the rights to the novel. George Cukor was chosen to direct in late April 1942 because he had dealt well with troubled and headstrong actors in the past, and Tracy was considered a difficult actor to direct. Bronisław Kaper, who had come to MGM in 1935 from Nazi Germany, was assigned to compose the film score. William H. Daniels was named the cinematographer.
Katharine Hepburn joined the cast in mid-April 1942 after Stewart sent her a copy of the unfinished script. Hepburn was fascinated by the character of Christine, and felt that doing the film would be a way of contributing to the war effort. MGM executives did not want Hepburn attached to the picture, feeling it was an inappropriate follow-up for her (first) previous pairing with Tracy in Woman of the Year (1942), but Hepburn insisted, and MGM relented. Hepburn showed some concerns with Stewart's redrafting of the script, in that he toned down the novel's love story, placing more emphasis on the character of O'Malley and the action. She asked for more romance in the film. Although Hepburn had spent much of the prior year searching for scripts with equally strong male and female parts for her and Tracy, she now requested that the O'Malley role be restored to the function it served in the novel (where O'Malley is impotent, troubled, and despairing of love) and her own part expanded. Film producer Victor Saville threatened to resign if the changes were made, and Spencer Tracy supported him, which led to the changes being rejected.
Nonetheless, the script still had numerous problems, and Stewart refused to recognize these shortcomings. In late summer 1942, Cukor brought in Zoë Akins, one of his favorite playwrights and screenwriters, to help with the script. Victor Saville expressed concern that Stewart was basing more and more of the script on William Randolph Hearst, one of Louis B. Mayer's best friends, and that this might jeopardize the success of the picture. As script work continued, casting on the film (which had been delayed months) went ahead in mid-1942. Richard Whorf was cast as the villain, Clive Kerndon, in early June. Frank Craven, Audrey Christie, Donald Meek and Stephen McNally were all cast in mid-July. Pauline Lord was cast in late July, and Darryl Hickman added in early August. Craven, whose character was not initially specified, was given the role of Dr. Fielding in early August. Forrest Tucker and Percy Kilbride were the last members of the cast hired. Phyllis Brooks tested for a part in the film in mid-June, but was not cast. A search was even made for the voice of Robert Forrest.
Principal filming and post-production
Principal filming began the last week of August 1942. The entire picture was filmed on a sound stage, with no location shooting. Hepburn had already begun her extramarital affair with Spencer Tracy, and the production was notorious for the ways in which Hepburn doted on Tracy. Tracy drank heavily during the shoot, and Hepburn was his constant guardian, nurse, maid, and gofer during this time. She tried to keep him out of the bars, assisted him when he was drunk, reinforced his ego, and ran lines with him. However, Hepburn continued to be upset by the script, and dealt with this problem by isolating herself from friends and family in order to concentrate on her interpretation of the role.
The filming process was an efficient one, and it was going so well that in the middle of the production Cukor asked Hepburn to talk to Judy Garland in an attempt to convince Garland of the need to sober up. In order to add realism to the production, Cukor consulted reporters from United Press for advice on how newspapermen would handle Forrest's funeral. Based on their critiques, Cukor changed the scene in the village hotel's bar so that instead of drinking and talking about the funeral, the reporters get to work drafting articles on their typewriters. The script, too, was changed to permit the bartender to make a quip about reporters working rather than drinking.
Reshoots occurred in September and October. Katharine Hepburn returned to Hollywood in early September for retakes, and Pauline Lord was called back in early October. Although James E. Newcom was the film's editor, Cukor had final cut on the film. Lord's scenes were deleted from the picture, and her name did not appear on cast lists. She was replaced by Margaret Wycherley.
Release
The film was screened for the Office of War Information's Bureau of Motion Pictures on December 2, 1942. The Bureau's chief, Lowell Mellett, was unhappy with the picture and found it heavy-handed. MGM promoted Spencer Tracy for an Academy Award for Best Actor, but he was not nominated.
Keeper of the Flame premiered at the Albee Theatre in Cincinnati on January 28, 1943, setting a box-office record for the city. Following a few other limited dates in February, it had a premiere at New York City's Radio City Music Hall on Thursday, March 18, 1943. The premiere served as a fundraiser for the Outdoor Cleanliness Association (a group dedicated to public lighting and enforcement of trash laws). The premiere did not go well: MGM head Louis B. Mayer stormed out, enraged by his having encouraged the making of a film that equated wealth with fascism. It opened in Los Angeles at Grauman's Chinese Theatre on Thursday, April 1, 1943. Keeper of the Flame made its Australian premiere at the Metro Theatre in Melbourne in June 1943. It didn't appear on American television until March 1957.
Box office
Although the film was held over for a fourth week at Radio City Music Hall (most films lasted a week), it did not do well at the box office nationally and is considered the least successful of the Hepburn-Tracy films. It earned $2,190,000 in the United States and Canada and $1,032,000 elsewhere, making an overall profit of $1,040,000.
Reception
The film generated some political controversy. Republican members of Congress complained about the film's obviously leftist politics and demanded that Will H. Hays, president of the Motion Picture Production Code, establish guidelines regarding propagandization for the motion picture industry.
Critical reaction at the time was mixed. While at least one reviewer felt the film was reminiscent of motion pictures like Citizen Kane and Rebecca, Hedda Hopper called it "Citizen Kane with all the art scraped off." Bosley Crowther, writing in The New York Times, concluded that while the first half of the film was very good, the latter half felt slow and failed to deliver emotional punch. Crowther called the film "a courageous and timely drama" and praised Tracy and Hepburn for performances that featured "taut solemnity." But the script seemed uneven dramatically ("... the nature of this story is a murder mystery and yet the interest is centered much more upon the dead man than on the hunt"), and a critical problem was that the audience "is informed much sooner than the journalist what the nature of Forrest was, and the story drags while we wait for the journalist to catch up." Crowther still enjoyed Cukor's direction, which he felt sustained mystery even when little existed.
Like Crowther, the Chicago Tribune and other critics pointed out that the picture seemed slow. The Hartford Courant, meanwhile, raved about the film: "Hepburn and Tracy have given us a great film in Keeper of the Flame ... Great because of the courage and daring it took to make it, the magnificent production it has been given, the excellent acting within it, and the exciting, tense story it contains." Generally speaking, the film was better received in the eastern half of the United States.
Cukor himself was highly dissatisfied by the film. "I suspect the story was basically fraudulent," he told an interviewer. Like many critics, he felt that "as a piece of storytelling, the unfolding of a mystery, the first half of Keeper of the Flame is a damn good show," but the rest of the film had substantial problems. He praised Spencer Tracy's work, saying: "Tracy ... was at his best in the picture. Subdued, cool, he conveyed the ruthlessness of the reporter sent to investigate Forrest's death without seeming to try. He was ideally cast in the role, grimly and skeptically exploring the secret of the dead boys' club hero who was in fact a rampant fascist." Hepburn, he felt, was hindered by the role and her approach to it. "It was Kate's last romantic glamour-girl part, and she acted with some of that artificiality she'd supposedly left behind at RKO. That first scene, floating into a room in yards and yards of draperies with these lillies—well, it was all far, far too much. I don't think I really believed in the story, it was pure hokeypokey, and her part was phony, highfalutin." But he felt Hepburn did her best: "That's awfully tricky, isn't it? And doesn't she give long, piercing looks at his portrait over the mantel? Well. I think she finally carried a slightly phony part because her humanity asserted itself, and her humor. They always did." Overall, though, Cukor felt the film was leaden, and that it had "a wax work quality". Even screenwriter Stewart eventually came to feel the film was "tedious, wooden, and heavy-handed".
More recently, some critics have reassessed the film positively, and it has been cited as 1943's "great emotional drama." Critics and scholars note that the film is a good example of the type of anti-fascist films produced in America early in World War II.
Kevin Starr states that the film "remains astonishing in its bold effort to shape American public opinion" and is a film that "preaches a hard-line Popular Front message." Robert Fyne, author of The Hollywood Propaganda of World War II, (1997) notes the film's "strong warning to the American people about demagoguery, domestic fascism, and mind control, while praising the virtues of freedom of the press."
One film historian has concluded that Keeper of the Flame is "truly provocative in that it was one of Hollywood's few forays into imagining the possibility of homegrown American Fascism and the crucial damage which can be done to individual rights when inhumane and tyrannical ideas sweep a society through a charismatic leader." Other authors have noted that the film is different from other anti-fascist films of the period in that it clearly links wealth and fascism and points out the ways in which patriotism may far too easily be turned toward fascist ends.
The technical quality of Keeper of the Flame has been highly praised since its release. William H. Daniels' cinematography and lighting design has been described as lush and virtuosic, and he received accolades from his peers for his work on the film. Cukor biographer and film critic Emanuel Levy praised the strong atmosphere of Keeper of the Flame and Cukor's "interesting Gothic style." Other historians have pointed out that the film's score is particularly good. For example, one review noted that the music goes silent during the climactic scene in which Christine Forrest reveals her secrets to Steven O'Malley—an effective and unexpected emotional tactic.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1942 films
1942 drama films
American drama films
American black-and-white films
1940s English-language films
Films based on British novels
Films directed by George Cukor
Films set in country houses
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films with screenplays by Donald Ogden Stewart
Films produced by Victor Saville
Films scored by Bronisław Kaper
Films based on works by I. A. R. Wylie
1940s American films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolff%20rearrangement
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Wolff rearrangement
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The Wolff rearrangement is a reaction in organic chemistry in which an α-diazocarbonyl compound is converted into a ketene by loss of dinitrogen with accompanying 1,2-rearrangement. The Wolff rearrangement yields a ketene as an intermediate product, which can undergo nucleophilic attack with weakly acidic nucleophiles such as water, alcohols, and amines, to generate carboxylic acid derivatives or undergo [2+2] cycloaddition reactions to form four-membered rings. The mechanism of the Wolff rearrangement has been the subject of debate since its first use. No single mechanism sufficiently describes the reaction, and there are often competing concerted and carbene-mediated pathways; for simplicity, only the textbook, concerted mechanism is shown below. The reaction was discovered by Ludwig Wolff in 1902. The Wolff rearrangement has great synthetic utility due to the accessibility of α-diazocarbonyl compounds, variety of reactions from the ketene intermediate, and stereochemical retention of the migrating group. However, the Wolff rearrangement has limitations due to the highly reactive nature of α-diazocarbonyl compounds, which can undergo a variety of competing reactions.
The Wolff rearrangement can be induced via thermolysis, photolysis, or transition metal catalysis. In this last case, the reaction is sensitive to the transition metal; silver (I) oxide or other Ag(I) catalysts work well and are generally used. The Wolff rearrangement has been used in many total syntheses; the most common use is trapping the ketene intermediate with nucleophiles to form carboxylic acid derivatives. The Arndt-Eistert homologation is a specific example of this use, wherein a carboxylic acid may be elongated by a methylene unit. Another common use is in ring-contraction methods; if the α-diazo ketone is cyclic, the Wolff rearrangement results in a ring-contracted product. The Wolff rearrangement works well in generating ring-strained systems, where other reactions may fail.
History
In 1902, Wolff discovered that treating diazoacetophenone with silver (I) oxide and water resulted in formation of phenylacetic acid. Similarly, treatment with silver (I) oxide and ammonia formed phenylacetamide. A few years later, in an independent study, Schröter observed similar results. The reaction is occasionally called the Wolff-Schröter rearrangement. The Wolff rearrangement was not commonly used until 20 years after it was discovered, as facile diazo ketone synthesis was unknown until the 1930s. The reaction has proven useful in synthetic organic chemistry and many reviews have been published.
Mechanism
The mechanistic pathway of the Wolff-rearrangement has been the subject of much debate, as there are often competing concerted and stepwise mechanisms. However, two aspects of the mechanism can be agreed upon. First, α-diazocarbonyl compounds are in an equilibrium of s-cis and s-trans-conformers, the distribution of which may influence the mechanism of the reaction. Generally, under photolysis, compounds in the s-cis conformation react in a concerted manner due to the antiperiplanar relationship between the leaving and migrating groups, whereas compounds in the s-trans conformation react stepwise through a carbene intermediate or do not rearrange. Second, regardless of the reaction mechanism, the rearrangement gives a ketene intermediate, which can be trapped by a weakly acidic nucleophile, such as an alcohol or amine, to give the corresponding ester or amide, or an olefin, to give a [2+2] cycloaddition adduct. Strong acids do not rearrange, but rather protonate the α-carbon and give SN2 products.
Stereochemistry of α-diazo ketones
Understanding the stereochemistry of α-diazo ketones is essential in elucidating the mechanism of the Wolff rearrangement. α-diazocarbonyl compounds are generally locally planar, with large rotational barriers (55–65 kJ/mol) due to C-C olefin character between the carbonyl and α-carbon, illustrated in the rightmost resonance structure. Such a large barrier slows molecular rotations sufficiently to lead to an equilibrium between two conformers, an s-trans and s-cis-conformer. s-cis-Conformers are electronically favored due to Coulombic attraction between the oxygen with a partial negative charge and the cationic nitrogen, as seen in the rightmost resonance structure. If R1 is large and R2 is hydrogen, s-cis is sterically favored. If R1 and R2 are large, s-trans is sterically favored; if both substituents are sufficiently large, the steric repulsion can outweigh the Coulombic attraction, leading to a preference for s-trans. Small and medium cyclic substrates are constrained in the s-cis conformation.
Concerted mechanism
When the α-diazo ketone is in the s-cis conformation, the leaving group (N2) and the migrating group (R1) are antiperiplanar, which favors a concerted mechanism, in which nitrogen extrusion occurs concurrently with 1,2-alkyl shift. There is evidence this mechanism occurs in both thermolytic and photolytic methods, when the s-cis-conformer is strongly favored.
CIDNP studies show that photochemical rearrangement of diazoacetone, which largely exists in the s-cis-conformer, is concerted. Product ratios from direct and triplet-sensitized photolysis have been used as evidence for proposals that claim that concerted products arise from the s-cis-conformer and stepwise products occur through the s-trans-conformer.
Stepwise mechanism
s-trans-α-Diazo ketones do not have an antiperiplanar relationship between the leaving and migrating group, and thus are thought to generally rearrange stepwise. The stepwise mechanism begins with nitrogen extrusion, forming an α-ketocarbene. The α-ketocarbene can either undergo a 1,2-alkyl shift, to give the ketene product, or can undergo a 4π electrocyclic ring closure, to form an antiaromatic oxirene. This oxirene can reopen in two ways, to either α-ketocarbene, which can then form the ketene product.
There are two primary arguments for stepwise mechanisms. The first is that rate constants of Wolff rearrangements depend on the stability of the formed carbene, rather than the migratory aptitude of the migrating group. The most definitive evidence is isotopic scrambling of the ketene, as predicted by an oxirene intermediate, which can only occur in the stepwise path. In the scheme below, the red carbon is 13C labelled. The symmetric oxirene intermediate can open either way, scrambling the 13C label. If the substituents R1 and R2 are the same, one can quantify the ratio of products stemming from the concerted and stepwise mechanisms; if the substituents are different, the oxirene will have a preference in the direction it opens, and a ratio cannot be quantified, but any scrambling indicates some reactant is going through a stepwise mechanism. In photolysis of diazo acetaldehyde, 8% of the label is scrambled, indicating that 16% of product is formed via the oxirene intermediate. Under photolysis, the biphenyl (R1=R2=phenyl) substrate shows 20–30% label migration, implying 40–60% of product goes through the oxirene intermediate. α-diazocyclohexanone shows no label scrambling under photolytic conditions, as it is entirely s-cis, and thus all substrate goes through the concerted mechanism, avoiding the oxirene intermediate.
Isotopic labeling studies have been used extensively to measure the ratio of product stemming from a concerted mechanism versus a stepwise mechanism. These studies confirm that reactants that prefer s-trans conformations tend to undergo stepwise reaction. The degree of scrambling is also affected by carbene stability, migratory abilities, and nucleophilicity of solvent. The observation that the migratory ability of a substituent is inversely proportional to amount of carbene formed, indicates that under photolysis, there are competing pathways for many Wolff reactions. The only Wolff rearrangements that show no scrambling are s-cis constrained cyclic α-diazo ketones.
Mechanistic conclusion
Under both thermolytic and photolytic conditions, there exist competing concerted and stepwise mechanisms. Many mechanistic studies have been carried out, including conformational, sensitization, kinetic, and isotopic scrambling studies. These all point to competing mechanisms, with general trends. α-Diazo ketones that exist in the s-cis conformation generally undergo a concerted mechanism, whereas those in the s-trans conformation undergo a stepwise mechanism. α-diazo ketones with better migratory groups prefer a concerted mechanism. However, for all substrates except cyclic α-diazo ketones that exist solely in the s-cis conformation, products come from a combination of both pathways. Transition metal mediated reactions are quite varied; however, they generally prefer forming the metal carbene intermediate. The complete mechanism under photolysis can be approximated in the following figure:
Migratory trends
The mechanism of the Wolff rearrangement is dependent on the aptitude of the migratory group. Migratory abilities have been determined by competition studies. In general, hydrogen migrates the fastest, and alkyl and aryl groups migrate at approximately the same rate, with alkyl migrations favored under photolysis, and aryl migrations preferred under thermolysis. Substituent effects on aryl groups are negligible, with the exception of NO2, which is a poor migrator. In competition studies, electron deficient alkyl, aryl, and carbonyl groups cannot compete with other migrating groups, but are still competent. Heteroatoms, in general, are poor migratory groups, because their ability to donate electron density from their p orbitals into the π* C=O bond decreases migratory ability.
The trend is as follows:
Photochemical reactions: H > alkyl ≥ aryl >> SR > OR ≥ NR2
Thermal reactions H > aryl ≥ alkyl (heteroatoms do not migrate)
Preparation of α-diazocarbonyl compounds
While known since 1902, the Wolff rearrangement did not become synthetically useful until the early 1930s, when efficient methods became available to synthesize α-diazocarbonyl compounds. The primary ways to prepare these substrates today are via the Arndt-Eistert procedure, the Franzen modification to the Dakin-West reaction, and diazo-transfer methods.
Arndt-Eistert procedure
The Arndt–Eistert reaction involves the acylation of diazomethane with an acid chloride, to yield a primary α-diazo ketone. The carbon terminus of diazomethane adds to the carbonyl, to create a tetrahedral intermediate, which eliminates chloride. The chloride then deprotonates the intermediate to give the α-diazo ketone product.
These α-diazo ketones are unstable under acidic conditions, as the α-carbon can be protonated by HCl and SN2 displacement of nitrogen can occur by chloride.
Franzen modification to Dakin-West reaction
The Dakin–West reaction is a reaction of an amino acid with an acid anhydride in the presence of a base to form keto-amides. The Franzen modification to the Dakin–West reaction is a more effective way to make secondary α-diazo ketones. The Franzen modification nitrosates the keto-amide with N2O3 in acetic acid, and the resulting product reacts with methoxide in methanol to give the secondary α-diazo ketone.
Diazo-transfer reactions
Diazo-transfer reactions are commonly used methods, in which an organic azide, usually tosylazide, and an activated methylene (i.e. a methylene with two withdrawing groups) react in the presence of a base to give an α-diazo-1,3-diketone. The base deprotonates the methylene, yielding an enolate, which reacts with tosylazide and subsequently decomposes in the presence of a weak acid, to give the α-diazo-1,3-diketone.
The necessary requirement of two electron withdrawing groups makes this reaction one of limited scope. The scope can be broadened to substrates containing one electron withdrawing group by formylating a ketone via a Claisen condensation, followed by diazo-transfer and deformylative group transfer.
One of the greatest advantages of this method is its compatibility with unsaturated ketones. However, to achieve kinetic regioselectivity in enolate formation and greater compatibility with unsaturated carbonyls, one can induce enolate formation with lithium hexamethyldisilazide and subsequently trifluoroacylate rather than formylate.
Methods for inducing rearrangement
Wolff rearrangements can be induced under thermolytic, photolytic, and transition-metal-catalyzed conditions.
Thermal conditions to induce rearrangement require heating to relatively high temperatures, of 180 ˚C, and thus have limited use. Many Wolff rearrangement products are ring-strained and are susceptible to ring-open under high temperatures. In addition, SN2 substitution of the diazo group at the α-carbon can take place at lower temperatures than rearrangement, which results in byproducts. The greatest use of thermal Wolff rearrangements is the formation of carboxylic acid analogs, by interception of the ketene with high boiling solvents, such as aniline and phenol.
Transition metals greatly lower the temperature of Wolff rearrangements, by stabilization of a metal-carbene intermediate. However, these carbenes can be so stable, as to not undergo rearrangement. Carbenes of rhodium, copper, and palladium are too stable and give non-Wolff products (primarily carbene insertion products). The most commonly used metal catalyst is silver(I) oxide, although silver benzoate is also common. These reactions are generally run in the presence of a weak base, such as sodium carbonate or tertiary amines.
Whereas thermal and metal mediated Wolff rearrangements date back to 1902, photolytic methods are somewhat newer, with the first example of a photolytic Wolff rearrangement reported in 1951. α-diazo ketones have two absorption bands, an allowed π→π* transition at 240–270 nm, and a formally forbidden π→σ* transition at 270–310 nm. Medium or low-pressure mercury arc lamps can excite these respective transitions. Triplet sensitizers result in non-Wolff carbene byproducts, and thus are not useful in synthetic applications of the Wolff rearrangement. However, they have been used to probe the mechanism of the Wolff rearrangement.
Synthetic uses
The Wolff rearrangement has a few retrons, depending on the reaction out of the ketene intermediate. A carboxylic acid derivative with an α-methylene group is a retron for an Arndt-Eistert type homologation. An acid in which the α-carbon belongs to a ring is a retron for a Wolff rearrangement ring contraction.
Homologation reactions
In the Arndt-Eistert homologation reaction, a carboxylic acid and thionyl chloride are reacted to generate an acid chloride. The acid chloride then reacts with diazomethane (R2 = H), or occasionally a diazoalkyl, via the Arndt-Eistert procedure, to generate an α-diazo ketone, which will undergo a metal-catalyzed or photolyzed Wolff rearrangement, to give a ketene. The ketene can be trapped with any weak acid, such as an alcohol or amine, to form the ester or amide. However, trapping with water, to form the acid is the most common form.
In the most basic form, where R2= H, RXH=H2O, the reaction lengthens the alkyl chain of a carboxylic acid by a methylene. However, there is great synthetic utility in the variety of reactions one can carry out, by varying the diazoalkyl and weak acid. The migrating group, R1 migrates with complete retention. A very useful application of the Arndt-Eistert homologation forms the homologated aldehyde by either trapping the ketene with N-methyl aniline and reducing with lithium aluminium hydride, or trapping the ketene with ethanethiol and reducing with Raney nickel.
There exist many hundreds of examples of the Arndt-Eistert homologation in the literature. Prominent examples in natural product total synthesis include the syntheses of (−)-indolizidine and (+)-macbecin. A recent example of the Arndt-Eistert homologation is a step in the middle stage of Sarah Reisman's synthesis of (+)-salvileucalin B.
Ring contractions
If the reactant is a cyclic α-diazo ketone, then Wolff-rearrangement products will be the one-carbon ring-contracted product. These reactions are generally concerted due to the s-cis conformation, and are photocatalyzed. The reaction below shows the concerted mechanism for the ring contraction of α-diazocyclohexanone, followed by trapping of the ketene with a weakly acidic nucleophile.
The first known example is the ring contracted Wolff rearrangement product of α-diazocamphor, and subsequent kinetic hydration of the ketene from the more sterically accessible "endo" face, to give exo-1,5,5-trimethylbicyclo[2.1.1]hexane-6-carboxylic acid.
Ring contractions have been used extensively to build strained ring systems, as ring size does not impede the Wolff rearrangement, but often impedes other reactions. There are many examples where the Wolff rearrangement is used to contract cyclopentanone to cyclobutane. The rearrangement is commonly used to form strained bicyclic and ring-fused systems. There exist a handful of examples of ring contractions from cyclobutanones to cyclopropanes. The Wolff rearrangement is capable of contracting cyclohexanones to cyclopentanes, but is infrequently used to do so, because the Favorskii rearrangement accomplishes this transformation and the Wolff precursor is often more challenging to synthesize. However, an example of a cyclohexanone ring contraction using deformylative diazo transfer, followed by a Wolff rearrangement, is Keiichiro Fukumoto's synthesis of (±)-∆9(12)-capnellene.
Cycloaddition reactions
Ketene intermediates produced via the Wolff rearrangement are well known to undergo [2 + 2] thermal cycloadditions with olefins to form four-membered rings in both intermolecular and intramolecular reactions, examples of both are shown below. Ketenes are able to undergo what is normally considered a forbidden [2 + 2] cycloaddition reaction because the ketene acts in an antarrafactial manner, leading to the Woodward-Hoffmann allowed [πs2 + πa2] cycloaddition. Ketene [2 + 2] cycloadditions can be difficult reactions and give poor yields due to competing processes. The high energy aldoketene is very reactive and will cyclize with the diazo ketone starting material to produce butenolides and pyrazoles.
Ketene [2 + 2] cycloaddition reactions have been used in many total syntheses since Corey's use of the [2 + 2] cyclization in synthesizing the prostaglandins. Robert Ireland's synthesis of (±)-aphidicolin uses the Wolff rearrangement to do a tandem ring-contraction, and [2 + 2] cycloaddition.
The Danheiser benzannulation photolyses α-diazo ketones and traps with an alkyne, which undergoes a pericyclic cascade, to ultimately form versatilely substituted phenols. The first step in the benzannulation is the photolysis of an α-diazo ketone to form a vinylketene. The vinylketene then undergoes a [2 + 2] cycloaddition with an alkyne to form a 2-vinylcyclobutenone, which does a 4π electrocyclic ring-opening to generate a dienylketene. The dienylketene subsequently undergoes a 6π electrocyclic ring-closure followed by tautomerization, to form the phenolic benzannulated product.
Vinylogous Wolff rearrangements
The vinylogous Wolff rearrangement consists of a β,γ-unsaturated diazo ketone undergoing a Wolff rearrangement, and a formal 1,3-shift of the CH2CO2R group. The vinylogous Wolff rearrangement yields a γ,δ-unsaturated carboxylic acid derivative, which is the same retron as for the Claisen rearrangement. The variant was discovered when it was noticed that thermolysis of 1-diazo-3,3,3-triarylpropan-2-ones gave unexpected isomeric products.
Copper (II) and rhodium (II) salts tend to give vinylogous Wolff rearranged products, and CuSO4 and Rh2(OAc)4 are the most commonly used catalysts. This is because they promote metal carbene formation, which can add to the olefin to form a cyclopropane, which can reopen via a retro [2 + 2] to form a formally 1,3-shifted ketene (vis-à-vis a normal Wolff rearranged ketene), which can be trapped by a nucleophile to give the vinylogous Wolff product.
See also
Diazo
Ketene
Arndt-Eistert reaction
Curtius rearrangement
Schmidt reaction
References
Rearrangement reactions
Name reactions
Ring contraction reactions
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4947900
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec%20codex
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Aztec codex
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Aztec codices ( , sing. codex) are Mesoamerican manuscripts made by the pre-Columbian Aztec, and their Nahuatl-speaking descendants during the colonial period in Mexico.
History
Before the start of the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Mexica and their neighbors in and around the Valley of Mexico relied on painted books and records to document many aspects of their lives. Painted manuscripts contained information about their history, science, land tenure, tribute, and sacred rituals. According to the testimony of Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Moctezuma had a library full of such books, known as amatl, or amoxtli, kept by a calpixqui or nobleman in his palace, some of them dealing with tribute. After the conquest of Tenochtitlan, indigenous nations continued to produce painted manuscripts, and the Spaniards came to accept and rely on them as valid and potentially important records. The native tradition of pictorial documentation and expression continued strongly in the Valley of Mexico several generations after the arrival of Europeans. The latest examples of this tradition reach into the early seventeenth century.
Formats
Since the 19th century, the word codex has been applied to all Mesoamerican pictorial manuscripts, regardless of format or date, despite the fact that pre-Hispanic Aztec manuscripts were (strictly speaking) non-codical in form. Aztec codices were usually made from long sheets of fig-bark paper (amate) or stretched deerskins sewn together to form long and narrow strips; others were painted on big cloths. Thus, usual formats include screenfold books, strips known as tiras, rolls, and cloths, also known as lienzos. While no Aztec codex preserves its covers, from the example of Mixtec codices it is assumed that Aztec screenfold books had wooden covers, perhaps decorated with mosaics in turquoise, as the surviving wooden covers of Codex Vaticanus B suggests.
Writing and pictography
Aztec codices differ from European books in that most of their content is pictorial in nature. In regards to whether parts of these books can be considered as writing, current academics are divided in two schools: those endorsing grammatological perspectives, which consider these documents as a mixture of iconography and writing proper, and those with semasiographical perspectives, which consider them a system of graphic communication which admits the presence of glyphs denoting sounds (glottography). In any case, both schools coincide in the fact that most of the information in these manuscripts was transmitted by images, rather than by writing, which was restricted to names.
Style and regional schools
According to Donald Robertson, the first scholar to attempt a systematic classification of Aztec pictorial manuscripts, the pre-Conquest style of Mesoamerican pictorials in Central Mexico can be defined as being similar to that of the Mixtec. This has historical reasons, for according to Codex Xolotl and historians like Ixtlilxochitl, the art of tlacuilolli or manuscript painting was introduced to the Tolteca-Chichimeca ancestors of the Tetzcocans by the Tlaoilolaques and Chimalpanecas, two Toltec tribes from the lands of the Mixtecs. The Mixtec style would be defined by the usage of the native "frame line", which has the primary purpose of enclosing areas of color. as well as to qualify symbolically areas thus enclosed. Colour is usually applied within such linear boundaries, without any modeling or shading. Human forms can be divided into separable, component parts, while architectural forms are not realistic, but bound by conventions. Tridimensionality and perspective is absent. In contrast, post-Conquest codices present the use of European contour lines varying in width, and illusions of tridimensionality and perspective. Later on, Elizabeth Hill-Boone gave a more precise definition of the Aztec pictorial style, suggesting the existence of a particular Aztec style as a variant of the Mixteca-Puebla style, characterized by more naturalism and the use of particular calendrical glyphs that are slightly different from those of the Mixtec codices.
Regarding local schools within the Aztec pictorial style, Robertson was the first to distinguish three of them:
School of Mexico Tenochtitlan: Based at the imperial capital of Tenochtitlan, it comprises two stages, an early one which would include the Matrícula de Tributos, Plano en Papel de Maguey, Codex Boturini and the Codex Borgia; and a later one, which would comprise Codex Mendoza, Codex Telleriano-Remensis, Codex Osuna, Codex Mexicanus and the Magliabechiano Group.
School of Texcoco: Based at the Texcoco polity (altepetl), this school comprises documents related to the court of Nezahualcoyotl. Its foremost representativese are the Mapa Quinatzin, Mapa Tlotzin, Codex Xolotl, Codex en Cruz, the Boban Calendar Wheel, and the Relaciones Geográficas de Texcoco.
School of Tlatelolco: Based at the sister-city of Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco, this school is associated with the Badianus herbal, the Mapa de Santa Cruz, the Codex of Tlatelolco and the Florentine Codex.
Survival and preservation
A large number of prehispanic and colonial indigenous texts have been destroyed or lost over time. For example, when Hernan Cortés and his six hundred conquistadores landed on the Aztec land in 1519, they found that the Aztecs kept books both in temples and in libraries associated to palaces such as that of Moctezuma. For example, besides the testimony of Bernal Díaz quoted above, the conquistador Juan Cano describes some of the books to be found at the library of Moctezuma, dealing with religion, genealogies, government, and geography, lamenting their destruction at the hands of the Spaniards, for such books were essential for the government and policy of indigenous nations. Further loss was caused by Catholic priests, who destroyed many of the surviving manuscripts during the early colonial period, burning them because they considered them idolatric.
The large extant body of manuscripts that did survive can now be found in museums, archives, and private collections. There has been considerable scholarly work on individual codices as well as the daunting task of classification and description. A major publication project by scholars of Mesoamerican ethnohistory was brought to fruition in the 1970s: volume 14 of the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources: Part Three is devoted to Middle American pictorial manuscripts, including numerous reproductions of single pages of important pictorials. This volume includes John B. Glass and Donald Robertson's survey and catalogue of Mesoamerican pictorials, comprising 434 entries, of which a considerable part proceed from the Valley of Mexico.
Three Aztec codices have been considered as being possibly pre-Hispanic: Codex Borbonicus, the Matrícula de Tributos and the Codex Boturini. According to Robertson, no pre-Conquest examples of Aztec codices survived, for he considered the Codex Borbonicus and the Codex Boturini as displaying limited elements of European influence, such as the space apparently left to add Spanish glosses for calendric names in the Codex Borbonicus and some stylistic elements of trees in Codex Boturini. Similarly, the Matrícula de Tributos seems to imitate European paper proportions, rather than native ones. However, Robertson's views, which equated Mixtec and Aztec style, have been contested by Elizabeth-Hill Boone, who considered a more naturalistic quality of the Aztec pictorial school. Thus, the chronological situation of these manuscripts is still disputed, with some scholars being in favour of them being prehispanic, and some against.
Classification
The types of information in manuscripts fall into several categories: calendrical, historical, genealogical, cartographic, economic/tribute, economic/census and cadastral, and economic/property plans. A census of 434 pictorial manuscripts of all of Mesoamerica gives information on the title, synonyms, location, history, publication status, regional classification, date, physical description, description of the work itself, a bibliographical essay, list of copies, and a bibliography. Indigenous texts known as Techialoyan manuscripts are written on native paper (amatl) are also surveyed. They follow a standard format, usually written in alphabetic Nahuatl with pictorial content concerning a meeting of a given indigenous pueblo's leadership and their marking out the boundaries of the municipality. A type of colonial-era pictorial religious texts are catechisms called Testerian manuscripts. They contain prayers and mnemonic devices. An interesting type of pictorial codex are ones deliberately falsified. John B. Glass published a catalog of such manuscripts that were published without the forgeries being known at the time.
Another mixed alphabetic and pictorial source for Mesoamerican ethnohistory is the late sixteenth-century Relaciones geográficas, with information on individual indigenous settlements in colonial Mexico, created on the orders of the Spanish crown. Each relación was ideally to include a pictorial of the town, usually done by an indigenous resident connected with town government. Although these manuscripts were created for Spanish administrative purposes, they contain important information about the history and geography of indigenous polities.
Important codices
Particularly important colonial-era codices that are published with scholarly English translations are Codex Mendoza, the Florentine Codex, and the works by Diego Durán. Codex Mendoza is a mixed pictorial, alphabetic Spanish manuscript. Of supreme importance is the Florentine Codex, a project directed by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún, who drew on indigenous informants' knowledge of Aztec religion, social structure, natural history, and includes a history of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire from the Mexica viewpoint. The project resulted in twelve books, bound into three volumes, of bilingual Nahuatl/Spanish alphabetic text, with illustrations by native artists; the Nahuatl has been translated into English. Also important are the works of Dominican Diego Durán, who drew on indigenous pictorials and living informants to create illustrated texts on history and religion.
The colonial-era codices often contain Aztec pictograms or other pictorial elements. Some are written in alphabetic text in Classical Nahuatl (in the Latin alphabet) or Spanish, and occasionally Latin. Some are entirely in Nahuatl without pictorial content. Although there are very few surviving prehispanic codices, the (codex painter) tradition endured the transition to colonial culture; scholars now have access to a body of around 500 colonial-era codices.
Some prose manuscripts in the indigenous tradition sometimes have pictorial content, such as the Florentine Codex, Codex Mendoza, and the works of Durán, but others are entirely alphabetic in Spanish or Nahuatl. Charles Gibson has written an overview of such manuscripts, and with John B. Glass compiled a census. They list 130 manuscripts for Central Mexico. A large section at the end has reproductions of pictorials, many from central Mexico.
List of Aztec codices
Anales de Tlatelolco, an early colonial era set of annals written in Nahuatl, with no pictorial content. It contains information on Tlatelolco's participation in the Spanish conquest.
Badianus Herbal Manuscript is formally called Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Latin for "Little Book of the Medicinal Herbs of the Indians") is a herbal manuscript, describing the medicinal properties of various plants used by the Aztecs. It was translated into Latin by Juan Badiano, from a Nahuatl original composed in the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1552 by Martín de la Cruz that is no longer extant. The Libellus is better known as the Badianus Manuscript, after the translator; the Codex de la Cruz-Badiano, after both the original author and translator; and the Codex Barberini, after Cardinal Francesco Barberini, who had possession of the manuscript in the early 17th century.
Chavero Codex of Huexotzingo
Codex OsunaCodex Azcatitlan, a pictorial history of the Aztec empire, including images of the conquestCodex Aubin is a pictorial history or annal of the Aztecs from their departure from Aztlán, through the Spanish conquest, to the early Spanish colonial period, ending in 1608. Consisting of 81 leaves, it is two independent manuscripts, now bound together. The opening pages of the first, an annals history, bear the date of 1576, leading to its informal title, Manuscrito de 1576 ("The Manuscript of 1576"), although its year entries run to 1608. Among other topics, Codex Aubin has a native description of the massacre at the temple in Tenochtitlan in 1520. The second part of this codex is a list of the native rulers of Tenochtitlan, up to 1607. It is held by the British Museum and a copy of its commentary is at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. A copy of the original is held at the Princeton University library in the Robert Garrett Collection. The Aubin Codex is not to be confused with the similarly named Aubin Tonalamatl.Codex Borbonicus is written by Aztec priests sometime after the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Like all pre-Columbian Aztec codices, it was originally pictorial in nature, although some Spanish descriptions were later added. It can be divided into three sections: An intricate tonalamatl, or divinatory calendar; documentation of the Mesoamerican 52-year cycle, showing in order the dates of the first days of each of these 52 solar years; and a section of rituals and ceremonies, particularly those that end the 52-year cycle, when the "new fire" must be lit. Codex Bornobicus is held at the Library of the National Assembly of France.Codex Borgia – pre-Hispanic ritual codex, after which the group Borgia Group is named. The codex is itself named after Cardinal Stefano Borgia, who owned it before it was acquired by the Vatican Library.Codex Boturini or Tira de la Peregrinación was painted by an unknown author sometime between 1530 and 1541, roughly a decade after the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Pictorial in nature, it tells the story of the legendary Aztec journey from Aztlán to the Valley of Mexico. Rather than employing separate pages, the author used one long sheet of amatl, or fig bark, accordion-folded into 21½ pages. There is a rip in the middle of the 22nd page, and it is unclear whether the author intended the manuscript to end at that point or not. Unlike many other Aztec codices, the drawings are not colored, but rather merely outlined with black ink. Also known as "Tira de la Peregrinación" ("The Strip Showing the Travels"), it is named after one of its first European owners, Lorenzo Boturini Benaduci (1702 – 1751). It is now held in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City.Codex Chimalpahin, a collection of writings attributed to colonial-era historian Chimalpahin concerning the history of various important city-states.Codex ChimalpopocaCodex Cospi, part of the Borgia Group.Codex Cozcatzin, a post-conquest, bound manuscript consisting of 18 sheets (36 pages) of European paper, dated 1572, although it was perhaps created later than this. Largely pictorial, it has short descriptions in Spanish and Nahuatl. The first section of the codex contains a list of land granted by Itzcóatl in 1439 and is part of a complaint against Diego Mendoza. Other pages list historical and genealogical information, focused on Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlan. The final page consists of astronomical descriptions in Spanish. It is named for Don Juan Luis Cozcatzin, who appears in the codex as "alcalde ordinario de esta ciudad de México" ("ordinary mayor of this city of Mexico"). The codex is held by the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.Codex en Cruz - a single piece of amatl paper, it is currently held by the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.Codex Fejérváry-Mayer – pre-Hispanic calendar codex, part of the Borgia Group.Codex Ixtlilxochitl, an early 17th-century codex fragment detailing, among other subjects, a calendar of the annual festivals and rituals celebrated by the Aztec teocalli during the Mexican year. Each of the 18 months is represented by a god or historical character. Written in Spanish, the Codex Ixtlilxochitl has 50 pages comprising 27 separate sheets of European paper with 29 drawings. It was derived from the same source as the Codex Magliabechiano. It was named after Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl (between 1568 & 1578 - c. 1650), a member of the ruling family of Texcoco, and is held in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris and published in 1976. Page by page views of the manuscript are available online.Codex Laud, part of the Borgia Group.Codex Magliabechiano was created during the mid-16th century, in the early Spanish colonial period. Based on an earlier unknown codex, the Codex Magliabechiano is primarily a religious document, depicting the 20 day-names of the tonalpohualli, the 18 monthly feasts, the 52-year cycle, various deities, indigenous religious rites, costumes, and cosmological beliefs. The Codex Magliabechiano has 92 pages made from Europea paper, with drawings and Spanish language text on both sides of each page. It is named after Antonio Magliabechi, a 17th-century Italian manuscript collector, and is held in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Florence, Italy.Codex Mendoza is a pictorial document, with Spanish annotations and commentary, composed circa 1541. It is divided into three sections: a history of each Aztec ruler and their conquests; a list of the tribute paid by each tributary province; and a general description of daily Aztec life. It is held in the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford.Codex MexicanusCodex Osuna is a mixed pictorial and Nahuatl alphabetic text detailing complaints of particular indigenous against colonial officials.Codex Porfirio Díaz, sometimes considered part of the Borgia GroupCodex Reese - a map of land claims in Tenotichlan discovered by the famed manuscript dealer William Reese.Codex Santa Maria Asunción - Aztec census, similar to Codex Vergara; published in facsimile in 1997.Codex Telleriano-Remensis - calendar, divinatory almanac and history of the Aztec people, published in facsimile.Codex Ríos - an Italian translation and augmentation of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis.Codex of Tlatelolco is a pictorial codex, produced around 1560. Codex Vaticanus B, part of the Borgia GroupCodex Vergara - records the border lengths of Mesoamerican farms and calculates their areas.Codex Xolotl - a pictorial codex recounting the history of the Valley of Mexico, and Texcoco in particular, from Xolotl's arrival in the Valley to the defeat of Azcapotzalco in 1428.Crónica Mexicayotl, Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc, prose manuscript in the native tradition.Codex Florentine is a set of 12 books created under the supervision of Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún between approximately 1540 and 1576. The Florentine Codex has been the major source of Aztec life in the years before the Spanish conquest. Charles Dibble and Arthur J.O. Anderson published English translations of the Nahuatl text of the twelve books in separate volumes, with redrawn illustrations. A full color, facsimile copy of the complete codex was published in three bound volumes in 1979. Huexotzinco Codex, Nahua pictorials that are part of a 1531 lawsuit by Hernán Cortés against Nuño de Guzmán that the Huexotzincans joined.Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2 - a post-conquest indigenous map, legitimizing the land rights of the Cuauhtinchantlacas.Mapa Quinatzin is a sixteenth-century mixed pictorial and alphabetic manuscript concerning the history of Texcoco. It has valuable information on the Texcocan legal system, depicting particular crimes and the specified punishments, including adultery and theft. One striking fact is that a judge was executed for hearing a case that concerned his own house. It has name glyphs for Nezahualcoyotal and his successor Nezahualpilli.Matrícula de Huexotzinco. Nahua pictorial census and alphabetic text, published in 1974.Oztoticpac Lands Map of Texcoco, 1540 is a pictorial on native amatl paper from Texcoco ca. 1540 relative to the estate of DonDon Carlos Chichimecatecatl of Texcoco. Codex Ramírez - a history by Juan de Tovar.Romances de los señores de Nueva España - a collection of Nahuatl songs transcribed in the mid-16th century Santa Cruz Map'. Mid-sixteenth-century pictorial of the area around the central lake system.
Legacy
Continued scholarship of the codexes has been influential in contemporary Mexican society, particularly for contemporary Nahuas who are now reading these texts to gain insight into their own histories. Research on these codexes has also been influential in Los Angeles, where there is a growing interest in Nahua language and culture in the 21st century.
See also
Codex Zouche-Nuttall - one of the Mixtec codices. Codex Zouche-Nuttall is in the British Museum.
Crónica X
Historia de Mexico with the Tovar calendar, ca. 1830–1862. From the Jay I Kislak Collection at the Library of Congress
Maya codices
Mesoamerican literature
Colonial Mesoamerican native-language texts
References
Further reading
Batalla Rosado, Juan José. "The Historical Sources: Codices and Chronicles" in The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs. Oxford University Press 2017, pp. 29–40.
Howard F. Cline "The Relaciones Geográficas of the Spanish Indies, 1577-1648", article 5. Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 1; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1972, pp. 183–242.
Cline, Howard F. "A Census of the Relaciones Geográficas of New Spain, 1579-1612," article 8. Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 1; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1972, pp. 324–369.
Gibson, Charles. "Prose sources in the Native Historical Tradition", article 27A. "A Survey of Middle American Prose Manuscripts in the Native Historical Tradition". Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 4; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1975, 311–321.
Gibson, Charles and John B. Glass. "Prose sources in the Native Historical Tradition", article 27B. "A Census of Middle American Prose Manuscripts in the Native Historical Tradition". Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 4; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1975, 322–400.
Gibson, Charles. "Published Collections of Documents Relating to Middle American Ethnohistory", article 11.Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 2; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1973, pp. 3–41.
Glass, John B. "A Survey of Native Middle American Pictorial Manuscripts", article 22, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 3; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1975, pp. 3–80.
Glass, John B. "A Census of Middle American Testerian Manuscripts." article 25, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 3; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1975, pp. 281–296.
Glass, John B. "A Catalog of Falsified Middle American Pictorial Manuscripts." article 26, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 3; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1975, pp. 297–309.
Glass, John B. in collaboration with Donald Robertson. "A Census of Native Middle American Pictorial Manuscripts". article 23, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 3; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1975, pp. 81–252.
Nicholson, H. B. “Pre-Hispanic Central Mexican Historiography.” In Investigaciones contemporáneos sobre historia de México. Memorias de la tercera reunión de historiadores mexicanos y norteamericanos, Oaxtepec, Morelos, 4–7 de noviembre de 1969, pp. 38–81. Mexico City, 1971.
Robertson, Donald, "The Pinturas (Maps) of the Relaciones Geográficas, with a Catalog", article 6.Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 1; Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press 1972, pp. 243–278.
Robertson, Donald. "Techialoyan Manuscripts and Paintings with a Catalog." article 24, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Part 3; Handbook of Middle American Indians''. University of Texas Press 1975, pp. 253–281.
External links
Bibliography of Mesoamerican Codices
Detailed interpretation, with annotated photos, of the last pages of the Boturini Codex
Page-by-page views of Codex Ixtlilxochitl
Complete scan of the Tovar Codex from the John Carter Brown Library
16th century in the Aztec civilization
16th century in Mexico
16th century in New Spain
Codices
Manuscripts by language
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20of%20New%20York%20and%20New%20Jersey
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Port of New York and New Jersey
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The Port of New York and New Jersey is the port district of the New York-Newark metropolitan area, encompassing the region within approximately a radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument.
It includes the system of navigable waterways in the New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary, which runs along over of shoreline in the vicinity of New York City and northeastern New Jersey, and is considered one of the largest natural harbors in the world.
Having long been the busiest port on the East Coast it became the busiest port by maritime cargo volume in the United States in 2022 and is a major economic engine for the region.
The region's airports make the port the nation's top gateway for international flights and its busiest center for overall passenger and air freight flights. There are two foreign-trade zones (FTZ) within the port.
Geography
Port district
Encompassing an area within an approximate radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, the port district comprises all or part of seventeen counties in the region. The nine that are completely within the district are Hudson, Bergen, Essex, Union (in New Jersey), and the five boroughs of New York City, which are coterminous with the counties of New York, Bronx, Kings, Queens, and Richmond. Abutting sections of Passaic, Middlesex, Monmouth, Morris, and Somerset in New Jersey, and Nassau, Westchester, and Rockland in New York are also within the district.
Waterways
Bodies of water
New York Harbor is one of the world's largest natural harbors.
The Atlantic Ocean is to the southeast of the port. The sea at the entrance to the port is called the New York Bight; it lies between the peninsulas of Sandy Hook and Rockaway.
In Lower New York Bay and its western arm, Raritan Bay, vessels orient themselves for passage to the west into Arthur Kill or Raritan River or to the north to The Narrows. To the east lies the Rockaway Inlet, which leads to Jamaica Bay. The Narrows connects to the Upper New York Bay at the mouth of the Hudson River, which is sometimes (particularly in navigation) called the North River. Large ships are able to navigate upstream to the Port of Albany-Rensselaer. To the west lies Kill van Kull, the strait leading to Newark Bay, fed by the Passaic River and Hackensack River, and the northern entrance of Arthur Kill.
The Gowanus Canal and Buttermilk Channel are entered from the east. The East River is a broad strait that travels north to Newtown Creek and the Harlem River, turning east at Hell Gate before opening to Long Island Sound, which provides an outlet to the open sea.
Channels
The port consists of a complex of approximately of shipping channels, as well as anchorages and port facilities. Most vessels require pilotage, and larger vessels require tugboat assistance for the sharper channel turns.
The Ambrose leads from the sea to the Upper Bay, where it becomes the Anchorage Channel. Connecting channels are the Bay Ridge, the Red Hook, the Buttermilk, the Claremont, the Port Jersey, the Kill Van Kull, the Newark Bay, the Port Newark, the Elizabeth, and the Arthur Kill. Anchorages are known as Stapleton, Bay Ridge and Gravesend.
The natural depth of the harbor is about , but it was deepened over the years, to a controlling depth of about in 1880. By 1891, the Main Ship Channel was minimally deep. Following the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 over $1.2 million of initial funding was appropriated for the dredging of 40 ft (12.2 m)-deep channels at Bay Ridge, Red Hook, and Sandy Hook. In 1914, Ambrose Channel became the main entrance to the port, at deep and wide. During World War II the main channel was dredged to deep to accommodate larger ships up to Panamax size.
In 2016, the Army Corps of Engineers completed a $2.1 billion dredging project, deepening harbor channels to in order to accommodate Post-Panamax container vessels, which can pass through the widened Panama Canal as well as the Suez Canal.
This has been a source of environmental concern along channels connecting the container facilities in Port Newark to the Atlantic. PCBs and other pollutants lay in a blanket just underneath the soil. In June 2009 it was announced that 200,000 cubic yards of dredged PCBs would be "cleaned" and stored en masse at the site of the former Yankee Stadium and at Brooklyn Bridge Park.
In many areas the sandy bottom has been excavated down to rock and now requires blasting. Dredging equipment then picks up the rock and disposes of it. At one point in 2005, there were 70 pieces of dredging equipment working to deepen channels, the largest fleet of dredging equipment anywhere in the world.
The channel of the Hudson is the Anchorage Channel and is approximately 50 feet deep in the midpoint of Upper Bay. A project to replace two water mains between Brooklyn and Staten Island, which will eventually allowing for dredging of the channel to nearly , was begun in April 2012. The Army Corps has recommended that most channels in the port be maintained at 50 feet deep. Dredging of the canals to 50 feet was completed in August 2016.
The channels also include bridges that limit the heights of vessels that can use the harbor. The Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge has a clearance of at mean high water. The Brooklyn Bridge has of clearance, while the Bayonne Bridge has been raised from to .
Pilotage
The Sandy Hook Pilots are licensed maritime pilots that go aboard oceangoing vessels, passenger liners, freighters, and tankers and are responsible for the navigation of larger ships through port district.
History
Early History
The estuary was originally the territory of the Lenape, a seasonally migrational people who would relocate summer encampments along its shore and use its waterways for transport and fishing. Many of the tidal salt marshes supported vast oyster banks that remained a major source of food for the region until the end of the 19th century, by which time contamination and landfilling had obliterated most of them.
The first recorded European visit was that of Giovanni da Verrazzano, who anchored in The Narrows in 1524. For the next hundred years, the region was visited sporadically by ships on fishing trips and slave raids.
European colonization began after Henry Hudson's 1609 exploration of the region with the establishment of New Amsterdam, the capital of the Dutch province of New Netherland at the tip of Manhattan. The British colonial era saw a concerted effort to expand the port in the triangular trade between Europe, Africa, and North America with a concentration of wharves along the mouth of the East River. After the Battle of Brooklyn, the British controlled the harbor for the duration of American Revolutionary War, and prison ships housed thousands at Wallabout Bay.
19th Century
In the early 19th century, the Erie Canal (often used for grain) and Morris Canal (mostly used for anthracite) gave the port access to the American interior, leading to transshipment operations, manufacturing, and industrialization. The invention of the steam engine led to expansion of the railroads and vast terminals along the western banks of the Hudson River, complemented by an extensive network of ferries and carfloats, with a large cluster along the Harlem River. The era of the ocean liner around the turn of the 20th century led to the creation of berths at North River piers and Hoboken. This coincided with the immigration of millions, processed at Castle Clinton and later at Ellis Island, some staying in the region, others boarding barges, ships, and trains to points across the United States. In 1910, the port was the busiest in the world.
20th Century
During the World Wars the waterfront supported shipyards and military installations such as the Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company and the Brooklyn Navy Yard and played an important role in troop transport as a Port of Embarkation. The mid-century also saw the construction of major highways such as the Belt Parkway, East River Drive, and Major Deegan Expressway along parts of the shoreline.
After the end of World War I, the 1919 New York City Harbor Strike shut down the port for weeks.
The era of the longshoreman, captured in the classic film On the Waterfront, faded by the 1970s as much of the waterfront became obsolete due to changing transportation patterns. The nation's first facility for container shipping, which became the prototype, opened in 1958. Expanded intermodal freight transport systems and the Interstate Highway System effected a shift to new terminals at Newark Bay.
Since the 1980s, sections of waterfront in the traditional harbor have been being redeveloped to include public access to the water's edge, with the creation of linear park greenways such as Hudson River Park, Hudson River Waterfront Walkway, and Brooklyn Bridge Park.
21st Century
The CMA CGM Theodore Roosevelt, the largest ship to call at an East Coast port, passed under the raised Bayonne Bridge in July 2017, signalling a new era of container capacity.
Jurisdiction and regulation
Responsibilities within the port are divided among all levels of government, from municipal to federal, as well as public and private agencies.
Established in 1921, the bi-state Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, in addition to overseeing maritime facilities, is responsible for the vehicular crossings and the rapid transit system between New York and New Jersey, several of the region's airports, and other transportation and real estate development projects.
The Port Authority maintains its own police force, as does the Waterfront Commission, created in 1953 to investigate, prosecute, and prevent criminal activity.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers, which has been involved in harbor maintenance since about 1826, when Congress passed an omnibus rivers and harbors act, is responsible for bulkhead and channel maintenance.
The United States Coast Guard deals with issues such as floatable debris, spills, vessel rescues, and counter-terrorism.
Both states, and some municipal governments (New York City, in particular), maintain maritime police units.
The United States Park Police monitors federal properties. The National Park Service oversees some of the region's historic sites, nature reserves, and parks.
The port is a port of entry. The United States Customs and Border Protection (CBP) and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) regulate international imports and passenger arrivals. The "green lane" program, in which trusted shippers have fewer containers inspected. There are two foreign trade zones in the port: FTZ 1, the first in the nation, established in 1937, on the New York side of the port; and FTZ 49, on the New Jersey side.
In March 2006, some of the passenger facilities management was to be transferred to Dubai Ports World. There was considerable controversy over security and ownership by a foreign corporation, particularly one of Arab origin, of a U.S. port operation, despite the fact that the operator was British-based P&O Ports. DP World later sold P&O's American operations to American International Group's asset management division, Global Investment Group, for an undisclosed sum.
Seamen's Church Institute of New York and New Jersey, the Teamsters, and the International Longshoremen's Association assist and represent some of the port's mariners and dockworkers.
Cargo infrastructure
Airports
The airports in the Port of New York and New Jersey combine to create the largest airport system in the United States, the second in the world in terms of passenger traffic, and the first in the world in terms of total flight operations. JFK air freight cargo operations make it the busiest in the US. FedEx Express, the world's busiest cargo airline, uses Newark Liberty International Airport as its regional hub.
Container terminals
There are four container terminals in the port:
Howland Hook Marine Terminal
Port Jersey Marine Terminal
Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal
Red Hook Marine Terminal
Terminals are leased to different port operators, such as A. P. Moller-Maersk Group, American Stevedoring, NYCT, and Global Marine Terminal.
In June 2010, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed to purchase from Bayonne of land at the Military Ocean Terminal at Bayonne, indicating that additional container port facilities would be created. The agency is expected to develop a terminal capable of handling the larger container ships to be in service once the new, wider Panama Canal opens in 2014, some of which would not have passed under the original Bayonne Bridge at the Kill van Kull. A project to raise to the roadway of the bridge within the existing arch was completed in May, 2019.
The terminal's combined volume makes it the largest on the East Coast, the second busiest in the United States, Handling a cargo volume in the ten months through October 2022 of over 8.2 million TEUs, benefitting post-Panamax from the expansion of the Panama Canal, and surpassing of California seaports in monthly cargo volumes to become the nation's busiest.
ExpressRail
ExpressRail is the rail network supporting intermodal freight transport at the major container terminals of the port. The development of dockside trackage and railyards for transloading has been overseen by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey which works in partnership other public and private stakeholders. Various switching and terminal railroads, including the Conrail Shared Assets Operations (CRCX) on the Chemical Coast Secondary connect to the East Coast rail freight network carriers Norfolk Southern (NS), CSX Transportation (CSX), and Canadian Pacific (CP). The network is partially financed by a surcharge on all containers passing through the port by train or truck.
Bulk cargo and marine transfer
While most consumer goods are transported in containers, other commodities such as petroleum and scrap metal are handled at facilities for marine transfer operations, bulk cargo, and break bulk cargo throughout the port, many along its straits and canals. At some locations, water pollution has led to inclusion on the list of Superfund sites in the United States.
Arthur Kill, along its shore the Bayway Refinery and the Chemical Coast
Kill van Kull at Constable Hook
Gowanus Canal in South Brooklyn
Newtown Creek, East River at Greenpoint and Hunter's Point
Passaic River from Newark Bay to Passaic
South Brooklyn Marine Terminal
Car float and Cross Harbor Tunnel
At one time nearly 600,000 railcars were transferred annually by barge between the region's extensive rail facilities. Today approximately 1,600 cars are "floated" on the remaining car float in the port. The New York New Jersey Rail, LLC transfers freight cars across the Upper Bay between the Greenville Yard in Jersey City and the 65th Street Yard and the Bush Terminal Yard in Brooklyn.
At the Greenville end, CSX Transportation operates through Conrail's North Jersey Shared Assets Area along the National Docks Secondary. At Brooklyn, end connections are made to the New York and Atlantic Railway's Bay Ridge Branch and the South Brooklyn Railway. The crossing takes approximately 45 minutes. The equivalent truck trip would be 35 to long.
Freight rail has never used the New York Tunnel Extension under the Hudson Palisades, Hudson River, Manhattan, and East River due to electrified lines and lack of ventilation. Overland travel crosses the Hudson River 140 miles (225 km) to the north using a right of way known as the Selkirk hurdle. The Cross-Harbor Rail Tunnel is a proposed rail tunnel under the Upper Bay. The western portal would be located at Greenville Yard, while the eastern portal is undetermined and a source of controversy.
In May 2010, the Port Authority announced that it would purchase the Greenville Yard and build a new barge-to-rail facility there, as well as improve the existing railcar float system. The barge-to-rail facility is expected to handle an estimated 60,000 to 90,000 containers of solid waste per year from New York City, eliminating up to 360,000 trash truck trips a year. The authority's board authorized $118.1 million for the project. The National Docks Secondary rail line is being upgraded in anticipation of expanded volumes.
In September 2014, the PANYNJ announced a $356 million capital project to upgrade and expand the facility, including Roll-on/roll-off operations. Expected to be operational about July 2016, an initial capacity of at least 125,000 cargo container lifts a year is projected.
Port Inland Distribution Network
The Port Inland Distribution Network involves new or expanded transportation systems for redistribution by barge and rail for the shipped goods and containers that are delivered at area ports in an effort to curtail the use of trucks and their burden on the environment, traffic, and highway systems. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ), New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT), and Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission (DVRPC), are involved in initiatives to review and develop this network. To instantiate PIDN, the PANYNJ signed an agreement November 29, 2003 with the Port of Albany to provide twice weekly barge service. By 2014, the service had been discontinued.
In 2018, service between Newark and Brooklyn to Port of Davisville in Rhode Island was initiated.
America's Marine Highway
America's Marine Highway is a similar United States Department of Transportation initiative to capitalize on U.S. waterways for the transport of goods. In 2016, MARAD made a grant of $1.6 million to improve the terminal at Red Hook as part of the Marine Highway program. Barges carrying containers on a route between Red Hook and Newark began operation in September 2016.
In 2010, a private sector service provider began short sea shipping of aggregate products with a barge service between Tremley Point, Linden on the Arthur Kill and the Port of Salem to address a critical, yet weak link in freight transport with ports in the Delaware Valley.
Cruise terminals and ferries
Cruise terminals
The golden age of the North Atlantic ocean liner lasted from the end of the 19th century to the post–World War II period, after which innovations in air travel became commercially viable. Many berths for the great ships that lined the North River (Hudson River) were more or less abandoned by the 1970s.
Nowadays most travel is recreational. While many cruises are to points in the Caribbean and to the Southern Hemisphere, there are also ships calling at the port that sail transatlantically , notably with a scheduled service to Southampton, England. The passenger cruise ship terminals in the port are located in the traditional, or "inner", harbor. Collectively the cruise terminals in the Port of New York and New Jersey are the sixth busiest in the United States and 16th busiest in the world for passenger travel.
Cape Liberty Cruise Port, MOTBY, Upper Bay
Brooklyn Cruise Terminal, Buttermilk Channel, Upper Bay
New York Passenger Ship Terminal, Hudson River
Ferries and sightseeing
There has been continuous ferry service between Staten Island and Lower Manhattan since the 18th century. Travelling across the Upper Bay between South Ferry and St. George Ferry Terminal, the free Staten Island Ferry transports on average 75,000 passengers per day.
Service on the East River ended in the early 20th century and on the Hudson River in the 1960s. It has been restored and grown significantly since the 1980s providing regular service to points in Manhattan, mostly below 42nd Street. Major terminals are Hoboken Terminal, Battery Park City Ferry Terminal at World Financial Center, Paulus Hook Ferry Terminal, Weehawken Port Imperial, Pier 11/Wall Street, West Midtown Ferry Terminal, and the East 34th Street Ferry Landing. There also are numerous ferry slips that each serve one route only, including the historic Fulton Ferry. In addition to regular and rush hour routes, there are excursions, trips, and seasonal service to Gateway National Recreation Area beaches. Sightseeing boats circumnavigate Manhattan or make excursions into the Upper New York Bay.
Circle Line Downtown
Circle Line Sightseeing
Ellis Island and Liberty Island
Governor's Island Ferry (seasonal)
Liberty Water Taxi
New York Water Taxi
NY Waterway
New York Beach Ferry
SeaStreak
Staten Island Ferry
Lights and lighthouses
There are both historic and modern lighthouses throughout the port, some of which have been decommissioned
Ambrose Light, Lower Bay (dismantled 2008)
Bergen Point Light, Newark Bay (replaced)
Blackwell Island Light, Roosevelt Island, East River (retired 1940)
Chapel Hill Rear Range Light, Sandy Hook Bay (deactivated 1957)
Conover Beacon (front range light), Leonardo
Coney Island (Nortons Point) Light, Lower New York Bay, Sea Gate, Brooklyn
Elm Tree Beacon Light, The Narrows, New Dorp, Staten Island
Execution Rocks Light, Long Island Sound
Fort Tompkins Light, The Narrows, Staten Island (retired)
Fort Wadsworth Light, The Narrows, Brooklyn
Great Beds Light, Raritan Bay, South Amboy
Kings Point Light, Long Island Sound, Great Neck
Kingsborough Community College Light, Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn
Little Gull Island Light, Long Island Sound
Little Red Lighthouse (Jeffrey's Hook Lighthouse), Fort Washington, Manhattan
Navesink Twin Lights, Sandy Hook Bay, Highlands
New Dorp Light, The Narrows, Staten Island Swash Channel (retired)
North Brother Island Light, East River
Old Orchard Shoal Light, Gedney Channel, Lower Bay
Princes Bay Light, Staten Island
Robbins Reef Light, Constable Hook, Upper Bay
Romer Shoal Light, Lower Bay near Sandy Hook Bay
Sandy Hook Light, Sandy Hook
Staten Island Light Lighthouse Hill, Staten Island
Statue of Liberty, Liberty Island, Upper Bay (until 1902)
Stepping Stones Light, Long Island Sound, near City Island
Stony Point light, Hudson River
Throgs Neck Light, Throggs Neck, East River (decommissioned)
Titanic Memorial, South Street Seaport, East River
West Bank Light, Ambrose Channel, Lower Bay (range front)
Whitestone Point Light, Whitestone Point, southerly side of East River
Land reclamation and ocean dumping
Channelization and landfilling began in the colonial era and continued well into the 20th century. The expansion of the land area of Lower Manhattan through encroachment began in the 17th-century Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam and continued into 20th century.
Early materials were shellfish and other refuse, and later construction debris from projects such as the New York City Subway and Pennsylvania Station. Rubble from the bombing of London was transported for ballast during World War II. New land has been created throughout the port, including large swaths that are now Battery Park City, Ellis Island, Liberty State Park, Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, and the Meadowlands Sports Complex.
From 1924 until 1986, sewerage sludge was hauled by tugboat and barge to a point offshore in the Atlantic. From 1986 to 1992 it was dumped at a site 106 nautical miles from Atlantic City, after which ocean dumping was banned.
Barges were also used to transport waste to Fresh Kills Landfill, the world's largest, which operated from 1948 to 1991. Both operations were known to be detrimental to Long Island and Jersey Shore beaches, notably the 1987 Syringe Tide.
Shipwrecks and abandoned boats
The port has many sunken ships, some of which can be seen, others that lie on the floor of the ports waterways.
The Staten Island boat graveyard is a marine scrapyard located in the Arthur Kill near the Fresh Kills Landfill, on the West Shore of Staten Island.
Tourism and recreation
Harbor-related historic sites, promenades, and nature preserves within the port district include:
South Street Seaport
USS Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum (Pier 86)
Gateway National Recreation Area
Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island and Governor's Island
Hudson River Park, Hudson River Waterfront Walkway, Brooklyn Bridge Park
Liberty State Park and Communipaw Terminal
Battery Park and Castle Clinton
Hackensack Meadowlands, Riverwalk, and Environment Center
Pier 63, New York Central Railroad 69th Street Transfer Bridge, and 79th Street Boat Basin
Gantry Plaza State Park
Manhattan Waterfront Greenway
Hoboken Terminal
City Island
Economy
In 2010, 4,811 ships entered the harbor carrying over 32.2 million metric tons of cargo valued at over $175 billion.
In 2010, the New York-New Jersey Port industry supported:
170,770 direct jobs
279,200 total jobs in the NY-NJ region
Nearly $11.6 billion in personal income
Over $37.1 billion in business income
Almost $5.2 billion in federal, state and local tax revenues
Local and State Tax Revenue: $1.6 billion
Federal Tax Revenue: $3.6 billion
Approximately 3.2 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) of containers and 700,000 automobiles are handled per year. In the first half of 2014, the port handled 1,583,449 containers, a 35,000-container increase above the six-month record set in 2012, while the port handled a monthly record of 306,805 containers in October 2014. In 2014, the port handled 3,342,286 containers and 393,931 automobiles.
In January through June 2015, the top 10 imports that went through the port of New York and New Jersey were:
Petroleum: $6.78 billion
Appliances: $3.80 billion
Vehicles: $2.59 billion
Plastics: $1.72 billion
Electronics: $1.46 billion
Chemicals: $1.45 billion
Oils and perfumes: $928.7 million
Pharmaceuticals: $897.5 million
Optical and photographic: $801.8 million
Pearls and precious gems and metals: $562.4 million
See also
List of bridges, tunnels, and cuts in Hudson County, New Jersey
List of North American ports
List of ports in the United States
List of world's busiest container ports
Collector of the Port of New York
Marine life of New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary
New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier
Port of Paulsboro
Rail freight transportation in New York City and Long Island
Timeline of Jersey City, New Jersey-area railroads
United States container ports
United States Custom House (New York City) – the custom house at the Port of New York and New Jersey
Vision 2020: New York City Comprehensive Waterfront Plan
Houseboats in New York City
References
External links
Official homepage
PANYNJ Rail terminal and intermodal facilities
Port Master Plan 2050
New York Sector for US Coast Guard (Home Port website)
New York-New Jersey Harbor & Estuary Program
Maritime Association of the Port of New York and New Jersey (Schedule of latest ship departures and related information)
NY Times 2004 slide show of port facilities and activities
Where can you get paid $466K a year to wash trucks? Special deals, union clout at N.J. port
Ferry transportation in New Jersey
Geography of New Jersey
Geography of New York City
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
New York And New Jersey
New York And New Jersey
New York And New Jersey
Regions of New Jersey
Tourism in New Jersey
Water transportation in New Jersey
Water transportation in New York (state)
Water transportation in New York City
Foreign trade zones of the United States
Air pollution in New York City
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connor%20O%27Neill
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Connor O'Neill
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Connor O'Neill is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Patrick Harvey. He made his first screen appearance during the episode on 19 April 2002. Harvey was still in school when he won the role of Connor. He initially auditioned using an Australian accent, but later re-read for the part in his natural Northern Irish accent. The producers decided this would suit the role of Connor better. The character became well known for his friendship with Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) and his relationships with Michelle Scully (Kate Keltie), Carmella Cammeniti (Natalie Blair) and Serena Bishop (Lara Sacher). One storyline saw Connor have a one-night stand with Lori Lee (Michelle Ang), which resulted in the birth of their daughter, Madeleine (Madison Lu). Harvey decided to move on from Neighbours, so he could pursue other roles and Connor departed on 30 May 2006. In August 2012, it was announced Harvey had reprised his role for a four-week guest stint and Connor returned on 30 October. He departed on 27 November 2012.
Casting
Harvey was still in school when he secured the role. He had always wanted to act and hired an agent while he was living in Australia. It was then that the part in Neighbours "came along". When Harvey auditioned for the role of Connor, he did so with an Australian accent. He came back and re-read the part again in his Northern Irish accent and he was given the role. Casting director Jan Russ told a reporter from the BBC that Harvey did the best Australian accent she had ever heard, but she and the producers decided to give the character Harvey's natural accent.
Development
Characterisation
Connor was introduced to Neighbours as a friend of Jack Scully (Jay Bunyan). He was a backpacker from the United Kingdom who came to live with Jack's family. Connor was illiterate and on his arrival in Australia, he accidentally took Malcolm Kennedy's (Benjamin McNair) luggage. An Inside Soap writer called Connor an "enigmatic stranger". Connor befriended the show's other teenagers and he helped Nina Tucker (Delta Goodrem) overcome her shyness when it came to singing. Producers later decided to introduce Connor into the shared home at Number 30 with Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) and Stuart Parker (Blair McDonough), deeming it the "House of Trouser". The trio played out the serial's comedy stories and Harvey told Jason Herbison from Inside Soap that "the directors duck when they see us coming, we're forever coming up with our own ideas and adding little things in." A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website described Connor as "a splendid and thoughtful young man". A Channel 5 website reporter branded Connor a "lovable larrikin", while adding that he was "famed for a rather unique sense of style." In November 2012, Harvey told an Inside Soap writer that there would be no chance of Connor finding his "inner adult" anytime soon. He added "He's still a bit of a larrikin – nothing's changed there. But Connor's given some tough love while on Ramsay Street – and that could end up being a 'light bulb' moment for him..."
Relationships
Michelle Scully
Connor arrives in Australia on working visa which permits him to only work for the same employer for three months. He starts a relationship with Michelle Scully (Kate Keltie) and works for her father Joe Scully (Shane Connor). They later realise that the conditions of his visa have been broken as he carried on working for Joe outside the time limit. Keltie told Herbison that Michelle "panics" when immigration contact the Scully household. Upon receiving legal advice, Connor is told that deportation is likely. Michelle tells Connor "We've got to get out of here" and the pair go on the run where she comes up with a plan to marry Connor. Keltie explained that "it would be a solution to their problem, and even though neither of them are really ready for it, she's prepared to do it for Connor." He does not like the idea because he is scared of Joe's reaction. He does decide to see a priest and plays with the idea. The actress branded their actions as "completely ridiculous and irrational" because they are only sixteen. Keltie would have felt differently "if they really loved each other, but they haven't been together long enough to know." Michelle later left Connor to go to New York.
In March 2004, Connor became caught in the middle of a "passion-fuelled" love triangle when Carmella Cammeniti (Natalie Blair) and Michelle returned to Erinsborough. Connor is surprised when Carmella reappears, especially as she was sent away by her "scary underworld-figure" father, Rocco (Robert Forza). He tries to resist her advances, but he succumbs and they head to the bedroom. Harvey said "When Carmella comes back from Italy, Connor thinks 'Ok, let's see what happens. I really do like you'. They disappear into his room and come out a bit later. They're just having a bit of fun – they're enjoying a kiss and cuddle. But then Connor looks up and sees Michelle standing in the hallway." Connor was unaware that Michelle was on her way home and the moment is awkward. Michelle assumed that she and Connor would pick up where they left off, so she cannot believe what she is seeing. Harvey admitted that Connor was "shattered" when Michelle left him to go to New York and that she may have been the only person he has ever really loved. When she wrote and told him she was seeing an American boy, he thought things were over between them for good. Harvey explained "That's when he thought he should move on. He turned to Lori and then Nina and later Carmella. I think Connor really loves Carmella's personality. He likes the way she thinks and gets on with life, and there's definitely an attraction there." Although Connor reassures Carmella that his relationship is in the past, it becomes obvious that he is torn.
Lori Lee
Connor forms a close friendship Lori Lee (Michelle Ang) and they have a one-night stand. Harvey opined that it was a "rebound thing" because there was no attraction between them. Connor is "really missing" Michelle and Lori is heartbroken over Jack Scully (Jay Bunyan) and the scenario develops from there. Lori is a "shoulder to cry on" and it feels right for them both at the time, but the next morning they regret it. The situation becomes awkward because "Connor thinks that Lori might want a relationship, and Lori thinks the same of him, even though that's not the case." Lori discovers she is pregnant and Connor is led to believe that she has had an abortion before she leaves Erinsborough. Connor later reunites with Michelle, who returns home from New York to visit her family. They decide to spend a romantic night at Lassiter's Hotel and Michelle gives Connor a makeover. She then dares him to walk into the hotel lobby and Connor runs into Lori, who introduces him to his daughter, Madeleine (Madison Lu). Of the situation, Harvey told TV Week's Jackie Brygel "Connor is standing there looking like an idiot. Lori says 'Here's your daughter!' He just can't believe it. Everything feels like it's crashing down around him. It's a massive shock." Ang stated that Lori was not imagining introducing Connor to Maddy like that, but she is caught off guard in the lobby. Lori is unaware that Connor and Michelle are back together and Ang thought Lori might not have brought Maddy into Connor's life if she knew. Lori is keen to make sure her daughter knows who her father is and she wants to give Connor the chance to be a father.
Carmella Cammeniti
Connor and Carmella's relationship is tested when Frank Romano (Lliam Amor) begins to stalk Carmella. To begin with they are unaware that Frank is the perpetrator and they attempt to figure it out. Connor thinks that Dylan Timmins (Damien Bodie) is responsible – but he and spots the actual stalker and attempts to catch Frank. It soon becomes apparent that he came to the house to set up an accident. Blair stated that "the step is covered in something slippery, and Connor falls and knocks himself unconscious, which is when they realise they must take these threats seriously." The storyline comes to the forefront of the show when Frank wants Connor removed from the scenario. He kidnaps Connor and then decides to make his move on Carmella. Blair told a correspondent from Inside Soap that Carmella realises that Connor is in danger when "Frank comes on to her and tells her to forget about Connor". Carmella is "terrified" for Connor and thinks "her only chance to save" him is to play along with Frank's games. Connor remains unconscious and tied up inside a derelict building, which David Bishop (Kevin Harrington) plans to demolish. Carmella's attempts at tricking Frank fail and "he tells her to forget Connor, as he's taken care of him". Blair added that it "sounds like Connor is dead". Stuart manages to save Carmella, but he refuses to reveal where Connor is. A crowd gather outside the building that Connor is located in and begin a demolition countdown. The actress explained "since nobody knows Connor is inside, there doesn't seem much chance of him escaping at all."
After Connor is rescued Carmella decides to leave Erinsborough to overcome her ordeal. Connor begins a relationship with Serena Bishop (Lara Sacher); this shocks Carmella when she returns with the hope of a reconciliation. Blair told Inside Soap's writer that her character left Connor to have some time to herself but did promise Connor that she would return. Carmella decides to "surprise" Connor with her return, unaware that Serena is now on the scene. Connor is "shocked" to see Carmella, who presumes they are back together; Carmella is not impressed when Connor tells her the truth about Serena. This formed a new "tricky love triangle" for the characters. Blair explained that "Serena's a kid, but Carmella sees herself as a sophisticated woman. In her mind, Connor will choose her over a schoolgirl." Connor remains loyal to Serena but Carmella manages to get the "upper hand" when Maddy is taken ill. Lori asks Connor for fifty thousand dollars to pay for Maddy's ear operation. Connor asks Carmella for a loan and she agrees "on the condition that he spends time with her until he repays the loan. It's blackmail basically."
The story arc culminates with both Connor and Carmella resorting to lies and deception. Connor fakes a robbery at Bounce to repay Carmella, who is a concocting a new scheme. Harvey told a writer from Inside Soap that Carmella pretends that she loaned the money from a member of the local mafia. She "makes up this elaborate story so it looks as though she's really stuck her neck out for Connor. It's all part of her new plan to steal him away [from Serena]." When Stuart investigates the robbery, Carmella realises that Connor is the perpetrator and returns the money to Bounce. However, the act makes "Connor is completely confused" and left looking "even more suspicious" to the police. Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte) convinces Carmella to maintain her lies and deceive Connor further. Carmella asks Connor to accompany her to a meeting with the mafia, but tells him to wait outside as they do not exist. Harvey explained that "Connor's really worried [about Carmella], and insists on confronting the bad guys himself"; and in doing so he exposes Carmella's plot.
Departure
In January 2006, it was announced that Harvey had decided to leave Neighbours. He filmed his final scenes in February, and his exit scenes aired in May 2006. He told Jackie Brygel of TV Week that he knew it was time to move on from the series, saying "You have to get out into the big bad world and see if you can make a go of it. Acting is still my priority." When asked if there was a chance he could return to the soap in the future, Harvey replied "Who knows? Never say never!"
Return
In July 2012, the executive producer of Neighbours, Richard Jasek, was asked about an upcoming "mystery male returnee" during an interview with Digital Spy's Daniel Kilkelly. Jasek commented "I can't say too much at the moment, but Neighbours does have a rich history of wonderful past characters and yes, we do have a familiar face visiting – all will be revealed shortly…" On 17 August 2012, it was confirmed that Harvey had reprised his role and he would be seen on-screen from October. The actor was initially contracted for a four-week guest stint. Harvey began filming his scenes in the same week and he stated "As soon as the wardrobe department pulled out the boxers and Hawaiian shirt, I was back in character. However, it wasn't until Ryan dropped his dacks in a scene that I knew I was home!"
Connor's exit storyline in 2006 saw him disappear in mysterious circumstances, so Toadie is "over the moon" to see his friend alive and well. Harvey revealed that Connor turns up at Toadie's house in the middle of Sonya Mitchell's (Eve Morey) baby shower, which does not please her. He continued "But Toadie is delighted that Connor is back. Things are very grown-up in his life now, and this is a sort of release for him." Harvey explained further that Connor manages to cause an argument during the baby shower, which causes Sonya to ask Toadie to "send him packing".
Storylines
Connor meets Jack, who tells him that he can stay with his parents if he ever visits Australia. Connor later shares a flight to the country with Malcolm Kennedy. He accidentally takes Malcolm's bag, which is identical to his own, instantly making the Erinsborough residents suspicious of him. Connor arrives at the Scully's house in Ramsay Street, explaining about Jack and he is asked to stay by Joe and Lyn Scully (Janet Andrewartha). Joe also gives Connor a job as a labourer at his business OzeBuilt. When Tad Reeves' (Jonathon Dutton) passport goes missing, Toadfish Rebecchi believes Connor has taken it. To prove his innocence, Connor reveals to Tad that he is illiterate. Connor develops a close friendship with Michelle Scully and they eventually begin dating. They tell Joe, who allows the relationship to continue, but with some ground rules. Connor's illiteracy continues to cause him problems and he is later blackmailed by Tahnee Coppin (Anna Jennings-Edquist). Unable to read the labels, Connor mixes up a bottle of floor cleaner for lemonade. He gives Michelle a cocktail and it burns her throat. She is taken to the hospital in time and Connor reveals his illiteracy. Michelle forgives him, but Connor feels guilty and leaves. He later returns and Michelle gets Libby Kennedy (Kym Valentine) to tutor Connor.
Nina Tucker moves to Erinsborough and befriend Connor and Michelle. Connor discovers that she is a good singer and encourages her to reveal her secret by appointing himself her manager. He later enters her song "Born to Try" in a contest and her secret comes out. Tahnee learns Nina has a crush on Connor and tells Michelle. Jack returns and Connor moves into the garage to give the family some room. Connor realises Jack and Nina have been having an affair and is horrified that they could betray their partners; Lori Lee and Taj Coppin (Jaime Robbie Reyne). Connor's role at OzeBuilt causes jealousy among the other workers and one of them reports him to immigration. Connor and Michelle flee Ramsay Street and Michelle proposes. They realise they cannot get married in Australia due to Michelle's age, so they make plans to go to New Zealand. Michelle's sister, Stephanie (Carla Bonner), finds the couple to give them their passports and she tries talking them into returning. Connor calls Joe and tells him to come to the airport, he then books himself on a flight to London. Joe arrives and asks Connor to stop running away, so he returns and explains his illiteracy to the immigration officials. They accept why Connor broke the rule and allow him to stay. Lyn and Joe tell Connor that he is not welcome in their home anymore, so he goes to stay with a friend. His relationship with Michelle ends and she leaves for New York.
Connor moves into Number 30 with Toadie and Stuart. He becomes closer to Lori and they set up a business selling T-shirts. Connor and Lori have a one-night stand and Lori later informs him that she is pregnant. Connor agrees to support her, but Lori reveals that she is going to have an abortion. Connor takes her to the clinic and Lori then leaves to spend time with her family. Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) employs Connor as a barman at Lou's Place. Nina uses Connor when she wants to get back at Jack. They kiss and Connor falls for her, but Jack blackmails him by threatening to reveal all about Lori and the pregnancy. Connor tells Nina the truth and they grow closer, but she leaves suddenly for Bombay. Connor then falls for his co-worker Carmella, but her father sends her away to Italy when he discovers their relationship. Carmella later returns and she and Connor rekindle their relationship, just as Michelle arrives back from New York. Connor reveals that Michelle is the only girl he wants and they get back together. While they are spending the night at Lassiter's Hotel, Connor and Michelle run into Lori who is checking in. She then tells Connor that she did not got through with the abortion and introduces him to his daughter, Madeleine. Michelle leaves for New York again and Connor starts bonding with Madeleine, before Lori returns to Lorne.
Carmella manipulates Connor into being her limousine driver and they get back together. Connor fails to get along with Lori's partner Nick Sullivan (Angus Grant), and when he learns Lori is moving to Adelaide, he worries that he will not see his daughter. Connor takes Madeleine and refuses to hand her back until Lori listens to him. Lori changes her mind about moving, breaks up with Nick and gives Connor more access to Madeleine. Carmella's mother offers Connor the role of junior editor of her magazine and Connor admits that he still has illiteracy problems. Carmella helps him improve his skills. Carmella realises she has a stalker and Connor learns it is her driver Frank, when he is kidnapped. Frank ties Connor up in a building due for demolition. Connor manages to free himself moments before the building is demolished and Frank is arrested. Carmella leaves stating that she needs some time to herself. After Toadie is left a bikini shop called Bounce by a client, he and Connor become business partners. Toadie employs Serena and she and Connor develop feelings for each another. Lori contacts Connor and reveals Madeleine needs surgery for an ear infection. Connor struggles to raise the money and Carmella gives it to him. She later asks for it back, saying it was from her father's mob contacts, and Connor robs Bounce. Carmella apologises for lying and anonymously returns the money. Serena finds out and breaks up with Connor.
Connor joins Serena and several neighbours on a joy flight to Tasmania. The plane crashes into the Bass Strait and Connor washes up on a beach with Dylan. Believing themselves to be the only survivors, they agree to play dead and start new lives. Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) finds Connor on the streets and persuades him to return. Connor trains as a private investigator and his first job is to find Carmella. He eventually tracks her down to a local convent, where she reveals that she is happy being a nun. Connor then decides to go travelling. Just before his departure, Carmella calls him to say that a coma patient she visited at a hospice, looks like Paul Robinson's (Stefan Dennis) son, Cameron (Adam Hunter). Connor realises Cameron has a twin, who was believed missing, and he tells him where his brother is. However, Cameron turns out to be Robert Robinson (Adam Hunter) and he grabs Connor and forces him to stay in his house. Robert later leaves the street alone in Connor's ute. Toadie worries about his friend's fate, but the Australian Embassy in China call him and explain that they have found Connor's wallet. A few months later, Connor sends his friends a package from China, containing some gifts for Saint Patrick's Day.
Six years later, Connor returns to Ramsay Street to see Toadie. However, he interrupts Sonya Mitchell's (Eve Morey) baby shower and she asks him to stay out of the way. Toadie eventually returns home and he and Connor catch up. Connor tells Toadie that he cannot believe everyone thought Robert had killed him and reveals that he just went travelling. Toadie explains to Connor that he cannot stay with them, so he gets him a room at Number 26 with Kyle Canning (Chris Milligan) and Rhys Lawson (Ben Barber). Connor and Kyle get on well and go out drinking, but Rhys cannot stand him. Sonya invites Connor to stay with Toadie, while she goes away for a week. When Connor makes some comments about Vanessa Villante (Alin Sumarwata), Rhys punches him. Connor, Toadie and Kyle reinvent the House of Trouser when Sonya goes away for while. On Sonya's return, Connor realises that it may be time to leave. He and Toadie go out for a beer and Toadie learns that Lori is getting married. Connor explains that he is not going to the wedding, even though Maddie wants him to. He states that he has nothing to show for the last six years and Toadie tells him to get his life together. Connor believes that Toadie has not married Sonya because he does not want to let go of his old self and stay stuck in Erinsborough forever. Connor later apologises for his comments and decides to go to Lorne for Lori's wedding. On his return, he reveals that he is going to get a house near Lori, so he can spend more time with Maddie. Sonya asks Connor if he can organise a bucks party for Toadie and he organises an inflatable boxing ring to be delivered to Ramsay Street. Connor glues a pair of boxing gloves to Toadie's hands, before leaving for Lorne.
Reception
For his portrayal of Connor, Harvey won "Most Popular New Male Talent" at the 2003 Logie Awards. A BBC website writer said Connor's most notable moments were "When it was revealed that he couldn't read. Finding out Lori was pregnant. Meeting his daughter Maddy for the first time." Speaking of Harvey and Connor, a writer for Virgin Media said that they thought the character did not have any serious storylines. They stated "Patrick found fame as Toadie's best friend, and Irish funny-man Connor O'Neill. But with storylines like being illiterate and being threatened with deportation, is it any wonder he didn't last long?" Beverley Johanson of The Age stated Harvey "stirs many a teenage heart as Connor". A columnist from Inside Soap said that when Connor moved into the Scully household, he got an "added bonus" in the form of Michelle; adding that their "dangerous liaison" was "Ramsay Street's hottest secret" until Joe found out.
References
External links
Character profile at the BBC
Character profile at the Internet Movie Database
Neighbours characters
Fictional bartenders
Fictional people from Northern Ireland
Fictional private investigators
Fictional construction workers
Television characters introduced in 2002
Male characters in television
Fictional characters incorrectly presumed dead
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20Jones-Drew
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Maurice Jones-Drew
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Maurice Christopher Jones-Drew (born March 23, 1985), often called "MJD", is an American former football running back who played in the National Football League (NFL) for nine seasons. He played college football for the UCLA Bruins and earned unanimous All-American honors.
Jones-Drew was selected by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft, 60th overall, was named to the Pro Bowl three times, and led the NFL in rushing yards in 2011. He played his first eight seasons with the Jaguars, through 2013. In his final season in 2014, he played for the Oakland Raiders.
Following his retirement, Jones-Drew entered broadcasting, serving as a football color analyst for NFL Now and other shows on NFL Network, in addition to hosting for CBS Sports their Monday Night studio show for their UK networks. He is currently the color analyst for the Los Angeles Rams.
Early years
Born in Oakland, California, Jones-Drew was raised in Antioch and graduated from De La Salle High School in Concord.
De La Salle owns the longest winning streak in high school football history at 151 games. The Spartan football teams that Jones-Drew played on never lost a single game during his three-year varsity career. He was an elusive, high-scoring running back and return specialist on offense and a punishing linebacker on defense. Jones-Drew somersaulted into the national consciousness as a high school junior in 2001 when he scored all four of De La Salle's touchdowns in a 29-15 nationally televised victory over Long Beach Poly on October 6. It was the first game that ever matched up the nation's No. 1 and No. 2 ranked high school football teams. On the Spartans' opening drive, Jones-Drew received a short pass in the right flat on third-and-eight from the Poly 25-yard line. He broke a tackle and then sprinted down the right sideline before launching a spectacular forward somersault into the end zone. Drew next scored on a 29-yard reception on fourth down in which he ran a circle route out of the backfield down the left sideline and hauled in an over-the-shoulder touch pass at the goal line from quarterback Matt Gutierrez. Drew’s third touchdown came in the second quarter when he burst through the line, shook off two tacklers, before hitting paydirt 17 yards later. Drew’s final score salted away the historic De La Salle victory. It was a similar effort to his third touchdown and came on a 22-yard run with just under seven minutes remaining. Drew finished with nine carries for 86 yards and three catches for another 79 yards.
During his junior season, Jones-Drew rushed for nearly 2,000 yards, averaged nearly 12 yards per carry, and scored 26 touchdowns. He was rated as a four-star recruit and ranked as the No. 1 all-purpose back in the nation in 2003 by Rivals.com. He is pictured outrunning a slew of defenders on the cover of the book When the Game Stands Tall, which chronicles the De La Salle Spartans' all-time-record 151-game winning streak.
Jones-Drew also ran track for the De La Salle track team and was a member of the Spartans' 4 x 100 metres relay state championship meet team of 2002, which posted a non-finals-qualifying time of 42.20 seconds during the meet's preliminaries. At the age of 16, he posted a personal best time of 10.80 seconds in the 100 meters. He also ran for the Bruins' track team at UCLA.
College career
Jones-Drew accepted a football scholarship to University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he played for the Bruins under head coach Karl Dorrell from 2003 to 2005. Despite being undersized, Jones-Drew led the Bruins in rushing all three years he was on the squad and showed good pass catching ability and big playmaking skills as both a punt and kickoff returner. He was the fifth player in Bruins history to lead the team in rushing in three seasons.
In 2005, Jones-Drew set an all-time NCAA single-season record with a 28.5 yards per return average on 15 punt returns, breaking the previous record of 25.9 yards per return held by Bill Blackstock of Tennessee in 1951. His career average of 23.2 yards per punt return ranks second in NCAA history. Jones-Drew also established a number of UCLA records, including the career all-purpose yardage record (4,688 yards). As a sophomore against Washington, Jones-Drew set UCLA's all-time record for yards rushing in a single game (322 yards) and also scored a school-record five touchdowns.
On his first carry of the game, he burst to the outside and raced 47 yards to tie the game at 7–7. On his second carry, with UCLA trailing 24-7 and 2:30 remaining in the first quarter, he raced 62 yards for another touchdown. On his fourth carry, a third-and-12 with 40 seconds left in the first quarter, he sped 58 yards for his third touchdown. In the first quarter alone, he rushed for 169 yards and three touchdowns on four attempts. He gave the Bruins the lead for good (27–24) with 4:16 remaining in the first half when he scooted around right end for a 15-yard touchdown. In the third quarter, he broke numerous tackles en route to his school-record fifth touchdown, a 37-yard run on the Bruins' first possession of the half. His total of 322 yards rushing was the 3rd most in the history of the Pac-10 Conference, and his overall performance earned him several National Player of the Week awards.
His final year in college, his junior year, he was a first-team All-Pac-10 selection as a punt returner, and was recognized as a unanimous All-American as an all-purpose back and kick returner. He was also the first Bruin since Jackie Robinson to lead the country in punt returning. Additionally, Jones-Drew was named second-team All-Pac 10 as a running back. Jones-Drew gave a sign of things to come when, as a freshman, he rushed for 176 yards on only 18 carries against Arizona State, including an 83-yard scamper down the left sideline to the end zone which put UCLA ahead in the game for good in the third quarter. The run was the longest ever by a Bruin true freshman and ranked ninth (tied) overall on the school's list of long runs. His 176-yard day ranks No. 2 on UCLA's all-time list for true freshmen. Jones-Drew led the Bruins in rushing that season, becoming the first true freshman to lead the Bruins in rushing since DeShaun Foster in 1998. He was also named first-team All-Pac 10 as a kick returner by The Sporting News. In his collegiate career, Jones-Drew had 16 touchdowns of 40-plus yards.
College statistics
Professional career
2006 NFL Draft
Jones-Drew, age 21, was selected in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft by the Jacksonville Jaguars, 60th overall, to eventually replace veteran running back Fred Taylor. He was passed on by all 32 teams in the draft, most citing his height (5 ft 6¾ in, 169.5 cm) as the reason why he would not succeed in the NFL. He stated this was the reason he choose to wear 32 as his jersey number in the NFL.
2006 NFL Combine
Jacksonville Jaguars
2006 season
In the beginning, he was used mostly for kick-off returns, but he eventually became the Jaguars' primary third-down running back, behind Taylor. Against the Colts on December 10, Jones-Drew set a franchise record with 166 rushing yards and 303 all-purpose yards, which included a 93-yard kickoff return for touchdown. He was named AFC Special Teams Player of the Week for Week 14. He had already broken Jaguars team records by scoring at least one rushing touchdown in eight consecutive games (the previous record was four straight games) and by gaining 2,250 all-purpose yards.
Jones-Drew finished third in the NFL in both kickoff returns (27.7 yd avg) and touchdowns scored (16). He was also one of only two players in the NFL to score at least one touchdown rushing, receiving, and returning kicks (Reggie Bush was the other). Jones-Drew also led all AFC running backs in scrimmage yards per touch. Narrowly missing 1,000 yards for the season, his rushing average of 5.7 yds per carry was first in the NFL for backs with 100 attempts and was the highest for an NFL running back since Barry Sanders averaged 6.1 yards per rush in 1997. In addition, he had the third-most all-purpose yards of any rookie in history.
He finished tied for second in the balloting for Offensive Rookie of the Year, awarded to quarterback Vince Young of the Tennessee Titans.
2007 season
In his second season in the NFL, Jones-Drew had already proven to be one of the most versatile running backs in the league.
In his 2007 season debut, Jones-Drew's production was just average. During a 10-7 win against the Tennessee Titans, Jones-Drew had 32 yards on seven carries in a game that produced just 48 rushing yards between Jones-Drew and Fred Taylor combined. Jones-Drew's fumble at the 8-yard line in the 4th quarter was the last scoring opportunity for the Jaguars in that game. Promises that the running game would get better as the season progressed were realized when Jones-Drew celebrated his first touchdown of the year after the fourth game of the season, in a 17-7 win against the Kansas City Chiefs.
The following week against the Houston Texans, Jones-Drew rushed for 125 yards and two touchdowns on 12 carries to go along with four receptions for 59 yards. In Week 10, he rushed for 101 yards and a touchdown against the Tennessee Titans. He would score a touchdown in each of the following three weeks. In Week 16 against the Oakland Raiders, he had 140 scrimmage yards and a rushing touchdown in the 49–11 victory. He finished the season with 167 carries for 768 rushing yards and nine rushing touchdowns to go along with 40 receptions for 407 receiving yards.
Although his role as a running back was diminished during the 2007 postseason, he still managed to impact the game with his capabilities as a receiver and a return man. In the Wild Card Round against Pittsburgh he totaled 198 all-purpose yards and two touchdowns. His first touchdown was a 43-yard pass from David Garrard, his second was a 10-yard run which put the Jaguars up 28-10 in the third quarter. He returned a kick-off 96 yards to set up the Jaguars' first score of the night, a Fred Taylor one-yard run. The Jaguars defeated the Steelers 31–29. A week later against New England, he had 68 scrimmage yards in the 31–20 loss in the Divisional Round.
2008 season
Three Jaguars offensive linemen were injured in the 2008 season and Jones-Drew was not as explosive as he was in 2007. His first 100-yard rushing game of the season came against the Indianapolis, where the Jaguars won by a score of 23-21 on a last second field goal by kicker Josh Scobee in Week 3. In Week 6 against the Denver Broncos, he totaled 22 carries for 125 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 24–17 victory. In Week 10 against the struggling Detroit Lions, where Jones-Drew posted three touchdowns, all in the first half. In Week 12, against the Minnesota Vikings, he had nine receptions for 113 receiving yards. In Week 16, Jones-Drew was given the opportunity to carry the load with Fred Taylor on injured reserve. He totaled 162 scrimmage yards in a 31–24 loss to the Colts.
In the 2008 season, Jones-Drew gained 824 yards on 197 attempts, posting a 4.2 yard per carry average. He gained 12 touchdowns on the ground. Jones-Drew was used more in the passing game than his previous seasons and he managed 525 yards on 62 receptions.
2009 season
Following the departure of Taylor, Jones-Drew became the unquestioned starting running back. Jones-Drew had a record-breaking season in 2009 for the Jaguars. In Week 3 against the Houston Texans, he had 23 carries for 119 rushing yards and three rushing touchdowns in the 31–24 victory. He earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week for Week 3. In Week 6, against the St. Louis Rams, he had 178 scrimmage yards and three rushing touchdowns in the 23–20 victory. In a 13-30 loss to the Tennessee Titans during Week 8, Jones-Drew rushed for 177 yards and two touchdowns on only eight carries, one for 80 yards and another for 79 yards. This performance tied Hall of Famer Barry Sanders' record of rushing for two touchdowns in a single game of 75 yards or more, which was set by Sanders in a Week 7 game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 1997. Jones-Drew became the third player to share the record, as San Francisco 49ers running back Frank Gore, also tied Sanders' record in a Week 2 game against the Seattle Seahawks during the same season. In Week 15, he had 140 scrimmage yards, one rushing touchdown, and one receiving touchdown in the 35–31 loss to the Indianapolis Colts.
Overall, Jones-Drew rushed for 1,391 yards on 312 attempts, a 4.5 yards per carry average, and 15 touchdowns. He was also one of the big components in the Jaguars passing attack, as he had 53 receptions for 374 yards and a touchdown. In an article by Thomas George, Jones-Drew had been recognized as the most versatile offensive player in the NFL.
Jones-Drew was selected to the Pro Bowl.
2010 season
In Week 4 of the 2010 season, Jones-Drew had 121 scrimmage yards, one rushing touchdown, and one receiving touchdown in a 31–28 victory over the Indianapolis Colts. In Week 8 against the Dallas Cowboys, he had 27 carries for 135 rushing yards in the 35–17 victory. In the following game against the Houston Texans, he had 123 scrimmage yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 31–24 victory. In the next game, against the Cleveland Browns, he had 220 scrimmage yards and a rushing touchdown in the 24–20 victory. In Week 13 against the Tennessee Titans, he had 31 carries for 186 rushing yards in the 17–6 victory. Jones-Drew played the entire 2010 season with a torn meniscus in his left knee. He became aware of the extent of the injury in training camp, but tried to keep it a secret to prevent opponents from intentionally taking shots at his knee. He only missed two games during the season. He was named to his second Pro Bowl. After the 2010 season, he was named Running Back of the Year by the NFL Alumni Association.
Although the Jaguars did not make the playoffs, Jones-Drew drew attention in the postseason with comments he made questioning the severity of an in-game injury to Jay Cutler in the NFC Championship Game. Jones-Drew stated that he was also rooting for the Bears, but his injury prompted him to say: "All I'm saying is that he can finish the game on a hurt knee ... I played the whole season on one", as well as comparing Cutler to former University of Florida head coach Urban Meyer. He was ranked 30th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011.
2011 season
In Week 3, against the Carolina Panthers, Jones-Drew had 167 scrimmage yards in the 16–10 loss. In Week 14 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Jones-Drew had 85 rushing yards, two rushing touchdowns, six receptions, 51 receiving yards, and two receiving touchdowns in the 41–14 victory. He scored 24 total points in the game, which was the most by any player in a single game in the 2011 season. In Week 17, against the Indianapolis Colts, he had 25 carries for 169 rushing yards in the 19–13 victory. He led the NFL in rushing yards during the 2011 season, and broke the Jaguars franchise records for both rushing yards in a season (1,606) and yards from scrimmage (1,980). Jones-Drew did all of this despite the Jaguars' offensive struggles, accounting for 47.7% of the Jaguars yards.
Jones-Drew was named to the 2012 NFL Pro Bowl as a back-up for Baltimore Ravens running back Ray Rice as a result of his spectacular season. He earned first team All-Pro honors. He was 12th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2012.
2012 season
Jones-Drew began the 2012 season by not attending organized team activities or training camp in hopes of signing a new contract with the Jaguars. Jones-Drew had two years remaining on a deal he signed in 2009, according to which his average salary was lower than that of fellow running backs Adrian Peterson, Chris Johnson, LeSean McCoy, Arian Foster, Steven Jackson, DeAngelo Williams, and Marshawn Lynch. There were rumors that he was open to being traded. After missing his team's entire offseason, Jones-Drew ended his holdout and reported to the team's facilities on September 2. In Week 3, against the Indianapolis Colts, he had 28 carries for 177 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown in the 22–17 victory. He was placed on season-ending injured reserve on December 28, 2012. He finished the season with 86 carries for 414 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown to go along with 14 receptions for 86 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown in six games. He was ranked 98th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013.
2013 season
In 2013, Jones-Drew finished the season with 234 carries for 803 rushing yards and five rushing touchdowns. In addition, he had 43 receptions for 314 receiving yards. After eight seasons with the Jacksonville Jaguars, he became a free agent on March 11, 2014.
Oakland Raiders
2014 season
On March 28, 2014, Jones-Drew returned to the Bay Area and signed a three-year deal with the Oakland Raiders. Jones-Drew's season in Oakland was plagued by futility, as he recorded only 96 yards rushing on 43 attempts (averaging 2.2 yards-per-carry) and zero touchdowns. His number of carries would be limited due to the solid performances of teammates Darren McFadden and Latavius Murray.
On March 5, 2015, Jones-Drew announced his retirement from the NFL at age 29. He finished his career as the Jaguars' second leading rusher of all time behind Fred Taylor. On April 28, 2015, he signed a one-day contract to officially retire as a Jaguar.
NFL career statistics
Jaguars franchise records
Most career touchdowns (81)
Most career rushing touchdowns (68)
Most rushing touchdowns in a single season (15 in 2009)
Most rushing yards in a single season (1,606 in 2011)
Longest rushing attempt: 80 (tied with Fred Taylor)
Most career kickoff return touchdowns (2)
Most career kickoff return yards (2,054)
Longest kickoff return: 100 yards
Outside of football
Jones-Drew hosts a two-hour radio show on Sirius XM satellite radio titled Runnin' With MJD which focuses on fantasy football talk and strategy.
In 2011, Jones-Drew appeared as himself along with fellow NFL players Brent Grimes and Sidney Rice in an episode of the FX comedy The League.
In 2013, Jones-Drew joined the list of other tattooed athletes who have appeared in PETA's "Ink Not Mink" ads, posing shirtless in support of their anti-fur campaign.
At age 28, Jones-Drew resumed his studies at UCLA in 2013 to complete his bachelor's degree, and lived in a dormitory.
Since 2020, Jones-Drew has been an analyst on Channel 5's Monday Night Football coverage in the UK alongside host Kirsten Watson.
In 2023, Jones-Drew was part of the ITV commentary team on Super Bowl LVII alongside Darren Fletcher and Jack Crawford.
Personal life
Born to Sidney Gayles and Andrea Drew, Jones-Drew was raised by his maternal grandparents, Maurice and Christina Jones. At the height of his college career in 2005, his grandfather suffered a heart attack while walking into the Rose Bowl to see Jones-Drew play against Rice University on September 10. Coach Dorrell broke the news to Drew on the sideline during the game, and he ran to the locker room and left to go to the hospital. To honor the man who raised him, he had his entire legal surname affixed to his jersey, making him "Maurice Jones-Drew."
Jones-Drew is a father of three with two sons (Maurice II and Madden) and one daughter (Alayah). He is married to Ashley Jones-Drew (2012–present) He is also a cousin of former Tampa Bay Buccaneers safety T. J. Ward.
Since retiring from the NFL, Jones-Drew has become a vegan.
References
External links
UCLA Bruins bio
1985 births
Living people
African-American players of American football
African-American sports announcers
African-American sports journalists
Alliance of American Football announcers
All-American college football players
American Conference Pro Bowl players
American football return specialists
American football running backs
UCLA Bruins football players
Jacksonville Jaguars draft picks
Jacksonville Jaguars players
Oakland Raiders players
Los Angeles Rams announcers
National Football League announcers
NFL Network people
Sportspeople from Antioch, California
People from Concord, California
Players of American football from Contra Costa County, California
Players of American football from Oakland, California
De La Salle High School (Concord, California) alumni
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4948520
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarvaris%20Jackson
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Tarvaris Jackson
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Tarvaris D'Andre Jackson (April 21, 1983 – April 12, 2020) was an American football quarterback in the National Football League (NFL). Jackson played college football for both Alabama State and Arkansas. He played professionally for the Minnesota Vikings, Seattle Seahawks and Buffalo Bills.
The Vikings selected Jackson in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft, and Jackson played for the Vikings from 2006 to 2010. A reserve quarterback for much of his time with the Vikings, Jackson was starting quarterback for the 2007 season and part of the 2008 season, after which Jackson started the Vikings' Wild Card playoff game. In 2011, Jackson signed with the Seahawks and was starting quarterback for the 2011 season. Jackson was then traded to the Bills before the 2012 NFL season but never played a game. Jackson returned to the Seahawks in 2013. He was the backup quarterback for Russell Wilson during their Super Bowl XLVIII win over the Denver Broncos.
Early life and college career
Jackson was born and raised in Montgomery, Alabama, and graduated from Sidney Lanier High School of Montgomery in 2001. Jackson then enrolled at the University of Arkansas and played three games for the Razorbacks as a freshman but suffered a season-ending injury. Consequently, Jackson received a medical redshirt for the season. Jackson finished 2001 with 3 of 9 passes completed for 53 yards and one interception and rushed 14 yards on seven carries. In 2002, Jackson played 8 games. He completed 14 of 39 passes for 143 yards, one touchdown, and two interceptions and rushed –16 yards in 14 carries.
In 2003, after trailing on the depth chart to future first round draft pick Matt Jones, Jackson transferred to Alabama State University and led the Hornets to an 8–5 record, Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) Eastern Division title, and berth in the SWAC Championship Game. He completed 160 of 316 passes for 2,342 yards, 18 touchdowns, and 13 interceptions and rushed 444 yards on 91 carries including five touchdowns. As a junior in 2004, Jackson won SWAC Championship MVP in Alabama State's second 10-win season in school history. With 11 starts in 12 games, Jackson passed for 2,556 yards, 20 touchdowns, and nine interceptions. He had 67 carries for 215 yards and three touchdowns. In his senior season in 2005, Jackson was named team captain and was a second-team All-SWAC selection. He threw for 2,655 yards, 25 touchdowns, and five interceptions. He rushed for 271 yards and two touchdowns on 95 carries.
College statistics
Professional career
2006 NFL Draft
Vikings scouts and personnel had reportedly been watching him closely in secret over his senior season, particularly liking his performance in the East-West Shrine Game. They were also impressed by his workout at the scouting combine (among the top 5 quarterbacks in ball speed and the 40-yard dash). Several NFL teams, including the Vikings, had arranged secret workouts with him too. Jackson was selected with the last pick in the second round (64th overall) of the 2006 NFL Draft, while he was projected to go much later, in the sixth or seventh round. The Vikings traded two 3rd round picks to get the 2nd round pick with which they drafted Jackson, fearing he might get picked sooner than anticipated. Jackson's early selection caused some surprise, as he was the 5th quarterback taken and the 1st Division I-AA player selected (the previous I-AA quarterback drafted was Spergon Wynn in 2000). He was also the first quarterback from Alabama State to be drafted into the NFL since Ricky Jones in 1992. Even Jackson was surprised by the pick, saying, "I was more focused on [getting drafted in] the third round and even that was stretching it". Most pre-draft publications did not even have him listed as one of the top 10 eligible quarterbacks, while he was the 5th selected. On July 26, 2006, Jackson signed a four-year deal with Minnesota, including a $1 million signing bonus.
Vikings coach Brad Childress was quoted days before the draft as saying he was interested in finding a "developmental guy", a "diamond in the rough" quarterback of the future, raw talent he could teach a system.
The day after the draft, Childress was quoted by the St. Paul Pioneer Press as saying: "I think you judge quarterbacks a little bit differently...When you see what you want at the quarterback position, you need to go get it. And that's exactly what I see with Tarvaris Jackson is a guy that's a piece of clay, that has all the skills in terms of, No. 1, what's he look like throwing the football?...He's got a great throwing motion; he's athletic. He has all those things that we're looking for, and he's wired right. That's important for a quarterback. I think he's a flatline guy. I think he's a sponge. You're talking about a guy that never had a coach there as a quarterback coach. So what can he do with coaching?"
Minnesota Vikings
2006 season
Jackson's 2006 pre-season passer rating was 106.1, 15th in the league out of 110 quarterbacks who performed. Only one quarterback from his draft class (Jay Cutler) did better. He also showed great scrambling skills averaging 11.3 yards in rushing (the only Viking other than Brad Johnson to average more than 3.3 yards in rushing). ESPN analyst Mike Tirico referred to Jackson as a right-handed Michael Vick. His pre-season performance was enough to surpass second and third-string quarterbacks Mike McMahon and J. T. O'Sullivan on the depth chart. After the pre-season, McMahon and O'Sullivan were cut from the team and Brooks Bollinger was brought in, whom Jackson then competed against for the number two spot.
On September 25, 2006, Jackson had minor knee surgery to repair the meniscus in his knee. He returned to limited practice after two weeks, and then came back to play his first NFL game with the Vikings in week 13 against the Chicago Bears in the fourth quarter after Johnson was benched for throwing four interceptions and backup quarterback Brooks Bollinger was injured. Jackson completed three of his four passes before fumbling the ball to Chicago and the Bears then ran the clock out. Following this game, when Jackson was asked if he was ready to take over as starter, he said: "Not really...We still have a chance to make the playoffs, so we're still trying to do that. So it's obvious that Brad is still our quarterback so we can stay on that."
In Week 15, Johnson started the game but was benched in the fourth quarter when the Vikings had been underperforming the entire game losing by a score of 26–7 at the time Jackson went in late in the third quarter against the New York Jets. Although Johnson had not thrown an interception that game and had a respectable passer rating of 94.2 in the game, the Minnesota fans jeered Johnson throughout the game and chanted "We want Jackson!" at numerous points because Johnson had only thrown nine touchdowns all season (in 14 games) and had a career worst 71.9 passer rating throughout the season. Jackson received a standing ovation as he trotted out onto the field. A landmark in Jackson's career happened that game when Jackson completed his first touchdown pass to Mewelde Moore. Jackson threw 177 yards, one touchdown, and ran three times for 20 yards while the Jets protected their large lead. He also threw an interception in the red zone.
Jackson was named the starting quarterback for Minnesota towards the end of his rookie season. Jackson's first game was a week 16 night game against the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field. Game conditions were very poor. A steady rain fell throughout the evening and the kickoff temperature was only 36 degrees Fahrenheit. The Vikings lost by a score of 9–7 with the only Vikings score coming from an interception for a touchdown by defensive back Fred Smoot. The offense set a franchise low record of only three first downs the whole game, did not get close enough to the end zone to even attempt a field goal, and only had 27 passing yards gained against the NFL's 19th ranked defense (ranked 26th against the pass). Jackson had a passer rating of 36.5, had a 50% completion rate (10–20 for 50 yards), one interception, and one fumble. Packers quarterback Brett Favre only managed a slightly better 52% completion rate (26–50) and threw two interceptions. He threw for 285 yards with no touchdowns.
2007 season
Jackson did not live up to the Vikings' expectations in 2007 despite finishing 8–4 as a starter. Jackson had nine touchdowns and 12 interceptions, along with a 159 yards per game, causing the Vikings to have the second-worst passing offense in the NFL. His 70.8 passer rating was 28th among NFL quarterbacks. Jackson missed three games because of injuries, which included a strained groin, a concussion and a fractured index finger. The Vikings failed to make the playoffs. Analysts put the Vikings' 8–8 record on the successful running of Chester Taylor and rookie Adrian Peterson, which took the pressure off of Jackson and the defense.
Later in the season, opponents decided to focus all their defensive efforts on stopping Peterson and the Vikings running game, while daring Jackson to beat them in the passing game. The Washington Redskins successfully utilized five defensive lineman or four linebackers against the Vikings, leaving only two or three defensive backs in pass coverage. And the 49ers blitzed their cornerbacks 20 percent of the time instead of covering receivers with them. On the season's last game against the Denver Broncos, Jackson led the Vikings to two fourth quarter drives to tie the game and send it into overtime. In overtime, however, Jackson fumbled on the second play and the Vikings lost the game. Jackson showed slow improvement over the season: he played a large role when the Vikings went on a five-game winning streak in November, but also showed his inexperience in several ill-judged interceptions, jump passes, and turnovers. After the season, Childress would not say if Tarvaris Jackson would be the starter in 2008.
2008 season
There was a lot of media coverage on Jackson the summer of 2008. The Vikings returned seven players that were in the 2008 Pro Bowl (only three teams had more), and spent $60 million in guaranteed contract money upgrading their team with Jared Allen, traded from the Kansas City Chiefs, and free agents Bernard Berrian and Madieu Williams. Several analysts believed better quarterback play was all that was needed to make the Vikings one of the top contending teams in the NFL, and with the Green Bay Packers losing Brett Favre the NFC North Division was up for grabs. Sport's Illustrated's Paul Zimmerman predicted the Vikings would win the Super Bowl.
Head coach Brad Childress decided to stay with Jackson as the starting quarterback and brought in Gus Frerotte to be his backup. It was widely reported in the off-season that Jackson had a new swagger, handled situations in practice well where he looked lost in the previous years, and had an improved grasp of the Vikings offensive system. Childress threw a "Coaching 101" clinic for media reporters in which he played a tape of Jackson showing the progress he made in 2007 through a series of missed passes or poor decisions that he made in early games but executed properly in later contests and concluded with some tape of him hitting a target net with every 15-yard pass he threw during an offseason drill. Offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell repeatedly told the press that although it was Jackson's third year with the Vikings it was really his second year playing, and NFL quarterbacks improve the most between their first and second years. Jackson had another good preseason, until he injured his knee again in the second preseason game which kept him from playing the last two preseason games.
In the first game of the regular season against the Green Bay Packers, Jackson threw a game-ending interception and in the second game the Vikings made five field goal attempts and no touchdowns against the Indianapolis Colts. The Vikings lost both games by close margins, and Jackson's 64.8 passer rating ranked him 26th in the NFL. Childress said in the second post-game press conference that Jackson would still definitely be the starter next week, but on Monday after a coaches' meeting he changed his mind and benched Jackson for the remainder of the year.
After being relegated to backup after the loss to the Colts, Jackson saw his next significant action in Week 14 against Detroit, where he played the entire second half in place of an injured Gus Frerotte. With the Vikings trailing 6–3 at halftime to the winless Lions, Jackson completed eight of ten passes for 105 yards and a touchdown, an 11-yard strike to tight end Visanthe Shiancoe that would be the game-winning score for the Vikings. The following week, with Frerotte still injured, Jackson was the starting quarterback against the Arizona Cardinals and he played arguably the best game of his career. Jackson completed 11 of 17 passes for 163 yards and, most impressively, threw four touchdown passes and no interceptions. Jackson earned NFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for his performance as well as the FedEx Air Player of the Week award.
The Vikings lost 24–17 to the Atlanta Falcons in Week 16 despite Jackson's performance. He completed 22 of 36 passes for 233 yards with two touchdowns and no interceptions. He also rushed for 76 yards (which matched the total of Pro-Bowl running back Adrian Peterson). With the Vikings in a win-and-in situation against the New York Giants in Week 17, Jackson overcame an interception in the end zone by leading the Vikings on a touchdown drive (a 54-yard strike to Bernard Berrian) and the game-winning field goal drive on the following possessions. The Vikings defeated the Giants 20–19 and earned the NFC North title.
The Vikings season ended in the Wild Card Round of the playoffs with a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles. Jackson went 15-for-35 for 164 yards in the game with one interception.
2009 season
Jackson went into the 2009 season in competition for a starting job with Sage Rosenfels, who the Vikings had acquired from the Houston Texans. The Vikings also pursued former New York Jets and Green Bay Packers quarterback Brett Favre, who had retired after the end of the 2008 season. Favre announced that he would not join the Vikings prior to training camp, however, and Jackson and Rosenfels split duties in the early part of camp. Jackson was the second quarterback to play in the opening preseason game, and was expected to start the second preseason game against the Kansas City Chiefs.
That changed, however, when Favre announced that he would play for the Vikings after all, signing with the team on August 19. Jackson, Rosenfels, and 2008 third-stringer John David Booty were believed to be competing for two roster spots, and for the primary backup job. Many observers believed the Vikings would attempt to trade Jackson.
Jackson helped his case with a strong performance in Favre's debut game against the Kansas City Chiefs, throwing for 202 yards and two touchdowns in backup work. Ultimately, the Vikings elected to keep Jackson and Rosenfels on the active roster, with Jackson as the primary backup to Favre.
Jackson entered the Vikings' first two games of the season in garbage time.
2010 season
The Vikings re-signed Jackson on April 19, 2010, as they waited for Favre to decide whether he would return for another season, which he did. Jackson was a restricted free agent who was given a one-year tender worth $1.176 million. Jackson backed up Favre for the 2010 season.
Jackson took over for an injured Favre in Week 8 against the New England Patriots. Jackson threw for one touchdown in the loss. Jackson took over for an injured Favre yet again in Week 13 against the Buffalo Bills. Jackson threw two touchdown passes to Sidney Rice in the 38–14 win, but also threw three interceptions. Jackson started on December 13, against the New York Giants in place of the injured Favre. In that game, Jackson suffered a turf toe injury and missed the rest of the season.
On March 3, 2011, the Vikings declined to tender Jackson a contract offer to play for them in the 2011 season. Under league rules, Jackson became an unrestricted free agent.
Seattle Seahawks
Jackson officially signed a two-year contract with the Seattle Seahawks on July 29, 2011 and was announced as the starting quarterback shortly after. In Seattle, he had been reunited with offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell and wide receiver Sidney Rice both members of the Vikings during his time there. Along with wide receiver Mike Williams, Jackson was appointed to offensive team captain, which was previously owned by Matt Hasselbeck, who signed with the Tennessee Titans. Despite having a below-average year compared to other quarterbacks in the league, Jackson had the best year of his career, finishing with 3,091 yards passing, throwing 14 touchdowns and 13 interceptions. During the off-season, the Seahawks acquired former Green Bay Packers quarterback Matt Flynn and drafted Wisconsin quarterback Russell Wilson to compete with Jackson for the 2012 starting quarterback position.
Buffalo Bills
On August 26, 2012, Jackson was traded to the Buffalo Bills for a conditional seventh round draft pick. The third-string quarterback for the season, Jackson did not see any game action in 2012.
On February 15, 2013, the Bills re-signed Jackson to a one-year, $2.25 million deal. He was released on June 10, 2013. ESPN reported on June 12 that Jackson was likely to re-sign with the Seattle Seahawks for the 2013 season.
Seattle Seahawks (second stint)
On June 13, 2013, Jackson signed a one-year deal with the Seattle Seahawks. Jackson competed with Brady Quinn for the backup quarterback spot behind starter Russell Wilson. To coincide with the signing of Jackson, the Seahawks released quarterback Jerrod Johnson. The Seahawks released quarterback Brady Quinn and made Jackson the official backup quarterback to Wilson. Jackson appeared in three games of the 2013 regular season producing 151 passing yards and a touchdown. During Super Bowl XLVIII against the Denver Broncos, Jackson came in relief of Russell Wilson during the fourth quarter, marking the first time in 13 years any backup quarterback has played in a Super Bowl. The Seahawks won their first Super Bowl in franchise history as they defeated the Broncos 43–8. Following the season, Jackson signed a one-year deal to stay with the Seahawks. The Seahawks made it to Super Bowl XLIX, but failed to repeat as Super Bowl champions as they fell to the New England Patriots by a score of 28–24.
Following the 2015 season, Jackson became an unrestricted free agent. Seahawks coach Pete Carroll said that the team was interested in re-signing Jackson, though they ultimately opted to roster undrafted rookie Trevone Boykin as their backup quarterback the following season.
NFL career statistics
Coaching career
In 2018, Jackson took a graduate assistant role at Alabama State, his alma mater. In 2019, Jackson was named quarterbacks coach for Tennessee State.
Personal life and death
Jackson was married and had three children.
Jackson was arrested on June 25, 2016, in Kissimmee, Florida and charged with aggravated assault after police said he threatened his wife with a gun. After the arrest, Jackson publicly stated that he lacked the money to afford an attorney.
On April 12, 2020, Jackson was killed in a car accident nine days before his 37th birthday. The Alabama Law Enforcement Agency said Jackson was killed in a single-car crash at 8:50 p.m. He had been driving in Pike Road, Alabama, when his 2012 Chevrolet Camaro drifted off the road, struck a tree and flipped. Jackson had been driving 70 mph in a 30 mph zone and was wearing a seatbelt.
References
External links
1983 births
2020 deaths
Sidney Lanier High School alumni
Players of American football from Montgomery, Alabama
Coaches of American football from Alabama
African-American players of American football
African-American coaches of American football
American football quarterbacks
Alabama State Hornets football players
Arkansas Razorbacks football players
Minnesota Vikings players
Seattle Seahawks players
Buffalo Bills players
Alabama State Hornets football coaches
Tennessee State Tigers football coaches
Road incident deaths in Alabama
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American sportspeople
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Dooly
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John Dooly
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Colonel John Dooly (1740–1780), born in Wilkes County, Georgia, was an American Revolutionary war hero. He commanded a regiment at the Battle of Kettle Creek in 1779 and was killed at his home by Tories in 1780.
History
Early twentieth-century Georgia historian Otis Ashmore wrote that "of the many heroic men who illustrated that stormy period of the Revolution in Georgia that 'tried men's souls' none deserves a more grateful remembrance by posterity than Col. John Dooly."(n1) Ashmore's subsequent entry, however, failed to meet that need because, before the bicentennial of the American Revolution, almost all of the source material on Dooly came from Hugh McCall's The History of Georgia (1816). Collectively, what McCall wrote about the colonel formed an heroic tale of a martyred battlefield leader in the struggle for American independence who lost a brother in an Indian attack, led Patriot forces to victory over the Tories (Loyalist Americans who supported the British cause) at the Battle of Kettle Creek and, finally, died at the hands of Tories in his own home.(n2) Unintentionally, McCall gave literature its first Georgia folk hero.
Behind The Story
Dooly's story, however, would not remain in that part of Patriot lore described by historian Hugh Bicheno as "propaganda not merely triumphing over historical substance, but virtually obliterating it."(n3) Research on the Revolution since Ashmore's time has evolved from only the major military events of that war to the world in which it occurred. Dooly's life, for example, illustrates how he and his neighbors in the ceded lands had been moving for greater control of their frontier world. This struggle occurred before, during, and after the Revolution. He emerges, in that context, as a man of motives and actions more complex than McCall's simplistic although basically accurate account.(n4)
Father and Son
John Dooly's role in those events began with his father Patrick. Everything known about Patrick Dooly's life parallels that of the archetypical traditional and historical southern Scots-Irish frontiersman, as portrayed in works like David Hackett Fischer's Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America.(n5) Likely a native Irishman, he appeared in frontier Frederick County, Virginia, land records as early as 1755. As with many other Virginians, Patrick moved to the South Carolina frontier sometime between August 2, 1764, and July 2, 1765, according to land grant records, likely in search of unclaimed property to develop for sale to later settlers and for security from conflicts with the Indians. His subsequent deed records indicate that he had a wife named Anne and that he could at least sign his name.(n6) A few years later, an adult John Dooly traveled hundreds of miles from the Ninety Six frontier to Charleston, the seat of the only local government body in South Carolina, to go through the legal formalities to settle his father's insignificant estate. The probate records prove that both Patrick and Anne had died by December 6, 1768, because on that date John received all of his father's property as the nearest male relative under the then-current laws of primogeniture. The inventory showed a household that possessed a slave woman, a female slave child, books, household goods, and the remains of a small wheelwright or blacksmith operation. John sold off the estate's only other asset: his father's last tracts of land.(n7)
Growing Family
Patrick and John Dooly would share land development in common but, as proved more typical with later leaders of the Revolution than its opponents, father and son followed significantly different lives.(n8) By means unknown, John acquired an education and, on February 3, 1768, secured a commission as deputy surveyor. The colony of South Carolina employed him in 1771, quite likely as a participant in the expedition to help the colony's surveyor Ephraim Mitchell locate and mark the boundary with North Carolina. Within a few years, Dooly became a merchant and a land developer far beyond anything his father had achieved.(n9) John married Dianna Mitchell, quite likely related to the many Mitchells who were South Carolina surveyors, including cartographer John Mitchell and the deputy surveyor Thomas Mitchell. The latter also became the first husband of Dooly's sister Elizabeth. John and Dianna Dooly had a growing family by 1773, eventually numbering at least two sons, John Mitchell and Thomas, and a daughter Susannah. By that time, John had made his brothers Thomas and George his protégés, with Thomas even becoming a deputy surveyor.(n10)
General accounts of the lives of such backcountry people as the Doolys survive but suffer from being highly prejudiced. Englishman Charles Woodmason, for example, described the people of this frontier as living little different from their livestock. In 1774, Scotsman William Mylne wrote less passionately. He lived alone in the woods on a rented farm on Steven's Creek, South Carolina, near Dooly-owned land but also close to Augusta. Mylne's house consisted of a sixteen by twenty foot enclosure made from stacked pine logs and covered with a clapboard roof. When not keeping snakes and the resident cat from eating his chickens, he subsisted by hunting and fishing. His stout and well-made male neighbors lived like Indians; they followed their livestock while their women stayed home to plant a wide variety of grains, vegetables, and fruits. Mylne wrote of how the colorfully dressed and largely Baptist backcountry people raised tobacco that they took to distant cities like Charleston and Savannah to sell. That product would travel to Europe and then return for purchase by the original growers as snuff. Frontier people could barter for goods from local merchants like John Dooly, but they found the prices in such stores to be too high.(n11)
A Changing Frontier
The growing number of Baptists in the backcountry, members of a new Protestant religion that Anglican minister Charles Woodmason noted with great disdain, represented one of the many important changes along the frontier. Sanders Walker, one of the appraisers of Patrick Dooly's estate, had been a Baptist minister in South Carolina since 1767. He and his fellow locally ordained clergymen created their own revolution in filling a long-standing demand for ministers in the backcountry where the need could not be met by the traditional religions that required men like Woodmason to obtain formal training. That Baptists appeared in large numbers among all political factions on the frontier during the Revolution illustrates that this social change, like so many others, transcended the conflict of 1775-1783.(n12)
The South Carolina Regulator rebellion that broke out among backcountry people and literally at John Dooly's very door in Ninety Six in the late 1760s serves as an even greater example of what historian Jack Greene described as settlers on the southern frontier desiring "improvement" in the form of courthouses, schools, towns, and an environment conducive to trade and investment. Civil affairs on the South Carolina frontier proved so confused that Dooly's father, for example, once received a grant of land that appears in various colonial records as being in three different counties, none of which had a courthouse or any other form of local government. Rev. Charles Woodmason, a Regulator supporter, denounced what he viewed as a morally uninhibited culture in frontier South Carolina, but he also saw the growth of its population as dynamic (he claimed that ninety-four out of every one hundred brides in ceremonies he performed were obviously with child) and that its economy grew as fast. Its struggle became an economic revolution in the form of opportunities emerging so fast as to force a breakdown of any limitations placed on it. Thousands of frontiersmen like Dooly participated in that colonial revolution and demanded from South Carolina's government (what historian Hugo Bicheno termed as "Tidewater Rats" and "wealthy coastal slavocrats" with a "psedo-aristiocratic social structure") the right to the benefits of rule of law in the backcountry. As with almost all of the frontiersmen directly affected by that successful and sometimes violent popular uprising to force the establishment of courts on the frontier, Dooly's name appears on none of the surviving records, including on the list of pardons granted to one hundred and twenty Regulator leaders.(n13)
Legislative Nightmares
As a merchant, land speculator, and surveyor, however, Dooly benefited in many ways from the success of the Regulators, as did the millers and blacksmiths who also would assume leadership roles in the backcountry. Further progress on the frontier, for him and other ambitious men of the new and growing middle class in the region, required meaningful civil government. Previously Dooly had to travel the hundreds of miles to Charleston to file or answer court suits. In 1771, for example, he had to go to the provincial capital to defend himself in a case over a debt based on a document to which his name had been crudely forged two years earlier. In another instance, Dooly took William Thomson to court over debts due for a long list of trade goods. The latter apparently finally settled the dispute with land. Soon after, however, Thomson filed a civil suit for damages against Dooly for having "beat bruise wound & evilly entreat him so that his life was greatly despaired" with "swords & staves." Dooly countered that Thomson had repeatedly threatened his life.(n14)
Bigger Investments
John Dooly's own time to take a public leadership role came later and further west, in Georgia. In January 1772, after the peace and security of the new courts brought about a rise in property values on the South Carolina frontier, he mortgaged of his lands to Charles Pinckney of Charleston. With his new capital, Dooly could finance a major investment. Four months later, as a resident of South Carolina, he petitioned to secure land across the Savannah River in St. Paul Parish near Augusta on the colonial Georgia frontier. He also obtained a commission as a Georgia deputy surveyor and had by then acquired seven slaves.(n15) Dooly shortly afterwards abandoned these beginnings for another prospect. George Galphin and other Georgia and South Carolina traders had tried to compel the Cherokee Indians to trade a large tract of land to pay for the growing debts allegedly owed to them. In 1773, Georgia royal governor James Wright preempted this plan and persuaded the Creek and Cherokee nations to give up what he named the Ceded Lands, some that would greatly expand the northwest border of St. Paul Parish. The Indians received a cancellation of their debts, which Wright planned to pay by selling the new lands, a plan that benefited the British government by almost simultaneously ending all of the free headright grants in America. The additional territory, in theory, would significantly add to Georgia's colonial population and militia numbers by being limited exclusively to persons like the Doolys from other colonies. Ceded Lands sales also paid for a company of rangers who would serve as a form of civil protection from bandits that settlers from the pre-Regulator days of South Carolina could particularly appreciate.(n16)
In this new Ceded Lands, Dooly built a cabin on Fishing Creek, which he later abandoned before claiming that included an island and the of "Lee's Old Place," also called Leesburg, at the mouth of Soap Creek on the Savannah River. In 1759, Thomas Lee of South Carolina had obtained a warrant of survey to this land on the indeterminate edge of what was then the Georgia Indian frontier, but he had never obtained a formal grant. Dooly, like most of his neighbors, borrowed money from prominent Lt. Thomas Waters of the rangers to make the initial payment on his acquisition, which he named "Egypt." He also obtained loans from Savannah merchants to pay for further improvements, and he may have raised still more funds by selling three slaves.(n17) Dooly thus set out to create a plantation similar to the much larger venture begun by his new neighbor on the Savannah River, wealthy Englishman Thomas Waters. The latter had been a resident of Georgia and South Carolina since at least 1760, when he had worked for a previous company of rangers as quartermaster.(n18)
Biblical Prophesy
This opening of the Ceded Lands came during, and became part of, a transitional period in local government on the Georgia frontier that, like the Regulator rebellion, predated the American Revolution. At that time, naturalist William Bartram passed through this area twice and would write a description that reads like a biblical prophecy of its coming troubles: The day's progress was agreeably entertaining, from the novelty and variety of objects and views; the wild country now almost depopulated, vast forests, expansive plains and detached groves; then chains of hills whose gravelly, dry, barren summits present detached piles of rocks, which delude and flatter the hopes and expectations of the solitary traveller, full sure of hospitable habitations; heaps of white, gnawed bones of the ancient buffaloe, elk and deer, indiscriminately mixed with those of men, half grown over with moss, altogether exhibit scenes of uncultivated nature, on reflection, perhaps, rather disagreeable to a mind of delicate feelings and sensibility, since some of these objects recognize past transactions and events, perhaps not altogether reconcilable to justice and humanity.(n19)
In 1768, Gov. James Wright avoided the troubles of the South Carolina frontier by siding with his backcountry people in their successful political campaign to have the colonial assembly establish courts at Augusta and Halifax. Georgia's backcountry also had, for several years, sent representatives to the colonial assembly, such as Leonard Claiborne and Edward Barnard, prominent men who lived on the frontier and had their fortunes tied to its future. When raiding parties of disaffected Creeks protested the loss of the Ceded Lands by attacking its settlements and defeating the St. Paul's Parish militia in 1773-1774, Wright used diplomacy with pro-British Indian leader Emistisiguo to end the crisis. This Creek headman bluntly complained of how Indian agent John Stuart, Governor Wright, and other British leaders used him to act against the best interests of his people. But he had also risen to power from humble beginnings due to British support; Wright had even commissioned him as commander and head warrior of the Creeks in September 1768. The Creek headman reciprocated by literally giving the king's officials a lifetime commitment, even to the extent of arranging for the assassinations of the leaders of the raids on the Ceded Lands settlements.(n20)
Colonial Wranglings
The backcountry people in Georgia later repaid Wright for this past support. Opposing the largely coastal opposition to British policies in 1774, a delegation from the frontier (that included Dooly) tried to present Georgia's rebel provincial congress with a letter of protest against the growing political discontent in the colony. The backcountry dissenters argued that Georgia had no connection with troubles over taxation, tea, or Boston, and that the province depended upon the king's protection from the neighboring tribes of Indians. Representatives of the growing Revolutionary movement (the Whigs), meeting at Tondee's tavern in the province's capital of Savannah, refused to receive the delegation. As a result, John Dooly, Elijah Clarke, George Wells, Barnard Heard, and many other later Whig leaders, joined hundreds of their neighbors in exercising their rights as Englishmen to sign and publish petitions in support of British rule in the colony's newspaper, the Georgia Gazette.(n21)
Future circumstances would prove that the frontiersmen actually acted, as their protest implied, primarily from their own self interests.(n22) As Dooly and his neighbors knew from the colonial gazettes, the British army could shoot Americans in Massachusetts but it could not be found on the frontier protecting them from the Indians.(n23)
The Whigs also had much to offer to the frontiersmen, starting with local control of their own affairs. Dooly already served as a colonel, with Stephen Heard as lieutenant colonel, and Bernard Heard as major in a vigilante militia created by him and his neighbors.(n24)
As happened in later revolutions, the rebels in Georgia divided the province into districts, in this instance, each with a justice of the peace court, political committee, and a militia company. Dooly served as captain of his local company, with his brother Thomas as a first lieutenant. The former also obtained the positions of justice of the peace and deputy surveyor, and he likely served on his local Chatham District's political committee. On February 11, 1776, Governor Wright fled to a British vessel after frontiersmen fired at but missed the royal official. As those same ships threatened Savannah, Dooly marched his company for four days from the Ceded Lands to reach the threatened town to serve on behalf of the rebellion, at least for pay.(n25)
Against the Indians
Sixty of his neighbors under Jacob Colson headed for South Carolina to help in putting down a counter revolution by the king's supporters. In response to Cherokee Indian raids of that summer of 1776, Dooly and his company, as part of an expedition under Maj. Samuel Jack, destroyed two villages. Virginia and both of the Carolinas contributed thousands more men in simultaneous campaigns that wrecked that Indian nation. Jack's force, however, demonstrated that even Georgia, with its comparatively small population, could provide something toward a united Whig effort of the southern frontier.(n26) The majority of southern frontiersmen now supported the rebellion, as Scotsman Baika Harvey, a new arrival in Georgia, wrote to his Godfather in 1775.
Experienced Militiamen
Frontiersmen like Dooly had significant military experience to contribute to this new rebel army. Far from being a mob, the frontiersmen had decades of experience in military organization and discipline. Even his father in Virginia in the 1760s had been a member of the militia. Andrew Pickens, John Dooly's later ally had also served in the militia in the French and Indian War, alongside British regulars whose cruelty he found appalling. A record survives indicating that Pickens later kept careful accounts, as public property, of items captured in the fight at Kettle Creek. A formal morning report of Dooly's militia regiment in 1779 shows that it was a sophisticated organization with quartermasters, musicians, boatmen, blacksmiths, cow drivers, butchers, wagon masters, and deputy commissaries. Even his later subordinate, the illiterate Lt. Col. Elijah Clarke, had his routine orders placed in writing.(n28)
Georgia's new Whig government would work to support and win over these people with money, munitions, commissions, and salt. In 1778, and during the years that followed, Dooly and his neighbors erected a string of forts to provide additional protection from Indian attack. Absalom Chappell remembered such extensive efforts made by the backcountry people at building defenses:
"By their own voluntary labor the people of each neighborhood, when numerous enough, built what was dignified as a fort, a strong wooden stockade or blockhouse, entrenched, loop-holed, and surmounted with look-outs at the angles. Within this rude extemporized fortress ground enough was enclosed to allow room for huts or tents for the surrounding families when they should take refuge therein—a thing which continually occurred; and, indeed, it was often the case, that the fort became a permanent home for the women and children, while the men spent days in scouring the country, and tilling with their slaves, lands within convenient reach; at night betaking themselves to the stronghold for the society and protection of their families, as well as for their own safety."(n29)
These forts served as only temporary refuge, however. A Mrs. Newton later related to Jeremiah Evarts that after she shut her door "she dared not open it, for fear of seeing Indians; and when it was open, she dared not shut it, for fear Indians would approach unseen. The settlers could not live all the while in forts, because they must gain subsistence from the land, and they could not live all the while on their farms without imminent danger."(n30)
The Continental Congress did not intend to rely on just the militia but authorized the creation of five regiments of full-time continental soldiers, as well as ships and artillery batteries, for the defense of the province. Georgia had such a small population, however, that the recruits for this brigade had to be found elsewhere. Dooly obtained a commission as a captain in the new Georgia Regiment of Continental Horse. With his brothers Thomas Dooly and George Dooly, captain and second lieutenant respectively, as well as brother-in-law Thomas Mitchell, who was first lieutenant in the Third Georgia Continental Battalion, they traveled to Virginia to find recruits using £400 that John had borrowed from Peter Perkins but which he never repaid. In Guilford County, North Carolina, and Pittsylvania County, Virginia, John Dooly and his relations succeeded in enlisting ninety-seven men, including deserters illegally recruited from the local military. Upon returning to Georgia, John went to Savannah to collect his bounty money while his brother Thomas took a company to a post on the frontier.
Thomas's Death
The consequences of making a commitment into the Revolution now affected John Dooly in a most personal way. On July 22, 1777, Thomas Dooly, with twenty-one men in two companies, set out to return to their post after having recovered some horses stolen by Creek war parties led by Emistisiguo. Some two miles (3 km) from Skull Shoals on the Oconee River, fifty Indians launched an ambush. Thomas Dooly fell with a wound to his heel string. Unable to move, he cried out in vain to his fleeing comrades not to leave him to suffer death at the hands of the Indians.
This attack, which ended Thomas Dooly's life, came as part of a massive campaign by British Indian superintendent John Stuart to disrupt the efforts of the Indian trader George Galphin, a former ally of Governor Wright who had reluctantly agreed to serve as Indian commissioner for the Whigs in the South. The Indian commissioner worked to move the tribes to a neutral position. John Dooly inadvertently played into Stuart's plans when he seized a Creek delegation that had come to visit Galphin in order to hold them as hostages until he had satisfaction for his brother's death. With great effort, Galphin and the rebel authorities compelled Dooly to release the delegation and, later, to surrender a fort where he and his supporters had barricaded themselves. Galphin then persuaded the Creek delegates that they were being protected from a plot to murder them by Emistisiguo and other British agents. As the headman had arranged such assassinations for the British before the war, the story had credibility. The delegates, upon returning home, led a war party that would have killed Emistisiguo and David Taitt but for the physical intervention of rising Creek leader Alexander McGillivray. After various delays, Captain Dooly stood trial in Savannah and then resigned his commission. He must have believed that while continental authorities could not or would not move against Indians, they could deal effectively with him.(n31)
Tough Times
Dooly's problems came at a time when his neighbors debated related issues. Dr. George Wells, the protégé of the pioneer Georgia populist politician Button Gwinnett, organized a clique in the Ceded Lands that petitioned the American commander of the southern forces to invade and seize the Creek lands. Both Wells and Gwinnett had controversial pasts as perennial failures and misfits, the type of characters who often lead, if not create, radical factions in revolutions. Wells spearheaded a petition drive to have the Continental Congress remove Georgia's continental commander, Lachlan McIntosh, on the grounds that he was incompetent, the "murderer" of Gwinnett in a duel, and connected by blood with pro-British Indian leaders. John Dooly had every reason to have supported, or even assumed a leadership position in Wells's movement. Nonetheless, he, Clarke, and other Whig leaders in the Ceded Lands did not sign Wells's petition. John Coleman, formerly of Virginia and a wealthy leader in the Ceded Lands, also opposed the petition and even wrote to McIntosh complaining that "Gentlemen of Abilities, whose characters are well established, are the only persons objected to, to govern and manage in State affairs with us. The Consiquence [sic] of which I fear, we too soon will see to our sorrow."(n32)
Within a year, John Dooly did make a comeback. Progress in local government moved quickly in the new state of Georgia and Dooly took advantage of it. He sought bounty land for building a mill and for the military service of himself and his deceased brother. What had been the Ceded Lands became, under Georgia's constitution of 1777, Wilkes County, the state's first county. Dooly served as its representative in the new one-house state legislature, which eventually gave him and fellow legislator John Coleman turns on the Executive Council that supervised the actions of the governor. Coleman and Dooly received orders from the council to qualify Thomas Waters and Isaac Herbert as justices of the peace in Wilkes County. For reasons not given, they instead gave the commissions to Edward Keating and Jacob Coleson, an action that the council ordered suspended. No further information on this matter appears in the council minutes but, a few months later, Thomas Waters came before the council to take an oath under the act for the expulsion of enemies from the state. John and George Dooly made payments to Georgia for grants of new land in 1778. With the death of Coleman from disease that summer, John Dooly rose to command his county's militia. In this position, he led his neighbors against Creek raiders and won a victory against the Indians at Newsome's Ponds. At almost the same time, Dooly also became the county's first sheriff and, as such, had suspected Loyalists arrested, searched, and confined in chains. In late December, the local electorate voted him as their colonel, with battle-scarred veteran Elijah Clarke as his lieutenant colonel and Burwell Smith as major. Clarke, an illiterate frontiersman of modest means, had been on the rise in the Revolution from his abilities as an almost fatally courageous military leader. Smith, formerly of Virginia, had received an appointment to Thomas Dooly's command in the Georgia Continentals following the latter's death.(n33)
For John Dooly this success as a popularly elected leader came at a price. That December, a British land and naval force captured Savannah. Redcoats overran Georgia, except for Wilkes County, and occupied nearby Augusta by the end of January 1779. Fourteen hundred Georgians came forward to sign oaths accepting British protection and acknowledging an obligation to serve in the king's militia. A man named Freeman, apparently accompanying a party of local Baptists, arrived at Augusta to offer the surrender of the county's forts and civilians. Eighty Loyalist horsemen under Scottish captains John Hamilton and Dugald Campbell then set out to receive those submissions. As he later related to a British writer, however, Hamilton discovered that "although many of the people came in to take the oath of allegiance, the professions of a considerable number were not to be depended upon; and that some came in only for the purpose of gaining information on his strength and future designs. In various quarters, he met with opposition and all their places of strength held out until they were reduced. The reduction of most of these was not, however, a work of great difficulty, as they consisted only of stockade forts, calculated for defense against the Indians."(n34) Dooly, and whatever men would follow him, withdrew to South Carolina to seek help.
Dooly, now a militia colonel without a state, faced a particular problem in finding allies in South Carolina. During the previous summer's Indian troubles, more than five hundred South Carolina militiamen had come to Wilkes County's aid under Gen. Andrew Williamson, originally an illiterate cattle driver from near Dooly's former home at Ninety Six who had risen to wealth and prominence before the war. The South Carolinians failed to discover any hostile Creeks, or even Dooly and his Georgia militiamen; they only found local people who overcharged them for provisions. Williamson wrote to his subordinates that Dooly could not be trusted and to avoid having any future dealings with him. Now, Dooly needed help from those same men.(n35)
Dooly made an appeal to Andrew Pickens, colonel of the Upper Ninety Six Regiment and Williamson's long time subordinate. Pickens and his command were guarding the Carolina frontier against the Cherokees while Williamson and the rest of his brigade were trying to block the British forces at Augusta from entering South Carolina. Pickens brought two hundred men to Dooly's aid but, once in Georgia, he insisted upon and received command of all of their forces. Together they pursued Hamilton's and Campbell's horsemen across Wilkes County, northeast to southwest, from Thomas Waters's plantation, near the mouth of the Broad River, to Heard's Fort. They finally caught up with and besieged their prey at Robert Carr's Fort, near the Little River and the last outpost in Wilkes County that the horsemen intended to visit.
After an attempt to entrap the Loyalists between the fort and his men failed, Pickens had the fort's water supply cut off as he prepared to use a burning wagon and even cannons to force the besieged into surrendering. He then received news that hundreds, perhaps thousands, of Loyalists from North and South Carolina were en route to Georgia with the clear intention of joining the British in Augusta. Pickens chose to give up the siege of Carr's Fort and withdrew his forces in the night on February 12.(n36) He made a decision to intercept the new threat despite the fact that, in doing so, he gave up a certain victory in hopes of finding and defeating an enemy much larger in numbers than his own command. Pickens also abandoned any advantage he might have held if the approaching enemy force passed near Carr's Fort en route to sympathizers at the nearby Wrightsborough settlement. Dooly had a deposition taken by justice of the peace Stephen Heard wherein a William Millen had described meeting a Loyalist leader identified as James Boyd, when the latter had recently been at Wrightsborough seeking guides to South Carolina. Boyd had carried a proclamation from the British commander now in Augusta that called for Americans to join the king's army.(n37) Dooly must have understood that the Redcoats at Augusta expected the arrival of Boyd with a significant force of Loyalists from the Carolinas, guided in the last of their journey by the horsemen under Hamilton and Campbell. He also knew that to follow Pickens in returning to South Carolina to intercept the otherwise largely unknown enemy risked a great deal.
Complications
Men of the two state militias had already joined and clashed with the oncoming Loyalist force with disastrous results at Vann's Creek, Georgia, on February 10. Pickens's and Dooly's combined Whig command tried to pursue the Loyalists in South Carolina and then, into Wilkes County, before rendezvousing with the survivors of the Vann's Creek battle. The militiamen found themselves back at Carr's Fort two nights after having left it and after two days of long marches. Boyd and his ad hoc regiment of North and South Carolina Loyalists camped at a cowpen or small farm in a meadow atop a steep hill in a bend of swampy Kettle Creek, less than a mile from Carr's Fort and hardly much further from Wrightsborough, on Sunday morning February 14. Pickens then ordered a complicated attack through thick canebrakes, creeks, and woods with his combined force of only three hundred and forty men. The some six hundred Loyalists who held a strong position on both sides of the creek knew that they were being pursued, but they had a capable leader in Colonel Boyd, a man reportedly known to Pickens and quite possibly an acquaintance of Dooly. Pickens sent Dooly and Clarke to lead columns through the woods and swamps to assault the enemy camp on the flanks. When Pickens directed his own men up a narrow path to attack a cowpen atop the hill in the center, Boyd launched an ambush. Dooly would later write that only the hand of Providence saved him, Clarke, and Pickens, as they exposed themselves on horseback during the fight at Kettle Creek. Unbeknownst to the militiamen, they had not assaulted the main Loyalist camp, but merely a location where some of their enemy had found a cow to butcher for a meal. Most of the king's men had crossed the creek and camped on the west side, from where they rallied and then decided, individually, whether to join in the fight or slip away to their Carolina homes.
Still, Pickens's usual good luck had held. Many of the Loyalists, having come along only under threats and intimidation, had already deserted before the battle began. Three of Dooly's rifle men found themselves behind the lines and mortally wounded the enemy commander. Elijah Clarke, despite having a horse shot out from under him, led a successful charge against Loyalists across the creek. Unable to find John Moore of North Carolina, their second in command, most of the king's men fled, either back to the Carolinas or to sympathizers in the nearby settlement of Wrightsborough. From the latter, 270 of their number would be rescued by their pro-British allies. By the afternoon, Pickens, Dooly, and Clarke had won an overwhelming victory.(n38)
Indians and Loyalists
A month later, George Galphin received warning of an approaching pro-British Indian invasion of seven hundred warriors under David Taitt and Emistisiguo. This force of Indians and Loyalists burned Folsom's Fort and other outposts along the Ogeechee River in what was then western Wilkes County. South Carolina militiamen again came to the rescue. The Indians with Alexander McGillivray met defeat at Rocky Comfort Creek on March 29 at the hands of militiamen under colonels Leroy Hammond of South Carolina and Benjamin Few of Georgia. The battle resulted in the deaths of nine Indians, including two headmen, and three Loyalists who had accompanied them. Among the three Indians and three "white savages" (white men who lived as Indians) captured was Emistisiguo's son. The next day, Pickens and Dooly led their men against Emistisiguo himself. Three Indians were reportedly killed at the head of the Ogeechee River. In the face of such opposition, most of Taitt's followers deserted; he had only seventy warriors still with him when he reached Savannah. The men of the Georgia militia paraded the scalps of their victims in Augusta although they released Emistisiguo's son as a peace gesture. Pickens and Williamson now had high praise for Dooly and specifically for the intelligence from his network of scouts.(n39)
Such victories by the militia as these reversed the overall military situation. As a writer in a British publication noted about the war in general: "Most of these actions would in other wars be considered as skirmishes of little account, and scarcely worthy of a detailed narrative. But these small actions are as capable as any of displaying conduct. The operations of war being spread over the vast continent…it is by such skirmishes that the fate of America must be decided. They are therefore as important as battles in which a hundred thousand men are drawn up on each side."(n40)
The British army had withdrawn from Augusta just hours before Boyd met defeat. Georgians who had taken the king's oaths disappeared and the Redcoats found themselves unable to control much more than the actual ground their regular army occupied. These professional soldiers from the fortified garrisons in New York and East Florida continued to win the formal battles only to lose the war to a widespread popular resistance that won by keeping the insurgency going indefinitely. British leaders had been led to believe that thousands of frontiersmen remained willing to fight for the king's cause in a campaign of Americanizing the war. The hundreds of men who did turn out under leaders like Boyd, however, actually came from socially isolated frontier communities of Quakers, Baptists, bandits, ex-North Carolina Regulators, Irish emigrants, Palatines, white men who lived with the Indians, Native Americans, freed/self-emancipated blacks, and other perennial social outsiders from the frontier mainstream society. These "Loyalists" acted more as refugees trying to find protection than as committed combatants. Even the survivors of Kettle Creek and Taitt's warriors who reached Savannah proved to be of little military value to the king George iii
New Government
Any such ambitions for a restored British rule in America represented the "past;" John Dooly and his allies had become the powers of the "present." In what remained of Whig Georgia, he subsequently would simultaneously hold the state's highest positions in the military, government, and judiciary. As the highest ranking officer left in the state militia, he became the colonel commandant. Retreating elected officials finally created an extralegal executive council at Augusta to act as a civil government (with Dooly as a member). Historian Robert M. Weir has pointed out that the Regulator rebellion had taught the frontiersmen that leaders who failed to act against persons perceived as public enemies risked losing credibility with their followers. Faced with mortal threats from external enemies, the new council appointed Dooly as state's attorney to prosecute, in cases of treason, the most active local British collaborators. At a court held at Jacob McClendon's house in August 1779, Dooly prosecuted several of his neighbors. Nine of these "Tories" were condemned to die for treason but the ad hoc state government granted reprieves to all but two of them.(n42) North and South Carolina also held trials that condemned and hanged seven participants of Boyd's uprising as civil criminals.(n43)
Georgia's first state government would leave more than that legacy, including the creation of county government, as a part of the broader history of progress on the frontier. Courts had been held in Wilkes County as early as 1778, with John Dooly as at least a plaintiff. In 1780, Wilkes had a permanent courthouse in Washington, a town laid out specifically as the county seat and with Dooly as one of its original commissioners.(n44) Simultaneously, John Dooly and his neighbors affirmed that they, when cooperating, could do almost anything that they wanted in their own affairs. Dooly, Pickens, Williamson, and their comrades had thwarted their enemy's plans to create a counterrevolution and invasions by Indian war parties. The continental and state military establishments in the South, by contrast, often failed the frontiersmen.
The situation in Wilkes County remained grave, however. Much of Georgia had become a no-man's land between the opposing factions where guerrillas and apolitical gangs acted as destructive brigands who took advantage of the vacuum of civil law, much like South Carolina's frontier had been before the Regulators. British general Augustin Prevost in Savannah, seeking to protect the frontier Loyalists, wrote to Williamson in early April 1779 requesting a truce for the northwest frontier that he refused to refer to as Wilkes County. Gov. John Rutledge of South Carolina adamantly declined the offer. Williamson did send sixty men to bolster Dooly's command. He sought to discourage the people of the county from moving to the safety of North Carolina and Virginia while encouraging other frontier families to flee with them. Maj. Burwell Smith arrived in the camp of Gen. Benjamin Lincoln, commander of the southern department, to present John Dooly's pleas for money for the Georgia militia. The general advanced $8,295.70 to cover the expenses of the Georgia militiamen from January 1 to March 1, 1779, and $1,000 to Dooly, although he demanded the return of notarized vouchers justifying the disbursement of the money. The situation had not improved by August, however, when General McIntosh wrote to Lincoln from the Georgia frontier that "the few Militia in this area to stick yet to their Integrity & have not Joined the Enemy or Shamefully left us altogether to ourselves do not exceed Six hundred men, are much scattered & chiefly pinned up in little Forts to Secure their Families from the Savages to whom they are exposed & harass them continually, Loath to Leave them upon any Emergency, are now almost tired out & despairing to see any effective assistance come to them, are Selling off, and leaving us also."(n45)
Hard Fighting
Despite such a grim situation, Dooly committed himself to using the new frontier self-empowerment for driving the British from Savannah and thus ending any hopes of returning the South to colonial rule. He left Elijah Clarke to defend the frontier while he and Burwell Smith led a series of campaigns against a British army that they did not perceive as liberators or protectors. In the summer of 1779, Dooly marched with his militiamen to the mouth of Briar Creek, in Burke County, Georgia, Dooly had the dead from the Basttle of Briar Creek buried and recovered a cannon. (n46)
Most of the British forces in Georgia invaded South Carolina, General Lincoln pleaded with the Georgians to launch a diversionary campaign to retake Savannah. Dooly gathered four hundred Georgia militiamen at Augusta and sent a request to Lincoln for supplies, arms, medicine, and money, even though he had failed, as Lincoln noted, to send receipts for the money already advanced to him. After an angry exchange of letters, Dooly did eventually provide the vouchers but he also included new bills for the services of his men that amounted to thirty thousand dollars.
The Difficulties of Loneliness
Everything went wrong in this Burke County campaign because of Dooly's failure to obtain any cooperation. Colonels John Twiggs and John Baker of the state's militia ignored his call and went on their own raid, alerting the king's garrison to its vulnerability. George Wells refused to recognize Georgia's makeshift government and Dooly's authority. Wells had been elected as the first colonel of the Wilkes County militia and, although he had been a very active officer in 1777, he had lost his position in a subsequent reorganization and election under the new state constitution. He would later win election to colonel in another newly created battalion in neighboring Richmond County. Whether he or Dooly actually held senior rank depended on whom one asked, with no impartial authority available to decide that now critical issue. Dooly had Wells court-martialed. Most of the British forces in South Carolina returned to Savannah before the militia in Augusta could finally march.
Despite this news, Dooly insisted on taking those militiamen who had not fallen sick into the military "no man's land" of Burke County. During that time, supplies from Lincoln finally arrived in Augusta but civilians seized even this succor and absconded with it to Wilkes County. Lincoln also failed to authorize a leave for Dooly's brothers, Robert and William, serving under him in the South Carolina continentals, that would have permitted them to visit John and their surviving brother George in Augusta. They would have been together for the first time since the war began. Whatever Dooly's campaign could have been, he and his men accomplished nothing more than a cattle-rustling raid that frightened Sir James Wright, the royal governor now restored to power in British-occupied Savannah.(n47)
Finally, in September, Benjamin Lincoln's army united with America's French allies in a campaign to retake Savannah. For the frontiersmen like Dooly, the uniformed professional French army and fleet, the vast artillery, and the sea of tents provided an inspiring spectacle that they never forgot and which must have seemed to guarantee the success of their cause. Loyalists across Georgia now joined in the Revolution as the outcome of the war in the favor of United States seemed assured.
Tides of War
This campaign should have been a last turning point that proved to be more decisive than the siege of Yorktown two years later. The professional British army, however, could hardly have been in a better position. Redcoats stranded in South Carolina succeeded in reaching Savannah to join the garrison in concentrating behind extensive fortifications and batteries that the engineers and slave labor erected almost overnight. Within Savannah, the British army, with its white, black, and red allies, had ample supplies of cattle and stores. The besiegers, by contrast, suffered from hunger, disease, and exposure while engaged in grueling but ineffective trench warfare. As part of an ad hoc brigade under Lachlan McIntosh, Dooly and his men participated in the disastrous Franco-American attack upon the British lines on October 9, 1779. The Georgia militia traveled half a mile across a swamp and into a barrage of musket and artillery fire as a British band serenaded them with Come to Maypole, Merry Farmers All. The bullets that fell around them often came from guns fired by Georgia Loyalists. Dooly and his militiamen hastily retreated. Elsewhere on the battlefield, the French army and the American continentals took huge losses while being repulsed largely by North and South Carolinians loyal to the king, some of whom had survived Kettle Creek. Overall, the allied forces suffered the second highest casualties of any side in a single battle of the Revolution, even without counting the many Americans who had already deserted. Immediately afterwards, the allies began to lift the siege and withdraw. Both sick and discouraged, Colonel Dooly returned home with his men.(n48)
The aftermath of these failures came to visit Dooly with a vengeance. Georgia's northern frontier had been a partner in the new state's government. With the British capturing Savannah and overrunning the coastal counties, the frontier had now become the state. Regular elections in December 1779 restored a functioning state government. The electorate, however, likely disenchanted with the council and its members from the refugees of occupied Georgia, as well as with the failures of the war, voted in new leadership from the radical anti-establishment party of the late Button Gwinnett. George Wells and other members of that faction had previously campaigned against the council to which Dooly belonged, even to the point of forming their own competing government. Wells now became governor, but quickly followed the example of Gwinnett and died at the hands of a political opponent, in this instance in a duel with the future governor James Jackson.(n49)
Initially, the new political leadership did try cooperation with Dooly. It approved his requests for more men and forts, as well as the right to sell slaves captured at Savannah to raise money for the militia. The question of Thomas Lee's claim to Leesburg reemerged, however. Georgia's original state government had ordered Dooly evicted from the Lee property but various circumstances (including Dooly being absent while leading militiamen against hostile Indians) had prevented the orders from being carried out before the British army captured Savannah and the state government disappeared. Exactly one year after the fight at Kettle Creek, the new government aided Thomas Lee in his suit to reclaim the land that Dooly had borrowed so heavily to improve, and even ordered Elijah Clarke to evict the Dooly family, by force, if necessary. The members of the governor's council stayed that order temporarily when they learned that Lee had never received a grant for the land in question, but they also ordered Dooly and Burwell Smith to answer for their past confiscation of cattle and supplies for use by the military.(n50)
Alone Again
The resurrected state government did not last long enough to see its mandates carried out. A chain of events began that would solve Dooly's problems with the new leaders but typically in a way that bode still worse for him. In the spring of 1780, a massively reinforced British army forced the surrender of General Lincoln, the continental American army of the South, and Charleston. Now the people of the backcountry had to face the king's army and its allies alone. Andrew Williamson convened a meeting of militia leaders in Augusta to decide what should be done. Dooly and Clarke argued for carrying on a guerrilla war, even without the regular American army, against the British lines around Charleston and Savannah. Williamson promised to consult with them further after he addressed his own men. Despite the general's pleas to continue the war, however, his South Carolina militiamen compelled him to surrender with them. They all became prisoners of war on parole. Dooly held a similar meeting at his home at Leesburg soon after, with the same result, except that thirty men under Elijah Clarke, Burwell Smith, and Sanders Walker, a Baptist minister whom Dooly had chosen as regimental chaplain, decided to continue fighting as guerrillas in South Carolina. Stephen Heard, now the governor, and the remnants of the government moved to Heard's Fort in Wilkes County and then disbanded.
William Manson, a Scotsman whose foreign settlement project in the Ceded Lands had failed because of the Revolution, arrived in Wilkes County to accept the surrender of John Dooly and four hundred of the Georgia militia on a ridge outside the town of Washington in late June 1780. Manson acted on behalf of Thomas Brown, a lieutenant colonel in command of Loyalist provincials and Indians who now occupied Augusta. Brown, an Englishman, had suffered terrible torture at the hands of a Whig mob and had also been wounded in battle for the king's cause. He too originally came to Georgia to create a Ceded Lands settlement, but it had shared the same fate as Manson's Friendsborough.(n51)
Even then Dooly would not find peace. His creditors from before and during the war pressed him for payment.(n52) Georgia now became the only American state ever completely reduced to colony status. The restored colonial assembly included Dooly in its act to disqualify former rebels from ever holding any public office. On June 3, 1780, British general Sir Henry Clinton revoked almost all of the paroles, thereby unintentionally freeing Dooly, Pickens, and others to return to the American cause without violating their oaths. Two months later, men who had not joined the restored colonial militia could have their property confiscated. Loyalist leaders such as Brown and Wright believed that Dooly and other men on parole only waited for just such an excuse to return to the war. These concerns seemed justified when, in September 1780, Elijah Clarke led Georgia and South Carolina guerrillas in attacking and nearly capturing Brown and the garrison in Augusta.
Rescued and reinforced by South Carolina Loyalist provincials, the long-suffering Tories and Indians then began a campaign of retaliation as they went from being the oppressed to the avenged, starting with the executions of men captured during Clarke's attack on the Augusta garrison. From John Dooly's home, Lt. Col. J.H. Cruger announced the arrival of his Loyalist force in the Ceded Lands. He dispatched colonial militia under Thomas Waters and others to destroy the forts, courthouse, and settlements of Wilkes County. Wright reported that at least one hundred homes were razed. Families believed to have supported the Revolution followed Clarke into exile, or their men became prisoners confined in Augusta.(n53) Exact information has not survived, but John Dooly, having almost no other options, apparently wanted to return to the rebellion. Before he could do so, however, men arrived at his house and killed him, quite likely in revenge for his actions earlier in the war.(n54) Sanders Walker, at the least, risked his reputation with both sides to seek a truce. Clarke's request to British general Lord Charles Cornwallis for a cessation of hostilities also went unanswered.(n55)
Terrible Scenario
Loyalist and British leaders learned too late that, through atrocities such as the killing of John Dooly, they created rather than suppressed a widespread uprising. Clarke's rebels had consisted of relatively few men and many of them only came along under threats to their lives and property; even Pickens and Williamson had refused to cooperate with him. Royal lieutenant governor John Graham took a census of Wilkes County and came away anything but encouraged. He found that of 723 men, only 255 could be counted on for the Loyalist militia but that at least 411 had at least now joined the rebels. Even that situation deteriorated. Some Wilkes Countians who must have fought with Dooly at Kettle Creek as Whigs would now serve as "Loyalist" conscripted militia. Reportedly 150 of the area's royal militia were subsequently killed, while serving on assignment in South Carolina under Col. Thomas Waters, in the battle of Hammond's Store in December 1780. They fell near the homes of the Raeburn Creek Loyalists who had been defeated more than a year earlier in Wilkes County at Kettle Creek.(n56)
The American Comeback
The American army in the South would make a decisive comeback under Gen. Nathanael Greene. His professional army, in cooperation with partisans, over the next two years drove the British from the South and started the string of events that directly resulted in the decisive Franco-American victory at Yorktown. Elijah Clarke and other Georgia frontiersmen played significant roles in those battles and campaigns. The former Wilkes County militiamen who had served under John Dooly participated in the major victory at King's Mountain and played critical roles in the American success at the Battle of Cowpens. Emistisiguo's fate also became intertwined with the final days of the Revolution. He had led warriors in attacks on settlers in modern Kentucky and Tennessee who had come to the aid of the American cause at King's Mountain and in Wilkes County. On July 24, 1782, in his final act for his British patrons, he died in hand-to-hand combat with Gen. Anthony Wayne while leading a Creek war party and Loyalists in a desperate but successful effort to break through to the garrison at Savannah. The Creek headman thus joined John Dooly and so many other leaders of their conflicted and conflicting societies in failing to survive the war.(n57)
The British evacuated Savannah and Georgia on July 11, 1782. In one of its last acts, the restored colonial Georgia assembly provided the Ceded Lands with courts and separate political representation through the formation of two new parishes.(n58) Even as a symbolic expression of creating local government, like so much of the British policy during the American Revolution, this action came as far too little and much too late for anything more than demonstrating that the civil progress on the frontier existed as something greater than even the war with which it happened to coexist.
Dooly's Revenge
In the latter part of the Revolution, George Dooly led a company that repeatedly took revenge for the deaths of his brothers Thomas, John, and Robert in the American cause.(n59) Little else came from John Dooly's participation in the American Revolution. Had he lived, he might have had a successful postwar career in the military and in politics, as did Andrew Pickens and Elijah Clarke. The latter would rise to the rank of major general and would fight to obtain Creek Indian lands for Georgia, inside and outside of the restraints of the official government authority. For his services and sacrifices in the Revolution, Clarke received the confiscated Thomas Waters's property. He would also set up his son John's successful public career that would eventually include governor of Georgia.(n60) Even Thomas Lee lived a long life.(n61) If Dooly's reputation suffered as a Patriot for having surrendered, as Andrew Williamson's did, and his property in Georgia had gone to his creditors, he could still have moved with his brother George Dooly and sister Elizabeth Dooly Murry Bibb to the Kentucky frontier and, like them, start a new life.(n62)
Even after his death, however, the Dooly family's troubles did not end. The restored state government granted land in recognition of Dooly's military service to his minors, but also ordered Elijah Clarke to evict Dooly's widow and orphans from the Leesburg plantation in response to Thomas Lee's claims. Reportedly, the modern Elijah Clarke State Park in Lincoln County (created in 1796 from Wilkes County and named for Benjamin Lincoln) encompasses that land, including John Dooly's burial place somewhere near the "Dooly Spring."
The Creditors last attack
Creditors, including Thomas Waters (in exile in England after finding sanctuary with the Cherokees) made claims against Dooly's estate, leaving little money for the family. In spite of the poverty, John's last surviving son, John Mitchell Dooly studied law and would also have the distinction of becoming well known in Georgia literature.(n63) He quite likely used the considerable influence he later gained as an important judge and politician, along with John Dooly's notoriety as published in McCall's history, to encourage the state legislature to create a county named for his father in 1821. That recognition, however, came years after the legislature authorized counties honoring Elijah Clarke, John Twiggs, Button Gwinnett, James Jackson, and many of his father's other contemporaries. Dooly County suffered several Creek Indian attacks in its early years, an irony considering the career of its namesake. Even the honor of having a county named for Dooly dimmed when, in 1840, a novelist portrayed a fictional Dooly family as Loyalists. Judge Dooly's widow viewed this work as an insult to the memory of her father-in-law and his brothers. An old veteran was consulted on the matter and stated of John Dooly: "Why truly [sic] he was a real Liberty man I know it as well as I know anything; for he saved my father's life once … [but] he was the only one in his family who was not [a Loyalist] his brothers were tories."(n64)
Legacy
John Dooly is the namesake of Dooly County, Georgia.
Notes
References
Profile of John Dooly at USGenWeb, Georgia.
Information on John Dooly from GeorgiaInfo / Carl Vinson Institute of Government at the University of Georgia
1740 births
1780 deaths
American Revolutionary War deaths
Georgia (U.S. state) militiamen in the American Revolution
People from Wilkes County, Georgia
18th-century American people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity%20Dingle
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Charity Dingle
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Charity Boyd (also Dingle, Tate, Sharma and Macey) is a fictional character from the British television soap opera Emmerdale, played by Emma Atkins. Suranne Jones originally auditioned for the role of Charity prior to Atkins being cast in the role. The actress began filming her first scenes in February 2000, and she made her first screen appearance as Charity during the episode broadcast on 30 March 2000. Actress Mica Proctor played a young Charity in a flashback episode about the character's past, which aired on 29 May 2018.
The character has been involved in numerous high-profile storylines during her time on the show, such as her marriage to Chris Tate (Peter Amory), an affair with Chris's sister, Zoe Tate (Leah Bracknell), the arrival of her long-lost daughter Debbie Dingle (Charley Webb), her affair with Cain Dingle (Jeff Hordley), being framed by Chris for his death, giving birth to Noah Tate (Jack Downham) and her uncaring relationship with the latest millionaire in the village & whom she told her cousin Chas she was out to manipulate him to regain her luxury lifestyle and Tom could provide her with it and her later subsequent break up with Tom King (Ken Farrington), which led to her exit on 1 March 2005. Atkins returned to the role on 1 October 2009. During her second stint in Emmerdale, Charity's storylines focused on her relationship with Cain, their get-rich-quick schemes, and her job working with Jai Sharma (Chris Bisson), whom she later married and divorced.
Charity later married Declan Macey (Jason Merrells) and had a secret abortion, which led Declan to try to kill her. Atkins took maternity leave in February 2015, as Charity was sentenced to prison after confessing to her crimes. Atkins returned briefly from June to July and again in December that year, before making a permanent return in March 2016.
Charity's storylines since then have seen her give birth to Moses Dingle, begin a relationship with Vanessa Woodfield (Michelle Hardwick), to whom she later got engaged, and reveal that she was sexually abused by detective Mark Bails (Rocky Marshall) when she was a teenager, which led to the birth of their son Ryan Stocks (James Moore). More recent storylines have seen Charity split from Vanessa, become estranged from her family, and start a relationship with Mackenzie Boyd (Lawrence Robb).
For her portrayal of Charity, Atkins has received nominations for Best Actress at the British Soap Awards.
Storylines
2000–2005
Charity comes to Emmerdale for her cousin, Butch's (Paul Loughran) funeral. It emerges that she is working as a prostitute and there is a warrant out for her arrest. Charity stays with Zak Dingle (Steve Halliwell) and his wife Lisa (Jane Cox).
Charity begins dating Chris Tate (Peter Amory), which his sister, Zoe (Leah Bracknell), is unhappy about and offers her money to end it but Charity refuses. Zoe and Charity then have an affair but Charity ends it when Zoe gets too possessive. Chris proposes marriage and Charity accepts so Zoe records Charity taking about their affair and blackmails her to sign a prenuptial agreement. However, Charity tells Chris about her affair and Chris forgives her, tearing up the pre-nup and Zoe moves out. Chris and Charity marry and Charity helps Chris run his business empire.
Chris and Charity eventually realise that Zoe is ill and she has to be sectioned. While in hospital, she is diagnosed with schizophrenia. Charity supports Zoe when she realizes she is pregnant and considers giving the baby up for adoption, revealing she had a baby girl that she put up for adoption. Charity is shocked when Paddy (Dominic Brunt) and Emily Kirk's (Kate McGregor) foster daughter, Debbie Jones (Charley Webb), realises that Charity is her birth mother. Charity initially refuses contact with Debbie but comforts her when her mother dies. Despite her reserve, she and Debbie bond so Charity files for custody and wins, much to Paddy and Emily's dismay. Charity is delighted when Chris and Debbie bond and he suggests adopting her. Cain later realizes that he is Debbie's father and bonds with his daughter, leading him and Charity to begin an affair. Chris sees them and throws her out. A month later, Charity goes to Home Farm to discuss her marriage, hoping they will reconcile. However, Chris knows that he has an inoperable brain tumour and frames Charity for his murder, before committing suicide. The police arrest Charity after finding her fingerprints on Chris's glass and her signature on an order for poison. She and Cain blame each other so Charity is released on bail when she learns that she is pregnant and moves in with Marlon. After getting drunk, they sleep together. Charity realises Zoe knows that Chris killed himself and kisses her but Zoe testifies that Charity killed Chris so Charity is found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. While in prison, she gives birth to a son who she names Noah (Alfie Mortimer). Unsure of Noah's paternity, she arranges for Zoe, Cain and Marlon to do a DNA test and the results show that Chris is Noah's father. Charity strikes a deal with Zoe – she can have custody of Noah in return for £20,000 and evidence that Chris committed suicide. Zoe agrees and Charity is released. Zoe refuses to allow Charity any contact with Noah, who she calls Christopher, and plans to adopt him but permission is refused, due to already having 2 children (Chris's eldest son, Joseph (Oliver Young), and her daughter, Jean (Megan Pearson), running Home Farm and her mental health issues. Social Services ask Charity to decide if she wants to raise him or put him up for adoption elsewhere. She chooses to raise him and Zoe returns him to Charity.
Charity sets her sights on Tom King (Ken Farrington) and gets a job as his secretary. Tom's daughter-in-law, Sadie King (Patsy Kensit), takes an instant dislike to Charity and tries to sabotage the plan. Unfortunately this doesn't work and Sadie is forced to accept that Charity is Tom's new partner. Eventually Tom proposes and Charity accepts but Sadie refuses to accept this and hires Cain to kiss Charity in front of a photographer and shows the pictures to Tom. He calls the wedding off, leaving Charity furious. Knowing Sadie is responsible, they fight before she returns to the Dingles. In revenge, Charity has an affair with Jimmy King (Nick Miles), Sadie's husband, looking for something she can use against Sadie. She is thrilled when Jimmy tells her that although he thought they were trying for a baby, she is still having contraceptive injections. Charity records Jimmy talking about this and her plan to set Charity up. Initially, she simply blackmails Jimmy but then plays the video at a party and Tom throws them out before begging her to give him another chance but she refuses, saying that she no longer loves him and leaves with Noah.
2009–present
Charity is shocked to see Cain and Debbie at her wedding to Michael Conway (Jamie Belman) and Debbie's news that she and Michael were having an affair. Cain tells Michael that Charity used to be a prostitute and Michael leaves Charity at the altar. Charity reveals that she knew Michael was having doubts and told him that she was pregnant to stop him leaving. Michael is told, very clearly, to choose either Charity or Debbie. He chooses Debbie but she ignores him, choosing to spend time with Charity and Noah. Debbie invites Charity and Noah to move in with her, which they do.
From family gossip, Charity learns that Cain stole money from the Kings and teams up with Carl King (Tom Lister) to get it back. She reconciles with Cain and learns that the money is kept in a storage unit. She takes the money but changes her mind but Cain and Debbie catch her. Cain gives Charity the money and leaves the village. Charity moves in with Marlon and tries to give Debbie the money but she refuses so Charity donates it to the church but Debbie retrieves it. Cain returns and he and Charity agree to be civil. During an argument, Debbie sets fire to the money and realizing they have nothing left to argue about, Charity proposes to Cain and he accepts. Cain organises a surprise wedding and Chas Dingle (Lucy Pargeter) brings Charity to the registry office. Charity is surprised but won't marry Cain, telling him that she loves him but is not ready to settle down yet.
Charity and Cain start stealing cars to make money after Charity steals a businessman's keys after flirting with him at a local hotel. However, the second time they try this, they learn that their target, Declan Macey (Jason Merrells), knows people in the village and spots Charity. Declan tells her that he will not go to the police if she returns the car and has a drink with him.
Charity helps Chas get revenge on Carl for cheating on her and begins working for Jai Sharma (Chris Bisson). Charity advises Jai on the restoration of the barn next to the Dingle farm. Jai pays Charity to persuade Lisa to sell the farm and move to Hotten, but Lisa refuses. Cain is jealous of Charity and Jai's relationship and warns Jai to stay away. Jai buys Charity a new car and takes her to a hotel but she insists they have separate rooms. Charity ends things with Cain after learning that he slept with Faye Lamb (Kim Thomson), thinking that she had slept with Jai. Charity and Noah move in with Jai and Nikhil (Rik Makarem), at Holdgate Farm. Charity and Jai begin dating and Cain tries to win Charity back but Charity tells him that she is not interested. Charity tries to make Nikhil look incompetent, wanting his job, so Jai throws her out. Charity apologises and proposes to Jai. He initially refuses but later accepts. Charity, Cain and Cameron Murray (Dominic Power) steal the Kings' haulage trucks and sell them. Refusing to accept Charity is with Jai, Cain starts attacking the Sharmas forcing them to call off their wedding when the threats become more severe. Cain is attacked and Charity is questioned by the police but she insists she did not do it. Charity and Jai reconcile and she supports him when he is charged with assaulting Cain. Charity reveals she found Cain the night he was attacked and walked away. Cain changes his statement and the charges against Jai are dropped. Charity is late for her wedding as she visits Debbie but does marry Jai. Charity tells Jai that she does not want any more children, leaving him disappointed but he suggests that he adopt Noah. Charity disapproves, worried the about the effect it will have on Noah if the marriage failed, so they compromise and change his surname to Sharma. Later, Jai has a drunken one-night stand with Rachel Breckle (Gemma Oaten) and Charity has a one-night stand with Declan and admits it immediately. Jai forgives her as he feels guilty about his own indiscretion, knowing that Rachel is pregnant and later has a son, Archie. Charity becomes suspicious so Jai's father, Rishi, claims to be Archie's father to save Jai's marriage and ensure that Jai can spend time with Archie. However, Charity realizes the truth when Jai overreacts to an injury Archie sustains in an accident with a sparkler and ends the marriage, moving in with Debbie and her children.
Charity sees Declan attempting to commit suicide by burning down Home Farm, unaware that his sister Megan (Gaynor Faye) is inside. Charity persuades Declan to frame her cousin, Sam, so that they can split the insurance money and deprive Jai of his son, thinking Sam, Rachel and the children would go on the run but Rachel refused, insisting that they clear their names. Before Sam's court date, Charity tells Rachel that she and Declan framed Sam and Rachel can clear his name by giving a statement to the police, admitting that she started the fire or Sam will go to prison. Unwilling to see Sam go down, Rachel does as Charity and Declan ask and tells the police that she was the arsonist. When she gets bail, Charity and Declan give her everything she will need to start a new life with Archie. Rachel's sister, Ali, knows that Rachel is innocent but keeps quiet after Charity and Declan threaten her daughter.
Charity and Declan then start dating but no one thinks it will last. Charity realizes she is pregnant in April and plans to have a termination, feeling that she and Declan couldn't cope with a child. However, Declan finds out when Megan finds the positive test in the bin at Debbie's house. He is happy and proposes to her, making her walk out. Later, Charity accepts Declan's proposal and Declan announces their engagement in The Woolpack and Charity's pregnancy, just as Jai walks in. Charity later decides to go ahead with a termination and offloads to her consultant, bursting into tears and telling her how she gave Debbie up for adoption. However, after booking an abortion, she finds that Declan has told Noah about the baby. Charity marries Declan with only Noah, Megan and Declan's nephew, Robbie Lawson (Jamie Shelton), present. Megan tries to sabotage the wedding and sets off the fire alarm. Charity realizes what Megan is up to and a catfight broke out. She panics when Declan reveals he has booked a month's holiday to Barbados for them and Noah as she worries over how to have her abortion. However, a confrontation with Megan a few days later gives Charity an opportunity to feign miscarriage when she is accidentally knocked to the floor. A scan at the hospital confirms she has lost the baby, leaving Declan devastated. Wracked with guilt, Megan tells Declan that she is resigning and won't move into Home Farm but Jai advises her to test Charity's intentions. Charity is shaken when Megan says she may stay after all and is horrified to find Megan telling Declan that she caused the miscarriage. Enraged, Declan throws Megan out. Charity, relieved, agrees to rearrange a late honeymoon for them and Noah, but insists it is too soon for another baby, much to Declan's chagrin. A vengeful Megan then decides to spy on Charity with Nicola at Home Farm. After returning from Barbados, Charity agrees to try for another baby.
When Declan finds out about Charity's abortion, he keeps quiet and takes her away for a romantic break but tries to kill her, hitting her with a mallet and tries to shoot her with a flare gun. However, Declan accidentally shoots Robbie, when he tries to save Charity and later dies from the blast. Declan tries to drown Charity by pulling her into the lake but she hits him over the head with an anchor and he sinks into the water. Charity then passes out on the boat, stating "You were never a match for me", while Megan watches. Charity is extremely paranoid when she returns to the village and manages to patch things up with Megan before Robbie's funeral. Declan later returns and drugs Charity, while holding Megan, Jai, Cain, Debbie, Sam, Zak, Chas and Ashley hostage at the Sharma house. He tells them how Charity framed Rachel for the fire at Home Farm, before leaving the village. The Dingles and Jai then confront a bitter Charity, who eventually confesses. When they turn on her, Charity retaliates that they are all hypocrites and that she no longer wants to be part of the family. Zak promptly disowns her before leaving with Chas and Sam, who expresses his hatred towards Charity. Jai leaves too, but not before vowing to make Charity suffer for what she did to him. Debbie and Cain reveal their disgust and, despite Charity's pleas, walk away. When trying to leave, Charity is attacked and kidnapped by an unknown culprit and held in a shipping container in the woods. It was later revealed that the kidnapper is Jai. He tells Charity that unless she reveals Rachel and Archie's location, she will be left to die. While arguing with Sam about Rachel's whereabouts, Jai falls down the stairs and falls into a coma, but reveals where Charity is. Sam goes to the shipping container and hears Charity stating that she only cares about herself and should care more about Debbie and Noah. Sam leaves Charity there but eventually tells Cain where Charity is and he and Sam save her. To redeem herself to her family, Charity drives off with Maxine (Rebecca Manley), a woman who is blackmailing Cain's wife, Moira. She drives extremely fast down narrow country lanes and threatens to kill her if she gives Moira any more grief. Moira worries that Charity has made things worse, while Cain is proud of Charity's actions.
Charity, meanwhile, is found guilty for perverting the course of justice and is sentenced to two years in prison. When Cain takes Noah to visit Charity in prison, she tells him that she has a plan in the works that might help her get early release. Charity goes into labour while Debbie is there, unaware that Charity is pregnant. She gives birth to a baby boy and hands him to a social worker, telling them Debbie is the legal guardian until she is released from prison. Knowing that Charity confessed her love for Cain after her imprisonment, Debbie and Chas suspect that Cain is the father, which he denies. He visits Charity in prison and demands to know who the father is, otherwise he will sever all contact but she refuses to divulge the father's identity so Cain walks out. The Dingles name the baby Moses. Charity calls the father, Ross Barton (Michael Parr), when Moses is rushed to hospital and needs an operation. Soon after, Cain tells Debbie that Ross is Moses's father, to stop her leaving the village with him. After Charity is released from prison, she steals a Ferrari. When she gets it stuck in a field, she needs Cain and Moira's help to avoid the police. She later becomes the new owner of The Woolpack.
Cain and Moira's marriage breaks down and he kisses Charity. Cain saves Charity from a drug dealer, after she tries to find Belle, who has gone missing. Cain and Charity have sex in the garage, and he stands up for her in front of Zak and Lisa. They continue dating, and plan to leave the village to stay with Debbie in France. However, Cain changes his mind, as he still loves Moira, so Charity fakes her suicide by crashing his car in a quarry.
Charity develops a relationship with Vanessa Woodfield (Michelle Hardwick). She later tells her that when she was 14 years old, she was repeatedly raped by policeman Mark Bails (Rocky Marshall). He also physically attacked her on several occasions and even used to pimp her out to other men. When she fell pregnant, she started drinking heavily to induce a miscarriage. Eventually, Charity went into labour while escaping Bails' clutches and gave birth to a baby boy in hospital, however, he had to be rushed away as he was not breathing. As the doctors tried to bring him back, Charity watched on and, convinced he was dead, she ran out of the hospital. After reporting Bails to the police, Charity learns that her baby survived and he is called Ryan Stocks (James Moore). She soon works out that he was adopted by the midwife that helped deliver him.
Casting
Actress Suranne Jones auditioned for the role of Charity, however it was Atkins who was eventually cast. The actress received the part while she was in her final year of a performing arts degree at Salford University. Her agent asked her if she wanted to audition for a role as a Dingle in Emmerdale and Atkins wondered whether she would be able to portray a member of that family, as she is so removed from those types of characters. The actress told Merle Brown of the Daily Record that the more her agent told her about the role, the more she thought she would enjoy playing it. Atkins attended the audition and was later recalled to do a screen test alongside Mark Charnock (who plays Marlon Dingle). Two weeks later, Atkins was told she had won the role of Charity. She began filming her scenes in February 2000 and made her first appearance in March.
On 26 July 2004, Kris Green of Digital Spy reported Atkins had quit Emmerdale, claiming that it was time to move on. Of her decision to leave, Atkins said "I will be desperately sad to say goodbye to everyone but there are so many other roles that I would like to try and it's important to me that Charity leaves on a high." Atkins made her on screen departure on 1 March 2005.
On 18 March 2009, it was announced Atkins would be returning to Emmerdale as part of the ongoing overhaul of the show by series producer, Gavin Blyth. Of her decision to reprise her role, Atkins said: "Charity is a wonderfully complex character and an absolute joy to play. I couldn't resist the opportunity to explore a new era of Charity, Cain and Debbie and will relish seeing what she's been up to since we saw her last." Charity and her five-year-old son returned on 1 October 2009. Two months later, Digital Spy's Kris Green reported Atkins had signed a six-month extension to her contract, keeping her with the show well into 2010.
On 20 January 2015, Atkins confirmed that she would be taking maternity leave from the show. Charity was written out of Emmerdale after receiving a prison sentence for perverting the course of justice. After a few brief returns throughout the rest of 2015, Charity returned permanently on 10 March 2016 when she was eventually released from prison.
Development
Characterisation
During a 2001 interview with the Daily Mirror's Nina Myskow, Atkins said she loved playing Charity as she is a ballsy wild child who is not scared of anything. Atkins commented that her character is everything she is not. Myskow agreed with Atkins and said the actress is nothing like Charity, who she called a "loud-mouthed bad girl." Writing for the Daily Record, Merle Brown deemed Charity a "brassy tart with a heart." Atkins told him Charity is very argumentative, flirty and a bitch, which makes her "a brilliant character to play." Atkins said there are many different sides to Charity that she hoped viewers would get to see as she developed. Tessa Cunningham of the Daily Mirror branded Charity a "manipulative gold-digger." Of Charity's style, Atkins said "She's a lady of the night – looks like a slapper, a complete slapper. I wouldn't have it any other way. I get to wear short mini-skirts and things I'd never dream of wearing. Going shopping with the costume people is brilliant fun, because it's like: "Oh God, that's so bad. Yeah, we'll have it." Atkins added Charity does not have to open her mouth as her outfits say everything for her.
Three years after her introduction, Atkins revealed Charity had developed into a "bigger, fiestier and more business-oriented" woman. The actress said she had grown into the character and hoped she would remain cheeky, mischievous and a tart with a heart. Atkins added Charity is playful, but not evil or corrupt. A writer for the Western Mail called Charity "mad, bad and dangerous to know." In February 2011, Atkins said Charity cannot resist an element of risk to anything because it is exciting to her and it makes village life more exciting too. Atkins explained that Charity is the sort of person who does not know why she is in a village like Emmerdale, as she has "much bigger fish to fry" elsewhere.
Relationship with Chris Tate and affair with Zoe Tate
Charity begins an "unlikely relationship" with wheelchair-using, local millionaire, Chris Tate (Peter Amory). Charity realises she likes Chris when she becomes involved with his businesses. Charity thinks he is sweet and they get on well. When Chris suspects Charity is cheating on him, her flirtatious habits do little to reassure him. Charity denies Chris's accusations that she is seeing somebody else. Atkins told Claire Brand of Inside Soap "Charity has been trying to convince Chris that nothing is going on. She's been having blazing rows with him and saying 'How could you possibly accuse me?' She's making him feel really guilty about suspecting her and he ends up wallowing in self pity, thinking he's blown it with her." Atkins went on to say Charity is very clever and makes Chris do what she says, as opposed to the other way round, which Chris is used to. Charity flirts with many of the men in the village to make Chris jealous. Chris decides to trap Charity and invites all the major suspects – Marlon Dingle, Scott Windsor (Ben Freeman) and Rodney Blackstock (Patrick Mower) – to an important party Charity is helping to organise. Atkins said viewers would be surprised to find out who Charity is seeing behind Chris's back.
Charity's secret lover was revealed to be Chris's sister, Zoe (Leah Bracknell), during a special hour-long episode. Atkins explained the storyline was a shock to her as she had always thought Charity was "a man's woman." However, the more she thought about it, the more she realised the story made sense. Atkins explained "Charity lives on the edge. She's certainly not gay, but she loves sex and it doesn't matter whether it's with a man or a woman." Atkins said Charity likes to play games and she finds the idea of an affair with Chris's sister exciting. The actress did not think the storyline was "sensationalist" and reckoned Charity is probably bisexual and was only just realising that through her relationship with Zoe. Charity eventually ends the relationship with Zoe and goes on to marry Chris, despite admitting she does not love him and his money is the big attraction. Atkins said Charity is honest, but she does have feelings for Chris, which would grow. She added the lesbian affair had run its course, but she thought there might be repercussions from it in the future.
Reception
For her portrayal of Charity, Atkins was nominated in the categories of Best Actress, Best Exit and Best Single Episode (for her wedding with Tom) at the 2005 British Soap Awards. In 2010, Atkins was nominated for the Best Actress award. The following year she and Hordley received a nomination for Best On-Screen Partnership. The character was selected as one of the "top 100 British soap characters" by industry experts for a poll to be run by What's on TV, with readers able to vote for their favourite character to discover "Who is Soap's greatest Legend?" Kris Green of Digital Spy called Charity "one of the soap's most controversial characters." Steve Hendry of the Sunday Mail branded the Charity, Chris and Zoe storyline as "one of soapland's more bizarre love triangles." A writer for Virgin Media named Cain and Charity one of "Soaps' sexiest couples." Laura Morgan of All About Soap said that viewers should not count on Charity settling into married life with Jai, especially with Cain hanging around "like a bad smell". A Sunday Mail reporter dubbed Charity "one of the great British soap villains". Charity's sentencing in January 2015 was named one of "the best bits of January" in the Inside Soap Yearbook 2016. In August 2017, Atkins was longlisted for Best Bad Girl at the Inside Soap Awards. Despite making the viewer-voted shortlist, Atkins did not win the award. For her portrayal of Charity, Atkins was nominated for Best Soap Actor (Female) at the 2018 Digital Spy Reader Awards; she came in second place with 17.2% of the toal vote. The storyline "Charity fights for justice against DI Bails" was also nominated at the awards under the "Best Soap Storyline" category; it came in third place with 14% of the total vote. Charity's pairing with Vanessa was also nominated for "Best Soap Couple"; they came in fourth place with 9.4% of the total vote. In 2019, Atkins received a National Television Awards nomination in the Serial Drama Performance category for her portrayal of Charity. In a 2021 Radio Times poll, Charity was voted as the "best soap pub landlord of all time", receiving 30% of the votes, which Atkins thought was a "surprise" but left her "humble and happy".
See also
List of Emmerdale characters (2000)
List of LGBT characters in soap operas
List of soap opera villains
References
External links
Charity Dingle at itv.com
Emmerdale characters
Television characters introduced in 2000
British female characters in television
Fictional female businesspeople
Fictional career criminals
Fictional con artists
Fictional factory workers
Fictional prostitutes
Fictional bisexual women
Fictional criminals in soap operas
Fictional characters involved in incest
Fictional teenage parents
Female villains
Fictional victims of sexual assault
Fictional bartenders
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Fictional LGBT characters in television
LGBT villains
Fictional blackmailers
Fictional victims of child sexual abuse
Dingle family
Tate family (Emmerdale)
Fictional hostages and kidnapped people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Museum%20for%20Human%20Rights
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Canadian Museum for Human Rights
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The Canadian Museum for Human Rights (CMHR; ) is a Canadian Crown corporation and national museum located in Winnipeg, Manitoba, adjacent to The Forks. The purpose of the museum is to "explore the subject of human rights with a special but not exclusive reference to Canada, to enhance the public's understanding of human rights, to promote respect for others and to encourage reflection and dialogue."
Established in 2008 through the enactment of Bill C-42, an amendment of The Museums Act of Canada, the CMHR is the first new national museum created in Canada since 1967, and it is Canada's first national museum ever to be located outside the National Capital Region. The Museum held its opening ceremonies on 19 September 2014.
The Friends of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights is the charitable organization responsible for attracting and maintaining all forms of philanthropic contributions to the Museum.
History
Development
The late Izzy Asper—a Canadian lawyer, politician, and founder of the now-defunct media conglomerate Canwest Global Communications—is credited with the idea and vision to establish the CMHR, having first come up with the idea on 18 July 2000 to build the museum. Asper hoped it would become a place where students from across Canada could come to learn about human rights. He also saw it as an opportunity to revitalize downtown Winnipeg and increase tourism to the city, as well as to raise understanding and awareness of human rights, promote respect for others, and encourage reflection, dialogue, and action. Working on his idea for three years, Asper had a thorough feasibility study conducted by museum experts from around Canada.
In 2003, Asper established the Friends of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights, a private charitable organization, to build the CMHR. On 17 April, the 21st anniversary of Canada's Charter of Rights and Freedoms, an event was held at The Forks in Winnipeg where Asper first publicly announced the intent to create the CMHR. It was announced as a joint partnership between The Asper Foundation and the governments of Canada, Manitoba, and of Winnipeg, as well as land donated by the Forks Renewal Corporation. Prime Minister Jean Chrétien committed the first $30 million towards the capital cost, and private fundraising was soon overseen by the Friends of the CMHR. The Asper Foundation donated $20 million.
Later that year, on 7 October, Izzy Asper died suddenly at the age of 71 on his way to announce the architectural competition in Vancouver for the CMHR's design. Vowing to continue to develop the museum, his family and The Asper Foundation continued with the project, now spearheaded by Izzy's daughter, Gail Asper. Two weeks later, the symbolic sod-turning ceremony was held at The Forks and the architectural competition announced.
The Friends of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights launched the international architectural competition for the design of the CMHR, one of Canada's largest‐ever juried architectural competitions. 100 submissions from 21 countries worldwide were submitted. The judging panel chose the design submitted by Antoine Predock, an architect from Albuquerque, New Mexico. Meanwhile, Ralph Appelbaum, head of Ralph Appelbaum Associates, the world's largest museum design company, was hired to develop the CMHR's exhibits.
Legislation, construction, and opening
On 20 April 2007, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced the Government of Canada's intention to make the CMHR into a national museum. On 13 March 2008, Bill C-42, An Act to amend the Museums Act and to make consequential amendments to other Acts, received royal assent in Parliament with support from all political parties, creating the Canadian Museum for Human Rights as a national museum.By the middle of 2008, a government-funded opinion research project had been completed by the TNS/The Antima Group. The ensuing report—based primarily on focus group participants—listed the following: topics that the CMHR might cover (not in order of preference); key milestones in human rights achievements, both in Canada and throughout the word; current debates about human rights; and events where Canada showed a betrayal or a commitment to human rights.
Before construction could begin, archeologists, in consultation with Elders, conduct an extensive excavation and recovered over 400,000 artifacts in the ancestral lands.
The groundbreaking ceremony was held at the site of the CMHR on 19 December 2008, and official construction on the site began in April the following year. (Construction was initially expected to be completed in 2012.) The chair of the board resigned before his term was up, and a new interim chair was appointed.
On 3 July 2010, Queen Elizabeth II—having personally selected a stone from Runnymede, the English meadow where the Magna Carta was sealed in 1215—unveiled the Museum's cornerstone, inscribed with a message from the Queen and encased in Manitoba Tyndall stone.
The last of the 1,669 custom‐cut pieces of glass was installed in September 2012, and within a few months the base building was completed. The Museum's inauguration took place in 2014. Also in 2014, a stretch of road in front of the CMHR was named Israel Asper Way.
The museum's official grand opening on 20 September 2014 was protested by several activist groups, who expressed the view that their own human rights histories had been inaccurately depicted or excluded from the museum. The First Nations musical group A Tribe Called Red, who had been scheduled to perform at the opening ceremony, pulled out in protest against the museum's coverage of First Nations issues.
Funding
Funding for the capital costs of the CMHR is coming from three jurisdictions of government, the federal Crown, the provincial Crown, and the City of Winnipeg, as well as private donations. The total budget for the building of the exterior of the CMHR and its contents was $310 million as of February 2011. At the time of its opening in September 2014, the cost of the museum was approximately $351 million.
To date, the Government of Canada has allocated $100 million; the Government of Manitoba has donated $40 million; and the City of Winnipeg has donated $20 million. The Friends of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights, led by Gail Asper, have raised more than $130 million in private donations from across Canada toward a final goal of $150 million. These private-sector pledges include $4.5 million from provincial crown corporations in Manitoba and $5 million from the Government of Ontario. The Canadian Museum for Human Rights has requested an additional $35 million in capital funding from the federal government to cover shortfalls. In April 2011, the CMHR received an additional $3.6 million from the City of Winnipeg, which was taken from a federal grant to the city in lieu of taxes for the museum.
The CMHR's operating budget is provided by the government of Canada, as the CMHR is a national museum. The estimated operating costs to the federal government are $22 million annually. In December 2011, the CMHR announced that due to rising costs for the interior exhibits of the museum, the total construction cost had increased by an additional $41 million to a new total of $351 million. In July 2012, the federal and provincial governments agreed to further enhance the capital funding to the CMHR by up to $70 million, through a combination of a federal loan and a provincial loan guarantee. This newest funding was essential for the completion of the interior exhibits so that the museum could officially open in 2014, already two years behind schedule.
Architecture
The building's ground floor provides orientation and meeting space, a gift shop, restaurant, and visitor services. Galleries on different levels are linked by dramatic backlit alabaster ramps, including the Hall of Hope. There is also a Garden of Contemplation, which has still-water pools punctuated by dramatic black Mongolian basalt.
Beginning with the Great Hall, the visitor experience culminates in the Israel Asper Tower of Hope, a 100-metre glass spire protruding from the CMHR that provides visitors with views of downtown Winnipeg.
Design and construction process
In 2003, the Friends of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights launched an international architectural competition for the design of the CMHR. 100 submissions from 21 countries worldwide were submitted. The judging panel chose the design submitted by Antoine Predock from Albuquerque, New Mexico.
His vision for the CMHR was a journey, beginning with a descent into the earth where visitors enter the CMHR through the "roots" of the museum. Visitors are led through the Great Hall, then a series of vast spaces and ramps, before culminating in the "Tower of Hope", a tall spire protruding from the CMHR. He has been quoted as saying: "I'm often asked what my favorite, my most important building is.... I'm going on record right now... 'This is it.'"
Predock's inspiration for the CMHR came from the natural scenery and open spaces in Canada, including trees, ice, northern lights, First Nations peoples in Canada, and the rootedness of human rights action. He describes the CMHR in the following way:
The Canadian Museum for Human Rights is rooted in humanity, making visible in the architecture the fundamental commonality of humankind-a symbolic apparition of ice, clouds and stone set in a field of sweet grass. Carved into the earth and dissolving into the sky on the Winnipeg horizon, the abstract ephemeral wings of a white dove embrace a mythic stone mountain of 450 million year old Tyndall limestone in the creation of a unifying and timeless landmark for all nations and cultures of the world.
The base building was complete since the end of 2012. Throughout the foundation work of the CMHR, medicine bags created by elders at Thunderbird House, in Winnipeg, were inserted into the holes made for piles and caissons to show respect for Mother Earth. The CMHR website had two webcams available for the public to watch the construction as it progressed.
For the construction of the Hall of Hope, full of illuminated alabaster ramps, more than 3.500m² and 15.000 tiles of alabaster were used, making it the biggest project ever done with alabaster.
On 3 July 2010, Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, unveiled the building's cornerstone. The stone bears the Queen's royal cypher and has embedded in it a piece of stone from the ruins of St. Mary's Priory, at Runnymede, England, where it is believed the Magna Carta was approved in 1215 by King John.
Exhibition and facilities
On the fifth floor is the Carte International Reference Centre, the CMHR library "devoted to collecting and providing access to resources that support human rights learning and research."
Exhibit design
The CMHR worked with exhibit designer Ralph Appelbaum Associates (RAA) from New York to develop the inaugural exhibits of the museum. RAA indicated that the galleries throughout the CMHR would deal with various themes including the Canadian human rights journey, Indigenous concepts of human rights, the Holocaust, and current human rights issues. The CMHR's team of researchers worked with RAA to develop the inaugural exhibits.
In January 2009, lawyer Yude Henteleff was appointed to chair the museum's content advisory committee, made up of human rights experts and leaders from across Canada. The committee was a key part of the museum's first large-scale public engagement exercise. Through a cross-country tour from May 2009 to February 2010 called "Help Write the Story of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights", CMHR researchers visited 19 cities and talked to thousands of people about their human rights experiences and what they wanted to see in the museum. This consultation process was led by Lord Cultural Resources, based in Toronto. On 5 March 2013, a story produced by CBC TV (Manitoba) mentioned a document, "Gallery Profiles" (dated 12 September 2012), that confirmed some of the CMHR's proposed contents. The museum's largest gallery is dedicated to Canadian content, while a thematic approach is taken throughout all of its galleries.
Galleries
The museum has had 10 core galleries since the time of its opening in September 2014:
What are human rights?
Indigenous perspectives.
This includes a "circular movie about First Nations concepts of rights and responsibilities to each other and the land." Curator Lee-Ann Martin described contemporary installation artist Rebecca Belmore's "Trace", a -storey "ceramic blanket" commissioned by the CMHR. This blanket is part of a series by Winnipeg-based Anishinaabe artist Belmore that "expose the traumatic history and ongoing violence against Aboriginal people."
Canadian journeys.
This includes "prominent exhibits" on residential schools, "missing and murdered aboriginal women", "forced relocation of Inuit". as well as Japanese during World War II, disabilities from Ryerson University, Chinese head tax, the Underground Railroad, Komagata Maru and the Winnipeg General Strike.
Protecting rights in Canada
Examining the Holocaust and other genocides.
The gallery on genocide includes the five genocides recognized by Canada: the Holocaust, the Holodomor, the Armenian genocide, the Rwandan genocide and the Bosnian ethnic cleansing.
Turning points for humanity
Breaking the silence
Actions count
Rights today
Inspiring change
Indigenous issues are addressed in each gallery, but are prominent in the " Canadian Journeys Gallery" and the "Indigenous Perspectives Gallery".
Partnerships
Several agreements have been reached by the CMHR and various educational institutions and government agencies, to enhance the quality and depth of information provided by the museum, as well as to broaden the educational opportunities for the museum. This is a tentative and evolving list of organizations that have partnered with the museum:
University of Manitoba
University of Winnipeg
National Museum – "Memorial to Holodomor victims" (Kyiv, Ukraine)
Canadian Association of Statutory Human Rights Agencies
Ambassador of the Kingdom of the Netherlands to Canada (Netherlands Embassy)
Library and Archives Canada
The Manitoba Museum
Manitoba Education (the Province of Manitoba)
Controversies
Location
The museum was criticized for its location in The Forks, an important Indigenous archaeological site. From 2008 to 2012, archaeological excavations on the museum site recovered more than 400,000 artifacts dating as far back as 1100 CE. Retired archaeologist Leigh Syms stated that the excavation done prior to construction did not go far enough; a museum spokesperson stated that officials had consulted with Indigenous leaders and would continue to do so during construction.
Furthermore, a report prepared for the Forks Renewal Corporation prior to the construction of the Forks Market in 1988 raised concerns about possible Indigenous burial grounds in the area. Several archaeological digs between 1989 and 1991, and then again in 2008 and 2009 by the CMHR, did not find any human remains.
Exhibits
Beginning in December 2010, controversy erupted over plans for two permanent galleries dedicated to the Holocaust and the mistreatment of Indigenous peoples in Canada. Several community organizations representing Canadians of Central and Eastern European descent, including the Ukrainian Canadian Congress, protested what they said was an over-emphasis on Jewish and Indigenous suffering, and the relegation of their experiences (such as the Holodomor) to smaller thematic or rotating galleries.
Lubomyr Luciuk, speaking for the Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association, said that "as a publicly funded institution, the Canadian Museum for Human Rights should not elevate the suffering of any community above all others," referencing the Canadian internment of Ukrainians during World War I. The UCCLA sent postcards to Heritage Minister James Moore, which were criticized by Catherine Chatterley of the Canadian Institute for the Study of Antisemitism for depicting those in favour of the Holocaust gallery as pigs. Ultimately, in July 2012, the CMHR agreed to collaborate with the National Museum of the Holodomor-Genocide in Kyiv to provide further education to museum visitors about the Holodomor.
Some Palestinian-Canadians were also upset by the fact that the CMHR did not include an exhibit featuring their displacement due to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. "As the opening comes closer, I become more and more concerned that the lessons of the Palestinian experience, nobody's going to hear it," said Rana Abdulla. "Our story is an excellent story to educate Canadians about human rights. How would anyone take that museum seriously if they don't hear the Palestinian story?" Mohamed El Rashidy of the Canadian Arab Federation said the museum had to address Palestinian experiences, and "shouldn't fear stating the inconvenient truths and facts about history."
CMHR CEO Stuart Murray promised that the museum would be inclusive of all groups, while museum spokesperson Angela Cassie responded that it was a "misconception" that there would only be two permanent galleries, and that the museum would reference several other historical genocides, including the Holodomor, in its "Mass Atrocity" section. She further explained that the purpose of the museum was not to be a memorial for the suffering of different groups, but to be a learning experience; for instance, the Holocaust exhibit introduces the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was drafted in direct response to it.
According to Canadian Jewish Congress CEO Bernie Farber, the events of the Holocaust merited particular focus precisely because they redefined the limits of "human depravity" and were "the foundation of our modern human rights legislation." He also said that it "made sense" that another gallery be dedicated to Indigenous peoples, and criticized the "pitting of one group of Canadians against another."
Winnipeg Free Press columnist Dan Lett similarly expressed dismay at the quarrel over the square footage allotted to any given atrocity or human rights violation, arguing that there should be less haggling over which wronged group gets the most space in a museum, and more concern over the prevention of human rights abuses in the future. Scholars explored many of the controversies in The Idea of a Human Rights Museum.
LGBT content censorship
From January 2015 until the middle of 2017 the management sometimes asked staff not to show any LGBT content on tours at the request of certain guests, including religious school groups, diplomats and donors. The communications department justified such requests by saying "all groups are special, some groups are just a bit more special and there are some things that shouldn't be put on paper. So we have to meet in person to discuss what guides can say to these special visitors." In June 2020, CMHR CEO John Young resigned following complaints that staff were forced to censor LGBT content, as well as allegations of sexual harassment, homophobia and racism at the CMHR. An apology from the Executive team of the CMHR and an interim report of the independent third-party review into allegations were published on the CMHR website, with Young and several others named as signatories to the apology. In October 2020, it was revealed some staff were told not to talk about pregnancy or abortion, in addition to censoring LGBT content, during some tours involving religious schools.
See also
Human rights
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Footnotes
References
External links
Official website
Friends of the CMHR
Canadian federal Crown corporations
Museums in Winnipeg
Human rights
Human rights organizations based in Canada
Antoine Predock buildings
Human rights museums
Museums established in 2008
Museums established in 2014
2008 establishments in Manitoba
2014 establishments in Manitoba
Tourist attractions in Winnipeg
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual%20reality%20therapy
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Virtual reality therapy
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Virtual reality therapy (VRT), also known as virtual reality immersion therapy (VRIT), simulation for therapy (SFT), virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET), and computerized CBT (CCBT), is the use of virtual reality technology for psychological or occupational therapy and in affecting virtual rehabilitation. Patients receiving virtual reality therapy navigate through digitally created environments and complete specially designed tasks often tailored to treat a specific ailment; and is designed to isolate the user from their surrounding sensory inputs and give the illusion of immersion inside a computer-generated, interactive virtual environment. This technology has a demonstrated clinical benefit as an adjunctive analgesic during burn wound dressing and other painful medical procedures. Technology can range from a simple PC and keyboard setup, to a modern virtual reality headset. It is widely used as an alternative form of exposure therapy, in which patients interact with harmless virtual representations of traumatic stimuli in order to reduce fear responses. It has proven to be especially effective at treating PTSD, and shows considerable promise in treating a variety of neurological and physical conditions. Virtual reality therapy has also been used to help stroke patients regain muscle control, to treat other disorders such as body dysmorphia, and to improve social skills in those diagnosed with autism.
Description
Virtual reality therapy (VRT) uses specially programmed computers, visual immersion devices and artificially created environments to give the patient a simulated experience that can be used to diagnose and treat psychological conditions that cause difficulties for patients. In many environmental phobias, reaction to the perceived hazards, such as heights, speaking in public, flying, close spaces, are usually triggered by visual and auditory stimuli. In VR-based therapies, the virtual world is a means of providing artificial, controlled stimuli in the context of treatment, and with a therapist able to monitor the patient's reaction. Unlike traditional cognitive behavioral therapy, VR-based treatment may involve adjusting the virtual environment, such as for example adding controlled intensity smells or adding and adjusting vibrations, and allow the clinician to determine the triggers and triggering levels for each patient's reaction. VR-based therapy systems may allow replaying virtual scenes, with or without adjustment, to habituate the patient to such environments. Therapists who apply virtual reality exposure therapy, just as those who apply in-vivo exposure therapy, can take one of two approaches concerning the intensity of exposure. The first approach is called flooding, which refers to the most intense approach where stimuli that produce the most anxiety are presented first. For soldiers who have developed PTSD from combat, this could mean first exposing them to a virtual reality scene of their fellow troops being shot or injured followed by less stressful stimuli such as only the sounds of war. On the other hand, what is referred to as graded-exposure takes a more relaxed approach in which the least distressing stimuli are introduced first. VR-exposure, as compared to in-vivo exposure has the advantage of providing the patient a vivid experience, without the associated risks or costs. VRT has great promise since it historically produces a "cure" about 90% of the time at about half the cost of traditional cognitive behavior therapy authority, and is especially promising as a treatment for PTSD where there are simply not enough psychologists and psychiatrists to treat all the veterans with anxiety disorders diagnosed as related to their military service.
VRT is also a promising adjunctive therapy for the treatment of other clinical populations, such as individuals with psychosis. A recent systematic review of psychosocial interventions using virtual reality shows these interventions are safe and well accepted in this population. The studies identified in the review show that psychosocial VRT can improve cognitive, social, and vocational skills as well as symptoms of auditory verbal hallucinations and paranoia in individuals with psychosis.
Recently there have been some advances in the field of virtual reality medicine. Virtual reality is a complete immersion of the patient into a virtual world by putting on a headset with an LED screen in the lenses of the headset. This is different from the recent advancements in augmented reality. Augmented reality is different in the sense that it enhances the non-synthetic environment by introducing synthetic elements to the user's perception of the world. This in turn "augments" the current reality and uses virtual elements to build upon the existing environment. Augmented reality poses additional benefits and has proven itself to be a medium through which individuals with a specific phobia can be exposed "safely" to the object(s) of their fear, without the costs associated with programming complete virtual environments. Thus, augmented reality can offer an efficacious alternative to some less advantageous exposure-based therapies.
History
Virtual reality therapy (VRT) was pioneered and originally termed by Max North documented by the first known publication (Virtual Environment and Psychological Disorders, Max M. North, and Sarah M. North, Electronic Journal of Virtual Culture, 2,4, July 1994), his doctoral VRT dissertation completion in 1995 (began in 1992), and followed with the first known published VRT book in 1996 (Virtual Reality Therapy, an Innovative Paradigm, Max M. North, Sarah M. North, and Joseph R. Coble, 1996. IPI Press. ). His pioneered virtual reality technology work began as early as 1992 as a research faculty at Clark Atlanta University and supported by funding from U.S. Army Research Laboratory.
An early exploration in 1993–1994 of VRT was done by Ralph Lamson a USC graduate then at Kaiser Permanente Psychiatry Group. Lamson began publishing his work in 1993. As a psychologist, he was most concerned with the medical and therapeutic aspects, that is, how to treat people using the technology, rather than the apparatus, which was obtained from Division, Inc. Psychology Today reported in 1994 that these 1993–1994 treatments were successful in about 90% of Lamson's virtual psychotherapy patients. Lamson wrote in 1993 a book entitled Virtual Therapy which was published in 1997 directed primarily to the detailed explanation of the anatomical, medical and therapeutic basis for the success of VRT. In 1994–1995, he had solved his own acrophobia in a test use of a third party VR simulation and then set up a 40 patient test funded by Kaiser Permanente. Shortly thereafter, in 1994–1995, Larry Hodges, then a computer scientist at Georgia Tech active in VR, began studying VRT in cooperation with Max North who had reported anomalous behavior in flying carpet simulation VR studies and attributed such to phobic response of unknown nature. Hodges tried to hire Lamson without success in 1994 and instead began working with Barbara Rothbaum, a psychologist at Emory University to test VRT in controlled group tests, experiencing about 70% success among 50% of subjects completing the testing program.
In 2005, Skip Rizzo of USC's Institute for Creative Technologies, with research funding from the Office of Naval Research (ONR), started validating a tool he created using assets from the game Full Spectrum Warrior for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Virtual Iraq was subsequently evaluated and improved under ONR funding and is supported by Virtually Better, Inc. They also support applications of VR-based therapy for aerophobia, acrophobia, glossophobia, and substance abuse. Virtual Iraq proved successful in normalization of over 70% of people with PTSD, and that has now become a standard accepted treatment by the Anxiety and Depression Association of America. However, the VA has continued to emphasize traditional prolonged exposure therapy as the treatment of choice, and VR-based therapies have gained only limited adoption, despite active promotion by DOD, and despite VRT having much lower cost and apparently higher success rates. A $12-million ONR funded study is currently underway to definitively compare the efficacy of the two methods, PET and VRT. Military labs have subsequently set up dozens of VRT labs and treatment centers for treating both PTSD and a variety of other medical conditions. The use of VRT has thus become a mainstream psychiatric treatment for anxiety disorders and is finding increasing use in the treatment of other cognitive disorders associated with various medical conditions such as addiction, PTSD and schizophrenia.
Applications
Psychological therapy
Exposure therapy
Virtual reality technology is especially useful for exposure therapy – a treatment method in which patients are introduced and then slowly exposed to a traumatic stimulus. Inside virtual environments, patients can safely interact with a representation of their phobia, and researchers don't need to have access to a real version of the phobia itself. One of the primary challenges to the efficacy of Exposure therapy is recreating the level of trauma existing in real environments inside a virtual environment. Virtual reality aids in overcoming this by engaging with different sensory stimuli of the patient while heightening the realism and maintaining the safety of the environment.
One very successful example of virtual reality therapy exposure therapy is the PTSD treatment system, Virtual Iraq. Using a head mounted display and a game pad, patients navigate a Humvee around virtual recreations of Iraq, Afghanistan, and the United States. By being safely exposed to the traumatic environments, patients learned to reduce their anxiety. According to a review of the history of Virtual Iraq, one study found that it reduced PTSD symptoms by an average of fifty percent, and disqualified over seventy-five percent of participants for PTSD after treatment.
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) is also commonly used for treating specific phobias, especially small animal phobia. Commonly feared animals such as spiders can be easily produced in a virtual environment, instead of finding the real animal. VRET has also been used experimentally to treat other fears such as public speaking and claustrophobia.
Another successful study attempted treating 10 individuals who experienced trauma as a result of events during 9/11. Through repeated exposure to increasingly traumatic sequences of World Trade Center events, immediate positive results were self reported by test subjects. In a 6-month follow-up, 9 of the test subjects available for follow up maintained their results from exposure.
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) offers a wide range of advantages compared to traditional exposure therapy techniques. Recent years have suggested an increase in familiarly and trust in virtual reality technology as an acceptable mirror of reality. A higher trust in the technology could lead to more effective treatment results as more phobics seek out help. Another consideration for VRET is the cost effectiveness. While the actual cost of VRET may vary based on the hardware and software implementation, it is supposedly more effective than the traditional in vivo treatment used for exposure therapy while maintaining a positive return on investment. Future research might pave an alternative to extensive automated lab or hospital environments. For instance, in 2011, researchers at York University proposed an affordable virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) system for the treatment of phobias that could be set up at home. Such developments in VRET may pave a new way of customised treatment that also tackles the stigma attached to clinical treatment. While there is still a lot unknown about the long-term effectiveness of the relatively new VRET, the future seems promising with growing studies reflecting the benefits of VRET to combat phobias.
Virtual rehabilitation
The term virtual rehabilitation was coined in 2002 by Professor Daniel Thalmann of EPFL (Switzerland) and Professor Grigore Burdea of Rutgers University (USA). In their view the term applies to both physical therapy and cognitive interventions (such as for patients with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, phobias, anxieties, attention deficits or amnesia). Since 2008, the virtual rehabilitation "community" has been supported by the International Society on Virtual Rehabilitation.
Virtual rehabilitation is a concept in psychology in which a therapeutic patient's training is based entirely on, or is augmented by, virtual reality simulation exercises. If there is no conventional therapy provided, the rehabilitation is said to be "virtual reality-based". Otherwise, if virtual rehabilitation is in addition to conventional therapy, the intervention is "virtual reality-augmented." Today, a majority of the population uses the virtual environment to navigate their daily lives and almost one fourth of the world population uses the internet. As a result, virtual rehabilitation and gaming rehabilitation, or rehabilitation through gaming consoles, have become quite common. In fact, virtual therapy has been used over regular therapeutic methods in order to treat a number of disorders.
Some factors to consider when virtual rehabilitation include cultural sensitivity, accessibility, and ability to finance the virtual therapy.
Advantages
Virtual rehabilitation offers a number of advantages compared to conventional therapeutic methods:
It is entertaining, thus motivating the patient;
Potential for involvement of the patients' stimulus modalities for more realistic environments for treatment.
It provides objective outcome measures of therapy efficacy (limb velocity, range of movement, error rates, game scores, etc.);
These data are transparently stored by the computer running the simulation and can be made available on the Internet.
Virtual rehabilitation can be performed in the patient's home and monitored at a distance (becoming telerehabilitation)
The patient feels more actively involved in the desensitization
The patient may "forget" they are in treatment or undergoing observation resulting in more authentic expressions.
Effective for hospitals to reduce their costs because of lowered cost of medicine and equipment.
Great impact of virtual reality on pain relief
Disadvantages
Despite all the merits of VR therapy as listed in the sections above, there are pitfalls and obstacles in the development of widespread VR solutions.
Cost effectiveness: VRET may show promising returns on investment but the fact remains that the true development cost of VRET environments depends heavily on the choice of hardware and software chosen.
Treatment effectiveness: For the treatment to take effect, a patient should be able to successfully project and experience their anxiety in a virtual environment. Unfortunately, this projection is highly subjective and personalised per patient; and outside the control of the therapists. This limitation might adversely impact the therapy.
Migrating back to reality from virtual reality: Another skepticism is the correlation between virtual reality and actual reality. If a patient successfully combats their phobia in a virtual environment, does that guarantee success in real life too? Further, when treating more complicated ailments such as schizophrenia, there is inadequate projection on how delusions and hallucinations may translate from the real world to the virtual one.
VR sickness: Movement in a virtual environment is said to cause visual discomfort. Prolonged periods of exposure to VR may lead to side effects like dry eyes, headaches, nausea and sweating; symptoms similar to motion sickness.
Ethical and legal considerations: Since VR is a relatively new technology, its ethical implications are not as comprehensive as other forms of treatment. There is a need to formalize the limits, side effects, disclaimers, privacy regulations as we increase the breadth of impact of VR therapy; especially in matters related to forensic cases.
Acceptance by the medical community: As VR-based therapy increases, it might pose a challenge to licensed therapists and medical professionals who may perceive VR as a threat. Afterall, VR deviates from the pre-established norm of "talking cure" .
Therapeutical targets
Depression
In February 2006 the UK's National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) recommended that VRT be made available for use within the NHS across England and Wales, for patients presenting with mild/moderate depression, rather than immediately opting for antidepressant medication. Some areas have developed, or are trialing.
At Auckland University in New Zealand, a team led by Dr. Sally Merry have been developing a computerized CBT fantasy "serious" game to help tackle depression amongst adolescents. The game, Sparx, has a number of features to help combat depression, where the user takes on a role of a character who travels through a fantasy world, combating "literal" negative thoughts and learning techniques to manage their depression.
Eating disorders and body dysmorphia
Virtual reality therapy has also been used to attempt to treat eating disorders and body dysmorphia. One study in 2013 had participants complete various tasks in virtual reality environments which could not have been easily replicated without the technology. Tasks included showing patients the implications of reaching their desired weight, comparing their actual body shape to an avatar created using their perceived body size, and altering a virtual reflection to match their actual body size.
Gender dysphoria
Early research suggests that virtual reality experiences may offer therapeutic benefits to transgender individuals experiencing gender dysphoria. More experimentation and professional examination is needed before virtual reality could be prescribed as a treatment in practice. However, some transgender individuals have engaged in what can be characterized as an anecdotally alleviating form of self-administered, virtual sex reassignment therapy. Digital spaces offer a form of anonymous self-expression that trans individuals, due to exposure of discrimination and violence, are not fully granted to them in real life or IRL. The sophistication of virtual reality expands on these newfound liberties by providing an avenue for those with gender dysphoria to embody their gender identity, if it not accessible for them to do so in their real life. Through use of available VR videogames and chat rooms, those with gender dysphoria can create avatars of themselves, interact anonymously, and work towards therapeutic goals.
Acrophobia
A study published in The Lancet Psychiatry proved that virtual reality therapy can help treat acrophobia. Over the course of the study, participants were introduced to intimidating heights in a virtual reality environment then asked to complete various activities at those heights while under the supervision and support of a coach. This study, although insufficient in terms of scope and scrutiny for direct adoption into remedial practices, surrounds future research and treatment modeling with promise, as a majority of the participants considered themselves no longer afraid of heights.
Physical therapy
Stroke
Research suggests that patients who had a stroke found virtual reality (VR) rehab techniques in their Physical Therapy treatment plans very beneficial. Throughout a rehabilitation program aimed to restore and/or retain balance and walking skills, patients who have had a stroke often must relearn how to control certain muscles. In most physical therapy settings, this is done through high intensity, repetitive, and task-specific practice. Programs of this type can prove to be physically demanding, are expensive, and require several days of training per week. Additionally, regimens may seem redundant, and produce only modest and/or delayed effects in patient recovery. A physical therapy regimen using VR provides an opportunity to individualize training to fit the specific needs of the patient. While the exercises and movements required for proper motor learning can seem repetitive, using VR adds a level of intrigue and engagement for the patient. Training with VR enhances motor learning by giving the patient opportunities to practice their movements/exercise protocol in different VR environments. This ensures that patients are always challenged and may be better prepared to perform in their environments. Feedback is an important element of physical therapy for patients recovering from stroke and/or other neuromuscular disorders. Within the scope of motor learning, receiving feedback during performance of a task improves the learning rate. According to a Cochrane Review, visual feedback, specifically, has been shown to aid in balance recovery for patients who have had a stroke. VR can provide continuous visual feedback that a physical therapist may not be able to during their sessions. Results have also suggested that in addition to improvements in balance, positive effects are also seen in walking ability. In one study, patients with VR training coupled with their physical therapy program had better improvements in walking speed than others not using VR training. The most recent review about the effect of VR training on balance and gait ability showed significant benefits of VR training on gait speed, Berg Balance Scale (BBS) scores, and Timed "Up & Go" Test scores when VR was time dose matched to conventional therapy.
Parkinson's disease
Many studies (Cochrane Review) have shown that using VR technology during physical therapy treatments for patients with Parkinson's disease had positive outcomes. For patients with PD the VR therapy:
Increased gait and balance.
Improved functions of activities of daily living (ADL's).
Improved quality of life.
Improved cognitive function.
It is speculated that these improvements occurred because the VR gave increased feedback to the patient regarding their performance during the VR sessions. VR stimulates a patient's motor and cognitive processes, both of which may be impaired as a result of the disease. Another benefit of VR is that it replicates real life scenarios, allowing patients to practice functional activities.
Wound care
Additionally, VR provides beneficial outcomes when it is implemented for patients who are receiving wound care rehabilitation. Studies have speculated that the more immersive the VR, the greater the experience and concentration the patient will have on the virtual environment. Equally important, VR has shown to reduce pain, anxiety and depressive symptoms, as well as an increasing their treatment adherence.
In other studies, the results point to the benefits of VR in relation to increased distraction, and patients reported less time thinking about pain, less intense pain and immersion, which facilitates care such as dressing changes and physiotherapy.
Wound dressing often generates a pain-provoking experience. Therefore, use of VR was related to more efficient dressings, increased distraction from the pain during procedures (e.g. dressing and physical rehabilitation) which reduced the patients' stress and anxiety.
Cardiovascular
The use of VR and video games could be considered as complementary tools for physical training in patients with Cardiovascular diseases. Certain games designed for exercise have been shown to promote increases in heart rate, fatigue perception, and physical activity. In addition, it has been shown to reduce pain and increase adherence to physical therapy programs in patients with cardiovascular diseases. Finally, virtual reality and video games enhance motivation and adherence in cardiac rehabilitation programs.
Occupational therapy
Autism
Virtual reality has been shown to improve the social skills of young adults with autism. In one study, participants controlled a virtual avatar in different virtual environments and maneuvered through various social tasks such as interviewing, meeting new people, and dealing with arguments. Researchers found that participants improved in the areas of emotional recognition in voices and faces and in considering the thoughts of other people. Participants were also surveyed months after the study for how effective they thought the treatments were, and the responses were overwhelmingly positive. Many other studies have also explored this occupational therapy option.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
A clinical trial published in the Journal of Attention Disorders found that school age children with ADHD who underwent a virtual classroom cognitive treatment series were able to achieve the same management of symptoms of impulsivity and distractibility as children who were medicated with a stimulant.
Post-traumatic stress disorder
It may also be possible to use virtual reality to assist those with PTSD. The virtual reality allows the patients to relive their combat situations at different extremes as a therapist can be there with them guiding them through the process. Some scholars believe that this is an effective way to treat PTSD patients as it allows for the recreation of exactly what they experienced. "It allows for greater engagement by the patient and, consequently, greater activation of the traumatic memory, which is necessary for the extinction of the conditioned fear."
Stroke
Virtual reality also has applications in the physical side of occupational therapy. For stroke patients, various virtual reality technologies can help bring fine control back to different muscle groups. Therapy often includes games controlled with haptic-feedback controllers that require fine movements, such as playing piano with a virtual hand. The Wii gaming system has also been used in conjunction with virtual reality as a treatment method.
Chronic and acute pain
Virtual reality (VR) has been shown to be effective in immediately decreasing procedural or acute pain. To date there have been few studies on its efficacy in chronic pain. Such chronic pain patients can tolerate the VR session without the side effects that sometimes come with VR such as headaches, dizziness or nausea.
Rehab
Virtual reality is also helping patients overcome balance and mobility problems resulting from stroke or head injury. In the study of VR, the modest advantage of VR over conventional training supports further investigation of the effect of video-capture VR or VR combined with conventional therapy in larger-scale randomized, more intense controlled studies. It shows the VR-assisted patients had better mobility when the doctors checked in two months later. Other research has shown similarly successful outcomes for patients with cerebral palsy undergoing rehab for balance problems.
Surgery
VR smoothly blurs the demarcation between the physical world and the computer simulation as surgeons can use latest versions of virtual reality glasses to interact in a three-dimensional space with the organ that requires surgical treatment, view it from any desired angle and able to switch between 3D view and the real CT images.
Efficiency
Randomized, tightly controlled, acrophobia treatment trials at Kaiser Permanente provided >90% effectiveness, conducted in 1993–94. (Ext. Ref. 2, pg. 71) Of 40 patients treated, 38 showed marked reduction in phobic reaction to heights and self-reported reaching their goals. Research found that VRT allows patients to achieve victory over virtual height situations they could not confront in real life, and that gradually increasing the height and danger in a virtual environment produced increasing victories and greater self-confidence in the patient that they could actually confront the situation in real life. "Virtual therapy interventions empower people. The simulation technology of virtual reality lends itself to mastery oriented treatment ... Rather than coping with threats, phobics manage progressively more threatening aspects in a computer-generated environment ... The range of applications can be extended by enhancing the realness and interactivity so that actions elicit reactions from the environments in which individuals immerse themselves" (Ext. Ref. 3, pg. 331–332).
Another study examined the effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating military combat personnel recently returning from the current conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. Rauch, Eftekhari and Ruzek conducted a study with a sample of 42 combat servicemen who were already diagnosed with chronic PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder). These combat servicemen were pre-screened using several different diagnostic self-reports including the PTSD military checklist, a screening tool used by the military in the determination of the intensity of the diagnosis of PTSD by measuring the presence of PTSD symptoms. Although 22 of the servicemen dropped out of the study, the results of the study concerning the 20 remaining servicemen still has merit. The servicemen were given the same diagnostic tests after the study which consisted of multiple sessions of virtual reality exposure and virtual reality exposure therapy. The servicemen showed much improvement in the diagnostic scores, signaling a decrease of symptoms of PTSD. Likewise, a three-month follow-up diagnostic screening was also administered after the initial sessions that were undergone by the servicemen. The results of this study showed that 15 of the 20 participants no longer met diagnostic criteria for PTSD and improved their PTSD military checklist score by 50% for the assessment following the study. Even though only 17 of the 20 participants participated in the 3-month follow-up screening, 13 of the 17 still did not meet the criteria for PTSD and maintained their 50% improvement in the PTSD military checklist score. These results show promising effects and help to validate virtual reality therapy as an efficacious mode of therapy for the treatment of PTSD (McLay, et al., 2012).
VR combined real instrument training was effective at promoting recovery of patients' upper-extremity and cognitive function, and thus may be an innovative translational neurorehabilitation strategy after stroke. In the study, the experimental group showed greater therapeutic effects in a time-dependent manner than the control group, especially on the motor power of wrist extension, spasticity of elbow flexion and wrist extension, and Box and Block Tests. Patients in the experimental group, but not the control group, also showed significant improvements on the lateral, palmar, and tip pinch power, Box and Block, and 9-HPTs from before to immediately after training.
Continued development
Larry Hodges, formerly of Georgia Tech and now Clemson University and Barbara Rothbaum of Emory University, have done extensive work in VRT, and also have several patents and founded a company, Virtually Better, Inc.
In the United States, the United States Department of Defense (DOD) continues funding of VRT research and is actively using VR in treatment of PTSD.
Millions of funding is being put towards developments and early trials in the realm of virtual reality as companies race for FDA approval for their medical applications.
BRAVEMIND software
In 2014, a virtual reality application used as a prolonged exposure (PE) therapy tool for military related trauma called BRAVEMIND was reported BRAVEMIND is as an acronym for Battlefield Research Accelerating Virtual Environments for Military Individual Neuro Disorders. Virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) applications have been used to assist civilian populations with anxieties about flying, public speaking, and heights. BRAVEMIND has been studied in populations of military medics as well as survivors of military sexual assault and combat. This technology was developed by researchers at the University of the Southern California in collaboration with the U.S. Army Research Laboratory.
In 2004, reports stated that 40% of military members experience PTSD but only 23% seek medical help. Emory physicians described one of the strongest indicators of PTSD to be avoidance, saying this inhibits those affected from seeking treatment. PE requires that the patient close their eyes and relate the pertinent episode in as much detail as possible. The methodology was based on the concept that in facing the event, the charge of the triggers may be attenuated over time. The VRET application BRAVEMIND differs from PE in that the patient does not reimagine the episode but instead wears a headset that places them in the familiar environment. This headset is equipped with two screens (one for each eye), headphones, and a position monitor that shifts the visual scene to match the patient's head movements. Depending on the patient's experience they may be standing or sitting on top of a raised platform with a bass shaker. This allows for vibrations that simulate the experience of riding a military vehicle. Other accessories such as joysticks or mock machine guns are given to the patients, if appropriate, to enhance realism.
The clinician introduces triggers, such as gunfire, explosions, etc. into the virtual environment as they see fit. The clinician can also adapt sound and lighting conditions to match the patient's description. The researchers who developed the BRAVEMIND system reported that in a 20-patient trial, the patients' scores on the diagnostic PTSD checklist–military version (PCL-M) dropped from 54.4 pre-treatment to 35.6 post-treatment after eleven sessions. In another clinical trial, consisting of 24 active-duty soldiers, it was reported that after 7 sessions 45% no longer were identified as positive for PTSD while 62% demonstrated symptomatic improvement. These experimental results were compared with those of alternative PE treatments.
The BRAVEMIND software has 14 different environments available including military barracks, Iraqi markets, and desert roads. Included in these are environments specific to military sexual trauma (MST). Designed environments such as U.S. base settings, shower areas, latrines, remote shelters, and others were developed after consulting subject matter experts from Emory University.
Proponents of this research have said that with military based videogames being so prevalent, this technology may be more appealing to patients and reduce the stigma surrounding treatment. They also have argued that as research on PTSD unfolds, possible subtypes may respond to treatments differently, and therefore diversifying treatment options is best. Others have expressed reservations about the capacity to properly personalize VRET for individualized treatment and the use of ethnic stereotyping while developing Arab populated environments.
Treatment for lesions
Virtual reality therapy has two promising potential benefits for treatment of hemispatial neglect patients. These include improvement of diagnostic techniques and as a supplement to rehabilitation techniques.
Current diagnostic techniques usually involve pen and paper tests like the line bisection test. Though these tests have provided relatively accurate diagnostic results, advances in virtual reality therapy (VRT) have proven these tests to not be completely thorough. Dvorkin et al. used a camera system that immersed the patient into a virtual reality world and required the patient to grasp or move object in the world, through tracking of arm and hand movements. These techniques revealed that pen and paper tests provide relatively accurate qualitative diagnoses of hemispatial neglect patients, but VRT provided accurate mapping into a 3-dimensional space, revealing areas of space that were thought to be neglected but which patients had at least some awareness. Patients were also retested 10 months from initial measurements, during which each went through regular rehabilitation therapy, and most showed measurably less neglect on virtual reality testing whereas no measurable improvements were shown in the line bisection test.
Virtual reality therapy has also proven to be effective in rehabilitation of lesion patients with neglect. A study was conducted with 24 individuals with hemispatial neglect. A control group of 12 individuals underwent conventional rehabilitation therapy including visual scanning training, while the virtual reality group (VR) were immersed in 3 virtual worlds, each with a specific task. The programs consisted of
"Bird and Ball" in which a patient touches a flying ball with his or her hand and turns it into a bird
"Coconut", in which a patient catches a coconut falling from a tree while moving around
"Container" in which a patient moves a box carried in a container to the opposite side.
Each of the patients of VR went through 3 weeks of 5-day-a-week 30-minute intervals emerged in these programs. The controls went through the equivalent time in traditional rehabilitation therapies. Each patient took the star cancellation test, line bisection test, and Catherine Bergego Scale (CBS) 24 hours before and after the three-week treatment to assess the severity of unilateral spatial neglect. The VR group showed a higher increase in the star cancellation test and CBS scores after treatment than the control group (p<0.05), but both groups did not show any difference in the line bisection test and K-MBI before and after treatment. These results suggest that virtual reality programs can be more effective than conventional rehabilitation and thus should be further researched.
VR advantages over IVE
The preference of virtual reality exposure therapy over in-vivo exposure therapy is often debated, but there are many obvious advantages of virtual reality exposure therapy that make it more desirable. For example, the proximity between the client and therapist can cause problems when in-vivo therapy is used and transportation is not reliable for the client or it is impractical for them to travel as far as needed. However, virtual reality exposure therapy can be done from anywhere in the world if given the necessary tools. Going along with the idea of unavailable transportation and proximity, there are many individuals who require therapy but due to various forms of immobilizations (paralysis, extreme obesity, etc.) they can not physically be moved to where the therapy is conducted. Again, because virtual reality exposure therapy can be conducted anywhere in the world, those with mobility issues will no longer be discriminated against. Another major advantage is fewer ethical concerns than in-vivo exposure therapy.
Another advantage to virtual reality rehab over the traditional method is patient motivation. When presented with difficult tasks during a prolonged period, patients tend to lose interest in these tasks. This causes a decrease in compliance due to decreased motivation of completing a given task. Virtual reality rehab is advantageous in such a way that it challenges and motivates the patient to do more. With simple things like high scores, in-game awards, and ranks, not only are patients motivated to do their daily therapies, they are having fun doing it. Not only is this advantageous to the patients, it is advantageous to the physical therapist. With these high scores, and data the game or application collects, therapists can analyze the data to see progression. This progression can be charted and visually shown to the patient for increased motivation on their performance and the progression they have made thus far in their therapies. This data can then be charted with other participants doing similar tasks and can show how they compare to people with similar therapy regimens. This charted data in the program or game can then be used by researchers and scientists alike for further evaluation of optimal therapy regimens. A recent study done in 2016 where a VR based virtual simulation of a city named Reh@City was made. This city in virtual reality evoked memory, attention, visuo-spatial abilities and executive functions tasks are integrated in the performance of several daily routines. This study looked at Activities of Daily Living in post stroke patients and found it to have more of an impact than conventional methods in the recovery process.
Concerns
There are a few ethical concerns concerning the use and development of using virtual reality simulation for helping clients/patients with mental health issues. One example of these concerns is the potential side effects and aftereffects of virtual reality exposure. Some of these side effects and aftereffects could include cybersickness (a type of motion sickness caused by the virtual reality experience), perceptual-motor disturbances, flashbacks, and generally lowered arousal (Rizzo, Schultheis, & Rothbaum, 2003). If severe and widespread enough, these effects should be mitigated via various methods by those therapists using virtual reality.
Another ethical concern is how clinicians should receive VRT certification. Due to the relative newness of virtual reality as a whole, there may not be many clinicians who have experience with the nuances of virtual reality exposure or VR programs' intended roles in therapy. According to Rizzo et al. (2003), virtual reality technology should only be used as a tool for qualified clinicians instead of being used to further one's practice or garner an attraction for new clients/patients.
Some traditional concerns with virtual reality therapy is the cost. Since virtual reality in the field of science and medicine is so primitive and new, the costs of virtual reality equipment would be a lot higher than some of the traditional methods. With medical costs growing at an exponential level this would be another cost that is added to the growing list of medical bills for a patients recovery process. Regardless of the benefits with virtual reality rehab, the costs of the equipment and the resources for a virtual reality setup would make it difficult for it to be mainstream and available to all patients including the indigent population. However, a new market of lower cost virtual reality hardware is emerging, specifically with improved head-mounted displays.
In addition there are some issues which are related to virtual reality that can arise from its use such as social isolation where the users can become detached from real-world social connections and the overestimation of a person's abilities where users – especially the young – often fail to distinguish between their feats in real life and virtual reality.
References
Further reading
Next Stop: Virtual Psychology and Therapy; Current Topics in Psychology; Fenichel, M.; (2010)
External links
Burn Victim Sam Brown Treated With Virtual-Reality Video Game SnowWorld. GQ: Newsmakers
Virtual Reality Pain Reduction project of University of Washington Seattle and U.W. Harborview Burn Center.
PHOBOS Anxiety Management Virtual Reality Platform project of PsyTech LLC currently in development to be used as a professional virtual reality exposure therapy tool to treat a variety of patients' common phobias and anxiety disorders.
ShahrbanianSh; Ma X; Aghaei N; Korner-Bitensky N; Moshiri K; Simmonds MJ. Use of virtual reality (immersive vs. non immersive) for pain management in children and adults: A systematic review of evidence from randomized controlled trials. European Journal of Experimental Biology 2012, 2 (5): 1408–22.
American inventions
Virtual reality
Therapy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richie%20Anderson%20%28BMX%20rider%29
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Richie Anderson (BMX rider)
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Richard Anderson (born March 14, 1967 in Vallejo, California U.S.) is a former American "Old School" professional bicycle motocross (BMX) racer whose prime competitive years were 1978–1986.
Anderson is the younger of what was one of the most potent sibling combinations that bicycle motocross has ever seen. Only the Pattersons, Brian and Brent, whom Richie raced with on the same factory team for seven years, had more titles between them and were more dominant in BMX. His older brother Ronnie Anderson, whose amateur career Richie overshadowed, would become National number one pro with the American Bicycle Association (ABA) and the United Bicycle Racers (UBR) an achievement Richie never achieved after he turned professional.
He is nicknamed "Richie Rich," an allusion to the comic book character Richie Rich and by simple alliteration. He was most commonly called "The Avalanche". He received the moniker due to being so dominant during the 1980 season (on his way to winning his second consecutive amateur ABA No.1 title) that it was thought no one and nothing could stop him. He was also nicked-named "Mr. Smooth" for his effortless racing and huge natural ability, particularly in speed jumping over single "whoop-de-doos" which are similar to a mogul in skiing (effectively a very large speed bump) while still pedaling (many racers would get the "Mr. Smooth" moniker for their seemingly effortless riding skill particularly over speed jumps, including Eric Carter). Even most top pros stop pedaling over speed jumps to keep the chances of crashing to a minimum. However, doing so would be just coasting while a few racers like Richie Anderson kept applying the power, a great advantage. Indeed, his speed jumping skills were featured in a November 1980 article of Bicycle Motocross Action called "Method Speed Jumping" showcasing his abilities.
Racing career milestones
Note: Professional first are on the national level unless otherwise indicated.
*In the NBL Junior Pro is "B" Pro/Superclass/"A" Pro depending on the era; in the ABA it is "A" Pro.
**In the NBL Senior Pro is "A" or Elite Pro; in the ABA it is "AA" Pro.
Career factory and major bicycle shop sponsors
Note: This listing only denotes the racer's primary sponsors. At any given time a racer could have numerous co-sponsors. Primary sponsorships can be verified by BMX press coverage and sponsor's advertisements at the time in question. When possible exact dates are given.
Amateur
Patterson Racing Products: Early 1978-Mid May 1984. After seven years at Patterson Richie Anderson left in preparation to turn pro and as he put it for a "better deal" (it was an open secret that a few top amateurs were being paid by their main sponsor and/or cosponsors). It was the longest sponsorship by far over his career. After leaving Patterson and turning pro this would be turned on its head, with frequent changes of sponsorship due to contractual conflicts and a desire to bring his brother Ronnie on to the team he was currently on despite Ronnie's poor reputation in good sportsmanship and mercurial nature. On at least two occasions while racing as a privateer (a non sponsored self-financing racer) between sponsorships he would show up in the uniform of Patterson Racing Products, his sponsor while as an amateur. This is despite that not only he was not being sponsored by them, the company had been out of business approximately for a year and a half at the time of the second incident at the ABA Gold Cup Championship West at Chandler, Arizona in 1988. The first time this happened was at the October 1987 Lemoore, California NBL national. He did it at least for a third time when he raced in the 1988 ABA Grand National in a Patterson helmet and jersey (he wore grey sweatpants. Why specifically it is unknown, but it is believed that the Patterson family was more than a business arrangement that began when he was nine. Indeed, he even says so specifically. This from a December 11, 2005 Vintagebmx.com post of his:
"This is in reply to Andy's Diamond's post. Just to put the "Richie tid bits" straight. Vance sat down with my father. I was on the Patterson team for 6 years. Because of my accomplishments in racing and with Patterson Racing products, they were going to offer me a truck. The truck was NEVER given to me.* Unfortunately, later that season I left and moved on. I still have a great relationship with the Patterson's. They will always be family to me. Hopefully that clears things up. The Patterson's are now running a successful company, AAA Fire Control Systems, in Hayward, CA. Vance is retired and traveling the country with his wife. Brent and Brian both run the company."
*The truck in question was allegedly intended for use for his transportation to and from races when flying was unnecessary. In a mini three question interview printed in BMX Plus! Vance Patterson, the father of Brent and Brian Patterson and owner of Patterson Racing Products, seems to have agreed to give him the truck:
BMX Plus!: "I want to ask you about the truck you are giving Richie. What is the deal there? Why are you giving Richie a truck after he's left the team?
Vance Patterson: "The agreement was that Richie was going to stay as an amateur for the balance of the year. I will give him a truck, not based upon this year, but for what he's done in the past."
---BMX Plus! October 1984
In a previous interview in the May 1984 issue of BMX Action magazine Richie Anderson denied that the truck was a quid pro quo to stay amateur and agreed that it was a token of the Patterson's appreciation of his years of service:
BMXA: "Is it true that the Pattersons bought it for you to keep you amateur?"
Richie Anderson: "No, it's for all the years I've been racing for them."
---BMX Action May 1984
Zeronine: May 1984-July 6, 1984. Anderson was co-sponsored by Zeronine at this time as it was during some of his days at Patterson. He raced with a Zeronine uniform on as a Zeronine official Kevin Shepman, who was also a personal friend of Anderson, acted as his agent handling negotiations for potential teams for Anderson to join.
Torker BMX Racing Products: July 7, 1984-November 1984
Skyway Recreations: November 1984-Late November 1985 He turned pro with this sponsor.
Professional
Skyway Recreations: November 1984-Late November 1985 Richie Anderson would end his association with Skyway Recreations when they balked at signing his controversial older brother and top pro Ronnie Anderson after he left Zeronine. Richie and Ronnie wanted permission to bill themselves and have printed out on their uniforms the "A-Team" a dual reference to the first letter of their common last name and to an action-adventure television show called "The A-Team" which was very popular at the time. Complicating things further, Richie Anderson showed up on an old Torker bicycle (which returned to business under new owners as Torker 2) and on aluminum alloy wheels (as opposed to Skyway's trade mark Nylon five spoked mag wheels) and dressed in just a plain sweat shirt at the NBL Christmas National on December 29, 1985, two days before his contract with Skyway would expire, therefore breaching his contract with Skyway Recreations. However, Skyway was willing to overlook that issue to resign the potent Richie Anderson, just not his problematic brother. Richie Anderson was not the only Skyway team members that was not re-signed with Skyway; the entire 1985 team, including Cheri Elliott did not have a contract for 1986. According to Richie Anderson at the Christmas National, as far as they were concerned he was unsponsored: "It seems they're more interested in their freestyle team. Ronnie and I are looking for a team that will take both of us. We want to stick together" Perhaps it was Richie's experience and observance of the Patterson brothers effectiveness when he was on the Patterson Racing team as an amateur that drove Richie's desire to be on the same team as his brother. Or perhaps he wanted to keep his erratic elder brother close and with him. In any case, Skyway did not pick up Ronnie Anderson and Richie did not sign with them. Also, Richie proved to be very right. Skyway would soon drop its racing team, including Cheri Elliott, which in part would provoke her retirement. Richie would eventually get his wish to be on the same factory team with his brother when they served together on MRC if only briefly after Ronnie Anderson left Zeronine (it was rumored, never substantiated, that he demanded that Zeronine buy him a bike shop. They turned him down.) They found each other on Power Racing products, which was owned by Rob Lynch who also owned the famed Peddle Power bicycle shop. Once again it was only briefly. Ron Anderson was let go from the Power Racing Products team on his very first weekend of racing for them after an altercation with Tommy Brackens at the ABA Freedom Nationals in late 1986. The brothers would be reunited again when they were both on the White Bear factory team. Once again it was only briefly when Ronnie left White Bear to ride for Hutch during March 1988.
MRC (Mike Redman Concepts): January 25–26, 1986. Richie and Ronnie were simultaneously but very briefly sponsored by this company. It was just for the weekend of the 1986 ABA Supernationals in Los Angeles, California. After this momentary sponsorship Richie was sponsorless for approximately three months.
PRP (Power Racing Products): Mid April 1986-October 1986. Ronnie and Richie were again briefly sponsored concurrently over the weekend of August 16–17. Ronnie was fired for the ABA Freedom Nationals altercation with Tommy Brackens that same weekend.
Spinners (Bike shop): November 29, 1986-December 1986
Hardee's (Restaurant): May 1987-Late July 1987. Beginning around 1985–1986, companies with no ties to BMX started sponsoring individual BMX racers and team (prior they would sponsor and co-sponsor BMX national). Hardee's and its competitor McDonald's, both fast food restaurants, were a couple of notables. By the 1990s the NBL would drop the term "Factory Team" from its Factory Team Trophy awards since many main sponsors were not bicycle or bicycle component manufacturers and/or distributors. Anderson would leave the Hardee's team in late July 1987. He would remain sponsorless for approximately three and a half months racing only once in that period, the NBL National in Lemoore, California on October 10, 1987. He surprisingly wore his old Patterson Racing Products uniform despite the firm being out of business for over a year at that time.
White Bear: November 1987-June 1988 Once again briefly Ronnie and Richie were on the same factory team. White Bear, which had a very public anti-drug position at the time dropped Ronnie in mid March 1988 for unspecified reasons save for he "didn't live up to their image". Richie quit from White Bear and moved out of the area. While both brothers were in between sponsors both Richie and Ronnie showed up at the ABA Lone Star Nationals wearing non matching Hutch jerseys (Ronnie had on an early 1980s design). Ronnie had been fired from Hutch recently. Richie never previously road for them at all. It was speculated that either it was some publicity stunt or Ronnie was angling for a second chance. Neither were picked up. After a few months of racing without a sponsor, he quietly retired from racing. Still unsponsored and in what seemed to be his last race in serious Senior Pro racing, he wore his Patterson Racing Products at the ABA Gold Cup Championships West in Chandler, Arizona in October 1988. It seemed to be a good-bye to racing.
U.S. Boss Racing Products: January 1993 – September 1994. After retiring for approximately four years he resumes racing in Pro cruiser and the ABA's Veteran Pro classes. Also on Boss racing at this time is Brian Patterson and John Crews, two of his old Patterson Racing Products teammates.
Power Source Roost America: September 1994-
Answer Racing: 1996
Factory: 1998
Career Bicycle Motocross titles
Note: Listed are District, State/Provincial/Department, Regional, National, and International titles in italics. Depending on point totals of individual racers, winners of Grand Nationals do not necessarily win National titles. Only sanctioning bodies active during the racer's career are listed.
Amateur
National Bicycle Association (NBA)
1978 10 Expert and 10 & Under Open Western States Champion (Doubled)
1978 11 Expert Grandnational Champion
1978 11 Expert National No.1
1979 12 Expert Grandnational Champion
1980 13 Expert Grandnational Champion
National Bicycle League (NBL)
1980 13 Expert and 11–13 Open Grandnational Champion
1982 14 Expert Grandnational Champion*
1982 14 Expert National No.1*
1983 16 Expert and 16 & Over Open Grandnational Champion (Double)
1983 16 Expert National No.1
1984 17 Expert and 17 Cruiser Grandnational Champion
1984 17 Cruiser National No.1
United Bicycle Racers (UBR)
1981 14 Expert Grandnational Champion
American Bicycle Association (ABA)
1978 11 Expert Grandnational Champion
1979 12 Expert and 11–12 Trophy Dash Grandnational Champion (Doubled)
1980 13 Expert and 13–14 Open Grandnational Champion (Doubled)
1979 & 1980 National No.1
1982 15 Expert Grandnational Champion
1982 Jag Overall World Champion (ABA sanctioned)
1983 16 Expert Canadian-American Champion (ABA and Canadian American Bicycle Association (CBA) sanctioned)
1983 16 Expert and 15–16 Cruiser Grandnational Champion (Doubled)
1984 17–21 Cruiser U.S. Gold Cup Champion
International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF)
1982 14 Expert Murray World Cup I Champion*
1982 14 Expert World Champion*
1983 16 Expert Murray World Cup II Champion
1984 17 Cruiser Murray World Cup III Champion
Other Titles
1982 Mongoose Grand National Champion 15 Expert (Non-sanctioned)**
1983 Jag Overall World Super Bowl Champion (Non-sanctioned)
*Under both NBL and IBMXF rules at the time you stayed in the same age division as according to how old you were on January 1 even though you would have an intervening birthday. Therefore Richie Anderson was still a 14 Expert in July 1982 despite turning 15 the previous March. A racer could turn 13 on say January 1 and have to race 13-year-old classes. However a racer who turned 14 on January 2 will still under the rule race in the 13-year-old class, having a day less than a full year of extra physical development over his so-called peers. Due to this both the NBL and IBMXF changed this rule during the off season between 1982 and 1983 and on the day of your birthday and after you have to move up an age division, which was ABA practice.
**The Mongoose Grand National Championships BMX Super Bowl of Motocross International Championship Finals II, despite its all encompassing name was a one off non-sanctioned event put on by Jerry Surber, a private promoter. ABA officials helped to organize and run the event but it was not officially sanctioned by the ABA or the NBL. However, it operated using NBL rules. The 1982 addition was held on March 14, 1982 (which happened to be Richie Anderson's 15th birthday). The concept was similar to Renny Roker's JAG World Championships held at the end of December. However unlike with the JAG World Championships the title of "Champion" Richie won at this race was unofficial.
Professional
National Bicycle Association (NBA)
None
National Bicycle League (NBL)
None
American Bicycle Association (ABA)
None
United Bicycle Racers (UBR)
None
International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF)
None
Notable accolades
Named BMX Plus!s 1980 Amateur of the Year
Named one of the "Terrible Ten", BMX Actions pick of fastest amateur racers in the world in 1983
Named the tenth of the 25 Hottest amateurs in BMX racing by a 1984 survey conducted by BMX Plus! for the opinions of four prominent figures in BMX: Two racers, Brent Patterson and Mike Poulson; and two team officials: Dr. Gary Scofield of GT, Howard Wharthon of Diamond Back.
He was named 1985 BMX Action's Pro Rookie of the Year.
He is a 1994 ABA BMX Hall of Fame Inductee.
BMX product lines
1978 Patterson Racing Products "Richie Anderson Frame"Product Evaluation:Significant injuries
Damaged his hip at the ABA Supernationals on January 18, 1987 in San Bernardino, California. This injury would eventually put an end to his career.
Racing habits and traits
Miscellaneous
Other significant sibling combinations in BMX
Brent & Brian Patterson
Mike & Eddy King
Eric & Robby Rupe
Richard & Gary Houseman
Jeff and Brian Briggs
Alan & Brian Foster
Post racing career
Richie Anderson is married and has a daughter he hopes will follow in his footsteps.
BMX magazine and general media interviews and articles
"Method Speed Jumping"Bicycle Motocross Action November 1980 Vol.5 No.11, p. 116 Article about Richie Anderson's speed jumping technique.
"Amateur Training Techniques" BMX Plus! November 1982 Vol.9 No.11, p. 23 A fitness article featuring Richie Anderson & the Patterson Racing Products team and Jon Anderson (no relation).
"Mister Smooth: Richie Anderson Interview" Bicycles and Dirt January 1984 Vol.2 No.4, p. 49
"Sharpshootin'" sidebar BMX Action May 1984 Vol.9 No.5, p. 26
"Richie Anderson" BMX Plus! October 1984 Vol.7 No.10, p. 32
"The New Torker" Super BMX November 1984 Vol.11 No.11, p. 23. Short article with his Torker teammates about the new Torker team.
"Richie Anderson" BMX Plus! May 1985 Vol.8 No.5, p. 30
"Becoming a Pro" Super BMX & Freestyle August 1985 Vol.12 No.8, p. 55 Written by Richie Anderson himself on how he became a pro racer.
"Richie & Ronnie Anderson" BMX Action August 1985 Vol.10 No.8, p. 17 Joint interview with the brothers.
"Flashback: Ronnie & Richie Anderson" Snap BMX Magazine July 2000 Vol.7 Iss.7 No.45, p. 108 Retrospective article about the brothers Anderson.
BMX magazine coversBicycle Motocross News:
None
Minicycle/BMX Action & Super BMX:
January 1984 Vol.11 No.1. Also in centerfold with actress Lauri Hendler of the NBC television situation comedy show Gimme A Break!. (SBMX)
April 1985 Vol.12 No.4 (SBMX&F)
Bicycle Motocross Action & Go:
None
BMX Plus!:
April 1984 Vol.7 No.4 In top inset. In separate insets D.D. Leone, Pete Loncarevich and freestyler Mike Dominguez.
Total BMX:
Bicycles and Dirt:
May–June 1983 Vol.1 No.9 with Brian Patterson jumping over his and Brent Patterson hands.
Snap BMX Magazine & Transworld BMX:
None
NBA World & NBmxA World (The official NBA/NBmxA membership publication):
Bicycles Today & BMX Today (The official NBL membership publication under two names):
ABA Action, American BMXer, BMXer (The official ABA membership publication under three names):
USBA Racer (The official USBA membership publication):
Notes
External links
The American Bicycle Association (ABA) Website.
The National Bicycle League (NBL) Website.
1967 births
Living people
American male cyclists
American BMX riders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Grinnell
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Joseph Grinnell
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Joseph Grinnell (February 27, 1877 – May 29, 1939) was an American field biologist and zoologist. He made extensive studies of the fauna of California, and is credited with introducing a method of recording precise field observations known as the Grinnell System. He served as the first director of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University of California, Berkeley from the museum's inception in 1908 until his death.
He edited The Condor, a publication of the Cooper Ornithological Club, from 1906 to 1939, and authored many articles for scientific journals and ornithological magazines. He wrote several books, among them The Distribution of the Birds of California and Animal Life in the Yosemite. He also developed and popularized the concept of the niche.
Early years
Joseph Grinnell was born February 27, 1877, the first of three children by his father Fordyce Grinnell MD and mother Sarah Elizabeth Pratt. Grinnell's father worked as the physician for the Kiowa, Comanche and Wichita Indian Agency near Fort Sill, Oklahoma. His distant cousins included the Massachusetts politician Joseph Grinnell (1788–1885) and George Bird Grinnell (1849–1938) who founded the Audubon Society.
The Grinnells moved to the Pine Ridge Indian Agency in 1880.
In 1885 the Grinnell family moved to Pasadena, California, but the collapse of Southern California's boom forced Dr. Grinnell in 1888 to accept a position at the Indian school in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The Carlisle Indian school commander was Captain Richard Henry Pratt, a friend of the Grinnells.
Joseph Grinnell worked in a printing shop in Carlisle and collected his first specimen, a toad, before the family returned to Pasadena two years later.
First Alaska trip
Captain Pratt visited the Grinnells in Pasadena in 1896 while on a new assignment to inspect Indian Schools on the Pacific coast up to Alaska. The captain obtained permission from the family to take young Grinnell with him. Grinnell sent home bird specimens of the San Francisco Bay area, en route to Alaska. Captain Pratt completed his assignment and returned home. Grinnell remained in Alaska and continued collecting with the assistance of the Sheldon Jackson Museum in Haines, Alaska.
Grinnell went on field trips throughout the area, including remote Saint Lazaria Island. An unintended overnight stay on the island enabled him to study storm-petrels, an account of which he published in the March 1897 issue of the Nidologist, an early publication of the Cooper Ornithological Club.
Grinnell's expanding collection attracted visitors who were tourists, summer residents and visiting naturalists, including John Muir, Henry Fairfield Osborn, and ornithologist Joseph Mailliard. Grinnell returned to Pasadena in the fall of 1897 where he continued field work in the nearby mountains and canyons.
Second Alaska trip
Grinnell's second visit to the far north began in 1898 on the schooner Penelope. He spent 18 months in Alaska during the Klondike Gold Rush. Grinnell corresponded regularly with his family, the letters were later compiled and edited into the book Gold Hunting in Alaska, published by David C. Cook Publishing Company in 1901.
Grinnell joined the Long Beach and Alaska Mining and Trading Company to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska. The company landed at Cape Blossom in Kotzebue Sound in July 1898. Grinnell collected and observed the summer migrant bird life; Gambel's sparrow, barn swallow, and Savannah sparrow, among others. By August, Grinnell had 75 bird specimens preserved, including a Siberian yellow wagtail. The miners spent the winter inland on the Kowak River [Kobuk River], then returned to the coast that spring.
The company sailed on the Penelope to Cape Nome in July 1899. At Cape Nome, Grinnell's job was amalgamating the gold using mercury. The gold stampede to the Nome area in the period 1899–1900 was Alaska's largest in both amount of gold recovered and population increase. The gold fields yielded more than $57 million from 1898 to 1910. The site is now a National Historic Landmark, the Cape Nome Mining District Discovery Sites.
In Grinnell's letters, he described a chaotic scene as "the entire eight miles there is scarcely one hundred feet without one or more tents on it ... our claims are now covered with beach jumpers and we cannot get them off. Mob law rules."
The Cooper Ornithological Club published Grinnell's field notes in 1900 as Pacific Coast Avifauna, no. 1.
Education
Grinnell was graduated from Pasadena High School in 1893 and enrolled in Throop Polytechnic Institute (now California Institute of Technology) that autumn, where he received his bachelor's degree in 1897.
In 1901 Grinnell received his master's degree from Stanford University. At Stanford, he met several influential people, among them were Edmund Heller. Heller would later join an expedition to Peru in 1915 to explore newly discovered ruins of an Incan civilization at Machu Picchu.
During his time at Stanford Grinnell formed the plan for a list of birds of California. He worked on that project for the next 38 years. He was finishing the third installment to Bibliography of California Ornithology when he died in 1939.
Grinnell supported himself at Stanford by teaching at Palo Alto High School and working in Stanford's Hopkins Seaside Laboratory. At Hopkins, Grinnell taught embryology in the summer of 1900 and in the summers of 1901 and 1902, ornithology.
A case of typhoid fever interrupted Grinnell's academic track and he returned to Pasadena in 1903 to recover. Grinnell accepted an offer as biology instructor at Throop Polytechnic during this time. Grinnell finished his Stanford Doctorate requirements—essentially by mail—with submission of his thesis An Account of the Mammals and Birds of the Lower Colorado Valley with Especial Reference to the Distributional Problems Presented and received his Doctorate in Zoology on May 19, 1913.
Students of Grinnell's biology class at Throop included Charles Lewis Camp and Joseph S. Dixon. Charles Camp would become the director of the University of California Museum of Paleontology. Joseph Dixon would join John Thayer's sponsored expedition in 1913 to Alaska. The Thayer expedition almost perished when their ship became locked in ice off the coast, east of Point Barrow until the summer of 1914. Dixon collected specimens during this time, including a new species of gull, Larus thayeri which was named for the expedition's sponsor.
Hilda Wood Grinnell
Grinnell married Hilda Wood on June 22, 1906. Wood was born in Tombstone, Arizona May 29, 1883. She was one of Grinnell's students at Throop and later his teaching assistant in zoology. Wood received her bachelor's degree from Throop in 1906. The Grinnells moved to Berkeley in 1908 and in 1913, Hilda earned her master's degree at the University of California, Berkeley. She wrote articles for publications in The Condor and the Journal of Mammalogy and was a member of the American Ornithologists' Union and the California Academy of Sciences. Hilda Grinnell authored a 32-page biography in the January–February 1940 issue of The Condor.
Hilda continued Grinnell's work on The Distribution of the Birds of California; maintained Grinnell's system of bibliographic entries, consulted the catalogs for accuracy, and read proofs and copy with the book's junior author, Alden H. Miller.
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology
Annie Montague Alexander, philanthropist, naturalist and explorer, founded the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University of California (UC) in 1908. Alexander named Grinnell as museum director the same year. She believed that Grinnell was the right choice as director to the point that she was prepared to withdraw the endowment if UC officials objected to Grinnell.
Historic meeting
Alexander met Grinnell in January 1907 while preparing for her expedition to Alaska; she came to Throop's biology department to find Joseph Dixon, Grinnell's student. Dixon had been recommended to Alexander by Frank Stephens, author of California Mammals. Grinnell endorsed Dixon as a member of Alexander's expedition, as they discussed Alaska. Grinnell invited Alexander to his home to view his collections, which she did before returning to Oakland. The name Annie M. Alexander seemed familiar and Grinnell found reprints among his papers from paleontologist John C. Merriam to Alexander, thanking her for her work and financial support. Satisfied of her commitment to research, he sent her a letter outlining specific points on field work that would maximize scientific results from the seven-member expedition.
Alexander returned to California in the summer of 1907. She invited Grinnell to view the Alaska specimens. During the Thanksgiving holiday he met with Alexander at her home. The pair exchanged ideas for a museum on the West Coast that would be on par with the institutions of the eastern United States, such as the Smithsonian Institution. Alexander and Grinnell believed the fauna and flora of the western territory was fast disappearing as a result of human impact, thus detailed documentation was essential for both posterity and knowledge. This foresight proved useful almost a century later, when researchers at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology would use the Grinnell field notes to compare changes in California fauna.
Grinnell and Alexander differed on where the museum should be located. Grinnell advocated for Stanford while Alexander, impressed by the University of California (UC) paleontology lectures she had attended, determined that the museum would be at UC.
Alexander elaborated on the job requirements in a letter to Grinnell dated September, 1907 after she returned from Alaska: "I should like to see a collection developed (more especially of the California fauna) and would be glad to give what support I could if I could find the right man to take hold; someone interested not only in bringing a collection together but with the larger object in view, namely gathering data in connection with the work that would have direct bearing on the important biological issues of the day. Work systematically and intelligently carried on is the work that counts."
Alexander appointed Grinnell director for one year, although he held that post for the remainder of his life.
He named the museum and in 1909, donated his collection of mammals, also his bound files of The Auk, The Condor and other publications. He gave his entire collection of bird specimens to the museum in 1920. The bird collection numbered more than 8,000.
The relationship between museum director and benefactess was unusual. Grinnell deferred to Alexander's wishes in almost every aspect of the museum's business. Alexander, in turn, expected Grinnell to devote all his time and energy to the enterprise, to continue research and publishing, in addition to the duties of director.
In 1908, Alexander had written to Grinnell asking for a recommendation of someone suitable for the upcoming 1908 expedition. His reply elicited a sharp response from Alexander: "Am rather relieved you could not recommend a lady for our trip, though regret your evident contempt of women as naturalists ... ." Alexander found Louise Kellogg to join the Alaska trip. A subsequent letter from Grinnell was even more frank, "I do hope your discovery [of a companion] proves tractable and industrious. One good test might be to have her string tags [specimen labels] for five hours straight!"
Alexander supported the museum financially; during the ensuing 46 years, she contributed more than $1.5 million.
Editor of The Condor
The Condor is one of three publications by the Cooper Ornithological Club (or Society), one of the largest non-profit ornithological organizations in the world, named for James G. Cooper, a California naturalist.
The magazine's first editor was Chester Barlow, a charter member of the club and editor until his death in 1902 at age 28 of tuberculosis.
Joseph Grinnell was listed as editor beginning with the January 1906 issue, replacing Walter K. Fisher. The main office of the magazine moved to Pasadena from Santa Clara, California, when Grinnell, who still lived in Pasadena, became editor.
The Condor published classified ads which listed items to buy, sell or trade for other specimens, collections, guns, cameras or publications. Species and their eggs for sale or exchange included rare birds like the California condor and bald eagle.
Grinnell also advertised to trade specimens in the magazine; the November 1906 issue contained the ad: "Wanted – will pay cash or good exchange in mammal or bird skins". In the same 1906 issue, Grinnell commented on Thomas Harrison Montgomery's article questioning the scientific benefit of egg collection (Oology) in Audubon Society's Bird-Lore publication. Grinnell defends the collecting and study of birds' eggs in his editorial "Is Egg-collecting Justifiable?" and includes recreation as one of the values gained. "Then there is the recreative phase which is not to be disparaged; and the pleasure to be derived from this pursuit. We must confess that we have gotten more complete satisfaction, in other words happiness [italics in original], out of one vacation trip into the mountains after rare birds and eggs than out of our two years of University work in embryology!"
Grinnell edited The Condor for 33 years. He was one of the most influential, serving during the magazine's early years of development. As editor, he was democratic in some ways, asking members to vote on possible changes, like using metric units of measurement (the majority vote was no). He implemented "simplified spelling" which used phonetics, and can be seen in early-edition phrases. The magazine under Grinnell's tenure expanded from 175 to 223 current-format pages, and as of 1993, at 1,100 pages per year, is the largest of any major ornithological journal.
Grinnell Method of note taking
Even though Joseph Grinnell found writing difficult, he put forth great effort to produce factual, precise writing. Author William Leon Dawson, wrote of Grinnell, "that some of his biographical sketches evince a keenness of insight, and bring out a wealth of first-hand information which mark him as potentially the foremost biographer of Western birds."
Grinnell developed and implemented a detailed protocol for recording field observations. In conjunction with a catalog of captured specimens, a journal was kept, detailed accounts of individual species behaviors were recorded, topographic maps were annotated to show specific localities, and photographs were often taken of collecting sites and animals captured. These materials also documented weather conditions, vegetation types, vocalizations, and other evidence of animal presence in a given locale.
The method has four components:
A field notebook to directly record observations as they are happening.
A field journal of fully written entries on observations and information, transcribed from the notes.
A species account of the detailed observations on chosen species.
A catalog is the record of where and when specimens were collected.
Grinnell's attention to detail included the type of paper for writing. "The India ink and paper of permanent quality will mean that our notes will be accessible 200 years from now." He added, "we are in the newest part of the new world where the population will be immense in fifty years at most."
The Grinnell System (also Grinnell Method) is the procedure most often used by professional biologists and field naturalists.
Survey of California fauna
Grinnell's goal for the museum was to build a collection primarily of California species, with comparative examples from outside the state. Representative sample areas of California were surveyed broadly, then in detail. The first field expedition for the new museum was to the Colorado Desert in April 1908. In 1910 three months were spent in the field along the Colorado River to study the river's effect as a barrier in the distribution of desert mammals. The Mount Whitney area, called the Whitney transect, was studied in 1911, the San Jacinto Mountains in 1913 and from 1914 to 1920, a cross-section of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, including Yosemite was surveyed. The Lassen Peak area was studied by Grinnell, Joseph S. Dixon and Jean M. Linsdale from 1924 to 1929.
The field surveys also provided source material for Game Birds of California (1918) and Fur-bearing Mammals of California (1937).
Yosemite
The 1914 Yosemite survey area consisted of in a narrow rectangle from eastern San Joaquin Valley, across the Sierra Nevada Range to the western edge of the Great Basin, including Mono Lake. There were 40 collecting stations, with one to five persons per station. The survey team collected animal specimens by shooting and setting out traps. Observations were recorded for animal behavior including their "workings", meaning nests or burrows. The survey team of eight researchers, including Grinnell and Joseph Dixon, produced 2,001 pages of field notes and 700 photographs . The research was published in 1924 as Animal Life in the Yosemite.
Lassen Peak area
There were 50 sites surveyed throughout the Lassen region of northern California which documented the distributions of more than 350 species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and collected more than 4,500 specimens. The results were published in the 1930 monograph Vertebrate Natural History of a Section of Northern California through the Lassen Peak Region. More than just a species checklist, this 600-page volume has behavioral observations and historic photographs. For many areas in the transect, the Lassen survey remains the most comprehensive vertebrate inventory yet conducted.
The survey of California fauna was a test of Grinnell's theory that differences between species are driven by ecological and geographical barriers, a new idea in the science of biology of the 1940s. “He was looking at geographic variation and change of characters in space and time. He wanted to understand the kinds of factors that might influence local adaptation and … variation among individuals and within populations. These ideas were unique at the time because they called into question the accepted notion that species are static and unchanging.", noted Jim Patten, Professor Emeritus, in Berkeley Science Review.
Grinnell Resurvey Project
The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology began the Grinnell Resurvey Project in 2002 using Grinnell's original survey of California fauna for comparison. The resurvey team encountered difficulties, as the 2007 report on Yosemite noted "the data from the original and current surveys cannot be directly compared because of differences in observer effort."
Project researchers worked in Yosemite National Park from 2003 to 2006. Using colorfully annotated maps dating from the late 1800s, the biologists revisited about 40 sites. Some sites could not be resurveyed because they are no longer accessible; one example is Lake McClure, a reservoir constructed in 1926. Lassen National Park was resurveyed in 2006, and the Warner Mountains in northeast California and south to the White Mountains in 2007.
The resurvey report's section on birds noted problems in comparing the censuses: "In the original survey there was a large difference in terms of birds observed per unit time between J. Grinnell and T. Storer, with Grinnell having much higher scores than Storer for the same area. Grinnell and Storer counts also had a larger variation among their own censuses for a single site than we did during our survey."
The Yosemite resurvey documented shifts in the geographic ranges of some mammals. The majority of change is to higher elevation by a ratio of 2.5 to 1. A notable alteration in range is shown by the pinyon mouse (Peromyscus truei), where both the upper and lower range limits have moved upward in elevation. The resurvey biologists documented the pinyon mouse on Mount Lyell at elevation 10,500 feet. In Grinnell's Animal Life of the Yosemite, the pinyon mouse (or big-eared white-footed mouse) is described as occurring in the Upper Sonoran Zone on the west slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.
The Upper Sonoran is a life zone between 1,000 and 3,500 feet above sea level.
Researchers have also observed selection-driven physical and genetic changes in populations of the Alpine chipmunk (Tamias alpinus), which was affected by contraction of its elevational range. While most parts of the chipmunk genome had not changed, there were shifts in variants of a gene related to regulation of the animals’ ability to survive in low-oxygen environments (ALOX15).
In the Yosemite transect, no significant change in avian species abundance was found. Grinnell documented 133 species and the resurvey team reported 140 bird species.
The report's section on amphibians and reptiles noted healthy populations of mountain yellow-legged frog (Rana muscosa) at Yosemite's Dorothy Lake and breeding populations near Evelyn Lake. This species (or Distinct population segment) is listed as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.
In 2013 a team of researchers from the San Diego Natural History Museum completed a five-year survey of the Grinnell Transect, Grinnell's 1908 study of the flora and fauna of Mount San Jacinto. In 60 surveys across 20 sites, they found the forest to be much denser than in Grinnell's time, with the loss of three species including a flying squirrel, and an increase in birds that like thick brush, such as the hermit thrush, the brown creeper and the Townsend's solitaire. The relative lack of leaf litter and decayed ground cover in Grinnell's time was considered to make the occurrence of hot and lasting fires in the forest impossible. With a much thicker understory in 2013, the team of researchers were forced by the Mountain Fire to evacuate their camp.
Conservation
Grinnell worked on conservation issues in the latter part of his life. He wrote several articles: "Bird Life as a Community Asset" (1914), A Conservationist's Creed as to Wild-Life Administration" (1925), "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks" (1916), and " Bats As Disirable Citizens" (1916). He tried to change National Park Service policies on predator control and on forest management. Additionally, he promoted the idea of a trained biologist or naturalist in national parks to conduct public education programs for visitors. He studied and published on the Point Lobos area on the California coast, and during the last two years of his life, studied animal life at Hastings Reserve in Santa Lucia Mountains of Carmel Valley, California.
National parks
The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology's Yosemite survey of 1914–1924 documented the area's wildlife. A second goal of the survey was education of the public as a means to protect the park. Yosemite was established in 1890. Total land area (excluding the valley, which was state-owned) was more than . Congress reduced the park boundaries by one-third in 1905 in response to pressure from mining, grazing and logging interests. "Ultimately, Grinnell realized, whether in Yosemite, or across the nation, further assaults on wildlife habitat would only be blocked by a concerned and knowledgeable public." wrote historian Alfred Runte.
Grinnell and Tracy I. Storer's article "Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks" was published in Science on September 15, 1916, and presented two major points. First, national parks could be examples of pristine nature and were valuable to science and the public. Second, parks could be outdoor classrooms for a trained naturalist to offer natural history classes, conduct walks, and provide other educational activities for park visitors.
The newly created National Park Service, in the Department of Interior, had no public education programs in 1916, although director designate Stephen Mather had read Grinnell's article in Science. Grinnell was not the only advocate for education in the national parks. A letter from Interior Secretary Franklin Knight Lane to Director Mather in May 1918, constituted the Service's first administrative policy statement on the concept of the parks as educational media: "The educational, as well as the recreational, use of the national parks should be encouraged in every practicable way." Despite this high-level expression of support, the idea of the park service being in the education business – beyond dispensing basic tourist information – was not widely accepted.
The first official natural history program at Yosemite began in 1920 with Harold C. Bryant and Loye Holmes Miller as park-employed naturalists. Bryant viewed Grinnell as a mentor and went on to help design the interpretive program. He was awarded the Cornelius Armory Pugsley Medal in 1954 for his contributions to parks and conservation.
Predator control
Grinnell argued in "Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks" against several park service management policies; one of which was the predator control program. Congress had passed legislation a year earlier that instructed the Bureau of Biological Survey (now the US Fish and Wildlife Service) to destroy predators that "are injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry on the national forests and the public domain ...".
The new National Park Service agency used predator control agents from the bureau to trap wolves, coyotes, and mountain lions within park boundaries. The agency's first director, Stephen Mather saw his primary responsibility to the new national-park idea as one of building a constituency to support the parks, and feared that if predator populations were not controlled inside park boundaries, they would wander to adjoining private lands to kill livestock. Mather did not want angry ranchers complaining to their congressional representatives that the national parks were bad for the ranching business.
Grinnell, George Melendez Wright, a student of Grinnell's, and others objected to the predator control policy. Grinnell argued that, "As a rule, predaceous animals should be left unmolested and allowed to retain their primitive relation to the rest of the fauna ... as their number is already kept within proper limits by the available food supply, nothing is to be gained by reducing it still further." But trapping of rare animals for scientific study was an exception, he added "A justifiable exception may be made when specimens are required for scientific purposes by authorized representatives of public institutions, and it should be remarked in this connection that without a scientific investigation of the animal life in the parks, and an extensive collection of specimens, no thorough understanding of the conditions or of the practical problems they involve is possible."
In July 1915, during the Yosemite survey, Charles Lewis Camp trapped two wolverines, a male and female. The survey results were published in Animal Life of the Yosemite with an entry on wolverine (Gulo gulo): "the wolverine is a rare animal anywhere in the Sierra Nevada. Its inclusion here is based upon the capture of two individuals at the head of Lyell Canyon."
The last confirmed California wolverine was killed seven years later by local trapper and miner Albert J. Gardisky in Mono County near Saddlebag Lake on February 22, 1922. This complete specimen is located in the mammal collection at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Since hunting and trapping had not yet been outlawed in national parks, Grinnell, the museum's director, initially took advantage of the situation, purchasing skins, skeletons and carcasses for the museum.
Trapping was banned in Yosemite National Park by 1925, and in all national parks by 1931.
Grinnell was aware of the possible extirpation of the wolverine in California by 1937, if not earlier, for he wrote a summary of all documentation, sightings, captures and stories on wolverines in Fur-bearing Mammals of California, with the last known sighting listed at 1924. Grinnell estimated " at the present time (1933) there are at most no more than 15 pairs of wolverine left in the State." He warned that there was a " necessity of a closed season for the wolverine if it was to escape the fate of the grizzly bear."
Point Lobos State Reserve
A year-long study by Joseph Grinnell and the museum began in 1934 of the Point Lobos State Reserve in Monterey County for gathering "information which would show the kinds of land vertebrates present within the reserve, frequency of occurrence and relative abundance, habitat, relationship with the physical environment, and the annual cycle of its activity". The research was published in 1935 as "Vertebrate Animals of Point Lobos Reserve".
Point Lobos nearly became a residential development before 1900. Preservationist Alexander McMillan Allen, the Save the Redwoods League environmental group and others began to buy back the residential lots in 1898. By 1933 it was added to the new state park system. In 1960, undersea was added which created the first underwater reserve in the nation. The reserve's name is from the offshore rocks at Punta de los Lobos Marinos, or Point of the Sea Wolves.
Hastings Reserve
Russell P. Hastings offered the Hastings cattle ranch of to the University of California for faunal studies, after learning about the research at Point Lobos. Grinnell began long-term faunal surveys on the Hastings ranch in upper Carmel Valley, Monterey County at the end of 1936 through 1939.
The ranch became a field research station in 1937, and is the oldest and most productive unit in what is now the University's Natural Land and Water Reserves System, a system of 27
natural areas and biological field stations. Since its inception, Hastings has been managed by the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. The Hastings Reserve in one of only three fully protected reserves in the North Coast Ranges of California.
Death
Grinnell's last field trip was in May 1938 to the Providence Mountains in San Bernardino County, Southern California. Grinnell's final specimen was a black-chinned sparrow. In the fall of that year, he took a leave of absence from the university during which he suffered a coronary. During his convalescence, a second coronary occurred. Grinnell died on May 29, 1939, in Berkeley, California, at age 62.
The students and staff at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology formed the Grinnell Naturalists Society in 1940 to commemorate and continue the work of Joseph Grinnell. The Society was active from 1940 to 1952. The Bancroft Library maintains the organization's records and the collection is available for research purposes. The collection includes minutes of meetings, correspondence, newsletter file, questionnaire responses and account records.
Selected published works
Joseph Grinnell authored or co-authored 554 published works, beginning in 1893 until 1939. A small sample is given below. A complete list by year is in the biography written by Hilda Wood Grinnell (see Cited literature section).
Joseph Grinnell co-authored several articles with his younger sister, Elizabeth J. Grinnell. Our Feathered Friends was published in 1898 and from 1900 to 1901, five articles were published in the regional magazine Land of Sunshine which was renamed Out West in 1901 and edited by Charles Fletcher Lummis.
Books
Birds of the Kotzebue sound region, Alaska
The game birds of California
Animal Life in the Yosemite 1924
Vertebrate Animals of Point Lobos Reserve 1936
Fur-bearing Mammals of California 1937
Journal articles
"The Catalina Island Quail" The Auk July 23, 1906
"Wild Animal Life as a Product and as a Necessity of National Forests" The Journal of Forestry,
XXII, December 1924
"Why We Need Wild Birds and Mammals" Scientific Monthly December 16, 1935
Other
History of Pasadena by Hiram A. Reid 1895. Chapter titled "Our Native Birds".
Travelers' Handbook to Southern California by George Wharton James, 1904. Chapter 20: "The Ornithologist in Southern California".
Honors
Two insects, four mammals, nine birds and one lizard were named after Joseph Grinnell. The Sitka kinglet (Regulus calendula grinnelli) was the first species named for Grinnell by ornithologist William Palmer in 1897. (Palmer was also a taxidermist and prepared the remains of the last passenger pigeon "Martha" when she died in 1914 at the Cincinnati, Ohio zoological gardens.)
Joseph Grinnell was also the namesake of one of the Cal Falcons, "Grinnell", that bred at the Campanile from 2017-2022.
The fish Synchiropus grinnelli, the Philippines dragonet, is a species of fish in the family Callionymidae, the dragonets. It is found in the Western Central Pacific from Philippines to Indonesia. It was named after him by Henry Weed Fowler.
References
Cited literature
Grinnell, Joseph Gold Hunting in Alaska 1901
Grinnell, Joseph and Tracy Storer Animal Life in the Yosemite 1924
Grinnell, Joseph, Jean M. Linsdale and Joseph S. Dixon Fur-bearing Mammals of California 1937
Stein, Barbara On Her Own Terms, University of California Press, 2001,
External links
High Country News magazine, "The Ghosts of Yosemite – scientists from the past bring us a message about the future" by Michelle Nijhuis. October 17, 2005
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology website.
Guide to the Joseph and Hilda Wood Grinnell Papers and Guide to the Joseph Grinnell Papers at The Bancroft Library
Western Kentucky University
American mammalogists
American taxonomists
1877 births
1939 deaths
Directors of museums in the United States
California Institute of Technology alumni
Stanford University alumni
California Institute of Technology faculty
University of California, Berkeley faculty
People from Fort Sill, Oklahoma
20th-century American zoologists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Hindi%20film%20families
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List of Hindi film families
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This article lists notable families whose members are prominent in the Hindi film industry. For South Indian film families, see List of South Indian film families and for Indian music families, see List of Indian music families.
A
Akhtar–Azmi– Kher family
The Akhtar family is a prominent film family in the Hindi film Industry. It consists of renowned poets, authors, scriptwriters, directors, actors, and producers. One of the most famous among them is Urdu poet, author and philosopher Javed Akhtar, whose great grandfather Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi is a notable name in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Javed Akhtar's first marriage was with script writer Honey Irani and Zoya Akhtar and Farhan Akhtar are their children. Farah Khan and Sajid Khan are Honey Irani's niece and nephew, and hence Farhan and Zoya Akhtar's maternal cousins.
Javed Akhtar's second wife is actress Shabana Azmi. Shabana Azmi's nieces include actresses Farah Naaz and Tabu.
Akkineni Prasad (L. V. Prasad) family
Akkineni Lakshmi Vara Prasada Rao (Telugu and Hindi film producer, and Prasad's Group founder)
Akkineni Ramesh Prasad son of L. V. Prasad, and owner of Prasads Group
A. Sreekar Prasad (Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and Hindi film editor, son of Akkineni Sanjeevi)
Akkineni and Daggubati family
The Akkineni–Daggubati family is a prominent film family with a long history in Indian cinema mainly Telugu and Hindi cinema. Akkineni Nageswara Rao and Daggubati Ramanaidu are the prominent heads of both families.
Akkineni Nageswara Rao
Nagarjuna (younger son of ANR)
Akkineni Naga Chaitanya (son of Nagarjuna and Daggubati Lakshmi)
Amala (second wife of Nagarjuna)
Akhil Akkineni (son of Nagarjuna and Amala)
Sumanth (nephew of Nagarjuna)
Sushanth (nephew of Nagarjuna)
A. V. Subba Rao (paternal grandfather of Sushanth, Noted Film Producer)
Daggubati Ramanaidu (producer, former MP, father of Venkatesh and grandfather of Rana Daggubati)
Daggubati Suresh Babu (producer, elder son of Ramanaidu and father of Rana Daggubati)
Daggubati Rana (actor and grandson of Ramanaidu)
Daggubati Venkatesh (actor, younger son of Ramanaidu and uncle of Rana Daggubati)
Ali–Amrohi family
Mumtaz Ali (actor, dancer)
Mehmood Ali (actor, comedian, son of Mumtaz Ali)
Pucky Ali (actor and eldest son of Mehmood & Madhu)
Lucky Ali (singer, actor, second son of Mehmood Ali & Madhu)
Macky Ali (actor and third son of Mehmood & Madhu)
Minoo Mumtaz (actress, dancer, daughter of Mumtaz Ali and sister of Mehmood Ali)
Anwar Ali (actor, son of Mumtaz Ali)
Meena Kumari (actress, elder sister of Mehmood Ali's ex-wife, Mahliqa/Madhu)
Kamal Amrohi (director, husband of Meena Kumari)
Bilal Amrohi (actor, grandson of Kamal Amrohi)
Mashhoor Amrohi (actor, grandson of Kamal Amrohi)
Mazhar Khan (actor and maternal uncle to Bilal and Mashhoor Amrohi)
Zeenat Aman (actress, wife of Mazhar Khan)
Allu family
Allu Ramalingaiah was a renowned Telugu comedic actor and a recipient of the Padma Shri. His son, Allu Aravind, is one of the most powerful producers in Tollywood, and one of his sisters, Surekha, is married to actor Megastar Chiranjeevi. His grandsons by Aravind, Allu Arjun and Allu Sirish, are both actors.
Allu Ramalingaiah (1 October 1922 – 30 July 2004) – veteran actor, comedian, and producer
Allu Aravind (producer, distributor) – son of Allu Ramalingaiah and brother-in-law of Chiranjeevi
Allu Arjun (actor – son of Allu Aravind)
Allu Sirish (actor, producer – son of Allu Aravind)
Anand–Sahni family
The most prominent member of the Anand family was actor Dev Anand, who has starred in over a hundred films. Another member of the family is internationally known director Shekhar Kapur, who is known for directing the film Elizabeth. He was married to actress Suchitra Krishnamurthy.
Chetan Anand (elder brother of Dev Anand)
Uma Anand (wife of Chetan Anand)
Ketan Anand (son of Chetan Anand)
Priya Rajvansh (actress and partner of Chetan Anand)
Kamaljeet (actor and brother of Priya Rajvansh)
Dev Anand
Kalpana Kartik (wife of Dev Anand)
Suneil Anand (son of Dev Anand)
Vijay Anand (younger brother of Dev Anand)
Sheel Kanta Kapoor (mother of Shekhar Kapoor and sister of Dev Anand)
Shekhar Kapur (nephew of Dev Anand, son of Sheel Kanta Kapur)
Suchitra Krishnamurthy (ex-wife of Shekhar Kapur)
Kaveri Kapur (daughter of Shekhar Kapur and Suchitra Krishnamurthy)
Vishal Anand (nephew of Dev Anand, son of Sheel Kanta Kapoor and brother of Shekhar Kapoor)
Purab Kohli (nephew of Vishal Anand)
Aalim Rushdy Anand (Independent Filmmaker)
Sohaila Kapur (niece of Dev Anand and daughter of Sheel Kanta Kapur)
Neelu (niece of Dev Anand and daughter of Sheel Kanta Kapur)
Navin Nischol (actor, former brother-in-law of Shekhar Kapur, ex-husband of Neelu, daughter of Sheel Kanta Kapur and niece of Dev Anand)
Aruna Kapoor (niece of Dev Anand, daughter of Sheel Kanta Kapur and sister of Shekhar Kapur)
Parikshit Sahni (actor, son of Balraj Sahni, husband of Aruna Kapoor and brother-in-law of Shekhar Kapur)
Balraj Sahni (actor)
Bhisham Sahni (playwright, actor, novelist and brother of Balraj Sahni)
Anant Nag
Anant Nag actor, writer, producer
Gayatri actress and producer (wife of Anant Nag)
Shankar Nag actor, director and producer (younger brother of Anant Nag)
Arundathi Nag actress, director and producer (wife of Shankar Nag)
B
Babbar family
Raj Babbar is an Indian actor and politician. His first wife was Nadira Babbar, who became known with her appearance in Bride and Prejudice (2004) with Aishwarya Rai. Their children are Arya Babbar and Juhi Babbar. Both have ventured into the film industry. Raj's second wife was actress Smita Patil. She died giving birth to their only child Prateek Babbar in 1986. Her son Prateek made his acting debut in 2008 film Jaane Tu Ya Jaane Na. Raj Babbar's niece Kajri Babbar is a budding director.
Syed Sajjad Zaheer
Nadira Babbar (first wife of Raj Babbar and daughter of Syed Sajjad Zaheer)
Arya Babbar (son of Raj Babbar and Nadira Babbar)
Juhi Babbar (daughter of Raj Babbar and Nadira Babbar)
Anup Soni (husband of Juhi Babbar)
Shivajirao Girdhar Patil
Smita Patil (second wife of Raj and daughter of Shivajirao Patil)
Prateek Babbar (son of Smita Patil and Raj Babbar)
Raj Babbar
Kishan Babbar - brother of Raj Babbar, film producer and father of Kajri Babbar
Bachchan family
Harivansh Rai Bachchan (poet – married to social activist Teji Bachchan, mother of Amitabh Bachchan)
Amitabh Bachchan (actor – married to Jaya Bachchan, son of Harivansh Rai Bachchan, father of Abhishek Bachchan, father of Shweta Bachchan-Nanda)
Jaya Bachchan (actress – married to Amitabh Bachchan, mother of Abhishek Bachchan)
Abhishek Bachchan (actor – married to Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, son of Amitabh Bachchan and Jaya Bachchan)
Aishwarya Rai Bachchan (actress – married to Abhishek Bachchan)
Shweta Bachchan Nanda – (married to Nikhil Nanda)
Agastya Nanda (actor - debuting in The Archies, son of Shweta Bachchan Nanda and Nikhil Nanda)
Navya Naveli Nanda (entrepreneur, cofounder of Aara Health and Project Naveli)
Ajitabh Bachchan (actor and producer – son of Harivansh Rai Bachchan, brother of Amitabh Bachchan)
Kunal Kapoor (actor, married to Ajitabh Bachchan's daughter Naina Bachchan)
Tillotama Shome (actress – married to Jaya Bachchan's sister's son)
Barjatya family
The Barjatya family began with Tarachand Barjatya, who was a film producer and director. He began Rajshri Productions in the late 1940s. Tarachand Barjatya had three sons, Kamal Kumar Barjatya, Raj Kumar Barjatya, and Ajit Kumar Barjatya, all of whom were active in bringing the Rajshri empire to great heights. The company saw an all time increase in revenues when Raj Kumar Barjatya's son, Sooraj R. Barjatya, started his film making career with the 1989 blockbuster, Maine Pyar Kiya and then eventually made Hum Aapke Hain Koun and Hum Saath Saath Hain. The company is now led by the third generation of Barjatyas, namely, Kavita K. Barjatya, Sooraj R. Barjatya and Rajat A. Barjatya.
Tarachand Barjatya (director, producer, writer and founder of Rajshri Productions)
Kavita K. Barjatya (producer – daughter of Kamal Kumar Barjatya)
Sooraj R. Barjatya (director, producer and writer – son of Raj Kumar Barjatya)
Baweja family
Harry Baweja (Director and producer)
Pammi Baweja (wife of Harry Baweja)
Harman Baweja (Actor, Elder son of Harry and Pammi Baweja)
Bedi family (of Kabir Bedi)
Kabir Bedi (actor)
Protima Bedi (Odissi dancer – wife of Kabir Bedi)
Pooja Bedi (actor and model – daughter of Kabir and Protima)
Alaya Furniturewala (daughter of Pooja Bedi)
Bedi family (of Bishan Bedi)
Bishan Singh Bedi (former Indian cricketer)
Angad Bedi (model and actor – son of Bishan Singh Bedi)
Neha Dhupia (model and actor – wife of Angad Bedi)
Bedi family (of Rajinder Singh Bedi)
Rajinder Singh Bedi (writer and director)
Narendra Bedi (director, writer, producer - son of Rajinder Singh Bedi)
Manek Bedi (actor and producer - son of Narendra Bedi)
Rajat Bedi (actor, entrepreneur and producer - son of Narendra Bedi)
Tulip Joshi (actress - sister-in-law of Rajat Bedi)
Behl family
Ramesh Behl. Producer. His wife, Madhu Behl, is a daughter of actor Kamal Kapoor (cousin of Prithviraj Kapoor) and sister of academic Kapil Kapoor.
Goldie Behl. Producer. Son of Ramesh Behl and grandson of Kamal Kapoor. Husband of actress Sonali Bendre.
Srishti Arya, daughter of Ramesh Behl and granddaughter of Kamal Kapoor, is the wife of Sameer Arya, son of Sulbha and Ishan Arya. Ishan Arya is a cousin of Shabana Azmi.
Shyam Behl (brother of Ramesh Behl and of Shukla Devi Tuli).
Ravi Behl, producer. Son of Shyam Behl. Nephew of Ramesh Behl and Shukla Devi Tuli
Geeta Behl, actress. Daughter of Shyam Behl and sister of Ravi Behl. She did supporting roles in several films including Main Tulsi Tere Aangan Ki, Do Premee, etc.
Shukla Devi Tuli, wife of Rajendra Kumar, mother of Kumar Gaurav. Sister of Ramesh and Shyam Behl.
Bhatt family (of Nanabhai Bhatt)
Bhatt family (of Vijay Bhatt)
Vijay Bhatt (producer, director and screenwriter)
Pravin Bhatt (cinematographer and director, son of Vijay Bhatt)
Vikram Bhatt (director and producer, son of Pravin Bhatt)
Arun Bhatt (director, son of Vijay Bhatt)
Chirantan Bhatt (musician and singer, son of Arun Bhatt)
Bhattacharya family
Pashupati Bhattacharjee (vocalist and composer)
Kumar Sanu a.k.a. Kedarnath Bhattacharjee (playback singer, producer and music director – son of Pashupati Bhattacharya)
Bohra family
Shree Ram Bohra (producer – brother of Ramkumar Bohra)
Sunil Bohra (producer – grandson of Shree Ram Bohra)
Ramkumar Bohra (producer, director – brother of Shree Ram Bohra)
Mahendra Bohra (producer, director – son of Ramkumar Bohra)
Karanvir Bohra (actor, designer, producer – son of Mahendra Bohra)
Bokadia family
K.C. Bokadia (Indian filmmaker)
Pramod Bokadia (son of K.C. Bokadia), producer.
Rajesh Bokadia (son of K.C. Bokadia), producer.
C
Chandrasekhar family
S. A. Chandrasekhar (director)
Shoba Chandrasekhar (director and playback singer – wife of Chandrasekhar)
Joseph Vijay Chandrasekhar (actor, son of Chandrasekhar and Shoba)
S. N. Surendar (playback singer, brother of Shoba)
Hari Prashanth (actor, son of S. N. Surendar)
Vikranth (actor, nephew of S. A. Chandrasekhar)
Chakraborty family
Mithun Chakraborty (actor, hotelier and producer)
Yogeeta Bali (actress and producer – wife of Mithun Chakraborty)
Mahaakshay Chakraborty (actor – son of Mithun Chakraborty and Yogeeta Bali)
Madalsa Sharma Chakraborty (actress — wife of Mahaakshay Chakraborty), daughter of Sheela Sharma
Ushmey Chakraborty (actor – son of Mithun Chakraborty and Yogeeta Bali)
Geeta Bali (actress – aunt of Yogeeta)
Aditya Raj Kapoor (actor, businessman and filmmaker – cousin of Yogeeta and son of Shammi Kapoor, member of Kapoor family)
Chatterjee family
Biswajit Chatterjee (actor)
Prosenjit Chatterjee (actor – son of Biswajeet Chatterjee)
Debashree Roy (politician, actress– ex-wife of Prosenjeet Chatterjee)
Arpita Pal (actress – wife of Prosenjeet Chatterjee
Pallavi Chatterjee (actress – daughter of Biswajeet Chatterjee)
Chopra family (of Yash Chopra)
Considered to be one of the most influential families of the Hindi film industry, the Chopra family has produced some of the country's biggest blockbusters and have worked in close quarters with all the leading superstars of the industry. The founders of this family were the four children of Vilayati Raj Chopra, all of whom worked independently through different leading film production / Distribution houses:
The eldest brother, Baldev Raj Chopra, founded B.R. Films in 1947, which is now managed and run by his son Ravi Chopra, who was also a director and a producer.
Yash Chopra, the youngest brother, directed and produced several hits for BR Films before branching out to form his own Yash Raj Films, along with son Aditya Chopra.
Hiroo Johar, has produced several hits for Dharma Productions. Wife of Yash Johar, mother of director and producer Karan Johar.
Ramanand Sagar, was a television as well as film producer and director. Half-brother of director and producer Vidhu Vinod Chopra.
Chopra family (of Prem Chopra)
Prem Chopra (actor)
Sharman Joshi (actor and son in law)
Vikas Bhalla (actor and son in law)
Chopra family (of Priyanka Chopra)
Priyanka Chopra Jonas (actor)
Parineeti Chopra (actor and cousin)
Meera Chopra (actor and cousin)
Mannara Chopra (actor and cousin)
D
Deol family
The Deol family's legacy began with Dharmendra. He has six children: his two sons (Sunny Deol and Bobby Deol) went on to pursue film careers, and own Vijayta Films, while their sisters Vijeta Deol and Ajeeta Deol did not pursue a career in the film industry. Esha Deol and Ahana Deol are the two youngest daughters of Dharmendra (with Hema Malini). Esha has pursued a film career, whilst Dharmendra's nephew Abhay Deol has been in the industry since 2005, giving notable performances.
Devgan family
Veeru Devgan (producer and action choreographer, father of Ajay Devgan)
Ajay Devgan (actor, director and producer elder son of Veeru Devgan, married to Kajol)
Kajol (actress, member of the Mukherjee-Samarth family, married to Ajay Devgan)
Anil Devgan (director, son of Prem Prakash Devgan)
Deshmukh family
Dagadojirao Deshmukh + Sushila Deshmukh
Vilasrao Deshmukh (Former Chief Minister of Maharashtra) + Vaishali Deshmukh
Amit Deshmukh (politician – elder son of Vilasrao Deshmukh)
Aditi Deshmukh (actress - wife of Amit Deshmukh)
Riteish Deshmukh (architect, actor, producer and singer – son of Vilasrao Deshmukh)
Genelia D'Souza Deshmukh (actress, model and host – wife of Riteish Deshmukh)
Dhiraj Deshmukh (politician – younger son of Vilasrao Deshmukh)
Deepshikha Deshmukh (Director, Producer– wife of Dheeraj Deshmukh)
Vashu Bhagnani (Film producer - father of Deepshikha)
Jackky Bhagnani (Actor, film producer - brother of Deepshikha)
Rakul Preet Singh (actress - partner of Jackky)
Dhawan family
Anil Dhawan (actor – brother of David Dhawan, father of Siddharth and uncle of Varun Dhawan and Rohit Dhawan)
Siddharth Dhawan – (television actor – son of Anil Dhawan, cousin of Rohit and Varun Dhawan)
David Dhawan (director, producer-brother of Anil Dhawan and father of Rohit and Varun Dhawan)
Varun Dhawan (actor – son of David Dhawan and Karuna Dhawan, brother of Rohit Dhawan, nephew of Anil Dhawan and cousin of Siddharth Dhawan)
Rohit Dhawan (actor – son of David Dhawan and Karuna Dhawan, brother of Varun Dhawan, nephew of Anil Dhawan and cousin of Siddharth Dhawan)
Kunal Kohli (director, producer – son of Yash Kohli (sister of Karuna Dhawan) and the late Shiv Kohli; cousin of Varun Dhawan
Dutt family (of Guru Dutt)
Vasanth Kumar Shivashankar Padukone (9 July 1925 – 10 October 1964), popularly known as Guru Dutt (Konkani:गुरु दत्त), was an Indian film director, producer and actor. He made quintessential 1950s and 1960s classics such as Pyaasa (Thirsty), Kaagaz Ke Phool (Paper Flowers), Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (The King, the Queen and the Jack), and Chaudhvin Ka Chand (The Fourteenth Day Moon in the Muslim calendar but actually means full moon, a metaphor for beauty). In particular, Pyaasa and Kaagaz Ke Phool are now included among the greatest films of all time, both by Time magazine's All-Time 100 best movies and by the Sight & Sound critics' and directors' poll, where Dutt himself is included among the greatest film directors of all time. In 2010, he was included among CNN's "top 25 Asian actors of all time".
Guru Dutt (actor)
Geeta Dutt (singer – wife of Guru Dutt)
Shyam Benegal (director – his paternal grandmother and Dutt's maternal grandmother were sisters)
Lalita Lajmi (Painter and sister of Guru Dutt)
Kalpana Lajmi (director – niece of Guru Dutt)
Amrita Rao (actress – her grandfather and Guru Dutt were second cousins)
Preetika Rao (actress – sister of Amrita Rao, her grandfather and Guru Dutt were second cousins)
Note: Composer Kanu Roy was not the brother of Geeta Dutt
Dutt family (of Sunil Dutt)
Jaddanbai, the start of the family, began as a singer and eventually became a filmmaker. Her husband was Abdul Rashid. Their daughter Nargis began her film career at age six when cast by her mother in one of her films. Nargis went on to become a major star in the 1940s and 1950s. Sunil Dutt also acted in the industry in the 1950s. Nargis went into semi-retirement after their marriage in 1958, and full retirement in 1967, but Sunil continued to act until the early 1990s. Their son Sanjay has pursued a successful film career since 1981 and continues to act today. Nargis died from cancer in the year her son made his debut and Sunil Dutt died in May 2005.
The Dutt family is also known for its political involvement. Sunil was elected five times to the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the Parliament of India) and, at his death, was a cabinet minister under Manmohan Singh. Nargis was a nominated member of the Parliament's upper house, Rajya Sabha, and died in office in 1981. After Sunil's death, their daughter Priya Dutt ran for, and was elected to, Sunil's vacant seat in the Lok Sabha.
Nargis-Sunil Dutt's granddaughter and Sanjay Dutt's niece Sanchi Kumar (daughter of Kumar Gaurav and Namrata Dutt) is married to Indian film director Kamal Amrohi's grandson Bilal Amrohi.
Jaddanbai
Anwar Hussain (actor – son of Abdul Rashid and Jaddanbai)
Akhtar Hussain (son of Jaddanbai)
Zahida Hussain (actor – daughter of Akhtar Hussain)
Nilesh Sahay (son of Zahida Hussain)
Nargis (late daughter of Abdul Rashid and Jaddanbai)
Sunil Dutt (late husband of Nargis)
Priya Dutt (politician – daughter of Sunil and Nargis)
Sanjay Dutt (actor – son of Sunil and Nargis)
Richa Sharma (late wife of Sanjay Dutt)
Manyata Dutt (wife of Sanjay Dutt)
Nimai Bali (actor, nephew of Sunil Dutt [Sunil Dutt's sister's son] and cousin to Sanjay Dutt)
Sahila Chadha (actress, wife of Nimai Bali)
Fatma Begum (filmmaker- alleged wife of Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III of Sachin State)
Sultana (actress- daughter of Fatma Begum and the Nawab)
Shehzadi (actress- daughter of Fatma Begum and the Nawab)
Zubeida (actress- daughter of Fatma Begum and the Nawab)
Durr-e-shahwar Dhanrajgir (daughter of Zubeida and Maharaj Narsingir Dhanrajgir Gyan Bahadur of Hyderabad)
Rhea Pillai (actress- daughter of Raymond Pillai and Durr-e-shahwar Dhanrjgir, ex-wife of Sanjay Dutt)
Rajendra Kumar (father of Kumar Gaurav)
Kumar Gaurav (actor, son of Rajendra Kumar and husband of Namrata Dutt)
Bilal Amrohi (actor, grandson of Kamal Amrohi, son-in-law of Kumar Gaurav)
Dutta family
O. P. Dutta (filmmaker and writer)
J. P. Dutta (producer and director, son of O. P. Dutta)
Bindiya Goswami (actress and costume designer, wife of J. P. Dutta)
Dheer family
Pankaj Dheer (film and television actor)
Nikitin Dheer (son of Pankaj & Anita, film and television actor)
Kratika Sengar (wife of Nikitin Dheer, television actress)
G
Ganguly family
Ashok, Kishore, and Anoop Kumar have all acted in the film industry. Their family is related to the Mukherjee family through the marriage of Sashadhar Mukherjee to their only sister Sati Devi. The family is also related to the Ray-Ganguly-Bose family through the first wife of Kishore Kumar, Ruma Guha Thakurta, who is a niece of Bijoya Ray.
Ashok Kumar
Preeti Ganguly (daughter of Ashok Kumar)
Rupa Ganguly (daughter of Ashok Kumar)
Aroop Kumar (Son of Ashok Kumar)
Deven Verma (son-in-law of Ashok Kumar via marriage to elder daughter Rupa Ganguly)
Bharati Jaffrey (actress, daughter of Ashok)
Anuradha Patel (actress, daughter of Bharathi and granddaughter of Ashok Kumar)
Kanwaljit Singh (husband of Anuradha)
Kiara Advani (actress, step-granddaughter of Bharathi Jaffrey)
Sidharth Malhotra (actor, husband of Kiara)
Anoop Kumar (actor and first younger brother of Ashok Kumar)
Kishore Kumar (actor and singer, youngest brother of Ashok and Anoop)
Ruma Guha Thakurta (first wife of Kishore Kumar)
Amit Kumar (singer, son of Kishore Kumar and Ruma Guha Thakurta)
Madhubala (second wife of Kishore Kumar)
Yogeeta Bali (third wife of Kishore Kumar)
Leena Chandavarkar (fourth wife of Kishore Kumar)
Gautam family
Mukesh Gautam (Punjabi film director)
Yami Gautam (actress, daughter of Mukesh) + Aditya Dhar (writer, director, lyricist)
Surilie Gautam (actress, sister of Yami)
Ghatak family
Manish Ghatak (eldest son of Suresh Chandra Ghatak, Bengali poet and novelist)
Mahasweta Devi (daughter of Manish Ghatak & Dharitri Devi, niece of Ritwik Ghatak; Indian social activist and writer)
Bijon Bhattacharya (married to Mahasweta Devi, prominent Indian theatre and film personality from Bengal)
Nabarun Bhattacharya (son of Bijon Bhattacharya & Mahasweta Devi)
Parambrata Chatterjee (son of Satinath and Sunetra Ghatak Chattopadhyay – actor, director and film maker)
Ritwik Ghatak (filmmaker, script writer and actor)
Ghattameneni family
Krishna (actor, director and producer)
Vijaya Nirmala (actress and director, second wife of Krishna)
Ramesh Babu (actor and producer, son of Krishna and Indira)
Mahesh Babu (actor and producer, son of Krishna and Indira)
Namrata Shirodkar (actress, wife of Mahesh Babu)
Manjula Ghattamaneni (actress and producer, daughter of Krishna and Indira)
Sudheer Babu (actor, Son-in-law of Krishna and Indira, husband of Priyadarshini)
Gokhale family (of Vikram Gokhale)
Durgabai Kamat (first female artist in Indian film Industry)
Kamlabai Gokhale (daughter of Durgabai Kamat, first female child artist in Indian film industry)
Chandrakant Gokhale (son of Kamlabai, actor)
Vikram Gokhale (actor, son of Chandrakanta, and National award-winning actor)
Gokhale family (Mohan Gokhale)
Mohan Gokhale (actor)
Shubhangi Gokhale (actress, wife of Mohan)
Sakhi Gokhale (actress, daughter of Mohan)
Suvrat Joshi (actor, husband of Sakhi Gokhale)
Goswami family (of Hindi films)
Manoj Kumar was born as Harikishan Goswami in 1937 in Abbottabad. He started his film career in 1957. But it was films like Pathar ke Sanam and Woh Kaun Thi which gave him his fame. His career took off on a different path when he launched his production house Vishal International, making classics like Upkar, Purab aur Paschim, Roti Kapda aur Makan and Kranti which earned him the title of "Bharat Kumar". Though he is a Bollywood legend, his sons were unsuccessful in Bollywood.
Manoj Kumar (actor, producer and director)
Kunal Goswami (actor – son of Manoj Kumar)
Goswami family (of Assamese films)
Moloya Goswami (actress)
Nishita Goswami (actress – daughter of Pradip Goswami and Moloya Goswami)
Ahuja Family (Govinda's Family)
Arun Kumar Ahuja (father of Govinda)
Nirmala Devi (mother of Govinda)
Govinda (son of Arun and Nirmala)
Tina Ahuja (daughter of Govinda)
Krushna Abhishek (comedian, actor, nephew of Govinda)
Kashmera Shah (actress, wife of Krushna)
Arti Singh (actress, sister of Krushna Abhishek and niece of Govinda)
Vinay Anand (nephew of Govinda)
Ragini Khanna (actress, sister of Amit and niece of Govinda)
Soumya Seth (actress, cousin of Krushna Abhishek, Arti, Amit and Ragini)
Kumkum, half-sister of Nirmala Devi (same father)
Gulzar family
Gulzar (lyricist, writer and director)
Raakhee Gulzar (actress – wife of Gulzar)
Meghna Gulzar (director – daughter of Gulzar and Rakhee)
H
Haasan–Ratnam family
Originated in Tamil Nadu, Kamal Haasan and Mani Ratnam are two of the biggest names in the industry.
Kamal Haasan, Actor, film producer, film director, screenwriter, playback singer, lyricist, television presenter, choreographer, dancer, philanthropist & politician
Vani Ganapathy, actress; ex-wife of Kamal Haasan.
Sarika Thakur, actress; ex-wife of Kamal Haasan.
Shruti Haasan, actress & singer; daughter of Kamal Haasan and Sarika.
Akshara Haasan, actress; daughter of Kamal Haasan and Sarika.
Gautami Tadimalla, actress; ex-partner of Kamal Haasan.
Charuhasan, actor; brother of Kamal Haasan.
Suhasini, actress; daughter of Charuhasan and Komalam.
Mani Ratnam, director; husband of Suhasini.
G. Venkateswaran, producer (d. 2003); brother of Mani Ratnam.
G. Srinivasan, producer (d. 2007); brother of Mani Ratnam.
Chandrahasan, producer (d. 2017); brother of Kamal Haasan.
Anu Haasan, actress; daughter of Chandrahasan.
J
Jaffrey family
Jagdeep (actor and comedian(Note:-famous for Surma Bhopali-Iconic Sholay Movie)
Javed Jaffrey (actor, comedian, host, son Of Jagdeep)
Naved Jaffrey (actor, dancer, host, son Of Jagdeep, brother of Javed Jaffrey and uncle of Meezan Jafri)
Meezaan Jafri (actor, son of Javed and grandson of Jagdeep)
er – daughter of Jeetendra)
Nitin Kapoor (cousin of Jeetendra)
Jayasudha (actress and politician – wife of Nitin Kapoor) (see Nidudavolu family)
Abhishek Kapoor (director and actor – nephew of Jeetendra)
K
Kapoor family (of Prithviraj Kapoor)
The oldest family in the industry, the Kapoor family, has been in the industry since 1926, starting with Dewan Bisheswar Kapoor and his son Prithviraj Kapoor. His descendants have carried on with the family tradition of acting. Raj Kapoor, Shammi Kapoor, Shashi Kapoor, Rishi Kapoor, Karisma Kapoor, Kareena Kapoor, and Ranbir Kapoor are the success stories from the Kapoor clan. Others who tried their hand with less success include Rajiv Kapoor (Raj's son), and Karan Kapoor and Kunal Kapoor (Shashi's sons). Shashi Kapoor's daughter, Sanjana Kapoor, with brother Kunal, has been successfully running Prithvi Theatre, founded in 1944 by Prithviraj Kapoor.
Raj Kapoor married Krishna Malhotra, sister of actor Prem Nath from Malhotra family. Raj's grandson and Ritu Nanda's son, industrialist Nikhil Nanda, married Shweta Bachchan, daughter of Amitabh Bachchan from the Bachchan family. Raj's granddaughter Kareena Kapoor married Saif Ali Khan from the Pataudi family. Raj Kapoor's maternal cousin, actor Jugal Kishore Mehra, married actor/singer Anwari Begum, the lead actor of the first Punjabi film Heer Ranjha.
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Kapoor family (of Surinder Kapoor)
Surinder Kapoor was the one who introduced his family to the world of Bollywood. Surinder Kapoor started his career as Geeta Bali's secretary and went on to become a producer. He also happens to be a distant cousin of Prithviraj Kapoor. He served as president of the Film & Television Producers Guild of India for six years. He married Nirmal Devi and has four children – Boney, Anil, Reena and Sanjay Kapoor.
Surinder Kapoor
Boney Kapoor (son of Surinder Kapoor and Nirmal Kapoor)
Mona Shourie Kapoor , Ex-wife of Boney (d.2012)
Sridevi, actress;Wife of Boney (d.2018)
Arjun Kapoor (son of Boney Kapoor and Mona Shourie Kapoor)
Anshula Kapoor (daughter of Boney Kapoor and Mona Shourie Kapoor)
Janhvi Kapoor (daughter of Boney Kapoor and Sridevi)
Khushi Kapoor (daughter of Boney Kapoor and Sridevi)
Anil Kapoor (son of Surinder Kapoor and Nirmal Kapoor), married to Sunita Bhavnani
Sonam Kapoor Ahuja (daughter of Anil Kapoor and Sunita Kapoor)
Rhea Kapoor (daughter of Anil Kapoor and Sunita Kapoor)
Harshvardhan Kapoor (son of Anil Kapoor and Sunita Kapoor)
Sanjay Kapoor (son of Surinder Kapoor and Nirmal Kapoor), married to Maheep Sandhu
Shanaya Kapoor (daughter of Sanjay Kapoor and Maheep Sandhu)
Jahaan Kapoor (son of Sanjay Kapoor and Maheep Sandhu)
Reena Kapoor Marwah (daughter of Surinder Kapoor and Nirmal Kapoor)
Sandeep Marwah, Husband of Reena.
Mohit Marwah (son of Sandeep Marwah and Reena Kapoor Marwah)
Kapoor family (of Shakti Kapoor)
Shakti Kapoor + Shivangi Kolhapure (sister of actress Padmini Kolhapure and member of the Mangeshkar-Hardikar-Abhisheki family)
Shraddha Kapoor (actress – daughter of Shakti Kapoor and Shivangi Kolhapure)
Siddhanth Kapoor (actor – son of Shakti Kapoor and Shivangi Kolhapure)
Kapur–Pathak–Shah family
Shanta Gandhi (1917–2002) – theatre director, dancer (sister of Dina Pathak)
Dina Pathak (née Gandhi) (1922–2002) – Theatre and film actor (mother of Ratna Pathak and Supriya Pathak)
Ratna Pathak (born 1957) – television and film actress, elder daughter of Dina Pathak, wife of Naseeruddin Shah
Naseeruddin Shah (born 1950) – film and theater actor (formerly married Parveen Murad, a.k.a. "Manara Sikri," sister of actor Surekha Sikri)
Imaad Shah (b.1986 ) – singer, songwriter, film actor (son of Naseeruddin Shah and Ratna Pathak)
Vivaan Shah (born 1990) – film actor (son of Naseruddin Shah and Ratna Pathak)
Mohommed Ali Shah (born 1979) – theatre and film actor; son of Zameer Uddin Shah and thus nephew of Naseeruddin Shah
Supriya Pathak (born 1961) – theatre and film actress, younger daughter of Dina Pathak, wife of Pankaj Kapur
Pankaj Kapur (born 1954) – theatre, television and film actor, formerly married to Neelima Azeem
Neelima Azeem (born 1959) – television and film actress, married three times, including to actors Pankaj Kapur and Rajesh Khattar
Shahid Kapoor (born 1981) – film actor (son of Pankaj Kapur and Neelima Azeem)
Ishaan Khatter (born 1995) – film actor (son of Rajesh Khattar and Neelima Azeem)
Manoj Pahwa (born 1963) – film and television actor (married to Seema Pahwa, father-in-law of Sanah Kapur)
Seema Pahwa (born 1962) – film and television actress and a filmmaker
Sanah Kapur (born 1993) – film actor; daughter of Pankaj Kapur and Supriya Pathak; wife of Mayank Pahwa
Mayank Pahwa – film actor (spouse of Sanah Kapur and son of Manoj Pahwa and Seema Pahwa)
Kaushal family
Sham Kaushal (Action director in Indian films - winner of five 5 Filmfare Awards for Best Action Director, husband of Veena Kaushal).
Veena Kaushal (wife of Sham Kaushal)
Vicky Kaushal (Film actor - elder son of Sham Kaushal, husband of Katrina Kaif)
Katrina Kaif (Film actress - wife of Vicky Kaushal)
Sunny Kaushal (Film actor - younger son of Sham Kaushal)
Khan family (of Feroz Khan)
Feroz Khan
Fardeen Khan
Natasha Wadhwani, Daughter of Mumtaz (actress)
Sanjay Khan
Zayed Khan
Sussanne Khan
Akbar Khan
Khan family (of Salim Khan)
Story and script writer Salim Khan has written and produced some of the most successful Bollywood films. He formed a pair with Javed Akhtar and began writing as Salim–Javed. The duo have written many commercially and critically successful movies all through the 1970s and 1980s like Yaadon Ki Baraat (Nasir Hussain), Deewaar (Yash Chopra), Dostana (Yash Johar), Sholay (Ramesh Sippy), Mr. India (Shekhar Kapoor) and Don – The Chase Begins Again (Farhan Akhtar). His eldest son, Salman, made his film debut at the age of 22 with Biwi Ho To Aisi (1988) and went on to become one of the most successful superstars of Indian cinema. His second son, Arbaaz Khan, is a successful actor and filmmaker whose films include Dabangg and Dabangg 2. His third son, Sohail Khan, is an actor and film maker. His elder daughter Alvira is married to the actor Atul Agnihotri. It is only his second daughter Arpita who has kept away from the field of films.
Salim Khan met and married Sushila Charak, a Hindu woman from a Marathi family. She took the name 'Salma Khan' and they have four children (three sons and a daughter). In later life, Salim Khan married Helen, and took her as his second wife while still married to Sushila/Salma. This arrangement was accepted by both ladies, and by all four of his children by his first wife. The family then adopted a girl, Arpita Khan, who was formally adopted by Helen and raised amid the entire family in their family home in Galaxy Apartments, Bandra Bandstand, Mumbai. Eventually, the two daughters (Alvira and Arpita) married and left to raise their own families, while two of the three sons (Arbaaz and Sohail) married. They live together, as per the Joint family traditions.
Salim Khan - (Actor, Scriptwriter) (born 1935)
Salma Khan (née Sushila Charak) (first wife of Salim Khan) (born 1942)
Helen (second wife of Salim Khan) (born 1939)
Salman Khan (eldest son of Salim Khan and Sushila Charak Khan) (born 1965)
Arbaaz Khan (director, producer, writer and actor – second son of Salim Khan and Sushila Charak Khan) (born 1967)
Malaika Arora (model and actress), Ex-wife of Arbaaz Khan and sister of actress Amrita Arora
Sohail Khan (director, producer, writer and actor – third son of Salim Khan and Sushila Charak Khan) (born 1970)
Alvira Khan Agnihotri, daughter of Salim Khan and Sushila Charak Khan, wife of Atul Agnihotri
Atul Agnihotri, film director, producer and writer; husband of Alvira Khan Agnihotri
Khan-Banu family (of Yusuf Khan aka Dilip Kumar and Saira Banu)
Dilip Kumar was born as Muhammad Yusuf Khan in 1922, and became one of India's most acclaimed actors. His wife Saira Banu is also a successful actress in Bollywood. His brother Nasir Khan, brother-in-law K. Asif and nephew Ayub Khan are among those who followed him into films, and his wife Saira Banu is also related to several film personalities.
Dilip Kumar (actor, producer)
Saira Banu (actress) – wife of Dilip Kumar
Dilip Kumar's relatives
K. Asif (filmmaker) – his wife, Akhtar Asif, was the sister of Dilip Kumar. His other wife was actress Nigar Sultana.
Nazir Ahmed Khan (actor), cousin and also brother-in-law of K. Asif; his first wife Sikandara Begum was K. Asif's sister
Nasir Khan (actor) – brother of Dilip Kumar, father of actor Ayub Khan.
Begum Para (actress) – wife of Nasir Khan, mother of actor Ayub Khan.
Ayub Khan (actor) – son of Nasir Khan and Begum Para, nephew of Dilip Kumar
Zarina Sultana- sister of Begum Para
Rukhsana Sultana (social activist) – daughter of Zarina Sultana
Amrita Singh (actress) – daughter of Rukhsana Sultana and ex-wife of actor Saif Ali Khan (see Pataudi family)
Saira Banu's relatives
Naseem Banu (actress), mother of Saira Banu and grandmother of actress Shaheen Bano.
Saira Banu (actress) – wife of Dilip Kumar
Sumeet Saigal (ex-husband of Shaheen Banu)
Sayesha Saigal (actress, daughter of Sumeet Saigal and Shaheen Banu Saigal)
Arya (actor, producer, husband of Sayyeshaa)
Khan–Hussain family (of Nasir Hussain)
The Khan–Hussain family starts with Nasir Hussain, who is the eldest man in the family. He is a veteran film writer, producer and director and made his writing debut with the 1953 super hit, Anarkali for Filmistan studios, where he joined as a freelancer. Nasir later went on to start his own production house named Nasir Hussain Films and made evergreen cult films like Teesri Manzil and Yaadon Ki Baraat. Nasir Hussain's younger brother, Tahir Hussain, is also a filmmaker and has been a producer for a number of films. Nasir Hussain has two children; an elder son Mansoor Khan, and a younger daughter, Nuzhat Khan. Nuzhat Khan married a convert to Islam, Anil Pal, an engineer, and had one child, Imran Khan. Tahir Hussain and his wife Zeenat Hussain have four children; Farhat Khan, Aamir Khan, Faisal Khan, and Nikhat Khan. Nasir Hussain launched both Mansoor Khan and Aamir Khan with the 1988 blockbuster Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak, which was produced by Nassir Hussain Films and co-written by the two brothers in their younger days. Aamir Khan's younger brother Faisal Khan is also an actor. Mansoor Khan and Aamir Khan later launched their nephew, Imran Khan, with Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na in 2008. The film was made under the Aamir Khan Productions banner and was a huge hit.
Tahir Hussain (producer, director and screenwriter – father of Aamir Khan)
Aamir Khan (actor, director and producer – uncle to Imran Khan)
Kiran Rao (producer, screenwriter and director – former wife of Aamir Khan). Actress Aditi Rao Hydari is a cousin of Kiran Rao.
Faisal Khan (actor – brother of Aamir Khan)
Nikhat Khan (producer – sister of Aamir Khan)
Nasir Hussain (producer, director and screenwriter – uncle of Aamir Khan and grandfather to Imran Khan)
Mansoor Khan (producer, director and screenwriter – cousin to Aamir Khan and uncle of Imran Khan)
Tariq Khan (actor – cousin to Aamir Khan and uncle of Imran Khan)
Imran Khan (actor – his mother Nuzhat is the daughter of Nasir Khan and cousin of Aamir Khan)
Raj Zutshi (actor – step-father of Imran Khan as the second husband of Nuzhat Khan Zutshi)
Khan family (of Zakaria Khan)
The family line starts with actor Zakaria Khan, known by his screen name as Jayant. His sons are actors Amjad Khan, (popular for his role of Gabbar Singh in the film Sholay) and Imtiaz Khan (worked in films like Yaadon Ki Baaraat, Dharmatma, Dayavan).
Jayant (Zakaria Khan)
Amjad Khan, son of Zakaria Khan. He married Shehla Khan.
Shadaab Khan, son of Amjad Khan and Shehla Khan
Seemaab Khan, son of Amjad Khan and Shehla Khan
Zafar Karachiwala, husband of Ahlam Khan
Imtiaz Khan, son of Zakaria Khan.
Krutika Desai Khan, wife of Imtiaz Khan
Khanna-Kapadia-Bhatia family
Khanna family starts with Rajesh Khanna (born Jatin Khanna;) he was a Bollywood actor, film producer and politician. He is referred to as the "first superstar" and the "original superstar" of Indian cinema. He starred in 15 consecutive solo hit films in the period 1969 to 1971, still an unbroken record.
Rajesh Khanna and Dimple Kapadia's daughters Twinkle Khanna, and Rinkle Khanna have also acted in the industry. Twinkle Khanna left the industry after her marriage to actor Akshay Kumar.
Rajesh Khanna + Dimple Kapadia (actress – wife of Rajesh Khanna)
Twinkle Khanna (actress – eldest daughter of Rajesh Khanna and Dimple Kapadia) + Akshay Kumar (actor and producer – son-in-law of Rajesh Khanna and Dimple Kapadia)
Rinkle Khanna (actress – younger daughter of Rajesh Khanna and Dimple Kapadia) + Sameer Saran
1 daughter
Simple Kapadia (costume designer and actress – sister of Dimple Kapadia)
Khanna family (of Vinod Khanna)
Vinod Khanna was a popular and successful actor in the film industry in the 1970s and 1980s. His sons Akshaye and Rahul both pursued a film career though Rahul has not been as successful.
Vinod Khanna
Rahul Khanna (eldest son of Vinod Khanna and Gitanjali Taleyarkhan)
Akshaye Khanna (youngest son of Vinod Khanna and Gitanjali Taleyarkhan)
Khote family
Durga Khote was a Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipient known for her performances in Mughal-e-Azam, Bobby, Bidaai etc.
Durga Khote
Vijaya Mehta (actress, daughter-in-law of Durga Khote and Widow of Harin Khote)
Anahita Uberoi (actress, daughter of Vijaya Mehta from her second marriage)
Shubha Khote (actress and niece to Durga Khote)
Bhavna Balsavar (actress, daughter of Shubha Khote, wife of Karan shah)
Viju Khote (actor and nephew to Durga Khote)
Kher family
The Kher family includes the actors Anupam Kher and Kirron Kher. Their son is actor Sikander Kher. Anupam has starred in the international hit Bend It Like Beckham. He recently won the best actor award given by the Karachi International Film Festival for Maine Gandhi Ko Nahin Mara (2005). Kirron Kher won the Bronze Leopard Award given by the Locarno International Film Festival for Khamosh Pani: Silent Waters (2003).
Anupam Kher
Raju Kher (actor – brother of Anupam Kher)
Kirron Kher (actress – wife of Anupam Kher)
Sikander Kher (actor – son of Kirron Kher from first marriage)
Khurrana/Khurana family
Ayushmann Khurrana – actor, singer, writer.
Aparshakti Khurana (actor, singer – brother of Ayushmann Khurrana).
Konidela–Allu family
Konidela Siva Sankara Vara Prasad, known by his stage name Chiranjeevi, is one of the most prominent Telugu actors of all time. He introduced his brothers, Nagendra Babu and Pawan Kalyan, as well as his son, Ram Charan, to Tollywood and is the head of his family.
Chiranjeevi (actor, producer and former Minister of Tourism)
Ram Charan (actor, producer – son of Chiranjeevi)
Allu Arjun (actor, son of Allu Aravind)
Allu Sirish (actor, son of Allu Aravind)
Allu Aravind (producer, distributor) – son of Allu Ramalingaiah and brother-in-law of Chiranjeevi (see Allu family)
Sai Dharam Tej (actor – son of Vijaya Durga, nephew of Chiranjeevi)
Nagendra Babu (actor, producer – brother of Chiranjeevi)
Varun Tej (actor, producer – son of Naga Babu)
Niharika Konidela (actress, producer – daughter of Naga Babu)
Pawan Kalyan (actor, producer – brother of Chiranjeevi)
Kumar family
Gulshan Kumar was the founder of the T-Series (Super Cassettes Industries Ltd.), the best known as music label in India, and an Indian Bollywood movie producer.
Gulshan Kumar
Bhushan Kumar (son of Gulshan Kumar) + Divya Khosla Kumar (actress and producer – wife of Bhushan Kumar)
Tulsi Kumar (singer – younger daughter of Gulshan Kumar)
Krishan Kumar (younger brother of Gulshan Kumar) + Tanya Singh - wife of Krishan Kumar
L
Lulla family
Mr. Arjun Lulla was the founder of Eros International, best known for film distribution and production in India.
Arjan Lulla, founded Eros International in 1977, life president of the company
Kishore Lulla, chairman and director of Eros International plc, the first Indian Media & entertainment company listed on New York stock exchange; also known for being the biggest overseas Bollywood distributor
Sunil Lulla, chairman and executive director of Eros International; produced over 40 films for the company including several hits
Krishika Lulla, wife of Sunil Lulla; Bollywood producer
M
Mumtazullah Khan family
Uzra Butt (sister of Zohra Sehgal)
Zohra Sehgal (sister of Uzra Butt)
Kiran Segal (daughter of Zohra Sehgal)
Samiya Mumtaz (grandniece of Zohra Sehgal and Uzra Butt)
Hajrah Begum - Indian Politician and sister of Zohra and Uzra
Kumud Mishra - Husband of Ayesha, Hindi movie and theatre actor
Malhotra family
Prem Nath (actor)
Bina Rai (actress – wife of Prem Nath)
Prem Krishen (actor – son of Prem Nath and Bina Rai)
Akanksha Malhotra (actress - daughter of Prem Krishen)
Sidharth Malhotra (director - son of Prem Krishen)
Kailash Nath (son of Prem Nath and Bina Rai)
Adiraj Malhotra (son of Kailash Nath)
Rajendra Nath (actor – brother of Prem Nath)
Narendra Nath (actor – brother of Prem Nath)
Krishna Malhotra (sister of Prem Nath) - married to Raj Kapoor
Uma Malhotra (sister of Prem Nath) - married to Prem Chopra
Malik family
Sardar Malik was a music director in the 1900s.
Anu Malik (music composer – son of Sardaar Malik)
Anmol Malik (singer and songwriter – elder daughter of Anu Malik)
Abu Malik (music composer – second son of Sardaar Malik)
Aadar Mallik (singer and songwriter – son of Abu Malik)
Daboo Malik (music director – youngest son of Sardaar Malik)
Amaal Mallik (music composer – elder son of Daboo Malik)
Armaan Malik (singer – younger son of Daboo Malik)
Hasrat Jaipuri (lyricist – brother-in-law of Sardaar Malik)
Mukesh-Mathur family
Mukesh Chand Mathur (singer) + Sarla Trivedi Raichand
Nitin Mukesh (singer – son of Mukesh)
Neil Nitin Mukesh (actor – son of Nitin Mukesh and grandson of Mukesh) + Rukmini Sahay
Mammootty family
Mammootty (three time National Award winning actor and film producer, who has acted in films in five languages including Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Hindi. He predominantly works in Malayalam cinema)
Ibrahim Kutty (actor - Brother of Mammootty)
Dulquer Salmaan (actor and producer, who has acted in films in four languages including Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and Hindi. He predominantly works in Malayalam cinema. He is the younger son of Mammootty)
Maqbool Salmaan (actor – nephew of Mammootty (Son of Ibrahim Kutty))
Ashkar Saudan (actor – nephew of Mammootty)
Mangeshkar-Hardikar-Abhisheki-Kolhapure extended family
Deenanath Mangeshkar (musician and theatre actor – son of Ganesh Bhatt Bhikoba (Bhikambhatt) Navathe Hardikar (Abhisheki)) by his mistress Yesubai
Lata Mangeshkar (singer – eldest daughter of Deenanath Mangeshkar)
Hridaynath Mangeshkar (music composer and singer – son of Deenanath Mangeshkar)
Meena Khadikar (singer – daughter of Deenanath Mangeshkar)
Usha Mangeshkar (singer – daughter of Deenanath Mangeshkar)
Asha Bhosle (singer – daughter of Deenanath Mangeshkar) + Ganpatrao Bhosle (first husband of Asha Bhosle) and R. D. Burman (composer – second husband of Asha Bhosle and son of S. D. Burman, grandson of Nabadwipchandra Dev Burman, and great-grandson of Ishan Chandra Manikya)
Varsha Bhosle (daughter of Asha and Ganpatrao Bhosle)
Balawantrao (Bhikambhatt) Abhisheki (half-brother of Deenanath Mangeshkar and son of Ganesh Bhatt Bhikoba (Bhikambhatt) Navathe Hardikar (Abhisheki))
Jitendra Abhisheki (musician)
Shounak Abhisheki (vocalist, composer, son of Jitendra Abhisheki)
Daughter of Ganesh Bhatt Bhikoba (Bhikambhatt) Navathe Hardikar (Abhisheki) + Pandit Krishnarao Kolhapure
Pandharinath Kolhapure (musician) married to Nirupama Kolhapure
Padmini Kolhapure (actress – middle daughter of Pandharinath Kolhapure), married Bollywood producer Tutu Sharma
Tejaswini Kolhapure (actress – youngest daughter of Pandharinath Kolhapure), married to Pankaj Saraswat
Shivangi Kolhapure (oldest daughter of Pandharinath Kolhapure), married to Shakti Kapoor (actor)
Siddhanth Kapoor (actor – son of Shakti and Shivangi Kapoor)
Shraddha Kapoor (actress, singer, designer, lyricist – daughter of Shakti and Shivangi Kapoor)
Mohanlal family
Mohanlal (Actor, Producer, Director, Playback Singer)
Pranav Mohanlal (actor, playback singer – son of Mohanlal)
K.Balaji (producer – father-in-law of Mohanlal)
Suresh Balaje (executive producer – brother-in-law of Mohanlal)
Y. G. Mahendra (actor, dramatist, co-brother of Mohanlal)
Mukherjee family
Manas Mukherjee (music director – son of Jahar Mukherjee)
Shaan (singer, actor and TV presenter – son of Manas Mukherjee)
Sagarika (singer and actress – daughter of Manas Mukherjee)
Mukherjee–Samarth family
The Mukherjee-Samarth family has been active in the film industry since the 1940s when Rattan Bai, mother of actor Shobhana Samarth, acted in various films. The current members of the Mukherjee-Samarth family who working are in the industry are actor Tanuja, actress Kajol (married to actor Ajay Devgan), actress Rani Mukerji (married to producer-director Aditya Chopra), actress Tanisha, and actor Mohnish Behl. Their family married into the Ganguly brothers. The Mukherjees and Samarths came together by marriage between producer Sashadhar Mukherjee and Sati Devi's son Shomu Mukherjee and Shobhana Samarth and director Kumarsen Samarth's daughter Tanuja. Shomu Mukherjee's cousin married the sister of actor Debashree Roy.
Murad–Rai-Aman family
Murad (actor)
Raza Murad (actor, son of Murad)
Sabiha Murad
Sanober Kabir (actress and niece of Raza Murad and Daughter of Sabiha)
Faruk Kabir (director, producer and son of Sabiha) + Rukhsar Rehman (actress and wife of Faruk)
Sonam (actress, niece of Raza Murad and ex-wife of Rajiv Rai, Daughter of Talat) + Rajiv Rai (director, writer, son of Gulshan Rai)
Amanullah Khan a.k.a. Amanullah Aman (script writer and brother-in-law of Murad)
Zeenat Aman (actress, daughter of Amanullah Khan)
Mazhar Khan (actor, husband of Zeenat Aman)
N
Nandamuri family
Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao (28 May 1923 – 18 January 1996), popularly known as NTR, was a Telugu cinema actor, filmmaker and politician who served as Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh over three terms.
Basavatarakam-1st wife of NTR
Nandamuri Harikrishna (actor, politician)-Son of NTR
Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao (grandson of NTR, S/O Nandamuri Harikrishna)
Nandamuri Kalyan Ram (grandson of NTR, S/O Nandamuri Harikrishna)
Nandamuri Balakrishna (actor, politician)-Son of NTR
Daggubati Purandeswari (politician)-D/O NTR
Nara Chandrababu Naidu (ex. Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh)-H/O Bhuvaneshwari
Nara Lokesh (politician, Cabinet Minister of Andhra Pradesh) (grandson of SR NTR, S/O Nara Chandrababu Naidu)
Nandamuri Taraka Ratna (grandson of SR NTR, S/O Nandamuri Mohankrishna)
Lakshmi Parvathi (author, politician)-2nd W/O NTR
Narayan Jha family
Udit Narayan Jha (singer)
Aditya Narayan Jha (singer and TV presenter – son of Udit Narayan)
Shweta Agarwal (Actress and W/O Aditya Narayan)
O
Oberoi family
Suresh Oberoi (actor)
Vivek Oberoi (actor – son of Suresh and Yashodhara Oberoi)
Akshay Oberoi (actor – nephew of Suresh Oberoi)
Neha Uberoi (tennis player - niece of Suresh)
Shikha Uberoi (tennis player - niece of Suresh)
P
Pal family
Bipin Chandra Pal (Indian nationalist, associated with the trio "Lal, Bal and Pal".)
Niranjan Pal (playwright, screenwriter and director – son of Bipin Chandra Pal)
Colin Pal (actor, technician, journalist and publicist – son of Niranjan Pal)
Deep Pal (cinematographer – son of Colin Pal)
Pandit family
Pandit Maniram (guru and elder brother of Pandit Jasraj)
Pandit Dinesh – Musician
Pandit Jasraj (Indian classical vocalist)
Durga Jasraj (television presenter, daughter of Pandit Jasraj)
Jatin Pandit (composer, son of Pandit Pratap Narayan)
Lalit Pandit (composer, son of Pandit Pratap Narayan)
Sulakshana Pandit (playback singer and actress – daughter of Pandit Pratap Narayan)
Vijayta Pandit (actress and playback singer – daughter of Pandit Pratap Narayan)
Aadesh Shrivastava composer, husband of Vijayata Pandit
Shweta Pandit (singer, daughter of Sulakshana and Vijayta Pandit's brother tabla player Vishwaraj Pandit)
Shrraddha Pandit (singer, daughter of Vishwaraj Pandit)
Yash Pandit (actor, son of Vishwaraj Pandit)
Hemlata (singer – cousin of Sulakshana Pandit)
Jagdish Prasad (Indian classical vocalist – cousin of Sulakshana Pandit)
Samrat Pandit (Indian Classical vocalist – son of Jagdish Prasad)
Santhosh Pandit (Indian Film actor/producer/director/scriptwriter/lyricist/composer/choreographer/singer/editor/philanthropist – son of Wawwal Pandit)
Pataudi family
Actress Sharmila Tagore married Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, a cricket player in the 1960s and 70s and the 9th and last Nawab of Pataudi. Two of their children, Saif Ali Khan and Soha Ali Khan, and a granddaughter, Sara Ali Khan, are actors. Both Saif and Soha have also married actors.
Patel family
Ameesha Patel (actress – daughter of Asha Patel and Amit Patel).
Ashmit Patel (actor and reality show star – son of Asha Patel and Amit Patel)
Puri family
Madan Puri was probably the best known villain in the film industry in the 1950s and late 1960s. His brothers Chaman Puri and Amrish Puri were also very successful actors of their time.
Chaman Puri (elder brother of Madan Puri and Amrish Puri)
Madan Puri (second brother of Chaman Puri and Amrish Puri)
Amrish Puri (youngest brother of Chaman Puri and Madan Puri)
K.L. Saigal (singer, first cousin of Madan and Amrish Puri)
Vardhan Puri (actor, grandson Of Amrish Puri)
Pilgaokar
Sachin Pilgaonkar (actor, director, producer)
Supriya Pilgaonkar (actor, wife of Sachin Pilgaokar)
Shriya Pilgaonkar (actor, daughter of Sachin and Supriya Pilgaokar)
R
Rajinikanth family
Rajinikanth (actor, producer and screenwriter)
Latha Rajinikanth (film producer and playback singer – wife of Rajinikanth)
Aishwarya Rajinikanth (film producer and director – daughter of Rajinikanth)
Dhanush (actor) - husband of Aishwarya, son-in-law of Rajinikanth
Soundarya Rajinikanth (graphic designer, film producer and director – daughter of Rajinikanth)
Ravi Raghavendra (actor – father of Anirudh, brother-in-law of Rajinikanth)
Anirudh Ravichander (music director and playback singer – nephew of Rajinikanth)
Y. G. Mahendra (actor, dramatist, brother-in-law of Latha Rajinikanth, co-brother of Rajinikanth)
Madhuvanti Arun (actress, daughter of Y. G. Mahendra)
Vyjanthimala (actress, cousin of Y. G. Mahendra)
K. Balaji (producer, Y. G. Mahendra's uncle)
Mohanlal (actor, son-in-law to K. Balaji)
Pranav Mohanlal (actor, son of Mohanlal)
Rajkumar family
Rajkumar (actor and singer)
Parvathamma Rajkumar (producer – wife of Rajkumar)
Shiva Rajkumar (actor – son of Rajkumar)
Bangarappa (politician) - father-in-law of Shiva Rajkumar
Kumar Bangarappa (actor and politician) - brother-in-law of Shiva Rajkumar
Madhu Bangarappa (politician) - brother-in-law of Shiva Rajkumar
Raghavendra Rajkumar (actor and producer – son of Rajkumar)
Vinay Rajkumar (actor – son of Raghavendra Rajkumar)
Puneeth Rajkumar (actor and playback singer – son of Rajkumar)
Ramkumar (actor – son-in-law of Rajkumar)
S. A. Chinne Gowda (producer – brother of Parvathamma Rajkumar)
Vijay Raghavendra (actor – son of S. A. Chinne Gowda)
Sriimurali (actor – son of S. A. Chinne Gowda)
Prashanth Neel (director- brother-in-law of Sriimurali)
Ramsay family
The Ramsays were seven brothers who had achieved cult status for producing low-budget horror films through the 1970s and 1980s, going into the early 1990s. They were the sons of Fatehchand Uttamchand (FU) Ramsay, who had shifted to Mumbai (then Bombay) from Karachi after Partition with his wife and children. In Karachi, the Ramsays (originally Ramsinghani) ran a radio store, and set in Mumbai before shifting to movies. FU Ramsay tried his hand first, but was a failure. But the brothers hit upon the idea of making horror films, starting with Do Gaz Zameen Ke Neeche in 1972. They chose low-cost options, with family members handling most of the key bits of the film-making process. They chose actors who didn't cost too much and shot at actual locations instead of spending on sets. Some of their best known films are Darwaza, Dahshat, Purana Mandir and Veerana. Though they stopped making films together afterwards, most of them continued to be a part of the movies, especially Keshu Ramsay, who produced a number of successful films with Akshay Kumar and made the brilliant Khakee in 2004. The brothers – apart from Keshu – did, however, come together to produce the extremely successful Zee Horror Show, which later became Anhonee, for television.
Tulsi Ramsay (producer and director, son of F. U. Ramsay)
Keshu Ramsay (cinematographer and producer, son of F. U. Ramsay)
Aryeman (actor, producer and director, son of Keshu Ramsay)
Shyam Ramsay (director and producer, son of F. U. Ramsay)
Kiran Ramsay (sound recordist and producer, son of F. U. Ramsay)
Randhawa family
Dara Singh (Wrestler and Actor)
Vindu Dara Singh (actor, son of Dara Singh)
Farah Naaz (actress, ex-wife of Vindu Dara Singh)
Randhawa (wrestler and actor, brother of Dara Singh)
Malika (wife of Randhawa)
Shaad Randhawa (actor, son of Randhawa)
Mumtaz (actress, sister of Malika related to Roshan Khan family)
Roy Kapur—Balan family
Siddharth Roy Kapur (film producer, brother of Aditya and Kunaal)
Aditya Roy Kapur (actor, brother of Siddharth and Kunaal)
Kunaal Roy Kapur (actor, brother of Siddharth and Aditya)
Vidya Balan (actress, wife of Siddharth Roy Kapur)
Ray–Ganguly–Bose family
Dwarkanath Ganguly (Social reformer, father-in-law of Upendrakishore Ray)
Kadambini Ganguly (one of the two first female graduates & one of the two first female physicians in India, second wife of Dwarkanath Ganguly)
Upendrakishore Ray (writer, painter, violinist, composer, technologist and entrepreneur)
Hemendra Mohan Bose (entrepreneur, brother-in-law of Upendrakishore Ray)
Sukumar Ray (poet, story writer and playwright – son of Upendrakishore Ray)
Shukhalata Rao (author, daughter of Upendrakishore Ray)
Leela Majumdar (author, daughter of Surama Devi and Pramada Ranjan Ray, the younger brother of Upendrakishore Ray)
Nitin Bose (film director, son of Hemendra Bose)
Kartick Bose, Ganesh Bose, Bapi Bose (Bengal cricketers, brothers of Nitin Bose)
Malati Ghoshal (singer, daughter of Hemendra Bose)
Satyajit Ray (film director, producer, screenwriter, writer, music director and lyricist – son of Sukumar Ray)
Bijoya Ray (actor and playback singer – wife of Satyajit Ray)
Sandip Ray (director – son of Satyajit Ray and Bijoya Ray)
The family is related to Ganguly family through the marriage of Ruma Guha Thakurta, niece of Bijoya Ray to Kishore Kumar.
Roshan family
Rakesh Roshan is an actor from the 1960s to the 1980s. Towards the 1990s he started directing films. His brother Rajesh is a music director and does the music for Rakesh's films. Rakesh introduced his son Hrithik Roshan in 2000 in the film Kaho Na Pyaar Hai which made Hrithik a star overnight.
Feroz Khan was an actor, film editor, producer and director from the 1960s till 2007. He introduced his son Fardeen Khan in 1998 in the film Prem Aggan for which Fardeen won the Filmfare Best Debut Award.
Mumtaz was a popular actress in the 1960s–70s. She left the industry after her marriage to Mayur Madhvani.
Roshan
Ira Roshan (wife of Roshan)
Rakesh Roshan (first son of Roshan and Ira)
Hrithik Roshan (son of Rakesh)
Hrehaan Roshan (first son of Hrithik)
Hridhaan Roshan (second son of Hrithik)
Rajesh Roshan (second son of Roshan and Ira)
Roy–Bhattacharya family
Bimal Roy (director)
Rinki Bhattacharya (writer, columnist and documentary filmmaker – daughter of Bimal Roy)
Basu Bhattacharya (director – son-in-law of Bimal Roy)
Aditya Bhattacharya (actor, director, screenwriter and producer – son of Basu Bhattacharya)
Sanjana Kapoor (theatre personality and actress – ex-wife of Aditya Bhattacharya)
Roy–Joshi–Irani family
Praveen Joshi (theater artist and director)
Sarita Joshi (stage, television, film actress, wife of Praveen)
Ketki Dave (actress, daughter of Sarita Joshi-Note:-Aa raa raa-Amdani Athanni)
Purbi Joshi (TV and voice-dubbing actress – daughter of Sarita Joshi)
Arvind Joshi (theatre artist, writer and brother of Praveen Joshi)
Sharman Joshi (actor – son of Arvind Joshi and son-in-law of Prem Chopra)
Manasi Joshi Roy (theater artist, daughter of Arvind joshi)
Rohit Roy (actor, husband of Mansi Joshi Roy)
Ronit Roy (actor, brother of Rohit Roy)
Padmarani (sister of Sarita Joshi, Gujrathi and Hindi film actress)
Daisy Irani (actress – daughter of Padmarani)
Aruna Irani (paternal niece to Padmarani's husband, film and television actress)
Sandesh Kohli (husband of Aruna Irani, director and writer)
Adi Irani (brother of Aruna Irani)
Indra Kumar (brother of Aruna Irani)
Firoz Irani (brother of Aruna Irani)
Ratheesh family
Ratheesh
Parvathy Ratheesh (actress, daughter of Ratheesh)
Padmaraj Ratheesh (actor, son of Ratheesh)
Rajda family
Mulraj Rajda (writer, director and actor)
Sameer Rajda (son of Mulraj and Indumati, actor)
S
Samanta family
Shakti Samanta (director and producer)
Ashim Samanta (director, producer, son of Shakti Samanta)
Sapru family
Sapru (character actor)
Tej Sapru (actor, son of Sapru)
Priti Sapru (actress, daughter of Sapru)
Reema Rakesh Nath (script writer, director, daughter of Sapru)
Karan Nath (actor, son of Reema and Rakesh Nath)
Vinay Sapru (Writer, Director and Producer in Hindi Film Industry)
Sen family
Suchitra Sen
Moonmoon Sen (daughter of Suchitra)
Raima Sen a.k.a. Raima Dev Varma (elder daughter of Moonmoon)
Riya Sen a.k.a. Riya Dev Varma (younger daughter of Moonmoon)
Sen family (of Chidananda Dasgupta)
Chidananda Dasgupta (director)
Aparna Sen (actor and director – daughter of Chidananda Dasgupta)
Mukul Sharma (sports journalist – ex-husband of Aparna Sen)
Konkona Sen Sharma (actress – daughter of Aparna)
Ranvir Shorey (actor – ex-husband of Konkana)
Shetty family (of Suniel Shetty)
Suniel Shetty (actor, producer and entrepreneur)
Mana Shetty (entrepreneur and fashion designer – wife of Sunil Shetty)
Athiya Shetty (actress – daughter of Sunil Shetty)
K. L. Rahul (cricketer - husband of Athiya Shetty)
Ahan Shetty (actor– son of Sunil Shetty)
Shetty family (of Shilpa Shetty)
Shilpa Shetty (actress, producer, model and businesswoman)
Raj Kundra (husband of Shilpa Shetty, businessman, producer)
Shamita Shetty (actress – sister of Shilpa Shetty)
Shweta Shetty (singer – cousin of Shilpa Shetty and Shamita Shetty)
Shetty family (of MB Shetty)
M. B. Shetty worked as an action director and actor in Hindi and Kannada cinema. He had a towering personality with a bald head, often cast as the villain brought down by heroes half his size. Some of his memorable films include China Town, An Evening in Paris, Kismat, Lalkar, Aankhen, Don and Kalicharan.
His two sons Rohit Shetty and Hriday Shetty are well-known film directors. Rohit has directed films like Golmaal series, Singham series and Chennai Express. Whereas Hriday directed Plan and Pyaar Ka Twist.
M. B. Shetty (action director and actor)
Rohit Shetty (son of M.B.Shetty, director, producer and cinematographer)
Hriday Shetty (son of M.B.Shetty, director)
Shroff family
Jackie Shroff (actor, film producer)
Ayesha Dutt (former actress and model, current film producer)
Tiger Shroff (actor – eldest son of Jackie Shroff)
Shantaram–Pendharkar–Talpade family
Shantaram and Bhalji Pendharkar are considered to be biggest names in Indian film Industry and also both of them were Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipients. Indian film personalities like Master Vinayak, Nanda, Siddharth Ray belongs to this family. Pandit Jasraj was son-in-law of Shantaram. Bollywood veterans like Jayashree T. also belong to this family.
V. Shantaram (director, producer and actor)
Sandhya Shantaram (actress, third wife of Shantaram)
Kiran Shantaram (producer, son of Shantaram)
Rajshree (actress, daughter of Shantaram)
Pandit Jasraj (vocalist, son-in-law of Shantaram and belongs to Pandit family)
Ranjana Deshmukh (actress, niece to Sandhya Shantaram)
Durga Jasraj (daughter of Pandit Jasraj)
Siddharth Ray (actor, grandson of Shantaram)
Shantipriya (actress, wife of Siddharath Ray)
Bhanupriya (actress, sister of Shantipriya)
Bhalji Pendharkar (film maker, maternal cousin of Shantaram)
Baburao Pendharkar (elder brother of Bhalji, famous film personality)
Master Vinayak (actor, brother of Bhalji)
Prabhakar Pendharkar (writer, son of Bhalji)
Nanda (actress, daughter of vinayak)
Jayshree T. (actress, sister-in-law of Nanda)
Shreyas Talpade (actor, nephew of Jayashree and Radhika
Sinha family
Shatrughan Sinha (actor and politician)
Poonam Sinha (actress and producer)
Luv Sinha (actor, son of Shatrughan and Poonam Sinha)
Sonakshi Sinha (actress, daughter of Shatrughan and Poonam Sinha)
Bhavna Ruparel (actress, cousin of Luv, Kush and Sonakshi)
Pooja Ruparel (actress, sister of Bhavna)
Sivakumar family
Sivakumar (actor and social activist)
Suriya (actor, producer, singer and social activist, elder son of Sivakumar)
Jyothika (actress, producer, wife of Suriya)
Karthi (actor, Younger Son of Sivakumar)
Brindha Sivakumar (singer, dubbing artist, daughter of Sivakumar)
K. E. Gnanavel Raja (Producer, Distributor, cousin of Suriya and Karthi)
S R Prabhu (Producer, Distributor, cousin of Suriya and Karthi)
Sippy family
G. P. Sippy (producer and director)
Ramesh Sippy (director, son of G. P. Sippy)
Kiran Juneja (actress, wife of Ramesh Sippy)
Rohan Sippy (director, producer, son of Ramesh Sippy)
Suman family
Shekhar Suman
Adhyayan Suman
Sukumaran family
Sukumaran (actor and producer, Mollywood character actor)
Mallika Sukumaran (actress, wife of Sukumaran)
Indrajith Sukumaran (actor, son of Sukumaran and Mallika Sukumaran)
Poornima Indrajith (actress, fashion designer, Wife of Indrajith Sukumaran)
Prarthana Indrajith (actress, playback singer, elder daughter of Indrajith and Poornima)
Prithviraj Sukumaran (actor, director, producer, singer, second son of Sukumaran and Mallika Sukumaran)
Suresh Gopi family
Suresh Gopi (actor)
Gokul Suresh (actor, son of Suresh Gopi)
T
Tandon–Makijany family
Ravi Tandon (director and producer)
Raveena Tandon (actress, model, producer – daughter of Ravi Tandon)
Mac Mohan (actor – maternal uncle of Raveena Tandon)
Manjari Makijany (writer, director, producer – daughter of Mac Mohan)
U
Uppalapati family
Uppalapati Krishnam Raju (actor)
Prabhas (actor, Krishnam Raju's nephew)
V
Varma family
Originating in the Punjab Province of British India, six brothers, all sons of Laxmidas and Hakumdai Chawla, changed their last name to Varma after moving to Bombay to enter the movie industry. The six brothers produced and distributed Hindi films and their descendants, both biological and those married into the family, continued this endeavor while making other contributions to the film industry as well.
See also
Hindi cinema content lists
List of entertainment industry dynasties
Nepotism in India
References
Further reading
External links
Dynasties scorch silver screen – The Times of India
Hindi film families
Hindi Film Clans
Film clans
Clans
Film
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20American%20Football%20Federation
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New Zealand American Football Federation
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New Zealand American Football Federation, abbreviated NZAFF, is the recognised national body for American Football in New Zealand.
Member leagues
Currently, there are three leagues in New Zealand. Each is affiliated to the governing body.
American Football Auckland
American Football Wellington
American Football Canterbury
National team
The New Zealand Steelblacks are the national team of New Zealand, formerly known as the New Zealand Ironblacks.
A list of various NZ representative teams through the years
NZ team names will vary depending on governing body.
1983 NZ All-Stars vs US Armed Forces All-Stars
1985 NZGFA team was selected but never played due to no opponent.
1986 NZ Warriors vs William Jewel College, Missouri
1986 NZ vs USA Eagles. NCAA Division 3 Selection
1987 NZ vs Pacific Lutheran Selection, Washington
1987 NZ Warriors vs Queensland Taipans, game 1
1987 NZ Warriors vs Queensland Taipans, game 2.
1988 NZ vs Augsburg College, Minnesota
1991 NZ Warriors vs Queensland Taipans
1991 South Auckland Raiders vs. Gridiron Victoria
1992 NZ Warriors vs Gustavus Adolphus College
1992 Wellington Capitals vs Doane College, Nebraska
1992 Wellington Giants vs Doane College, Nebraska
1993 NZ Gladiators vs Queensland Taipans
1996 NZ Haka vs Australian Outback
1996 Wellington Hurricanes vs Doane College, Nebraska
1997 Wellington Strom vs Doane College, Nebraska
1997 NZ Haka vs Australian Allies
1997 NZ Haka vs Australian Bushrangers (ANZAC Bowl)
1997 NZ All-Stars vs Dixie State University, Utah
1997 NZ All-Stars vs Snow College, Utah
1997 NZ All-Stars vs Ricks College, Idaho
1998 NZ Haka vs Australian Allies
1999 NZ Haka (Down Under Bowl)
2001 NZ Haka vs Queensland (Australia)
2001 NZ Haka vs Arizona All-Stars
2001 NZ Haka Colts vs Kentucky All-Stars
2001 NZ Haka vs NW USA All-Stars
2003 NZ Haka vs Victoria (Australia)
2003 NZ Haka Colts vs Victoria (Australia)
2003 NZ Haka Colts vs. Kentucky All-Stars
2003 NZ Haka Colts vs Tennessee All-Stars
2003 NZ Haka Colts vs Australia (Oceana Bowl)
2003 NZ/AUS (TDU/Arena) vs Quad City Steamwheelers
2003 Auckland Vulcans vs Dioane College, Nebraska
2003 NZ Iron Blacks vs. Australia
2003 NZ Iron Blacks Colts vs Australia
2005 NZ Overstayers (Arena) vs Central Valley Coyotes
2005 NZ Iron Blacks vs Australian Outback
2009 NZ Overstayers (Arena) vs Milwaukee Iron
2009 NZ Iron Black Colts vs Australia (JWC Qualifier).
2009 NZ Iron Black Colts vs Canada (JWC, Canton, Ohio).
2009 NZ Iron Black Colts vs Germany (JWC, Canton, Ohio).
2009 NZ Iron Black Colts vs France (JWC, Canton, Ohio).
2015 NZ Steel Blacks Colts vs Australia (JWC Qualifier).
2016 NZ Steel Blacks vs. American Samoa
2016 NZ Steel Blacks Colts vs Australia
History
American Football has been played in New Zealand in an organised form since 1982. Early scrimmages reportedly taking place as far back as 1971 at Kelston Boys High school and run by "The Godfather" of NZ football, George O'Scanlon. The first reported game was in 1975 between a team in Auckland known as the ADC Cowboys who travelled to Hamilton for a one-off game against a team from Church College.
The scrimmages in Auckland continued and would go on to see the formation of the Metro Lions and Henderson Rangers clubs. There were 4 original clubs formed in 1982, based in Auckland; South Auckland Saints, Metro Lions, Henderson Rangers and North Shore. 2 of those clubs remain today, the Saints as South Auckland Raiders and the Mountain Lions as Metro Lions. Much later competition was started in Wellington and other clubs were formed in places like Whangarei, Tauranga, Hamilton, Wanganui, Palmerston North and Levin.
The game today sees the continued growth of the game in Canterbury, Hawkes Bay and Nelson.
1940's exhibition football was played in wartime New Zealand, with games put on by US serviceman during WW2. Reported games were played in both Auckland and Wellington between rival US warships.
1949 sees the first reported NZ football player to make a US college team. Joe Hapi from the Hawkes Bay area appears on the BYU Cougars football team as an offensive lineman.
1964 saw exhibition football played in Gisborne as elders of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints put on a game complete with full equipment for the locals. Kaiti Trojans played the Te Hapara Packers.
Once again in the late '70s, elders of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints introduced football to the Polynesian communities in Auckland and Hamilton, which would lead to the early scrimmages and the competition in Auckland as we know it today.
1983 saw the San Francisco 49ers draft high-profile USC linebacker Riki Ellison. Riki's presence in the NFL would help promote the game to NZers and prove that Kiwis could make it in professional American Football.
During the late 80's NZ Football received unprecedented media coverage when TV3 began to broadcast NFL highlights packages and Sky Sports would televise the Super Bowl live. The then NZGFA sports information director Ed Mason's work, especially in the newspaper print media was essential to spreading the word that American Football had now well and truly arrived in NZ. Ed Mason went on to become a founding member of NZ Baseball and was inducted into the NZ Baseball Hall Of Fame. Ed Mason is also a Life Member of the Metro Lions American Football Club.
There have been a succession of governing bodies for the sport with the current NZAFF being recognised by the NZ Government and with membership from all of the regions playing football; Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington and Christchurch. Twice in its history, there have been organisational splits with competing leagues being formed. In the late 1980s there was the NZ Gridiron Football Association and the NZ American Football League, in the late 1990s and early 2000s there was Gridiron New Zealand and the NZ American Football Association. On both of these occasions, the leagues rejoined each other and overcame their differences.
1989 saw former NZAFL founder George O'Scanlon establish the ISSI for athletes in Australia, which would go on to introduce the Down Under Bowl concept in the Southern Hemisphere. A tournament NZ would eventually send teams to Australia to compete in. Down Under Bowl directors George O'Scanlon and former Utah State University head coach and BYU special teams coach Chris Pella were instrumental in bringing numerous football programs to NZ in the 1980s and creating countless pathways for NZ football players who wanted pursue the game further in the US.
Gridiron NZ saw the introduction and much-needed promotion of age grades to American Football in NZ, a component essential to its continued growth over the years.
The Canadian Football League has also seen a number of athletes with NZ roots make an appearance on rosters over the years. Luc Mullinder, Will Hinchcliff and Johan Asiata.
Likewise, there has also been a number of athletes appearing on NFL rosters in last few years with NZ roots including Stephen Paea (Bears, Redskins, Browns), Tevita Finau (Jets, Texans), Kona Schwenke (Seahawks), Rhett Ellison (Vikings) BYU rugby convert Paul Lasike (Cardinals, Bears). Others to try out for NFL spots over the years include Will Hinchcliff (Redskins), Nic Purcell (Eagles), Joe Tuineau (Jets), Johan Asiata (Bears) and Abe Markowitz (Seahawks), Andrew Motu'apuaka (Jacksonville Jaguars)
American Football Auckland Club Profiles
There have been a number of clubs in New Zealand since the game's inception, only 2 original clubs remain but some of the others have been:
Metro Lions:
Originally known as the Mountain Lions. A foundation club that ran out of Potters Park in Mount Eden. Founding and life members included Pose Tafa, Willie-John Stowers and the late Peter Tua'i. To their credit they continue to this day and are one of the most successful clubs in the country. They are the Metro Lions and were one of the first club to supply players to US College football and the NFL. Most notable was Mark Nua who received a full football scholarship to play at the University of Hawaii. Mark Nua was drafted in the NFL by the Detroit Lions before eventually landing on the San Diego Chargers roster. Mark also played in the World League of American Football for the Sacramento Surge. Also attending the University of Hawaii was sprinter and part-time actor John Freeman. Another of the pioneer Metro Lions to attend college was Toa Sagapolu who played for the University of California Berkeley, playing in the famous Citrus Bowl in 1992 in Orlando. Former Toa Samoa and NZ Warriors rugby league player Shannon Stowers also attended Utah State University. Arena Football player and NZ AF2 agent Jason Vaka spearheaded a large group of Metro Lions and NZ athletes to play in the AF2 leagues. More recently William Hodgman attended Arizona Western College. Also Houston Noema, City College of San Francisco Rams and Lone Toailoa Isara, Mt San Antonio College and University of California Berkeley. The club today is based out of Grey Lynn Park. Colours: Black jerseys and silver pants.
South Auckland Raiders:
A founding club who were originally named the South Auckland Saints. Foundation members included Lawrence Tafa, Arthur Beazley, and Colin Tavui. When the Auckland league first split into two in the early 1980s, they changed their name to the Xerox Raiders and changed their colours to purple and silver. Initially heavily influenced by members of the Morman church who supplied coaching and local players. Former Tongan RWC player Joe Tuineau who attended SE Missouri University spent time on the NY Jets roster. Colours: Red with white numbers and black pants, later white jerseys with orange numbers and pants.
Henderson Rangers:
A founding club and under the direction of NZ gridiron pioneer, the late George O’Scanlan. George O'Scanlon reportedly ran a football team at Kelston Boys High School back in the 1970s but failed to find any opposition. O'Scanlon continued to organize games and scrimmages through the late '70s that lead to the formation of both the Henderson Rangers and Metro Lions clubs. They also provided players to the US College system. Former Manu Samoa and Auckland rugby star Timo Tagaloa was the first NZ athlete to receive a full football scholarship to Utah State University. Also JC college and rugby league player Robert Marsom who spent time at Eastern Utah and El Camino colleges. Henderson Rangers continued as a successful club for many years before folding in the early 2000s. Colours: Dark Green with white numbers, gold pants and helmets, later royal blue jerseys with white numbers and red trim, blue pants with red and white stripes, red helmets.
North Shore:
North Shore was one of the 4 founding clubs in NZ football. Essentially it was based out of Long Bay College where an American teacher Wes Edwards put together a very good team. Star players included Joe Fepuleai, David Woods and Nick Leger, both of whom would go on to play for the Roskill Rams and Mt Albert Mustangs. While lacking in size, they did the basics well, especially the sweep with their quick backs. The club lasted for only a few years before folding and several players joining other established teams. Colours: Red with yellow numbers and white pants.
Roskill Rams:
The first of the expansion clubs founded by Tony Andrews with the assistance of Mark Nua and Wayne Wright and was made up mainly of former Metro Lions players. Was very successful in their first season taking out the league championship, continued as a strong club until the late 1980s when players left en-masse to form the Mount Albert Mustangs. Notable player included another former Manu Samoa rugby star Sam Kaleta who reportedly went to University of Arizona before returning to rugby. Also former NZ Maori All Black Paul Tuoro. Former team kicker Michael Chalberg would be the rare recipient of a full football scholarship to the University of Minnesota. Struggled for many years after that before folding in the early 90s. Brothers Ritch and Chris Tia attended Snow College in Utah, before returning to play for the Metro Lions after the Rams folded. Colours: Forest Green jerseys with white numbers, pants and helmets, later, red jerseys with white numbers, pants and helmets, later, royal jerseys with white numbers and pants.
Manurewa Miners:
Returning home from the states, ex-college linebacker Eddie Tavae established the South Auckland Club with huge support from his parents, sons and partner.
The Manurewa squad quickly gained a solid following due to the colourful roster of league and rugby stars turning out to play the up-and-coming sport...from League players like Kiwi and Auckland star Francis Leota, Fox Memorial Club dominating players like Peter and John Fue...from Rugby International and national celebrity Paul Tuoro...Rugby local hero Kere Maihi and another returning former US college player Rob Billington.
Dave Dixon, the Pukekohe born played for the Miners...moved to the US on a scholarship...drafted by the National Football League New England Patriots. On the winning Super Bowl roster for the Dallas Cowboys and then played for the Minnesota Vikings where he retired after an 11 year career.
Assisting Coach Tavae were two former Metro Lions players Ray Coulson and Ray Hinkes...the key to why the team was established was to create a club to bring the talents known in the south an opportunity to be seem...the club worked on sponsorships and fundraisers to alleviate the stresses on players for fees and acquired equipment from colleges in the states who donated and sent it to the NZ based club...Miners Football team played on for five seasons
Team colours were Bottle Green Jerseys with gold numbers and Gold pants with green white green stripes.
Manukau City Stallions:
Founded by former Metro Lions and South Auckland Saints player Don Macleod and fellow Saints player Tony Fuimaono. At the time of formation they were the southernmost club in the country, despite only being situated 30 minutes south of the harbour bridge. They were based in Manukau City and attracted a good player base and following from that area. Benefitted from the fact that the founder was the official Rawlings representative in NZ. Former player Parrish Macleod played football at Orange Coast College before transferring to University of the Pacific. Colours: Sky blue jerseys and pants, white numbers and helmets.
Tip Tip Bulldogs:
Another fiercely competitive team from the power base of South Auckland. Founding members include John Tavae, Tom and Roy Bourke, John Rima, Moe Faaofo and Mose Petaia. Bulldogs were also managed by Rona and Lafuga Lokeni.
Papatoetoe Wildcats:
Originally formed as part of the NZAFL expansion by Pose Tafa and known then as the Central Pirates.The initial squad was a mixture of Roskill Rams and Metro Lions players who went back to their old clubs when the NZGFA competition restarted. Based out of Penrose High School. Eventually they changed their name to the East Auckland Wildcats when the 2 leagues merged and are now better known as the Papatoetoe Wildcats. Winning the Auckland competition in the 2016 and 2017 season they are on the way to being one of the most successful clubs in New Zealand. Their first US college player was Houdini Nua who attended University of Utah. Colours: Red jerseys, black pants and black helmets.
Waitemata Rebels:
Another of the inaugural NZAFL expansion teams, which was essentially the Henderson Rangers team represented in a different competition. Colours: All white strip.
North Shore Guardians:
NZAFL expansion North Shore team. Coached by Dixon Lupo. Colours: Dark blue jerseys and white pants.
Northland Nuggets:
A Whangarei-based team founded by Northland Rugby legends the Going family. Team was set up with the assistance of the South Auckland Saints but only lasted a short time before folding.
Hamilton Hawks:
Founded and originally coached by Canadian Ralph Lovell and carried on by the Williams family. Another successful expansion club from the mid-'80s which remains the power base of football in the Waikato region. Consistently competitive club through the decades at all age group levels.
Mount Albert Mustangs:
Formed in the late 1980s with a large number of members from the Roskill Rams and immediately started a 7-year dynasty where they reigned as champions. A strong family emphasis was the key to the club's success with a great line up of athletes including the Fepuleai's, Rawhiti's, Opetaia's, Legers, Seumanu's, Amiatu's amongst many others. Colours: Maroon jerseys with gold numbers, pants and helmets.
North Shore Knights
A North Shore club founded by former South Auckland Raiders pioneer Colin Tavui. Another spin-off from the NZAFL.
Waikato Spears:
A club formed with a combination of Hamilton Hawks and Mustangs players. Another overnight powerhouse who dominated the league for a few years before folding. The club re-emerged again in the Australian Capital Territories competition as the Central Spears.
Wolverines:
A South Auckland team that was started by Eddie and John Tavae. Always very strong and physical. Played in black with yellow trim, had the ripping claw decal on their black helmets.
Central Cougars
Based out of Mt Roskill. Also formerly known as the Central Jaguars. An amalgamation of players from the Roskill Rams and Wolverines when both clubs folded in the late 90s. Played in Pittsburgh Steelers colors of black, white and yellow.
North Shore Bears:
One of a procession of teams that formed and folded in short order on Auckland's North Shore. Based by the harbour bridge at Stafford Park and played in a replica of the Cleveland Browns distinctive uniform.
Waipuna Sharks:
The Waipuna Sharks were based in the Glen Innes, Mount Wellington area. Their formation, playing and coaching success was based around Wayne Boyd who was an early star running back playing for Henderson Rangers. Played in navy blue with silver pants.
Manukau City Islanders:
Another very strong and physical side, populated in the main [as the name suggests] by Pacific Islanders. They were a powerhouse for a number of years but tended to lack discipline on the field and that resulted in their demise. Despite trying to get back up and running a few times, they failed to do so. Navy blue jerseys and pants with gold numbers, navy helmets with a big gold roman letter I on the side.
Hamilton Bulls:
A late 90s expansion team in the Hamilton area. Lasted a few years before folding.
Tamaki Lightning:
The Tamaki Lightning was started in 1999 as one of the founding clubs of the Gridiron New Zealand (GNZ) organisation. First coached by Adam Campbell. Frustrated at how the sport of American Football was being run, this new league focused on promoting juniors football along with improving the fundamental football skills and overall general level of play.
As a result, the early years of the Tamaki Lightning were highlighted by the number of teams available to the community. Not only did they have the Premier (seniors) Team that still plays today, there was also U13, U15, U17, U19, 8-a-side, and Women's teams playing in competitions. To provide a top level of coaching to all of these teams, the first 10 years of the Lightning also featured a number of international imports from around the world – The United States, Canada, Italy, Switzerland and Austria to name a few. Andy Nordine who toured NZ with the visiting Doane College Tigers amongst others.
North Harbour Pride: The North Harbour Pride was formed in 1999 as an originating club within the Gridiron New Zealand organisation. The club began with the development of a senior team and 2 under 14 teams. For the first year and most of the second season, the head coach was ex NFL player, Mark Nua. 2001 saw North Harbour Pride importing American player / Head Coach Joe Ashfield and receiver Matt Wegge, both from Minneapolis. Founded by GNZ pioneer Wayne Wright. Former coach Joe Ashfield is currently an assistant coach with Stanford University. Since the merger of the 2 leagues, the club remains without a Seniors team, but its Juniors team remains very competitive. The club continues with the promise of senior teams to expand into the future.
North Peninsula Panthers:
West Auckland club from the 2000s
Waitakere Typhoon:
Another West Auckland club concentrating on juniors grade.
Western Wolves:
Another recent expansion team of the NZAFF era that has evolved in the new AFA competition.
JC Spartans:
Founded on the idea of Bart Tamehana-King, a senior student at James Cook High. He suggested getting an American Football team together to help keep students on the straight and narrow. Originally coached by Alex Cunnard. Based in South Auckland at Montfort Park, Manurewa. Green and white jerseys.
Papakura Kings:
Another new club founded in 2016 by Gaileen Thew. Foundation treasurer Daniel Newman secured funding from the Whanau O Tumanako Charitable Trust to get the club started. Based in Papakura. Like most new clubs, emphasis is on youth football with Juniors and Colts teams.
Otara Scorpions:
Another new club in the Juniors competition. Founded by Lani Ekepati.
References
Sports governing bodies in New Zealand
American football in New Zealand
American football governing bodies
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4952493
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadstena%20Abbey
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Vadstena Abbey
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The Abbey Pax Mariae (), more commonly referred to as Vadstena Abbey, situated on Lake Vättern in the Diocese of Linköping, Sweden, is a monastery of nuns within the Bridgettine Order. It was active from 1346 until 1595 and has been active since 1963, regaining statues as an autonomous abbey in 1991.
The abbey started on one of the farms donated to it by the king, but the town of Vadstena grew up around it. It was the motherhouse of the Bridgettine Order from 1346 to 1595.
History
Foundation and duration
The abbey was founded in 1346 by Saint Bridget with the assistance of King Magnus IV of Sweden and his Queen Blanche, who made a will donating ten farms, including that of Vadstena in Dal Hundred, Östergötland, to the abbey founded by Bridget.
The daughter of Saint Bridget, Saint Catherine, on arriving there in 1374 with the relics of her mother, found only a few novices under a Religious Superior. They chose Catherine as their abbess. She died in 1381, and it was not until 1384 that the abbey was blessed by the Bishop of Linköping. The first recognized abbess was Ingegerd Knutsdotter, granddaughter of Saint Bridget. The canonization of Saint Bridget in 1391 and the translation of her remains to the Abbey Church in 1394 added greatly to the fame and riches of her community. Prioress Christina Nilsdotter died at the abbey in 1399.
In 1400 Duke Eric of Pomerania was invested at Vadstena by his great-aunt, Queen Margaret, as King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The grave of his wife, Queen Philippa, and that of Catherine, Queen Consort of King Carl II of Sweden, are located here.
Bridgetine literature consisted mostly of translations into Swedish of portions of the Bible or of the legends of the saints. Such writings as are extant have been published for the most part by the Svenska fornskriftsällskapet (Old Swedish Texts Society) of Stockholm. The manuscripts are held in the Royal Library, Stockholm (including two in Swedish in Birgitta's handwriting), and at the University Libraries of Uppsala (which also has contemplative manuscripts in English connected with the English mission), and Lund.
Of these authors, the best known belonging to Vadstena are perhaps Margareta Clausdotter (abbess 1473, died 1486), author of a work on the family of St. Bridget (printed in "Scriptores Rerum Svecicarum", III, I, 207-16), and Nicolaus Ragvaldi, monk and General Confessor of the abbey (1476–1514), who composed several works.
The abbey was a double monastery, with both a male section of 25 monks and a female section of 60 nuns. The monks were organised under the General Confessor and the nuns under a prioress, while the abbey as a whole was organised under an abbess, who was elected by both the monks and the nuns.
The abbey was greatly favored by the royal house and nobility and became the spiritual center of the country as well as the greatest landowner in Sweden. The abbey was known to manage a hospital and retirement home, which is recorded from 1401. Early on, Vadstena Abbey supported Beghards and Beguines, the latter often aristocratic women, who had a poor reputation among Church authorities. In 1412, the abbey was ordered to expel them, but this was not done until 1506. In 1436, the bailiff Jösse Eriksson sought asylum in the abbey, but was forced out and arrested all the same. In 1419, the abbey was subjected to an investigation wherein the abbess, as well as the nuns, were accused of having accepted personal gifts and having entertained male guests at unacceptable hours.
Vadstena Abbey also had international fame as the motherhouse of all the monasteries of the Bridgettine Order, such as Reval, Nådendal, Bergen and Danzig. It kept in contact with other monasteries, performed inspections of them and sent both nuns and monks to them when they were lacking in members. In 1406, for example, an English delegation headed by Henry FitzHugh, 3rd Baron FitzHugh arrived asking for members in order to establish a Bridgettine monastery in England, and in 1415 four nuns, three female novices, one monk and one priest left the abbey under great celebrations for the foundation of what became the famed Syon Abbey.
Post-reformation and dissolution
After the introduction of the Reformation in Sweden in 1527, monastic communities in Sweden were effectively ended by the ban against accepting new novices and assets where declared crown property in accordance with the Reduction of Gustav I of Sweden. The existing members were allowed to stay until their death, to be supported by an allowance from the former property of the monastery, or to leave if they wished. Vadstena Abbey, however, was exempted from this ban and allowed to accept novices even after the Reformation, though only by special permission from the monarch. This regulation was directed to Bishop Hans Brask by King Gustav Vasa in 1527 after an elopement by a novice the previous year.
The Abbey had a favorable position because of its international fame and because of its strong ties with the Swedish nobility, due to its foundress. Many of the monks and nuns were from the nobility, including the King's own sister, Anna. It also served as a burial ground for many noble families. The nuns and monks of Vadstena Abbey were, however, allowed to leave the abbey if they wished. Among the most notable who did leave was Abbess Birgitta Botolfsdotter, who left the abbey to marry. In 1544 the King, reportedly after having been asked by some of the monks and nuns, issued an instruction which specifically allowed the nuns and monks to leave the Vadstena Abbey to marry if they wished to, and specifically forbade the abbess and the other members of the abbey from stopping them. The younger nuns were reportedly more willing to leave than the older, but the nuns in general stayed more often than the monks. In large part, this may be due to the fact that the monks, after having converted to Lutheranism, were provided with the professions of medical doctor, pastor or teacher, while the nuns seldom had a choice other than marriage. As a result, far more of them remained in the abbey than did the monks.
In May 1540, the Abbey was visited by the local Protestant bishop. The Catholic Mass and the veneration of saints were banned and Protestant services were ordered to be held in the Abbey church. The nuns are reported to have plugged their ears during the sermon. An inventory of the abbey's valuables was made by the Crown, and in 1543, most of the books and valuables were confiscated. The abbey was allowed to receive private donations on condition that the monks refrain from the public Catholic sermons they had evidently been preaching until then.
Vadstena Abbey was granted large donations by private benefactors, both from the public and from the Royal Palace. Among the notable benefactors were Queen Margaret Leijonhufvud and her family, the former Abbess Birgitta Botolfsdotter and her wealthy husband, Queen Karin Månsdotter, Anna Hogenskild and Jöran Persson. In 1549, the majority of the monks were ordered to leave the abbey. In 1550, the nuns were moved to the smaller part of the abbey, the wing previously belonging to the monks, and in 1555 the male contingent of the abbey was formally abolished and Vadstena Abbey became an all-female community. During the Northern Seven Years' War of 1567, the abbey was looted by Danish soldiers. In 1568, the number of nuns was counted as 18.
During the reign of King John III (1569–1592), the abbey was restored and enriched, and the abbess was on very good terms with the royal couple. In 1575, John III granted the abbey the right to receive novices without restriction again, and his Catholic Queen, Catherine Jagellon, made donations to it and forged contacts between the abbey and Rome. The Jesuit Antonio Possevino, as Papal Legate, reformed it in 1580. At this occasion, the abbess and the prioress were made to swear the Tridentine Oath of 1564 and the nuns were made to take their vows a second time. Possevino also left with a group of boys to be educated as Catholic priests. In 1587, the first Catholic Solemn Mass since the Reformation was held in the abbey during a visit by the King and the Crown Prince, and in 1592, a seminary to prepare Catholic priests was founded. The Catholic King Sigismund granted the Vadstena Abbey his protection at his coronation in 1594. The Papal Legate Germanico Malaspina visited the abbey and a young girl was accepted as a novice.
Later in 1594, however, the Protestant Duke Charles, later Charles IX of Sweden, took power and ordered the dissolution of Vadstena Abbey. In 1595, the majority of the remaining 11 nuns left with their abbess and, after having spent the winter in Söderköping, sailed to the Bridgettine Abbey of Danzig, Marienbrunn Abbey, in the spring of 1596. Three remaining nuns were there for the visit of Bishop Abraham Angermannus in July 1596. Of these, one married an officer and courtier of Charles IX, another one became lady-in-waiting to Queen Christina, and the last one, Karin Johansdotter, was allowed to stay in the building of the former abbey employed as a caretaker to the abbey's gardens until 1605.
When Magnus Vasa, Duke of Östergötland, died in 1595 he was buried in the abbey church. His sarcophagus can still be seen today.
Post-dissolution
After Karin Johansdotter left the former abbey in 1605, the buildings were left empty for almost 40 years. There were plans to found a university in them, but nothing came of this. In 1641, a Krigsmanshus (home for veterans) was founded for retired and invalid soldiers and their families, and was housed in the former nuns' wing for over 140 years. It also provided a school for the soldiers' children. The home was closed in 1783.
In 1795, a hospital for venereal diseases was established in both the male and female sections of the former abbey. From the 1840s, it also received patients with other illnesses and became a public hospital. The hospital was moved to modern facilities in 1909. The nuns' section of the abbey was used as a prison from 1810 to 1825, and after that as a part of the Vadstena Insane Asylum until 1951. The northern building, which contains the nuns' chapterhouse and dormitory, was going to be converted into other uses when in 1956 it was discovered to contain substantial remains of a thirteenth-century royal palace. A thorough restoration was undertaken and in 2003 it became a monastery museum, Vadstena klostermuseum.
In 1935, the religious sisters of the Birgittine Order came to Vadstena under the Saint Elisabeth Hasselblad and established a convent outside of the grounds of the former abbey. In 1963 the convent was refounded as a Bridgettine convent of the original branch of the Order (see further below).
The abbey church is still standing and contains a few memorials of St. Bridget. This devotional site, known as The Blue Church, is visited by both Lutheran and Roman Catholic pilgrims. The Blue Church contains relics of Saint Bridget in a red-coloured casket as well as medieval sculptures of Saint Bridget, Saint Anne and the Blessed Virgin Mary and other medieval art.
Three other buildings also remain: the best preserved is the royal palace/nuns' chapterhouse/museum mentioned above; the other two have been converted into a hotel and restaurant.
Modern abbey (1991– )
The present-day monastery of Bridgettine nuns, situated near the ancient abbey, is named Mary's Peace (). It was established from a Bridgettine abbey in the Netherlands, one of the very few abbeys of the original branch of the Order that still remain, and currently numbers eight nuns. In 1991 it was raised to the status of an autonomous abbey.
Chronology
1346 - King Magnus IV and Queen Blanche donate the royal estate Vadstena kungsgård to the foundation of a future monastery.
1370 - Pope Urban V gives his approval to the plan of St Bridget.
1373 - Bridget dies in Rome.
1374 - The remains of Bridget are taken to Vadstena. Her daughter, Saint Catherine of Vadstena is elected Abbess of Vadstena.
1384 - The Abbey is officially blessed.
1391 - Bridget is declared a saint.
1430 - Queen Philippa is buried here and the Church of Vadstena Abbey is blessed.
1451 - Queen Catherine is buried here.
1495 - A printing press is installed at the abbey.
1527 - The Reformation bans the Abbey from accepting any new novices without special permission from the monarch. The nuns and monks are given permission to leave the community if they so wish.
1540 - The Catholic Mass is banned and Protestant services are held in the abbey.
1541 - The Abbey is allowed to receive private donations again, but most of its assets are confiscated.
1544 - The monarch specifically bans the abbey from preventing members from leaving.
1549 - The majority of the monks are evicted from the abbey.
1550 - The Abbey church is closed to the members of the abbey, who are limited to use of the former monks' chapel. The nuns and the few remaining monks are limited to the use of only the small wing of the abbey formerly the monks' section.
1555 - The male contingent of the Abbey is dissolved, and the monks leave Vadstena Abbey.
1567 - Danish soldiers loot the abbey during the Northern Seven Years' War.
1575 - King John III of Sweden allows the Abbey to accept novices without restriction again.
1580 - The Abbey is visited and reformed by the Papal Legate Antonio Possevino.
1587 - The first public Solemn Mass since the Reformation is celebrated in the presence of the King and Crown Prince.
1592 - A seminary for the education of Catholic priests is founded.
1595 - Duke Magnus is buried here and the monastic community of the Abbey is dissolved.
1641 - A home for retired and invalid soldiers is founded in the former abbey. It is closed in 1783.
1795 - A hospital for venereal diseases is founded in the former abbey. It is closed in 1909.
1810 - A prison is founded in the former nuns' wing. It is closed in 1825.
1826 - The former nuns' wing is transformed into a lunatic asylum. That is closed in 1951.
1935 - Sisters of the Order of Saint Bridget open a rest home on the estate.
1963 - The Monastery of Pax Mariæ of Saint Bridget is opened.
1991 - The monastery is raised to the status of an autonomous abbey.
The abbesses of Vadstena
1374–1381 : Catherine of Vadstena (not officially installed)
1381–1385 : Margareta Bosdotter (Oxenstierna) (not officially installed)
1385–1403 : Ingegerd Knutsdotter (officially installed in 1388)
1403–1422 : Gerdeka Hartlevsdotter
1422–1447 : Bengta Gunnarsdotter
1447–1452 : Ingeborg of Holstein (first time)
1452–1456 : Katarina Bengtsdotter
1457–1457 : Katarina Ulfsdotter
1457–1465 : Ingeborg of Holstein (second time)
1465–1473 : Katarina Petersdotter
1473–1486 : Margareta Clausdotter
1487–1496 : Anna Paulsdotter
1496–1501 : Margareta Thuresdotter
1501–1518 : Anna Bülow
1518–1529 : Anna Germundsdotter
1529–1534 : Katarina Eriksdotter
1534–1539 : Birgitta Botolfsdotter
1539–1548 : Katarina Mattsdotter (died 1559)
1548–1553 : Margareta Nilsdotter
1553–1564 : Katarina Bengtsdotter Gylta (first time)
1564–1565 : Ingegerd Larsdotter
1565–1593 : Katarina Benktsdotter Gylta (second time)
1593–1595 : Katarina Olofsdotter
1991–2016 : Karin Adolfsson
2016– : Jenny Maria Schaub
See also
Bjärka-Säby Monastery
Pirita Convent
Christina Brask, 15th c. nun
References
C[arl] S[ilfverstolp]e ([revised by] [K.] R. G[eete]), "Vadstena kloster", in Nordisk familjebok, vol. 31 (1921), col. 263 ff.
Vadstena monastery and city
Signum svenska kulturhistoria (Swedish ): Renässansen (2005)
Register
Carl Silfverstolpe (Swedish) : Vadstena klosters uppbörds- och utgiftsbok
Wilhelmina Stålberg (Swedish) : Anteckningar om svenska qvinnor
Lennart Jörälv (Swedish): Reliker och mirakel. Den heliga Birgitta och Vadstena (2003)
(Swedish) Studier i Vadstena klosters och Birgittinordens historia intill midten af 1400-talet microform
Vadstena klosters minnesbok microform (Swedish): Diarium vazstenense
(Swedish) Historiskt bibliotek utgifvet af Carl Silfverstolpe
External links
Website of the Abbey of Mary's Peace, Vadstena
Website of the Vadstena Klostermuseum (Vadstena Monastery Museum)
Vadstena
1346 establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in Sweden
1595 disestablishments in Europe
1963 establishments in Sweden
Gothic architecture in Sweden
Christian monasteries established in the 14th century
20th-century Christian monasteries
Buildings and structures in Östergötland County
Monasteries dissolved under the Swedish Reformation
Burial sites of the House of Vasa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Sarawak%20state%20election
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2006 Sarawak state election
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The ninth Sarawak state election was held on Saturday, 20 May 2006 with nomination day on Tuesday, 9 May 2006. The election functioned to elect 71 representatives to the Sarawak State Assembly (Dewan Undangan Negeri in Malay). The eighth state assembly was dissolved by Yang di-Pertua Negeri Sarawak, Tun Abang Muhammad Salahuddin Abang Barieng by the advice of Chief Minister Abdul Taib Mahmud, on 24 April 2006.
On nomination day, Barisan Nasional won two seats without contest.
This election saw 892,537 voters eligible to cast their ballots.
The previous state election was held in 2001, when the ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) won 60 out of 62 seats in the eighth state assembly. The Democratic Action Party won one, while another went to an independent candidate. The eighth state assembly's mandate would expire on 18 November 2006, necessitating the calling of an election beforehand.
Barisan Nasional fielded candidates for all 71 seats:
35 seats by United Traditional Bumiputera Party (PBB)
19 seats by Sarawak United People's Party (SUPP)
9 seats by Sarawak Peoples Party (PRS)
8 seats by Sarawak Progressive Democratic Party (SPDP)
A total of 28 seats was contested by Sarawak National Party (SNAP), followed by People's Justice Party (PKR) (25 seats), Democratic Action Party (DAP) (12 seats), and Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (1 seat). There were 20 independents contesting for 16 seats.
Background
Sarawak is the largest state in Malaysia, comprising 124,450 square kilometers, almost as large as the Malay peninsula. In 1963, Sarawak and Sabah together with the Federation of Malaya formed a greater federation named Malaysia. Since then, Sarawak nationalism dominates in every state election. The people of Sarawak generally resented the control of the Malay peninsula on Sarawak affairs such as autonomy in decision making, dissatisfaction over the 5% allocation of oil royalty to Sarawak, and the tendencies to support local parties in Sarawak.
Since rural areas dominated Sarawak lands, the control over the rural areas is essential for electoral successes. In the 1990s, deforestation in Sarawak became a major issue whereby logging companies with close political ties to the regime were given large amount of concessions for logging. As the source of timber in Sarawak forests became depleted, oil palm plantations became a priority. The Sarawak government had encroached on the Native customary rights (NCR) lands to convert them into state lands for logging, plantations, and infrastructure developments. In return, the government promised infrastructure projects that can benefit the rural community. However, tenders for the infrastructure projects were also awarded according to party lines. Poverty in the rural areas had fostered dependence on government handouts, thus rural communities showed more loyalty to the government when compared to urban areas.
Sarawak is ethnically diverse. The Iban people is the largest group, followed by Chinese, Malay, Melanau people, Bidayuh, and Orang Ulu. The Ibans are primarily located in rural areas, the Chinese is primarily located in the urban areas; Bidayuh was traditionally rural but has been increasingly urbanised. Since the 1970s, the chief minister of Sarawak traditionally come from Melanau ethnic group. Similar to Peninsular Malaysia, delineation of constituencies and campaign issues are organised along racial lines.
Electoral system
Since formation of Malaysia in 1963, Sarawak has hold nine state elections. Since 1979, Sarawak hold state elections separately from the national parliamentary elections. Thus, Sarawak elections become a measure of support of the incumbent government before the next Malaysian general elections. Malaysian electoral system uses the first-past-the-post voting system, where winners take all. Therefore, Sarawak BN consistently won greater proportion of seats than the share of popular vote. Election Commission of Malaysia (EC) had been alleged to be politically aligned with the incumbent government since 1961. The chairman of EC is appointed by the incumbent government and is answerable to the Malaysian prime minister department.
Nomination
The Sarawak State Legislative Assembly was dissolved by chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud. The nomination date was set on 9 May 2006 with campaign period set from 10 to 19 May. This election also saw larger number of women candidates being fielded by both government and opposition parties. BN nominated six women candidates while the opposition slated four women candidates. BN has introduced 18 new faces in the election.
There were only a total of 892,537 registered voters in this election, which was less than a third of the 2.5 million total population in Sarawak.
Out of 71 seats, only 69 seats saw contests between various candidates. Two seats – namely Daro and Dalat – were won uncontested by candidates from Parti Pesaka Bumiputra Bersatu, a component party in Barisan Nasional.
Parties and leaders
Government
Sarawak Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition and its predecessor Alliance has been securing decisive victories in every state elections since the formation of Malaysia. Sarawak is also one of the five states in Malaysia where the governing BN coalition secured more than 90% of the seats in almost every election. Other states are: Malacca, Perlis, Negeri Sembilan, and Johor. Sarawak BN consists of entirely local parties: United Traditional Bumiputera Party (PBB), Sarawak United People's Party (SUPP), Sarawak Peoples Party (PRS), and Sarawak Progressive Democratic Party (SPDP). Sarawak chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud is the president of PBB. He is also the chairman of Sarawak BN. His party consists of Malay-Melanau party members. SUPP is predominantly Chinese, although the party also has several Iban members. PRS is the combination of Iban and Chinese members while SPDP is predominantly Iban. Both PRS and SPDP are either direct or indirect splinter parties from Sarawak National Party (SNAP).
Opposition
Sarawak National Party (SNAP) was a component party in Sarawak BN in 2001. However, in 2002, SNAP was grippled by a leadership crisis. It was later deregistered by the Malaysian Registrar of Societies (ROS) on 5 November 2002 due to the persistent unresolved leadership crisis. The party then filed a judicial review against the ROS decision. The review was dismissed by the High Court in September 2006. During the 2002 SNAP crisis, Sarawak Progressive Democratic Party (SPDP) was formed and admitted into Sarawak BN. SNAP then departed from BN and became an opposition party in 2004. In the same year, another component party of Sarawak BN, Parti Bangsa Dayak Sarawak (PBDS), which was a splinter party from SNAP in 1983, faced a leadership crisis and was deregistered. Sarawak Peoples Party (PRS) was formed later and admitted into Sarawak BN.
Amongst all the opposition parties in Sarawak, only Democratic Action Party (DAP) has a seat in Kidurong since 2001 election. DAP had left Barisan Alternatif (BA) before the 2001 election. It has reached an informal agreement with People's Justice Party (PKR) for the latter to contest at Padungan in return for not contesting against DAP in 2004 Malaysian general election.
Meanwhile, People's Justice Party (PKR) together with Sarawak National Party (SNAP) teamed up to form the Sarawak United Front (Barisan Bersatu Sarawak, BBS). Malaysian Dayak Congress (MDC), being one of the two parties split from the deregistered PBDS in 2004, was awaiting for registration approval from ROS. Therefore, BBS had allowed candidates from MDC to use SNAP party symbol to contest in this election. Meanwhile, Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) decided to contest in only one seat in view of voters base in Sarawak mainly consists of non-Muslims.
Most of the seats saw two corner fights with the agreement of the opposition on not contesting against each other. The number of independent candidates also dropped from the last election where only 15 seats saw the participation of the independent candidates.
Campaign
Barisan Nasional
The BN government lifted the ban of helicopter flights to ease the dissemination of manifestos in the rural areas. Sarawak BN mainly campaigned on theme of "development and stability" with messages such as "A Peaceful, Progressive and Prosperous Sarawak". BN put heavy emphasis on rural development in terms on agricultural expansion such as palm oil, pepper, and cocoa. It is stressed that continued rural development is depended upon the rural voters' political loyalty. For example, chief minister Taib Mahmud had spoken the following words to the voters at Bekenu:
Sarawak government allocated projects under the SALCRA agency (Sarawak Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority) in rural areas. Rural Growth Centres (RGC) were also opened throughout Sarawak. These centres were aimed to "create job opportunities and income". A total of RM 2.12 billion (US$0.57 billion) would be allocated exclusively for rural development. BN also linked Ninth Malaysia Plan to Sarawak development. The Malaysian federal government allocated RM 13.4 billion (US$3.62 billion) to win support in this campaign. For example, Plantation Industries and Commodities Minister Peter Chin announced his plans of boosting cocoa and pepper production in Sarawak. Awang Tengah, a senior politician from Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB) highlighated the RM400 million (US$108 million) allocation for Rural Electrification Scheme (RES) in Sarawak. Samy Vellu, Malaysian Minister of Works announced allocations for upgrading Mambong-Sejingkat road (Kuching), Miri-Lutong road (Miri), Limbang-Lawas road, and an elevated road in Miri.
A PBB leader named Abdul Wahab Aziz stressed that Mukah and Balingian only got development when Taib Mahmud represented Balingian since 2001. Since the discovery of coal in Mukah, a coal power plant was built in Balingian, an oil palm plantation was planted in Mukah, and a deep sea fishing port was built at Tanjung Manis. In Ba'kelalan (near Indonesian border of Kalimantan), BN candidate Nelson Balang emphasised regarding the risk of them being left behind for 10 to 20 years if they do not vote for BN in the next five years. The issue of connectivity of Ba'kelalan to other towns in Sarawak had also been highlighted. A road project was also politicised in Bekenu (near Miri). Besides, BN also emphasized on the importance of political stability in bringing developments to the people while saying the opposition only bring chaos to the community. Politicians from BN coalition also argued that supporting BN is also necessary in maintaining Sarawak's autonomy in decision making and with local leaders in control because Sarawak BN are consisted of local parties. A vote for the opposition will let Peninsular Malaysia to have more control over Sarawak. This election was also portrayed as the last election for the chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud. The election day coincidentally fell on the date of his birthday. Therefore, Sarawak BN regularly featured a headline read as "Give CM special birthday gift" on newspapers.
Opposition parties
Sarawak National Party (SNAP) campaigned on the Native Customary Rights (NCR) platform, arguing that BN has not been respecting Dayak NCR rights while using their lands in various development platforms. SNAP has been focusing on personalities of a Dayak long-time leader Daniel Tajem, however Daniel lost the Balai Ringin constituency eventually. Meanwhile, Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) emphasized on good governance with less corruption, better human rights protection, lower inflation, and equitable allocation of resources. PKR national advisor Anwar Ibrahim came to Sarawak for three days and highlighted these issues during his campaign. The meagre 5% oil royalty, removal of fuel subsidies, and uncertainty associated with the renewal of the 60-year land lease among the urban residents were highlighted during the PKR campaign. The PKR campaign was relied heavily on machinery and resources from Peninsular Malaysia. Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) also emphasized on similar issues with endorsement on Islamic governance. Although PAS only focus on one constituency, their own PAS candidate was not loyal to the party. Therefore, the candidate did not receive the required amount of support from party leadership to campaign.
Democratic Action Party (DAP) has the strongest campaign amongst all the opposition parties. They portrayed themselves as the watchdog of the government with the themes "Enough is enough" and "Sarawak deserves better". They also presented themselves as the probable alternative with a united team to the urban Chinese voters. Price hikes, land lease renewal problems, and corruption issues were highlighted. In response to opposition accusations, BN "approved" 835 owners in Sibu and 85 owners in Kuching to renew their land leases but only with the final approval from the Sarawak Land and Survey Department and the fees were not announced. BN labelled the oppositions such as DAP, PKR, and PAS as "West Malaysia opportunists", "liars" and "rejects". They even labelled DAP as "dangerous and poisonous". BN also labelled the opposition as the transversities welcoming Anwar Ibrahim at Kuching airport. Meanwhile, the opposition lashed back and lablled BN as "Barang Naik" (goods increase") in reference to inflation of prices of daily necessities under BN governance. The opposition also attacked the character of the chief minister Taib Mahmud. The largest opposition public meeting on the night before the polling day was at Kings Centre Shopping Plaza at Kuching, with over 5,000 voters.
Polling
On the polling day, 62.6% of the registered voters went our for voting. The election commission spent RM 31 million in this election. They used 3,889 land vehicles, 1,007 boats and 48 speedboats to reach the 1,705 polling centres staffed with 14,571 officers, 71 returning officers and 170 assistant returning
officers. Voters from rural areas such as Ba'kelalan and Telang Usan went to polls early in the morning and the polling was stopped at noon with certain polling stations opened for half an hour. DAP, SNAP, and PKR parties were able to put more polling agents to supervise voting counting at polling stations. There was no incidence of violence reported. The polling day was peaceful.
Results
By 8 pm on the same day, results started to pour in with overall results known by midnight. Barisan successfully captured 61 seats out of 71 seats, but lost a total of nine seats; eight seats to opposition and one seat to an independent. Meanwhile, the opposition managed to captured 8 seats. This was the first time since the 1987 election that the opposition made a significant inroad in a state election. SUPP, a component party in the BN coalition, is the biggest loser as it lost six seats to DAP in Chinese urban areas. SUPP almost lost all the seats in the Kuching city (Padungan, Pending, Kota Sentosa, and Batu Lintang) but able to retain one seat Batu Kawah. Meanwhile, twenty one candidates lost their deposits (garnered less than 1/8 of the total votes cast), mostly independents.
BN was managed to secure 62.8% of the popular vote in this election, a significant reduction when compared to 70.3% in the last election. Meanwhile, the opposition together won 47.2% of the popular vote. BN experienced a general drop in support from multiple ethnic groups, with the biggest loss of support from the Chinese. Younger generation have more tendency to support the opposition than the older generation. Poorer voters tend to be more receptive of the BN development promises while wealthier voters tend to sympathise the opposition. BN suffered an average of five percent decline in vote share across all constituencies. BN suffered 19 percent decline in Chinese majority seats, four percent decline in Iban and Bidayuh seats, six percent decline in mixed constituencies, and two percent increase in Malay-Melanau areas.
According to political scientist Bridget Welsh, the loss of BN support in Sarawak was attributed partially to national issues such as fuel price hike, high electricity tariffs, increased inflation, slowing of reform, and the lack of direction by the Abdullah Ahmad Badawi administration. As the media become more open under Abdullah administration, voters gain more access to information, including the opposition; thus favouring the chances of the opposition in this election. Locally, chief minister Taib long tenure in office and his exertion of political power in economy through firms allegedly linked to his family members and associates have raised concerns amongst the voters. Lack of job opportunities in the state led to out-migration of the younger people. The Chinese questioned the voice of SUPP within Sarawak BN. The SUPP handling of land leases involving oil palm plantations was seen as benefiting only a selected few and did not contribute to a wider Chinese community. Factional infighting amongst the SUPP led to sabotage of candidates during the election. DAP was seen as offering a more dynamic range of younger candidates when compared to SUPP which offered only old candidates.
Summary
Results by constituency
Controversies
During this election, DAP had made police reports at Opar, Balai Ringin, and Saribas for alleged vote-buying. The opposition also protested on postal votes that greatly favoured the incumbent government. Sarawak BN also used government machinery such as government vehicles and public officials during campaign. Public officials were expected to be rewarded for helping BN during campaign. The Sarawak media were also expected to feature news favouring the incumbent government. An NGO named "The Malaysians for Free and Fair Elections" (MAFREL) raised concerns on the discrepancies in the electoral roll where voters were registered without addresses, and a case of voter impersonation was recorded.
Aftermath
After the election, both BN and the opposition tried to build momentum in the next general election, with DAP being more optimistic about its outcomes. SUPP lost the mayoralty of the Kuching South City Council (MBKS) after their devastating defeat in the Kuching city. The mayor of the Kuching South was usually a political appointee from SUPP.
Johnichal Rayong, who won the N28 Engkilili seat on SNAP ticket, joined SUPP in December 2010, contributed another seat for BN. Dublin Unting, the state assemblyman for N29 Batang Ai, died at the Normah Medical Specialist Centre, Kuching on 24 February 2009 after a coma. This resulted in the necessity to call for a by-election. Malcolm Mussen Lamoh later successfully defended the seat for Barisan Nasional. Gabriel Adit Demong previously an independent for N43 Ngemah constituency joined PKR in November 2008. He later quit PKR and joined Parti Cinta Malaysia in December 2009. Larry Sng, who won the N54 Pelagus seat for BN, was sacked by Sarawak Peoples Party (PRS) in 2007. Although partyless, Sng is regarded as a loyal member of BN by Abdul Taib Mahmud, the chairman of Sarawak BN coalition.
References
External links
Malaysian Election Commission Official result of the election.
BERNAMA More result.
2006
2006 elections in Malaysia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Galbraith
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Peter Galbraith
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Peter Woodard Galbraith (born December 31, 1950) is an American author, academic, commentator, politician, policy advisor, and former diplomat.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he helped uncover Saddam Hussein's gassing of the Kurds. From 1993 to 1998, he served as the first U.S. Ambassador to Croatia, where he was co-mediator of the 1995 Erdut Agreement that ended the Croatian War of Independence. He served in East Timor's first transitional government, successfully negotiating the Timor Sea Treaty. As an author and commentator, Galbraith, a longtime advocate of the Kurdish people, has argued for Iraq to be "partitioned" into three parts, allowing for Kurdistan independence. Beginning in 2003, Galbraith acted as an advisor to the Kurdistan Regional Government in northern Iraq, helping to influence the drafting process of the Iraqi Constitution in 2005; he was later criticized for failing to fully disclose financial interests relevant to this role. In 2009, Galbraith was appointed United Nations' Deputy Special Representative for Afghanistan, where he contributed to exposing the fraud that took place in the 2009 presidential election in Afghanistan before being fired in a dispute over how to handle that fraud.
Galbraith served as a Democratic member of the Vermont Senate for Windham County from 2011 to 2015, and was a candidate for governor of Vermont in 2016. He is Chair of the Board of Directors of the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, the research arm of the Council for a Livable World.
Early life and education
Galbraith was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of John Kenneth Galbraith, one of the leading economists of the 20th century, and Catherine Galbraith (née Catherine Merriam Atwater). He is the brother of economist James K. Galbraith. Galbraith attended the Commonwealth School. He earned an A.B. degree from Harvard College, an M.A. from Oxford University, and a J.D. from Georgetown University Law Center.
Career
Academic career
Galbraith was an assistant professor of Social Studies at Windham College in Putney, Vermont, from 1975 to 1978. Later, he was professor of national security strategy at the National War College in 1999 and between 2001 and 2003. He is an Honorary Fellow at St Catherine's College. Oxford University. He has been a member of the Board of Trustees of American University of Kurdistan in Duhok since its establishment in 2014.
U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
Galbraith worked as a staff member for the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations from 1979 to 1993. As a staffer, he wrote several reports on Iraq and took a special interest in the Kurdish regions of Iraq. Galbraith contributed to the uncovering of Saddam Hussein's systematic destruction of Kurdish villages and use of chemical weapons after visits in 1987 and 1988. Galbraith wrote the "Prevention of Genocide Act of 1988," which would have imposed comprehensive sanctions on Iraq in response to the gassing of the Kurds. The bill unanimously passed the Senate, and passed the House in a "watered-down" version, but was opposed by the Reagan Administration as "premature" and did not become law.
During the 1991 Iraqi Kurdish uprising, Galbraith visited rebel-held northern Iraq, and narrowly escaped capture by Saddam Hussein's forces as they retook the region. His accounts were instrumental in recording and publicizing attacks on the Kurdish civilian population and contributed to the decision to create a Kurdish "safe haven" in northern Iraq. In 1992, the Kurdish parties gave Galbraith 14 tons captured Iraqi secret police documents from northern Iraq detailing the atrocities committed against the Kurds. He was involved in airlifting the documents to the United States where he deposited them in the files of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee at the National Archives. Galbraith's work in Iraqi Kurdistan was discussed in Samantha Power's Pulitzer-Prize-winning book A Problem From Hell: America and the Age of Genocide.
Ambassador to Croatia
In 1993, President Bill Clinton appointed Galbraith as the first United States ambassador to Croatia. Galbraith was actively involved in the Croatia and Bosnia peace processes. He was one of three authors of the "Z-4 plan," an attempt to negotiate a political solution to the Croatian War of Independence. Galbraith and UN mediator Thorvald Stoltenberg went on to lead negotiations which led to the Erdut Agreement that ended the war by providing for peaceful reintegration of Serb-held Eastern Slavonia into Croatia. From 1996 to 1998, Galbraith served as de facto Chairman of the international commission charged with monitoring implementation of the Erdut Agreement. Galbraith helped devise and implement the strategy that ended the 1993-94 Muslim-Croat war, and participated in the negotiation of the Washington Agreement that established the Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
During the war years, Ambassador Galbraith was responsible for U.S. humanitarian programs in the former Yugoslavia and for U.S. relations with the UNPROFOR peacekeeping mission headquartered in Zagreb. Galbraith diplomatic interventions facilitated the flow of humanitarian assistance to Bosnia and secured the 1993 release of more than 5,000 prisoners of war held in inhumane conditions by Bosnian Croat forces. Beginning in 1994, on instructions from then-President Clinton, Galbraith tacitly allowed weapons to be shipped into Bosnia through Croatia in violation of a UN arms embargo; this policy generated controversy when made public, with a Republican-led House of Representatives committee referring criminal charges against Galbraith, National Security Advisor Anthony Lake and other Clinton Administration officials to the Justice Department.<ref>U.S. Congress, Select Committee on Intelligence US Senate. [http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/1996_rpt/bosnia.htm U.S. Actions Regarding Iranian and Other Arms Transfers to the Bosnian Army, 1994–1995'’], November 1996</ref> The Select Committee also investigated Galbraith's personal life, discovering that he had dated an American journalist while a bachelor in Zagreb.
Galbraith was in Croatia's capital, Zagreb, when Serbian forces rocketed the city on May 2 - 3 1995. One of the missiles hit about a block from the U.S. Embassy in the center of Zagreb. Soon after the attack, during his visit to children hospital in Zagreb, Galbraith said: "The children hospital has been attacked. The theater has been attacked. There are four hundred children that are in the basement of this hospital. They have been put at risk from an intentional attack on this city. The only word for it is: barbaric.".
In 1995, when tens of thousands of Serb refugees were being attacked while fleeing to Yugoslavia, Galbraith joined a convoy to protect the refugees, riding on a tractor to send a message of U.S. support and earning him criticism from local Croatian media and officials.
East Timor
From January 2000 to August 2001, Galbraith was Director for Political, Constitutional and Electoral Affairs for the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET). He also served as Cabinet Member for Political Affairs and Timor Sea in the First Transitional Government of East Timor. In these roles, he designed the territory's first interim government and the process to write East Timor's permanent constitution.
During his tenure, Galbraith conducted successful negotiations with Australia to produce a new treaty governing the exploitation of oil and gas in the Timor Sea. The resulting Timor Sea Treaty gave East Timor the preponderance of control over the oil and gas resources and 90% of the petroleum, an "enormously favorable" share. Under the previous Timor Gap Treaty—considered illegal by East Timor and the United Nations—Indonesia and Australia had jointly controlled the resources and shared equally the revenues. According to United States Ambassador to the United Nations Samantha Power, "Galbraith secured a deal by which the Timorese and the Australians would create a Joint Petroleum Development Area from which the Timorese would receive 90% of the revenue and the Australians 10%, a dramatic improvement over the unfair 50-50 split that predated UN negotiations. [...] The Galbraith-led negotiations would quadruple the oil available to East Timor for sale." The negotiations are believed to be the first time the United Nations has a negotiated a bilateral treaty on behalf of a state.
Galbraith also led the UNTAET/East Timor negotiating team during eighteen months of negotiations with Indonesia aimed at normalizing relations and resolving issues arising from the end of the Indonesian occupation. As a Cabinet member, he wrote the regulations that created East Timor's National Parks and Endangered Species Law.
Involvement in Iraq's constitutional process
From 2003 to 2005, Iraq was involved in a number of negotiations to draft an interim and then a permanent constitution. In that context, Galbraith advised both the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), the two main Kurdish parties of Iraq, particularly with a view to encouraging the emergence of a strongly decentralized state. Galbraith later wrote that he had urged Kurdish leaders to take a stronger position in negotiations, suggesting that "'The Constitution should state that the Constitution of Kurdistan, and laws made pursuant to the Constitution, is the supreme law of Kurdistan.'" Galbraith later wrote that his ideas on federalism "eventually became the basis of Kurdistan's proposals for an Iraq constitution".
Galbraith favors the independence – legal or de facto – of the northern region of Iraq known as Iraqi Kurdistan. Galbraith argues that Iraq has broken into three parts (Kurd, Shiite Arab, and Sunni Arab), that there is no possibility of uniting the country, and that the U.S.'s "main error" in Iraq has been its attempt to maintain Iraq as a single entity. He has advocated for a three-part "partition" of Iraq to reflect this situation, writing, "Let's face it: partition is a better outcome than a Sunni-Shiite civil war." Outside of Kurdistan, which favors its own independence, these ideas are considered offensive to the nationalist feelings of many Iraqis.
Oil controversy
After leaving the U.S. government in 2003, Galbraith set up a consulting firm that provided negotiating and other services to governmental and corporate clients.
In 2009, an investigation by the Norwegian newspaper Dagens Næringsliv found that Galbraith had been given a large financial stake in DNO, a Norwegian oil company engaged in exploring oil reserves in the Kurdistan region of Iraq, in the spring of 2004. As a result of the provisions Galbraith had helped the Kurds win in constitutional negotiations, which gave the Kurds control over Kurdish oil revenues, Galbraith's stake in DNO had increased greatly in value. At the time of the negotiations, Galbraith had described himself as an unpaid advisor to the Kurds, making only vague references to business interests in the region.
Iraqi officials expressed concern over these revelations, suggesting they may have compromised the constitutional drafting process. Feisal al-Istrabadi, one of the main authors of Iraq's provisional constitution after the Iraq War, said he was "speechless" that an oil company had been given what he described as "a representative in the room, drafting." Abdul-Hadi al-Hassani, vice chairman of the Oil and Gas Committee in the Iraqi Council of Representatives, said that Galbraith's "interference was not justified, illegal and not right, particularly because he is involved in a company where his financial interests have been merged with the political interest." Reidar Visser, a research fellow at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, said it was "quite scandalous" that Galbraith had been receiving payment from an oil company while participating in high-level negotiation sessions.
Galbraith responded that, because he had left the U.S. government at the time of the drafting of the constitution, he was acting as a private citizen, in a merely advisory role (not actually negotiating) with no ability to force any particular provision through. He noted that he had supported Kurdish independence since long before receiving a stake in DNO, and also that the Kurdish officials who had requested his advice were aware of his financial involvement, concluding: "So, while I may have had interests, I see no conflict."
In 2010, the New York Times reported that Galbraith and another investor were together paid between $55 million and $75 million for their stakes in DNO. The director of Galbraith's 2016 gubernatorial campaign disputed these figures as too high.
Deputy U.N. envoy to Afghanistan
Galbraith, considered a close ally of Richard Holbrooke, the U.S. Special Representative to Afghanistan, was announced as the next United Nations' Deputy Special Representative for Afghanistan on March 25, 2009 but abruptly left the country in mid September 2009 at the request of UN Special Representative to Afghanistan Kai Eide following a dispute over the handling of the reported fraud in the 2009 Afghan presidential election - and on September 30, the UN announced that he had been removed from his position by Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.
In response to his firing, Galbraith told The Times, "I was not prepared to be complicit in a cover-up or in an effort to downplay the fraud that took place. I felt we had to face squarely the fraud that took place. Kai downplayed the fraud.". When Eide announced his own stepping down in December 2009, he did not do so voluntarily, according to Galbraith, though Eide has said it was a voluntary departure.
In December 2009, Kai Eide and Vijay Nambiar accused Galbraith of proposing enlisting the White House in a plan to force the Afghan president, Hamid Karzai, to resign, and to install a more Western-friendly figure as president of Afghanistan. According to reports of the plan, which was never realized, the new government would be led by the former finance minister Ashraf Ghani, or by the former interior minister Ali Ahmad Jalali. Karzai's term expired May 21, 2009, and the Supreme Court, in a controversial decision, extended until voting on August 20, 2009. Galbraith flatly denied there was a plan to oust Karzai. He said he and his staff merely had internal discussions on what to do if a runoff for the presidency were delayed until May 2010 as a result of the fraud problems and other matters. Karzai's continuation in office a full year after the end of his term would have been unconstitutional and unacceptable to the Afghan opposition. Galbraith explained that the internal discussions concerned avoiding a constitutional crisis, that any solution would have required the consent of both Karzai and the opposition, and the UN's involvement was consistent with its good offices role. He noted that Kai Eide, his chief accuser, proposed replacing Karzai with an interim government a month later in a meeting with foreign diplomats in Kabul.
The United Nations announced that Galbraith had initiated legal action against the United Nations over his dismissal. The United Nations has an internal justice system under which such challenges can be lodged. Martin Nesirky, spokesman for the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, said the reason Galbraith "was terminated was that the secretary general determined that such action would be in the interests of the organization".
Humanitarian efforts
Reunification of Yazidi families
On March 3, 2021, Peter Galbraith successfully negotiated the reunion of children born to young Yazidi women who had been kidnapped by the Islamic State in 2014 and used as sex slaves (Sabbaya). After the last ISIS stronghold of Barghouz fell in 2019, the Yazidi women and children were moved to al Hol Camp along with the ISIS women and children. The Yazidi House, an Yazidi NGO, searched the camps for the Yazidi women. Once found, the Yazidi House took away the children born to ISIS men and sent the women back to Iraq. The children went to an orphanage in North east Syria. In spite being promised access to their children, the mothers had no contact with the children and were unable to get help from the UN or NGOs. Galbraith negotiated the reunion with the Kurdish authorities in both Iraq and Syria and escorted the mothers into Syria where they saw their children for the first time in two years. After Galbraith signed for the children, the mothers and children went to Iraqi Kurdistan where they await third country resettlement, Eventually Galbraith reunited 26 children with 17 mothers.
Rescue of Amina Bradley
Galbraith organized the July 17, 2021 rescue of Amina Bradley, an American orphan who had been hidden by radical ISIS women in Roj Camp in Northeast Syria. Amina's mother, Ariel Bradley, had taken the child to Syria when she joined the Islamic State. Ariel Bradley, who grew up as an evangelical Christian in Chattanooga, Tennessee before converting to Islam, died in a coalition airstrike in 2018.
Political career
Political commentator
Galbraith has contributed opinion columns in relation to issues including political developments in Iraq and Afghanistan, for publications including The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Los Angeles Times, The Guardian, The Independent and The New York Review of Books. On Iraq, he has argued that "[c]ivil war and the breakup of Iraq are more likely outcomes [of the invasion of Iraq] than a successful transition to a pluralistic Western-style democracy". He has also argued that the Bush administration "has put the United States on the side of undemocratic Iraqis who are Iran's allies". On the 2009 Afghan Presidential Elections, he wrote in the New York Times that "[if] the second round of Afghanistan's presidential elections [...] is a rerun of the fraud-stained first round, it will be catastrophic for that country and the allied military mission battling the Taliban and Al Qaeda." After the election's second round was canceled, he wrote that "[t]he decision by the Independent Election Commission (IEC) to cancel the second round and declare the incumbent, Hamid Karzai, the victor concludes a process that undermined Afghanistan's nascent democracy."
Conservative New York Times columnist David Brooks called Galbraith the "smartest and most devastating" critic of President George W. Bush's policies in Iraq.
After Galbraith's interests in Iraqi oil were made public, The New York Times wrote that "[l]ike other writers for the Op-Ed page, Mr. Galbraith signed a contract that obligated him to disclose his financial interests in the subjects of his articles. Had editors been aware of Mr. Galbraith’s financial stake, the Op-Ed page would have insisted on disclosure or not published his articles." Meanwhile, the New York Review of Books wrote that "[w]e regret that we were not informed of Mr. Galbraith's financial involvements in business concerning Kurdish oil. If we had known about them, we would have wanted them to be disclosed when his articles were published." In a response, Galbraith defended his involvement in the constitutional process as an informal advisor, but apologized for failing to better disclose his interests as a commentator.
Vermont politics
Galbraith served as chairman of the Vermont Democratic Party from 1977 to 1979.
In 1998, Galbraith briefly campaigned for the Democratic nomination for the seat in the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts then held by retiring Representative Joseph P. Kennedy II and previously held by Tip O'Neill and John F. Kennedy.
In 2008, Galbraith told Vermont Public Radio he was considering a run for the governorship of Vermont, but later announced that he would not be running and endorsed former House Speaker Gaye Symington instead.
He is a Senior Diplomatic Fellow, and Chair of the Board of Directors of the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, the research arm of the Council for a Livable World.
On November 2, 2010, Galbraith won election to the Vermont State Senate from Windham County as a Democrat, and was reelected in 2012. in 2011, Galbraith initiated legislation to ban hydraulic fracturing ("fracking"), making Vermont the first state in the country to ban fracking. In 2014, he introduced the legislation to finance Vermont's single payer health care plan, Act 48, a plan which eventually failed to pass.
Among his Senate colleagues, he gained a reputation for speaking at length on the floor and introducing amendments to almost every bill, and he had a difficult time gaining political allies. According to the Vermont Senate Journal, Galbraith proposed amendments aiming to raise the minimum wage to $12 per hour, to ban corporate campaign contributions, to prevent wealthy persons from evading campaign finance limits, to delete a $5 million appropriation for IBM, to extend Vermont's bottle bill to non-carbonated beverages, to create a subsidized public option on the Vermont Health Connect exchange, to protect large tracts of roadless forest from development, and to return $21 million to ratepayers as a condition of the GMP-CVPS merger. Galbraith's critics said he did not adapt well to the Vermont Senate's culture and described him as "abrasive," and "arrogant", but others in the Senate praised his intelligence, clear thinking, and nonconformism. Governor Peter Shumlin described him as "incredibly articulate, bright and capable." Galbraith did not run for a third term in 2014, citing a desire to focus on his career in international diplomacy.
Candidate for governor
Galbraith announced in March 2016 that he would be a candidate for the Democratic nomination for Governor of Vermont in 2016. Galbraith ran on an "unapologetically progressive" and "unconventional" platform which included raising the minimum wage, eventually to $15 per hour; establishing universal health care or universal primary health care; and banning campaign contributions from corporations; putting a moratorium on new industrial wind turbines; and eliminating "special interest" tax breaks. Galbraith supported universal background checks for gun sales in Vermont, and called for a ban on assault weapons.
Galbraith came in third in the primary, behind Matt Dunne and the winner Sue Minter, whom Galbraith endorsed. Despite the outcome, he credited his campaign with introducing substantive policy debates, especially over single-payer health care, into the race.
Personal life
Galbraith has one child with his first wife, Anne O'Leary, and two children with his second wife, Tone Bringa.
Galbraith was a good friend of the twice-elected Prime Minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto, dating back to their time together as students at Harvard and Oxford Universities; he was instrumental in securing Bhutto's release from prison in Pakistan for a medical treatment abroad during the military dictatorship of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq.
Galbraith speaks English, German, Russian, French, Croatian, and Dari.
Writings
Galbraith, Peter (2006), The End of Iraq: How American Incompetence Created a War without End; Simon and Schuster.
Galbraith, Peter W. (2008), Unintended Consequences: How War in Iraq Strengthened America's Enemies''; Simon & Schuster.
Notes
References
External links
1950 births
Living people
Alumni of St Catherine's College, Oxford
Ambassadors of the United States to Croatia
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Harvard College alumni
People from Windham County, Vermont
Politicians from Boston
Writers from Boston
American political scientists
Democratic Party Vermont state senators
Commonwealth School alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guard%20of%20honour
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Guard of honour
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A guard of honour (GB), also honor guard (US), also ceremonial guard, is a group of people, usually military in nature, appointed to receive or guard a head of state or other dignitaries, the fallen in war, or to attend at state ceremonials, especially funerals. In military weddings, especially those of commissioned officers, a guard, composed usually of service members of the same branch, form the sabre arch. In principle, any military unit could act as a guard of honour. However, in some countries certain units are specially designated to serve as a guard of honour, as well as other public duties. Republican Guards, Royal Guards and foot guards frequently have ceremonial duties assigned to them.
Guards of honour also serve in the civilian world for fallen police officers, firefighters, and other civil servants. Military style salutes and the presentation of colors are given at funerals for firefighters, law enforcement personnel and other civil servants. Certain religious bodies, especially churches of the Anglican Communion and the Methodist movement, have the tradition of an honour guard at the funeral of an ordained elder, in which all other ordained elders present "guard the line" between the door of the church and the grave, or hearse if the deceased is to be buried elsewhere or cremated. Catholic chivalric orders, such as the Order of the Holy Sepulchre and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, provide guards of honour for deceased knights and high-ranking officers during funerals. The practice of providing a guard of honour as a mark of respect also occurs in sports, especially throughout the Commonwealth of Nations.
Guards of honour by country
Guards of honour have been mounted by a number of military forces, uniformed paramilitary organizations, and civilian emergency services.
Africa
Algeria
The Algerian Republican Guard is a mainly ceremonial military corps of the Algerian Army. Composed of 6,000 troops, it is very similar in its formation style to equivalent units in the French Army. The Republican Guard includes a military band and a cavalry unit, the uniform and traditions of which are based on those of the famous Berber cavalry, the Numidian cavalry, the French cavalry, and the Arab cavalry, as well as infantry.
Egypt
The Egyptian Republican Guard is a division level unit in the Egyptian Army which is the seniormost unit in the Egyptian Armed Forces that has the responsibility of defending the President of Egypt, as well as major presidential and national institutions. It is a type of guard regiment that is composed of dozens upon dozens of armored brigades, mechanized brigades and divisional artillery, Being the seniormost unit in the armed forces, the Republican Guard Division is the only major military unit allowed in central Cairo besides the troops of intelligence services and Central Security Forces.
Namibia
The Guard of Honour unit in Namibia is the 21 Ceremonial Guard Battalion of the Namibian Defence Force. Falling under the 21 Brigade based in Windhoek. Initially the Battalion was also part of the Presidential Security detail, however they were removed from this role and relegated to guard of honour duties.
Nigeria
The members of the Nigerian Presidential Guard Brigade are elite Nigerian soldiers who guard the residence of the President of the Federal Republic and his or her guests as well as performing ceremonial duties. It is similar to the United States Secret Service in that its members also provide security for visiting heads of state. The brigade performs a weekly changing of the guard ceremony outside Aso Villa and stands guard at the Presidential Villa. Aside from that, the guards brigade also mounts the guard of honour for state visits, as well as the Independence Day Military Parade in Abuja. The brigade is the senior unit in the Nigerian Army's order of battle.
Senegal
The Red Guard of Senegal is a Senegalese Gendarmerie unit that is responsible for maintaining the security of the President of Senegal. It is similar to the ceremonial elements in the French Republican Guard. The unit's uniform is derived from the French colonial Spahi. The Red Guard is under the direct command of the Security Legion of the Senegalese Mobile Gendarmerie. It is composed of many units that serve ceremonial duties, with the most notable being the honour guard battalion, which an infantry unit, and the mounted squadron.
South Africa
The guard of honour unit in South Africa was the State Presidents Guard (Staatspresidentseenheid) until 1990. The unit has since been replaced by the National Ceremonial Guard in the South African National Defence Force. Permanent honour guards in the country had not existed prior to the Staatspresidentseenheid's founding in 1967. In compensation for a lack of ceremonial units, the Citizen Force and the Cape Town Highlanders Regiment were often deployed for ceremonial events. Following the abolition of apartheid in South Africa, the guard was disestablished, leaving the defence forces without an official guard of honour until 1995, when the NCG was founded.
Zimbabwe
The Presidential Guard is an elite combat unit of the Zimbabwe National Army, serving as a Household Division-like service for the President of Zimbabwe. The unit, in their green service uniform and yellow berets, mount the guard of honour on behalf of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Past events where the guard of honour provided by the presidential guard includes Defence Forces Day festivities, Heroes Day', the Independence Day Parade, and the inauguration of Emmerson Mnangagwa.
The flag of the Presidential Guard of Zimbabwe consists of a beige background, with three equal horizontal stripes of red, green and red, and the centre having a shield which contains a white wreath beneath a bird, over which are two brown rifles in saltire. The brigade is based currently at Dzivarasekwa Barracks in Harare and is led by Brigadier Anselem Sanyatwe.
Americas
Argentina
The Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers serves as a part of the Argentine Army, serving as the presidential guard and ceremonial mounted detachments. Two unmounted grenadiers are stationed in front of the Pink House as a symbol of the ceremonial and honour guard. They also provide security to the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral, where its founder's remains are buried, and at the Palace of the Argentine National Congress, as well as in the other presidential residences. Raised in 1813, it is designated as the senior regiment of cavalry in the Army.
Brazil
The Brazilian armed forces and Brazilian Military Police have several units designated as guards of honour, which perform public and ceremonial duties on behalf of the Armed Forces and the military police units. The most important of them is the Brazilian president's honour guard units, all of the Brazilian Army. It is composed of the 1st Guards Cavalry Regiment (1o Regimento de Cavalaria de Guardas – RCG, in Portuguese) – "Independence Dragoons", the Presidential Guard Battalion (Batalhão da Guarda Presidencial – BGP, in Portuguese) and the Cayenne Battery. All these units fall under the Planalto Military Command.
The Brasilia Marine Group of the Brazilian Marine Corps, a component of the Brazilian Navy, provides ceremonial guards of honour as well. The Ministry of Defence maintains its own joint service honour guard.
Canada
Military public duties in Ottawa, Canada's national capital, are formally the responsibility of two regiments of foot guards: the Canadian Grenadier Guards and the Governor General's Foot Guards. One of their main tasks is the provision of sentries at ceremonial and other official state functions organized by the Government of Canada. Their tasks include mounting the guard of honour at military funerals and other events attended by visiting dignitaries. The two regiments of foot guards, together with the Governor General's Horse Guards, based in Toronto, make up Canada's Household Division.
The Canadian Army also operates a summer public duties detachment known as the Ceremonial Guard, which assumes public duties in Ottawa from late-June to late-August. The Ceremonial Guard is made up of regulars or reservists of the Canadian Army, although its membership is also augmented by members regulars and reservists of the Royal Canadian Air Force, and the Royal Canadian Navy. Like the foot guards, the Ceremonial Guards also mount the guard of honour for military funerals, and visiting dignitaries while in season. Members of the Ceremonial Guard wear the uniforms of the Canadian foot guards, as they have historically staffed the summer public duties detachment, before membership in the Ceremonial Guard was opened to the entire Canadian Armed Forces in the 21st century. The Ceremonial Guard is considered an ad hoc detachment, as its members are drawn from various units of the armed forces, and does not constitute a permanent unit in the Canadian Forces' order of battle.
In addition to the Canadian foot guards, and the Ceremonial Guards, units with regularly scheduled guard mountings include the Royal 22nd Regiment. The regiment mounts the guard from late-June to Labour Day (the first Monday of September) at the Citadelle of Quebec in Quebec City, a military installation, and secondary residence of the Monarch and Governor-General. However, as the unit is based in Quebec City, they rarely mount the guard of honour for foreign dignitaries.
Guards of honour are also formed by civilian police, and fire services, including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. These civilian honour guards are typically mounted for funerals, and local ceremonies, with the honour guard units typically made up of 30 to 60 members. Some, like the York Regional Police, operate a mounted honour guard unit. Fire and rescue ceremonial units such as the Toronto Fire Services Honour Guard and the Calgary Firefighters Honour Guard are unique in that they are armed with a ceremonial axe.
Colombia
The 37th Infantry Presidential Guard Battalion, composed of five companies, a historical company and one artillery battery plus a military band, a fanfare trumpet section and Corps of Drums, is the President of Colombia's honour guard service regiment under the National Army of Colombia. It is stationed at the Casa de Nariño in Bogota where the changing of the guard ceremony takes place three days per week and carries the traditions of Simon Bolivar's infantry guards company raised in the midst of the Spanish American wars of independence in 1815.
Cuba
The Ceremonial Unit of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces provided honours for the Communist Party of Cuba, the Government of Cuba, and the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces. It is a sort of mix between Russian and German ceremonial formations, with the unit notably adopting the German-born goosestep. Its ceremonial duties are usually performed at government buildings and notable areas in Havana, with the Plaza de la Revolución (the main square in the capital) and the Palace of the Revolution (the workplace of the President of Cuba). The main purpose of the military unit is the performance of the changing of the guard every half an hour at the José Marti Mausoleum in Santiago de Cuba. Prior to Fidel Castro's 1959 Cuban Revolution, honour guards were performed by units that resembled honour guard units in the United States, such as The Old Guard.
Haiti
Haitian honour guard duties are performed by the General Security Unit of the National Palace of the Haitian National Police (L'Unité de Sécurité Générale du Palais National, USGPN) which is a major specialized unit of the PNH. It has, since 1997, mainly ensured security at the Palais National and the security of the President of Haiti. The USGPN works with the Presidential Security Unit (Unité de sécurité présidentielle, USP) to protect the president, as well as intervene when a crime takes place and or assist police officers in their duties, outside of the USGPN's ceremonial ones. Funeral honours, state visits, and military parades are some of the many ceremonies that the USGPN takes in.
Jamaica
The Jamaica Regiment is primarily responsible for public duties in the capital of Kingston on behalf of the Jamaica Defence Force. The regiment's first battalion usually mounts the guard of honour at national ceremonies, serving as a foot guard to the Governor-General of Jamaica. Members of the regiment also provide sentries at the National Heroes Park.
Mexico
The Honour Guard in Mexico consists of members selected from the Mexican Navy, Mexican Army, Air Force and/or the National Guard, and report to the Secretariats of National Defence, Security and Civil Protection and the Navy, while these three government secretariats maintain currently (since the 2018 disbandment of the Estado Mayor Presidencial), through the Presidential Guards Corps of the National Guard, a dedicated joint service guards corps with a division of presidential military police and selected other formations from these select secretariats. Some of their duties include protection of the Mexican flag in Zocalo, and the raising and lowering of it, as well as providing ceremonial guards at National Palace or Campo Marte during state visits to Mexico.
There are also those selected from other organizations, such as historic societies, schools, sports centers, celebrities, etc., but these are for national holiday events within the country. Escolta de la bandera or Escolta de guerra or Escolta de honores or simply La escolta is the term in Spanish for colour guards and flag parties.
Peru
The Presidential Life Guard Dragoons Regiment is the premier ceremonial unit of the Peruvian Army having similar practices to the Cavalry Regiment, French Republican Guard. It is one of two official Household Cavalry and Dragoon Guards regiments in the army which have the affording of ceremonial protection to the President of Peru and to the Government Palace in Lima as their foremost duties. Other units, such as the Hussars of Junín and the Peruvian Guard Legion Infantry Battalion, also perform public duties in the capital.
The other services of the Peruvian Armed Forces have their own dedicated ceremonial units. They include the Fanning Marine Company (Compañía de Infantería de Marina Capitán de Navío AP Juan Fanning García) of the Peruvian Navy; and the Airborne Platoon of the 72nd Squadron of the Peruvian Air Force.
United States
Each uniformed service branch in the U.S. Armed Forces has its own official honour guard: the Army (3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment), Marines (U.S. Marine Corps Ceremonial Guard Company), Navy (U.S. Navy Ceremonial Guard), Air Force (U.S. Air Force Honor Guard), Space Force (U.S. Space Force Honor Guard), and Coast Guard (U.S. Coast Guard Ceremonial Honor Guard). Most state national guard units and state defence forces have a ceremonial guard unit as well. High Frontier Honor Guard is the official United States Air Force ceremonial unit assigned to Peterson Space Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and acts as the de facto official honor guard unit for the United States Space Force.
The official honour guard of every branch is located in the National Capital Region, though nearly every military installation will have its own honour guard for local ceremonies and events. The honour guard units in National Capital Region, formed into the Joint Service Honor Guard of the National Capital Region and the Department of Defense, an ad hoc unit of battalion size, represent the military as a whole and the United States as a nation, and perform numerous ceremonies on behalf of the President of the United States, the commander-in-chief of the federal Armed Forces, with musical accompaniment by each of the central bands of the Armed Forces based in the capital.
Since World War II, The 3rd United States Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard) has served as the official Army honour guard and escort to the President, and it also provides security for Washington, D.C., in time of national emergency or civil disturbance. Arlington National Cemetery's Tomb of the Unknowns is guarded by members of the U.S. 3rd Infantry Regiment. Since 2007, a Joint-Service Drill Competition has been held every April in front of the Reflecting Pool of the National Mall. Other ceremonial military units also include the Royal Guards of Hawaii of the Air National Guard and the High Frontier Honor Guard at Peterson Air Force Base. The organized militia for the Connecticut State Militia also maintains a ceremonial guard unit, the Governor's Foot Guard.
Many local, state, national and federal public safety agencies in the United States maintain Honour Guards, Pipes & Drums and Buglers, including fire departments, law enforcement agencies, emergency medical services, and search and rescue agencies, who typically use adaptations of military honour guards, and honour those who die in the line of duty (LODD-Line of Duty Death), off-duty but still on the job, and retirees, as well as participating in support of other agencies, and parades. Some Law Enforcement agencies are able to maintain a Rifle Team for 'three volley' salutes. Most, even those within major career paid agencies, are not paid for performing and preparing for the honour guard duty.
Venezuela
The Presidential Honour Guard is the joint service military unit mandated to ensure the immediate security of the President of Venezuela and his First Family and for the performance of public duties in the most important places in the country. The most distant antecedents of the Presidential Honour Guard go back to the Hussars Troop of Simon Bolivar, of the Venezuelan War of Independence and of the larger Spanish American wars of independence, raised in June 1815 and part of a more bigger guards brigade targeted for the immediate security of the Liberator, and the early 20th century 1st Cavalry Regiment "Ambrosio Plaza" that until the 1950s, albeit reduced to squadron size, provided the ceremonial security of the President and was modeled on the Prussian horse guards units of the late 19th century.
The modern brigade serves as a ceremonial escort to the President of Venezuela at Miraflores Palace and attends all state arrival ceremonies conducted there, as well as providing security for the palace complex. The brigade also provides honour guards (i) at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Carabobo Field, Carabobo commemorating the memory of national heroes and the fallen of the Battle of Carabobo of 1821, (ii) at the Montana Barracks in Caracas in memory of the late Hugo Chávez; and (iii) at the National Pantheon in Caracas in memory of Bolívar and other national heroes buried there. The brigade also performs public duties functions as required. Brigade personnel come from all branches of the National Bolivarian Armed Forces of Venezuela (NBAF) and public security services. The brigade is commanded by a general or flag officer and includes a Presidential mounted escort of platoon or troop size, all wear the busby when in full dress.
Aside from the PHGB, there are two other foot guards battalions in the NBAF, the Caracas Foot Guards Battalion of the Ministry of Defence, and the Brigadier Daniel Florence O'Leary Headquarters and HQ Services Foot Guards Battalion of the Venezuelan Army Headquarters. Both foot guard battalions are also tasked with forming guards of honour and public duties. These two battalions wear berets instead of combat helmets when in full dress, when in historical dress the shako is worn.
Asia
China (People’s Republic of China)
Today the duties of honour guards are performed by the Combined Honour Guard of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), are provided by the 1st Guard Division of in Beijing, under the Central Theater Command and reporting directly to the General Staff. They marched as the first battalion in the military parade of the 35th, 50th, 60th and 70th anniversaries of the People's Republic of China. They are often on parades led by a colour guard detail carrying the PLA flag.
In addition to the Beijing battalion, the PLA also operates a number of other honour guard units that, including in the PLA Navy and the PLA Air Force, as well as the People's Armed Police Honour Guard Battalion in Beijing. Other PLA honour guard units based outside Beijing includes the Hong Kong Garrison Honour Guard Battalion, Macau Garrison Honour Guard Battalion, and the Xinjiang Garrison Honour Guard Battalion
Police-manned honour guards are also deployed within the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau. This is partly due to the Hong Kong Police Force and the Macau Security Force having a largely ceremonial British and Portuguese tradition respectively. In the case of Hong Kong, the honour guards are reminiscent of those belonging to the British Household Division. In December 2016, the HKPF received ceremonial training from instructors from the Army School of Ceremonial at the British Army's Infantry Training Centre. It renders honours to the Chief Executive of Hong Kong and the Chief Justice of the Court of Final Appeal. The only notable example of a police honour guard under the Ministry of Public Security on the mainland is the Yunnan Public Security Force Honour Guard at Hekou Port near the China–Vietnam border, having been covered during a report by New China TV in September 2016.
China (Republic of China/“Taiwan”)
During the time of the Ming dynasty (1368 to 1644) the first-ever military honour guard duties in China were undertaken by the Jǐnyīwèi or the Embroidered Uniform Guard. Their successors, the Qing era Imperial Guard, were organized into a division protecting the Emperor, his family, and the wide Forbidden City complex.
In the Republic of China (known colloquially as Taiwan), the military honour guard duty is provided by members from the following companies representing the branches of the Republic of China Armed Forces:
Honour Guard Company, Army HQ, Republic of China Army
Honour Guard Company, Corps HQ Battalion, Republic of China Marine Corps
Fleet Honour Guard, Republic of China Navy
Honour Guard Company, ROC Air Force Air Defense Artillery Command, Republic of China Air Force
Each branch maintain their own respective honour guards, all of which follow the American precedent and make up the Armed Forces Honour Guard (中華民國三軍儀隊). The National Day Honour Guard Battalion is also made up of personnel of the honour guards companies of the aforementioned branches.
Guardsmen employ a M1 Garand rifle during ceremonial activities. The units also perform guard duties and are usually present at the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, and the National Revolutionary Martyrs' Shrine in Taipei. Outside Taipei, Taiwanese honour guards are also present at the Cihu Presidential Burial Place, and the Daxi Presidential Burial Place in Taoyuan. Specifically, at the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, the Honour Guard of the ROC Army performs a changing of the guard ceremony daily with four guardsmen changing duties every hour.
An honour guard battalion, known as the Republic of China Police Honour Guard (中華民國警察儀隊), is also maintained by the Republic of China Police. Founded in 1977, it is currently managed and directed by the Police Department of the Ministry of the Interior.
India
The President's Bodyguard is the seniormost household cavalry unit in the Indian Army, serving as a guard of honour for the President of India.
In India, the Tri-Services Guard of Honour is made up of men or women drawn from three services of the Indian military: the Indian Army, Indian Air Force, and Indian Navy. It is based at New Delhi and is of company size, present only during state visits. In January 2015, during Barack Obama's state visit to India, Wing Commander Pooja Thakur became the first female officer to lead the guard of honour for a foreign leader.
In the Indian Air Force, there is only one unit that serves as an exhibition drill team. This unit, known officially as the Air Warrior Drill Team (AWDT), was founded in 2004 and serves as the guard of honour of the IAF.
Indonesia
The term "guard of honour" in Indonesian is Pasukan Kehormatan which take their modern form in deputized formations of the former Royal Netherlands East Indies Army and the Royal Netherlands Navy.
In Indonesia, the unit institutionally tasked to act as the Guard of Honour during a state visit is the Presidential Security Force (Paspampres) which takes place at the national palaces (Merdeka Palace or Bogor Palace) with the President of Indonesia and the visiting dignitary present to inspect the guards. The Paspampres is part of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) tasked with protective security duties for the head of state and state-protocol duties (ceremonial). As a military tri-services special joint service command, the ceremonial duties of Paspampres are to conduct public duties during state function occasions including to provide quarter guard and guard mounting duties for the national official residences.
The ceremonial duties tasked to the Paspampres is the responsibility of a unit within Paspampres known as the "State Protocol Escort Battalion" (Batalyon Pengawal Protokoler Kenegaraan abbreviated "Yonwalprotneg"), it is a detachment consisting of chosen military policemen selected from the Military Police Corps with a minimum height requirement of . This detachment is also tasked to become the Cordon Guard during the arrival ceremony at the airport apron during a state visit and is responsible to act as pallbearers during a state funeral. Their uniform are red full dress uniforms with a white buff belt worn on the upper waist, white trousers with white parade boots and a black shako as the headdress, sometimes a light blue beret is worn for other duties such as during the Changing of the Guard ceremony or a state funeral. A black uniform with peaked cap also present.
During the national ceremony commemorating the independence day of Indonesia conducted at Merdeka Palace on the 17 of August, guards of honour which line-up at the palace yard are part of the armed forces tri-services and police ad hoc Guard of Honour which consists of guardswomen and guardsmen from the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Indonesian National Police. During this occasion, Honour guardsmen from the Yonwalprotneg unit of Paspampres (wearing Red and White full dress uniform with shako) acts as the principal guard of honour accompanying the Paskibraka escorting the flag of Indonesia. The same format is seen in other parts of the country during the independence day commemoration ceremony with the Guards of honour tasked from local territorial military or police units in provinces, cities, and regencies throughout the country with the regional heads as the guest of honour inspecting the ceremony. These regional guards of honour wear the assigned peaked caps or berets of their branch or service arm, as well as the shako.
Iran
The Central Provost of Islamic Republic of Iran Army maintains a guard of honour unit called the "Presidential Ceremony Guard". It provides honour guards for the Iranian President and during events of state such as arrival ceremonies for foreign leaders and national holidays. Also known as DEJAJA, the unit is composed of infantrymen, sailors, and airmen, all of which serve under the command of the army provost. Aside from public duties, the provost also serves as a military police unit for the capital of Tehran.
Prior to 1979, the Imperial Immortal Guard provided honour guards for official events of state.
Iraq
The Iraqi Armed Forces maintains the a guard of honour made up of personnel from each branch of the armed forces. The unit provides guards of honour for foreign dignitaries at the Iraqi Ministry of Defence. Prior to 2003, the personnel of the guard of honour were selected from the Republican Guard.
Japan
The 302nd Military Police Company is a JGSDF unit under the direct control of the Eastern Army located in the Ichigaya garrison (MOD HQ). When foreign leaders make state visit to Tokyo, a Special Ceremonial Detachment of the company is assembled outside the Chōwaden Reception Hall at the Tokyo Imperial Palace or the Prime Minister's Official Residence to take part in the welcoming ceremony. The 115-strong personnel company is organized into three platoons, each consisting of three honour guard squads. In wartime situations, the company serves as a military police unit.
The Imperial Guard of Japan performs regular public duties at the Tokyo Imperial Palace by performing sentry duty at the gates outside of the palace, which is the seniormost residence of the Emperor of Japan. The Imperial Guard also maintains a platoon-sized mounted police unit for use at state ceremonies. A guard of honour is also sported by the National Defense Academy of Japan.
Kazakhstan
The Aibyn Presidential Regiment serves as the premier ceremonial unit of the President of Kazakhstan. It is under the direct command of the State Security Service of Kazakhstan and plays a direct role in maintaining state protocol. They have taken part in the changing of the guard ceremony in the Ak Orda Presidential Palace since 2001. On the other hand, the Honour Guard Company of the Ministry of Defence of Kazakhstan serves high-ranking members of the Ministry of Defence. It is composed of soldiers from the Kazakh Ground Forces, the Kazakh Navy, and the Kazakh Air Force, being truly representative of the Armed Forces of Kazakhstan. Like its name implies, it is subordinate to the country's defence ministry and is a reporting unit of the 36th Air Assault Brigade of the Kazakh Airmobile Forces. Both units take part in all essential national events and ceremonies, with a notable appearance being, among other things, the Inauguration of the President of Kazakhstan. The National Guard of Kazakhstan also maintains an honour unit which was formed in 2015.
Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea/“North Korea”)
The Guard of Honour of the Korean People's Army falls under the direct command of the North Korean Supreme Guard Command or by its official name Unit 963. It takes part in ceremonies in which the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of North Korea and/or the President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly are in attendance, most notably during arrival ceremonies at Pyongyang Sunan International Airport for world leaders. It has a very pan-KPA organization, with the colour guards of each service branch being present. Accompanying the colour guard is a lead officer in front as well a two associate officers marching to the rear. Prior to military parades on Kim Il Sung Square and during visits to the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun, the Supreme Leader inspects a guard of honour company consisting of troops of the KPA Ground Forces, the Air and Anti-Air Force, the Navy, the Special Operations Forces, Strategic Forces and the Worker-Peasant Red Guards formed up. It is also the set-up during state visits, during arrival and departure ceremonies held at the Pyongyang Sunan International Airport runway.
Korea (Republic of Korea/“South Korea”)
During the Joseon Dynasty, the role of guards of honour taken up by the Sumunjang (, lit. door guards of the palace), who reported directly to the Emperor and the Imperial Family with administrative responsibility to the Minister of Defence as part of the armed forces of the state.
South Korea today operates several guards of honour companies under the Republic of Korea Armed Forces - one each from the Republic of Korea Army, Republic of Korea Navy, Republic of Korea Air Force and Republic of Korea Marine Corps, along with a traditional honour guard unit that is made up of soldiers from the 3rd Infantry Division. The traditional guard in particular was founded in 1991 after president Roh Tae-woo reviewed the Old Guard Fife and Drum Corps and the Commander-in-Chief's Guard of the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment of the United States. Since then the traditional honour guards have taken the role of officially welcoming heads of state and other dignitaries. Roles of the honour guards as a whole include funeral honours for the fall, ensuring the security of various military headquarters, and acting as ceremonial guards to Gyeongbok Palace and during state visits to the Blue House.
For ceremonial purposes the guards carry various rifles - the Army, Navy and Air Force carry the M16 rifle; the Marine Corps carry M1 Garands and the traditional guards carry ceremonial swords, arrows, spears, and lances, keeping with the traditions of the Korean military and as a tribute to the guards units of the Imperial era. Their colour guards also reflect these influences as well. Seamen and junior ratings in the honour guards of the Republic of Korea Navy wear sailor caps bearing "Republic of Korea Navy" in Korean (with Hangul lettering) as part of the dress uniforms, while officers and senior ratings wear peaked caps. While the service guards units maintain their respective military bands based on the US and UK practices, the traditional guard unit also contains a Daechwita, a form of military band playing Korean traditional music for military ceremonies and events, and as such wears uniforms used by similar ensembles in the 19th century.
The United Nations Command maintains an honour guard that is composed of members of the ROKAF, the US Armed Forces and other partner nations.
Kyrgyzstan
The National Guard of Kyrgyzstan carries out official representative functions on behalf of the Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic. The guard of honour is formed from the 701st Military Unit of the National Guard. The National Guard stands at attention at the National Flagpole on Ala-Too Square in Bishkek, and has been performing the changing of the guard ceremony every hour since 16 August 1998.
Malaysia
The guard of honour in Malaysia usually consists of the 1st Battalion, Royal Malay Regiment, which performs most ceremonial duties in Malaysia, such as Heroes' Day, visitation of diplomats and state leaders, National Day, guard duties at the Royal Palace of Malaysia, and many more, in the national level. The Royal Malay Regiment also mounts the guard during state visits to the Ministry of Defence.
A guard of honour company from each of the battalions of the RMR is also mounted for state-level ceremonies in Kedah, Perak, Selangor and Pahang, as well as in the states of Penang, Malacca, Sarawak and Sabah. Units that have mounted the guard in these types of ceremonies include the Royal Ranger Regiment (based in Perlis), the Royal Armoured Corps (based in Terengganu), the Royal Artillery Regiment (based in Kelantan), the Royal Regiment of Engineers (based in Perak), and the Royal Signals Regiment (based in Negeri Sembilan). The Royal Johor Military Force, an independent state-level military force for Johor, also provides a guard of honour for state ceremonies within Johor.
Units of the Royal Malaysia Police in Melaka, Penang, Sabah and Sarawak, as well as the Royal Malay Regiment and the Royal Rangers, mount guards of honour of the governors of these states. Guard of honour units are also found in the Royal Malaysia Police, The People's Volunteer Corps, the Fire and Rescue Department, and the Malaysia Civil Defence Force.
Honour guards units of the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN Honour Guard Battalion, Lumut) and the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF Honour Guard Battalion or the RMAF College) are mounted in the presence of the Sultan of Selangor and the Sultan of Pahang, respectively, in events where each of the two service branches are involved. Visits to the MoD building by naval and air general and flag officers are also accompanied by the guard of honour units of these services.
Nepal
In Nepal, the Guard of honour is formed from special troops from Nepalese Army. It is mainly given to the President of Nepal and the Prime Minister of Nepal. Foreign Heads of State also receives the Guard of Honour. Formerly, Guard of honour was given in Tribhuvan International Airport premises but since 2018, Government of Nepal changed the venue to Tundikhel. The first foreign state head to receive the Guard of honour at Tundikhel was Pakistan Prime Minister Shahid Khaqan Abbasi during his visits to Nepal in March 2018.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, the guard of honour is provided by men drawn from three services of the Pakistan Armed Forces: The Pakistan Army, Pakistan Air Force, and the Pakistan Navy. A tri-service guard of honour company is stationed in Islamabad, the national capital, for services in state visits and important national holidays. The Guides Cavalry also provide ceremonial duties for events in Islamabad.
Philippines
The Presidential Security Group (PSG) provides honour guard services to the President of the Philippines in Malacañang Palace, especially during state visits to the country. The PSG is composed of men and women from the various uniformed organizations of the Philippines: the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the Philippine National Police, the Bureau of Fire Protection, and the Philippine Coast Guard. All wear a dark blue rayadillo full dress uniform with the pith helmet as headdress in ceremonial events.
The Armed Forces of the Philippines have five designated honour guard battalions mandated for public duties for events concerning the Armed Forces. They include the army's Security and Escort Battalion, the navy's Headquarters Philippine Navy & Headquarters Support Group and Marine Security and Escort Group, and the Air Force Special Security Group. The armed forces' General Headquarters and Headquarters Service Command also maintains a separate honour guard battalion, the General Headquarters Security & Escort Battalion, which serves as the official honour guard battalion of the Secretary of National Defence.
Honour Guard units are also used within the Philippine National Police and the Philippine Coast Guard. These services typically mount honour guards on important occasions. The National Police guard of honour serves as the official guards of the Secretary of Interior and Local Government, and wear blue uniforms with the pith helmet, a tradition stemming from the old Spanish Civil Guard. The guard of honour company of the Coast Guard serves similar duties for the Secretary of Transportation and is the only unit wearing English styled sailor caps as part of the ratings' dress uniform.
Singapore
Singapore's guard-of-honour units are recruited from members of all four services of the Singapore Armed Forces – the Singapore Army, the Republic of Singapore Navy, the Republic of Singapore Air Force and the Digital and Intelligence Service – as well as the Singapore Police Force. They take their position at the forefront of major parades and significant state events, such as the country's National Day on 9 August.
Equipped with the SAR-21 Assault Rifle with bayonets attached, the guards wear the Ceremonial Uniform (known as the No. 1), which (except in the case of Navy honour guards) have various colours imbued on a thin strip running down the outer-sides of the trousers indicating the unit's service of origin (red for the Army, light-blue for the Air Force, and black for the Police). They also wear distinctive badges, medals, award ribbons, and buttons. These Guard of Honour units will typically be contrasted by at least one contingents of other servicemen attired in their regular uniform (the No. 4 uniform for the SAF units and the No. 3 uniform for the SPF unit).
Guard-of-honour units in attendance at the annual Singapore National Day Parade are the 1st Commando Battalion from the Singapore Army, Naval Diving Unit from the Republic Of Singapore Navy, Air Power Generation Command from the Republic Of Singapore Air Force and the Singapore Police Force Training Command.
For state visits and other important ceremonial duties within the Istana compounds, the guard-of-honour group is formed and mounted by personnel from the Singapore Armed Forces Military Police Command.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the guard of honour is provided by men drawn from three services of the Sri Lankan Armed Forces (The Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy, and the Sri Lanka Air Force). A guard of honour known as the President’s Ceremonial Guard Company is also drawn from the Sri Lanka Corps of Military Police. The Sri Lanka Police Mounted Division serves as a mounted guard of honour for the Sri Lanka Police, regularly performing public duties in providing mounted ceremonial escorts for Heads of state and VIPs, as well as provide guard of honour for the Opening of Parliament and the national day celebrations. During the colonial era, the Lascarins provided the local guards of honour, apart from British Army, British Indian Army, or Ceylon Defence Force personnel. The predecessor to the mounted police division is the Governor's Bodyguard, which served as the household cavalry unit of the Governor of British Ceylon. The Ceylon Mounted Rifles also serves in a mounted guard of honour role. In July 1987, Vijitha Rohana from the naval guard of honour for the visiting Indian Prime Minister attempted an assassination on his life te guard's ceremonial inspection.
Tajikistan
In Tajikistan, the guard of honour is provided by men drawn from the four services of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Tajikistan: The National Army, Mobile Forces, Air Force, and the Border Troops, all under the command of the Ministry of Defence. Of the many roles of the Honour Guard Company of the Ministry of Defence has, providing ceremonial honours for foreign dignitaries and Tajik government officials at the Kohi Millat and other official buildings is the highest and most important of them all. Like its name implies, it is a direct reporting unit of the Ministry of Defence.
In addition to the military Presidential National Guard also maintains its own honour guard battalion, with its allegiance being primarily to the President of Tajikistan in his/her position as Supreme Commander in Chief of the armed forces.
Thailand
In Thailand, the honour guard role is taken on by the King's Guard units of the Royal Thai Armed Forces and the two infantry regiments of the Royal Security Command. The King's Guard come from all over the Thai military, owing allegiance towards the King of Thailand and the ruling Chakri dynasty.
The ceremonial uniform worn by the 1st and 2nd battalions of the 1st Infantry Regiment of the King's Guards, the seniormost of these units and more present in the public duties role, features a scarlet tunic and bearskin cap; similar to the uniforms used by foot guards in the Commonwealth of Nations. The regiment's 3rd battalion uniform features a white tunic and pink facings, with a pink bearskin cap. An RTAF tri-service guard of honour from the King's Guard is mounted during state visits, the naval and air force guardsmen are usually cadets from their respective service academies.
Turkmenistan
Ceremonial military duties in Turkmenistan are usually performed by the Independent Honour Guard Battalion of the country's Ministry of Defence. It is composed of 100 soldiers representing the three main service branches of the armed forces: the Turkmen Ground Forces, Air Force, and Navy.
The battalion is always in attendance at all military and social events involving the President of Turkmenistan, and other high-ranking officials in events such as state visits and military parades. The battalion is the first military formation to march on Independence Square in the annual Independence Day Parade. They also greet foreign leaders visiting Turkmenistan, as well as the Guard the National Museum of Turkmenistan. The battalion maintains a horse squadron for ceremonial escorts of foreign leaders visiting Ashgabat.
Uzbekistan
Ceremonial honour guards of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Uzbekistan are provided by the Honour Guard Battalion of the Tashkent Military District, which is under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence and is based in the Tashkent Region. The battalion is composed of over 100 soldiers, with each platoon being made up of servicemen from different branches of the armed forces. The ceremonial company of the Uzbekistan National Guard provided the guard of honour and served as pallbearers for the late Uzbek president Islam Karimov after his death in September 2016.
Vietnam
Two honour guard units fall under the People's Army of Vietnam, the Military Honour Guard Battalion of the Vietnam People's Army, and the Command of Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum Honour Guard. The military honour guard of the Vietnam People's Army provides the honour guard for state visits to the country, the National Day parade, days of remembrance, state funerals, and other functions as may be directed. The military honour guard unit is a part of the General Staff of the Vietnam People's Army. Honour guards at the Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum Honour Guard serve as the honour guard for the mausoleum.
Europe
Albania
The Albanian Republican Guard, established in 1928, is a law enforcement unit in Albania. They wear dark blue or black uniforms with gold trimmings and plumed helmets, they serve as the ceremonial honor guard for the President and high-ranking officials. Beyond their formal duties, they engage with tourists at the Presidential Palace in Tirana.
Armenia
Honour guards from the Armed Forces of Armenia are provided by the Honour Guard Battalion of the Ministry of Defence of Armenia, which is stationed at the defence ministry's headquarters in Yerevan. The battalion was founded on the basis of the Honour Guard Unit of the 7th Guards Army of the Red Army. Since 2018, soldiers of battalion have acted as sentries at the Presidential Residence. The Armenian Police maintains their own Honour Guard Battalion, which serves under the auspices of the Yerevan Police Headquarters. Outside of public duties, the police guard of honour also takes part in law enforcement activities in the capital.
Austria
The Guard Battalion (German: Gardebataillon) of the Austrian Armed Forces is the ceremonial unit in Austria. The main task is to represent Austria at home and abroad. It is stationed exclusively at Maria Theresien Barracks in Vienna and maintains the Guards Band Vienna (German: Gardemusik) as well.
Azerbaijan
In Azerbaijan, military honour guards during state visits are provided by the Azerbaijani National Guard of the Special State Protection Service of Azerbaijan. It is subordinate to the President of Azerbaijan, and has responsibilities that range from protecting government officials to mounting the guard of honour for state visits and military parades. A joint-service honour guard subordinate to the Ministry of Defence is also available and is usually mounted for military officials. Garrison honour guards are also maintained, with the commander of the unit being appointed by special order of the Chief of General Staff. In the Soviet era, the 4th cadet battalion of the Baku Higher Combined Arms Command School maintained a special honour guard unit that served as the official ceremonial ambassador of the military forces of the Azerbaijan SSR, participating in welcoming ceremonies at Binah Airport (now Heydar Aliyev International Airport).
Belarus
The Honour Guard of the Armed Forces of Belarus is the primary honour guard battalion of the Armed Forces of Belarus. It was created in 1995 as a result of a combination of two drill teams from different military academies in the country (the Minsk Air Defence and Rocket School and the Minsk Higher Military Command School specifically). The main honour guard is based in the capital of Minsk, under the direct command of the Minsk Military Commandant, while subordinate units are available all over the country. An example of an affiliated honour guard is the Honour Guard of the Military Faculty of the Yanka Kupala State University of Grodno (formed in 2010). It is currently composed of personnel from the Armed Forces, Internal Troops, and Border Troops.
Belgium
The Belgian Royal Escort (Dutch: Koninklijk escorte te paard, French: Escorte royale à cheval) is a horse-mounted unit that accompanies the King of Belgium on ceremonial occasions. It also provides escorts for foreign visiting heads of state and ambassadors presenting their credentials at the Royal Palace in Brussels.
The Royal Escort is not a full-time unit but is brought together on major ceremonies. Formerly a part of the Belgian Gendarmerie (now defunct), it is provided by units of the Belgian Federal Police. The uniform is composed of a black bearskin with red plume, black tunic and white breeches. Troopers carry a red-yellow-black pennant on their lance.
Occasionally, foot guard is provided by cadets from the Royal Military Academy in their night-blue Gala Dress.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina maintains a representative honour guard unit of the Armed Forces of BiH. Dressed in their notable blue and yellow uniforms, the OSBiH Honour Guard Company provides honours at all important state and military events, representing the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the OSBiH. The unit was officially presented to the Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina for development on 26 November 2004 and was the first formed unit of the OSBiH. In the first twenty days of its existence, intensive training was conducted in the Butmir camp, supervised by British Army officers in the Household Division. By 2007, the unit had been a fully functional structure in the OSBiH, operating under the Military Police Battalion in Sarajevo. The organizational and formation structure of the company as of 2019 includes the Headquarters Group, Colour guard, 1st Platoon, 2nd Platoon, and 3rd Platoon. In the autonomous Republika Srpska, the Honour Unit of Ministry of Interior serves as the official guard of honour for the republic, acting in a similar fashion to the Serbian Guards Unit.
Bulgaria
The National Guards Unit, established 1878, is the official guard of honour of the Armed forces of Bulgaria. In 2001 the National Guards Unit was declared as the Army's officially designated representative formation and one of the symbols of modern state authority along with the flag, the coat of arms and the national anthem. It is organized as a two-battalion regiment, with a military band and two guard of honour battalions as well as service support units directly under the regimental HQ.
Croatia
In Croatia, the Honour Guard Battalion serves as the guard of honour. The Honour Guard Battalion performs protocol tasks for the needs of top-level state and military officials, as well as tasks related to the protection and security of the President of the Republic of Croatia. It consists of up to 300 members. The unit is under the direct command of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia.
Czech Republic
Ceremonial duties are usually performed by the Prague Castle Guard, a special unit of the armed forces of the Czech Republic, organized under the Military Office of the President of the Czech Republic, which is directly subordinate to the President of the Republic.
The Army of the Czech Republic also maintains the Honour Guard of the Czech Armed Forces, which was founded in 2005. The company is currently made of 38 soldiers, including its commander. The company is also made up of three colour guard members, 27 honour guards, and four reserve members.
Denmark
The Royal Life Guards is an infantry regiment of the Danish Army. It serves in two roles: as a front line combat unit, and as a guard/ceremonial unit to the Danish monarchy. Danish Amalienborg palace is guarded by this unit day and night. The Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron also serves ceremonial purposes, such as providing escorts for VIPs and performing public duties.
Estonia
The Guard Battalion is specialized unit under the Military Police of the Estonian Defence Forces, which conducts ceremonial duties and prepares military police units.
Finland
The Guard Jaeger Regiment is located in Santahamina, near the capital Helsinki, and carries the ceremonial duties necessary for visiting guests of honour.
France
The Republican Guard of the National Gendarmerie provides both foot and horse-mounted guards of honour for the city of Paris. It specifically provides ceremonial security to the Élysée Palace, the Hôtel Matignon, the Palais du Luxembourg, the Palais Bourbon, and the Palais de Justice. A quad-service honour guard company composed of members of the Republican Guard, as well as personnel from the French Army, French Navy, French Air Force, and the French Foreign Legion, is also used for ceremonial services, primarily state visits and during state funerals involving distinguished civilians and fallen personnel of the armed forces.
A four-regiment unit named the Guards of Honour ("Gardes d'honneur") was established by Napoleon in 1813 to provide additional cavalry to the Grande Armée. It fought in the German campaign of 1813 and the campaign in north-east France (1814) before it was disbanded after the Bourbon restoration.
Georgia
Aside from its duties as a rapid emergency response unit, the National Guard of Georgia is also responsible for mounting the guard of honour on behalf of the Defense Forces of Georgia during state visits, state funerals and national holidays. The company-sized unit of the NG also conducts Public duties in the national capital, guarding important structures and buildings in Tbilisi.
Germany
The primary mission of the Wachbataillon is to perform the military honours for the German Federal President, Federal Chancellor, Federal Minister of Defence and the Inspector General of the Bundeswehr during state visits or on similar occasions. In addition, the Wachbataillon takes part in military events and ceremonies of major importance. A secondary mission is to perform ceremonial guard duty at the Ministry of Defence and other high-profile public places, and protect and guard the members of the German government and the Ministry of Defence. Usually, three guards companies made up of personnel of the Bundeswehr make up the guard of honour for the President and other high-ranking officials of the state, as well as during state visits of foreign heads of state and government.
Historical honour guard battalions include the Friedrich Engels Guard Regiment, which served as the primary honour guard regiment for the German Democratic Republic from 1962 to 1990. The Friedrich Engels Guard Regiment also formed a part of the security for the Neue Wache. In Nazi Germany, the guard of honour was provided by both the SS-Verfügungstruppe and the Wachregiment Berlin, the Army's guard and garrison regiment in Berlin.
Greece
In Greece, the Presidential Guard is a unit of the Greek Army guarding the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and the Presidential Palace. Its members, known as Evzones, must be taller than 1.85m and are trained hard as their duty includes standing completely still for more than an hour 4 times a day. They are famous for their military discipline, the ability to stand motionless without even blinking, their stylish walking and the uniform which derives from traditional Greek dress. A tri-service guard of honour composed of servicemen from the Hellenic Army, the Hellenic Navy, and the Hellenic Air Force is maintained as part of the Ministry of National Defence.
Hungary
Until 31 December 2006 Hungary's honour guard was the Hungarian Defence Forces's 32nd Budapest Guard and Ceremonial Regiment. Following that regiment's disbandment, and until 31 December 2010, honour guard duties were taken over by the Ceremonial Battalion branch, part of the MH Támogató Dandár (MH TD, HDF Support Brigade). On 1 January 2011, the responsibility for honour guard duties were passed to Nemzeti Honvéd Díszegység (the National Home Defence Ceremonial Band), a part of the MH TD.
The official honour guard of the Hungarian People's Republic is currently the Hungarian People's Army's 7015th Ceremonial Regiment. The regiment provides sentries for the Sándor Palace in Budapest.
Ireland
In Ireland, a guard of honour is drawn from the Irish Army and is called 'Garda Onóra' in Irish. It is inspected by the President of Ireland, Taoiseach or visiting dignitaries. Specifically, battalions from the Infantry Corps are drawn for guards of honour, to form the Ceremonial Military Guard. Personnel carry dignitaries. Personnel of the guard carry Steyr AUG rifles and wear the Service Dress (SD) on ceremonial occasions. The Irish Defence Forces guard of honour participates in ceremonial events such as the National Day of Commemoration, the National Famine Commemoration and the Easter Parade. Guards of honour also take part in the Changing of the Guard at Merrion Square park in the capital.
The Blue Hussars also performed public duties for the Irish Army until it was dissolved in 1948.
Italy
In Italy the unit institutionally intended to act as an honour guard to the President of the Italian Republic is the Corazzieri Regiment, a special branch of the Carabinieri. The Corazzieri follow the President during official occasions and are also partly responsible for the internal security of the Quirinal Palace. In addition to the Corazzieri, there are other honour units chosen from the different Armed Forces, specifically for representation purposes. These units have to stand guard at important places, such as the gates of the seats of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in the Altar of the Homeland, and at the gates of the Quirinal Palace.
Other honour guards units are formed within all branches of the Italian Armed Forces, namely the Honour Company of the 1° Regiment "Granatieri di Sardegna"and the honour squadron from the 8° Regiment "Lancieri di Montebello" of the Italian Army, the Capitol Honour Services Company of the Italian Navy and the Honour Company of the Italian Air Force, all stationed in Rome.
Guards of honour are also drawn by local units within Rome of the Guardia di Finanza and Polizia di Stato.
Kosovo
The Kosovo Security Force maintains the Ceremonial Guard (), which serves as the guard of honour of the FSK. It provides ceremonial duties on all public holidays such as Independence Day, Constitution Day and Europe Day.
Moldova
In Moldova, ceremonial honour guards are based on both the Russian and Romanian traditions and precedent. The two main honour guard units of the country are the Honour Guard Company of the Moldovan National Army and the Honour Guard of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (consisting of cadets of the Ștefan cel Mare Police Academy). The former unit provides personnel to conduct regular public duties in the capital of Chisinau, particularly for the President of Moldova in his/her position as Supreme Commander in Chief. It is the currently only unit in the Moldovan military to utilize the Soviet-style goose step. The latter unit is notable for its use of Stefan cel Mare era uniforms in its exhibition drill routine.
Monaco
The Honour Guard function of the Principality of Monaco are carried by the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince ("Prince's Riflemen Company").
Netherlands
The Honour Guards in Netherlands consists of two guard regiments, Garderegiment Grenadiers en Jagers and Garderegiment Fuseliers Prinses Irene, both from the Royal Netherlands Army. Until 1995 there were three. These regiments, organized as single infantry battalions, provide much of the protocol guards during state holidays in the Netherlands. Guard of honour detachments for public duties are also maintained by the Royal Netherlands Navy, Royal Netherlands Air Force and the Royal Marechaussee.
North Macedonia
North Macedonia's Ceremonial Guard Battalion is part of the Army of the Republic of North Macedonia which is mainly used for ceremonial purposes. It is the personal guard of the President of North Macedonia. The National Guard can be often seen near the presidential palace, during official visits of foreign presidents or delegations, ceremonies, and during the days of the flag. In 2010 the Ministry of Defence proposed and designed new uniforms for the guards. Both, the old and the new uniforms are based on the uniforms of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization revolutionaries with some details of the other periods of the history of North Macedonia. Influence over the new design was based on the uniform worn by Bulgarian revolutionary Dedo Iljo Maleshevski and the uniforms of the 19th century Bulgarian Legion regiment which served in the Imperial Russian Army.
Norway
Hans Majestet Kongens Garde (His Majesty The King's Guard) is a battalion-sized honour guard unit of the Norwegian Army under the ceremonial command and patronage of the King of Norway. Also known as the HMKG, the battalion comprises six companies, with the 3rd company, the famous band and drill company, being the premier ceremonial unit in the HMKG, mostly serving its required public duties at Oslo's Royal Palace.
Poland
The honour guard unit in Poland is the Representative Honour Guard Regiment of the Polish Armed Forces, created on 30 March 2018 on the basis of the Representative Honour Guard Battalion. It performs ceremonial duties on behalf of the armed forces and the President of Poland throughout the capital of Warsaw acting as the combined ceremonial representative for the Polish Armed Forces. It performs annually during the Armed Forces Day parade on Ujazdów Avenue and renders honours to foreign individuals during state arrival ceremonies at the Presidential Palace. Also posted within its ranks is the Presidential Mounted Ceremonial Troop of the Armed Forces, which also acts as an honour guard and horse guard unit. Outside the regiment, which represents the service branches of the Armed Forces (Polish Army, Navy and Air Force) mainly, the Warsaw Garrison and other civil uniformed services all maintain honour guard units of their own, all of which are company-sized.
The Marshal's Guard of the Sejm is the official honour and security unit for the Polish Parliament. Members of the guard are commonly observed guarding the plaque in the front of the Sejm which commemorates the Polish MPs and senators who were killed in the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash in Smolensk, Russia. The Honour Guard Company of the Polish Border Guard has operated under the traditions of the Podhale Rifles since 2007. Honour guard companies are also maintained by the Polish Police, Polish Special Forces, Polish Territorial Defence Forces, State Fire Service, Warsaw Capital Garrison, and the Polish Border Guard.
Portugal
The main honour guard to the President of Portugal is the Security and State Honours Unit (Unidade de Segurança e Honras de Estado, USHE), which is a part of the National Republican Guard. This formation, of regimental size, includes the Presidential Squadron (Esquadrão Presidencial), the Horse Band, the Guard Marching Band, and the State Honours and Security Group, which is mostly an infantry unit. It carries out its ceremonial duties through armed detachments of guards of honour, normally dismounted. It is a directly reporting unit of the Operations Command of the NRG.
Romania
Currently, the Michael the Brave 30th Guards Brigade of the Romanian Land Forces serves as the honour guard brigade of the Romanian Armed Forces. The brigade is present at ceremonial events and during visits from international officials.
The Romanian Gendarmerie also maintains an honour guard unit, called Unitatea Specială de Gardă de Onoare și Protecție Instituțională București (Bucharest Institutional Protection and Honour Guard Special Unit), and a horse guards troop acting during state ceremonies and celebrations of the service.
The first honour guard unit of Romania was established on 1 April 1908 through a royal decree by merging the Bucharest Mounted Gendarmes Divizion with the gendarm squadron from Iași into the Royal Escort Regiment. During King Carol II's rule, over 20 various units of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and an air unit received the title of "guard unit".
In 1931, a Mixed Guard Brigade was also formed, then transformed into the Guards Division two years later. After the communist government took over, all guard units either lost their status or were disbanded. The guard and protocol duties were instead performed by a Republican Guard Regiment from 1948, and from 1968, the 30th Guards Regiment was established within the Romanian People's Army.
Russia
The Russian Imperial Guards served as honour guards for the Russian Empire for many centuries prior to the February Revolution. Russian honour guards have been considered to have laid out the foundation and model for honour guards in the former Soviet Union, and many of the pioneer guardsmen in these units came from the Imperial Guard, who then taught the first generation of honour guardsmen in ceremonial duties. Russia's primary honour guard (, Pochotny kara-ul) is the Kremlin Regiment of the Federal Protective Service of the Russian Federation, established in 1936, which is organized into a four battalion regiment, with two battalions designated as guards of honour, one infantry and one cavalry. This regiment is more known for its modern Imperial Guard inspired uniforms, which are worn on more important occasions, these were introduced for the first time in 2004 on the basis of uniforms of the former infantry and cavalry regiments of the Imperial Guards in Saint Petersburg.
The 154th Preobrazhensky Independent Commandant's Regiment, established in 1979, serves as the official representative honour guard regiment of the Russian Armed Forces and serves as the main honour guard unit of the armed forces. The duties of guards of honour are the responsibility of the 3rd Guard of Honour Battalion, established in 1990. Military districts and fleet formations of the Russian Navy also have their own honour guard companies. All three branches of the Armed Forces, alongside those of other paramilitary formations, maintain their own honour guard companies. Moreover, a large unit could form an honour guard unit on an ad hoc basis. This was applied by the Honour Guard of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany in the 1960s.
Several military districts of Russian Ground Forces maintain honour guard companies, including the Eastern Military District (formed on 14 December 1971.), the Southern Military District, the Central Military District, and the Western Military District (formed on 20 January 1961 under the command of the 165th Separate Rifle Company). In addition to the honour guard companies of the military districts, the Russian Ground Forces also maintain the Volgograd Honour Guard, a unit of the Southern Military District's 20th Guards Motor Rifle Division.
The Russian Navy maintains a number of honour guard companies, including the Honour Guard Company of the Russian Navy, which represents the entire service. Other naval honour guard companies include those that represent the Baltic Fleet, Black Sea Fleet, the Northern Fleet, and the Pacific Fleet. The Russian Air Force maintains one guard company, the Honour Guard Company of the Zhukovsky – Gagarin Air Force Academy in Voronezh.
In addition to the Russian Armed Forces, a number of other Russian departments and agencies also maintain their own respective honour guard companies, including the Border Service of the Federal Security Service, Ministry of Emergency Situations, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the National Guard of Russia. A female honour guard platoon took part for the first time in a Victory Day Parade in Yekaterinburg in June 2020, wearing a special dress uniform that was tailored by individual standards.
San Marino
The Most Serene Republic of San Marino maintain a well organized militia force, mostly used for ceremonial duties. Its foremost honour guard unit is the Guardia del Consiglio Grande e Generale ("Guard of the Great and General Council"), but ceremonial duties are carried also by its other units, the Compagnia Uniformata delle Milizie ("Uniformed Militia Company"), the Guardia di Rocca - Compagnia d'Artiglieria ("Guard of the Rock - Artillery Company") and the Guardia di Rocca - Nucleo Uniformato ("Guard of the Rock - Uniformed Unit").
Serbia
The Guard is an honour guard unit of the Serbian Armed Forces. Brigade-size, it is under the direct command of the General Staff. Its main tasks include guarding vital defence facilities and performing military honours to the highest foreign, domestic, and military officials.
For the needs of Ministry of Defence and the General Staff of the Serbian Armed Forces, the Guard performs tasks within the scope of the military police work and the tasks in the field of security and logistics. Guard continues the tradition of the Guard units which is now almost two centuries long. The first Guard unit formed in Serbia was created on the order of Prince Milos Obrenović on Saint George Day in 1830 in Požarevac. The Guard also sports the official military band of the Serbian Armed Forces, the Band of the Guard.
Slovakia
The Slovak Armed Forces currently operates two ceremonial guard of honour units. The Honour Guard of the President of the Slovak Republic, also known as the Presidential Guard, is the seniormost ceremonial unit in the Slovak Armed Forces, and the primary honour guard unit of the President of Slovakia. This unit serves under the command of the Military Office of the President of the Slovak Republic.
The Honour Guard Company of the Slovak Armed Forces (Slovak: Čestná stráž Ozbrojených síl Slovenskej republiky, CS OS SR) is a separate ceremonial honour guard unit of the Slovak Armed Forces, under the direct command of the Bratislava Garrison Headquarters. The unit was founded in 2009 as part of reforms in the armed forces. It is responsible for guarding the national symbols of Slovakia (the national flag, for example) in the front lobby of the National Council Building.
Spain
The Spanish Royal Guard performs ceremonial and honour guard services in addition to its military bodyguard role and deployment overseas. The regiment's Honour Group and Royal Escort Squadron are its primary ceremonial units. The Royal Escort Squadron provides the ceremonial escort of the Spanish Royal Family and is organized into three units: the Marker Squad, the Cuirassier Troop, and the Lancer Troop.
The guard of honour is also mounted for state visits. Units which mount the guard for state visits include the Spanish Army's Monteros de Espinosa (includes three platoons, and a drill team); the Mar Océano Navy and Marine Composite Company (includes three platoons); and the Plus Ultra Air Force Squadron (includes three flights). The 1st King's Immemorial Infantry Regiment maintains a guard of honour unit known as the "Old Guard of Castille" Battalion (Guardias Viejas de Castilla). The Spanish Air and Space Force Honour Squadron (Escuadrilla de Honores del Ejército del Aire) is an independent honour guard the serves the air force. From 1937 to 1956, the Guardia Mora served as the mounted guard of honour for Francoist Spain, part of a bigger combined arms guard of honour regiment of personnel from service branches of the Armed Forces.
Sweden
Honour guard service is carried out by all units of the Swedish Armed Forces, although the Life Guards Regiment in the Swedish Army accounts for the main part of honour guard services. The Royal Guards (Högvakten) at the Stockholm Palace and the Drottningholm Palace is the honour guard to the King of Sweden. The service is carried out full time by the Life Guards as well as other units of the Swedish Armed Forces including the Home Guard and other voluntary defence organisations.
The Grenadier company of the Life Guards' guard of honour battalion, the Kings' Guards Battalion, is used as an honour guard at state visit welcoming ceremonies. A detachment of grenadiers is also used as honour guard at the opening of the Riksdag, when an incoming foreign ambassador meets with the King at an audience to present letters of credence and when the King attends an annual meeting of one of the Royal Academies.
Drabantvakt ("Royal Bodyguard"), commonly known as Karl XI:s drabanter ("The Bodyguard of Charles XI") and Karl XII:s drabanter ("The Bodyguard of Charles XII") is a ceremonial guard used at state occasions such as state visits, investiture of a monarch, royal weddings and funerals etc. The guard was formed in 1860 based on historical royal bodyguards. The design of the uniforms of the guard is based on, but not identical to, uniforms used during the reign of Carles XI and Charles XII respectively. The guard platoon is made up of 24 guardsmen and one officer selected from the Life Guards' King's Guards Battalion.
Switzerland
Swiss Armed Forces honour guards are based on the German, French and American model for ceremonial drill. Switzerland does not have a professional honour guard unit. The military instead utilizes a battalion-sized capital unit that is used during official visits. Unlike other European countries, Swiss honour guards wear combat uniforms instead of an expected full dress uniform.
Turkey
Several guard detachments operate within the Turkish Armed Forces. A joint service guard of honour company is in service in the Turkish Armed Forces' headquarters in Ankara, composed of select personnel from each service branch of the armed forces performing honour guard and public duties activities. In addition, the Turkish Armed Forces presently operates another ceremonial guard detachment at Anıtkabir, performing public duties at the mausoleum of the first President of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The standard rifle used by the guard detachment at Anıtkabir is a M1 Garand.
The Presidential Guard Regiment acts as an honour guard regiment for the Turkish Land Forces, a component of the Turkish Armed Forces.
Ukraine
The Kyiv Honour Guard Battalion, which is part of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky Independent Presidential Guard Brigade, is the official ceremonial guard of honour unit of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. It was formed from the guard of honour units in the Ukrainian SSR's Kiev Military District. Besides the HQ company, the battalion maintains three companies, a Military Band, and a Symbols Protection Company.
The NGU National Special Honour Guard Battalion of the National Guard of Ukraine is actively in use for many ceremonial activities, and was also in service prior to the disbandment of the Internal Troops of Ukraine in 2014.
United Kingdom
A guard of honour is formed to present formal ceremonial compliments to royal or presidential dignitaries by a guard not exceeding 100 personnel (including three officers, one with a colour) with other particular distinguished individuals saluted by a guard not exceeding 50 personnel. A half guard is a colloquial term describing a guard of honour of not more than 50 personnel (including two officers, one with a colour). A guard of honour could have a single service contingent (e.g. army) or it could be a tri-service (inter-service) affair. The guard commander, after saluting the dignitary (usually head of state), marches up to him or her and escorts him or her to inspect the guard (soldiers in formation). During the salute, the national anthems of both the dignitary's country and the host country are usually played by a ceremonial band.
Only a standard, guidon, King’s Colour, or a banner presented by either a member of the Royal Family or the governor-general may be carried by a royal guard of honour. Only a regimental colour or a banner presented by a personage other than a member of the Royal Family may be carried on a half guard of honour. A smaller unit honouring distinguished visitors at a military installation is known as a quarter guard. The commander is three paces in front of the second file from the right and accompanies the personage for whom the guard is mounted. An officer carrying the Colour stands three paces in front of the centre; if there is a third officer he will be three paces in front of the second file from the other flank.
Units that traditionally perform ceremonial duties, such as Guard Mounting (changing of the King’s Guard) or Trooping the Colour, are the five regiments of Foot Guards and the Household Cavalry (Blues and Royals and Life Guards), which form the Household Division whilst the Honourable Artillery Company form the Guard of Honour when foreign Heads of State visit London. The Royal Air Force's ceremonial unit is the King's Colour Squadron. The British Armed Forces do not have dedicated ceremonial units other than the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, the Guards and Royal Regiment of Scotland Incremental Companies and the Royal Air Force's King’s Colour Squadron.
The King's Guard is primarily made up of units from the Household Division for royal palaces and public monuments—namely Buckingham Palace, St James's Palace, Windsor Castle, and the Tower of London—and other units from all three services of the British Armed Forces filling in when not deployed; in Scotland, Holyrood Palace and Edinburgh Castle are usually the responsibility of Scottish regiments or units based in Edinburgh. Occasionally units from Commonwealth militaries are given the honour.
Vatican City
The de facto military force of the Vatican City State is the Pontificia Cohors Helvetica ("Papal Swiss Cohort"). Popularly known as the Swiss Guard, this 135 strong unit is formed by unmarried Swiss Catholic former servicemen aged between 19 and 30 years, recruited through a special convention with the Swiss Government. While largely performing ceremonial honour guard duties with traditional weapons (halberds, partisans and swords), the Swiss Guard is also equipped with modern military light weapons and trained in proper military and security duties. The Guard provides one of two official procotol bands in the country.
Oceania
Australia
The tri-service Federation Guard – consisting of members of the Australian Army, the Royal Australian Air Force and the Royal Australian Navy – provides the guard of honour for various ceremonies. It is the only military unit of its kind currently in the Australian Defence Force. All members of the guard are enlisted in their respective areas before volunteering for service in the guard. They are armed with L1A1 SLR rifles.
Fiji
Fijian Presidential Palace Guards serve as the official guard of honour unit of the President of Fiji. It is made up of members of all the different service branches of the Fiji Military Forces. It primarily serves its ceremonial duties at the Government House in the capital of Suva. The guards regularly take part in the changing of the guard at the government house. The uniform consists of a Red military shirt and a traditional Fijian Sulu. The guards main rifle that they carry is the AK-101.
New Zealand
The New Zealand Defence Force is represented ceremonially by a unit that is known commonly as the Royal Guard of Honour: a company-sized unit (100 members) that is composed of members of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The company is the official honour guard of the Governor-General, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defence, and the Chief of Defence Force. The company performs most of its public duties at national events such as the Anzac Day commemorations in the capital. The Army portion of the company is notable for its highly distinctive "lemon squeezer" hat.
Sports
Association football
In recent years, association football teams have shown their respect to teams in their own division which have already won the championship of the division with games to spare by forming a guard of honour onto or off the pitch for their players. The applauding team forms two lines to make a corridor and the league winners pass through the corridor, generally in single file. The guard of honour is in some instances considered good form to perform but is not considered compulsory and teams may opt not to provide one, as especially tends to happen between teams considered particularly bitter rivals.
The same has occasionally been done for individual players meeting particularly momentous points in their career, such as when Scottish Premier league team Rangers squad did so for departing talisman Dado Pršo and Chelsea controversially chose to do so in a pre-planned display in the middle of a match for John Terry's last game, causing significant delays to the game.
Australian rules football
In Australian rules football, players will often form a guard of honour for those who are leaving the field after a landmark game or on their retirement game. For example, Fremantle formed a guard of honour for Fitzroy's last match in 1996; Melbourne and Essendon formed a guard in 2005 to honour Indian Ocean tsunami victim Troy Broadbridge; and Collingwood and North Melbourne formed a guard of honour in 2006 for retiring player Saverio Rocca, who forged a successful goalkicking career at both clubs. After playing in the Auskick games at half time of senior matches, the junior players line up to form a guard of honour for when the players return to the field.
Cricket
In cricket, the guard of honour is used to celebrate the achievement of a player (usually as a batsman), normally used during a player's final game. The players' teammates or opposition form a cordon, with their bats at the second count of the draw sabre forming an arch, and the successful player walks through. It may also be performed to mark a milestone, such as when a player breaks a world record. A player can receive guard of honour multiple times as they retire from different forms of the game separately. When a bowler retires, it would generally be when they leave the field for the final time, or when they play their final match in a certain venue of importance (away match, home ground, retiring on the same day a ground is due to be demolished).
Field hockey
In recent times guard of honour is usually done among hockey players for those who have done something valuable for their country like Balbir Singh Sr or Jamie Dwyer.
See also
Change of command
Colour guard
Military rites
Vigil of the Princes
References
Association football terminology
Australian rules football terminology
Military traditions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingaraja%20Temple
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Lingaraja Temple
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Lingaraja Temple () is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest temples in Bhubaneswar, the capital of the Indian state of Odisha, India. The temple is the most prominent landmark of Bhubaneswar city and one of the major tourist attractions of the state.
The Lingaraja temple is the largest temple in Bhubaneswar. The central tower of the temple is tall. The temple represents the quintessence of the Kalinga architecture and culminating the medieval stages of the architectural tradition at Bhubaneswar. The temple is believed to be built by the kings from the Somavamsi dynasty, with later additions from the Ganga rulers. The temple is built in the Deula style that has four components namely, vimana (structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), natamandira (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings), each increasing in the height to its predecessor. The temple complex has 108 other shrines and is enclosed by a large compound wall.
Bhubaneswar is called the Ekamra Kshetra as the deity of Lingaraja was originally under a mango tree (Ekamra) as noted in Ekamra Purana, a 13th-century Sanskrit treatise. The temple is active in worship practises, unlike most other temples in Bhubaneswar. The temple has images of Vishnu, possibly because of the rising prominence of Jagannath sect emanating from the Ganga rulers who built the Jagannath Temple in Puri in the 12th century. The central deity of the temple, Lingaraja, is worshipped as Shiva.
Lingaraja temple is maintained by the Temple Trust Board and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The temple has an average of 6,000 visitors per day and receives lakhs of visitors during festivals. Shivaratri festival is the major festival celebrated in the temple and event during 2012 witnessed 200,000 visitors. The temple compound is not open to non-Hindus, but there is a viewing platform beside the wall offering a good view of the main exteriors. This was originally erected for a visit by Lord Curzon when Viceroy.
History
The temple in its present form dates back to the last decade of the eleventh century. There is evidence that part of the temple was built during the sixth century CE as mentioned in some of the seventh century Sanskrit texts. Fergusson believes that the temple might have been initiated by Lalat Indu Keshari who reigned from 615 to 657 CE. The Assembly hall (jagamohana), sanctum and temple tower were built during the eleventh century, while the Hall of offering (bhoga-mandapa) was built during the twelfth century. The natamandira was built by the wife of Salini between 1099 and 1104 CE. By the time the Lingaraja temple was completely constructed, the Jagannath (form of Vishnu) sect had been growing in the region, which historians believe, is evidenced by the co-existence of Vishnu and Shiva worship at the temple. The kings of Ganga dynasty were ardent followers of Vaishnavism, [shaivism] and [shaktism] and built the Jagannath Temple at Puri in the 12th century.
As per some accounts, the temple is believed to have been built by the Somavanshi king Yayati I (1025-1040), during the 11th century CE. Jajati Keshari shifted his capital from Jajpur to Bhubaneswar which was referred to as Ekamra Kshetra in the Brahma Purana, an ancient scripture. One of the Somavamsi queens donated a village to the temple and the Brahmins attached to the temple received generous grants. An inscription from the Saka year 1094 (1172 CE) indicates gifts of gold coins to the temple by Rajaraja II. Another inscription of Narasimha I from the 11th century indicates offer of beetel leaves as tambula to the presiding deity. Other stone inscriptions in the temple indicate royal grants from Chodaganga to the nearby village people.
K.C. Panigrahi mentions that Yayti I had no time to build the temple and it should have been initiated by his sons Ananta Kesari and Udyota Kesari (believed to be other names of Yayati II as well). The argument provided against the view is that is his weak successors could not have constructed such a magnificent structure.
Architecture
The Lingaraja temple is the largest temple in Bhubaneswar. James Fergusson (1808–86), a noted critic and historian rated the temple as "one of the finest examples of purely Hindu temple in India". It is enshrined within a spacious compound wall of laterite measuring by . The wall is thick and surmounted by a plain slant coping. Alongside the inner face of the boundary wall, there is a terrace to protect the compound wall against outside aggression. The tower is high and the complex has 150 smaller shrines in its spacious courtyard. Each inch of the tall tower is sculpted. The door in the gate of the entrance porch is made of sandalwood.
The Lingaraja temple faces east and is built of sandstone and laterite. The main entrance is located in the east, while there are small entrances in the north and south. The temple is built in the Deula style that has four components namely, vimana (structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), natamandira (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings), with all four in axial alignment with descending height. The dance hall was associated with the raising prominence of the devadasi system that existed during the time. The various units from the Hall of offering to the tower of the sanctum increase in height.
The bhogamandapa (Hall of offering) measures * from the inside, * from the outside and has four doors in each of the sides. The exterior walls of the hall has decorative sculptures of men and beast. The hall has a pyramidal roof made of up several horizontal layers arranged in sets of two with intervening platform. It bears an inverted bell and a kalasa in the top. The natamandira (festival hall) measures * from the inside, * from the outside, has one main entrance and two side entrances. The side walls of the hall has decorative sculptures displaying women and couples. It has a flat roof sloping in stages. There are thick pylons inside the hall.
The jagamohana (assembly hall) measures * from the inside, * from the outside, entrances from south and north and has a tall roof. The hall has a pyramidal roof made of up several horizontal layers arranged in sets of two with intervening platform as in the Hall of offering. The facade to the entrances are decorated with perforated windows with lion sitting on hind legs. The inverted bell above second unit is adorned by kalasa and lions. The rekha deula has a tall pyramidal tower over the sanctum and measures * from the inside, * from the outside over the sanctum. It is covered with decorative design and seated lion projecting from the walls. The sanctum is square in shape from the inside. The tower walls are sculpted with female figures in different poses.
The temple has a vast courtyard mired with hundreds of small shrines.
Religious significance
Bhubaneswar is called the Ekamra Kshetra as the deity of Lingaraja was originally under a mango tree (Ekamra). Ekamra Purana, a Sanskrit treatise of the 13th century mentions that the presiding deity was not seen as lingam (an aniconic form of Shiva) during the Satya and Treta yugas and only during the Dvapara and Kali yugas, it emerged as a lingam. The lingam in the temple is a natural unshaped stone that rests on a Sakti. Such a lingam is called Krutibasa or Swayambhu and is found in 64 places in different parts of India. With the advent of the Ganga dynasty in the early 12th century, during the period.
It is attributed the raising prominence of Jagannath sect that became predominant during the construction of the temple. The Gangas remodelled the temple and introduced certain Vaishnavite elements like images of Vaishnava Dwarapalas namely Jaya and Prachanda, The flag of the temple was fixed to a Pinaka bow instead of trident usually found In Shiva temples
Festival and worship practises
As per Hindu legend, an underground river originating from the Lingaraja temple fills the Bindusagar Tank (meaning ocean drop) and the water is believed to heal physical and spiritual illness. The water from the tank is thus treated sacred and pilgrims take a holy dip during festive occasions.
The central deity of the temple, Lingaraja, is worshipped as Shiva . .
Shivaratri is the main festival celebrated annually in Phalgun month when thousands of devotees visit the temple. Apart from a full day of fasting, bel leaves are offered to Lingaraja on this auspicious day. The main celebrations take place at night when devotees pray all night long. The devout usually break their fast after the Mahadipa (a huge lamp) is lit on the spire of the temple. This festival commemorates Lingaraja having slain a demon. Thousands of bol bom pilgrims carry water from river Mahanadi and walk all the way to the temple during the month of Shravana every year. Sunian day is observed from royal times in the month of Bhandra, a day when temple servants, peasants and other holders of temple lands offer loyalty and tribute to Lingaraja.
Chandan Yatra (Sandalwood ceremony) is a 22-day festival celebrated in the temple when servants of the temple disport themselves in a specially made barge in Bindusagar tank. The deities and servants of the temples are anointed with sandalwood paste to protect from heat. Dances, communal feasts, and merrymaking are arranged by the people associated with the temple.
Every year the chariot festival (Ratha-Yatra) of Lingaraja is celebrated on Ashokashtami. The deity is taken in a chariot to Rameshwar Deula temple. Thousands of devotees follow and pull brightly decorated chariots containing the idols of Lingaraj, Durga And Dolagovind .Maa Parvati visits Rameswar deula on Dasami but Lord Lingaraj refused her to stay there therefore Maa Parvati gets angry .After returning to temple promises Maa Parvati to take her during boat festival for 21 days . During GuruPanchami night Baba Lingaraj marries Maa Parvati in Kedar Gouri temple.Then in Sitalsasthi night returns to the temple with a grand procession.
The Lingaraja temple is active in worship practises, unlike the other ancient temples of Bhubaneshwar which are not active worship centres. Non Hindus are not allowed inside the temple, but it can be viewed from the viewing platform located outside the temple. The viewing platform and the back of the temple can be reached via a laneway located to the right of the main entrance of the temple. Sanctity of the temple is maintained by disallowing dogs, unbathed visitors, menstruating women and families that encountered birth or death in the preceding 12 days. In case of a foreign trespass, the temple follows a purification ritual and dumping of prasad (food offering) in a well.
Religious practices
The image of Lingaraja is abluted with water (called ) several times a day and decorated with flowers, sandal paste and cloth. Hemlock or hemlock flowers which are generally offered in other Shiva temples is not allowed in the Lingaraja temple. Bilva leaves (Aegle marmelos) and tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) are used in daily worship. Offerings of cooked rice, curries and sweets are displayed in the bhogamandapa (hall of offering) and the divinity is invoked to accept them amidst scores of chanting of Sanskrit texts. Coconut, ripe plantains and kora-khai are generally offered to Lingaraja by the pilgrims. Bhang beverage is offered to Lingaraja by some devotees especially on the day of Pana Sankranti (Odia new year).
The Lingaraja temple is open from 6 a.m. to about 9 p.m. and is intermittently closed during bhoga (food offering) to the deity. During early morning, lamps in the cella are lit to awaken Lingaraja from his sleep, ablution is performed, followed by adoration and arati (waving of light). The temple is closed at about 12 noon until about 3.30 p.m. A ceremony is known as Mahasnana (ablution) is performed once the doors are closed, followed by pouring of Panchamrita (a mixture of milk, curdled milk, clarified butter, honey, and ghee) upon the deity for purification. At about 1:00 pm, a ripe plantain is divided into two, one half is offered to Sun god and the other half to Dwarapala (the guarding deities in the doorway). Between 1 p.m. and 1:30 p.m. the food offering called Ballabha Bhoga (breakfast containing curdled milk, curd, and vegetables) is offered to the deity. The consecrated food is carried to the temple of Parvati and placed before her as an offering, a practice commonly observed by the orthodox Hindu housewives. At about 2 pm, the Sakala Dhupa (morning's offering of food) takes place. After the food is offered to Lingaraja, the offerings are carried to the temple of Parvati to serve her. An offering called Bhanda Dhupa is carried out at 3:30 p.m. at the hall of the offering. This food is later offered by the inmates to the pilgrims as Mahaprasada.
A light refreshment known as Ballabha Dhupa is offered to the deity at around 4:30 pm. At around 5:00 pm, Dwipahar Dhupa (mid-day meal) is offered. At around 7 pm, another offering called Palia Badu is placed before the deity. Sandhya arati (waving of lights in the evening) is performed during that time. Another light meal called Sahana Dhupa is offered at around 8:30 pm. After the meals, the ceremony of waving light (arati) is performed before the deity. At 9.30 pm, the last service of the day, Bada Singara (the great decoration) is performed when the deity is decorated with flowers and ornaments after which a light food offering is made. A wooden palanquin is laid in the room, incense is lighted, drinking water is served and prepared betel is placed. Panchabaktra Mahadeva comes to the palanquin and returns to his own abode after the arati is performed. This is a bronze image of Mahadeva having five faces and Parvati in his lap. Each of these ceremonies is accompanied by ritual observances and recitations of mantras (Sanskrit texts) specified for each occasion.
Temple staff and administration
King Jajati Keshari, believed to be the founder of the Lingaraja temple, deputed Brahmins who had migrated to south India as temple priests over the local Brahmins on account of their increased knowledge of Shaivism, due to increasing invasions from Muslim invaders. The focus was to enhance the temple practises from tribal rites to Sanskritic. While the exact number of castes involved in the (practises) is not known, Brahmins, tribal worshippers and inmates from Untouchable castes are believed to be part of the setup. Bose (1958) identified 41 services with the involvement of 22 separate castes and Mahaptra (1978) identified 30 services. It is understood from the records that kings and temple managers of different times introduced or discontinued certain services, fairs, offerings, and caste-centred core services during their regime. As of 2012, the temple practised 36 different services ().
In modern times, the Lingaraja temple priests are from three communities, namely Pujapanda Nijog, Brahman Nijog and Badu Nijog. The Badu are non-Brahmin servant groups, whose origin is not ascertained due to unavailability of authentic records, while they are described as Vadu in chapter 62 of the Ekamrapurana. The caste group of Badu is called Niyoga, which elects the officers every year during the Sandalwood festival. Every Badu undergoes three distinct rites, namely, ear-piercing, marriage, and god-touching. Historically, the Badus performed five different temple duties - Paliabadu and Pharaka, which were considered important and Pochha, Pahada and Khataseja, which were considered inferior. From 1962, only Paliabadu and Pharaka practises are followed and the others are discontinued. The Badus also carry out ablution and dressing of the images of Siddhaganesh and Gopalini.
The temple is maintained by the Temple Trust Board and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The temple is guarded by security personnel deputed by the Police Commissioner of Bhubaneswar and security guards appointed by the temple administration. The temple has an average of 6,000 visitors every day and receives lakhs of visitors during festivals. The Shivaratri festival during 2012 witnessed 200,000 visitors. As of 2011, the annual income of Lingaraja temple from hundis (donation boxes) is around 1.2 million per annum. Another 4 million is collected annually from other sources like rents from shops, cycle stands and agriculture lands. Starting 2011, the temple charges an amount for six types of religious worship (special pujas) carried out by the devotees.
Gallery
Notes
References
External links
Ancient Indian culture
11th-century Hindu temples
Hindu temples in Bhubaneswar
Shiva temples in Odisha
Vishnu temples
Archaeological monuments in Odisha
Sandstone buildings in India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra%20%281963%20film%29
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Cleopatra (1963 film)
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Cleopatra is a 1963 American epic historical drama film directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, with a screenplay adapted by Mankiewicz, Ranald MacDougall and Sidney Buchman from the 1957 book The Life and Times of Cleopatra by Carlo Maria Franzero, and from histories by Plutarch, Suetonius, and Appian. The film stars Elizabeth Taylor in the eponymous role. Richard Burton, Rex Harrison, Roddy McDowall, and Martin Landau are featured in supporting roles. It chronicles the struggles of Cleopatra, the young queen of Egypt, to resist the imperial ambitions of Rome.
Walter Wanger had long contemplated producing a biographical film about Cleopatra. In 1958, his production company partnered with Twentieth Century Fox to produce the film. Following an extensive casting search, Elizabeth Taylor signed on to portray the title role for a record-setting salary of $1 million. Rouben Mamoulian was hired as director, and the script underwent numerous revisions from Nigel Balchin, Dale Wasserman, Lawrence Durrell, and Nunnally Johnson. Principal photography began at Pinewood Studios on September 28, 1960, but Taylor's health problems delayed further filming. Production was suspended in November after it had gone overbudget with only ten minutes of usable footage.
Mamoulian resigned as director and was replaced by Mankiewicz, who had directed Taylor in Suddenly, Last Summer (1959). Production was re-located to Cinecittà, where filming resumed on September 25, 1961, without a finished shooting script. During filming, a personal scandal made worldwide headlines when it was reported that co-stars Taylor and Richard Burton had an adulterous affair. Filming wrapped on July 28, 1962, and further reshoots were made from February to March 1963.
With the estimated production costs totaling $31 million (not counting the $5 million spent on the aborted British shoot), the film became the most expensive film ever made up to that point and nearly bankrupted the studio. The cost of distribution, print and advertising expenses added a further $13 million to Fox's costs.
Cleopatra premiered at the Rivoli Theatre in New York City on June 12, 1963. It received a generally favorable response from film critics, and became the highest-grossing film of 1963, earning box-office receipts of $57.7 million in the United States and Canada, and one of the highest-grossing films of the decade at a worldwide level. However, the film initially lost money because of its exorbitant production and marketing costs totaling $44 million ($ in ).
It received nine nominations at the 36th Academy Awards, including for Best Picture, and won four: Best Art Direction (Color), Best Cinematography (Color), Best Visual Effects and Best Costume Design (Color).
Plot
After the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, Julius Caesar goes to Egypt, under the pretext of being named the executor of the will of the father of the young Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII and his older sister and co-ruler, Cleopatra. Ptolemy and Cleopatra are in the midst of their own civil war, and she has been driven out of the city of Alexandria. Ptolemy rules alone under the care of his three "guardians": the chief eunuch Pothinus, his tutor Theodotus and General Achillas.
Cleopatra convinces Caesar to restore her throne from Ptolemy. Caesar, in effective control of the kingdom, sentences Pothinus to death for arranging an assassination attempt on Cleopatra, and banishes Ptolemy to the eastern desert, where he and his outnumbered army would face certain death against Mithridates. Cleopatra is crowned queen of Egypt and begins to dream of ruling the world with Caesar, who in turn desires to become king of Rome. They marry, and when their son Caesarion is born, Caesar accepts him publicly, which becomes the talk of Rome and the Senate.
After being made dictator for life, Caesar sends for Cleopatra. She arrives in Rome in a lavish procession and wins the adulation of the Roman people. The Senate grows increasingly discontented amid rumors that Caesar wishes to be made king. On the Ides of March in 44 BC, a group of conspirators assassinate Caesar and flee the city, starting a rebellion. An alliance among Octavian (Caesar's adopted son), Mark Antony (Caesar's right-hand man and general) and Marcus Ameilius Lepidus puts down the rebellion and splits the republic. Cleopatra is angered after Caesar's will recognizes Octavian, rather than Caesarion, as his official heir and returns to Egypt.
While planning a campaign against Parthia in the east, Antony realizes that he needs money and supplies that only Egypt can sufficiently provide. After repeatedly refusing to leave Egypt, Cleopatra acquiesces and meets him on her royal barge in Tarsus. The two begin a love affair. Octavian's removal of Lepidus forces Antony to return to Rome, where he marries Octavian's sister Octavia to prevent political conflict. This enrages Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra reconcile and marry, with Antony divorcing Octavia. Octavian, incensed, reads Antony's will to the Roman senate, revealing that Antony wishes to be buried in Egypt. Rome turns against Antony, and Octavian's call for war against Egypt receives a rapturous response. The war is decided at the naval Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC, where Octavian's fleet, under the command of Agrippa, defeats the lead ships of the Antony-Egyptian fleet. Assuming Antony is dead, Cleopatra orders the Egyptian forces home. Antony follows her, leaving his fleet leaderless and soon defeated.
Months later, Cleopatra sends Caesarion under disguise out of Alexandria. She also convinces Antony to resume command of his troops and fight Octavian's advancing army. However, Antony's soldiers abandon him during the night. Rufio, the last man loyal to Antony, kills himself. Antony tries to goad Octavian into single combat, but is finally forced to flee into the city. When Antony returns to the palace, Apollodorus, who was in love with Cleopatra himself, tells him she is in her tomb as she had instructed, and lets Antony believe she is dead. Antony falls on his own sword. Apollodorus then confesses that he lied to Antony and assists him to the tomb where Cleopatra and two servants have taken refuge. Antony dies in Cleopatra's arms.
Octavian and his army march into Alexandria with Caesarion's dead body in a wagon. He discovers the dead body of Apollodorus, who had poisoned himself. He then receives word that Antony is dead and Cleopatra is holed up in a tomb. There he offers to allow her to rule Egypt as a Roman province if she accompanies him to Rome. Cleopatra, knowing that her son is dead, agrees to Octavian's terms, including a pledge on the life of her son not to harm herself. After Octavian departs, she orders for her servants to assist with her suicide. Discovering that she was going to kill herself, Octavian and his guards burst into Cleopatra's chamber to find her dead, dressed in gold, along with her servants and the asp that killed her.
Cast
Production
Walter Wanger had long desired to produce a biographical film about Cleopatra. As an undergraduate at Dartmouth College, he first read Théophile Gautier's fantasy novel One of Cleopatra's Nights and Other Fantastic Romances and then Thomas North's 1579 English translation of Plutarch's Lives and William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. Wanger had envisioned Cleopatra as "the quintessence of youthful femininity, of womanliness and strength," but it was not until he watched Elizabeth Taylor in A Place in the Sun (1951) that he found his ideal candidate for the role. Around this time, Wanger had discovered through a private detective that his wife, Joan Bennett, was having an affair with her talent agent Jennings Lang. On the afternoon of December 13, 1951, Wanger shot Lang twice after having spotted him with Bennett in a parking lot near MCA. Lang survived, and Wanger, pleading insanity, served four months in prison at the Castaic Honor Farm, north of Los Angeles.
Following his release, Wanger had achieved a career comeback, having produced Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) and I Want to Live! (1958), in which Susan Hayward won the Academy Award for Best Actress. He would soon return to his dream project of a Cleopatra biographical film.
Development
Wanger pitched the idea to various film studios, including Monogram and RKO Pictures. He also approached Taylor and her husband Michael Todd about producing the project with United Artists. Taylor expressed interest in the project but delegated the decision to Todd. Meanwhile, Twentieth Century Fox was in financial trouble following its severe box office losses of The Barbarian and the Geisha, A Certain Smile and The Roots of Heaven, all released in 1958. To reverse the studio's fortunes, studio president Spyros Skouras requested that studio executive David Brown find a viable project that would be a "big picture." Brown suggested a remake of Cleopatra (1917), which had starred Theda Bara.
In the fall of 1958, Wanger's production company entered into a coproduction agreement with Twentieth Century Fox. Wanger pitched four properties—Cleopatra, Justine, The Dud Avocado, and The Fall—for the executives to consider. They selected the first three, and Cleopatra would be the first to enter into production. On September 15, Wanger purchased the screen rights to Carlo Mario Franzero's biography The Life and Times of Cleopatra. On September 30, Skouras held his first meeting with Wanger, and asked his secretary to retrieve the screenplay for the 1917 version of Cleopatra. Skouras insisted, "All this needs is a little rewriting. Just give me this over again and we'll make a lot of money." Because the original screenplay had been written for a silent film, the script mostly contained instructions for camera setups.
In December 1958, Ludi Claire, a writer and former actress, was hired to write a rough draft of the script. That same month, art director John DeCuir was hired to produce conceptual artwork to illustrate the visual scale of the project. In March 1959, English author Nigel Balchin was hired to write another script draft. Meanwhile, Wanger had approached Alfred Hitchcock to direct the film, having worked with him on Foreign Correspondent (1940), but Hitchcock declined. Skouras then selected Rouben Mamoulian, who had worked with Wanger on Applause (1929), to direct. With Mamoulian as director, Balchin's script pleased neither him nor Taylor, who felt that the first act was forced and that Cleopatra lacked sufficient characterization. Based on his recently aired I, Don Quixote episode in the CBS anthology series DuPont Show of the Month, Dale Wasserman was selected to complete the final draft. Wanger instructed him to focus all attention on Cleopatra as the central role. Wasserman recounted that he had never met Taylor, so he watched her earlier films to better acquaint himself with her acting style. In the spring of 1960, English novelist Lawrence Durrell was hired to rewrite the script.
Casting
At a meeting, in October 1958, production head Buddy Adler favored a relatively cheap production of $2 million, with one of Fox's contract actresses, such as Joan Collins (who tested extensively for the part), Joanne Woodward or model Suzy Parker, in the title role. Wanger protested, envisioning a much more opulent epic with a voluptuous actress as Cleopatra. Wanger suggested Susan Hayward while Audrey Hepburn, Sophia Loren, and Gina Lollobrigida were also under consideration. When Mamoulian was hired to direct, he had offered the title role to Dorothy Dandridge, an African American, during a lunch meeting at the Romanoff's restaurant in Beverly Hills. Dandridge replied, "You won't have the guts to go through with this... They are going to talk you out of it."
In September 1959, Wanger contacted Taylor again on the set of Suddenly, Last Summer (1959), and Taylor asked for a record-setting contract of $1 million ($ in ) plus ten percent of the box-office gross. On October 15, a contract-signing event was staged inside Adler's office where Taylor signed blank papers because the real contract would not be ready for months. Wanger had considered Laurence Olivier and Rex Harrison for the role of Julius Caesar, and Richard Burton for Mark Antony. However, the studios refused to approve Harrison and Burton. On July 28, 1960, Taylor signed a real contract. It was also stipulated that the film would be shot in Europe and in the Todd-AO format, developed by Taylor's late husband Mike Todd, which ensured that Taylor would receive additional royalties.
In January 1960, Stephen Boyd was approached by Wanger about being cast as Mark Antony, but felt he was too young for the role. In August 1960, Boyd was cast as Mark Antony, Peter Finch as Julius Caesar and Keith Baxter as Octavian. Mamoulian had also cast Elisabeth Welch to portray one of Cleopatra's handmaidens.
Filming
Production under Rouben Mamoulian
With Mamoulian as director, construction on the Alexandria exteriors was already under way on the studio's backlot. London was also seen as a viable choice for hosting the production. The Eady Levy had offered financial incentives to American film studios as long as a certain percentage of the primary cast and production crew were English. There, the production would be supervised by Robert Goldstein, the studio's foreign head of production. A number of other countries, including Turkey and Egypt, were considered for exterior locations.
In 1960, Adler entered into a coproduction deal with Italian producer Lionello Santi, who had recently completed a foreign-language version of Cleopatra that the studio purchased to keep away from the American market. Mamoulian traveled to Italy for location scouting and reported back the difficulties upon shooting there. Furthermore, the impending Rome Summer Olympics threatened to complicate filming accommodations. On April 20, 1960, Santi issued a full-page ad in Variety announcing his forthcoming production of Cleopatra without mentioning Twentieth Century Fox's involvement. Angered, Adler shifted the entire production to Pinewood Studios (England). On July 11, Adler died from cancer, and was replaced by Goldstein. Skouras asked Wanger to assume Goldstein's former position, but months later, he was replaced by Sid Rogell. Meanwhile, Wanger cautioned about shooting in England in a July 15 memo, stating that the weather conditions could jeopardize Taylor's health and that the labor force was insufficient. However, Fox management overruled his decision.
Principal photography began at Pinewood Studios on September 28, 1960. On the same day, the British hairdressers' union threatened to leave production, as Taylor had brought Sydney Guilaroff, an American hairstylist. A settlement was reached that Guilaroff would be allowed to style Taylor's hair, but only at her Dorchester suite. Taylor shot a scene in 40-degree weather and fell sick with a sore throat, rendering her unable to work for two weeks. Mamoulian was then forced to proceed filming without Taylor, instead shooting scenes with Finch and Boyd. Taylor's cold soon progressed into a lingering fever, and for the next few weeks, she was treated by several doctors, including Lord Evans, Queen Elizabeth II's physician. On November 13, Taylor's fever reached 103 degrees and she was diagnosed with meningitis. By November 19, Wanger indefinitely postponed shooting, giving studio employees two weeks' notice until Taylor's health recovered. Taylor remained hospitalized for a week and then flew to Palm Springs, Florida, with husband Eddie Fisher to recuperate. The Lloyd's of London insurance agency paid $2 million to cover Taylor's medical expenses.
During the pause in filming, Nunnally Johnson was hired to write a new script. Johnson wrote a 75-page draft for the first half of the film, mostly involving Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, that was similar in its tone to that of Cecil B. DeMille's Cleopatra (1934) and Caesar and Cleopatra (1945). Filming resumed on January 3, 1961, but Mamoulian was dissatisfied with Johnson's script. Taylor, who expressed similar displeasure, then appealed for Paddy Chayefsky to write a new script. Chayefsky demurred, saying that a rewrite would take six months. After sixteen weeks of filming and costs of $7 million, the crew had produced just ten minutes of usable film. Skouras blamed Mamoulian for the production having exceeded its budget. On January 18, 1961, Mamoulian resigned as director.
Mankiewicz takes over
To replace Mamoulian, Taylor announced that she would approve either George Stevens, who had directed her in A Place in the Sun, or Joseph L. Mankiewicz, who had directed her in Suddenly, Last Summer (1959). At the time, Mankiewicz was developing a film adaptation of the novel Justine, which was also a Wanger production. He initially declined the offer, but after meeting with Skouras and his agent Charles K. Feldman at the Colony Restaurant, he agreed to write and direct the project.
As an additional incentive, Skouras acquired Figaro, Inc., Mankiewicz's independent production company, for $3 million. In addition to his salary as writer and director, Mankiewicz received $1.5 million from the purchase, while his partner, NBC, received the other half. Having directed Julius Caesar (1953), Mankiewicz expressed his displeasure with the shooting script, stating it was "unreadable and unshootable." Mankiewicz also described Cleopatra's depiction as a "strange, frustrating mixture of an American soap-opera virgin and an hysterical Slavic vamp of the type Nazimova used to play." Because of this, he asked to rewrite the script from scratch, and the studio allowed him two months.
By February 1961, Mankiewicz had conceived a "modern, psychiatrically rooted concept of the film," envisioning Marc Antony's self-destruction because of his "inability to match [Julius] Caesar." Within one month, Lawrence Durrell and Sidney Buchman were recruited to collaborate with Mankiewicz on the new script. Story conferences were held with the three writers, and Durrell and Buchman then separately wrote "story-step" outlines. Mankiewicz would expand their outlines into a new script. Mankiewicz consulted the relevant sources, adapting historical literature written by Plutarch and Petronius. In late April, Mankiewicz had grown displeased with Durrell's work, while Buchman was instructed to complete an outline for the film. By then, Buchman's outline only covered the first quarter of the film. Mankiewicz had petitioned for playwrights Lillian Hellman or Paul Osborn to help finish the script, but Wanger hired screenwriter Ranald MacDougall.
Filming was set to resume on April 4, 1961. However, on March 4, Taylor was hospitalized again for pneumonia, and one news agency erroneously reported that she had died. She recovered after a tracheotomy was performed on her throat. On March 14, Twentieth Century Fox suspended production at Pinewood Studios. The sets were dismantled at the cost of $600,000. Skouras then decided to relocate the production to the studio's backlot in California. Meanwhile, Mankiewicz temporarily left his writing duties and scouted for suitable filming locations in Rome and Egypt. In June, Mankiewicz returned to the studio to report some Italian locations he had found, but was not eager to shoot in Egypt. On June 30, Skouras reversed his decision and agreed to allow Mankiewicz shoot the film at Cinecittà in Rome, where the sound stages had been occupied for the studio's television series and George Stevens's The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965).
Casting and personnel changes
During the interim, Finch and Boyd had left the production for other commitments, and each was paid his remaining salary. Laurence Olivier and Trevor Howard had turned down the role of Julius Caesar. Rex Harrison, who was the studio's fourth choice, was then cast. Mankiewicz then suggested Marlon Brando as Mark Antony, but Richard Burton landed the role after Taylor had seen him as King Arthur in the Broadway musical Camelot. Twentieth Century Fox paid Burton $250,000 plus $50,000 to buy out his contract. Roddy McDowall, who was also appearing in Camelot, was cast as Octavian. Mankiewicz had also insisted on casting John Valva, McDowall's close friend, creating an original character named Valvus. By mid-September 1961, Canadian actor Hume Cronyn, several American actors, including Martin Landau and Carroll O'Connor, and several English actors, such as Kenneth Haigh, Robert Stephens and Michael Hordern, were cast in supporting roles.
Jack Hildyard had resigned as cinematographer when Mamoulian agreed to step down as director. He was replaced by Leon Shamroy. Shamroy had been the director of photography on The Robe, the first movie shot in CinemaScope, and had shot South Pacific in the Todd-AO widescreen process that was being used in Cleopatra. (Shamroy would win his fourth Oscar for the film.) In January 1962, Andrew Marton was brought in as second-unit director, replacing Ray Kellogg. Marton had worked on the first initial shoot. John DeCuir was still kept as production designer.
Filming resumes in Rome
On September 25, 1961, principal photography began on the revamped production of Cleopatra. Mankiewicz had expressed his intention of directing a two-part epic: "I had in mind two separate but closely linked Elizabeth Taylor films—Caesar and Cleopatra and Antony and Cleopatra—each to run three hours, both segments to receive simultaneous release. Moreover, I felt compelled to undertake the writing of both halves myself, a measure of my total dissatisfaction with the material that had been produced to date."
At that time, he had completed 132 pages of the shooting script, with another 195 pages that remained to be written, so Mankiewicz shot the film in sequence, leaving several actors waiting indefinitely until their scenes were ready to be shot. For the first few months of filming, he filmed scenes during the daytime and wrote the script at night, resorting to amphetamine injections and wearing protective gloves because he contracted dermatitis in both hands. Overwhelmed, in February 1962, Mankiewicz rehired MacDougall to script several battle scenes (particularly those of Moongate and Actium) and the final 50 remaining pages of the second half.
On January 22, 1962, Taylor and Burton filmed their first scene together. Wanger observed in his journal: "There comes a time during the making of a movie when the actors become the characters they play... It was quiet, and you could almost feel the electricity between Liz and Burton." By February, news of the love affair made headlines worldwide; as both were married to others, the news brought bad publicity to the already troubled production.
By late May, most of the palace scenes were finished, but the remaining sequences, including those of the Battle of Pharsalus and Actium, the arrival of Cleopatra in Tarsus, and Antony's confrontation with Octavian's legions, were not yet filmed. Some of these sequences were to be shot in Egypt. Back in California, Fox had posted an annual loss for fiscal year 1961, with blame directed at the looming production costs of Cleopatra. As a result, Skouras assured shareholders that he was preparing to take "drastic measures" to reduce expenditures, which was followed by the cancellation of the Marilyn Monroe film Something's Got to Give.
From June 1–5, Fox executives Peter Levathes, Otto Koegel and Joseph Moskowitz, whom Wanger jokingly named as the "Three Wise Men," arrived on set to cancel the scheduled shoot of the Battle of Pharsalus. The committee informally fired Wanger by discontinuing his salary and expense account, demanded that Taylor's salary be terminated on June 9, and that all filming be halted by June 30. Mankiewicz refused to commit to the new terms, and sent a memo to then-studio chairman Samuel Rosenman requesting for Taylor's availability to be extended. In response, Rosenman permitted Taylor to work until June 23. On June 12, Wanger's "firing" was first reported by columnist Earl Wilson. Mankiewicz had read Wilson's column, and asked Lewis "Doc" Merman, the studio's production manager, to assume Wanger's position and thereby reinstate the filming of several sequences that were cut. Taylor and Burton, angered over Wanger's dismissal, had planned to protest unless Wanger was reinstated. Back in Los Angeles, Merman consulted with Levathes, in which they both agreed that Wanger would remain as producer.
In haste, the filming unit re-located to Ischia, off the coast of Italy where the battle of Actium was shot. The scene of Cleopatra's arrival aboard her barge in Tarsus was completed on June 23, which was Taylor's last day on set. On June 26, 1962, Skouras announced his resignation as studio president, effective on September 30. On July 25, Darryl F. Zanuck was elected as the new president of Fox, while Skouras became the new chairman of the board. Zanuck then fired Levathes, replacing him with his son Richard D. Zanuck. Principal photography ended on July 28, with the final location scenes in Egypt.
Post-production
Post-production work on Cleopatra had left the film's editorial team with of exposed footage. In Los Angeles, Mankiewicz and his editor Dorothy Spencer prepared a rough cut that ran five hours and 20 minutes. On August 31, 1962, Zanuck wrote to Mankiewicz stating he wanted to see a completed first cut and a progress report no later than the first week of October. On October 13, Mankiewicz arranged a private screening of the film's four-and-a-half hour rough cut for Zanuck in Paris. According to Zanuck's account, he was shocked after having seen the first cut, and asked "to see the sequences that had been cut and decided some of them should be restored, but I found to my astonishment that no loops had been made for certain eliminated episodes." Another account states Zanuck felt the rough cut was "beautifully written, beautifully directed, and beautifully staged", but was dissatisfied with the battle sequences. They finished the screening on Sunday morning, October 14. After the screening was over, Zanuck rejected Mankiewicz's plea to distribute Cleopatra in two separate installments, believing audiences interested in the Taylor–Burton affair would not attend the first installment. He was further displeased with Cleopatra's dominance over Mark Antony, remarking: "If any woman behaved towards me like Cleopatra treated Antony, I would cut her balls off."
Alternately, DeCuir, who was present after the screening, stated Zanuck asked for the film to be "cut to three hours and fifteen minutes." Zanuck canceled the scheduled meeting for the next day, at which it was planned to discuss the film more in detail and departed from Paris. Meanwhile, Mankiewicz continued the dubbing sessions with Taylor and Burton. For several days, Zanuck ignored Mankiewicz's calls for another meeting, to which Mankiewicz later learned that Zanuck had hired editor and director Elmo Williams to supervise the completion and final editing of the film. Working to insert the deleted sequences, Williams had spent three consecutive 16-hour days, removing a total of 33 minutes from the original four-hour cut. Williams explained: "When he [Mankiewicz] first saw my version, he began ranting and raving and carrying on. He had finally given up the idea of releasing the picture as two separate films, but he hadn't counted on the released version being reduced in length." According to Zanuck, Mankiewicz had grown angry and demanded the sole responsibility of editing the film. Mankiewicz, however, denied there was any direct confrontation, stating their disagreements were exchanged through letters.
On October 20, Mankiewicz sent a letter to Zanuck requesting an "honest and unequivocal statement of where I stand in relation to Cleopatra." A day later, Zanuck issued a nine-page response, blaming him for the film's excessive production costs. He further concluded: "On completion of the dubbing, your official services will be terminated ... If you are available and willing, I will call upon you to screen the re-edited version of the film." Zanuck subsequently issued a press release stating, "In exchange for top compensation and a considerable expense account, Mr. Joseph Mankiewicz has for two years spent his time, talent, and $35,000,000 of 20th Century-Fox's shareholders' money to direct and complete the first cut of the film Cleopatra. He has earned a well-deserved rest."
Mankiewicz's dismissal from the project was harshly criticized by Taylor and Burton. Taylor responded, "What has happened to Mr. Mankiewicz is disgraceful, degrading, particularly humiliating. I am terribly upset." Burton separately telephoned, "I think Mr. Mankiewicz might have made the first really good epic film. Now Cleopatra may be in trouble."
On October 30, Mankiewicz flew back to his East Side townhouse where he held a press conference, insisting he had "never demanded control" nor disputed the studio's right to the final word on the finished cut. Instead, he stated he had "wanted to present the film to Fox and/or Zanuck as I saw it and be permitted to discuss with him my ideas for the picture."
On December 7, The New York Times reported that Mankiewicz would likely rejoin the production after having an "extremely constructive" conference with Zanuck. Both had agreed that new scenes with Harrison and Burton were needed for the film. Zanuck explained that he would "bend over backwards, artistically so that I wouldn't have to exercise [my rights as president] unless it became absolutely essential. Joe accepted that, took the scenes that I had blocked out crudely and roughly, went to work with them and wrote them." The new sequences included those meant to strengthen Antony's character so he would stand up to Cleopatra. With Mankiewicz reinstated as director, he partially restored several deleted sequences, including scenes of Sosigenes tutoring Cleopatra. In February 1963, several members of the cast, along with 1,500 extras, were called back to reshoot the Battle of Pharsalus in Almería, Spain. Mankiewicz then returned to London for eight consecutive days to reshoot new scenes with Burton at Pinewood Studios. The retakes primarily concerned Antony's scenes with his fourth wife Octavia and his companion, Rufio. On March 5, 1963, filming was finally completed.
Music
The music of Cleopatra was scored by Alex North. It was released several times, first as an original album, and later versions were extended. The most popular of these was the Deluxe Edition or 2001 Varèse Sarabande album.
Release
Cleopatra premiered at the Rivoli Theatre in New York City on June 12, 1963, with an estimated audience of 10,000 spectators congregated outside. Among those present at the premiere were Rex Harrison, Walter Wanger, Joseph L. Mankiewicz, Darryl F. Zanuck, Jacob Javits, Richard Rodgers, Joan Fontaine, Louis Nizer and Beatrice Miller. Burton and Taylor were not in attendance; Taylor was in London and Burton was filming Becket (1964). Top ticket prices at the Rivoli were a record $5.50. Soon after the film's premiere, its running time was truncated from 244 to 221 minutes. Two weeks after opening in New York, the film's release was expanded into 37 cities. For its general release in the United States, the film's running time was 184 minutes.
Home media
Cleopatra has been released on home video on several occasions. The film was released on videocassette by 20th Century-Fox Video in 1982. A three-disc DVD edition was released in 2001. The release included numerous supplemental features, including the two-hour documentary Cleopatra: The Film That Changed Hollywood.
Schawn Belston, senior vice president of library and technical services at Fox, led a two-year process that restored a four-hour, eight-minute version in 2013. The original 65-mm camera negative was located and used as a source. Fading and damage to the negative were corrected digitally but with care to preserve detail and authenticity. Belston's team also possessed the original magnetic print masters, from which they removed clicks and hisses and created a 5.1 surround sound track.
On May 21, 2013, the restored film was shown at a special screening at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival to commemorate the film's 50th anniversary. It was later released as a 50th-anniversary version available on DVD and Blu-ray. Since Fox had long ago destroyed the negatives of the outtakes and portions of scenes that were cut during editing of the film, traditional outtakes could not be included. The home-media packages did include commentary tracks and two short films: The Cleopatra Papers and a 1963 film about the elaborate sets, The Fourth Star of Cleopatra.
Reception
Critical response
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called Cleopatra "one of the great epic films of our day," crediting Mankiewicz for "his fabrication of characters of colorfulness and depth, who stand forth as thinking, throbbing people against a background of splendid spectacle, that gives vitality to this picture and is the key to its success." Vincent Canby, reviewing for Variety, wrote that Cleopatra is "not only a supercolossal eye-filler (the unprecedented budget shows in the physical opulence throughout), but it is also a remarkably literate cinematic recreation of an historic epoch." For the Los Angeles Times, Philip K. Scheuer felt Cleopatra was "a surpassingly beautiful film and a drama that need not hide its literate, intelligent face because it happens to have been written, not by Shakespeare or Shaw, but by three fellows named Joseph L. Mankiewicz, who also directed it, Ranald MacDougall and Sidney Buchman. These are, at any rate, the names on the screen credits, and they have done their job with integrity."
Time magazine harshly wrote: "As drama and as cinema, Cleopatra is riddled with flaws. It lacks style both in image and in action. Never for an instant does it whirl along on wings of epic elan; generally it just bumps from scene to ponderous scene on the square wheels of exposition." James Powers of The Hollywood Reporter wrote "Cleopatra is not a great movie. But it is primarily a vast, popular entertainment that sidesteps total greatness for broader appeal. This is not an adverse criticism, but a notation of achievement." Claudia Cassidy of the Chicago Tribune summarized Cleopatra as a "huge and disappointing film." Of the cast, she lauded "Rex Harrison's brilliantly quizzical Caesar, the best written role in Joseph Mankiewicz's erratic script, and haunted by Richard Burton's tragic Marc Antony, an actor's triumph over a writer's mediocrity. And with a prodigal gesture of futility, all of it is focused on Elizabeth Taylor, hopelessly out of her depth as a fishwife Cleopatra."
Penelope Houston, reviewing for Sight & Sound, acknowledged that Mankiewicz tried "to make this a film about people and their emotions rather than a series of sideshows. But for this ambition to hold up, over the film's great footage, he needed a visual style which would be more than merely illustrative, dialogue really worth speaking, and actors altogether more persuasive. As the sets seem to grow bigger and bigger, so progressively the actors dwindle." Judith Crist, in her review for the New York Herald Tribune, concurred: "So grand and grandiose are the sets that the characters are dwarfed, and so wide is his screen that this concentration on character results in a strangely static epic in which the overblown close-ups are interrupted at best by a pageant or dance, more often by unexciting bits and pieces of exits, entrances, marches or battles." Even Elizabeth Taylor found it wanting, saying, "They had cut out the heart, the essence, the motivations, the very core, and tacked on all those battle scenes. It should have been about three large people, but it lacked reality and passion. I found it vulgar."
The New York Times estimated that 80% of reviews in the United States were favorable but only 20% of reviews in Europe were positive. American film critic Emanuel Levy wrote retrospectively: "Much maligned for various reasons, [...] Cleopatra may be the most expensive movie ever made, but certainly not the worst, just a verbose, muddled affair that is not even entertaining as a star vehicle for Taylor and Burton." Billy Mowbray of British television channel Film4 remarked that the film is "[a] giant of a movie that is sometimes lumbering, but ever watchable thanks to its uninhibited ambition, size and glamour."
Box office
Three weeks into its theatrical release, Cleopatra became the number-one box office film in the United States, grossing $725,000 in 17 key cities. It held the top position for the next twelve weeks before being dethroned by The V.I.P.s, which also starred Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. It recaptured the number-one spot three weeks later, and proved to be the highest-grossing film of 1963. By January 1964, the film had earned $15.7 million in distributor rentals from 55 theaters in the United States and Canada. It finished its box-office run with $26 million in rentals in the United States and Canada. The film was also a major hit in Italy, where it sold 10.9 million tickets. It sold a further 5.4 million tickets in France and Germany, and 32.9million tickets in the Soviet Union when it was released there in 1978.
By March 1966, Cleopatra had earned worldwide rentals of $38.04 million, leaving it $3 million short of breaking even. Fox eventually recouped its investment that same year when it sold the television broadcast rights to ABC for $5 million, a then-record amount paid for a single film. The film ultimately earned $40.3 million in worldwide rentals from its theatrical run.
Awards and nominations
The film won four Academy Awards and was nominated for five more. It also earned Elizabeth Taylor a Guinness World Record for the most costume changes in a film (65). This record was eclipsed in 1968 by Julie Andrews with 125 costume changes in the film Star!.
20th Century-Fox mistakenly submitted Roddy McDowall to the Motion Picture Academy for consideration as Best Actor, rather than as Best Supporting Actor, for the Academy Awards. The Academy deemed his role ineligible for a leading actor category and told the studio it was too late to submit him in the correct category because the nomination ballots had already been sent to the printers. 20th Century-Fox then published an open apology to McDowall in trade papers, stating, "We feel it is important that the industry realize that your electric performance as Octavian in Cleopatra, which was unanimously singled out by the critics as one of the best supporting performances by an actor this year, is not eligible for a nomination in that category... due to a regrettable error on the part of 20th Century Fox."
See also
List of American films of 1963
Roman Republic
Ancient Egypt
Ptolemaic dynasty
Sword-and-sandal
Lists of historical films
List of films set in ancient Rome
Asterix and Cleopatra
References
Bibliography
External links
1963 films
1960s biographical drama films
1960s historical drama films
1960s historical romance films
1963 romantic drama films
20th Century Fox films
American biographical drama films
American epic films
American historical drama films
American historical romance films
American romantic drama films
Depictions of Augustus on film
Depictions of Cleopatra on film
Depictions of Julius Caesar on film
Depictions of Mark Antony on film
Cultural depictions of Germanicus
Drama films based on actual events
1960s English-language films
Films based on Antony and Cleopatra
Films based on multiple works
Films directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz
Films produced by Walter Wanger
Films scored by Alex North
Films set in ancient Alexandria
Films set in ancient Egypt
Films set in ancient Rome
Films set in Egypt
Films set in the 1st century BC
Films shot at Cinecittà Studios
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in Almería
Films shot in Egypt
Films shot in Los Angeles County, California
Films shot in Naples
Films shot in Rome
Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award
Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award
Films with screenplays by Sidney Buchman
Films with screenplays by Ranald MacDougall
Films with screenplays by Joseph L. Mankiewicz
Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Final War of the Roman Republic films
Historical epic films
Liberators' civil war films
Romance films based on actual events
Romantic epic films
War romance films
1960s American films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddington%20North%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29
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Paddington North (UK Parliament constituency)
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Paddington North was a borough constituency in the Metropolitan Borough of Paddington in London which returned one Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, elected by the first past the post voting system. It was created in 1885, and abolished for the February 1974 general election.
It was a compact and mixed residential area which included some grand mansion blocks of flats, large runs of typical London terraced houses, and some areas of working-class housing. The area moved slowly down the social scale during its existence and the construction of large amounts of social housing following the Second World War made what had been a Conservative-inclined marginal seat into a reasonably safe Labour one.
Boundaries
The constituency was originally made up by the northern part of Paddington Parish. In the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 it was defined as the number 2 ward of the Parish. Although Paddington had four wards, they had been drawn up thirty years before, and the number 2 ward had, by the mid-1880s, the majority of the electorate of the parish.
In the boundary changes in 1918, the constituency was refashioned as the northern part of the Metropolitan Borough of Paddington. The Borough had incorporated an area formerly included in a detached part of Chelsea parish at Kensal Town, and further population expansion made the north of the Borough even more densely packed, so a shift of the boundary was required. In the end, it was decided to include the whole of the Harrow Road, Queen's Park and Maida Vale wards of Paddington, together with part of the Church ward north of the Harrow Road and Little Venice canal basin.
In the boundary changes of 1948, the constituency's boundaries did not change, but the Church ward, which had been divided along the same line as the previous Parliamentary boundary with the part in Paddington North was renamed as the Town ward.
Constituency profile
In contrast to the southern division of Paddington, the area was almost entirely residential. When first drawn up in 1885, the development of Maida Vale had not yet been completed and parts remained agricultural fields.
Up to 1918 the constituency included Paddington railway station and the Paddington canal basin, together with St Mary's Hospital. The south-east of the constituency included some Edgware Road frontage which included The Metropolitan Theatre music hall, a famous entertainment centre which was open for almost all of the time that the constituency was in existence. Between the Harrow Road and the canals of Little Venice was a densely packed area developed in the 1840s around the older St. Mary's Church and its churchyard. This area included Paddington Green and some homes and was the origin of the settlement of Paddington.
North of the canal and stretching up Maida Vale itself were situated large detached houses with gardens. At the start of the constituency's existence most were occupied by a single family, but as time went on the families took in lodgers and eventually split their homes into flats. Along Maida Vale, the 1930s saw the building of new mansion blocks, a type of housing that already predominated along Elgin Avenue and some of the other streets from the time they were first built (typically, the first decade of the twentieth century).
The constituency descended the social scale as one travelled to the west, with the houses becoming smaller and more cheaply built; Shirland Road was the approximate boundary of the two zones. Between the canal and the Harrow Road above Little Venice was an area around Westbourne Square (actually triangular) which quickly became slumland, although this was not typical of the area north of the canal. Much of this area was lost to Paddington South in 1918. Further up Harrow Road, the homes were typical of London terraces. One unusual feature was J. Welford's dairies, built on the corner of Shirland Road and Elgin Avenue in the 1880s and one of the most distinctive buildings of the area.
Following the boundary revisions of 1918, the constituency included the area of Queen's Park ward of Paddington Borough Council which had previously been a detached part of Chelsea. This area was developed from the 1870s explicitly as housing for the working class, by the Artizans, Labourers, and General Dwellings Company. They built modestly sized two storey homes which were rented out to the skilled working-class, many of whom were railway employees at Paddington station and its associated goods yard.
Changes and redevelopment
With the area being encircled by London, there came to be an economic motive for demolishing some of the existing low-density housing and rebuilding at higher densities for the working class. In 1937 the Church Commissioners built Dibden House containing some 200 flats for social rents at the top of Maida Vale. Following the Second World War there was a great deal of development of large social housing in the constituency. The first large development was John Aird Court and Fleming Court, built by the Labour-controlled Paddington Borough Council adjacent to the Harrow Road by Paddington Green in 1948.
The largest redevelopment took place along Maida Vale itself and was undertaken by the London County Council from 1959 to 1964. The area was rebuilt as an estate of mid-rise and high-rise flats (three 21-storey tower blocks were built north of Elgin Avenue). At the same time, the Church Commissioners also built the Stuart Tower on the corner of Maida Vale and Sutherland Avenue for private ownership. Further north along Carlton Vale the LCC built low rise flats. The southern end of the constituency saw a great deal of demolition in order to build the Marylebone flyover and rebuild the Harrow Road.
The 1960s saw the GLC redevelop the area around the junction of Elgin Avenue with Harrow Road with two 20-storey tower blocks. It decided to experiment with a new construction method called 'Indulex' with these two blocks and two others to be built in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. The blocks consisted of a steel frame clad in glass-reinforced polyester.
Political history
1885
In preparation for the 1885 general election, the creation of a new division in North West London which was potentially winnable by either the Conservatives or the Liberals excited some interest. The Conservatives were the first to select, and did so without difficulty. Lionel Louis Cohen was in his early-fifties and a leading light in the City of London Conservative Association; he was also President of the Jewish Board of Guardians. Although he was a resident of Marylebone, Cohen's wife came from Paddington. Cohen had the benefit of speeches from Lord Randolph Churchill who had been selected for Paddington South.
The North Paddington Liberal Council did encounter difficulty in selecting a candidate. They sent out invitations to several likely candidates to speak to a public meeting: Henry Gladstone, younger son of Liberal Leader William Ewart Gladstone, accepted, as did Thomas Chatfeild Clarke, John Westlake QC, and Rev. William Sharman. However, Eugene Collins, whose constituency of Kinsale was being abolished, refused to participate in a contested selection. The council eventually selected none of these: William Digby, a writer, ended up contesting the seat. Digby was a strong advocate of greater power for Indian natives.
At the start of the election, it appeared that things were not going well for the Conservatives. A public meeting in support of Lionel Cohen heard a derisive mention made of Joseph Chamberlain's promise of "three acres and a cow" for the working-class, and some cheered Chamberlain wildly. When the meeting concluded the chairman put a motion of confidence in their candidate, but on hearing that few present supported it, did not ask for people to show their opposition: the crowd demanded it and voted strongly against Cohen. On Monday 7 November 1885, a 2,000-strong crowd of working men gathered in Harrow Road to march to a meeting which denounced Cohen for supporting protectionism, although Cohen had declared his support for free trade in his election address.
At the end of the campaign, an issue was made in the Jewish Chronicle of Cohen's support for the Marquess of Salisbury, who had opposed the removal of legal disabilities affecting Jews in the 1850s. Cohen insisted that his activities in the Jewish community were not political and denounced attempts to "pit one section of Jews against another"; later the Marquess of Salisbury was himself moved to write to condemn the attempt to drag in a speech he had made nearly thirty years before. Digby received the support of the local branch of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants at a meeting held on Praed Street next to Paddington station.
As polling day approached, the Conservatives became more confident of victory, believing that the Roman Catholic, Jewish and Church of England blocks of votes were likely to be solid in support of Cohen. The non-conformists were also strong in the division and so the Liberals were also reporting confidence. On polling day it turned out that the Conservatives had the majority, although with a narrow lead of only 685 votes, the seat was evidently not safe.
1886
As an election loomed in June 1886, Lionel Cohen declared his intention to fight the seat again. Almost simultaneously, William Digby announced that he would not be a candidate again. The Paddington North Liberals therefore invited John Kempster, who had contested Enfield at the 1885 election, to be their candidate. Kempster was a Director of the Artizans, Labourers, and General Dwellings Company Ltd and therefore a popular man among the working-class residents in the constituency.
At this election, the Irish vote switched sides: having backed the Conservatives in 1885 during a temporary alliance over opposition to the Liberal budget, Gladstone's announcement of his support for home rule for Ireland led to strong support for the Liberals. The Irish vote in Paddington North was sizable and Cohen's denunciation of home rule together with Kempster's support for it had its effect in reducing the impact of a strong national trend towards the Conservatives. Cohen was re-elected with a slightly increased majority of 911 votes.
1887
In 1887, Lionel Cohen was taken ill with pleurisy whilst on holiday in Nice. He returned home to recuperate, but was thought by his doctor to have returned to work too early. He died of coronary thrombosis on 26 June 1887, thereby forcing a by-election. The Conservatives quickly (on 28 June) invited John Aird to defend the seat. Aird had nearly forty years of experience as a public works contractor and engineer, and was a Paddington local. Paddington North Liberals chose Edmund Routledge, a member of the Routledge publishing family.
The major issue was still home rule for Ireland. The Liberals felt that they had done too little to promote and defend their policy in 1886 and determined to remedy the deficiency. At the same time, Routledge also said that he believed Ireland under home rule should continue to send MPs to the UK Parliament. This commitment was enough for George Trevelyan, a leading member of the Liberal Unionists to send him a letter of support: there was still hope at the time of the by-election of a reunion of the divided Liberal Party. However, the Marquess of Hartington, another Liberal Unionist, endorsed Aird.
On polling day, a rumour circulated that Aird's company was a large employer of foreign labour to enable it to compete against British firms. The rumour appears to have been false. The election result showed that the situation in Paddington North had shifted to the Liberals since 1886, but not enough to endanger the Conservatives' hold on the seat.
1892
The Liberals had hopes of winning the 1892 general election, having rebuilt their strength after the split of 1886. Paddington North Liberals adopted Thomas Terrell, a barrister who had trained as an analytical chemist and also wrote novels and had stood in Devonport in 1885. Terrell started his attempt to dislodge Aird early, and held large public meetings outlining the Gladstone "London Programme". This campaign was populist and attacked landlords for failing to financially support government institutions in the capital.
Terrell attracted support from the Paddington Local Option Union, which campaigned for temperance and legal restrictions on alcohol sales to be imposed by local authorities. However, when the Local Option Union circulated a pamphlet attacking Aird, the senior members of the Local Option Union whose names were attached protested that they had not approved it, and it had to be withdrawn. Although Terrell managed to improve on the performance at the 1887 by-election, he was still 310 votes short of winning.
1895
The 1895 general election happened suddenly. The Paddington North Liberals fell back on a local candidate: their chairman George H. Maberly. On 25 April 1895, he was presented (by Dr John Clifford, a local Baptist Minister) with a silver tray and a framed address in honour of his service and invited to be the next Liberal candidate. Maberly was reluctant due to personal difficulties with the work, but at a meeting on 27 June he accepted. Maberly's name was similar to that of Major-General Moberly who sat on the London School Board from Paddington but was a Conservative: Moberley pointed this out at the end of the campaign.
Aird strongly attacked the record of the previous Liberal government whose resignation had forced the election, which he insisted had spent too much time discussing abstract constitutional ideas and too little time discussing "constructive social reform". He supported a moderate move towards women's suffrage, whereby a widow or spinster (if a householder) could vote. In line with the national trend, Aird increased his majority to just under 1,000 votes.
1900
For the 1900 general election, Wilfrid Fordham was unanimously adopted as Liberal candidate. He was a young barrister and nephew of Sir Wilfrid Lawson, Liberal MP for Cockermouth, with whom he shared his politics: his two main policies at the election were opposition to the South African war and support for temperance. Aird was readopted and attacked the Liberals for adopting socialistic policies which would hurt trade; he supported the government on its approach in South Africa.
Aird also supported conciliation in industry in order to avoid strike action. Local labour interest was however on the side of Fordham, who received the endorsement of the Shop Assistants' Union after giving favourable answers to questions. Fordham's spirited campaign however failed to fit with the priorities of the voters, who increased Aird's majority.
1906
Aird was in his late-sixties after the 1900 general election. At the end of 1902, a rumour circulated that he would not be contesting the next election, and that the Paddington Conservative Association had in mind a South African millionaire as their new candidate. Aird denied the rumour, but in July 1904 aged seventy; he announced that he would give up the seat owing to growing inability to perform his duties. After a committee was appointed to find a candidate, on 12 December 1904 the Executive recommended Lionel Phillips to a general meeting of the Association. Phillips was duly adopted on 21 December.
However, Phillips' active business interests (he was a Director of several South African companies including the Central Mining and Investment Corporation Ltd and the Village Main Reef Gold Mining Company Ltd) left him no time to nurse the constituency and in August 1905 he gave up the candidature. Initially, the Conservatives invited John Aird, son of the sitting MP, to contest the seat, but as Aird had already been selected for Southampton, he declined. Finally, the Conservatives selected Arthur Strauss, a metal merchant and former MP for Camborne, although a minority group at the adoption meeting preferred Herbert Jessel, 1st Baron Jessel: Strauss prevailed by 70 votes to 28.
Without difficulty, the Paddington North Liberal Council selected Leo Chiozza Money, an economist and journalist who was a rising star in the party nationally with some degree of fame. His fight to finally win the seat for Liberalism attracted attention outside the constituency and Liberal headquarters assisted by prioritising the seat. Money was aided by Dr. Clifford who had become nationally famous for leading passive resistance to the Education Act 1903 (refusing to pay taxes, among other protests).
The fact that Leo Chiozza Money was from Genoa and Strauss was Jewish led to the establishment of a committee of local electors led by Col. Stewart and Alfred Darch who declared "the present position of the voters in the division has been rendered intolerable by the action of the Liberal and Conservative Associations, each having made the grievous mistake of failing to nominate an Englishman as a candidate for the constituency". With a general election imminent in December 1905, they signed a requisition to Sir Henry Burdett to stand as an Independent Unionist candidate. Burdett accepted, being careful to say that he did not object to Strauss on the grounds of being a Jew but merely as a foreigner. Another point of difference was that Strauss was a supporter of Tariff Reform while Burdett was a supporter of Free Trade.
One of Burdett's meetings was very rowdy, and a number of the attendees complained of having been robbed there.
When supporters of Burdett claimed that he ought to be considered the proper Conservative candidate, the former Mayor of Paddington William Urquhart (a leader of the Jessel faction) wrote to the newspapers to object that Strauss had been properly selected and attacking the Burdett camp for splitting the vote. Strauss' election address attacked Burdett in such terms that Burdett issued writs against him and the local newspapers for Corrupt Practices. A leaflet was also circulated by Dr. Clifford refuting the implication that Chiozza Money was an atheist. On polling day, Chiozza Money managed to win the seat easily, polling more than Strauss and Burdett combined.
January 1910
Despite the loss of the seat, the Paddington North Conservative Association again selected Arthur Strauss as their candidate. Opposition to Strauss persisted and the dissenting members petitioned Conservative Central Office in October 1909 as an election began to look imminent; Central Office refused to intervene, and the members set up the "League of Patriotic Electors of North Paddington". Having thus departed from the Conservative Association, Strauss was adopted as the Conservative Party candidate without difficulty on 14 December 1909. The League of Patriotic Electors eventually decided not to fight, due to the sudden constitutional crisis over the rejection of the 1909 budget.
Strauss again put himself forward as a Tariff reform candidate, and the adoption of protective tariffs by Germany, the United States of America and some British colonies became a central part of his argument. Chiozza Money's experience as an economist led to him being praised by Winston Churchill (then a Liberal) for knowing the issues better than any; he had also become popular amongst the working men of Harrow Road. A close fight was again in prospect. In the end, Strauss managed to regain the seat by nearly 900 votes.
A curious set of legal cases arose from this election. On 27 December 1909, PC Gregory of Paddington and another officer were attacked by three men who were subsequently convicted of Grievous Bodily Harm and assault. During the election, the Liberals sent round a leaflet claiming the three were sent to Chiozza Money's election meetings to shout him down, and blaming the men's landlord George Steer. Steer sued the printers of the leaflet, and the Liberal agent, for libel. The special jury found for Steer and awarded damages of £100.
December 1910
It became obvious very soon after the January 1910 election that a second general election might have to be called to resolve the constitutional crisis. Chiozza Money, out of Parliament, was an attractive prospect for any Liberal Association seeking a candidate. He was considered for a by-election at a safe seat in Glamorgan in March 1910, but ruled himself out. Simultaneously he wrote to the Paddington North Liberals informing them that he would not fight their seat again (he was subsequently adopted for East Northamptonshire).
The Association were unsuccessful in trying to persuade Chiozza Money to reconsider. The Liberals therefore selected instead James Fairbank, a member of Paddington Borough Council who had narrowly been defeated at the London County Council election of 1910. However, Fairbank withdrew due to ill health in July and instead Leonard Franklin (Chairman of North Paddington Liberal Association since 1908) was picked. This made Paddington North one of only two constituencies (St Pancras South was the other) where both candidates were Jewish.
Strauss spent the short time of the Parliament arranging for a party of ten constituents to visit Germany to see the effect of protective tariffs. The constituency was strongly fought, and Strauss emerged victorious, with his majority slightly reduced to 589 votes.
Members of Parliament
Elections
Elections in the 1880s
Following the death of Lionel Cohen:
Elections in the 1890s
Elections in the 1900s
Elections in the 1910s
Elections in the 1920s
*Adopted as official Liberal candidate, but party withdrew support during campaign following exposure of crooked past.
Elections in the 1930s
General Election 1939–40:
Another General Election was required to take place before the end of 1940. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place from 1939 and by the end of this year, the following candidates had been selected:
Conservative: Brendan Bracken
Labour: G M Copeland
Elections in the 1940s
Following the resignation of Sir Noel Mason-Macfarlane:
Elections in the 1950s
Following the resignation of Bill Field:
Elections in the 1960s
Following the death of Ben Parkin:
Elections in the 1970s
References
Boundary Commission reports
Parliamentary constituencies in London (historic)
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom established in 1885
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom disestablished in 1974
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Linus
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Ben Linus
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Benjamin Linus is a fictional character portrayed by Michael Emerson on the ABC television series Lost. Ben was the leader of a group of island natives called the Others and was initially known as Henry Gale to the survivors of Oceanic Flight 815. He began as the main antagonist during the second and third seasons, but in subsequent seasons, becomes a morally ambiguous ally to the main characters. Other characters frequently describe him as loyal only to himself, though it is also often hinted that he may be driven by some higher purpose.
As with most characters on Lost, Ben's history is revealed through flashbacks and episodes set in other time periods which are revealed slowly as the series progresses. Sterling Beaumon first portrayed a young Ben late in season three, in the character's first centric episode, "The Man Behind the Curtain". Ben's childhood is further explored in the fifth season of the series, partially set in 1977. Fifth season episode "Dead Is Dead" explores Ben's fragile state following the events of the fourth season, in which his loyalty to the island led to the death of his adoptive daughter Alex Rousseau (Tania Raymonde), and flashbacks show the audience Ben's original acquisition of Alex and his rise to leadership of the Others, after exiling his rival Charles Widmore (Alan Dale). Originally cast for three guest appearances in the second season, Emerson's role was expanded. As leader of the Others, Ben became a regular cast member from the third season onward. Reviews of the show would often focus on Ben's mysterious motives. Emerson's portrayal garnered many positive reviews, resulting in nominations for the Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor year-on-year from 2007 to 2010, winning in 2009.
In 2010, Ben Linus was ranked #24 on the TV Guide Network special 25 Greatest TV Characters of All Time. In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked him #1 of their "40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time".
Arc
Prior to the crash
Flashbacks during "The Man Behind the Curtain" show Benjamin Linus being born in the woods outside of Portland, Oregon, to Roger (Jon Gries) and Emily Linus (Carrie Preston). Emily dies after giving birth to Ben. When Ben is young, he and his father move to the Island, after Roger is offered a job working for the Dharma Initiative. On the Island, Ben begins to see visions of his mother, while Roger starts drinking heavily and physically and verbally abusing him. Ben develops a hatred for the Dharma Initiative and one day runs away from the Barracks. He comes across Richard Alpert (Nestor Carbonell), one of the Island natives known to the Initiative as the "Hostiles", in the jungle, who grants Ben's request to join his group but tells him he needs to be very patient.
Season five's "Namaste" shows a young Ben coming into contact with a captured Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews), who along with several other Oceanic Flight 815 survivors has been brought back in time from 2007. In the following episode, "He's Our You", he helps free Sayid under the impression Sayid was sent by the Others to bring him to Richard. Sayid instead shoots Ben and leaves him for dead. Fellow crash survivor Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox) refuses to help the boy, so Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) and James "Sawyer" Ford (Josh Holloway) take Ben to Richard, who informs them Ben will henceforth lose his innocence and always be one of the Others. In 1987 (or possibly 1992) he assists the hostiles in using poisonous gas to kill the Dharma Initiative, including his father. In 1988, Charles Widmore, leader of the Others, sends Ben to kill French scientist Danielle Rousseau (Melissa Farman), who was marooned on the island. However, when Ben learns Rousseau has a child, he kidnaps the baby Alex Rousseau, warning Rousseau to never come looking for the baby if she wants either of them to live. He banishes Charles Widmore from the island and assumes his leadership role, as he is the only one who can allegedly interact with their real leader, Jacob, and communicate his will to the group.
Two days before the crash of Oceanic Flight 815, Ben discovers he has a spinal tumor. After witnessing the crash, he sends Ethan Rom (William Mapother) and Goodwin Stanhope (Brett Cullen) to investigate. He chooses Goodwin in order to remove Ben's competition for the affections of Juliet Burke (Elizabeth Mitchell), a woman recruited to the island three years previously in order to help the Others with their fertility problems.
After the crash
Seasons two to four
Ben makes his first appearance in the season two episode "One of Them", where he is caught in a trap set by Danielle Rousseau (Mira Furlan). He pretends to be Henry Gale, a man from Minnesota who crashed on the island while traveling via hot air balloon. Rousseau turns him over to Sayid, who takes him to the Swan Station, where he is held captive and interrogated. Ben is exposed as a fraud when the body of the real Henry Gale is found, but he is set free by Michael Dawson (Harold Perrineau), a crash survivor whose son has been kidnapped by the Others. When Michael successfully brings Jack, Kate, and Sawyer to the pier, Ben gives him a boat so he can leave the Island with his son. Ben then takes Jack, Kate, and Sawyer to a smaller island nearby.
In the beginning of season three, Ben gives Juliet the task of interrogating Jack, while Kate and Sawyer are kept in cages. In the season 3 episode "Exposé", Ben and Juliet enter a Dharma station, the Pearl, and watch Jack on a monitor. Ben tells Juliet he will convince Jack to perform surgery on him. After Goodwin dies, Ben shows Juliet the corpse, so she knows she is Ben's and will be on the Island forever. He admits to Jack about having a tumor on his spine, and asks him to remove it in order for him to leave the Island. During the surgery he wakes up, where Jack refuses to finish until Kate and Sawyer are safely away from the Others. After they escape, Ben's operation is finished. He returns to the Barracks with the rest of the Others, and Jack in tow. When John Locke (Terry O'Quinn) comes to rescue Jack, he and Ben have a confrontation. Ben tells Locke of a "magic box" which can produce whatever someone wishes for and shows him his father, Anthony Cooper (Kevin Tighe), who they are holding captive and was brought to the Island because of the box. Ben offers Locke the opportunity to join the Others, but only if he kills Cooper; Ben knows he won't kill in cold blood, and so makes the offer as a way to humiliate Locke. Locke returns a few days later with Cooper's corpse, having used Sawyer to do the deed for him, so Ben takes him to meet Jacob. When Ben discovers Locke can hear Jacob, he shoots Locke and leaves him for dead. He returns to the Others' camp, and tells Richard, now his second-in-command, to lead the remaining Others to the Temple. Ben takes Alex with him as he attempts to prevent Jack from sending a radio message to a nearby freighter. He reunites Alex with her mother, and claims if Jack contacts the freighter, every single person on the Island will die. Ben is beaten and taken hostage, and forced to watch as the freighter is contacted.
In the first episode of season four, "The Beginning of the End", the survivors divide into two groups. Those who believe the people from the freighter to be dangerous, Ben among them, join Locke and head to the Barracks. After Ben confesses the freighter crew has come to capture him, Miles Straume (Ken Leung), a medium from the freighter, makes a deal with Ben, asking for $3.2 million in exchange for reporting Ben as dead to Charles Widmore (Alan Dale), the man who sent the freighter. Ben agrees after Miles rebuffs his claims such a small fortune is beyond him. Ben eventually gets his freedom when he tells Locke who sent the freighter. Once free, Ben urges Alex, and her boyfriend and mother, to travel to the Temple, for protection from the people on the freighter. However, they are ambushed en route by mercenaries from the freighter and all but Alex are killed. Alex is taken hostage after revealing herself to be Ben's daughter. In "The Shape of Things to Come", Martin Keamy (Kevin Durand), the leader of the mercenaries, threatens to shoot Alex if Ben does not come forward; Ben staunchly denies any attachment to her, which results in her execution. Ben claims Widmore has "changed the rules", then summons the smoke monster to attack the mercenaries. He then leaves with Locke and Hugo "Hurley" Reyes (Jorge Garcia) to communicate with Jacob. Locke enters Jacob's cabin alone, and returns stating they need to move the Island. They go to the Orchid, a Dharma station which allows them to do this. Ben sends Locke to become the new leader of the Others, then enters a secret level of the Orchid. He turns a large frozen wheel in the wall, which teleports the Island to a new location. Ben himself is transported to the Sahara Desert, specifically, Tunisia, which was formerly the ancient country of Carthage.
The flashforwards in "The Shape of Things to Come" show Ben arrives in the Sahara Desert ten months ahead of when he left the Island. Ben finds Sayid at the funeral of his wife Nadia (Andrea Gabriel), and recruits Sayid as his personal assassin, telling him Widmore ordered the assassination of his wife. Ben provides Sayid with a list of targets, all of which he successfully kills over the next three years. At one point, Ben infiltrates Widmore's penthouse apartment in London to inform him of his intention to kill his daughter, Penelope (Sonya Walger), as retribution for the death of Alex.
Seasons five and six
When Locke leaves the island to bring the survivors back to the island, Ben tracks him down. He gets Locke to reveal what he knows about returning to the island, then kills him and stages it as a suicide. Ben visits Jack in the funeral home housing Locke's body, telling Jack he will help him return to the island, but the only way to get back is to bring everyone who had left it, including Locke's corpse. Ben boards Ajira Airways Flight 316 with the rest of survivors, which then crashes on the island. Jack, Kate, Hurley, and Sayid are transported to 1977, while Sun and Ben remain in 2007 with a resurrected Locke. The plane crash lands on the Hydra Island, so Ben attempts to take a boat to the main island. Sun strikes him in the back of the head and takes the boat with Frank, so Ben is left in the care of the other survivors, including Locke. After Ben regains consciousness and finds Locke to be alive, he convinces Locke he knew bringing him to the island would resurrect him, and he stopped Locke's suicide attempt merely to gain information. Locke travels with Ben, who is to be judged by the Monster. After they fail to find the Monster at the Barracks, they head to the Temple. As Ben and Locke travel through a series of tunnels beneath the Temple, Ben falls through the floor, so Locke leaves to get something that he can pull him up with. The Monster flows out of a grate below and surrounds Ben, showing flashes of decisions he made in his life involving Alex. The Monster takes the form of Alex and pushes Ben against a wall. She says she knows Ben is planning to kill Locke again, and if he does she will hunt him down and destroy him. She orders him to follow Locke and do whatever he asks, then disappears. They return to the Others' camp, where Locke gathers the group together and announces he is taking them to see Jacob. As they are walking, Ben relates his experience with the Monster and his promise to do whatever Locke asks, so Locke convinces Ben to kill Jacob. Richard leads them to the base of the statue, where Jacob lives. Within, they are met by Jacob (Mark Pellegrino). Jacob greets Locke and observes Locke has found a loophole. It is revealed that Locke was not resurrected, and is instead the Monster taking the form of Locke. Ben confronts Jacob about why he never revealed himself at any time during Ben's tenure as leader, but when Jacob is dismissive towards him, he stabs Jacob twice, killing him – and in doing so, binds his destiny to the island, sealing his own fate.
After Jacob's death, the Monster tells Ben to fetch Richard, as he wants to speak to him. However, when Ben exits the statue, Richard throws him down beside the corpse of the real John Locke, which has been brought to the statue by survivors of the Ajira flight, led by Ilana Verdansky (Zuleikha Robinson). Ben is forced by Ilana's group to bring them to the imposter Locke. They start shooting at the Monster, but he disappears, then returns in its black smoke form, killing Ilana's group. The Monster returns to Locke's form and mockingly informs Ben of the real Locke's last thoughts, while being strangled by Ben. Afterwards, Ben comforts Ilana when he finds her crying in Jacob's chamber and sets off with her, Sun, and Frank Lapidus (Jeff Fahey) to bury Locke before going to the Temple, where they believe they will be safe from the Monster. At Locke's funeral, Ben provides the eulogy, and expresses his sincere apologies for killing Locke. When they arrive at the Temple, the Monster is destroying the place. They return to the beach as a temporary shelter, and Ben attempts to make amends with everyone for killing Jacob. Ilana then forces him to dig a grave and explains she will kill Ben for murdering her father figure. Later, the Monster visits Ben, telling him to join him and then magically frees Ben. After Ben escapes, Ilana chases after him, and the two come face-to-face at the jungle when Ben points a rifle at her. Ben explains to her why he really killed Jacob, particularly grieving his daughter. Ilana understands and allows him to rejoin their group, which he does. Hurley, Jack, and Richard show up and join their group, then have a meeting, deciding what to do next. Richard suggests they should stop the Monster escaping by blowing up the Ajira plane. After Hurley destroys the available dynamite from the shipwrecked Black Rock, Richard insists he will find other explosives. Ben and Miles join Richard, while the rest decide to go talk to the Monster. When Ben, Richard and Miles arrive at the Barracks, Widmore is there, and is soon joined by the Monster. Ben murders Widmore before he is able to make a deal with the Monster to spare his daughter. The Monster and Ben find Desmond and the Monster forces him to go destroy the Island. They run into Jack's group and they both go to the heart of the Island, where Desmond removes the cork of the Island, causing the Island to begin collapsing. After Jack kills the Monster, Ben and Hurley volunteer to stay behind on the Island with Jack to assist him relighting the Island. Jack tells them he will die doing this and Jack gives Hurley the new position of being protector of the Island. Ben advises him to approach his Island duties with his kindness and helpful attitude. Hurley asks Ben to become his advisor, to which he is honored. After an undisclosed period of time, Ben, on orders from Hurley, arrives at the Dharma Logistics Warehouse in Guam. He speaks to the two workers there and instructs them that the facility is being shut down. Afterward, Ben arrives at the Santa Rosa Mental Hospital and visits Walt. Ben tells him that he is still special and that he can help his father, Michael, even though he is dead, and offers Walt a job to return to the island.
The afterlife experienced by the survivors is shown during season six. In "The Substitute", Ben Linus is shown as a teacher of European History. In "Dr. Linus", Ben laments his life in general, frustrated with the school bureaucracy and particularly due to Reynolds, the principal who does not care for the school. He is living with his father, Roger (Jon Gries), who is on life support. At school, he is shown to have a close relationship with his star pupil, Alex, and befriends a substitute teacher, John Locke. While studying together, Alex tells Ben that Principal Reynolds is having a sexual affair with one of the school nurses on campus. Ben attempts to blackmail Reynolds, threatening to reveal his affair and citing his position as principal as the demand. However, Reynolds swiftly retaliates by saying if he makes good on his threats, Alex's chances of going to Yale University will decrease substantially, as he is requested to write her a recommendation letter. Wanting to save Alex's educational future, Ben backs down. Days later, Ben notices Desmond Hume waiting outside the school in his car for an extended amount of time. Desmond runs over Locke, and swiftly drives off. As soon as the ambulance arrives, Ben gets in and sits next to the critically injured Locke, assuring him everything will be all right. When Locke returns to the school, Desmond does as well, and Ben catches him. Desmond beats Ben severely saying he was only trying to help Locke let go. Ben has a vision from his previous life during Desmond's beating. Ben believes him and relays Locke this information. When Alex sees how badly Ben was beaten, she invites him to her house where her mother, Danielle, fixes him supper. Danielle tells Ben that Alex views him as a father, and Ben begins to cry. Ben waits outside the chapel where the Oceanic survivors plan to move on together, and he sees Locke for the last time. Ben sincerely apologizes to Locke for killing him, and Locke forgives him. Hurley later comes out of the chapel and invites Ben in, but Ben politely declines saying he is not ready to move on, saying he "has a few things to work out". Hurley accepts this, and tells Ben that he was a "real good number two", thanking him for his help in protecting the island. Ben, touched by this, responds "And you were a great number one, Hugo."
Personality
Ben, although extremely well-mannered, has an impeccable ability to lie and manipulate the people around him, even when he is at a physical disadvantage. He often speaks in a low, emotionless monotone when at his most unreadable, frequently sprinkling his speech with sarcasm or dry, mirthless jokes. He can also be petty and vindictive, even to the point of murder, when he does not get what he wants. He unsuccessfully tries to convince the survivors he is Henry Gale, although he succeeds in manipulating Locke to turn against Jack while held prisoner under this guise. While he claims he will not sacrifice innocent lives in order to accomplish his goals, he has been shown to do quite the opposite. In the third-season finale, Ben is informed by Tom Friendly (M. C. Gainey), an Other, that they have captured three of the crash survivors: Sayid Jarrah, Bernard Nadler (Sam Anderson), and Jin-Soo Kwon (Daniel Dae Kim). When Tom tells Ben they are unwilling to reveal any information about the rest of the survivors, Ben quickly replies "Shoot Kwon... You want them to answer questions, kill Kwon – do it now". Conversely, Ben refuses to allow his spy on the freighter to destroy it long before it reaches the Island, as he would not kill anyone who "did not deserve to die". Furthermore, when Locke confronts Ben about causing the freighter to explode, Ben coldly replies, "So?"
Ben's unclear motives have led to speculation about his possible status as a villain. Ben Rawson-Jones from Digital Spy describes Ben as a "supposed villain", pondering "Could he really have been the good guy all along" following the fourth-season episode "The Shape of Things to Come". Actor Michael Emerson suspects where Ben's loyalties lie will always be ambiguous, making this a "wonderful role". He is rarely shown losing control of his emotions, but when he does, it is done in a big and childish way. Emerson explains "He's cold because any trace of warmth makes him vulnerable to his enemies". Ben is also known for his commitment to the island and doing whatever is necessary to protect it. He has no qualms with Locke attempting to kill Naomi (Marsha Thomason) and even Jack after the survivors begin to call the freighter. He undertakes the risky and unpredictable step of moving the Island to prevent the freighter crew, and thus Charles Widmore, from finding it. He always has a plan and is described by Kevin Thompson from The Palm Beach Post as a "know-it-all", which another reviewer thinks is because "[Ben] talks quietly, in a menacingly measured drawl... with lots of pauses and emphases".
Development
In 2001, Michael Emerson won a Primetime Emmy Award for his guest appearance as serial killer William Hinks on The Practice. The Lost producers liked his work on The Practice, so they were keen to cast Emerson in the role of Ben, then known as "Henry Gale", as they thought he would fit the character well.<ref name=DVD>Audio commentary for "The Man Behind the Curtain, Season 3 DVD set of Lost</ref> He was originally contracted to appear in just three episodes of Lost, making his first appearance midway through the second season, in episode "One of Them". The producers were so impressed by him that they contracted him for a further five episodes, citing the scene at the end of "The Whole Truth" where Ben asks for milk as the moment they knew he was a "keeper". He was then made a part of the regular cast from the third season. Had Emerson not worked out during his initial appearances a different actor would have been cast for the leader of the Others, but it was always intended the survivors would have the leader right under their noses and not realize it. During one episode of the Official Lost Podcast, the producers state they always knew Ben would be the "Big Bad". Emerson had no idea of his character's importance during his second season recurring role. He was told nothing about Ben's backstory and would only receive scripts at the last minute. He enjoyed how the ambiguity of Ben's motives allowed him to "paint it the way [he] please[s]". Sterling Beaumon was cast to play Ben in the flashbacks of episode "The Man Behind the Curtain". Emerson's wife Carrie Preston was cast as Ben's mother following Emerson telling people at parties she was desperate for a part on the show.
Referring to the scene in the third season where Ben seemingly fits Sawyer with a lethal pacemaker, Emerson comments "Sadistic may be the word, but he doesn't seem to take much relish in it. He's just sort of detached, he looks at it coldly. I sometimes feel like everything to him is a sort of scientific experiment and he is interested in a dispassionate way in how the experiment runs its course. I think some day if we ever find out what his parentage is, that his parents were people of science". Elizabeth Mitchell, who plays Juliet, did not think it was a "huge surprise for Juliet that Ben had feelings for [Juliet], but I still think it was... it was horrifying under the circumstances". She also thought "[Juliet has] this kind of wonderful mind, and I think that Ben probably has a tremendous respect for that. It's not because Juliet is so enticing, it's just the fact that she's got this amazing mind, she has this amazing, you know, intelligence, and I think that's what intrigues him, that's what draws him into her". During season four the producers deliberately left it ambiguous as to whether Ben was a part of the Oceanic 6 (six survivors of the plane crash that make it off the Island) after he appeared in one of Sayid's flashforwards.
Reception
Critical reception
During the beginning of season three, Chris Carabott from IGN described Ben as "one of the best 'villains on television', due to his 'eerie manner' and 'methodical delivery'". Later in the season Carabott had a problem with Ben being so deceptive, as "anything he imparts must be taken with a grain of salt". Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly also noted this, saying "I don't trust Ben. I have no idea when he's lying and when he's telling the truth. The only thing I'm reasonably sure of is that everything he says is for the purpose of impacting a character — and the audience". Ben's father issues revealed towards the end of season three are described as "not the most original Lost character trait by any means but it is the thrust behind Ben's development into the genocidal maniac he eventually becomes". Following the penultimate episode of the season, Carabott stated "Even with his limited screen time, Michael Emerson's performance shines through and we hope that he survives the events of the finale because we love seeing his character every week." Erin Martell from TV Squad picked the Others as one of her season three highlights, partly due to the development of Ben, adding "I cannot even picture the final three seasons without Ben". Martell also gave six reasons to look forward to season four, one of which was Ben Linus.
Aubry D'Arminio of Entertainment Weekly describes "savvy Ben" as a "captivating minor character". Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly praised Emerson's acting in the beginning of season four, calling him "a genius in [the] role". Alan Sepinwall from The Star-Ledger worried "the actor is so good and the character so popular that he's kept alive even though it makes all the heroes look like idiots". Following "Confirmed Dead", Entertainment Weekly's Jeff Jensen felt "Isn't the whole business of Ben manipulating Locke with the promise of Island secrets getting just a little bit old?" SyFy Portal's Dan Compora said that "The more I hate Ben, the more I realize that Michael Emerson is just a very fine actor doing his job". Don Williams of BuddyTV said "consider my mind blown again", referring to the flashforward in "The Economist" where it is revealed that Sayid is working for Ben. Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV called Emerson an acting "god". Chris Carabott from IGN found one of the best moments of "Eggtown", was the power struggle between Locke and Ben, because "Their scenes together are amongst the best in the series and the one that opens "Eggtown" is a perfect display of how well Michael Emerson and Terry O'Quinn work together. O'Quinn captures Locke's uncertainty perfectly in the opening scene and it's always fun to watch Ben prey on any weakness of character." Kevin Thompson of The Palm Beach Post wrote "with those big ol' eyes of his, [Emerson] could always say more with a lengthy stare than he could with twenty pages of dialogue.... [He has], once again, proved why he has become Lost's star as well as its heart and soul.... an Emmy should belong to [him]." Jennifer Godwin of E! wrote that "no one has ever done better work humanizing a supervillain." Matt Roush of TV Guide puts Ben in "The Shape of Things to Come" in the top 20 moments of the week, stating "Michael Emerson on Lost. It doesn't get better than that". Ben Rawson-Jones of Digital Spy describes Emerson's performance as "fantastic", with "many layers of intrigue and humanity". John Kubicek of BuddyTV also found his performance "fantastic", adding "he nailed it". Critic Kelly Woo, from TV Squad, placed him on second on her list of "Seven new characters that worked", ranking just below Desmond Hume, also from Lost.
Awards
In 2006, Michael Emerson was nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film, but lost out to Tony Plana from Ugly Betty.
In 2007, following the third season, Emerson was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television, losing to Masi Oka from Heroes. Later in the year, Emerson was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost to fellow Lost cast member Terry O'Quinn. Emerson was nominated again for the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film, this time losing to David Zayas from Dexter, but eventually won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television, beating out fellow Lost actors Terry O'Quinn and Josh Holloway. Emerson was also nominated for the Teen Choice Award for Best Villain.
In 2008, Emerson was nominated again for the Primetime Emmy Award at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost to Željko Ivanek from Damages. On September 20, 2009, Emerson finally won the Primetime Emmy Award for his portrayal of Ben Linus at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards. In 2010, Emerson was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film, but lost to John Lithgow from Dexter. For his final nomination for his portrayal of Ben Linus, Emerson was nominated again for the Primetime Emmy Award at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, this time losing to Aaron Paul from Breaking Bad''.
References
External links
Lost (2004 TV series) characters
Fictional con artists
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional kidnappers
Fictional characters from Oregon
Fictional schoolteachers
Television characters introduced in 2006
Fictional patricides
American male characters in television
Time travelers
Fictional characters with eidetic memory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceratitis%20capitata
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Ceratitis capitata
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Ceratitis capitata, commonly known as the Mediterranean fruit fly or medfly, is a yellow-and-brown fly native to sub-Saharan Africa. It has no near relatives in the Western Hemisphere and is considered to be one of the most destructive fruit pests in the world. There have been occasional medfly infestations in California, Florida, and Texas that require extensive eradication efforts to prevent the fly from establishing itself in the United States.
C. capitata is the most economically important fruit fly species because of both its ability to survive cooler climates more successfully than most other fruit fly species and its ability to inhabit more than 200 tropical fruits and vegetables to which it causes severe destruction and degradation. The practices that are used to eradicate the medfly after its introduction into a new environment can be extremely difficult and expensive, but infestation of C. capitata lowers crop yields and induces costly sorting processes for fresh fruits and vegetables.
Physical description
Egg
C. capitata eggs are characterized by their curved shape, shiny white color, and smooth features. Each egg is approximately in length. As seen in other fruit flies, the egg possess a micropylar region with a clear tubular shape.
Larvae
Larvae of C. capitata have been described as having a common fruit fly larval shape that is cylindrical with a narrow anterior end and flattened caudal tail. By the end of the third and final instar of the medfly, the larvae measure between and about 8 fusiform areas.
Adult
The adult flies typically measure in length. There are numerous visually defining characteristics of the C. capitata’s bodily features. The thorax is a creamy white to yellow with a characteristic pattern of black blotches, and the abdomen is tinted brown with fine black bristles located on the dorsal surface and two light bands on the basal half. The medfly's wings contain a band across the middle of the wing with dark streaks and spots in the middle of the wing cells.
In a study done by Siomava et al., researchers utilized geometric morphometrics to analyze wing shape in three different fly species including C. capitata. Through their findings, the researchers showed that the medfly exhibits extensive sexual shape dimorphism (SShD) between the proximal and distal part of the wing. This difference can be used to distinguish between the two sexes since male wings tend to be wider and shorter in comparison to females. This anatomical difference is important because this allows males to displace more air and create a more audible “buzzing” effect during mate attraction.
The males also can be distinguished by the fact that they have two setae between their eyes; the setae are conspicuously flattened and black at their ends.
Distribution
The Geographic Distribution Map of C. capitata (Updated December 2013).
The above map provides information on the distribution of the Mediterranean fruit fly, C. capitata, throughout the world. The information is mainly based on available Mediterranean fruit fly national surveillance reports. Therefore, the map displays assessments of the presence of this pest at the national level and in some cases at sub-national levels. According to this map, C. capitata is present throughout Africa, South and Central America, the Middle East, and Southern Europe. It has been confirmed to be absent in much of North America, the Indian subcontinent, some parts of South America, and most of Australia. Climate change might have role in modifying the distribution and abundance of C. capitata.
The four stages of the C. capitata life cycle are the egg, larvae, pupae and adult stages. Female medflies oviposit in groups of roughly 10-14 eggs and deposit them just under the skin surface of their host fruit. Once the eggs are deposited below the skin, they hatch in only a few days, emerging as maggots, or larvae. C. capitata flies are known to disperse up to distances of 12 miles in search of host fruit. In the instances where host fruit is plentiful in their current locations, they will not disperse beyond 300 to 700 feet.
Temperature effects
Medflies can complete their life cycles in 21 days in optimum conditions. In cooler temperatures, the life cycle of the medfly can take up to 100 days to complete. In temperatures that are below , development of the fly ceases. Oviposition in females ceases to occur in temperatures below .
Lifespan
The lifespan of the C. capitata is quite short as half of most populations die in under 60 days. However, cool conditions and proper sustenance can enable some flies to live 6 months or up to a year. In lab conditions, under controlled diets of sugar and protein, the life expectancy of females is usually longer than that of males by 1.5 days. On average, the lifespans of flies in captivity are 10 days longer than those of wild flies.
The lifespans of certain species are also affected by periods of food deprivation, which is a key driver of invasion success, adaptation, and biodiversity. Starvation resistance is a plastic trait that varies due to the relation between environmental and genetic factors. Recent studies into the starvation resistance (SR) of C. capitata has found that SR decreases with increasing age and that age-specific patterns are shaped in relation to adult and larval diet. Furthermore, females exhibited higher SR than males, and the greatest influence on SR in C. capitata was due to age and adult diet followed by gender and larval diet.
Food resources
Among fruit fly species, C. capitata has the largest variety of host-fruits, including over 200 different types of fruits and vegetables. These fruits include but are not limited to akee, star apple, oranges, grapefruit, guava, mango, plum, and pears. C. capitata in the adult and larval stage feed in different ways.
Larva
Because nutrition is a crucial determinant of adult size and development, larva prefer to eat fleshy host fruit. Higher concentrations of glucose and sucrose boost development and the percentage of emerging larva in comparison to high starch and maltose diets.
By manipulating larval diets with relation to brewer's yeast and sucrose, researchers were able to show that varying the levels of yeast and sucrose in the diet changes the proportion of proteins to carbohydrates which affects the ability of pupating larvae to accumulate lipid reserves. Diets with high protein to carbohydrate ratios produced larvae with high protein and lipid contents. Conversely, diets with a low protein to carbohydrate ratio led to pupating larvae having relatively reduced loads of lipids. Parental condition may affect larval responses to the immediate dietary environment through a process known as maternal effects.
Pupal
Research into the correlation between citrus variety, fruit part and stage of C. capitata has found strong effects on larval performance, smaller effects on pupae, and no effects on eggs. The highest survival rate was shown to be on bitter oranges; however, the shortest developmental time and heaviest pupae were obtained from orange cultivars. In short, pulp chemical properties such as acidity and soluble solid contents had little effect on larval and pupal survival but larger effects on pupal weight.
Adult
Adults tend to gain their carbohydrate intake from ripe fruit and protein from decomposing fruit or leftover bird feces. While larva prefer the middle of the fruit, adults prefer the fruit portion that contains more nutritional value in comparison to the flesh. Their diet preferences have been proven by studies in which medflies placed at the top of oranges and papayas consistently moved lower to the nutrient dense parts whereas flies placed near the bottom remained in their starting location. Adult flies typically feed in the mid-morning/late afternoon.
With respect to reproductive success of male C. capitata, males that are fed a diet consisting of no protein copulated at a significantly lower rate than males who were fed protein. In short, male diets are a significant factor in the mating success of male C. capitata as dictated by the receptivity of females to further copulations.
It was shown, that adults of C. capitata host diazotrophic bacteria from the Enterobacteriaceae family in their gut. These symbionts actively fix nitrogen by the enzyme nitrogenase which can alleviate nitrogen limitation and thus can be beneficial for the host.
Mating behavior
General overview
Field observations conducted in various localities within the Hawaiian Islands, specifically in Kula, Maui and in Kona, Hawaii, showed researchers a clear distinction in the mating behavior of C. capitata. The mating ritual in this species of fly can be separated into two basic phases: (1) lek behavior and (2) courtship.
Males
In lek behavior, males begin by acquiring territory and jockeying with each other for optimal position. Leks are always located in positions that optimize the amount of sunlight penetrating the leaves. Mating in the C. capitata fly typically begins with males stationed at the bottom of the surface of leaves during the late morning or early afternoon. Once males are stationed at these locations, they begin the mating process by forming leks and releasing sex pheromones to attract virgin females. If successful, mating will occur during this time period. Another important location for copulation is on the fruit itself during the late morning or early afternoon. Males position themselves here in an attempt to copulate with already-mated females through seduction or force. A study conducted by Churchill-Stanland et al., showed that a male's size can dictate their mating success rate. Researchers found that flies weighing approximately 8–9 mg had optimum mating success while smaller flies (i.e. <6 mg) had significantly less mating success. Furthermore, when males were equal or larger in size, mating frequency was equal and events such as eclosion, flying, and mating speed were positively correlated with pupal size.
During the courtship phase, a series of signals are exchanged between the male and the female. As the female approaches, the male tucks his abdomen under his body with his abdominal pouches still inflated and wings still vibrating. Once the female is within of the male, the male will begin a series of head movements. Within 1–2 seconds of head movement initiation, the male begins rhythmically wing its fannings and moves closer to the female. Once close enough, the male then leaps onto the females back and begins copulation.
Females
It has been shown that during mating, females experience a switch in olfactory-mediated behaviors. Specifically, virgin females prefer the pheromones of sexually developed males over the host fruit odor. Females exhibit this preference until mating occurs, following which they prefer the host fruit odor. This finding has been evidenced by a specific protein, CcapObp22, that shows approximately 37% identity with the pheromone binding protein of Drosophila melanogaster. In a recent study, this protein was shown to bind male pheromone components, specifically farnesene, a highly strong hydrophobic terpene.
Genetics
Sex determination in C. capitata is by the typical XY system. Unusually for a dipteran and for a frugivore, medflies do not have an opsin gene for blue light perception as shown from the whole-genome sequencing project completed in September 2016. In a study done by Spanos et al. in 2001, researchers were able to sequence the entire mitochondrial genome of the fly. They found that the genome was 15,980 base pairs long with 22 tRNA genes and 13 genes encoding mitochondrial proteins. Using this information, researchers were able to use this genome sequence as a diagnostic tool for population analysis and a method to determine the source of recent introductions.
Immunity and disease transmission
In a 1987 study completed by Postlethwait et al., researchers assessed the immune response of the medfly using bacterial inoculation. After inoculating the medfly with Enerobacter cloacae, the researcher extracted the haemolymph from the males and found that it contained potent antibacterial factors compared to the haemolymph of controls. Through further testing, they were able to show that these potent factors were generated within 3 hours of inoculation and lasted for approximately 8 days. This finding indicated that medflies do have an adaptive immune response that is similar to the Drosophila melanogaster.
Since it has been established that C. capitata is a cosmopolitan pest that affects hundreds of commercial and wild fruit species, considerable research has been done to assess the medfly's ability to transmit diseases. A 2005 study conducted by Sela et al. utilized green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged E. coli placed in fruit fly feeding solution to show that flies inoculated with GFP-tagged E. Coli was able to harbor the bacteria for up to 7 days following contamination. This finding showed that the medfly has the potential to be a vector of human pathogens to fruits.
Aggression
Studies have shown that wild C. capitata flies were found to partake in more head-butting behavior, direct opponent contact, and less likely to cede an occupied leaf to an invader. Furthermore, it was found that sounds that are produced during body vibration constitutes threat behavior. Aggressive sounds are substantially higher in pitch (roughly around 1–3 kHz) while sounds produced during non-aggressive moments such as courtship times tended to be around 0.16-0.35 kHz. Aggressive behaviors can be observed during the courtship ritual. If the approaching fly is discerned to be an intruder male fly, the resident male fly terminates his calling position and lunges towards the intruder, physically pushing the intruder with his head. This interaction lasts until either party loses position or eventually leaves the position. Males can also partake in passive defensive actions which consists of a “face-off” with the intruder male rather than a physical “head-butt”. Males in the “face-off” position can last up to 5 minutes until one male eventually turns and leaves the territory.
Invasions and eradication
In the United States, C. capitata has invaded four states (Hawaii, California, Texas, and Florida) but has been eradicated from all but Hawaii. However, reintroduced populations of the medfly have been spotted in California as recently as 2009, requiring additional eradication and quarantine efforts. It has also been eradicated from New Zealand and Chile.
Eradication efforts in Mexico and Guatemala
Medflies were first detected in the region in Costa Rica in 1955. From then on, the medfly spread northward, reaching Guatemala in 1976 and Mexico in 1977. In order to begin eradication efforts, the Mass-rearing and Sterilization Laboratory was producing 500 million sterile flies weekly by the end of 1979. By releasing these sterile flies into the wild, scientists were able to not only prevent the northward spread of the fly, but officially declare it as eradicated from all of Mexico and large areas in Northern Guatemala in September 1982.
Eradication efforts in Western Australia
Utilizing the Sterile Insect Technique, the medfly was eradicated in December 1984 from Carnarvon, Western Australia. In the 1980s, the Western Australia Department of Agriculture conducted a feasibility study into using the Sterile Insect Technique to eradicate the medfly population. Phase 1 of this study utilized 70 traps to establish the seasonal abundance of wild fly prior to releases. In Phase 2 of the study, the Department of Agriculture released 7.5 million sterile flies per week; however, this was insufficient in limiting the wild fly population. During phases 3 and 4, the number of released sterile flies increased to 12 million a week and was combined with chemical controls. After wild flies were no longer detected, phase 5 was initiated, withdrawing chemical controls from further distribution. Eradication was declared when neither wild flies nor larvae were found during the period of October 1984 to January 1985. This period corresponded to 3 fly generations; a threshold of eradication utilized by Hendrichs et al. (1982) in the eradication of the medfly in Mexico.
Outbreaks in California
Much research has been dedicated to means of controlling the medfly. In particular, use of the sterile insect technique has allowed the species to be eradicated from several areas.
In 1981, California Governor Jerry Brown, who had established a reputation as a strong environmentalist, was confronted with a serious medfly infestation in the San Francisco Bay Area. He was advised by the state's agricultural industry and the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection service (APHIS) to authorize airborne spraying of the region. Initially, in accordance with his environmental protection stance, he chose to authorize ground-level spraying only. Unfortunately, the infestation spread as the medfly reproductive cycle outpaced the spraying. After more than a month, millions of dollars of crops had been destroyed and billions of dollars more were threatened. Governor Brown then authorized a massive response to the infestation. Fleets of helicopters sprayed malathion at night, and the California National Guard set up highway checkpoints and collected many tons of local fruit. In the final stage of the campaign, entomologists released millions of sterile male medflies in an attempt to disrupt the insects' reproductive cycle.
Ultimately, the infestation was eradicated, but both the governor's delay and the scale of the action has remained controversial ever since. Some people claimed that malathion was toxic to humans, animals, as well as insects. In response to such concerns, Brown's chief of staff, B. T. Collins, staged a news conference during which he publicly drank a small glass of malathion. Many people complained that, while the malathion may not have been very toxic to humans, the aerosol spray containing it was corrosive to car paint.
During the week of September 9, 2007, adult flies and their larvae were found in Dixon, California. The California Department of Food and Agriculture and cooperating county and federal agricultural officials started eradication and quarantine efforts in the area. Eradication was declared on August 8, 2008, when no "wild" (i.e. non-sterile) medflies were detected for three generations.
On November 14, 2008, four adult flies were found in El Cajon, California. The San Diego County Agricultural Commission implemented a treatment plan, including distributing millions of sterile male flies, local produce quarantines, and ground spraying with organic pesticides.
References
Further reading
External links
The 1981 California Medfly Panic
CISR Summary on Mediterranean Fruit Fly
Species Profile - Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Ceratitis capitata), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Mediterranean fruit fly.
Tephritid Workers Database
www.moscamed-guatemala.org.gt
Dacinae
Agricultural pest insects
Insects described in 1824
Taxa named by Christian Rudolph Wilhelm Wiedemann
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Edward%20Merriam
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Charles Edward Merriam
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Charles Edward Merriam Jr. (1874–1953) was an American professor of political science at the University of Chicago, founder of the behavioral approach to political science, a trainer of many graduate students, a prominent intellectual in the Progressive Movement, and an advisor to several US Presidents. Upon his death, The New York Times called him "one of the outstanding political scientists in the country".
Early life and education
Charles Merriam was born in Hopkinton, Iowa, on November 15, 1874, to Charles Edward Merriam and Margaret Campbell Kirkwood Merriam. The Merriams traced their lineage to immigrants who settled in Massachusetts in 1638. The father moved to Iowa in 1855, and served with the 12th Iowa Infantry Regiment in the American Civil War. Charles and Margaret (both Presbyterians) were married in 1868. Charles E. Merriam Sr. owned a dry goods store and was postmaster and president of the school board in Hopkinton. Charles Jr.'s elder brother was John C. Merriam (who became a noted paleontologist), and he had a younger sister, Susan Agnes Merriam.
Merriam attended public school in Hopkinton. He graduated from Lenox College in 1893 (his father was a trustee of the school), taught school for a year, and then returned to college to receive his Bachelor of Laws degree from the University of Iowa in 1895. He received his master's degree in 1897 and Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1900 from Columbia University. He studied in Paris and Berlin in 1899 while completing his PhD. Among his mentors from whom he adopted much of his early political thought were Frank Johnson Goodnow, Otto von Gierke, and James Harvey Robinson.
He married Elizabeth Hilda Doyle (of Constable, New York) in 1900.
Career
Academic career and contributions
Merriam joined the faculty at the University of Chicago in 1900 as the first member of the political science faculty. He authored A History of American Political Theories in 1903, a notable analysis of American political movements which strongly supported the emerging Progressive movement. He moved up quickly in the department, reached the rank of full Professor in 1911, and served as chairman of the department of political science from 1911 until his retirement. From 1907 to 1911, he served as chairman of the College of Commerce and Administration (the precursor to the Booth School of Business).
Merriam significantly influenced the discipline of political science in the United States during his years in academia. As two political scientists noted in their study of the discipline in 1985, "Merriam's hand can be seen in virtually every facet of modern political science." "As much as any single scholar during this period, Merriam set the standard for how American democracy should be studied within the academy" was the assessment of Merriam's thinking on the discipline by another political scientist in 2008. The political scientist Gabriel Almond concluded, "The Chicago school is generally acknowledged to have been the founding influence in the history of modern political science, and Charles E. Merriam is generally recognized as the founder and shaper of the Chicago school."
Merriam was a leading advocate of the use of data and quantitative analysis in the practice of political science (even though he himself had almost no training in mathematics or statistics), and he founded the behavioralistic approach to political science. Merriam "denied the utility of theory" and advocated instead a "practical" political science aimed at creating a more harmonious, democratic, and pluralistic society. A corollary to this thinking was his "vision of social scientists as technical advisors to society's political leaders."
Merriam also deeply influenced the administration of political science in academia. He assembled a faculty that represented some of the best scholars of the day, and he and the faculty produced some of the brightest political scientists of the next generation, creating a department that dominated the discipline for 30 years. His influence was such that the department's structure, personnel, and reputation largely did not survive his retirement in 1940. He also pushed the discipline to move away from European-style theoretical discussion and into actual research, and he established the first social science interdisciplinary research institutes in the United States. He was also a leader in pursuing private grants and foundation money as a means of funding this research. According to Harold Lasswell, Merriam also promoted use of concepts from psychology to the field of political science.
Merriam was a critic of the states system in the United States. He argued that the states system was a problem for cities, as the state governments neither governed the cities nor allowed the cities to govern themselves.
Local political career
Merriam was a member of the Chicago City Charter Convention of 1906. He was commissioned by the City Club of Chicago in 1906 to study Chicago's tax system, and later served as a vice president of that influential organization. He served as a Chicago City Council Alderman for the old 7th Ward from 1909 to 1911, winning office (in part) due to the success of his 1903 textbook. He served on two key committees (Crime and Finance), and also served on three important city commissions (City Expenditures, Harbor, and Waste). While serving on the Harbor Commission, he became acquainted with Frederic Delano, uncle of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
He left office in 1911 to run (unsuccessfully) as a Republican for Mayor of Chicago. His campaign manager was Harold Ickes. Although he won the Republican primary by a very wide margin, he narrowly lost the general election to Carter Harrison Jr. Merriam and Ickes helped co-found the Illinois Progressive Party, and they supported Robert M. La Follette for president until Theodore Roosevelt defeated him for the Progressive Party nomination. He campaigned for former President Theodore Roosevelt under the "Bull Moose" ticket in 1912. He again served as an Alderman from 1913 to 1917, albeit as an Independent rather than a Republican. In 1916, he established the Bureau of Public Efficiency, a private organization which helped establish many quasi-public corporations and organized the Chicago Park District. Merriam lost his bid for re-election as alderman after being defeated in the Republican primary by just five votes in 1917. He unsuccessfully ran again for mayor in 1919, losing the Republican primary to incumbent William Hale Thompson.
Federal service
Charles E. Merriam was an advisor to several presidents, and had a lengthy career in federal service. In 1911, President William Howard Taft offered him a seat on the Commission on Economy and Efficiency, a body established under the authority of the Civil Appropriations Act of 1910 to study the administration of the executive branch, but Merriam declined. In 1917, President Woodrow Wilson asked him to serve on the newly formed Tariff Commission (now the United States International Trade Commission), but again he declined federal service.
During World War I, the 43-year-old Merriam joined the US Army Signal Corps, was commissioned a captain, and served on the federal government's Aviation Examining Board for the Chicago region. He was also on the federal government's Committee on Public Information, an independent government agency created to influence US public opinion and encourage American participation in World War I. From April to September 1918, he was American High Commissioner for Public Information in Rome, Italy, where he developed propaganda designed to sway Italian public opinion. His mission was not only to encourage the Italian public to keep Italy in the war on the Allied side but also to undermine support for socialist and communist political parties. He may even have used Rockefeller Foundation money to help convince socialist leader Benito Mussolini to support the war. During his time in Rome, however, Merriam usurped the prerogatives of the US ambassador and embassy staff, and his repeated clashes caused him to be sent back to the United States after just six months in the post. Merriam claimed to be deeply shaken by his experiences in Italy, although he did not make clear in what way his views had changed. He also engaged in an extramarital affair while overseas, which led to marital problems.
Back in Chicago, Merriam coordinated and edited a series of comparative studies by political scientists on the use of expertise in policy making, civic education, and public opinion. Merriam's contribution to the series, The Making of Citizens (1934), was highly laudatory of Soviet Russia, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy's use of these tools to strengthen the sense of national purpose and achieve policy goals. Merriam was highly critical of these regimes, though, and felt that a more scientific approach would avoid the messianism on which these governments relied and strengthen democratic and pluralistic norms.
He co-founded the Local Community Research Committee (LCRC) in 1923 with money from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Foundation, he set up programs to collecting data on urban problems, and disseminating current policy ideas. He also helped organize the Social Science Research Council (an outgrowth of the LCRC) in 1923 with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, and served as its first president in 1924. In 1929, he co-founded (again, with a grant from the Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Foundation) the Public Administration Clearing House, an umbrella group which fostered collaboration and communication among associations in the field of public administration.
Merriam served as president of the American Political Science Association in 1925. That same year, he authored the book New Aspects of Politics, which called for marshalling the resources of political science research in a search for solutions to pressing social issues.
Merriam returned to government service in 1929, serving as vice chairman on President Herbert Hoover's President's Research Committee on Social Trends (PRCST). A landmark federal research initiative into demographics and emerging social issues, the PRCST "altered the direction and use of social science research in the United States."
His relationship with Ickes allowed him to continue his service in the nation's capital under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During the Great Depression, he was considered the country's most influential political scientist. In July 1933, Harold Ickes (now United States Secretary of the Interior) appointed Merriam to serve on the National Planning Board (and its successors, the National Resources Board and the National Resources Planning Board) Merriam was the body's most influential member. In this capacity, he helped draft proposals for an expansive welfare state. Although President Roosevelt approved of the plans and proposed implementing them in his "Four Freedoms" speech of January 6, 1941, the proposals were politically not viable and were never adopted.
In 1934, Merriam served on the Commission of Inquiry on Public Service Personnel, a research group established by the Social Science Research Council to research, analyze, and make proposals regarding the federal civil service and civil service reform (with an eye to the innovations made by the Tennessee Valley Authority). The body was funded by the Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Foundation, and Luther Gulick was the Commission's research director. The group made a number of important proposals regarding civil service reform, although not all were adopted. It did spark interest in the merit system, and many of its civil service reform proposals were adopted by several states.
Merriam believed that part of the success or failure of the National Planning Board's proposals depended on the administrative capacity of the executive branch to adopt and push for the recommended policies. Therefore, Merriam began lobbying President Roosevelt for a commission to study the structure and functions of the executive. Roosevelt was very receptive to the idea. The Supreme Court had struck down the National Industrial Recovery Act (a key legislative accomplishment of the New Deal) in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935), and significantly limited the president's power to remove members of independent executive agencies in Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U.S. 388 (1935). Merriam assured the president that if he established a committee to review the administration of the executive branch, the committee's report could be written in such a way as to justify the president's reorganization goals while couching them in the neutral language of academic research. On March 22, 1936, Roosevelt established the Committee on Administrative Management (commonly known as the Brownlow Committee) and charged it with developing proposals for reorganizing the executive branch. Besides himself, the three-person committee consisted of Louis Brownlow, and Luther Gulick. On January 10, 1937, the committee released its report. Famously declaring "The President needs help," the committee's report advocated a strong chief executive, including among its 37 recommendations significant expansion of the presidential staff, integration of managerial agencies into a single presidential office, expansion of the merit system, integration of all independent agencies into existing Cabinet departments, and modernization of federal accounting and financial practices.
Retirement and death
Charles Merriam retired from the University of Chicago in 1940, at the age of 66.
He was the last director of the Lucy Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Fund, acting in that capacity from 1940 until its merger with the Rockefeller Foundation in 1949.
Charles Merriam died on January 8, 1953, at Hilltop Hospital in Rockville, Maryland, after a long illness. He was survived by his daughter and three sons. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery.
The University of Illinois picks a distinguished academic to honor with the Charles E. Merriam Award for Outstanding Public Policy Research.
Notable works
Merriam was a prolific author during his lifetime. Some of his more notable works include:
A History of American Political Theories. New York: MacMillan, 1903.
The American Party System: An Introduction to the Study of Political Parties in the United States. New York: MacMillan, 1922.
Non-Voting: Causes and Methods of Control. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1924.
New Aspects of Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925.
The Making of Citizens: A Comparative Study of Methods of Civic Training. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931.
Civic Education in the United States. New York: Scribner, 1934.
Notes
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Adams, David K. Reflections on American Exceptionalism. Staffordshire, England: Ryburn, 1994.
Adcock, Robert. Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges Since 1880. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2007.
Almond, Gabriel A. Ventures in Political Science: Narratives and Reflections. Boulder, Colo.: Rienner, 2002.
Axelrod, Alan. Selling the Great War: The Making of American Propaganda. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
Bachin, Robin Faith. Building the South Side: Urban Space and Civic Culture in Chicago, 1890–1919. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.
Biddle, Jeff. "Social Science and the Making of Social Policy: Wesley Mitchell's Vision." In The Economic Mind in America: Essays in the History of American Economics. Malcolm Rutherford, ed. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 1998.
Bishop, Glenn A. and Gilbert, Paul T. Chicago's Accomplishments and Leaders. Chicago: Bishop Pub. Co., 1932.
Bukowski, Douglas. Big Bill Thompson, Chicago, and the Politics of Image. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1998.
Calabresi, Steven G., and Yoo, Christopher S. The Unitary Executive: Presidential Power From Washington to Bush. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008.
Catledge, Turner. "Capitol Startled." New York Times. January 13, 1937.
Ciepley, David. Liberalism in the Shadow of Totalitarianism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006.
Costigliola, Frank. Awkward Dominion: American Political, Economic, and Cultural Relations With Europe, 1919–1933. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984.
Creel, George. How We Advertised America: The First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information That Carried the Gospel of Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe. Whitefish, Mont.: Kessinger Publishing, 2008.
Crick, Bernard. The American Science of Politics. Reprint ed. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 2003.
Crowther-Heyck, Hunter. Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.
Davis, David Howard. Ignoring the Apocalypse: Why Planning to Prevent Environmental Catastrophe Goes Astray. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2007.
Dickinson, Matthew J. Bitter Harvest: FDR, Presidential Power, and the Growth of the Presidential Branch. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Domhoff, G. William. Who Really Rules?: New Haven and Community Power Reexamined. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1978.
"Dr. C.E. Merriam, Noted Educator." New York Times. January 9, 1953.
Duck, Leigh Anne. The Nation's Region Southern Modernism, Segregation, and U.S. Nationalism. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2009.
Featherman, David L. and Vinovskis, Maris. Social Science and Policy-Making: A Search for Relevance in the Twentieth Century. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 2001.
Felbinger, Claire L., and Haynes, Wendy A. Outstanding Women in Public Administration: Leaders, Mentors, and Pioneers. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2004.
Fesler, James W. Elements of Public Administration. Alcester, Warwickshire, U.K.: Brownell Press, 2007.
Fosdick, Raymond Blaine. The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1989.
"Foundation Lists $886,500 in Grants." New York Times. October 31, 1940.
Galligan, Brian; Roberts, Winsome; and Trifiletti, Gabriella. Australians and Globalisation: The Experience of Two Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Gargan, John J. Handbook of State Government Administration. Florence, Ky.: CRC Press, 1999.
Garson, George David. Group Theories of Politics. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1978.
Gates, Richard. Early Urban Planning. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 2004.
Geiger, Roger L. To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities: 1900–1940. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2004.
Guttenberg, Albert Z. The Language of Planning: Essays on the Origins and Ends of American Planning Thought. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1993.
Hollinger, David A. Science, Jews, and Secular Culture: Studies in Mid-Twentieth-Century American Intellectual History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Karl, Barry Dean. Executive Reorganization and Reform in the New Deal: The Genesis of Administrative Management, 1900–1939. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1963.
Karl, Barry Dean. Charles E. Merriam and the study of politics (1974) the standard scholarly biography
Klausen, Jytte. War and Welfare: Europe and the United States, 1945 to the Present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
Kloppenberg, James T. and Fox, Richard Wrightman. A Companion to American Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.
Maisel, Louis Sandy. The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2002.
Manning, Martin. Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2004.
Mark, Stephen R. Preserving the Living Past: John C. Merriam's Legacy in the State and National Parks. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2005.
Merry, John F. History of Delaware County, Iowa, and Its People. Chicago: S.J. Clarke Pub. Co., 1914.
Milkis, Sidney M. The New Deal and the Triumph of Liberalism. Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002.
Moe, Ronald C. Administrative Renewal: Reorganization Commissions in the 20th Century. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2003.
Niemei, Richard G. and Junn, Jane. Civic Education: What Makes Students Learn. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005.
"$1,032,000 Grants By Spelman Fund." New York Times. April 17, 1947.
Oren, Ido. Our Enemies and U.S.: America's Rivalries and the Making of Political Science. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003.
Pearson, Sidney A., Jr. "Introduction to the Transaction Edition." In Merriam, Charles E. A History of American Political Theories. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2008.
Pegram, Thomas R. Partisans and Progressives: Private Interest and Public Policy in Illinois, 1870–1922. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1992.
Pope, Charles Henry; Merriam, Charles Pierce; Gildersome-Dickinson, C.E.; and Merriam, James Sheldon. Merriam Genealogy in England and America: Including the "Genealogical Memoranda" of Charles Pierce Merriam, the Collections of James Sheldon Merriam, etc. Boston: Pope, 1906.
Porter, Roy. The Cambridge History of Science. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
"The President's Commission on Economy and Efficiency." American Political Science Review. 5:4 (November 1911).
"President Orders Own Survey to Cut New Deal Activity." New York Times. March 23, 1936.
"Records of the National Resources Planning Board (NRPB), 1931–1943." Record Group 187. Guide to Federal Records in the National Archives of the United States. Compiled by Robert B. Matchette, et al. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1995.
Reagan, Patrick D. Designing a New America: The Origins of New Deal Planning, 1890–1943. Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000.
Roelofs, Joan. Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 2003.
Rossini, Daniela. Woodrow Wilson and the American Myth in Italy: Culture, Diplomacy, and War Propaganda. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2008.
Ruble, Blair A. Second Metropolis: Pragmatic Pluralism in Gilded Age Chicago, Silver Age Moscow, and Meiji Osaka. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Rudalevige, Andrew. The New Imperial Presidency: Renewing Presidential Power After Watergate. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
Rudolph, Lloyd I., and Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber. Making U.S. Foreign Policy Toward South Asia: Regional Imperatives and the Imperial Presidency. New Delhi: Concept Pub. Co., 2008.
Sawyers, June Skinner. Chicago Portraits: Biographies of 250 Famous Chicagoans. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1991.
Schnietz, Karen E. "The 1916 Tariff Commission: Democrats' Use of Expert Information to Constrain Republican Tariff Protection." Business and Economic History. 23:1 (Fall 1994).
Seidelman, Raymond and Harpham, Edward J. Disenchanted Realists: Political Science and the American Crisis, 1884–1984. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1985.
Shafritz, Jay M. "The Brownlow Committee." In The Dictionary of Public Policy and Administration. Jay M. Shafritz, ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2004.
Smelser, Neil J. and Gerstein, Dean R. Behavioral and Social Science: Fifty Years of Discovery. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986.
Smith, Mark C. Social Science in the Crucible: The American Debate Over Objectivity and Purpose, 1918–1941. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994.
"Spelman Fund Aid of $657,800 Listed." New York Times. December 28, 1949.
Sundquist, James L. The Decline and Resurgence of Congress. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1981.
Suny, Ronald Grigor. The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 3: The Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
United States Army. Iowa Infantry Regiment, 12th (1861–1865). Reunion of Twelfth Iowa Vet. Vol. Infantry. Dubuque, Ia.: The Regiment, 1903.
U.S. President's Committee on Administrative Management. Report of the President's Committee. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1937.
Utter, Glenn H. and Lockhart, Charles. American Political Scientists: A Dictionary. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.
External links
"Charles E. Merriam – Political Science." The University of Chicago Faculty: A Centennial View. University of Chicago. – Biography and photographs
"Charles Edward Merriam." Burial record at Arlington National Cemetery.
Guide to the Charles E. Merriam Papers 1893–1957 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
1874 births
1953 deaths
American political scientists
People from Delaware County, Iowa
Chicago City Council members
Columbia University alumni
American people of Scottish descent
University of Chicago faculty
University of Iowa alumni
Illinois Progressives (1912)
American city managers
United States Army personnel of World War I
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel
Illinois Republicans
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Social Science Research Council
Lenox College alumni
Members of the American Philosophical Society
20th-century political scientists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarissa%20Eden
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Clarissa Eden
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Anne Clarissa Eden, Countess of Avon (; 28 June 1920 – 15 November 2021) was an English memoirist and the second wife of Anthony Eden, who served as British prime minister from 1955 to 1957. She married Eden in 1952, becoming Lady Eden in 1954 when he was made a Knight of the Garter, before becoming Countess of Avon in 1961 when her husband was created Earl of Avon. She was also Winston Churchill's niece. In 2007, at 87, she released her memoir subtitled From Churchill to Eden.
On the death of Lady Wilson of Rievaulx in 2018, Lady Avon became the oldest living spouse of a British prime minister. She turned 100 in 2020, the second British prime minister's spouse to become a centenarian after Wilson. She also outlived four other prime ministers' spouses who came after her: Lady Dorothy Macmillan (died 1966), Elizabeth Douglas-Home (died 1990), Audrey Callaghan (died 2005) and Sir Denis Thatcher (died 2003).
Early life
Clarissa Spencer-Churchill was born in 1920, the daughter of Major Jack Spencer-Churchill (1880–1947) and (1885–1941), a daughter of the 7th Earl of Abingdon, who had married in 1908. Her elder brothers were John ("Johnnie") (1909–1992), an artist, and Henry Winston (1913–2002), known as Peregrine.
Spencer-Churchill was born at her parents' house in the Cromwell Road, Kensington, London. She was educated at Kensington Preparatory School and then at Downham School, Hatfield Heath, "a fashionable boarding school ... orientated to horses", which she disliked and left early without any formal qualifications. Seventy years later she said she had also felt the need to get away from home—"I just wanted to get out from under the whole thing of being loved too much".
Paris, Tuscany and London (1937–1939)
In 1937 Spencer-Churchill studied art in Paris. Her mother had asked the British ambassador, Sir George Clerk, to keep a watchful eye on her, an unintended consequence of this being that she was taken under the wing of an embassy press secretary who, with his wife, introduced her to a round of café society parties. Among the friends she made in Paris were writers Fitzroy Maclean and Marthe Bibesco. Together with two female contemporaries, she visited the Folies Bergère, an unusual destination for 16-year-old girls, where the singer Josephine Baker, clad only in a circlet of bananas, became the first naked female body she had ever seen.
In the summer of 1937, Spencer-Churchill accompanied Julian Asquith (grandson of the Liberal prime minister H. H. Asquith) and his mother, Katharine, on tour, mainly by third class rail, across the Apennines in the Tuscany region of Italy. Among other artistic treasures, she saw the fifteenth-century frescoes by Piero della Francesca at Arezzo, one of which, The Queen of Sheba Adoring the Holy Wood (), she nominated in 2010 as her favourite painting"in an age of violence he went on painting clearly and calmly".
When Spencer-Churchill returned to London, she enrolled at the Slade School of Fine Art. Around this time, she displayed her individualism by acquiring a specially tailored trouser suit along the lines of those associated with the actress Marlene Dietrich after the latter's appearance in the film Morocco (1930). 1938 was the future Lady Avon's "coming out" year, and she was regarded as "[o]ne of the more notable" débutantes in "a vintage year for beautiful girls", but, having mixed with older and more sophisticated people in Paris, she seemed to have disdained the circuit—since described by Anne de Courcy as "more or less naive seventeen- and eighteen-year-olds suddenly flung into a round of gaities"—and was never presented at court. Another débutante of 1938, Deborah Mitford, later Duchess of Devonshire, recalled Spencer-Churchill as exhibiting "more than a whiff of [Greta] Garbo in a dress by Maggy Rouff of Paris".
Among those with whom Spencer-Churchill danced at that year's Liberal ball was the future double agent Donald Maclean, who complained that she was too smart to be "a proper Liberal girl like the Bonham-Carters and the Asquiths". She also knew Guy Burgess, who fled to Russia in 1951 when he and Maclean were about to be unmasked as traitors. A 2015 biography of Burgess, a homosexual, contained claims that, encouraged by his Soviet "handlers", he had contemplated marriage to Spencer-Churchill. However, the latter, then aged 95, denied that they had been close. She described Burgess as "courteous, amusing, nice and good company" but said that he had been "standoffish" towards her and did not wish any friendship to develop.
In 1939 Spencer-Churchill spent another four months in Paris and, in August of that year, travelled to Romania as a guest of the novelist Elizabeth Bibesco and her husband Antoine (Elizabeth's mother, Margot Asquith, having been left distraught after her daughter visited her in London earlier in the year). Spencer-Churchill only just managed to return to England—on one of the last flights out of Bucharest—before the start of the Second World War.
Second World War: Oxford and the Foreign Office
In 1940, encouraged by economist Roy Harrod, Spencer-Churchill went to Oxford to study philosophy, although not as an undergraduate because of her lack of qualifications. While there, she became associated with, among other leading academics, Isaiah Berlin and Maurice Bowra. Lady Antonia Fraser, whose father, later Lord Longford, was a fellow of Christ Church, described her as having been "the dons' delight". For a short while she was tutored by A. J. Ayer, a future Wykeham Professor of Logic known for his libidinous lifestyle, although his womanising was not extended to her.
When Spencer-Churchill moved back to London, she decoded ciphers in the communications department of the Foreign Office, where her future husband was the secretary of state from 1940 to 1945. One of her colleagues was Anthony Nutting, who in 1956 resigned from Anthony Eden's government because of his opposition to the Suez Operation. For a time, the future Lady Avon lived in a roof-top room at the Dorchester Hotel, which she obtained at a cut-price rate because of its vulnerability to bombing (although the building was a modern, steel-framed structure with extensive underground accommodation that was considered relatively safe during air raids).
Post-war
After the war Spencer-Churchill worked at London Films for the producer Sir Alexander Korda, who she thought made "terrible mistakes without really knowing what has happened", and as a reviewer for the fashion magazine Vogue. She met the actor Orson Welles, who became a dining companion, on the set of the film The Third Man (1949), and escorted actress Paulette Goddard, who played Mrs. Cheverley in Korda's production of Oscar Wilde's An Ideal Husband (1947), on "a rather wild trip" to Brussels. During the latter excursion, Goddard expressed a wish to attend a pornographic show. Still, although Korda's representatives made arrangements for this, she shied away when she and Spencer-Churchill, having climbed "a flight of shabby stairs", were greeted by two men in black suits.
Spencer-Churchill also worked for the short-lived monthly magazine Contact, established by George (later Lord) Weidenfeld and edited by Philip Toynbee. Weidenfeld was keen to expand into book publishing, and Contact, which appeared with a hard cover, offered a means of circumventing post-war paper quotas. Among those Spencer-Churchill persuaded to contribute to the magazine was the cookery writer Elizabeth David, whose recipes became very influential in the 1950s. Through Weidenfeld she also became a close friend of Marcus Sieff, later chairman of the retailer Marks and Spencer.
As a result of this eclectic early career, she widened her circle of friends and contacts beyond those in society and politics with whom she already had close connections. As one of Anthony Eden's biographers put it, she was "equally at home in the worlds of Hatfield and Fitzrovia", while a reviewer of her memoir wrote that "few lives can have touched so many social worlds, or graced them so elegantly". Even so, the future Lady Avon did not impress everyone: after the future prime minister Margaret Thatcher met her at a Conservative Party ball in 1954, she wrote dismissively to her sister, "Mrs Anthony Eden received us. Really she is a most colourless personality".
2007 memoir
Glimpses of Spencer-Churchill's life as a single woman, for example, in diaries and other reminiscences, are quite extensive. Although she had indicated to the former Labour member of Parliament (MP) Woodrow Wyatt that no memoir of her own would appear until after her death, a volume, edited by Cate Haste, was nevertheless published by Weidenfeld & Nicolson in 2007, and Phoenix brought out a paperback edition in 2008. In 2004 Haste had collaborated with Cherie Booth, wife of the then prime minister Tony Blair, to produce a biographical chapter about Lady Avon as part of a broader study of prime ministerial spouses. Avon noted that after meeting Haste, she realised that the latter's "enthusiasm and professionalism could make it possible".
A photograph on the dust jacket of her memoir, depicting a young, pensive Spencer-Churchill, cigarette in hand, conveyed an alluring and slightly Bohemian image. The book was generally well-received by critics and even generated an engaging "spoof" in the satirical magazine Private Eye ("In the early 1950s I married Anthony Eden, a politician of above average height, with a prominent moustache ..."). Historian Andrew Roberts described it as "the last great British autobiography of the pre-war and wartime era", while art critic John McEwen remarked on its "witty and elegant restraint".
Friends and acquaintances
Early admirers
Having lost both parents by her mid-twenties, Spencer-Churchill was comparatively independent for a young woman. In later years, she remarked to Woodrow Wyatt on "how much more restricted" girls were when she was young while conceding that she had had her first affair at 17 with a "man who was quite well-known and ... still alive [in 1986]". She had many devoted admirers, an early "ardent suitor" being Sir Colville Barclay, briefly a diplomat and later a painter, who was the stepson of Lord Vansittart, former permanent head of the Foreign Office.
Wyatt quoted Lady Avon as having told him that she had resisted the amorous advances of Duff Cooper, wartime information minister and the British ambassador in Paris (1944–1947), who, thirty years her senior, had also been a friend of her mother: "I was the only woman who he never got more than a peck on the cheek from". She informed Cooper in 1947, following a weekend in the country with Anthony Eden, at which the only other guest was the French ambassador to Britain, that Eden "never stops trying to make love to her". When Cooper was raised to the peerage (eventually choosing the title Viscount Norwich), he sought Spencer-Churchill's views as to a title—"Think, child, think ... Have you any suggestions? (not funny ones)"—and she was the recipient of the last letter that he wrote (from White's club) shortly before his death at sea on New Year's Day, 1954.
Other friends
Among the future Lady Avon's many other friends, several of whom were some years older than she, were the novelists Evelyn Waugh, Anthony Powell, and Nancy Mitford (whose sister Deborah wrote of an encounter with Avon some 20 years after they had been débutantes together that she found her "rather alarming"), painter Lucian Freud, and choreographer Frederick Ashton. When she was still in her teens James Pope-Hennessy modelled on her the character of Perdita in London Fabric (1939) and dedicated the book "To Clarissa". Gerald, Lord Berners, used her as the basis of a character in his novel Far From the Madding War (1941), while photographer Cecil Beaton, 16 years her senior, treated her as a special confidante and introduced her to the reclusive Swedish actress Greta Garbo. The journalist and author Sofka Zinovieff claimed that, after her grandmother, Jennifer Fry (of the Fry's chocolate family), separated in 1944 from her grandfather, Robert Heber-Percy, who was Lord Berners's closest friend, Spencer-Churchill and Beaton amused themselves by riffling through underclothes and love letters that Fry had left in a drawer at Berners's country home, Faringdon House, in Oxfordshire. A few years later while working at Contact, Spencer-Churchill became friends with the writer and journalist Alan Ross, who subsequently married Fry.
Lady Avon thought the writer and horticulturalist Vita Sackville-West (whose husband, the politician and diplomat Harold Nicolson was a friend of her mother) "an interesting romantic figure". Still, she felt "dunched" by her "remote and rather superior" manner. Visiting her at Sissinghurst some years later, she "thought the less of her" for troubling to provide, evidently in a hurry, table napkins that were still damp. Like Avon herself, many of her acquaintances frequented the bookshop Heywood Hill, next to the hairdresser Trumper's in Mayfair's Curzon Street, which, during the war was managed by Nancy Mitford and became a regular meeting place: according to Mitford's sister, Diana, Lady Mosley, "[i]ts ground-floor room didn't just like a private club, it very nearly was one".
Avon was a long-standing friend of Ann Fleming, wife of novelist Ian Fleming and lover of Hugh Gaitskell, Leader of the Labour Party from 1955 to 1963, who had previously been married to Viscount Rothermere. In 1952, she and composer and playwright Noël Coward became godparents to the Flemings' son Caspar, who died of a drug overdose in 1975. In later years, as a widow, she was close to the influential solicitor Lord Goodman. Another long-standing social acquaintance was Labour minister Roy (later Lord) Jenkins, also a friend of Ann Fleming. Jenkins's official biographer chose, as an example of the broadly-based groups Jenkins would entertain at his home at East Hendred, a small party assembled there in March 1994—Avon, together with the architectural historian James Lees-Milne, Jenkins's publisher Roland Philipps and their wives.
Relationship with Anthony Eden
Spencer-Churchill first met her future husband at Cranborne, Dorset (home of the future 5th Marquess of Salisbury), in 1936, when she was 16. He was already famous for his elegant attire and Homburg hat, and she was struck by Eden's unusual pinstriped tweed trousers.
Winston Churchill and the wartime link
There was further contact during the war, under the circles in which she and Eden moved and through her uncle Winston, who became prime minister in May 1940. As an illustration of her occasional proximity to the centre of power, between meetings of the War Cabinet on 30 May 1940, when the Dunkirk evacuation was at its height, Spencer-Churchill was present when Churchill lunched with her parents and the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough. The future Lady Avon described this occasion as "a nightmare, with news of people's deaths coming in ...". After her mother died in 1941, she stayed at Chequers, the prime minister's country home in Buckinghamshire.
R. A. Butler, then Minister of Education, recalled a dinner party in Eden's flat above the Foreign Office following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Attempting to defuse an argument between Churchill and Lord Beaverbrook about their respective motivation during the abdication crisis of 1936, Spencer-Churchill, just turned 21, proclaimed with patent improbability that she had three favourites, Edward VIII, Leopold III of Belgium and the aviator Charles Lindbergh.
Marriage to Eden
A more defined relationship with Eden, who was a married man 23 years older than Spencer-Churchill, developed gradually after they had sat next to each other at a dinner party in about 1947. Eden had been monopolised for much of the meal by a woman on his other side and afterwards, in an undertone, invited Spencer-Churchill out to dinner. In 1950, Eden was divorced from his first wife, Beatrice (née Beckett, 1905–1957). Although she was a Roman Catholic and her church was opposed to divorce, Spencer-Churchill married Eden, who had become Foreign Secretary again in 1951, in a civil ceremony at Caxton Hall, London, on 14 August 1952. This event drew large crowds, on a level with those earlier in the year for the wedding of film stars Elizabeth Taylor and Michael Wilding, prompting Harold Macmillan, Minister of Housing, to note that "it's extraordinary how much 'glamour' [Eden] still has and how popular he is". The wedding reception was held at 10 Downing Street, the official residence of the prime minister, who at the time was Lady Eden's uncle, Churchill.
Attitudes to the marriage
Until 2019, Eden was one of only two British prime ministers to have been divorced (although he was one of ten to have been married twice). There was criticism of the marriage in the Church Times—"Mr. Eden's action this week shows how far the climate of public opinion in this matter has changed for the worse"—and from some others in the Anglican church, including the Archbishop of Sydney, who drew parallels with Edward VIII's having given up the throne to marry an American divorcée. Harold Macmillan, among others, thought such comparisons unfair: "Miss Churchill cannot be compared with Mrs Simpson, who had had two husbands". However, the marriage also drew the opprobrium of Evelyn Waugh, a convert to Roman Catholicism after divorce from his first wife, who professed to have been in love with Spencer-Churchill himself and who, a few years earlier, had repeatedly criticised the poet John Betjeman for his Anglo-Catholic beliefs. Waugh enquired of Lady Eden, "Did you never think that you were contributing to the loneliness of Calvary by your desertion [of the faith]?"
On the eve of the wedding, John Colville, a long-time private secretary of Churchill, who in his younger days had been part of the same social "set" as Churchill's niece, recorded in his diary that Spencer-Churchill, who was staying at Churchill's home at Chartwell, Kent, was "very beautiful, but ... still strange and bewildering". He added that Churchill "feels avuncular to his orphaned niece, gave her a cheque for £500 and told me that he thought she had a most unusual personality". According to the future Lady Avon herself, Churchill's wife Clementine thought her "too independent and totally unsuitable", while the marriage is said to have exacerbated the antagonism towards Eden of the Churchills' often wayward son Randolph, who, having initially defended his cousin to Waugh, gave her "two years to knock [Eden] into shape". His subsequent attacks on Eden in the press culminated in a scathing biography, The Rise and Fall of Sir Anthony Eden (1959).
The issues relating to the Edens' marriage resurfaced in 1955 when Eden was prime minister. In that year, Princess Margaret, sister of the Queen, announced that she had decided not to marry Group Captain Peter Townsend, a divorcé. Although recently available evidence suggests that the Eden government was prepared to be reasonably accommodating towards such a marriage and that Margaret would have needed only to renounce her right of succession to the throne, Townsend reflected in the 1970s that:
Married life
The Edens' marriage, which lasted until his death on 14 January 1977, was, by all accounts, an extremely happy one.
The first five years of her marriage were dominated by Eden's political career and by the effects of a botched operation on his gall bladder in 1953, which caused lasting problems. Eden's private secretary, Evelyn Shuckburgh, recalled Lady Eden's role in ensuring that the complaint that led to the operation had been diagnosed properly: "When Eden acquired a loving wife, Sir [Horace] Evans was called in ...". Before then, Eden had travelled with a tin box containing medicaments that ranged from aspirins to morphia injections.
Historian Hugh Thomas noted that, though "non-political", Lady Avon was interested in foreign affairs, having written a Berlin diary for the literary magazine Horizon. Avon maintained many of her wider acquaintances. For example, Cecil Beaton and Greta Garbo visited 10 Downing Street at her invitation in October 1956. They drank vodka and ice, and Beaton recorded Lady Eden's observation that her husband was kept awake by the sound of motor scooters, which were growing in popularity among young people in the 1950s. Lady Eden is said to have murmured, "he can't keep away", as Eden, in Beaton's words, "gangled in like a colt" and proclaimed to Garbo that he had always wanted to meet her.
Lady Eden miscarried in 1954, and there were no children. Her stepson, Nicholas, Eden's surviving son from his first marriage, who succeeded him as 2nd Earl of Avon, served as Under-Secretary of State for Energy in Margaret Thatcher's government in the 1980s, but died of AIDS in 1985. At this point, the earldom became extinct.
Eden's premiership
Churchill had told Lady Eden, following her honeymoon in 1952, that he wanted to give up the premiership. However, it was not until 6 April 1955 that Eden succeeded him as prime minister, shortly afterwards winning a general election in which the Conservative Party polled the largest percentage of the popular vote recorded by a party between 1945 and the present day. Colville noted that, at a dinner attended by the Queen to mark Churchill's retirement, the Duchess of Westminster had put her foot through Lady Eden's train, causing the monarch's consort, the Duke of Edinburgh, to remark, "that's torn it, in more than one sense".
Eden's premiership lasted less than two years. For much of this period, Eden was the subject of hostility from elements of the Conservative press, notably The Daily Telegraph, the wife of whose chairman, Lady Pamela Berry (an ambitious and sometimes spiteful society hostess, described by the biographer of her father, Lord Birkenhead, as "the politician manqué of the second generation"), was said by some to have had a "blood row" (Macmillan's phrase) with Lady Eden. The latter's attempts to make up this puzzling rift were shunned.
Chatelaine at Downing Street and Chequers
As hostess at 10 Downing Street, Lady Eden oversaw the organisation of official receptions. She brought in new caterers, causing US secretary of state John Foster Dulles to lose a bet with a fellow dinner guest that he knew "exactly what every course is going to be". Because the Edens' tenure was so short, Lady Eden's plans to return the fabric and furniture of the house to the styles of the 1730s, when it was built, were never realised.
Lady Eden was not very fond of Chequers, though she did take a keen interest in the garden and grounds, introducing old-fashioned roses and increasing the range of fruit trees. However, her successor, Lady Dorothy Macmillan, so keen a horticulturalist that she sometimes gardened at night, removed yellow and white flowers planted by Lady Eden and replaced them with roses of a "normal [colour]". One episode at Chequers attracted considerable publicity. In January 1956, Lady Eden politely requested the occupant of a farm worker's cottage on the estate to hang her washing where visitors could not see it. Although it seems that the washing may have been hung across a lime walk, beyond the boundary of the cottage garden itself, the story was taken up by the Daily Mirror as an alleged example of Lady Eden's high-handedness. Coming shortly after attacks in the press on Eden's leadership, the timing was unfortunate.
In April 1956, Lady Eden hosted a dinner at Chequers for the visiting Soviet leaders Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin. Khrushchev noted that Lady Eden's (sober) behaviour contradicted a briefing from the Soviet embassy in London that she shared some of Churchill's "traits in the matter of drinking". Over dinner (when, according to his hostess, he ate nothing despite his reputation for eating and drinking greedily), he responded rather bluntly to her question about the range of Soviet missiles that "they could easily reach your island and quite a bit farther". The following morning, Khrushchev mistook Lady Eden's room for Bulganin's but, having provoked a cry after almost walking in on her, beat a hasty retreat and did not identify himself. He confided later in Bulganin, with whom he "had a good laugh over [the] incident".
Suez Crisis
As the Suez Crisis climaxed in 1956, the Labour Party opposed Anglo-French attacks on Egypt. On 1 November, Lady Eden found herself sitting next to Dora Gaitskell, wife of the Labour leader, in the gallery of the House of Commons, whose sitting was suspended, due to uproar, for the first time since 1924. "Can you stand it?" she asked, to which, according to one version, the seasoned Gaitskell replied, "the boys must have their fun". (An alternative version is that Gaitskell responded, "What I can't stand is the mounted police charging the crowds outside".) Three days later, Lady Eden attended, out of curiosity, an anti-government "Law not War" demonstration in Trafalgar Square but thought it sensible to withdraw when she was recognised with friendly cheers.
"The Suez Canal flowing through my drawing room"
In the humiliating aftermath of the crisis in 1956, Lady Eden's most famous public remark to a group of Conservative women that, "in the past few weeks I have really felt as if the Suez Canal was flowing through my drawing room", was widely reported. The future Lady Avon later described this observation as "silly, really idiotic", though it remains probably the most quoted utterance of the whole crisis. One example of its durability was a journalist's observation some 54 years later, with reference to the Iraq War of 2003, that "if, as Clarissa Eden remarked, the Suez Canal ran through her drawing room, Iraq and the decisions that flowed from it still haunt [the] Labour [Party] and stir up antipathies and discomforts". Another instance was in 2013 when options for airport expansion around London were being debated: The Times newspaper cited Avon's words in 2011 in connection with a call by the outgoing Cabinet Secretary Sir Gus (later Lord) O'Donnell for prime ministerial spouses to receive greater support from public funds: "In a constitutional monarchy, the consort of the prime minister is not an official role ... Yet, as the Countess of Avon so vividly pointed out, it can be impossible to keep public scrutiny at bay altogether". In Avon's view, both she and her husband "were quite naive about how the press works. Neither of us should have been, but we were."
In his memoirs, Anthony Eden recalled that on several occasions during the crisis, he found time to sit in his wife's drawing room, whose décor he described as green. There he was able to enjoy two sanguines by André Derain and a bronze of a girl in her bath by Degas that Alexander Korda had given the Edens as a wedding present.
Political influence
During this period, some thought they detected undue influence by Lady Eden over her husband. For example, Lady Jebb, wife of the British ambassador in Paris, alluded in her diary to Shakespeare's Lady Macbeth and referred to "Clarissa's war". (It should be borne in mind, however, that her husband, Sir Gladwyn, a "figure of some grandeur, if not hauteur", was furious at his exclusion from an Anglo-French summit in Paris two weeks before the Suez invasion.) In December 1956, Walter Monckton, a member of Eden's government who opposed the Suez invasion, apparently told a Labour MP, Anthony Wedgwood Benn, that Lady Eden was a powerful force in politics, with great influence on her husband, and that "now she knows [Monckton] opposed Anthony she won't have anything to do with him". Monckton claimed, among other things, that, during a rail strike in 1955, Eden, by then prime minister, had, at his wife's urging, taken a tougher public stance concerning the railwaymen than that advised by Monckton, as Minister of Labour, and senior civil servants (although there is evidence that Churchill had also privately advocated to Eden the need for a strong line).
In private correspondence just after Suez, the Oxford historian Hugh Trevor-Roper derided Lady Eden's remark about "the Suez Canal flowing through [her] drawing room" and declared not only that the "vain and foolish" Eden was "wholly managed" by her, but that she would listen only to Cecil Beaton, whom he described (with reference to the Svengali of the last Russian czarina Alexandra) as her "Rasputin".
Protective influence
Less dramatically, there were suggestions that Anthony Eden's touchiness and over-sensitivity to criticism, characteristics frequently remarked upon by colleagues, were exacerbated by Lady Eden (described by historian Barry Turner, without explanation, as "equally touchy"). One of Eden's private secretaries claimed that she had a habit of "stirring up Anthony when he didn't need it". However, Eden's biographer D. R. Thorpe concluded that such imputations arose from a misreading of the Edens' relationship, also noting that, during Suez, the only two people in whom Eden could confide without inhibition were his wife and the Queen. Indeed, as historian Ben Pimlott put it, "if Lady Eden came to believe that the Suez Canal flowed through her drawing room, the Queen must have felt pretty damp as well". David Dutton, another (not notably sympathetic) biographer of Eden, noted that "some observers believed that Clarissa was excessively protective and tended to exacerbate Eden's natural volatility" but also remarked on her devoted companionship and that "during the dark days of the Suez Crisis, [she] was at his side, supportive throughout".
Eden paid tribute to his wife's adaptation of their domestic arrangements to meet the "unsteady requirements" of this period, noting that his digestion took less kindly to them. There is some evidence also that, when he was Foreign Secretary, Lady Eden had influenced (or, at any rate, endorsed) his patterns of work. A later Foreign Secretary, Douglas Hurd, observed that, though he worked hard, Eden did not keep office hours and often spent mornings working in bed. For example, on 29 December 1952, Eden wrote: "Raining and cold. Clarissa says that this is the right way to run the F[oreign].O[ffice]. Lie in bed, direct office by telephone and read Delacroix".
Some of Lady Eden's friends may have concealed their true views about Suez. For example, Isaiah Berlin assured "dearest Clarissa" that Eden had acted with "great moral splendour", describing his stance as "very brave", "very patriotic" and "absolutely just", while opining to another acquaintance that his policy had been "childish folly". The future Lady Avon herself recalled that, though she sought to "bolster up" her husband and scanned the newspapers for anything that she thought he ought to know, she did not feel she "knew enough about what was going on to try and interfere in any way". Even so, her knowledge of the inner workings of government was such that she was able to record in her diary the precise stance, at a critical point of the Suez operation, of every member of the Cabinet:
Aftermath of Suez
Goldeneye
The damage caused by the Suez Crisis to the Prime Minister's already frail health persuaded the Edens to seek a month's rest cure at "Goldeneye", Ian Fleming's "plain, low-roofed" bungalow on the north coast of Jamaica. Lady Eden's concern for her husband's health appears to have been decisive in the choice of destination. Still, it was regarded by many, including Macmillan and the government's Chief Whip, Edward Heath, as politically unwise. In addition, although Goldeneye had a private beach and a large living room with glassless louvre windows that enabled "the moist tropical air [to] blow through", Fleming's close friend, the journalist Denis Hamilton, who visited Goldeneye around that time, recalled a "shack-like house" which Fleming "went around pretending [was] ... a great palace ... a miniature Ritz". Its bedrooms have been described as "insignificant and small". Ann Fleming warned Lady Eden about some of its primitive aspects. She suggested that Torquay, a seaside resort in the southwest of England, and a sun lamp might have been preferable. However, Lady Eden insisted that "Berkshire [Chequers] or somewhere instead" would not have been suitable: "I thought if we didn't go to Jamaica, he was going to drop down dead, literally".
Installed in Jamaica after a good deal of secrecy and close liaison between Downing Street and Ian Fleming's secretary, Una Trueblood, the Edens were temporary neighbours of Noël Coward who thought Goldeneye "perfectly ghastly" and presented them"poor dears"with a basket of caviare, pâté de foie gras and champagne. Coward also sent Frank Cooper's marmalade and Huntley and Palmer's biscuits, which, according to the future Lady Avon, "was not what we had been looking forward to". As was sometimes the case when Fleming let Goldeneye, he asked his neighbour (and lover) Blanche Blackwell, a member of the influential Lindo family, to ensure that the Edens were properly looked after. Indeed, it seems that Lady Eden's mentioning that Blackwell had been helpful at Goldeneye led Ann Fleming to suspect that her husband and Blackwell were having an affair. The publicity that the Edens' sojourn attracted is credited by some with boosting Fleming's literary career, including sales of his early novels about James Bond, the first of which, Casino Royale, he had written at Goldeneye in 1952. The future Lady Avon later recalled her "astonishment" (and Ann Fleming's "rueful embarrassment") at the success of the Bond books, which continued after From Russia, with Love entered the best-seller lists in 1957.
Eden's resignation
The Edens flew back to England just before Christmas 1956. A young witness of their departure from Kingston airport recalled Lady Eden looking "glacial" and her husband pale. Lady Eden noted that, on their return, "everyone [was] looking at us with thoughtful eyes". Early in January 1957, the Edens stayed with the Queen at Sandringham, where Eden informed her of his intention to resign as prime minister. Eden tendered his resignation formally at Buckingham Palace on 9 January. When Harold Macmillan was appointed his successor in preference to R. A. Butler, Lady Eden wrote to Butler (whom two years earlier she had described in her diary as "curiously unnatural") that she thought politics "a beastly profession ... and how greatly I admire your dignity and good humour". (In 1952 she had told Duff Cooper that she thought modern politics something of a "farce".)
Macmillan's biographer Alistair Horne noted that, of the various animosities that arose before and during Macmillan's premiership, it was the "loyal wives", among whom he counted Lady Eden and Lady Butler, who "tended most to keep [them] alive". Although there is evidence of a long-standing and lasting rift between Eden and Macmillan, Eden himself maintained "a friendly (if not conspicuously warm) relationship" with his successor, often being used as a "sounding board" by Macmillan who occasionally lunched with the Edens at their home. Lady Eden, on the other hand, was said to have been consistently vitriolic about Macmillan and recalled to one of Eden's biographers that Churchill had found him "too 'viewy. There is some evidence that, following Suez, Macmillan had briefed sections of the press that he intended to retire, whereas his true intention had been to displace Eden as prime minister, and, as late as 2007, the future Lady Avon criticised his behaviour as Chancellor of the Exchequer during the crisis, claiming that he had been "too hasty" in using an American threat to withhold a loan from the International Monetary Fund as "an excuse to back down" from military action and had wept "crocodile tears" at Eden's resignation.
Shortly after Eden's resignation, he and Lady Eden sailed to New Zealand for a further break. Their cabin steward, on what she described as "the hellship ", was the future deputy prime minister John Prescott. Half a century later Prescott recalled that, while kneeling to clean the ship's brass, he had occasion to admire a pair of legs that turned out to be Lady Eden's—"You naturally look, don't you"—after which Anthony Eden tapped him on the head. When they arrived in New Zealand, which was among the few countries publicly to have supported the Suez operation, the Edens received a rapturous "red carpet" reception.
Eden's retirement and death
Doctors had told Eden that his life might be in danger if he remained in office. However, he was to live for another twenty years. The Avons' home was at Alvediston Manor, Wiltshire, where he died on 14 January 1977 and is buried. The last entry in Eden's diary, dated 11 September 1976, had read, "[e]xquisite small vase of crimson glory buds & mignonette from beloved C[larissa]."
When Eden was taken mortally ill with liver cancer, he and Lady Avon had just spent their final Christmas together at Hobe Sound, Florida, as guests of former New York governor W. Averell Harriman, an elder statesman of the Democratic Party, and his English-born wife Pamela. (Mrs Harriman was Lady Avon's exact contemporary, a débutante of 1938 who had also taken a room at the Dorchester during the Second World War. She had previously been married to Lady Avon's cousin Randolph Churchill and in the 1990s was US president Bill Clinton's ambassador to Paris, where she died in 1997.) The Avons were flown back to Britain in a Royal Air Force VC-10 that was diverted to Miami after Prime Minister James Callaghan had been alerted to his health situation by Pamela Harriman's son, Winston.
Widowhood
After her husband's death, Lady Avon received many tributes for her devoted care in the later stages of his life. She moved to an apartment in London in the 1980s. She invited firstly Robert Rhodes James and later D. R. Thorpe to write official biographies of her husband (Churchill's biographer, Martin Gilbert, having previously declined an invitation). Published in 1986 and 2003 respectively, both offered a broadly sympathetic view of Eden's career and were generally well-received by critics. Between them, they did much to help restore Eden's reputation, which had taken such a battering during the final months of his premiership. In 2003 a research study by a Harvard clinician of Eden's medical condition and surgery during the 1950s was published in the US with an acknowledgement of Lady Avon's interest and co-operation.
Lady Avon remained in touch with many influential friends. For example, in the lead-up to the Falklands War of 1982, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Hailsham, confided during a cabinet meeting that the former US secretary of state Henry Kissinger had spoken to Lady Avon of the risk of a "[s]ocialist" regime being established in Argentina. Lady Avon also attended various state occasions, as well as gatherings of former prime ministers and their families. In 1972 (while her husband was still alive), she described to Cecil Beaton the Duchess of Windsor's "very strange" and nervous demeanour—"Is this my seat?" "Is this my prayer book?" "What do I do now?"—at the funeral of her husband, the former king Edward VIII, while thirty years later, Tony Blair's press secretary Alastair Campbell noted that at a dinner at 10 Downing Street in 2002 to mark the Queen's Golden Jubilee, attended by five prime ministers and several relatives of deceased prime ministers:
In 1994, 17 years after her husband's death, Lady Avon unveiled a bust of Eden at the Foreign Office. In 2013 she attended a memorial service for Sir Guy Millard (1917–2013), one of Eden's long-serving private secretaries and probably his last surviving close associate, having been with him and Churchill at wartime meetings with Roosevelt and Stalin and in Downing Street during the Suez Crisis.
Longevity
Lady Avon was the youngest wife of an incumbent prime minister in the twentieth century. She was only 36 when her husband resigned and was widowed at 56. She outlived five later prime ministerial spouses and witnessed the administrations of 13 subsequent prime ministers. By contrast, Lady Dorothy Macmillan was 57 when her husband succeeded Eden and 63 when he resigned, dying just three years later; her husband outlived her by 20 years. As such, Avon enjoyed unusual longevity for a prime ministerial spouse, contributing, for example, to a television documentary by Cherie Blair in 2005 about prime ministers' wives and to a three-part series the following year marking the 50th anniversary of Suez. In the latter, she recalled, among other things, Eden's disillusion with the lack of American support for British policy in 1956. The critic A. A. Gill was among those who praised Avon's erudite performance in the Blair documentary ("") while sensing that she appeared not entirely to approve of Cherie Blair.
Avon was 87 when her memoir appeared in 2007. A journalist who interviewed her and her editor, Cate Haste, observed that Avon "seems slight and wan, as if painted in watercolour rather than oil" but described her as "vigorous and knowing" in conversation. In April 2008 she and Haste appeared at the Sunday Times Oxford Literary Festival, the literature for this event observing that, although Avon was perhaps best known for her lament about "the Suez Canal flowing through [her] drawing room", "she was far more than a drawing-room consort".
Avon died on 15 November 2021 at her home in London, at the age of 101. She was the second longest-lived prime ministerial spouse after Lady Wilson of Rievaulx, widow of Harold Wilson, who died in 2018 aged 102. Her funeral took place on 24 November in Alvediston, where she was laid to rest at her husband's side in the churchyard.
In popular culture
Lady Avon was played by Jennifer Daniel in Ian Curteis's 1979 drama for BBC television, Suez 1956. In 2012 she was portrayed by Abigail Cruttenden in Hugh Whitemore's play about the Suez Crisis, A Marvellous Year for Plums, that opened at the Chichester Festival Theatre. In the first episode of the BBC's The Hour, also set in 1956, a television producer Bel Rowley (Romola Garai) was complimented by one of Eden's press officers for a feature about "Lady Eden at home". In the Netflix drama series The Crown, she was portrayed by Anna Madeley.
Arms
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Clarissa Eden – a memoir: photographic images
1920 births
2021 deaths
20th-century English people
20th-century English women
21st-century English memoirists
21st-century English women writers
British debutantes
Writers from Kensington
English centenarians
English people of American descent
English people of Dutch descent
Spouses of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Avon
Women centenarians
British women memoirists
Schuyler family
Van Cortlandt family
Clarissa
Clarissa
Wives of knights
Anthony Eden
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boho-chic
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Boho-chic
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Boho-chic is a style of fashion drawing on various bohemian and hippie influences, which, at its height in late 2005 was associated particularly with actress Sienna Miller, model Kate Moss in the United Kingdom and actress/businesswoman Mary-Kate Olsen in the United States. It has been seen since the early 1990s and, although appearing to wane from time to time, has repeatedly re-surfaced in varying guises. Many elements of boho-chic became popular in the late 1960s and some date back much further, being associated, for example, with pre-Raphaelite women of the mid-to-late 19th century.
Luxe grunge (also known as luxe bohemian) may be a synonym; a chicer updated grunge-boho collection with an unkempt approach to wardrobe. First motivated by Seattle's groundbreaking rock scene in the 1990s – the modern update contains all the mainstays of yesterday's grunge (flannel, plaid, layers and leg warmers) alongside today's sophisticated pieces, including capes, shawls and jackets. Grunge elements featured strongly in fashion collections in Autumn 2006, including styles referred to "cocktail grunge" and "modern goth". Lisa Armstrong, fashion editor of the London Times, referred to Patrick Lichfield's iconic 1969 photograph of Talitha Getty on a Marrakesh roof-top as "typif[ying] the luxe bohemian look"
Lexicography
"Boho"
"BoHo" is a shortened form of bohemian, self descriptive of the style.
Virginia Nicholson (granddaughter of Vanessa Bell, one of the pivotal figures of the unconventional, but influential "Bloomsbury Group" in the first half of the 20th century) has described it as a "curious slippery adjective". Although the original Bohemians were inhabitants of central Europe, the term has, as Nicholson noted, "attached itself to individuals as disparate as Shakespeare and Sherlock Holmes". The writer and historian A. N. Wilson remarked that, "in his dress-sense as in much else", Winston Churchill was "pre-First World War Bohemian", his unbleached linen suit causing surprise when he arrived in Canada in 1943.
In Arthur Conan Doyle's first short story about Holmes for The Strand, Doctor Watson noted that the detective "loathed every form of society with his whole Bohemian soul" and "remained in our lodgings in Baker-street, buried among his old books and alternating from week to week between cocaine and ambition..". Designer Savannah Miller, elder sister of actress Sienna Miller, described a "real bohemian" as "someone who has the ability to appreciate beauty on a deep level, is a profound romantic, doesn't know any limits, whose world is their own creation, rather than living in a box".
"Chic"
"Chic" was borrowed from French in the late 19th century and has come to mean stylish or elegant.
Elements
The boho look, which owed much to the hippie styles that developed in the middle to late 1960s, became especially popular after Sienna Miller's appearance at the Glastonbury Festival in 2004, although some of its features were apparent from photographs of her taken in October 2003 and of others living in or around the postal district of W10 (North Kensington), an area of London associated with bohemian culture since the mid-1950s.
By the spring of 2005, boho was almost ubiquitous in parts of London and was invading stores in almost every British high street. Its adherents were sometimes referred to as "Siennas", this eponym even being applied to Miller herself: "Sienna's Sienna-ishness", as Jessica Brinton put it in the Sunday Times in 2007. Features included "floaty" skirts (notably long white ones), furry gilets, embroidered tunics, cropped jackets, large faux-coin belts, sheepskin (UGG) boots and cowboy boots, baggy cardigans and "hobo bags". Demand was so great that there were allegations the following year of some sub-contractors' having used cheap child labour in India for zari embroidery and beading.
Footless tights or "leggings", of which Miller was a proponent, were a contributory factor in the halving of sales of stockings in Britain between 2003 and 2007.
Trends
Sienna Miller in the mid 2000s
Sienna Miller's relationship with – and, for a time, engagement to – actor Jude Law, after they had starred together in the 2004 film, Alfie, kept both her and her style of dress in the media headlines during 2004–05. In December 2004, Vogue featured Miller on its front cover and described her as "the girl of the year". Later, the ending of her relationship with Law (which resumed temporarily in 2009–10) seemed to signal that boho too was past its peak. In fact, as early as May 2005 the Sunday Times Style magazine had declared that "overexposed" white peasant skirts were "going down" and had advised adherents of boho to "update your boho mojo" by mixing the look with metallic items (anticipating so-called "boho-rock" in 2006) or with layers. By the end of 2005, Miller herself, who claimed later that her boho look was not very original – "I think I'd just come back from traveling or something" – had adopted other styles of dress and her shorter, bobbed hairstyle – ironically a feature of bohemian fashion in the quarter century before World War II – helped to define a new trend in 2007. She was quoted in Vogue as saying "no more boho chic ... I feel less hippie. I just don't want to wear anything floaty or coin-belty ever again. No more gilets ...". Even so, in 2008, Miller reflected that
2007–08: folk, "diluted", and Balearic boho
In the autumn of 2006, The Times''' style director Tina Gaudoin observed that "when the women's wear buyer at M[arks] & S[pencer] is quoted saying 'boho is over', you know the trend is well and truly six foot under." Even so, the so-called "folk" look of spring 2007, with its smock tops and flounce hemmed dresses, owed much to boho-chic, while embracing such trends as the re-emergence of the mini-dress: as the Sunday Times put it, "if you are still bemoaning the passing of the gypsy look, then the folk trend could be your saving grace". The Sunday Times cited the 1960s singer Mary Hopkin as influencing the use of bandannas, while, around the same time, Sienna Miller's appearance as 1960s "starlet" Edie Sedgwick in the film Factory Girl positioned her once more as a bohemian style icon. London Lite observed in May 2007 that:
You may baulk at the very word, but this summer's style has definite nuances of boho – albeit in a very diluted form. Sienna Miller's gipsy skirt brigade somehow didn't finish this feminine trend off for good, and some of the less contrived ingredients – embroidery, leather, gentle frills – are back
Noting that "this time it's much more about a deconstructed, looser version of English Country Garden style", London Lite recalled the early 1970s designs of Laura Ashley – "all folds of floral cotton and centre partings". Actresses Mischa Barton and Milla Jovovich were cited as exponents of this look, while Jade Jagger (daughter of Sir Mick Jagger, of the Rolling Stones, and Bianca Jagger) was said to be promoting her own style of "Balearic boho" on the Mediterranean island of Ibiza, a long-time haven for beatniks and hippies who colonised the village of Sant Carles in the 1960s.The Tatler wrote of Jagger – "the original 'Boho'" – that she "lives, breathes and creates a certain kind of contemporary "bohemian" chic", although Jagger herself claimed to be "a little wary of the word "bohemian"", describing her approach as "daring to mix ... combining things that are unexpected". Jagger modelled for designer Matthew Williamson, whose style has been described as combining "Ibiza glamour" with "London cool". Sienna Miller has written that, when she first met Williamson, whose muse she became, in her mother's kitchen in 2001
she had a magazine on the table with Jade Jagger wearing the most beautiful bright dress I had ever seen. I remember thinking it was my dream dress. I now feel that way about almost every dress of Matthew's I have worn".
In 2011 "destination dressing" for Ibiza was still deemed to "embrace boho chic with a hint of understated glamour"
When, in August 2007, Sienna and Savannah Miller launched their own fashion label, Twenty8Twelve (so-called after Sienna's birthday, 28 December), one commentator referred to Sienna's "own brand of Notting Hillbilly chic" (a reference to London W10) and remarked that, "with [her] love of all things boho, it's unsurprising to see a thread of louche, folksy styling running through the line". However, the same writer observed wryly that "quite how many French peasants hoed fields in printed smocks is undocumented" and felt that one particular shirt-dress was "a little too reminiscent of Nancy in Oliver Twist". The following year, the Sunday Times, noting that one in two Americans and one in five Britons were reportedly sporting tattoos, observed that Miller "complete[d] her luxe-layabout look with a cluster of stars on her silken shoulder"; that she had also a tattoo of a bluebird, the subject of both a poem by Charles Bukowski and a drawing by Edie Sedgwick; and that Kate Moss displayed "two swallows diving into her buttock crack".
Recession of 2008–10: broderie, exotic lingerie, 70s glam/beatnik
In 2008 fashion consultant Gok Wan cited a broderie anglaise top worn by Nadine Coyle of the group Girls Aloud as evidence that "the folk/boho look is so hot for summer", while Marks & Spencer employed the headline "Bohemian Rhapsody" to summarise its summer range, which owed much to the colours and patterns of the early 1970s. At the beginning of June that year fashion writer Carrie Gorman announced that "this week, shopping is about going bright and bold with a boho feel", citing, among other trends, multi-coloured tank tops ("or dress, according to your height") by Harlow, said to be the favorite label of American actress Rachel Bilson. Bilson has cited Kate Moss and actress Diane Keaton as among her stylistic influences; striped multi-colored panties with brodierie edging were a feature of her photographic shoot for Stuff magazine in 2004.
Another, rather distinctive, exponent of the "vintage" look was actress and singer Zooey Deschanel, who, in June 2008, appeared on the front cover of the magazine BlackBook in a black lace-edged swimsuit. In the same year, a journalist wrote of Deschanel:
Deschanel's "kooky" style subsequently found a popular outlet as Los Angeles teacher Jess Day, whom she played in the Fox TV sitcom, New Girl (2011-2018). Jess's fashion preferences, including some striking brassières in a range of colours, attracted much interest, while, around the same time, Anastasia (Ana) Steel's tastes in E. L. James' best-selling erotic novel Fifty Shades of Grey (2011) were thought to have assisted sales of exotic lingerie. Blue was a favoured color (Natalie Portman as Dr. Emma Kurtzman was shown dressing hastily for work in a lacy blue bra in the 2011 film, No Strings Attached) and was Ana's own preference: "I'm in the pale blue lacy perfect-fit bra. Thank heavens". In 2010, the winning German entry for the Eurovision Song Contest proclaimed, "I even did my hair for you/I bought new underwear, they're blue" (Satellite, sung by Lena). In 2013 X Factor contestant Diana Vickers wore blue panties (with a short white top bearing the legend, "LOST MY MIND") for a widely publicised photoshoot for the magazine FHM.
Although boho once again appeared to be on the wane by 2009, elements of it were clearly in evidence in collections for spring and summer 2010. Fashion Union advertised "spring's new bohemian trend in full bloom" and "hippie chic tops on loveworn denims", while Avon introduced a perfumed spray called "Boho Chic". Monsoon, founded in 1973 and still described by the Sunday Times in 2010 as "the boho chic fashion retailer", saw its pre-tax profits rise dramatically during the recession of the late noughties: from £3.6 million in 2008 to £32.6 million in the year to August 2009.
In 2010 the Sunday Times anticipated that the medieval head chain – "a step on from the hippie head band" – would be a feature of that year's festival circuit, "instantly adding summer bohemia to your look". Socialite Nicole Richie's "beatnik/disco-glam mash-up" was cited as an example of this trend, while Peaches Geldof, model and daughter of rock musician Bob Geldof, was identified as another who had adopted the look. Later in the year the Sunday Times lauded the "haute hippie, bohemian splendour and punked up classics" that were putting "a modern spin on 1970s style". These included a cream crochet dress by Marc Jacobs ("haute hippie") and a devoré dress and fringed scarf by Pucci ("boho splendour").
By the late autumn of 2010 The Times noted the desirability in the UK of fake fur ("Recession chic lets Britain go full pelt for the fake fur"), with Marks and Spencer and Sainsbury's TU retailing bestselling coats at a time of economic stringency. According to Lisa Armstrong, "everyone from Kate Moss to Alexa Chung, Fearne Cotton to Kylie [Minogue], Rachel Bilson and Taylor Momsen to Carine Roitfeld ha[d] been swaddling themselves in exotic cat prints with varying degrees of success". Armstrong speculated also that the "Impossible Boot", based on a 1930s snow boot and so-called by its designer Penelope Chilvers because it had "proved a headache to make", might, despite its relatively high cost (£325–375), displace the Ugg, which had been a durable boho accessory. As Armstrong put it wrily, the Impossible was "perfect for après-ski" in the fashionably bohemian London districts of Primrose Hill or Dalston.
Children's fashion
Many parents have also embraced the Boho Chic trends and elements to create and purchase apparel for their children. This particular trend is inspired by the casual American fashion of the 1960s, but as the counterculture included the influences of earlier time periods in its eclectic embrace of style and personal values, it often includes hints of the Victorian, a nod to the fabrics and details of the 1940s, or a homage to the intellectuals of the 1950s.
Influence and exponents
Kate Moss and Sienna Miller
Many, including actress Lindsay Lohan, attributed the boho look to supermodel Kate Moss (who in 1997 had been associated, through an advertising campaign for Calvin Klein, with the so-called "heroin chic" or "waif" look). In fact the Australian journalist Laura Demasi used the term "boho-chic" as early as October 2002 with reference to Moss and Jade Jagger. In April 2004, the British-born fashion writer Plum Sykes was quoted as saying of a lynx mini-top, "Very cool, very bohemian, very Kate Moss–y"; and in 2006 Times fashion editor Lisa Armstrong described a plaited leather belt of the previous year as a "Boho 'Kate' belt". Nevertheless, it was the apparently unaffected ease with which Sienna Miller (dubbed by some as the "new Kate Moss") carried off the look that brought it into the mainstream: even in advertisements for Chloé early in 2005 Miller was shown as if casually shopping, while she told Vogue that she had a laid-back approach to grooming, including cutting her own hair.
Established in 1993, the UK clothing label 'OVERIDER' described as 'the brand of a free spirit' and favoured for its understated, effortless, bohemian style exemplifies the 2014 Boho-chic trend.
In 2008 the Sunday Times applied the term "real chic" to a group of "the chicest celebrities", including Miller and actresses Julie Christie and Marion Cotillard, who "handle the glare of fame with a large dose of reality", Miller being described as "a professional free spirit who, annoyingly, seems to have more fun than anyone else". In that year, Miller's appearance as the poet Dylan Thomas's wife, Caitlin Macnamara in the film The Edge of Love caused one journalist to refer to "a new romantic style: woe-ho chic" This referred to the austerity clothing of the 1940s, worn also in the film by Keira Knightley:
One reviewer observed of Miller's role that "Caitlin is meant to be a boho girl and free spirit, which is a posh way of saying she's a drunk who is promiscuous".
Rachel Zoe
American celebrity stylist Rachel Zoe has been credited as helping to popularise boho style in the 2000s. Writing in Guardian, Lauren Cochrane wrote, that Zoe "was one of the first stylists to put the vintage "look" on the red carpet." A retrospective piece published in Grazia in 2000 said of Zoe: "Styling her clients not just for the red carpet but for pap-bait Starbucks runs, she was the architect of the boho-meets-rock chic look that came to define a new breed of Hollywood ‘it’-girls who were as adept at setting trends as they were at causing trouble: Nicole Richie, Lindsay Lohan, Mischa Barton exemplified the moment (pre their The Row paring-down, the Olsens - not Zoe clients - were working a similar look)." The look championed by Zoe was exemplified by oversized accessories such as sunglasses and handbags paired with loose-fitting tops and dresses.
Appeal and impact
The cross-generational appeal of boho influenced, among other things, the ranges that brought about a revival in the fortunes of Marks and Spencer in 2005–06. An illustration of this, just as boho as such appeared to near its end, was M&S's use of 1960s' icon Twiggy and younger models such as Laura Bailey ("the natural choice for the season's bohemian chic") for a major advertising campaign in late 2005. In 2006 the Sunday Times identified fur gilets and "ugg-a-likes" as preferred winter wear for middle-aged women whom it described as the "botox-and-better-sex-after-40 brigade".
Exemplars
Notwithstanding an early tendency to be associated with photographic spreads for "lads' magazines") Rachel Stevens were both held up in the mid-noughties as exemplars of boho. So, a few years later, were Diana Vickers and another teenaged singer, Pixie Lott.
In 2007 London Lite contrasted the "gay glamour" of American actress Goldie Hawn with the "more relaxed, boho look" of her daughter, actress Kate Hudson, noting that "keeping the colours neutral, [Hudson]'s careful not to break any style rules, with classy knitwear and good-quality accessories".
Another well-judged exponent of boho, in the second series of ITV's Murder in Suburbia (2005), was Detective Sergeant Emma Scribbins, the character played by Lisa Faulkner.
Fast fashion
The impact of boho illustrated certain broader trends in what Shane Watson referred to as "the way we dress now": that fashion was increasingly being dictated, not by the main houses, but what Watson called "the triple-F crowd" (the F referring to the f's in "famous and fashion-forward"), of which Kate Moss, Lindsay Lohan and Sienna Miller were exemplars. Once they had spotted new fashions, young women were not prepared to wait a season for them to become available and, consequently, the familiar boundaries between summer wear and that for autumn and winter were becoming blurred. As Jane Shepherdson, brand director of the clothing chain Topshop, put it, "when Sienna wore that gilet, we had to pull them forward fast ... She was doing boho in the autumn, and we were expecting it to be a trend for the following spring. Girls see it and they want it immediately".
The practice of meeting such demand, pioneered by the Spanish firm Zara, and of which Shepherdson, until she left Topshop in 2006, was the leading British proponent, became known as "fast fashion".
Boho-rock and gothic
By Midsummer 2006, the Sunday Times had discerned a trend that fused aspects of boho-chic with "heavy metal attitude": "It's about wearing a studded leather jacket with a flimsy chiffon number, stomping about town in biker boots ... and wearing anything with a skull on it". The newspaper referred to this style, which had been a feature of collections for Autumn 2006 by Christian Dior and John Galliano, as "boho-rock" and noted that both Sienna Miller and Kate Moss had adopted it. "Gothic rock" had similar connotations. A look described by the Sunday Times in Autumn 2006 as "modern goth" was a more stylised version, exuding a "bondage vibe" and contrasting "soft, light fabrics ... with the harsh sleekness of patent [leather]".
The gothic look was in vogue again in the autumn of 2007, a sleeker "dark Victorian style" being associated with, among others, Sienna Miller, twin actresses Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen (through their clothing label, The Row), the Australian model Gemma Ward and the rising Ukrainian singer Mika Newton (the latter notably in photographs associated with her début album of 2005, Anomaliya).
Pre-Raphaelites
Florence Welch
"In 2009 the rise of British singer Florence Welch (as Florence + the Machine) coincided with the publication of Franny Moyle's study of the private lives of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood of the mid-19th century (Desperate Romantics, 2009) and its dramatisation by BBC television. Welch has cited as her stylistic icons singer Marianne Faithfull, who had been closely associated with the Rolling Stones in the 1960s, and her former English teacher who used to "come to school in crushed-velvet gowns like a medieval maiden However, her stage image called to mind the pre-Raphaelite muses who, in certain respects, had anticipated the hippie styles of a century later. Indeed, Welch herself declared her attraction to "doomed romantic heroines, like Tennyson's [poem] The Lady of Shalott" The cover of Welch's second album Ceremonials (2011) drew very clearly on later Pre-Raphaelite images.
Reflecting on Welch's broader influence, one rock journalist noted in 2010 that "even Cheryl Cole [of Girls Aloud and an X Factor judge] has gone gothic princess on her ... single, "Promise This", and she's looking very Florence in the video, all black leotards and raggedy tutus".
Karen Elson
Other redheads whose personal style combined elegance with boho and gothic features were English model Lily Cole and model/singer Karen Elson. Elson told a Times journalist that she had always been "the weird looking one" in modelling circles and remarked of herself and her then husband Jack White of the rock duo White Stripes that "there's going to be a point when our children view us as the Addams Family". (In the 1960s incarnation of The Addams Family for ABC television, based on the characters created by Charles Addams for The New Yorker in 1938, Carolyn Jones had created a gothic icon with her portrayal of Morticia Addams.) Like Welch, Elson exuded pre-Raphaelite features, though a marked gothic strain was also apparent when, as a singer on stage in 2009, she wore a long salmon dress with black lace edging. Similarly, her lingerie portfolio that year for Agent Provocateur combined gothic and boho-rock features, there being, for example, a certain resonance between a black and white brassiere and panties set that formed part of that collection and the black swimsuit in which Zooey Deschanel was photographed in 2008.
Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge
In 2011 some detected a pre-Raphaelite line to the Alexander McQueen dress, designed by Sarah Burton, for Catherine Middleton's wedding to Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Middleton's somewhat medieval headdress called to mind images from paintings by such later pre-Raphaelites as John Waterhouse and Edward Burne-Jones, the overall impression being especially apparent in a side-on double page photograph of the couple by Max Mumby on the cover of the following day's edition of the London Times.
Terminology
In advance of Glastonbury 2004, the Sunday Times coined the term "festival chic", for a style with some similarities to boho. It subsequently labelled a photographic spread of Sienna Miller, Lauren Bailey, Erin O'Connor and other muses of Matthew Williamson as "boho babes", advised its readers to "think art-school chic" by adopting layers of clashing colours and, in 2006, noted that "last year's boho babe" had become "this year's boho-rock chick".
Almost an extension of "festival chic", the Telegraph coined the term "foho" to describe the evolution of the boho style in the summer of 2007. According to the newspaper, this look, which took its influence from both boho style and "the heavy influence of folk culture", had been seen on the likes of Sienna Miller and Kate Moss.
The London Evening Standard referred to "hippie chic" (a term used in the 1990s with reference to the velvet kaftans created by Tom Ford for the Italian house of Gucci) in a feature about "gypsy queens", while the Sunday Times, reflecting on what "the fashion world called ... boho chic", referred to Sienna Miller's having created "the retro hippie look that swept Britain's high streets". In 2007 London Lite hailed the return of "hippy, hippy chic" and, as noted, Fashion Union marketed "hippie chic" tops in 2010.
"Boho-by-default" was an unflattering description used by Lisa Armstrong to describe the style of women ("gargoyles" as opposed to "summer goddesses") who, for summer wear, "drag the same greying, crumpled boho-by-default mess out of storage every year".
Morocco and Talitha Getty
In 2006, the Sunday Times described the Moroccan resort and seaport of Essaouira as the "boho/barefoot-chic beach" because of its association with fashionable "Euro aesthetes with their Talitha Getty-esque kaftans". The latter was a reference to an iconic photograph of Talitha Pol, wife of John Paul Getty, that was taken by Patrick Lichfield in Marrakesh in 1969. This image was described by Lisa Armstrong as "typif[ying] the luxe bohemian look". Anticipating Glastonbury 2005, Hedley Freeman in the Guardian had recommended the wearing of headscarves to achieve "Talitha Getty chic".
Related trends
Olsen twins and American bobo
In the United States, Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen, especially the former, were credited with a "homeless" look, first identified as such in Greenwich Village, New York in late 2004, that had many "boho" features (large sunglasses, flowing skirts, boots and loose jumpers). This was sometimes referred to as "ashcan chic".
The term, "bobo chic" (also known as "hobo-grunge", "heroin chic" or "luxe grunge"), had similar connotations, "bobo" (or "BoBo") being a contraction of "bourgeois" and "bohemian" coined by New York Times columnist David Brooks in his book, Bobos in Paradise (2000).
Bobo chic was associated in particular with punks in the SoHo area of Lower Manhattan, to the south of Greenwich Village. It was described by a student fashion writer as "paying to look poor" and having been "made popular by silver screen stars who all look like they got dressed in the dark like the Olsen twins, Kirsten Dunst and Chloë Sevigny". In 2008 English actress Sophie Winkleman, who had attended Cambridge University in the 1990s, remarked wryly that she had "wor[n] floaty dresses at university ... thinking that I looked poetic and wistful. I actually looked homeless". Another British commentator referred to Mary-Kate Olsen's "everything-but-the-kitchen-sink approach to dressing", but noted that, by 2006, the Olsens' merchandising empire was recording annual sales of £500 million.
Cocktail grunge and the catwalk
A "catwalk", a refinement in 2006, of which actresses Kate Bosworth and Thandie Newton were said to be exponents, was referred to as "cocktail grunge" – "looking done-undone ... it's what Marianne Faithfull and Blondie would be wearing if they were young now". – while a journalist who interviewed supermodel Helena Christensen in 2011 observed that, fresh from a photoshoot, she "flopped in a leather armchair like a sexy, ageing beatnik" and that, while "not a hippie, exactly", she lived in "groovy bohemia in Manhattan, where you can spot [her] moseying around the flea markets on the weekends". At the end of the 2000s (decade), this combination of apparently conflicting features was adopted by teenaged actress Taylor Momsen, who, in 2010, became the "face" of the British retailing chain New Look. Momsen described her style as "sweet and tough, grunge meets Chanel – a giant oxymoron" and claimed that she chose her outfits from "whatever clean clothes she finds on her floor" ("although no one ever believes me").
French bobos and similar stylists
In the world of Parisian fashion, the term bobo (short for Bourgeois Bohème), which also had political connotations, was applied to "typically discerning customers who are left wing and Left Bank"; or, put another way, "that subset of thirty- or forty-something-year-olds who don't allow their socialist leanings to interfere with an enjoyment of material pleasures". As such, la gauche caviar [the caviar left] was sometimes applied as an epithet to bobos.
The bobo style of dress has been described as "retro-hippie-shabby-chic", its elements including jersey tops, boiled wool jackets, smart jeans, Converse training shoes and leather bags by Jerome Dreyfuss (born 1974). A leading exponent was actress and singer Vanessa Paradis, who particularly favoured the designs of Isabel Marant (born 1967), while English actress Michelle Dockery, best known for her part as Lady Mary Crawley in the early 20th century drama Downton Abbey (2010–14), cited Anglo-French actress Charlotte Gainsbourg as one of her style icons: "I love that she looks like she's just thrown it on. Simplicity is true elegance". Around the same time, another British actress Karen Gillan, best known as Amy Pond in the BBC's science-fiction series Doctor Who, defined the look of 1960s model Jean Shrimpton, whom she greatly admired and had just portrayed in a filmed drama for television, as "messy, waifish, bony". She herself professed a liking for vintage clothing:
"When girls do the walk of shame ... I think they look best like that, slightly dishevelled." The Kate Moss look? "Yeah".
Some of the teenaged rock bands, such as Second Sex and the Plastiscines, that emerged in France c. 2006 and were known collectively as les bébés rockers ("baby rockers"), were initially derided in some sections of the press because of their bobo backgrounds: as Kate Spicer observed in the Sunday Times, "it's as if a bunch of privileged Islington kids had picked up their guitars and proclaimed themselves the new Sex Pistols". By 2010 bobos – "free-thinkers at the weekend, but bankers Monday to Friday" – were said to be squeezing out young, genuinely creative Parisians from their traditional neighborhoods, with Porte de Bagnolet, in the 20th arrondissement, cited as an alternative base for "the next generation of diverse Parisian voices".
The name "Bourgeois Boheme" was adopted in 2005 by a British company, founded by Alicia Lai, that marketed "ethnically sourced" fashion accessories and cosmetics and, by 2009, had moved into handmade shoes crafted from such materials as hemp and organic cotton.
Bohemian roots
Although boho-chic in the early years of the 21st century represented a definite style, it was not a "movement." Nor was it noticeably associated with bohemianism as such. Jessica Brinton saw it as "the tagging and selling of the bohemian dream to the masses for £5.99". Indeed, the Sunday Times thought it ironic that "fashionable girls wore ruffly floral skirts in the hope of looking bohemian, nomadic, spirited and non-bourgeois", whereas "gypsy girls themselves ... are sexy and delightful precisely because they do not give a hoot for fashion". By contrast, in the first half of the 20th century, aspects of bohemian fashion were a reflection of the lifestyle itself.
In fact, most of the components of boho had, in one way or another, drifted in and out of fashion since the "Summer of Love" of 1967 when hippiedom and psychedelia were at their peak. As journalist Bob Stanley put it, "the late 1960s are never entirely out of fashion, they just need a fresh angle to make them de jour''".
References
External links
2000s fashion
Fashion aesthetics
Bohemianism
Hippie movement
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Gostkowski
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Stephen Gostkowski
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Stephen Carroll Gostkowski ( ; born January 28, 1984) is an American football former placekicker who played for 15 years in the National Football League (NFL), primarily with the New England Patriots.
He was selected in the fourth round of the 2006 NFL Draft by the Patriots, where he spent his first 14 seasons and became the franchise's all-time leading scorer. Gostkowski led the league in scoring five times during his career, including four consecutive from 2012 to 2015, and is the first post-merger player to lead the league in scoring for more than two consecutive seasons. Named to four Pro Bowls and two first-team All-Pros, Gostkowski also holds the NFL record for consecutive extra points. He then played his final season in the league with the Tennessee Titans in 2020.
Early life
Gostkowski graduated from Madison Central High School in Madison, Mississippi, in 2002. While there, he won four varsity letters each in football and soccer, and three in baseball, and was an All-State honoree in all three sports. Gostkowski holds the school record for longest field goal, a 55-yard kick. His teammates at Madison Central included former 49ers executive Parys Haralson and former Seahawks center Chris Spencer. His opponents included former Atlanta Falcons running back Jerious Norwood, who returned one of Gostkowski's kickoffs from two yards deep in the end zone; Gostkowski raced him down at the 25-yard line to prevent a touchdown.
His most common nickname growing up was "Beaver"; he lost two front teeth playing hockey and had fake teeth that were too large put in as replacements. While at Memphis, he was dubbed "Gotti" by Tigers head coach Tommy West, because West could not pronounce Gostkowski correctly.
College career
Gostkowski attended the University of Memphis, where he played for the Memphis Tigers football team and majored in exercise and sports science. Gostkowski received an athletic scholarship to play baseball for Memphis, and was a walk-on for the football team. He finished his college career with a total of 369 points, a school record, and 13th overall in NCAA Division I-A history, converting 70 of 92 field goals and 159 of 165 extra points (PATs) during his Tiger career. His 70 field goals and 159 extra points both set school records previously held by Joe Allison (1990–1993). He earned first team All-Conference USA honors in both his junior and senior years and was named Conference USA's Special Teams Player of the Year in 2005.
In 2005, his senior season, Gostkowski handled kickoff duties for Memphis and had 39 touchbacks on 68 kickoffs. Gostkowski did so using a one-inch tee (the height of NFL tees), rather than the two-inch tees allowed by the NCAA at the time. Thus, NFL talent scouts could more accurately project his potential.
In a 2005 game against Houston, Gostkowski managed the rare feat of recovering his own onside kick.
Collegiate statistics
Professional career
New England Patriots
2006 season: Rookie year
Gostkowski was drafted by the New England Patriots in the fourth round of the 2006 NFL Draft with the 118th overall pick. He was the first of two placekickers to be selected that year. During the Patriots' 2006 training camp, he competed with veteran kicker Martín Gramática, who the Patriots had signed as a free agent after Adam Vinatieri signed with the Indianapolis Colts. On August 23, 2006, before their third preseason game, the Patriots cut Gramática, and gave the job to rookie Gostkowski.
During the 2006 preseason, Gostkowski was perfect on field goals and extra points, going 9-for-9 and 11-for-11, respectively, for a total of 38 points. His longest field goal was a 54-yard attempt against the New York Giants in the last preseason game. On November 26, 2006, Gostkowski made the longest regular-season kick of his young career, a 52-yard kick against the Chicago Bears, which is also the longest kick ever made at Gillette Stadium. Gostkowski finished the 2006 season as the highest-scoring rookie, with 103 points (20 field goals and 43 extra points), edging out the 96 points scored by Jacksonville running back Maurice Jones-Drew.
While Gostkowski struggled early in his rookie season—he had two consecutive kicks blocked—his kickoffs were noticeably longer than were Vinatieri's in his last season in Foxborough. During the 2006 season, he averaged 65.5 yards per kickoff with a return average of 23 yards, and a total of 12 touchbacks. (By comparison, in 2005, Vinatieri's average kickoff was just 61.6 yards, though playing in a dome in 2006 he averaged 65.8 yards.) Gostkowski also outperformed opposing teams on field goals: Gostkowski made 20 of 26 kicks (76.9%), while opposing kickers made just 22 of 30 (73.3%). Gostkowski's rookie season was statistically about the same as Vinatieri's: Vinatieri converted 27 of 35 kicks (77.3%), but missed three extra points (39/42). In Week 17, he missed an extra point attempt for the first time in his NFL career.
Gostkowski also had to contend with having three different holders during the season. After his first holder, punter Josh Miller, was placed on injured reserve after Week 11, the Patriots signed Ken Walter, who held for Weeks 12 to 15 until he was placed on injured reserve. Though the Patriots hired Todd Sauerbrun to punt, holding duties were given to the Patriots' backup quarterback Matt Cassel (which led to one regular-season kick that, while good, made two bizarre turns in mid-air).
2006 postseason
In the Wild Card Round of the 2006 postseason against the New York Jets, Gostkowski was perfect on all his kick attempts, converting three field goal attempts (from 20, 40, and 28 yards) and four extra points. He also had one kickoff go through the back of the end zone (over 80 yards) for a touchback.
In the AFC Divisional Playoffs against the San Diego Chargers, Gostkowski made three of three field goals, including a 50-yard kick that was the longest successful kick in Patriots postseason history. He also made a 34-yarder in the third quarter and a 31-yard kick with 1:10 left in the fourth that made him only the third NFL rookie to attempt a game-winning playoff kick in the fourth quarter or overtime. (One of the others was Chargers kicker Nate Kaeding, who missed his attempt in the 2004 playoffs; in this game, Kaeding missed a potential game-tying 54-yarder in the closing seconds.) Gostkowski also converted his only extra point attempt of the game following a Jabar Gaffney touchdown in the second quarter.
In the AFC Championship, Gostkowski again converted all of his kicks (two field goals and four extra points), and recorded two touchbacks on kickoffs against the Indianapolis Colts.
Expectations from the Vinatieri years
As an untested rookie, Gostkowski faced special scrutiny in the playoffs, given the playoff heroics of Vinatieri. Gostkowski performed admirably, making all eight of his field goal kicks; he also recorded three touchbacks, including two in the Patriots' January 21, 2007, loss to the Colts at the RCA Dome.
2007 season
Although Gostkowski ranked 30th in field goal attempts through the first 12 weeks of the NFL season (16 attempts, 14 converted), he managed to equal his entire 2006 scoring output in those 12 weeks, thanks to an NFL-leading 61 extra point attempts, all of which he converted. In Week 15, against the New York Jets, Gostkowski broke former Miami Dolphins kicker Uwe von Schamann's record for most extra points converted in a season, with his 67th successful attempt. In Week 16, against the Miami Dolphins, Gostkowski broke von Schamann's record of 70 extra point attempts. Gostkowski finished the season a perfect 74-for-74 on extra points, eclipsing Jeff Wilkins' 1999 record of 64-for-64 with the St. Louis Rams. (These PAT records were surpassed by Denver Broncos kicker Matt Prater in .) Gostkowski also went 21 for 24 on field goals to finish with 137 points on the season, the third-highest total of any player that year (rookie Green Bay kicker Mason Crosby had 141, and Patriots receiver Randy Moss had 138).
Gostkowski also had the distinction, in the Week 13 game against the Baltimore Ravens, of kicking off from the Ravens' 35-yard line as the result of two unsportsmanlike conduct penalties on Ravens linebacker Bart Scott and an offside call on the Ravens defense on his PAT attempt. Gostkowski recorded a touchback on the kickoff, but there was confusion after the game as to whether or not the Patriots could have improved their field position by kicking the ball out-of-bounds instead.
2007 postseason
Gostkowski had two field goal attempts in the postseason, both in the Divisional Round against the Jacksonville Jaguars; Gostkowski converted one, but missed the other, his only failed postseason conversion. He was 9-for-9 on his extra point attempts. In the AFC Championship victory over the San Diego Chargers, he converted all three extra point attempts. In Super Bowl XLII against the New York Giants, he converted both extra point attempts in the 17–14 loss.
2008 season
Gostkowski was a key contributor in the Patriots' 19–10 win over the New York Jets in Week 2, the game that marked Matt Cassel's debut as a starter after a season-ending injury to Tom Brady. Gostkowski converted four field goals from 21, 37, 28, and 27 yards, and recorded touchbacks on the first five of his six kickoffs (the last kick was returned to the 20 before a Raymond Ventrone tackle).
In October, Gostkowski, after going 9-for-10 on field goals and 11-for-11 on extra points for a team-high 38 points, was named AFC Special Teams Player of the Month for the first time in his career.
In Week 16, Gostkowski had the highest-scoring game of his NFL career, converting four field goal attempts and five extra point attempts against the Arizona Cardinals. The 17-point performance gave him a total of 34 field goals on the season, breaking Tony Franklin's 1986 franchise record of 32, and 141 points scored, tying Vinatieri's post-merger franchise record, with one game still to play. (Former wide receiver/kicker Gino Cappelletti scored 155 points for the Patriots in 1964, and 147 points in 1961, but those include 44 and 56 points on receptions.) Gostkowski finished the season with a league-leading 148 points, the 13th-highest single-season total in NFL history; his 36 field goals converted is the sixth-best total, and the most since Neil Rackers made 40 in 2005.
In December 2008, Gostkowski was selected for his first Pro Bowl appearance as the AFC kicker; his selection was the result of the players' and coaches' votes, as he did not finish in the top five in fan voting. The Associated Press also voted him to the All-Pro First Team for the first time; he received 28 of the 50 votes for kicker.
2009 season
In the Patriots' last-minute 25–24 victory over the Buffalo Bills, Gostkowski recorded his first fumble recovery. When Leodis McKelvin fumbled the ball on a kickoff return, with the Patriots trailing 24–19, Gostkowski recovered the ball at the Bills' 31-yard line. Tom Brady, describing the play in his postgame press conference, used yet another nickname for Gostkowski: "Meat," a reference to Bull Durham, coined by former Patriots punter Josh Miller during Gostkowski's rookie season.
Gostkowski won his first AFC Special Teams Player of the Week award in the Patriots' Week 9 game against the Miami Dolphins, in which he recorded four field goals and two touchbacks, including one on a re-kick from the Patriots' 25-yard line following an offside penalty.
Gostkowski finished the season going 26-for-31 on field goals (83.9%). He was a perfect 47-for-47 on extra points and had a then-career-high 67.8 yard average on kickoffs.
2010 season
Gostkowski's contract expired after the 2009 season, which normally would have made him an unrestricted free agent. As a result of the expiring NFL-NFLPA collective bargaining agreement, however, Gostkowski became a restricted free agent; the Patriots offered him $1,759,000 for the 2010 season. Gostkowski signed the tender on April 17. On August 26, 2010, the Patriots signed Gostkowski to a four-year extension, which added four years to his one-year tender contract; the extension gave him $14 million from 2011 to 2014, with $5 million guaranteed.
Gostkowski began the 2010 season missing three of his first four field goal attempts over two games. However, in Week 4, against the Miami Dolphins, Gostkowski recorded five touchbacks in a single game; two weeks later, Gostkowski kicked his first overtime game-winning field goal in the Patriots' 23–20 victory over the Baltimore Ravens.
In Week 9, Gostkowski was unable to finish the Patriots' game against the Cleveland Browns after sustaining a thigh injury; he was replaced by wide receiver Wes Welker. Three days later, on November 10, the Patriots placed Gostkowski on injured reserve with a torn quadriceps muscle, ending his season. The Patriots signed veteran kicker Shayne Graham to replace him.
Gostkowski finished the injury-shortened season 10-for-13 on field goals (76.9%, tying his career low from 2006), while setting a career-high with an average kickoff distance of 67.9 yards. He was 26-for-26 on his extra point attempts.
2011 season
As Gostkowski recovered from his quadriceps injury, for the first time since his rookie season, he was not the only kicker in training camp; the Patriots brought in former University of Massachusetts kicker Chris Koepplin to help manage Gostkowski's workload; they released Koepplin before the start of the season.
In Week 16, after scoring a field goal against the Miami Dolphins to make the score 17–3 in favor of Miami, Gostkowski made a tackle of Clyde Gates on the subsequent kickoff that was credited as "pivotal" in the Patriots' comeback victory. Instead of allowing a touchdown, Gostkowski tackled Gates at the Miami 38. Miami lost the ball on the ensuing possession, and the Patriots went on to score a touchdown of their own, closing the deficit to 17–10 en route to a 27–24 win.
Gostkowski finished the season with 143 points, five short of his career high in 2007; he made 28 of 33 field goals and all 59 of his extra-point attempts. Gostkowski was one of two kickers to score five or more points in every game in 2011 (the other was David Akers), and the third player in NFL history to manage the feat (Gary Anderson also did it in 1998).
At the end of the 2011 season, Gostkowski and the Patriots appeared in Super Bowl XLVI. He converted two extra points and a field goal, but the Patriots lost 21–17 to the New York Giants.
2012 season
In the 2012 season, Gostkowski converted all 66 extra point attempts and 29-of-35 field goal attempts. In Week 11, in the 59–24 victory over the Indianapolis Colts, he tied his career high, with eight extra points converted to go along with a 31-yard field goal. With 153 total points scored, he won the scoring title for the 2012 season.
2013 season
In the season opener against the Buffalo Bills, Gostkowski was a perfect 3–3, including the 35-yard game winning attempt. In week 12 against Peyton Manning and the high-scoring Denver Broncos, Gostkowski made both his field goal attempts, including the game winning 31-yard field goal with 1:56 remaining in overtime. Gostkowski set a franchise record for the New England Patriots for most field goals in a season with 38 field goals made out of 41 attempts. During the AFC Divisional Round against the Indianapolis Colts on January 11, 2014, Gostkowski took over the role of punter for the Patriots after regular punter Ryan Allen was injured during the second quarter, averaging 41.8 yards per punt. On January 20, 2014, he was named to his second Pro Bowl, replacing Denver Broncos kicker Matt Prater, who was playing in Super Bowl XLVIII.
2014 season
Gostkowski scored three field goals against the Oakland Raiders in a 16–9 Week 3 victory; coincidentally, all the points in that game were scored by players whose names ended in "-kowski": all of Oakland's points were scored by Sebastian Janikowski, while the only touchdown in the game was scored by Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski. In the Patriots' Week 15 41–13 rout of the Miami Dolphins, Gostkowski broke the Patriots' career scoring mark set by Vinatieri in 2005, doing so in just his 134th game as a Patriot.
Gostkowski finished the season with an NFL-leading 35 field goals out of 37 attempts (94.6%, a career-high). He was honored with his third Pro Bowl selection and was selected as a Second-Team All-Pro (behind Vinatieri). Gostkowski won his first Super Bowl ring when the Patriots defeated the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 28–24. He did not kick any field goals but made four extra points.
2015 season
In a Week 3 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars, Gostkowski recorded his 423rd consecutive extra point, breaking Matt Stover's record of 422. For the first three weeks, he converted all 14 extra point attempts and all seven field goal attempts, and was named AFC Special Teams Player of the Month for the third time in his career. During the Patriots' Week 5 game at AT&T Stadium versus the Dallas Cowboys, Gostkowski tied Vinatieri's franchise record kicking a 57-yard field goal to end the first half. Through the first five games of the season, Gostkowski was 12-for-12 on field goals and 21-for-21 on extra points. He added three more field goals on three tries in a 30–23 win over the New York Jets in Week 7 to start his season 15-for-15. Against the Miami Dolphins in a 36–7 win on October 29, he was four-for-four on extra points and two-for-two on field goals, including a 52-yarder. Against the New York Giants on November 15, with only one second remaining, he kicked the game-winning 54-yard field goal to get the 27–26 win, with the Patriots staying undefeated at 9–0 on the season. Additionally, he surpassed Adam Vinatieri on the Patriots' all-time leader in field goals. With the performance against the Giants, Gostkowski improved to 21-of-21 field goals made and 34-of-34 extra points made for the season. In week 11, in a 20–13 win over the Buffalo Bills, Gostkowski missed a 54-yard field goal attempt; it was his first miss since November 30, 2014, and his first miss at home since Week 2 of the 2013 season. He finished the season with 151 points, marking the fourth consecutive season he exceeded 150 points; no other player in NFL history has scored 150 points more than once.
Gostkowski was named one of two starting kickers for the 2015 Pro Bowl (along with Dallas Cowboys kicker Dan Bailey); it was Gostkowski's third consecutive nomination, and fourth overall. Gostkowski was also named the kicker on the 2015 AP All-Pro first team, receiving 47 of 50 votes; Bailey received the other three votes.
2015 postseason
In the AFC Championship Game against the Denver Broncos, Gostkowski missed his first extra point since 2006 and only the second of his career, ending a streak of 523 consecutive successful attempts. After the Patriots were defeated 20-18 following a failed two-point conversion near the end of the game, Gostkowski blamed himself for the loss. However, Gostkowski, who also scored two field goals during the game, was defended by Patriots coach Bill Belichick and teammates Julian Edelman, Logan Ryan, Tom Brady, Rob Gronkowski, Danny Amendola, and Malcolm Butler. It was also his first miss in 56 attempts since the NFL moved the spot for extra points from the 2-yard line back to the 15-yard line.
Since The NFL Record & Fact Book does not count statistics from playoff games when calculating regular-season streaks, Gostkowski ended the regular season with his extra point streak active at 463.
2016 season
During the 2016 offseason, the NFL changed the rule on kickoffs so that touchbacks would grant the offense an extra five yards, with possessions starting at the 25-yard line rather than the 20-yard line. The Patriots took advantage of Gostkowski's ability to deliver "mortar kicks" that have a long hang time but land inside the field of play, which then forces the opposing team to attempt to return the kick. In the Patriots' Week 1 upset of the Arizona Cardinals, the Patriots used such a kick to force the Cardinals to start their final drive, which ended in a missed field goal, at their own eight-yard line. While against the Houston Texans in Week 3, the Patriots forced two fumbles on such kickoffs. He earned Special Teams Player of the Week in Week 13 for making all four field goal attempts including three over 45 yards and converted two extra points.
Gostkowski missed an extra point in Week 6 against the Cincinnati Bengals to end his record regular-season streak at 479. He finished the season tied for eighth in scoring with 127 points (27 of 32 field goals and 46 of 49 extra points); it is the first time since 2011 that Gostkowski did not lead the NFL in scoring.
Gostkowski appeared in a Pepsi commercial during the 2017 playoffs, joining the ranks of wide receivers Odell Beckham Jr. and Antonio Brown.
Gostkowski became the first placekicker in Super Bowl history to start at placekicker for the winning team without kicking an extra point. In Super Bowl LI, Gostkowski missed the extra point on the Patriots' first touchdown, the Patriots successfully attempted two-point conversions on their second and third touchdowns, and the Patriots' final, game-winning touchdown came in overtime, so no extra point was needed. In the 34–28 overtime victory over the Atlanta Falcons, Gostkowski hit on a 41-yard attempt in the second quarter and a 33-yard attempt in the fourth quarter.
2017 season
In Week 4 during a 33–30 loss against the Carolina Panthers, Gostkowski set a new franchise record by making a 58-yard field goal, beating the 57-yard record he shared with Adam Vinatieri. He broke that record in the Patriots' Week 11 game against the Oakland Raiders at Estadio Azteca in Mexico City, kicking a 62-yard field goal as time expired in the first half. That kick was tied for the sixth-longest field goal in NFL history. In that game, Gostkowski booted four field goals, earning him AFC Special Teams Player of the Week.
In the 2017 regular season, Gostkowski was 45-of-47 on extra point attempts and 37-of-40 on field goal attempts. His 156 points was the second highest total of any player in the NFL, behind only the Los Angeles Rams' Greg Zuerlein. It was the fifth time Gostkowski had eclipsed the 150-point mark in his career.
Gostkowski played in Super Bowl LII tying the record with former Patriot Adam Vinatieri to appear in five Super Bowls as a kicker. The Patriots failed to repeat as Super Bowl Champions after losing 41–33 to the Philadelphia Eagles. In the Super Bowl, Gostkowski made 2 field goals and 3 extra points but also missed a field goal and an extra point in the second quarter.
2018 season
Gostkowski finished sixth in the league among kickers with 130 points scored. He set a record for most Super Bowl appearances by a kicker, at six, breaking his tie with former Patriot Adam Vinatieri.
In Super Bowl LIII against the Los Angeles Rams, Gostkowski missed a field goal and made two during the Patriots win over the Rams. He kicked a 41-yard field goal with under two minutes left in the game to give the Patriots a 13–3 lead, essentially sealing the Super Bowl win for the Patriots.
2019 season: Final year in New England
On April 9, 2019, Gostkowski re-signed with the Patriots on a two-year, $8.5 million deal.
On October 2, 2019, as a result of a left hip injury he sustained, Gostkowski was placed on injured reserve for the second time in his 14-year career. Mike Nugent was signed as his replacement, but eventually released. Nick Folk was brought in to assume the kicking duties, but was then also released and replaced by Kai Forbath. Folk eventually ended up being re-signed by the Patriots as their main kicker.
On March 23, 2020, Gostkowski was released by the Patriots after 14 seasons with the team.
Tennessee Titans
On September 3, 2020, the Tennessee Titans signed Gostkowski on a one-year deal. Gostkowski was a teammate of Titans head coach Mike Vrabel from 2006 to 2008, when Vrabel played linebacker for the Patriots. In the season opener against the Denver Broncos, Gostkowski struggled, missing three field goals and an extra point. However, with 17 seconds left in the game, Gostkowski kicked a game-winning field goal, putting the Titans up 16–14. In Week 2 versus the Jacksonville Jaguars, Gostkowski made three of four extra point attempts and two field goal attempts, including a 49-yard game-winner late in the fourth quarter. Gostkowski was crucial to the Titans' Week 3 win versus the Minnesota Vikings, making all six of his field goals, including another game-winner late in the fourth quarter, this time from 55 yards out. He was named the AFC Special Teams Player of the Week for his performance in Week 3. On October 1, 2020, Gostkowski was named the AFC Special Teams Player of the Month for his performance in September. After not attempting a field goal in week five of the regular season, Gostkowski made only one of five attempted field goals in Weeks 6–8, notably missing a 45 yard game-tying field goal with 19 seconds left in the 4th quarter in a 24–27 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 7. Had Gostkowski made the kick, the game would have likely been sent into overtime. Gostkowski would however, only miss one of his nine attempted field goals in Weeks 9–16. He did not play in the Week 17 game against the Houston Texans due to being placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list and was replaced by rookie Sam Sloman. The Titans won the AFC South with an 11–5 record, with Gostkowski finishing the season making 18 out of 26 field goals and making 44 out of 46 extra points, with the only missed extra points being from the first two games of the season. Gostkowski was later removed from the reserve/COVID-19 list and cleared to return for the Titans in the playoffs, making his two attempted field goals and one extra point as the Titans lost 20–13 to the Baltimore Ravens the Wild Card Round.
Gostkowski was not re-signed by the Titans following the 2020 season, making him a free agent going into the 2021 season.
He retired during the 2022 season after fifteen seasons and a persistent knee injury.
NFL career statistics
Personal life
Gostkowski and his wife Hallie met when they were both attending the University of Memphis; they married in 2008. Hallie works as a nurse at a Boston hospital and the couple lives in Wrentham, Massachusetts, with two sons as well as a daughter, who was born in 2016.
Notes
References
External links
Memphis Tigers bio
1984 births
Living people
American football placekickers
American people of Polish descent
Memphis Tigers football players
Memphis Tigers baseball players
New England Patriots players
Tennessee Titans players
Players of American football from Baton Rouge, Louisiana
American Conference Pro Bowl players
Unconferenced Pro Bowl players
People from Madison, Mississippi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20Church%20and%20politics%20in%20the%20United%20States
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Catholic Church and politics in the United States
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Members of the Catholic Church have been active in the elections of the United States since the mid 19th century. The United States has never had religious parties (unlike much of the world, especially in Europe and Latin America). There has never been an American Catholic religious party, either local, state or national.
In 1776 Catholics comprised less than 1% of the population of the new nation, but their presence grew rapidly after 1840 with immigration from Germany, Ireland, and later from Italy, Poland and elsewhere in Catholic Europe from 1840 to 1914, and also from Latin America in the 20th and 21st centuries. Catholics now comprise 25% to 27% of the national vote, with over 68 million members today. 85% of today's Catholics report their faith to be "somewhat" to "very important" to them. From the mid-19th century down to 1964 Catholics were solidly Democratic, sometimes at the 80–90% level. From the 1930s to the 1950s Catholics formed a core part of the New Deal Coalition, with overlapping memberships in the church, labor unions, big city machines, and the working class, all of which promoted liberal policy positions in domestic affairs and anti-communism during the Cold War.
Since the election of the nation's first Catholic president in 1960, Catholics have split about 50–50 between the two major parties in national elections. Beginning with the decline of unions and big city machines, increased suburbanization and with upward mobility into the middle classes, Catholics have drifted away from liberalism of the Democratic Party and toward conservatism on economic issues (such as taxes). Since the end of the Cold War, their strong anti-Communism has faded in importance. On social issues the Catholic Church takes strong positions against abortion and same-sex marriage and has formed coalitions with Protestant evangelicals. In 2015 Pope Francis declared that man-made climate change is caused by burning fossil fuels. The Pope stated the warming of the planet is rooted in "a throwaway culture" and the developed world's indifference to the destruction of the planet as it pursues short-term economic gains. However, the Pope's statements on climate change were generally met with indifference among Catholics while Catholic commentaries ranged from praise to dismissal, with some stating that it was not binding or magisterial due to its scientific nature. The Pope's statements on these issues were most prominently laid out in encyclical Laudato si'. The publication by Francis had put pressure on Catholics seeking the Republican Party nomination for president of the United States in 2016, including Jeb Bush and Rick Santorum, who "have questioned or denied the established science of human-caused climate change, and have harshly criticized policies designed to tax or regulate the burning of fossil fuels."
Religious tensions were major issues in the presidential election of 1928 when the Democrats nominated Al Smith, a Catholic who was defeated, and in 1960 when the Democrats also nominated John F. Kennedy, a Catholic who was elected. For the next three elections, a Catholic would be nominated for the vice presidency by one of the two major parties (Bill Miller in 1964, Ed Muskie in 1968, Tom Eagleton and then Sargent Shriver in 1972), but the ticket would lose. Geraldine Ferraro would continue the tradition in 1984, but she also lost, and the non-Catholic vice-presidential streak was broken in 2008. A Catholic, John Kerry, lost the 2004 election to incumbent George W. Bush, a Methodist, who may have won the majority of Catholic vote. The 2012 election was the first where both major party vice presidential candidates were Catholic, Joe Biden and Paul Ryan.
, there are 27 (out of 100) Catholics in the United States Senate, and 122 (out of 435) Catholics in the United States House of Representatives, including House Majority Leader Steve Scalise. In 2008, Joe Biden became the first Catholic to be elected Vice President of the United States. His successor Mike Pence was raised as a Catholic but he converted to evangelical Protestantism later in his life. In 2020, Biden went on to be elected as the second Roman Catholic president of the United States.
19th century
Before 1840, Catholics constituted a small minority and as a result, they played a relatively minor role in early American history. Catholics only constituted a significant community in Maryland and Baltimore became an early center of Catholicism. From the American Revolution until the end of the 18th century, about 1% of the American population (about 30,000) was Catholic. Still, Catholics were among the Founding Fathers and they were also a part of the First Congress; Daniel Carroll serving Maryland's 6th congressional district, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton serving as the first senator from Maryland. Presidential candidates did not seek Catholic votes until Andrew Jackson and Henry Clay did so in 1832.
Catholics and urban America
The role of Catholics in American culture and elections dramatically changed as a result of the mass immigration of Catholics from Europe, especially from Germany and Ireland. By 1840, there were about 600,000 Catholics in the United States. In the 1840s, 200,000 Irish immigrated to escape poverty. The Great Famine of Ireland which lasted from 1845 to 1852 caused the Irish population in America to number 962,000, the number doubled in the next ten years. Even larger numbers of immigrants came from traditionally Catholic regions of Germany and traditionally Catholic regions of other parts of Europe. Because most of these new arrivals lived in ethnic communities, they typically joined the local Catholic church that was in communion with Rome through the local diocese; how many of them cut their ties with the Catholic Church is a matter of speculation. The Irish Catholics took controlling positions in the Catholic Church, labor unions, and Democratic organizations in the big cities, thus forming overlapping centers of strength. The sudden new arrival of so many Catholics, charges of political corruption, and fears of papal interference caused anti-Catholicism to grow, including the short-lived Know Nothings party in the 1850s which demanded a purification of elections and statutes from Catholic influence.
Many Catholics served in the Civil War armies, they served in both the North and the South, and the bishops rejected the antiwar and anti-draft sentiments of some Catholics. The rapid rise of the Irish out of poverty, and the continuing growth in membership, especially in industrial and urban areas, made the church the largest denomination in the U.S. Distrusting public schools which were dominated by Protestants, Catholics built their own network of parochial elementary schools (and, later, they built high schools), as well as colleges, and public funding of parochial schools was a controversial issue. As the Bennett Law episode in 1890 in Wisconsin demonstrated, Catholics were willing to cooperate politically with German Lutherans to protect their parochial schools. A distinct Catholic vote existed, however; in the late 19th century, 75% of Irish and German Catholics in America voted for Democratic presidential candidates. The Irish increasingly controlled the Democratic party machinery in major cities.
Religious lines were sharply drawn in the North in the Third Party System that lasted from the 1850s to the 1890s. (In the South the Catholics voted the same as Protestants, with race as the main dividing line.) Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Scandinavian Lutherans and other Protestant pietists in the North were tightly linked to the GOP. In sharp contrast, liturgical groups, especially the Catholics, Episcopalians, and German Lutherans, looked to the Democratic Party for protection from pietistic moralism, especially prohibition. While both parties cut across economic class structures, the Democrats were supported more heavily by its lower tiers.
Cultural issues, especially prohibition and foreign language schools, became important because of the sharp religious divisions in the electorate. In the North, about 50% of the voters were pietistic Protestants who believed that the government should be used to reduce the pervasiveness of social sins, such as drinking. Liturgical churches comprised over a quarter of the vote and they wanted the government to stay out of personal morality issues. Prohibition debates and referendums heated up elections in most states over a period of decades, as national prohibition was finally passed in 1918 (and it was repealed in 1932), serving as a major issue between the wet Democrats and the dry GOP.
Source: Paul Kleppner, The Third Electoral System 1853-1892 (1979) p. 182
Labor union movement
The Catholic Church exercised a prominent role in shaping America's labor movement. From the onset of significant immigration in the 1840s, the church in the United States was predominantly urban, with both its leaders and congregants usually of the laboring classes. Over the course of the second half of the nineteenth century, nativism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-unionism coalesced in Republican elections, and Catholics gravitated toward unions and the Democratic Party.
The Knights of Labor was the earliest labor organization in the United States, and in the 1880s, this was the largest labor union in the United States. It is estimated that at least half its membership was Catholic (including Terence Powderly, its president from 1881 onward).
In Rerum novarum (1891), Pope Leo XIII criticized the concentration of wealth and power, spoke out against the abuses that workers faced and demanded that workers should be granted certain rights and safety regulations. He upheld the right of voluntary association, specifically commending labor unions. At the same time, he reiterated the church's defense of private property, condemned socialism, and emphasized the need for Catholics to form and join unions that were not compromised by secular and revolutionary ideologies.
Rerum novarum provided new impetus for Catholics to become active in the labor movement, even if its exhortation to form specifically Catholic labor unions was widely interpreted as irrelevant to the pluralist context of the United States. While atheism underpinned many European unions and stimulated Catholic unionists to form separate labor federations, the religious neutrality of unions in the U.S. provided no such impetus. American Catholics seldom dominated unions, but they exerted influence across organized labor. Catholic union members and leaders played important roles in steering American unions away from socialism.
20th century
By 1900, Catholics represented 14 percent of the total U.S. population, soon became the single largest religious denomination in the country. Still, Catholics did not hold many high offices in government. Only one of the first 54 justices on the United States Supreme Court was Catholic, Roger B. Taney, appointed in 1836. From the 1930s to the 1950s Catholics formed a core part of the New Deal Coalition, with overlapping memberships in the church, labor unions, big city machines, and the working class, all of which promoted liberal policy positions in domestic affairs and anti-communism during the Cold War. This New Deal Coalition formed under Franklin Roosevelt was led by his Postmaster General and the nation's first Irish American Roman Catholic Cabinet member James Farley.
Bishops' Program of Social Reconstruction
Following World War I, many hoped that a new commitment to social reform would characterize the ensuing peace. The Council saw an opportunity to use its national voice to shape reform and in April 1918 created a Committee for Reconstruction. John A. Ryan wrote the Bishops' Program of Social Reconstruction. Combining Progressive thought and Catholic theology, Ryan believed that government intervention was the most effective means of affecting positive change for his church as well as working people and the poor. On February 12, 1919, the National Catholic War Council issued the "Bishops' Program of Social Reconstruction".
The Program received a mixed reception both within the church and outside it. The National Catholic War Council was a voluntary organization with no canonical status. Its ability to speak authoritatively was therefore questioned. Many bishops threw their support behind the Program, but some, including Bishop William Turner of Buffalo and William Henry O'Connell of Boston, opposed it. O'Connell believed some aspects of the plan smacked too much of socialism. Response outside the church was also divided: labor organizations backed it, for example, and business groups criticized it.
Defense of parochial school system
After World War I, some states concerned about the influence of immigrants and "foreign" values looked to public schools for help. The states drafted laws designed to use schools to promote a common American culture.
In 1921, the Ku Klux Klan arrived in Oregon and quickly attracted as many as 14,000 members, establishing 58 klaverns by the end of 1922. Given the small population of non-white minorities outside Portland, the Oregon Klan directed its attention almost exclusively against Catholics, who numbered about 8% of the population.
In 1922, the Masonic Grand Lodge of Oregon sponsored a bill to require all school-age children to attend public schools. With support of the Klan and Democratic Governor Walter M. Pierce, endorsed by the Klan, the Compulsory Education Act was passed by a vote of 115,506 to 103,685. Its primary purpose was to shut down Catholic schools in Oregon, but it also affected other private and military schools. The constitutionality of the law was challenged in court and ultimately struck down by the US Supreme Court in Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925) before it went into effect, in a ruling that has been called "the Magna Carta of the parochial school system." The law caused outraged Catholics to organize locally and nationally for the right to send their children to Catholic schools.
Pope Pius XI, in 1929, explicitly referenced this Supreme Court case in his encyclical Divini illius magistri on Catholic education. He quoted in a footnote the part of the case:
The fundamental theory of liberty upon which all governments in this Union repose excludes any general power of the State to standardize its children by forcing them to accept instruction from public teachers only. The child is not the mere creature of the State; those who nurture him and direct his destiny have the right coupled with the high duty, to recognize, and prepare him for additional duties.
Catholic Worker Movement
The Catholic Worker movement began as a means to combine Dorothy Day's history in American social activism, anarchism, and pacifism with the tenets of Catholicism (including a strong current of distributism), five years after her 1927 conversion.
The group started with the Catholic Worker newspaper, created to promote Catholic social teaching and stake out a neutral, pacifist position in the wartorn 1930s. It grew into a "house of hospitality" in the slums of New York City and then a series of farms for people to live together communally. The movement quickly spread to other cities in the United States and to Canada and the United Kingdom; more than 30 independent but affiliated CW communities had been founded by 1941. Well over 100 communities exist today, including several in Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, The Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, and Sweden.
Similar houses of hospitality were established by Russian immigrant and Catholic social worker, Catherine Doherty, founder of Madonna House.
National Catholic Welfare Conference
1930s
Historian John McGreevey notes, "Priests across the country in the 1930s encouraged their parishioners to join unions, and some like Pittsburgh's Charles Rice, Detroit's Frederick Siedenberg, and Buffalo's John P. Boland, served on regional labor boards and played key roles in workplace negotiations." The Catholic Worker Movement and Dorothy Day grew out of the same impetuses to put Catholic social teaching into action.
The Catholic Church encouraged Catholic workers to join the unions such as the Congress of Industrial Organizations "to improve their economic status and to act as a moderating force in the new labor movement". Catholic clergy promoted and founded moderate trade unions, such as the Association of Catholic Trade Unionists and the Archdiocesan Labor Institute in 1939. American Catholics of that era were generally New Deal liberals who actively supported the CIO, viewed government as a positive force for social reform and often participated in non-communist trade unions, becoming a prominent group of the United Auto Workers. According to Colleen Doody, Catholics were the "backbone and the bane of New Deal liberalism".
Catholic Conference on Industrial Problems
The Catholic Conference on Industrial Problems (1923–1937) was conceived by Raymond McGowan as a way of bringing together Catholic leaders in the fields of theology, labor, and business, with a view to promoting awareness and discussion of Catholic social teaching. Its first meeting was held in Milwaukee. While it was the venue for important discussions during its existence, its demise was due partly by lack of participation by business executives who perceived the dominant tone of the group as anti-business.
21st century
Religion plays a part in American elections. Religion is part of the political debate over LGBT rights, abortion, the right to die/assisted suicide, universal health care, workers rights and immigration.
According to Dr. John Green of University of Akron, "There isn't a Catholic vote anymore; there are several Catholic votes." A survey conducted by the Gallup organization in 2009 revealed that, despite the opposition of the church to abortion and embryonic stem-cell research, there is no significant difference between the opinions of Catholics and non-Catholics on these questions.
Voting guides
In 2004, Catholic Answers, a private lay Catholic apostolate, published its Voter's Guide for Serious Catholics. It also published Voter's Guide for Serious Christians for non-Catholics. In 2006, it revamped the guides and published them on its Catholic Answers Action web site.
In 2016 another Catholic organization, Catholics in Alliance for the Common Good, published the Pope Francis Voter Guide to help inform the faithful about their specifically political vocation as Catholics in the United States.
In January 2016, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops produced an updated version of their 2007 voter's guide, Forming Consciences for Faithful Citizenship. It is a summary of the USCCB's public policies based on church teachings.
In September 2016, Bishop Thomas J. Olmsted of the Diocese of Phoenix issued the fourth edition of his guide, Catholics in the Public Square. In it, he suggests to politicians supporting abortion that they would need to repent and go to Confession before receiving Holy Communion, in contrast with other bishops such as Cardinals Timothy Dolan and Donald Wuerl, who say that the church does not deny communion over issues of legislation.
Marriage and family
The Roman Catholic Church defines marriage as a covenant "by which a man and a woman establish between themselves a partnership of the whole of life and which is ordered by its nature to the good of the spouses and the procreation and education of offspring." The church teaches that "homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered. They are contrary to the natural law. They close the sexual act to the gift of life. They do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity. Under no circumstances can they be approved." Nevertheless, homosexuals "must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided." Some Roman Catholics take this to mean that voting in favor of "benefits for lifelong partners" is a compassionate act, whereas others see voting in favor of "benefits for lifelong partners" as merely promoting behavior contrary to natural law. According to a 2009 survey, 59% of practicing Catholics oppose same-sex marriage, while those who are not practicing support it by 51%. Cardinal John Joseph O'Connor was an outspoken critic of homosexuality; other prominent Catholics who were outspoken critics have included John Boehner, David Vitter, Paul Ryan, Newt Gingrich, Rick Santorum, Bobby Jindal, Jeb Bush, Bob McDonnell, Marco Rubio, Michael Steele, Donald Carcieri and Sam Brownback. Catholics Rudolph Giuliani, Chris Christie, Tim Kaine, James Martin, Cardinal Joseph W. Tobin, Archbishop Vincenzo Paglia, Cardinal Blase Cupich, Patrick J. Conroy (Jesuit chaplain to the U. S. House of Representatives), and Bob Casey Jr. have supported gay rights and civil unions but not same-sex marriage. Liberal Catholics have generally supported repeal of sodomy laws that called for jail time for homosexuals and Employment Non-Discrimination laws that would prohibit large employers from firing workers because of sexual orientation. Conservative Catholics have taken the contrary view, rejecting claims that these are examples of "unjust discrimination" and that because homosexual act is an intrinsic evil, it must always be opposed.
Abortion
In accordance with its teachings, the Catholic Church opposes abortion in all circumstances and often leads the national debate on abortion. The Roman Catholic Church has been a fierce opponent of liberalized abortion laws and has organized political resistance to such legislation in several Western countries.
Before the Roe v. Wade decision making abortion legal in the United States, the anti-abortion movement in the United States consisted of elite lawyers, politicians, and doctors, almost all of whom were Catholic. The only coordinated opposition to abortion during the early 1970s came from the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and the Family Life Bureau, also a Catholic organization. Mobilization of a wide-scale anti-abortion movement among Catholics began quickly after the Roe v. Wade decision with the creation of the National Right to Life Committee (NRLC). The NRLC also organized non-Catholics, eventually becoming the largest anti-abortion organization in the United States. The anti-abortion wing of the Democratic Party was also led by Catholic Robert P. Casey, Sr. other anti-abortion Democrats including, Sargent Shriver, Raymond Flynn and Bob Casey Jr.
Reception of communion by Catholic politicians who support abortion rights is controversial in the United States. Such cases typically involve a bishop who prepares to withhold communion from a Catholic politician, though in some cases excommunication has been suggested, and in others, a bishop has instructed a politician to refrain from receiving communion. The first such case was that of Lucy Killea, though such incidents have subsequently occurred during national elections.
In 2004, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, then-prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (who would later become Pope Benedict XVI), instructed American bishops in a confidential memorandum that communion must be denied to Catholic politicians who support legal abortion. However, Cardinals O'Malley, Egan, McCarrick, Wuerl, Mahony and George have said they would not deny communion to a person in public life who supports abortion rights. Cardinal Burke and Charles Chaput, Archbishop of Philadelphia, have shown support for Ratzinger's position, but , neither has followed through on this.
During the 2004 presidential campaign, four bishops planned to deny communion to Catholic politicians who had voted for John Kerry. This provoked a negative reaction, and the Catholic Church took a different approach for the 2008 election. The new message was compiled into a brochure titled "Forming Consciences for Faithful Citizenship," which "emphasized that issues involving 'intrinsically evil' actions could not be equated morally with others," according to the Times. The brochure cites abortion as the "prime example," and it also mentions euthanasia, torture, genocide, unjust war and racism.
In the 2008 U.S. presidential campaign, as many as 89 Catholic bishops proclaimed that Catholics should make abortion their defining issue in the election.
In November 2009, Rhode Island Rep. Patrick Kennedy disclosed that Thomas Tobin had ordered priests in the diocese to deny him communion because of Kennedy's position in favor of unrestricted abortion.
Michael Humphrey of the National Catholic Reporter viewed the 54-45% majority of Catholic voters choosing Obama in the 2008 presidential election as a repudiation of bishops who had warned that voting for Obama would constitute grave matter. The University of Notre Dame, a Catholic institution, named President Barack Obama commencement speaker at its 2009 graduation and bestowed an honorary doctorate degree on him. The invitation drew criticism from Catholics and some members of the church hierarchy because of Obama's policies in favor of promoting and funding abortion.
Polling results show that a majority of Catholics classify themselves as anti-abortion; a 2009 poll showed a 52% majority identifying as anti-abortion. Pew Research, combining polls from 2011 and 2013, notes that over half (53%) of white Catholics believe abortion should be legal in all or most cases, with 41% saying it should be illegal in all or most cases. Among Hispanic Catholics, 43% say it should be legal in all or most cases, while 52% say it should be illegal in all or most cases.
Birth control
In 1948, Archbishop Richard Cushing campaigned against a Massachusetts referendum to loosen the state's ban on birth control. While the referendum failed, "deployment of the Church's political muscle," according to historian Leslie Tentler, offended non-Catholics and led Cushing to relax his position when the issue was debated again in the 1960s.
The Catholic church hierarchy forbids birth control such as condoms or the pill because it views them as separating sexual intercourse from its intended consequence of reproduction.
In 2012, when the Obama administration proposed regulations that required employer-provided health insurance plans to cover contraception, Catholic companies such as affiliated universities and EWTN Broadcasting, which believed they should be exempt from the law, sued the government, while Catholic religious leaders campaigned against it in church. The regulation was later altered so that an employee of a religious institution which did not wish to provide coverage for reproductive health care could seek it directly from the insurer at no additional cost. Catholic religious authorities continued to oppose the plan, while the Catholic Health Association supported it.
While the pope and the bishops have opposed birth control, the majority of American Catholics disagree with them, and believe the church should change its teaching on birth control. A Pew Research poll conducted in 2013 found that three-quarters of U.S. Catholics (76%) say the church should permit birth control.
Immigration
The immigration debate has opened a chasm with Republican hardliners who want restrictions. Some 30% of the Roman Catholic population is Hispanic and that percentage continues to rise steadily. Pope John Paul II advocated that countries should accommodate people fleeing from economic hardship. Cardinal Raymond Burke has been involved in rallies to allow undocumented workers a chance at citizenship. By welcoming migrant workers, many of whom are Catholic, Burke says, "we obey the command of Our Lord, who tells us that when we welcome the stranger, we welcome Christ Himself."
In addressing the Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life in 2009, Archbishop Charles J. Chaput of Denver discussed the need when talking about reforming immigration law, to do so "...in a comprehensive way, so that justice is done and our borders are protected. It's always both/and; it's not either/or from my perspective." "[N]o one can claim to be Catholic and think it's okay to treat immigrants unjustly or inhumanly. But you can disagree on immigration policies because you think that one works and one doesn't."
Most immigration to the U.S. is from predominantly Roman Catholic nations and about of all lapsed Catholics have been replaced by immigrant Catholics in the United States.
In 2006, Cardinal Roger Mahony announced that he would order the clergy and laity of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles to ignore H.R. 4437 if it were to become law. Cardinal Mahony personally lobbied senators Barbara Boxer and Dianne Feinstein to have the Senate consider a comprehensive immigration reform bill, rather than the enforcement-only bill that passed the House of Representatives. Cardinal Mahony also blamed the Congress for the illegal immigration crisis due to their failure to act on the issue in the previous 20 years, opposed H.R. 4437 as punitive and open to abusive interpretation, and supported the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 (S. 2611).
Transgender Rights
The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops have openly opposed the Equality Act which serves to address discrimination towards members of the LGBTQ+ community. They claim that the legislation discourages differing opinions on marriage and sexuality and would codify gender ideology in federal law.
Party affiliation
Before the 1960s, when cultural changes lead to an incremental liberalization of the Democratic Party, Catholics were seen as staunch Democrats. The Democratic Party ran Al Smith, the first Catholic presidential candidate by a major party, in 1928, and, except when the ticket was headed by a Southern candidate, has nominated a Catholic for president or vice president in every election since 1960 except for 1988 (where a Greek Orthodox, Michael Dukakis, was the presidential nominee).
Since the 1960s, the Catholic vote has come to reflect the nation as a whole instead of being predominantly Democratic. In the 60s and early 70s, a number of Catholics and Southern whites abandoned their traditional affiliation with the Democratic Party and began to support the Republican Party. This shift is evidenced by the fact that Nixon received 33% of the Catholic vote in the 1968 election compared to 52% in 1972. As a group, Catholics represented a quarter of the nation's electorate and were now one of the nation's largest swing groups. Both parties began to aggressively woo the Catholic voters. Although the Catholic hierarchy could not dictate who Catholics voted for, they did have a substantial influence over the faithful in their dioceses. Politicians were aware that the bishops could direct significant time, energy and money to support the issues that were important to them. From their perspective, the bishops were eager to regain some of the influence that their predecessors had wielded in the earlier part of the 20th century. Since the 1970s non-Hispanic white Catholics have voted majority Republican very reliably while a majority of Hispanic or Latino Catholics have voted Democrat.
In his successful 1980 campaign against Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan won about half of the Catholic vote and a majority of Catholics who were non-Hispanic whites. "Reagan Democrats", many of them non-Hispanic white, blue-collar Catholics, often from a white ethnic background, comprised 25% of the Democrats who voted for Reagan, and formed an important part of his support in 1984 as well. Despite Catholic Geraldine Ferraro's presence on the Democratic ticket as Walter Mondale's vice-presidential running mate that year Reagan won 54 to 61% of the Catholic vote, only slightly different from the overall 59%. Although the majority of Catholics in 1984 remained Democrats, compared to 1980 Catholic votes switched to Reagan at about the same level as most Protestant groups. Reagan's vice president George H. W. Bush won about the same number of votes as Michael Dukakis, making 1988 the third presidential election in a row in which Catholics failed to support the Democratic candidate as they traditionally did.
Although about one third of Catholics voted for Bush's reelection in 1992, most Catholic defectors switched to independent Ross Perot, not the successful Democrat Bill Clinton. Unlike previous elections (such as in 1972, when George McGovern's Catholic support was eight percentage points higher than overall) the Catholic vote was not more Democratic than the overall electorate, but split almost identically to it. The trend away from a Democratic dominance of the Catholic vote continued in 1994, when for the first time in history Democrats did not receive a majority of Catholic votes in elections for the House of Representatives; as with 1992, the Catholic vote split resembled that of the overall electorate. White non-Hispanic Catholics however, remained majority Republican. This trend reversed slightly in 1996, when Clinton's share of Catholics in general was four percentage points ahead of overall, and they comprised about half of the margin between him and the unsuccessful challenger Robert Dole. The 1990s ended, however, with Catholics as "the largest swing vote in American politics" and with white non-Hispanic Catholics continuing to vote consistently Republican.
Their party independence continued into 2000, and Catholics became the large religious grouping that most closely reflected the total electorate, ahead of mainline Protestants. 50% of Catholics voted for Al Gore versus 47% for George W. Bush in the very close 2000 election. 52% of Catholics voted for Bush's successful reelection compared to 47% for the Catholic John Kerry in 2004, versus 51% to 48% overall. Amongst white Catholics the figure was higher, with George W Bush receiving 56% of white Catholic votes. Barack Obama, who chose the Catholic Joe Biden as his running mate, received 54% of the Catholic vote in 2008 compared to John McCain's 45%, close to the overall 52% to 46%. In 2012 Obama and Biden faced Mitt Romney and the Catholic Paul Ryan. Obama won 50% of the Catholic vote to Romney's 48%, close to their 51% and 47%, respectively, of the overall vote. In 2016 the Republicans' Donald Trump chose Mike Pence—who describes himself as evangelical Catholic—as his running mate, while the Democrats' Hillary Clinton chose the Catholic Tim Kaine as hers. The victorious Trump-Pence ticket received 52% of Catholics' votes compared to Clinton-Kaine's 45%.
In some regions such as the "Mountain West" region, it is estimated that since the 1980s 42% of white Catholics vote Republican whereas only 20% vote Democratic. White Catholics who are registered Democrats are also shown to defect to the Republican party in massive numbers during election years. This was particularly true during both of Ronald Reagan's presidential elections, as well as the Nixon-McGovern race. White Catholics who are registered as Republicans are substantially less likely to defect to the Democrats during election years.
Presidential elections
1928
In 1928, Al Smith became the first Roman Catholic to gain a major party's nomination for president. His religion became an issue during the campaign and was one of the factors in his loss. Many feared that he would answer to the pope and not the constitution.
Another major controversial issue was the continuation of Prohibition. Smith was personally in favor of relaxation or repeal of Prohibition laws despite its status as part of the nation's Constitution, but the Democratic Party split north and south on the issue. During the campaign Smith tried to duck the issue with noncommittal statements. He was also criticized for being a drunkard because of the stereotypes placed on Irish Catholics of the day.
Smith swept the entire Catholic vote, which had been split in 1920 and 1924, and brought millions of Catholics to the polls for the first time, especially women. The fact that Smith was Catholic garnered him support from immigrant populations in New England, which may explain his narrow victories in traditionally Republican Massachusetts and Rhode Island, as well as his narrow 2% loss in New York (which previous Democratic presidential candidates had lost by double digits).
1960
Religion became a divisive issue during the presidential campaign of 1960. Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts was vying to become the nation's first Catholic president. A key factor that was hurting Kennedy in his campaign was the widespread prejudice against his Roman Catholic religion; some Protestants believed that, if he were elected president, Kennedy would have to take orders from the Pope in Rome. When offered the opportunity to speak before a convention of Baptist ministers, he decided to try to put the issue to rest.
To address fears that his Roman Catholicism would influence his decision-making, John F. Kennedy famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960, "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party's candidate for President who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters — and the Church does not speak for me." He promised to respect the separation of church and state and not to allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy to him. Kennedy also raised the question of whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Roman Catholic.
Even so, it was widely believed after the election that Kennedy lost some heavily Protestant states because of his Catholicism. His address did not please everyone: many non-Catholics remained unconvinced that a Catholic could be president without divided loyalties; and many Catholics thought he conceded too much in his profession of belief in an absolute separation of church and state. The speech is widely considered to be an important marker in the history of Catholicism (and anti-Catholicism) in the United States.
Kennedy went on to win the national popular vote over Richard Nixon by just one tenth of one percentage point (0.1%) - the closest popular-vote margin of the 20th century. In the electoral college, Kennedy's victory was larger, as he took 303 electoral votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win). There was a "narrow consensus" among the experts that Kennedy had won more votes than he lost as a result of his Catholicism, as Catholics rallied to Kennedy as an affirmation of their religion and their right to have a Catholic president.
Summary of results
This chart shows the estimated Democrat/Republican split of the Catholic vote in elections since 1948. Catholic candidates and elections in which Catholics voted for the national winner are in bold.
Representation in government
Congress
According to the Pew Research Center, Catholics represent 30.5% of the United States Congress as of January 2019. There are 141 Representatives and 22 Senators that are Catholic, which split as 99 Democrats and 64 Republicans.
Edward Kavanagh was nationally noticed as the first Catholic elected from New England in 1830. Kavanagh was elected as a Jacksonian to the Twenty-second and Twenty-third Congresses, serving from March 4, 1831, to March 3, 1835.
On January 4, 2007, Nancy Pelosi, a Catholic, became the first woman elected as the Speaker of the House. She was elected again as Speaker of the House on January 3, 2019, after serving as House Minority Leader for the Democrats from 2003 to 2007 and 2011–2019. Paul Ryan is Catholic as well and served recently as Speaker of the House from 2015 to 2019.
Supreme Court
A majority of the Supreme Court has been Catholic since 2005.
The first Catholic Supreme Court appointment was Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, appointed by Andrew Jackson in 1836. The second, Edward Douglass White, joined the Court in 1894 and was elevated to Chief Justice in 1910. He was joined on the Court by Catholic Joseph McKenna in 1898. After White's death in 1921, there became an informally recognized tradition of holding one seat on the Court for a Catholic justice, though not necessarily the same seat.
Pierce Butler was appointed to the Court in 1923 and succeeded by Frank Murphy in 1940. Both were Catholic. During Murphy's time on the Court, he was briefly joined by James F. Byrnes, who was raised Catholic but had converted to Episcopalianism many years before his appointment.
After Murphy died in 1949, he was not succeeded directly by a Catholic. However, President Harry Truman appointed Sherman Minton to a different vacant seat, and his appointment was seen as in keeping with the tradition, as Minton's wife was Catholic. He would convert five years after his retirement from the Court.
Upon Minton's retirement, Cardinal Francis Spellman successfully lobbied Dwight Eisenhower to replace him with William J. Brennan, a practicing Catholic.
The traditional one-seat rule was abandoned by President Ronald Reagan, who nominated two Catholics to serve together: Antonin Scalia in 1986 and Anthony Kennedy in 1988. They joined Brennan to give the Court a then-high of three Catholic justices.
President George H.W. Bush nominated Clarence Thomas in 1991. At the time of his appointment, Thomas was a confirmed Catholic attending Episcopalian services, but he has since returned to active Catholicism. He replaced the retiring Catholic Brennan with David Souter, an Episcopalian.
President George W. Bush appointed John Roberts and Samuel Alito, both Catholics, in 2005. Alito's appointment gave the Court its first ever Catholic majority, which it has maintained since. In 2009, President Barack Obama appointed Catholic Sonia Sotomayor, raising the number of Catholic justices to six.
In 2018, President Donald Trump appointed Catholic Brett Kavanaugh to replace Anthony Kennedy. Trump's other appointment thus far, Neil Gorsuch, is a practicing Episcopalian who had attended Catholic Mass and Catholic schools as a child. He joined the Episcopal Church upon marriage to his wife. It is unclear whether he still identifies as Catholic, and he is not typically included among the Catholic justices. In 2020, Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg died; President Donald Trump nominated Amy Coney Barrett, a Catholic, to fill the vacancy; she was subsequently confirmed by the Senate and sworn in to the bench.
Executive branch
There have been two Catholic President of the United States, John F. Kennedy and Joe Biden and two Vice Presidents of the United States, Joe Biden and Mike Pence (raised Catholic, self-described Evangelical Catholic).
First Lady Melania Trump was the first Catholic to live in the White House since First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, who remained there for two weeks after her husband's death 53 years earlier.
Cabinet members
Past Catholic Postmaster General (formerly a cabinet post) James Farley (1933-1940)
Past Catholic Secretaries of State include Edmund Muskie, Alexander Haig, and John Kerry. Secretary James G. Blaine had Catholic roots. Secretary James F. Byrnes was raised Catholic but converted to Episcopalianism.
Past Catholic U.S. Attorneys General include Roger B. Taney, Joseph McKenna, Charles Bonaparte, Frank Murphy, James McGranery, J. Howard McGrath, Robert F. Kennedy, William Barr, and Alberto Gonzales.
Past Catholic Secretaries of Defense include James Forrestal, Leon Panetta, and James Mattis. Secretary Chuck Hagel was raised Catholic but converted to Episcopalianism.
Past Catholic Secretaries of Labor include Maurice Tobin, Martin Durkin, James P. Mitchell, Ann McLaughlin Korologos, Alexis Herman, Hilda Solis, and Tom Perez.
Past Catholic Secretaries of Housing and Urban Development include Moon Landrieu, Henry Cisneros, Andrew Cuomo, Mel Martínez, and Julián Castro.
Past Catholic Secretaries of Energy include Bill Richardson.
Secretary of the Treasury and of the Interior Thomas Ewing married a Catholic woman, attended services for many years, and was formally baptized on his deathbed. Treasury Secretary Donald Regan also had Catholic roots, but it is unclear whether he actively practiced while in office.
The Catholic secretaries in the Biden administration are Lloyd Austin (Defense), Deb Haaland (Interior), Gina Raimondo (Commerce), Marty Walsh (Labor), Xavier Becerra (Health and Human Services), and Jennifer Granholm (Energy). Haaland is the first Native American in a presidential cabinet and also the first Native Catholic within it. Granholm converted to Catholicism while at Harvard Law School in the mid-1980s.
Secretary of Transportation Pete Buttigieg was baptized in the Catholic Church as an infant and he attended Catholic schools, but began to attend the Church of England's Christ Church Cathedral during his term at the University of Oxford and said he felt "more-or-less Anglican" by the time he returned to the U.S. Buttigieg has since been an Episcopalian.
See also
Anti-abortion movement
Anti-Catholicism
Anti-Catholicism in the United States
Catholic Church in the United States
History of the Catholic Church in the United States
Catholic Democrats
Christianity and politics
Christianity in the United States
History of Christianity in the United States
Identity politics
Jewish views and involvement in US politics
Latino vote
Political Catholicism
Religion in politics
Religion in the United States
Freedom of religion in the United States
History of religion in the United States
Religious discrimination in the United States
Third Way (centrism)
Notes
References
Bibliography
Casey, Shaun. The Making of a Catholic President: Kennedy vs. Nixon 1960 (2009)
Cochran, Clarke E. and David Carroll Cochran. Catholics, Politics, and Public Policy: Beyond Left and Right (2003)
Dolan, Jay. The Irish Americans: A History (2008)
Heyer, Kristin E., Mark J. Rozell, and Michael A. Genovese. Catholics and Politics: The Dynamic Tension Between Faith and Power (2008)
Marlin, George J., and Michael Barone, American Catholic Voter: Two Hundred Years Of Political Impact (2006)
Morris, Charles. American Catholic: The Saints and Sinners Who Built America's Most Powerful Church (1998)
Prendergast, William B. The Catholic Voter in American Politics: The Passing of the Democratic Monolith (1999)
Woolner, David B., and Richard G. Kurial. FDR, the Vatican, and the Roman Catholic Church in America, 1933-1945 (2003)
Further reading
Blanshard, Paul. American Freedom and Catholic Power (Beacon Press, 1949) online, influential Protestant attack on Catholic political power
Brenner, Saul. "Patterns of Jewish-Catholic Democratic Voting and the 1960 Presidential Vote." Jewish Social Studies (1964): 169–178. in JSTOR
Byrnes, Timothy A. Catholic bishops in American politics (Princeton University Press, 1991)
Casey, Shaun A. The Making of a Catholic President: Kennedy vs. Nixon 1960 (Oxford University Press, 2009) online
Cooney, John. The American Pope: The Life and Times of Francis Cardinal Spellman (1984).
Flynn, George Q. Roosevelt and Romanism: Catholics and American Diplomacy, 1937-1945 (1976) online
Graziano, Manlio. In Rome We Trust: The Rise of Catholics in American Political Life (Stanford UP, 2017), 242 pp.
Green, John Clifford. The faith factor: How religion influences American elections (Greenwood, 2007)
Heineman, Kenneth J. A Catholic New Deal: Religion and Reform in Depression Pittsburgh (2005) excerpt and text search; online
Hennesey, James. American Catholics: A History of the Roman Catholic Community in the United States (Oxford University Press, 1981), puts politics in context
Heyer, Kristin E.; Rozell, Mark J.; Genovese, Michael A. Catholics and politics: the dynamic tension between faith and power (Georgetown University Press, 2008). online
Jelen, Ted G. "Catholic priests and the political order: The political behavior of Catholic pastors." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 42.4 (2003): 591–604.
McAndrews, Lawrence J. What They Wished For: American Catholics and American Presidents, 1960-2004 (University of Georgia Press; 2014) 503 pages; influence of Catholics on domestic and foreign policy
Marlin George J. and Michael Barone. American Catholic Voter: Two Hundred Years Of Political Impact (2006)
Moore, Edmund A. A Catholic Runs for President: The Campaign of 1928 (1956) online
Noll, Mark A. and Luke E. Harlow. Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period to the Present (2nd ed. 2007) online pp 244–66, 345-66
Prendergast, William B. The Catholic Voter in American Politics: The Passing of the Democratic Monolith (Georgetown University Press. 1999)
Schultz, Jeffrey D. et al. eds. Encyclopedia of Religion in American Politics (1999) online
Smith, Gregory Allen. Politics in the Parish: The Political Influence of Catholic Priests (Georgetown University Press, 2008) online
Wald, Kenneth D., and Allison Calhoun-Brown. Religion and politics in the United States (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010) wide-ranging
Zeitz, Joshua M. White ethnic New York: Jews, Catholics, and the shaping of postwar politics (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2007)
Historiography
Gleason, Philip. "The Historiography of American Catholicism as Reflected in The Catholic Historical Review, 1915–2015." Catholic Historical Review 101#2 (2015) pp: 156–222. online
Thomas, J. Douglas. "A Century of American Catholic History." US Catholic Historian (1987): 25–49. in JSTOR
External links
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB)
Catholic Bishops' Conference and Vatican Statements on Abortion
NETWORK, A National Catholic Social Justice Lobby
United States
Catholicism-related controversies
Politics
Politics of the United States
Holy See–United States relations
Christianity and politics in the United States
History of religion in the United States
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Allen (surname)
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Allen is a Celtic surname, originating in Ireland, and common in Scotland, Wales and England. It is a variation of the surname MacAllen and may be derived from two separate sources: Ailin, in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, means both "little rock" and "harmony", or it may also be derived from the Celtic Aluinn, which means "handsome". Variant spellings include Alan, Allan, etc. The noble family of this surname, from which a branch went to Portugal, is descended of one Alanus de Buckenhall.
In Ireland, Allen is the Anglicization of the Gaelic name Ó h-Ailín. Allen is the 41st most common surname in England.
Pages listing several people with the same name
Albert Allen
Alexander Allen
Alfred Allen
Andrew Allen
Anita Allen
Anthony Allen
Arthur Allen
Benjamin Allen
Bernard Allen
Bert Allen
Bill Allen
Brian Allen
Bruce Allen
Bryan Allen
C. J. Allen
Charles Allen
Charlie Allen
Chris Allen
Christopher Allen
Clarence Allen
Cory Allen
Craig Allen
Damon Allen
Dan Allen
David Allen
Denis Allen
Dennis Allen
Doug Allen
Eddie Allen
Edward Allen
Elizabeth Allen
Ernest Allen
Ethan Allen
Frances Allen
Francis Allen
Frank Allen
Fred Allen
George Allen
Gordon Allen
Graham Allen
Greg Allen
Harry Allen
Harvey Allen
Henry Allen
Ian Allen
Jack Allen
James Allen
Jason Allen
Jerome Allen
John Allen
Joseph Allen
Josh Allen
Kate Allen
Keith Allen
Kenneth Allen
Kevin Allen
Laurie Allen
Leslie Allen
Malcolm Allen
Marcus Allen
Martin Allen
Michael Allen
Nancy Allen
Nicholas Allen
Oliver Allen
Patrick Allen
Paul Allen
Percy Allen
Peter Allen
Philip Allen
Ralph Allen
Randy Allen
Ray Allen
Raymond Allen
Rebecca Allen
Reginald Allen
Richard Allen
Robert Allen
Roderick Allen
Rodney Allen
Roger Allen
Ronald Allen
Russell Allen
Ruth Allen
Samuel Allen
Sandra Allen
Sarah Allen
Steve Allen
Terry Allen
Thomas Allen
Tommy Allen
Tony Allen
Will Allen
William Allen
Willie Allen
A
Abner P. Allen (1839–1905), American Medal of Honor recipient
Angela Allen, English paedophile convicted in the 2009 Plymouth child abuse case
Alexander Viets Griswold Allen (1841–1908), American Episcopal theologian
Ann Evelyn Allen, better known as Angela Stevens (1925–2016), American actress
Anson Allen (1838–1880), American politician
Arnold Allen (born 1994), English mixed martial arts fighter
Arnold Allen (mathematician), American computer scientist
Arthur Augustus Allen (1885–1964), American ornithologist
A. A. Allen (1911–1970), American Pentecostal evangelist and faith healer
Ashley Allen (born 1968), American model and actress
Austin Allen (baseball) (born 1994), American baseball player
B
Barry Allen (musician) (1945–2020), Canadian rock musician and record producer
Bernadette Allen (born 1956), U.S. diplomat
Bert Allen (footballer, born 1883) (1883–1911), English footballer
Beverly Allen (born 1945), Australian botanical artist
Bianca Allen, American voice actress
Bobby Allen (racing driver) (born 1943), American racing driver
Bobby Allen (ice hockey) (born 1978), American ice hockey player
Bradley Allen (born 1971), English footballer
Brenda A. Allen, American psychologist and president of Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)
Brevin Allen (born 2000), American football player
Brittany Allen (born 1986), Canadian actress
Bryn Allen (1921–2005), Welsh international footballer
Bryon Allen (born 1992), American basketball player in Israeli Basketball Premier League
C
Caitilyn Allen (born 1957), American plant pathologist
Carl Meredith Allen (accused), source of the "Philadelphia Experiment" story
Carolyn Blanchard Allen (1921–2018), American politician
Carson Allen, American musician, founding member of Escape The Fate
Cecil J. Allen (1886–1973), British railway engineer and writer
Cheryl Allen (born 1972), retired Canadian sprinter
Christian Allen, American video game designer
Clarence Ray Allen (1930–2006), American convicted murderer
Claude Henry Allen (1899–1974), American lawyer and politician
Clive Allen (born 1961), retired English footballer
Clive Allen (basketball) (born 1961), retired English basketball player and coach
Cody Allen (born 1988), American baseball player
Collins B. Allen (1866–1953), President of the New Jersey Senate
Conor Allen (born 1990), American ice hockey player
Corey Allen (1934–2010), American film and television director, producer, writer and actor
D
Daevid Allen (1938–2015 as Christopher David Allen), Australian musician, founder of Soft Machine and Gong
Dakarai Allen (born 1995), American professional basketball player
Dakota Allen (born 1995), American football player
Damon Allen (born 1963), Veteran American Canadian Football League quarterback
Damon Allen (figure skater), American figure skater
Daphne Allen (1899–1985), English artist
Darina Allen (born 1951), Irish chef
Davis Allen (American football) (born 2001), American football player
Dayton Allen (1919–2004), American comedian and voice actor
Debbie Allen (born 1950), American actress and television director-producer
Deborah Allen (born 1953), American country music singer
Devere Allen (1891–1955), American pacifist political activist and writer
Dick Allen (1942–2020), Major League Baseball first baseman and third baseman
Dick Allen (film editor) (1944–2007), English film editor
Diogenes Allen (1932–2013), American philosopher and theologian
Dolly Allen (1906–1990), English comedian, singer and performer
Dominic Allen (born 1980), Australian film director and producer
Dominique Allen (born 1989), British basketball player
Donna Allen (singer), American dance pop singer
Dwayne Allen (born 1990), American football player
E
Ed Allen (musician) (1897–1974), American jazz trumpeter
Edgar Van Nuys Allen (1900–1961), American physician
Elizabeth Anne Allen (born 1970), American actress
Elsa Guerdrum Allen (1888–1969), American ornithologist and historian of ornithology
Eric Allen (born 1965), American football player
Ernie Allen (born 1946), American attorney
Esther Saville Allen (1837–1913; pen name, "Winnie Woodbine"), American author
Ethan Allen (baseball) (1904–1993), American baseball player
Ethel D. Allen (1929–1981), Pennsylvania politician
F
Fabian Allen (born 1995), Jamaican cricketer
Fanny Allen (1784–1819), American nun and nurse
Fay Allen (1939–2021), British-Jamaican police officer, the first black woman police constable in the United Kingdom
Fay Allen (teacher), American teacher
Finnley Allen, New Zealand cricketer
Fiona Allen (born 1965), English actress
Floyd Allen (1856–1913), American landowner, later convicted of murder
Frances E. Allen (1932–2020), US computer scientist, recipient of the Turing Award
Frederick Lewis Allen (1890–1954), American historian and editor
G
Gabrielle Allen, British and American astrophysicist
Gary Allen (1936–1986), American journalist
Gavin Allen (born 1965), Australian rugby league footballer
Gareth Allen (born 1988), Welsh professional snooker player
Genevera Allen, American statistician
Geoffrey Freeman Allen (1922–1995), English author specialising in the field of railways
Georgia Allen (1919–2014), American actress
GG Allin (1956–1993), American Punk Icon
Glenn Allen Jr. (born 1970), American racing driver and team owner
Glover Morrill Allen (1879–1942), mammalogist
Gracie Allen (1895–1964), American comedian
Grant Allen (1848–1899), Canadian science writer
Gubby Allen, aka G. O. Allen (1902–1989), English cricketer
H
Hank Allen (born 1940), Major League baseball outfielder
Hannah Allen (1638–?), British writer
Harrison Allen (1841–1897), physician and zoologist
Harvey A. Allen ( – 1882), United States Army officer, was Commander of the Department of Alaska 1871–1873
Harry Julian Allen (1910–1977), NASA engineer and administrator
Heidi Allen (born 1975), British politician
Henry C. Allen (Virginia politician) (1838–1889), politician and lawyer from Virginia
Holless Wilbur Allen (1880–1966), inventor of the compound bow
Howard Allen (1949–2020), American serial killer
I
Isabelle Allen (born 2002), English actress
Ira Allen (1751–1814), politician from Vermont
Irwin Allen (1916–1991), American film and television producer
J
Jackie Allen (musician) (born 1959), American jazz vocalist and composer
Jake Allen (ice hockey) (born 1990), Canadian ice hockey player
James Allen (racing driver) (born 1996), Australian racing driver
James Van Allen (1914–2006), American scientist, known for the Van Allen radiation belt
Jan Allen (born 1952), Canadian curator
Jared Allen (born 1982), American football player
Jay Allen (1900–1972), American journalist
Jeff Allen (musician) (born 1946), English rock and blues session drummer
Jennifer Allen (born 1961), American author
Jermaine Allen (born 1983), English American footballer
Jimmy Allen (American football) (1952–2019), American football player
Jimmy Allen (musician), member of American rock band Against All Will
Joan Allen (born 1956), American actress
Joe Allen (born 1990), Welsh footballer
Joel Asaph Allen (1838–1921), American zoologist
John J. Allen (judge) (1797–1871), politician and judge from Virginia
Johnny Allen (racing driver) (born 1934), American racing driver
Jonathan Allen (artist) (born 1966), British visual artist, writer, and magician
Jonathan Allen (born 1995), American football player
Jordan Allen (born 1995), American professional soccer player
Joseph Henry Allen (1820–1898), Unitarian clergyman, editor and scholar
Josh Allen (linebacker) (born 1997), American football player
Josh Allen (offensive lineman) (born 1991), American football player
Josh Allen (quarterback) (born 1996), American football player
Jules Verne Allen (1883–1945), American country music singer-songwriter, writer, and cowboy
K
Kadeem Allen (born 1993), American basketball player
Karen Allen (born 1951), American actress
Kathleen Allen (1906–1983), British artist
Kazmeir Allen (born 2000), American football player
Keegan Allen (born 1989), American actor, photographer, author and musician
Keenan Allen (born 1992), American football player
Kenny Allen (racing driver) (born 1956), American racing driver
Kenton Allen (born 1965), British television producer
Kevin Allen (racing driver) (born 1965), American racing driver
Kevin Scott Allen (born 1957), American actor
Kiera Allen (born 1997), American actress
Kimball Allen (born 1982), American actor and writer
Kris Allen (born 1985), American musician, singer and songwriter
Krista Allen (born 1971), American actress and model
Kristin Allen (born 1992), American acrobatic gymnast
Kyle Allen (born 1996), American football player
L
Larry Allen (born 1971), American footballer
Laura Allen (born 1974), American actress
Lavilla Esther Allen (1834–1903), American writer
Lavoy Allen (born 1989), American basketball player
Lee Allen (musician) (1927–1994), American tenor saxophonist
Leo Allen (born 1972), American stand-up comedian
Leo E. Allen (1898–1973), American politician
Les Allen (born 1937), English footballer
Leslie Allen (racing driver) (1892–1946), American racing driver
Lester Allen (1891–1949), American screen, stage and vaudeville actor and film director
Lettie Annie Allen (1901–1980), New Zealand public servant, political activist, feminist and local politician
Lew Allen (1925–2010), U.S. Air Force general
Lewis F. Allen (1800–1890), farmer and politician
Lexi Allen (born 1967), American gospel singer, actress and television personality
Lillian B. Allen (1904–1995), Canadian painter and photographer
Lillian Allen (born 1951), Canadian dub poet, musician, and writer
Lily Allen (born 1985), English singer-songwriter
Lisa Allen (born 1981), British chef
Logan Allen (baseball, born 1997) (born 1997), American baseball player
Logan Allen (baseball, born 1998) (born 1998), American baseball player
Lou Allen (1924–2008), American footballer
Louisa Rose Allen (born 1989), English singer and model known as Foxes
Loy Allen Jr. (born 1966), American racing driver
Lucius Allen (born 1947), American basketball player
Luke Allen (born 1978), American baseball player
Lynn Allen (1891–1958), NFL player
M
Mac Allen (born 1985), Canadian lacrosse player
Malik Allen (born 1978), American basketball player
Mark Allen (triathlete) (born 1958), American Triathlete
Mark Allen (snooker player) (born 1986), Northern Irish snooker player
Martin Allen (born 1964), British missing person
Marty Allen (1922–2018), American comedian, actor, and philanthropist
Mary Allen (born 1951), British writer
Maryon Pittman Allen (1925–2018), American politician
Matt Allen (born 1977), American football player
Mel Allen (1913–1996), American sportscaster
Michael Allen (air navigator) (1923–2001), British air navigator and radar operator of the Royal Air Force
Michael Allen (rugby union) (born 1990), Rugby union Player
Michael Graham Allen (born 1950), player and maker of Native American flutes
Mike Allen (poet) (born 1969), American writer and poet
Myron Allen (1854–1924), American baseball player
Myrtle Allen (1924–2018), Irish chef
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Nathaniel Allen (1780–1832), American politician
Nathaniel M. Allen (1840–1900), American soldier
Neil Allen (born 1958), American Major League baseball player
Nellie B. Allen (1874–1961), American landscape designer
Newton D. R. Allen (died 1927), American politician
Nick Allen (catcher) (1888–1939), American Major League baseball player
Nicky Allen (1958–1984), New Zealand rugby union player
Norman M. Allen (1828–1909), New York politician
Norman Percy Allen (1903–1972), British metallurgist
O
Omari Allen (born 1990), Montserratian cricketer
Orlando Allen (1803–1874), American politician—Buffalo, New York
Oscar K. Allen (1882–1936), Democratic governor of Louisiana (1932–36)
P
Paul Allen (1953–2018), co-founder of Microsoft, philanthropist
Pauline Allen (born 1948), Australian scholar of early Christianity
Percival Allen (1917–2008), British geologist
Percy Allen (politician) (1913–1992), New Zealand politician
Percy Stafford Allen (1869–1933), British classical scholar
Pete Allen (musician) (born 1954), English dixieland jazz clarinetist
Peter Allen (footballer) (1946–2023), English footballer
Peter Allen (musician) (1944–1992), Australian songwriter and singer
Peter Allen (US broadcaster) (1920–2016), American broadcaster and radio announcer
Peter Anthony Allen (1911–1964), British convicted murderer
Peter Lewis Allen (born 1957), American scholar and author
Philip Allen (Rhode Island politician) (1785–1865), American politician
Philip Allen, Baron Allen of Abbeydale (1912–2007), British civil servant
Pierre Allen (born 1987), American football player
Phog Allen (1885–1974), American athlete, coach, and physician
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Queenie Allen (1911–2007), English badminton player
Quincy Allen (born 1979), American serial killer
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Rachel Allen (born 1972), Irish chef
PnB Rock born Rakim Allen (1991–2022), American rapper and singer professionally known as PnB Rock
Ralph Shuttleworth Allen (1817–1887), British Conservative Member of Parliament
The Rance Allen Group#Rance Allen (1948–2020), American Bishop, Minister, and gospel musician
Rashaun Allen (born 1990), American football player
Ray Allen (born 1975), American basketball player
Rebecca Allen (basketball) (born 1992), Australian basketball player
Red Allen (1908–1967), American jazz trumpeter
Red Allen (bluegrass) (1930–1993), American bluegrass singer and guitarist
Rex Allen (1920–1999), American actor, singer, songwriter
Ricca Allen (1863–1949), Canadian stage and film actress
Richard Knapp Allen (1925–1992), American entomologist and marine zoologist
Rick Allen (drummer) (born 1963), English rock drummer
Ricky Allen (1935–2005), American blues singer
River Allen (footballer) (born 1995), English footballer
Rod Allen (advertising executive) (1929–2007), British advertising executive
Rod Allen (born 1959), American television baseball commentator
Rosalie Allen (1924–2003), American country singer, songwriter, guitarist, columnist and television and radio host
Rosalind Allen (born 1957), New Zealand-born American actress
Rose Allen, one of the Colchester Martyrs
Ruth Allen (economist) (1889–1979), American economist and academic
Ryan Allen (bass) (1943–2018), American opera singer
Ryan Allen (American football) (born 1990), American football player in the National Football League
R. G. D. Allen (Roy George Douglas Allen) (1906–1983), English economist and mathematician
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Sadie Allen (1930–2017), British artist
Sarah Addison Allen, American author
Shaun Allen (born 1965), English professional rugby union player
Sheila Matthews Allen (1929–2013), American actress
Sheila Allen (English actress) (1932–2011), English actress
Shirley Allen, American nurse involved in 1997 "siege"
Simon Allen (born 1983), New Zealand cricketer
Sonny Allen (1938–2020), American college basketball coach
Stephen Allen (1767–1852), Mayor of New York
Steve Allen (1921–2000), American actor, comedian, composer, writer
T
Taylor Allen (born 2000), English footballer
Tim Allen (born 1953), American actor
Timothy Allen (born 1971), English photographer
Timothy F. H. Allen (born 1942), British botanist
Tina Allen (1949–2008), American sculptor
Tom Allen (broadcaster) (born 1964), Canadian radio host
Toussaint Allen (1896–1960), American baseball player in the Negro leagues
Travis Allen (born 1973), American politician
Trevon Allen (born 1998), American basketball player
Tyler Allen (motorsport) (born 1987), American race engineer
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Vic Allen (1923–2014), British Communist; trade unionist; university academic
Victor M. Allen (1870–1916), New York politician
Vince Allen (born 1955), American-Canadian football player
Viola Allen (1887–1948), American silent film and theater actress
Viv Allen (1916–1995), Canadian ice hockey player
W
Walter Allen (1911–1995), English literary critic
Ray Allen born Walter Allen (born 1975), American basketball player
Willard H. Allen (1893–1957), American state secretary of agriculture
William Allen (Armagh MP) (1866–1947), Northern Irish unionist politician
William Ross Allen (1869–1942), American politician and lawyer from Virginia
Willie Allen (racing driver) (born 1980), American racing driver
Winifred Allen (1896–1943), American actress
Woodrow M. Allen (born 1943), American politician from Maryland
Woody Allen (born 1935), American film actor and director, although not his birth name
Z
Zach Allen (born 1997), American football player
Fictional characters
Flash (Barry Allen), identity of the DC Comics hero, The Flash
Unknown
Allen (Cambridge University cricketer), active 1820s
See also
Alan (given name), including variants Allan and Allen
Alan (surname)
Allan (surname)
Allenby (disambiguation)
Van Allen (disambiguation), a surname
Sture Allén (born 1928), Swedish academic
References
Surnames
English-language surnames
Surnames of Scottish origin
Surnames of British Isles origin
Surnames of English origin
Surnames of Welsh origin
Surnames from given names
Lists of people by surname
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon%20Marshall
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Brandon Marshall
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Brandon Tyrone Marshall (born March 23, 1984) is an American former professional football player who was a wide receiver for 13 seasons in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the UCF Knights, and was selected by the Denver Broncos in the fourth round of the 2006 NFL Draft. Marshall has also played for the Miami Dolphins, Chicago Bears, New York Jets, New York Giants, and the Seattle Seahawks. After his retirement from the NFL, Marshall became a TV personality, and is a former co-host on FS1's morning show First Things First. Marshall is currently a co-host on Showtime's Inside the NFL and has been on the show for seven seasons.
Marshall is known for his ability to break and dodge tackles. He led all NFL wide receivers in yards after first contact for the 2007 NFL season. Regarding Marshall's breakaway ability, cornerback Brandon Flowers said, "Brandon Marshall is a defensive lineman playing wide receiver. He wants to inflict punishment on you. He wants you to try to tackle him so he can shove you off of him and get more yards." Cornerback Nnamdi Asomugha said Marshall is "the toughest guy to bring down, one-on-one." Despite Marshall's long productive career, he has never played in a playoff game. His 12,351 career receiving yards are the most ever by a receiver who has never played in the postseason.
On December 13, 2009, against the Indianapolis Colts, Marshall set an NFL record for receptions in a game with 21. From 2007–2009, he accomplished the rare feat of catching at least 100 passes in three consecutive seasons.
Early years
Marshall was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and later lived in Georgia and Florida where he played high school football at Lake Howell High School.
Marshall was a letterman in basketball and track three times at Lake Howell. He played both offense and defense, as he earned All-State honors and was named Seminole County Utility Player of the Year. In track Marshall competed as a jumper. As a senior, he won the Class 3A state triple jump championship, landing a personal-best jump of 14.81 meters, and also placed ninth in long jump, recording a jump of 6.88 meters. As a top competitor in high jump, he cleared 1.98 meters at the 2002 FHSAA 3A District 7 Meet, placing second. Marshall was a scholar athlete at the University of Central Florida, and was selected to the All-C-USA Team.
College career
Marshall attended the University of Central Florida, where he played a total of 44 games (21 starts) at wide receiver for the UCF Knights football team. He collected 112 receptions, 1,674 receiving yards, and 13 touchdowns in his collegiate career. As a freshman, he had a limited role and had two receptions for 18 yards and a touchdown. As a sophomore, he had 27 receptions for 363 yards and two touchdowns. As a junior, he had eight receptions for 84 yards and had an interception on defense. His best season came in 2005 as a senior. He played in 13 games and had career highs in receptions (74), receiving yards (1,195), and touchdowns (11). Marshall's best career game came in the 2005 Hawaii Bowl, where he had 11 catches for 210 yards and three touchdowns. He was named MVP of the game. For his efforts during the 2005 season, Marshall was selected to the All-C-USA second-team.
Marshall also started at safety for seven games during the 2004 season due to injuries in UCF's secondary. He made his first collegiate start at safety on October 4, 2004, against Buffalo. He recorded four tackles, including half a sack. Marshall led his entire team in tackles (51) during the 2004 season.
Collegiate statistics
Professional career
Denver Broncos
The Denver Broncos selected Marshall with the 119th overall selection in the fourth round of the 2006 NFL Draft.
2006 season
Before the regular season began, Marshall suffered a slight tear to his posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) in the preseason game against the Detroit Lions. Although the injury sidelined him for a couple weeks, he was able to return and play in 15 games (1 start) during the regular season. Marshall had a total of 20 catches, 309 receiving yards, and 2 touchdowns for his rookie year. On October 22, against the Cleveland Browns, he had his first professional receiving touchdown. He caught a pass in each of the Broncos' final seven games of the season, totaling 18 receptions, 287 receiving yards, and 1 touchdown over that stretch. The lone touchdown came during an NBC Sunday Night Football home game against the Seattle Seahawks on December 3, 2006. In that game, Broncos quarterback Jay Cutler (who was making his NFL regular season debut as a rookie) threw a pass to Marshall on the right side of the field. Marshall broke and spun away from three tackles on his way to a career-long 71-yard touchdown. It was the second longest rookie-to-rookie pass play in Broncos history.
2007 season
Marshall sustained injuries before the start of the 2007 season. He suffered a groin strain that kept him out of Broncos quarterback camp and team camp during May and June. He also pulled a quadriceps femoris muscle on July 10, 2007, during Broncos mini-camp. The injury left him out for nearly all of training camp until Broncos head coach Mike Shanahan ordered him to participate for the last couple of days.
On December 13, 2007, in a Thursday night road loss against the Houston Texans, Marshall caught 11 passes for 107 yards. Nine of those receptions occurred in the first half. Marshall became the only wide receiver in Broncos history to have at least 10 receptions in two consecutive games. On Christmas Eve, 2007, in a Monday night road loss to the San Diego Chargers, Marshall caught six passes for 75 yards. On December 30, 2007, in a home win against the Minnesota Vikings, Marshall caught 10 passes for 114 yards and a touchdown. The 10 catches gave Marshall 102 total receptions for the year – his first career 100-catch season. He became only the third second-year player in NFL history to have at least 100 receptions in a season, joining Isaac Bruce and Larry Fitzgerald.
During the 2007 season, Marshall posted team-highs and career-highs in receptions (102), receiving yards (1,325) and receiving touchdowns (7). Marshall reached the 1,000-yard milestone during the 13th game of the season, which was a 41–7 home win over the Kansas City Chiefs. In the game, Marshall had 10 catches for 115 yards and two touchdowns. Among all of the wide receivers in the NFL during the season, Marshall placed fifth in receptions (102), sixth in receiving yards (1,325), second in yards after the catch (505), first in yards after first contact (319), first in number of times targeted (170) and tied for fourth in catches that led to first downs (70).
Following the 2007 season, Marshall, Cutler, and Tony Scheffler went to Atlanta, Georgia together to train and work on timing for the 2008 season.
2008 season
On March 22, 2008, Marshall slipped on an empty McDonald's bag while wrestling with family members, and subsequently, fell through a television set at his home in Orlando, Florida – cutting his right forearm. According to Broncos head athletic trainer Steve Antonopulos, Marshall "sustained right forearm lacerations to one artery, one vein, one nerve, two tendons and three muscles." He was treated at a local hospital and later released after needing a cast and several stitches. In early April, Marshall had the cast removed from his surgically repaired right forearm and was in a sling until May. He was cleared in late-June to practice with the Broncos. He later revealed that his right hand was numb during the entire 2008 season.
Suspension
Marshall officially received a three-game suspension from the NFL on August 5, 2008, due to off-the-field legal troubles including a drunk driving charge and domestic violence arrest. He appealed the decision and won the appeal, reducing the punishment to a one-game suspension and a fine of two combined game checks, which totaled $52,353.
Bronco and NFL records
In Marshall's first game back from suspension, he caught 18 passes for 166 yards and a touchdown, in a 39–38 home victory over the San Diego Chargers. The 18 receptions were a Broncos single-game record, and tied for the second most in NFL history, trailing only Terrell Owens, who caught 20 passes for the San Francisco 49ers in a game during the 2000 NFL season. Marshall's 18 receptions gave him 55 total receptions over five games, which is an NFL record. He is the first receiver in NFL history to register at least 10 receptions in four out of five games. His performance against the Chargers also earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for the first time in his career.
Attempted celebration
Marshall received attention for an attempted touchdown celebration during the Broncos' 34–30 comeback road victory over the Cleveland Browns in a Thursday Night Football matchup on November 6, 2008. With over a minute left in the game, Marshall caught the go-ahead touchdown pass and then began to pull a glove from his pants. Denver wide receiver Brandon Stokley rushed over to Marshall to urge him to put the glove away, as it could be considered a touchdown celebration prop, which is against NFL rules (a 15-yard penalty on the kickoff could be assessed). Marshall later explained that he was intending to put on the glove (which was white with one half of it painted black) as a means to honor racial progress and unity in the United States, following the country electing Barack Obama as President two days earlier. Regarding the attempted touchdown celebration, Marshall said, "I know at the 1968 Olympics in Mexico, Tommie Smith and John Carlos raised that black glove and that fist as a silent gesture of black power and liberation. Forty years later, I wanted to make my own statement. I wanted to make my own statement and gesture to represent the progress we made." Smith and Carlos didn't initially see Marshall's attempted gesture when it happened live, but both said they appreciated and understood Marshall's intent. "He wanted to make a mark in history and feel that he was a part of the change for the better," Smith said. "He had the right idea in terms of what he was attempting to do," Carlos said.
Place in NFL rankings
On December 7, 2008, in the 13th game of the season, Marshall caught 11 passes for 91 yards and two touchdowns, as part of a 24–17 home victory over the Kansas City Chiefs. The 91 yards gave him over 1,000 receiving yards for the second consecutive season. Marshall had his second career multi-touchdown game as well; the first also occurred in a home victory over the Chiefs in the 13th game of the prior season. That game was also where Marshall eclipsed 1,000 receiving yards for a season for the first time in his career.
Marshall finished the season ranked third among NFL wide receivers in receptions (104), seventh in receiving yards (1,265), fifth in receiving yards per game (84.3), seventh in yards after the catch (419), third in catches that led to first downs (65) and first in number of times targeted for the second consecutive season (181). The 104 catches were a career-high for Marshall and also made him only the ninth player in NFL history (second Broncos player) to have at least 100 receptions in back-to-back seasons. He finished first in fan voting for AFC wide receivers in the 2009 Pro Bowl. He received 18 more votes than Randy Moss to earn the top spot. Four wide receivers are chosen to play in the game. Fan voting accounts for one-third of the total voting (players and coaches account for the other two-thirds). He was officially picked to play in his first Pro Bowl when selections were announced on December 16, 2008. Marshall was chosen as a starter.
2009 season
Marshall had hip surgery on March 31, 2009, to repair an aggravated hip that bothered him during the 2008 season. He returned in time for training camp in late-July; however, he didn't always fully commit to practicing. This led the Broncos to suspend him for the last two games of the preseason (he didn't play in the first two preseason contests) for conduct detrimental to the team.
In a 26–6 Thanksgiving home victory over the New York Giants, Marshall recorded six catches (including two one-handed grabs) for 86 yards. His performance earned him the Pudding Pie Award, which is given to the game's MVP by the NFL Network.
On December 13, 2009, Marshall broke Terrell Owens' record for receptions in a game with 21, as part of a 28–16 road loss to the Indianapolis Colts. Owens said, "No more deserving of a guy than he is. He's just been a hard worker....I wish him well. He's going to have a great career." Marshall became the first player since 1960 to record eight career games of at least 10 catches in his first four seasons. During the game against the Colts, he also had two touchdowns and a career-high 200 receiving yards. Marshall's performance earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for the second time in his career.
On December 27, 2009, in a 30–27 road loss to the Philadelphia Eagles, Marshall caught his 100th pass of the season. He became only the fifth player in NFL history (first Broncos player) to do so in three consecutive seasons (previously Jerry Rice, Herman Moore, Marvin Harrison, concurrently Wes Welker, and subsequently Antonio Brown). Marshall was named to his second consecutive Pro Bowl when rosters were announced on December 29.
Marshall was benched for the team's final regular season game by head coach Josh McDaniels for failing to arrive at a physical therapy session on time. The Broncos lost the regular season finale in Denver, 44–24, to the Kansas City Chiefs on January 3, 2010. They missed the playoffs for the fourth straight year. Marshall ended the season tied for third among NFL wide receivers in catches (101), tied for seventh in receiving touchdowns (10), seventh in yards after the catch (527), and fifth in number of times targeted (154).
Miami Dolphins
2010 season
On April 14, 2010, Marshall was traded from the Denver Broncos to the Miami Dolphins for a second round pick in the 2010 NFL Draft and a second round pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. On the same day, the Dolphins and Marshall agreed to a four-year, $47.5 million extension.
Marshall finished the season with 86 receptions for 1,014 yards and three touchdowns. His streak of three straight years with 100 or more receptions came to an end, but he did extend his streak of 1,000 receiving yards to four straight years. His best performances of the season occurred in Week 3 home against the New York Jets (10 receptions for 166 yards and 1 touchdown), Week 6 away against the Green Bay Packers (10 catches for 125 yards), Week 15 home against the Buffalo Bills (11 receptions for 105 yards and 1 touchdown) and Week 16 home against the Detroit Lions (10 receptions for 100 yards). He was ranked 61st by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011.
2011 season
In the season, Marshall had five games with over 100 receiving yards. On the year, he caught 81 passes for 1,214 yards and six touchdowns. It was his second straight season catching 80 or more passes. In the Pro Bowl, Marshall set a Pro Bowl record by catching six passes for 176 yards and four touchdowns. He was named the game's MVP.
Chicago Bears
2012 season
Marshall was traded to the Chicago Bears on March 13, 2012, for one third round draft pick in 2012 and a future one in 2013, reuniting him with former Bronco teammate Jay Cutler leading to a career year for Marshall. In his Bears debut against the Indianapolis Colts, Marshall caught 9 passes for 119 yards, which was the twentieth time he surpassed one hundred yards in his career. He also caught a 3-yard touchdown pass, as the Bears would go on to win 41–21. After the Bears win over the Detroit Lions in Week 7, Marshall was fined $10,500 for wearing orange cleats. In Week 12 against the Minnesota Vikings, Marshall recorded 12 catches for 92 yards, and passed the 1,000 yards receiving mark in a season for the sixth time in his career, making Marshall the first Bears receiver to accomplish the feat since Marty Booker in 2002. Two weeks later against the Vikings, Marshall recorded ten catches for 160 yards, passing Booker's single season reception mark with a total of 101 receptions. In Week 16 against the Arizona Cardinals, Marshall broke Marcus Robinson's single-season franchise record for receiving yards set in 1999. On December 26, Marshall was named to the 2013 Pro Bowl, making him the second Bears receiver to be named to the game since Dick Gordon in 1971, with the first being Booker in 2002. However, Marshall did not play in the game due to having an arthroscopic procedure on his hip, and was replaced by Larry Fitzgerald. Marshall finished the season with 118 receptions, 89 catches more than the next Bears receiver Earl Bennett, tying the New England Patriots receiver Wes Welker for second, behind Detroit Lions' Calvin Johnson, and third in receiving yards with 1,508, behind Houston's Andre Johnson. He was ranked 27th by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013.
2013 season
Marshall opened the 2013 season with eight receptions for 104 receiving yards against the Cincinnati Bengals. He caught the late go-ahead touchdown pass in the fourth quarter of the 24–21 victory. In Week 2, against the Minnesota Vikings, he had seven receptions for 113 receiving yards and one touchdown in the 31–30 victory. In Week 6 against the New York Giants, Marshall stated he will wear green cleats to support his mental illness foundation and promote Mental Health Awareness Week; Marshall was expected to be fined, so he additionally said, "I'm going to get fined, and I'm going to match that, and we want to partner with a cancer-care [charity]." Marshall was eventually fined $10,500 by the league. In Week 17, Marshall torched the Green Bay Packers by providing an early fourth quarter touchdown from quarterback Jay Cutler. Despite the effort, Marshall and the Bears lost the game 33–28, coming up short and missing the playoffs with a record of 8–8. Marshall ended the 2013 season with 100 receptions for 1,295 yards and a career-high 12 touchdown receptions, which is the third-highest in franchise history, behind Ken Kavanaugh and Dick Gordon's 13 in 1947 and 1970, respectively, and the most by a Bears player since Curtis Conway's 12 in 1995. It was also Marshall's fifth season with 100 or more receptions, which tied him with Wes Welker and Andre Johnson for the most in league history. Also, Marshall became the first player in Bears history to record multiple 100-reception seasons. He was ranked 36th by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014.
2014 season
On May 19, 2014, Marshall signed a four-year, $39.3 million contract. The deal contained $22.3 million guaranteed, including a $7.5 million signing bonus. Another $700,000 was available through a 2017 escalator based on a Bears Super Bowl appearance in any of the first three seasons. Marshall was eligible for an annual $200,000 workout bonus throughout the contract's life. 2015: $7.5 million, 2016: $7.9 million, 2017: $8.3 million, 2018: Free Agent. In Week 2, against the San Francisco 49ers, he had five receptions for 48 yards and three touchdowns in the 28–20 victory on NBC Sunday Night Football. In Week 6, against the Atlanta Falcons, he had six receptions for 113 yards in the 27–13 victory. In Week 10, against the Green Bay Packers, he had eight receptions for 112 yards and one touchdown in the 55–14 loss on NBC Sunday Night Football. In Week 11, against the Minnesota Vikings, he had seven receptions for 90 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns in the 21–13 victory. During Week 14 against the Dallas Cowboys, Marshall was kneed in the back by Barry Church, suffering two broken ribs and a collapsed lung. Marshall left the field via ambulance. On December 5, he was ruled out for the rest of the season. Overall, he finished the 2014 season with 61 receptions for 721 yards and eight touchdowns. He was ranked 57th by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015.
New York Jets
2015 season
The Bears traded Marshall and a seventh round-selection in the 2015 NFL Draft to the New York Jets in exchange for their fifth-round draft selection (Adrian Amos) on March 10, 2015. At the time, Marshall said that the Jets would be the last team that he plays for, and that he would retire if cut. "I'm not playing for another team. Four is all I need.
From Week 2 to Week 5, Marshall had gained over 100 yards in four straight games. In Week 3, Marshall surpassed the 10,000 receiving yards mark in his career. Starting in Week 9, Marshall recorded six consecutive games with a receiving touchdown. In Week 12, against the Miami Dolphins, he had nine receptions for 131 receiving yards and two touchdowns in the 38–20 victory. In Week 13, against the New York Giants, his 131-yard game gave him his eighth 1,000 receiving yard season of his career. Marshall became the first player in NFL history to have a 1,000-receiving yard season with four different teams. In Week 16, Marshall recorded 115 yards and two touchdowns in the 26–20 overtime victory over the New England Patriots. He finished the 2015 regular season with eight receptions for 126 receiving yards and a touchdown against the Buffalo Bills in Week 17.
Marshall finished the season with 109 receptions on 174 targets for 1,502 yards and 14 touchdowns. Marshall's season was historic in terms for the Jets franchise. He set new single-season records for receiving yards and receptions while tying the record for receiving touchdowns with Art Powell and Don Maynard. Marshall finished in the top-five among NFL wide receivers in targets, receptions, receiving yards, and touchdowns in 2015. He was named to his sixth Pro Bowl and was ranked 25th by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016.
2016 season
Marshall's 2016 season became less productive than the previous year due to mostly dropped balls, constant rotation at the quarterback position, and locker room controversy with teammate Sheldon Richardson. He started in 15 games and finished the season with 788 receiving yards and three touchdowns.
After the 2016 season ended, Marshall was reported to be released by the Jets in late February. The Jets released Marshall in order to fully transition into a rebuilding stage.
New York Giants
Marshall signed a two-year, $12 million contract with the New York Giants. Like his tenure with the Jets, Marshall again put a timeline on his retirement, saying he would retire once his contract with the Giants was over
On September 10, 2017, in the Giants' season opening 19–3 loss to the Dallas Cowboys on NBC Sunday Night Football, Marshall had one reception for ten yards in his Giants' debut.
On October 8, 2017, Marshall was carted off the field after hurting his ankle in the Giants' 27–22 Week 5 loss to the Los Angeles Chargers. The following day, Marshall announced in an Instagram post that he would undergo season-ending surgery. He was placed on injured reserve on October 10, 2017. He finished the 2017 season with 18 catches for 154 yards and zero touchdowns.
On April 19, 2018, Marshall was released by the Giants and was considered a bust by fans and the New York sports media.
Seattle Seahawks
Marshall signed a one-year contract with the Seattle Seahawks worth up to $2 million with incentives on May 29, 2018.
In Week 1, Marshall caught a touchdown from quarterback Russell Wilson in a loss to the Denver Broncos. This would prove to be the last touchdown of his career. After playing in six games, he was released by the Seahawks.
New Orleans Saints
Marshall was signed by the New Orleans Saints on November 12, 2018. He was released on December 13, 2018, after not appearing in any games.
NFL career statistics
Regular season
Television football analyst
Marshall has been a co-host on Inside the NFL since 2014 when he was still an active player in the league.
On August 20, 2020, Marshall joined the cast of the Fox Sports talk show, First Things First. He remained a co-host of the show until his contract expired in August 2021. In August 2021 he chose to not renew his contract with Fox and to leave his position to pursue other professional opportunities. In 2016, he was a Nominee for the Emmy Awards Outstanding Sports Personality, Studio and Sports Event Analyst.
Personal life
Marshall has been nicknamed "The Beast" during his NFL career. Marshall enjoys restoring vintage automobiles. He is a member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity (initiated into the Lambda Omega Chapter) and does charity work with them. He is involved in an ongoing effort to rebuild Larimer Park in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He is married to Michi Nogami and they have three children.
Borderline personality disorder
On July 31, 2011, Marshall announced at a press conference that he had been diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and that he hopes to spread awareness and understanding about the illness. Marshall said his entire professional career and adult personal life has been marred with symptoms of BPD, but only recently through treatment has he learned to consciously and effectively deal with the resulting problems of his actions that have been influenced by BPD. Marshall cited a recent study that suggests at least 35% of male prison inmates nationally, and 25% of female inmates, have been diagnosed with BPD. He said he hopes to help reduce the stigma of BPD, and encourage and lead others with the disorder to receive proper care. On October 10, 2013, Marshall donned a pair of bright green Nike cleats in support of Mental Illness Awareness Week. Marshall pledged to donate any fine he incurred from the NFL to charity, an estimated $5,250.
In March 2018, Marshall partnered with the University of Michigan, the rapper Logic, Glenn Close, his wife Michi and the Steven Schwartzberg Foundation in launching a campaign titled Who Can Relate, a national mental health awareness campaign. Marshall has also founded the mental health awareness organization, Project 375. This initiative is focused on ending the stigma and stereotypes associated with mental illness. Project 375 hosts trainings for different communities across the nation in order to educate others on identifying the signs of mental illness.
Legal troubles
According to Orlando-Orange County public records (case 48-2004-MM-012392-O), on Halloween 2004, while a student at UCF, Marshall was arrested in Orlando on charges of assault on a law enforcement officer, refusal to obey, disorderly conduct, and resisting an officer.
On January 1, 2007, Marshall was present at The Shelter, a nightclub in Denver, Colorado, along with teammates Javon Walker and Darrent Williams. The trio were attending a birthday party held for and by Denver Nuggets forward Kenyon Martin. As the players were leaving the club in a limousine, Williams was fatally shot in the neck after an unknown assailant opened fire on the vehicle. Willie Clark was later charged with the murder. Walker has stated in interviews that the shooter was likely a nightclub patron whose motive was retaliation after being involved in an altercation with Marshall's cousin earlier that night.
On March 26, 2007, Marshall was arrested in the Highlands Ranch suburb of Denver on suspicion of domestic violence after his girlfriend reported that following a domestic dispute, Marshall prevented a taxi she was in from leaving his house. Charges from the incident were later dismissed on May 25, 2007, after Marshall completed anger management counseling.
In the early morning of October 22, 2007, Marshall was arrested in the Denver-Aurora metropolitan area at the intersection of 14th and Blake St. for driving under the influence of alcohol. A trial was scheduled for September 16, but Marshall instead agreed to a plea bargain four days earlier; he pleaded guilty to a reduced charge of driving while ability impaired. He was sentenced to one-year probation and 24 hours of community service.
On June 12, 2008, Marshall was ticketed for an illegal lane change, then found to be without his license and proof of insurance. The case was eventually dropped as part of a plea bargain for the October 22, 2007, driving incident involving alcohol.
A September 17, 2008, article on CompleteColorado.com stated that the solicitor's office in Fulton County, Georgia filed misdemeanor battery charges on September 10 for an alleged incident on March 4, 2008, in Atlanta, Georgia. Marshall was booked on March 6, then released the next day after posting a $1,000 cash bond. The case was assigned to Judge John Mather in Georgia state court. On August 14, 2009, a jury in Atlanta found Marshall not guilty.
On March 1, 2009, Marshall was arrested in Atlanta for disorderly conduct after allegedly being involved in a fight with his fiancée, Michi Nogami-Campbell. Marshall was released on a $300 bond. The charges were dropped the following day.
On April 23, 2011, Marshall was stabbed near his stomach by his wife, Michi Nogami-Marshall. He was taken to a hospital and was released two days later. He has since made a full recovery.
It was later revealed by police that Marshall's wife did make a brief 911 call, but it only described an unspecified emergency and no mention of a stabbing ever took place. She was charged with aggravated battery with a deadly weapon and is free on $7,500 bail.
On early Sunday, March 11, 2012, two days before his trade to the Bears, Marshall was accused of hitting a woman in the face at a New York club and being involved in a melee. The New York Post stated that Marshall, his wife and some friends were at Marquee when a brawl ensued, and Marshall punched the woman below her left eye, although he may have been attempting to hit the woman's friends. The investigation later ended after a lack of evidence of Marshall's role in the incident.
Accomplishments
Awards and honors
6× Pro Bowl selection (2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015)
First-team All-Pro selection (2012)
Second-team All-Pro selection (2015)
NFL receiving touchdowns co-leader (2015)
2012 Pro Bowl MVP
3× AFC Offensive Player of the Week – Week 2 (2008), Week 14 (2009), Week 13 (2015)
10,000 Receiving Yards Club
UCF Athletics Hall of Fame (2019)
2005 Hawaii Bowl MVP
Second-team All-C-USA (2005)
Marshall's number #15 was retired at Lake Howell High School (2012)
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr award
NFL records and milestones
First to have a 1,000 receiving yard season with four different teams (Denver Broncos, Miami Dolphins, Chicago Bears, and New York Jets)
Most seasons with 100+ receptions (6)
Most receptions in an NFL game (21)
Third-most receptions in an NFL game (18)
Most receptions spanning five games in NFL history (55)
First player in NFL history to have at least 10 receptions in four out of five games (now tied with Calvin Johnson)
First player since 1960 to record eight career games of at least 10 receptions in his first four seasons
Fifth player in NFL history (first Broncos player; one of six total) to have at least 100 receptions in three straight seasons
Ninth player in NFL history (second Broncos player) to have at least 100 receptions in back-to-back seasons (2007 and 2008)
Caught 102 passes in 2007(second-career NFL season), becoming only the third second-year player in NFL history to have at least 100 receptions in a season
New York Jets franchise records
Most receptions in a single season: 109 (2015)
Most receiving yards in a single season: 1,502 (2015)
Most receiving touchdowns in a single season: 14 (2015) (Tied with Don Maynard and Art Powell)
Chicago Bears franchise records
's NFL off-season, Brandon Marshall held at least 6 Bears franchise records, including:
Most receptions in a single season: 118 (2012)
Most receiving yards in a single season: 1,508 (2012)
Most Rec Yds/Game (career): 78.3
Most Rec Yds/Game (season): 94.3 (2012)
Most 100+ yard receiving games (season): 7 (2012; tied with Harlon Hill and Jeff Graham)
Most 1,000+ receiving yard seasons: 2 (one of six players)
Pro Bowl records
Most receiving touchdowns in single game (4)
References
External links
Official website
UCF Knights bio
1984 births
Living people
African-American players of American football
American Conference Pro Bowl players
American football wide receivers
Chicago Bears players
Denver Broncos players
Miami Dolphins players
New York Giants players
New York Jets players
New Orleans Saints players
People with borderline personality disorder
Players of American football from Pittsburgh
Seattle Seahawks players
Players of American football from Atlanta
UCF Knights football players
Unconferenced Pro Bowl players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American people
National Conference Pro Bowl players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa%20San%20Giovanni
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Villa San Giovanni
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Villa San Giovanni () is a port city and a municipality in the Metropolitan City of Reggio Calabria of Calabria, Italy. In 2010 its population was 13,747 with a decrease of 2.5% until 2016 and in 2020 an increase of 3.7% . It is an important terminal of access to Sicily and is also known for being the location of several police films.
Geography
It is situated on the coast of the Strait of Messina, directly across from the city of Messina on the other side of the narrow strait. Its port serves as the primary ferry terminal for Sicily. The municipality of Villa is home to Punta Pezzo, which marks the closest point between the Calabrian shore and the Sicilian side. This geographical advantage has made the city an ideal location for crossing the strait. Notably, Punta Pezzo features a prominent lighthouse. The city encompasses several neighborhoods, including Acciarello, Cannitello, Pezzo, and Piale.
History
On 28 December 1908 a powerful earthquake in the Strait of Messina killed 698 people in Villa San Giovanni, almost 10% of the then population.
The last decades of the sixteenth century saw the rise in the small coastal villages, such as Cannitello and Pezzo, inhabited mostly by sailors and fishermen. Further inland, at the current center of the Villa, there was a village called Fossa. Later came Piale and Acciarello. The coastal repopulation accelerated the eighteenth century progressive decline of Fiumara di Muro, until the administrative reform implemented in 1806 by Giuseppe Bonaparte definitively abolished the feudal system and the Lordship of Fiumara disappeared.
On 8 January 1676 he fought a naval battle between the Dutch and the French fleet in the waters of the Strait in front of Punta Pezzo, with a victorious outcome for the French. The cannons found at Pezzo in 1902 probably date back to this battle.
The plague of 1743 and the fire pit
In 1743, there was an unfortunate incident involving the small village of Fossa. In March of that year, a Genoese ship loaded with wheat from Patras had brought the plague to Messina (that was the last major outbreak of plague in Western Europe). The Health Council of the city of Reggio Calabria had ordered all boats not to approach the port of Messina and instituted guard duty on the coast to enforce the ordinance. The Health Council of Messina denied the epidemic, so as not to interrupt the trade with the continent; however once the alarming news coming from the Sicilian town was heard, the spokespersons were not considered trustworthy and four citizens, two noble and two civilians, provided surveillance for Fossa, which then numbered no more than seventy people and Pezzo with perhaps two hundred and Acciarello, a village recently formed as a result of the exodus of the Azzarello family of Messina just because of the plague.
Throughout the month of April, confusing news of the Messina situation arrived in Naples, so the government did not take the necessary steps, while the epidemic grew enormously in that city. In the situation of isolation in which Messina found itself, many sailors and masters began to smuggle in food and basic necessities from the Calabrian side of the Strait and the resorts of Ganzirri and Torre Faro in Messina. This led to the arrival on the continent of infected products. Among these smugglers were the brothers Peter and Paul Lombardo di Fossa, originating from Fiumara. It is said that on the night of 10 June, the Sicilians, not having quite enough money to pay them, gave them a coat and Paul Lombardo accepted it and put it on: the coat was infected and soon the two brothers died because of the disease, and in the days following, their closest relatives. In any case, the epidemic came to Fossa.
Hearing the news, the two mayors of Reggio, Genovese and Giuseppe Antonio Melissari wanted to investigate the matter; so the governor, Diego Ferri, from historical sources described as a bad-tempered man and authoritarian ruler, recently appointed, sent Fossa two of the best doctors of the region, Saverio Fucetola and Francesco Marrari. The plague was ascertained by these two specialists, but did not stop the illegal smuggling with Sicily, in reality practiced by many local boats: the plague began to spread enormously even on the shores of Calabria. The governor Ferri and the two mayors then considered Fossa the scapegoat source of the epidemic and ordered an expedition against the small town. According to reports from Luigi's Prayer, on the morning of June 23, 3,200 heavily armed men departed from Reggio, of whom 200 were Swiss mercenaries and the remainder citizens of Reggio, under the leadership of Diego Ferri. Initially, the residents of Fossa tried to resist, but they had to yield.
All the inhabitants, including old men, women and children, were forced to strip naked and to be washed with oil and vinegar. The Reggio were given their clothes and personal property and then forced to march naked up to Punta Pezzo.
Then the armed men returned to Reggio and the next day with artillery burned the entire village, with houses, animals, boats, trees, and quantities of oil and wine set on fire, even the Church of Maria SS.ma delle Grazie di Pezzo where it was believed that the plague had taken refuge. The Fossa people remained in miserable conditions at the beach of Pezzo for several days, without receiving any help. Ferri ordered Carlo Ruffo, Duke of Bagnara and Lord of Fiumara di Muro to provide for them, as the Fossa people were still part of the Fiumanese feud. But even the Duke did not care about them: he first denied the plague, and pretended to be irritated by the act performed by the Reggio against his employees, then dumped these charges on the University of Fiumara, promising reimbursement of expenses. But it was only sent a few beans and an ox, certainly insufficient for all the inhabitants. Only the captain of a boat that was carrying onions from Tropea took pity on them and offered his poor load. Finally, between Fossa and the neighboring towns about eighty people died from the plague. Reggini people thought they had thus preserved the city from the disease, but in early July, the disease also came to Reggio, where in a year of plague there were recorded about 5,000 deaths, with about another 500 dead of exhaustion and hunger and another 500 sentenced to death by the governor Ferri. At Messina, of 62,775 inhabitants, just 11,436 were left, that is to say that there were 51,319 deaths. Government aid was absorbed by Reggio and Messina and for the people of Fossa nothing came. Subsequently, Pope Benedict XIV sent 100,000 ducats to the countries affected by the plague, but also this time in Fossa did not touch anything of the money allocated.
The birth of Villa San Giovanni
The turning point in the history of the area occurred in the late eighteenth century, when Rocco Antonio Caracciolo, wealthy landowner and silk entrepreneur from Fossa, wanted to remove the hamlets of Fossa, Pezzo, Cannitello, Piale and Acciarello from the then University of Fiumara di Muro, thanks to the good offices of the Bourbon court of the Kingdom of Naples, in order to give political and administrative unity to small communities that are distant from each other however rivals. After a bitter confrontation with the Greek family, another important noble family of Fossese, the new center was named Fossa first and then Villa San Giovanni (the new name given by the decree of King Ferdinand IV of 6 November 1791).
Villa then had a population of about 1,200 inhabitants. The town was then devastated by an earthquake on 5 February 1783.
In 1797 the villagers then got to elect their own mayors (three, according to the order of the time) and the birth of the University of Villa San Giovanni, corresponding to the current municipality, can be dated to the following year.
On 7 January 7, 1799, Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo disembarked at Pezzo, and began his reconquest of the Kingdom of Naples; from 8 February many volunteers from the area began to join the army of the Holy Faith at Pezzo.
In 1807, Cannitello and Piale broke away from Villa, forming their own municipality, with headquarters in Cannitello, but unable to understand Pezzo, which remained inside Villa.
The Napoleonic period and Gioacchino Murat
In 1810 Gioacchino Murat, King of Naples and brother-in-law of Napoleon Bonaparte, for four months ruled the southern kingdom from the heights of Piale. He, moving from Naples to the conquest of Sicily (where King Ferdinand IV had taken refuge under the protection of the English, an army which was camped near Punta Faro in Messina), arrived in Scilla on 3 June 1810 and remained there until 5 July, when the great Piale encampment was completed. In the short period of stay, Murat built the three forts of Torre Cavallo, Altafiumara and Piale, the latter with a telegraph tower. On 26 September of the same year, seeing the conquest of Sicily as a difficult undertaking, Murat abandoned the Piale encampment and left for the capital.
The French troops were present in the strategic territory of Villa throughout the first fifteen years of the nineteenth century ; this constituted a negative element for the majority of the population and for the local economy. In fact, the Napoleonic government constantly imposed extraordinary expenses on the municipalities of Villa and Cannitello for the maintenance of the troops stationed there, which often harmed the flourishing commercial activities of the city, such as the spinning mill of Rocco Antonio Caracciolo. In addition, the proximity of Villa to the Sicilian coast exposed it to warfare between the French based in Piale and the English quartered in Torre Faro. In general, however, the French also brought some good news to the Kingdom, which was maintained after the Bourbon restoration, such as public schools, post offices, banks, telegraph and (not least) legislative codification.
During his presence, Murat also took care to eradicate the banditry present in the area, entrusting this task to General Charles Antoine Manhès, who obtained good results.
From the Bourbon Restoration to the Unity of Italy
In the years following the restoration of the Bourbons continued urban development of Villa, so much so that in 1817 Antonio Caracciolo Rocco oversaw the final construction and arrangement of the cemetery. Before then, the dead were buried in churches or in certain campaign funds used for this purpose.
The government in those years chose Villa as the headquarters of the central post office, a new service imported by the French, as it represented the main ferry point for Sicily and one of the most important road junctions of the province. The construction of the large building destined to house the Post Office had already been contracted, and the Ristori director had already come to Villa to order the offices, when the transfer of this office to the capital city was ordered from Reggio, which obtained it. The great palace was later sold at auction to the Caminiti brothers of Domenico Antonio, who were then masters of mail for Villa and surroundings.
In 1823 it was decided that Florio's first steamer had to stop at Villa to take passengers and mail to Naples, but again the Reggio demanded that the steamer stop in Reggio, as the provincial capital.
In those years the Prince Francesco Ruffo, brother of Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo and last Lord of Fiumara di Muro and nearby Motte, who had at that time a bitter civil dispute with the City of Villa due to some land Aspromonte from the feudal patrimony of Ruffo, called Forest d'Aspromonte, which had been assigned to the municipality of Villese; but without any feeling of revenge, established in 1823, also teaching at Villa twice a week the nautical master of Pietro Barbaro being Villa, Pezzo, Cannitello seaside resorts. In fact, at that time there were, only in the Villa, 323 sailors and 36 boats. It was a major breakthrough for the Villese Navy, which had so many young people educated in the difficult art of sailing.
Between 1823 and 1825 the National Road (present-day State Route 18) was opened, while in 1830 the Fontana Vecchia was completed, the primary source of water in masonry placed at the service of the town, which today remains the oldest building existing in the city.
On August 31, 1847, there was an attempt to bike renaissance in Villa Campo Calabro, Rosalì and Calanna. The initiative, fueled mainly by the Carbonari Villesi, which also participated in the young Rocco Larussa, who later became famous sculptor, failed due to the timely intervention of Intendant of Reggio, General Rocco Zerbi. On September 4, Reggio reinforcements were sent from the batteries to Pezzo, the attempted revolt was put down and the revolutionaries arrested.
A Piece Villa and many were the Carbonari and many attempts were made to revolutionary insurrections in those years, as in all of Italy. All were harshly repressed by the Bourbons and there were several arrests and sentencing to life imprisonment, even against Rocco Larussa, together with his brothers Joseph and Ignatius.
The heights between Piale and Cannitello were the scene of the clash between the troops of Garibaldi and the Bourbon generals Melendez and Briganti 23 August 1860 in those same days he landed on the beach in Santa Trada Porticello and a contingent of 200 partisans.
After the Unification of Italy, the area, a strategic spot for the defense of the Straits, became a focal point in the national system of coastal defense with the construction of the Fort Beleño of Piale in 1888 or so, to make way for what was demolished Tower of Piraino, with the adjoining fort Murat. This happened after the project of fortifications of the Italian Government for the defense of the national territory, which began in the seventies and eighties of the nineteenth century.
The Spinning Mills and Industrial Development
Between the end of the eighteenth and the first half of the twentieth century Villa San Giovanni was particularly famous for the breeding of silkworms and its mills, of which now only a few ruins remain of the 56 that operated in ancient times. They constituted an important source of employment and livelihood for the population.
The silk textile business was started in the last fifteen years of the eighteenth century through the work of Rocco Antonio Caracciolo, who already in 1792 had made operational a textile mill and a spinning house, the first located between the palace and the current Caracciolo Fontana, the second at the road Mycenae (now Via Mycenae), near today's Salesian shelter. The growth of textiles was also due to the Turin born Francesco Bal, director of spinning in the Reggio region and the large spinning mill at Santa Caterina.
Soon many villagers followed the example of Caracciolo and numerous mills were built between Villa, Pezzo and Cannitello. The industrial activity had also grown the population: in fact, Fossa in 1777, recorded only 236 souls, while in 1811 the inhabitants numbered 1804, in 1849 grew to 3475, and in 1901 the population was 6647.
In 1847 there were 44 mills in Villa, 676 ironers, 676 teachers and 676 disciples. But soon came the mechanization and with it, after the unification of Italy, the northern and foreign investments of entrepreneurs, such as Milan Adriano Grass and the English Thomas Hallam and his nephew Edward J. Eaton, who parted company with activities in Villesi spinners. The town then earned the nickname of small Manchester, in reference to the silky English city of Manchester and the British industrial presence.
In 1892, Villa operated twenty-boiler systems and one system with direct heat (Bambara Pasquale). The major mills in the boiler were spinning mill Eaton (3 boilers, 35 horses, 128 containers and 300 employees), the spinning mill Grass (3 boilers, 42 horses, 110 containers and 253 employees), the spinning mill Florio and Marra (2 boilers, 14 horses, 120 containers and 238 employees), the spinning mill and sons John Caminiti (2 boilers, 16 horses, 56 bowls and 136 employees) and the spinning mill Lofaro Rocco and children (2 boilers, 12 horses, 60 bowls and 106 employees). Here are two other systems with two boilers (Aricò Salvatore Sergi and Cosimo) and thirteen to one boiler operated by various contractors Villesi.
On March 19, 1877, was established the Workers' Mutual Aid Society, which still exists and operates.
The pipe industry
Villa was also famous for the pipe industry. From 1913, a French factory was set up in the Villa for the production of pipes, the Vassas, located in the premises of the former Erba spinning mill, along the current Via Marina. Around 1926 it was sold to the Tuscan Egidio Dei, former director of the same; then was equipped with about 25 circular saws. Here, heather briar pipes were produced and refined. The products of the factory went into final processing in northern Italy (especially Milan), France, England, Germany and the United States. At its peak the Dei factory gave employment to about fifty workers, as well as the lumberjacks and truck drivers who transported the wood, which came mainly from Aspromonte, but also from Sicily, Sardinia and Greece. The factory was active until the early eighties, when it was forced to close due to decreased demand and increased production requirements.
In the same period, another pipe factory was opened in Villa, the Tripepi factory, located near the Via Fontana Vecchia, this also disappearing at the beginning of the early eighties.
The construction of the railway line and the beginning of a steam ferry
In 1884 the stations were inaugurated Villa and Cannitello, along with the stretch of railroad that joined with Reggio Calabria.
In the early years of the twentieth century, completed the construction of the port and began racing modern ferry boats to steam for Messina. In fact, Villa was increasingly preferred as the main point in Reggio ferry to Sicily, being much closer to the city than the capital of Messina. On 1 March 1905 the station Villa was connected to the airport of ferry boats with a railway junction, thus laying the foundations for the ferry service railway rolling stock. The importance of Villa San Giovanni gradually increased to the detriment of Reggio Calabria, as the Tyrrhenian railway route, which is shorter than the Ionic, led to the displacement of the rail traffic by sea on Villesi cradles, which were increased and strengthened.
Contemporary Age
At the beginning of the 20th century, the city was described as an industrious and avant-garde town, so that already in 1906 the city streets were illuminated by electrical street lamps.
The 1908 earthquake and the reconstruction
The area of Villa had already been affected by seismic events since the last decade of the nineteenth century. On 16 November 1894 there was a first earthquake, with no casualties, that damaged most of the buildings, so that Villa became one of the countries affected by earthquakes and was able to take advantage of the law nº535 8 August 1895.
In the following two decades, there were three other earthquakes, the earthquakes of 8 September 1905 and 23 October 1907, but the real disaster was the earthquake of December 28, 1908, an event that devastated the entire area of the Strait, the city of Reggio and Messina, and that made many victims of villagers.
Villa counted 367 deaths out of 4,325 inhabitants, 8% of the population; Acciarello, 299 of 2,125 (14% of the population); in Piece, 32 of 552 (5%). In total, 698 deaths in the town of Villa San Giovanni of a population of about 7,000 (according to the data of the census of 1901).
There were then more than 500 injured. Economic losses were incalculable: the whole town was destroyed, together with the port with its new infrastructure, the station and the rail, and most of the mills, while others were severely damaged; all the churches and public buildings collapsed. The district that was the most devastated was the Immaculate Conception. There were very few buildings that resisted the earthquake.
Reconstruction began the following year and definitively ended only in the early fifties, with significant changes in the urban setting of Villa. The first buildings to be rebuilt as early as 1909 were in fact the mills to enable resumption of industrial activity and provide employment in the area devastated by the earthquake. The tenements, churches and other public buildings were housed in inferior buildings, pending the completion of the new works. In the early thirties the city center was largely rebuilt, as evidenced by the Municipal Palace (Palazzo San Giovanni), the Central Elementary School, the Church of the Immaculate Conception and the many private buildings dating back to the late twenties. Subsequent buildings were influenced by fascist architecture, as evidenced, for example, by the austere geometric shapes of the building of the railway station designed by Roberto Narducci.
The project of the Great Reggio
Vintage photo of the historic Via Garibaldi
The Grand Reggio project
In 1927 the municipality of Villa San Giovanni, together with Cannitello and other municipalities in the district for a total of fourteen, was conurbated to the municipality of Reggio Calabria following the Grande Reggio project, aimed, according to the promoters, at creating a single Calabrian town area on the shore of the Strait of Messina.
But the hardships for the Villese population were notable, as the centralization of the municipal offices in the capital involved additional work (then burdensome and lengthy) for the simplest administrative acts. In addition, the loss of administrative autonomy would have made the Villa identity vanish, reduced to a mere district of Grande Reggio. So grievances, in the Fascist regime, were not lacking: one of the biggest supporters of the autonomy of the town was Don Luigi Nostro, who sent in writing to Mussolini, "The end of a municipality", or rather a mandate of ten municipalities supported petitions of the Villesi against the maxi-municipality. The government, by decree of January 26, 1933, restored self-government to Villa San Giovanni, including from that date the territory of Cannitello (up to 1947 and also Campo Calabro and Fiumara).
The first post-war period
Additional reconstructions were necessary after the Second World War, since the summer of 1943, Villa, a railway junction of national importance, had been heavily bombed by the allied forces. Almost all the ferry-boats had been sunk, with only the Messina having been saved.
The first free elections, after fascism, took place in Villa, 10 March 1946. They faced two boards: the first, under the symbol of the cross and shield, picked up the Christian Democratic parties of the center and also many of the independents; the second list, which was a symbol for an ear of corn, was formed on the left. The centrist list won by a large majority, mainly because of the fear, widespread in those years in Italy, that a leftist victory would bring the country into the orbit of the Soviet Union. Natale Sciarrone became mayor remaining in office continuously for fourteen years, until 1960.
The year 1946-1947 recorded a historic event for Villa: That season, the Villese city football team participated for the first and only time in the series C championship. The experience of the neroverde team in the third series only lasted for that season, due to corporate and financial problems.
Demands for autonomy
In 1947 the City Council had to rule on the administrative autonomy of the centers of Campo Calabro, Fiumara and Cannitello, annexed to the city in 1933 following the separation of Villa from Grande Reggio. Mayor Sciarrone made a report to the council on the problem, introducing it, historically, with the thesis on the Reggina Column formulated by the Villese historian Don Luigi Nostro, to show that Campo and Fiumara, having never been part of the Villese territory, could become autonomous, but that since ancient times of Colonna Reggina, Cannitello constituted only one area with Villa. He added that the population of those centers was then: Villa 7089 inhabitants, Cannitello 2646, Campo 2958 and Fiumara 2241. The council voted on 12 February and passed the autonomy of Campo and Fiumara with 16, yes and 2, no. But many Cannitellesi were unhappy, since autonomy had not been granted to Cannitello as well; so in April the signatures of 675 citizens were gathered, asking for recognition of their municipality. The Council voted on 22 November, and the demands of the Cannitellesi were rejected with 12 votes against and only 3 in favor.
In 1955 again the citizens of Cannitello advanced proposals for the autonomy of their municipality; the question was discussed in the City Council on 29 May of that year, but this time Mayor Sciarrone proved to be strongly opposed, stating:
"Cannitello is a natural continuation of Villa San Giovanni and we can not change what nature has created on this shore for that pettiness of passions that obscure the clear vision of the things that are imposed on our eyes."
The council vote also gave a negative result this time: 15 against and only 7 in favor.
The fifties and sixties
Between the late forties and early fifties brought out many public works, including the completion of Piazza Duomo, the four-storey building to house the State Railways, a subsidiary of the aqueduct and Bolano the housing of the INA. Another important work of social housing was the village of UNRRA piece, consists of eight buildings, for a total of 32 lodgings, built with international aid grown on the organization of the United Nations. They were renovated basements plexus of elementary school, which will house the middle school, as the old premises were uninhabitable. The same middle school became independent in 1953 and in 1957 consisted of 12 classes, while in 1963 there were already 230 pupils, plus another 230 for about vocational training.
Among the fifties and sixties was particularly busy city life. There were many sports associations (such as the US Villese sovracitata football club and Sporting Club Villese) and the cultural and recreational associations, such as the circle Cenide. Really important were the old Caminiti Cinema, Cinema Mignon and the Lido Cenide, then one of the most important beaches of the Strait, one of the main meeting points of the company Villese, able to attract nationally renowned artists such as Little Tony. The Lido, created in 1955 and located at the existing piers of Caronte & Tourist, ceased its activities in the mid-sixties just because of the interest associated with the new ferries of the private ferry. The property, which has remained for years in conditions of neglect, has been finally demolished in November 2011 to make way for new port facilities.
On 20 March 1966 he visited Villa San Giovanni Giuseppe Saragat the President of the Republic.
New industrial complexes
In 1952, the ISA factory began its activities, with the production of components for chairs, to which was later added the production of doors. Initially there were 120 employees. The factory was located in a large complex situated in Piazza Immacolata. Between 1967 and 1968, a strong production crisis forced the factory to close. The building was abandoned for several decades, until it was purchased in 2003 by the City of Villa, which earmarked the area for a multi-purpose center. In the early months of 2008 the demolition of the old complex began followed by the work for the construction of the new center.
On 21 March 1964, the Prefect of Reggio authorized Francesco Spatolisano, the legal representative of the Aspromonte Beer SpA company, to start industrial production at land between Piale and Cannitello, but the project declined and was not completed.
In 1969, with government funding for ECER at 335 million lire, the FIAT branch was opened, operating until the end of the nineties. Since 2003, following a long renovation, the building has housed a shopping mall.
The advent of private ferry companies
The n / t Zancle of Caronte & Tourist with lighthouse of Punta Pezzo
"The transition from monopoly to competition, if brought some economic benefit to the city of the Strait in terms of employment, certainly created big problems for citizenship. Keeping within the city limits of the landing wheel, it was not possible to make those structures necessary to ensure that you drew benefit of traffic and you do not would suffer the damage caused by one step. The quality of life he was greatly compromised in the sense that if the State Railways had maintained a monopoly on the transportation, Certainly you would have had the deconcentration of berths rafts (note, naval units destined for the ferrying of vehicles). Not only that, but also the occupation would have benefited, since the staff employed on ships FS is higher than that of private companies, non-public company pursuing the maximization of profits, but reconciling the social value of transport between the two banks with the profitability of the traffic. »
(James Iapichino, Between Scylla and Charybdis)
Soon the presence in the town center led to the boarding private Villa passage of a huge number of cars coming from the highway, through the streets, causing traffic congestion and urban air pollution levels to rise to levels of concern. For years, to try to remedy these problems, it was suggested to move the boarding of private companies into a new home south of downtown Villa, directly connected to the junction of the A3, thus avoiding traffic jams and pollution caused by the passage of wheeled vehicles.
The last decades
Since the seventies Villa San Giovanni has experienced rapid population growth, mainly due to a phenomenon of internal emigration that has led many residents of the neighboring municipalities to move to Villa, mainly for business reasons. As a result of the rapid increase in residents, the last few decades, especially since the early 1980s, have seen an expansion of the urban center and a growth in buildings never seen before, particularly in the area of Pezzo and along the coast, where vast areas previously entirely covered with greenery are now occupied by recent private housing and commercial buildings.
Villa has gone through one of the most difficult periods of its history between 1985 and 1991, a period in which a violent feud between the families of 'Ndrangheta has bloodied the Reggio, involving also the small town of the Strait and reaping many victims in the Villese citizenship, among which is the deputy mayor of the city, Giovanni Trecroci, murdered on 11 February 1990. On 9 August 1991 the Deputy Prosecutor General to the Supreme Court of Cassation, Antonino Scopelliti, was assassinated by 'Ndrangheta on behalf of the Sicilian Mafia. The feud of 'Ndrangheta ended in 1991 and since then no violent acts of this nature have occurred at Villa.
Today, Villa still presents itself as an ever-expanding town, registering a significant increase in citizens of foreign nationality in the last decade.
Transport
Ferry services link Villa San Giovanni and Messina, including a train ferry departing from the main railway station. The town is also served by the A2 motorway Salerno-Reggio Calabria. Now 80% of vehicles that need to go in Sicily pass by here.
Villa San Giovanni is also the southern terminus of the long-proposed but not-built Strait of Messina Bridge.
Photogallery
Sport
Villa has a long tradition in the swimming disciplines with various sports clubs active in swimming (even at a competitive level) and scuba diving.
Every summer, in August, the Strait Crossing takes place in the waters of the Strait of Messina, an international level swimming competition with the participation of dozens of athletes from all over Italy and abroad. The journey begins at Cape Pelorus, the extreme limit of the channel on the shore of Sicily, and ends at the beach of Pezzo:athletes then crossing a stretch of sea of more than 3 km long.
References
External links
Villa San Giovanni official website
Cities and towns in Calabria
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4958869
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gioia%20del%20Colle
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Gioia del Colle
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Gioia del Colle (; Barese: ) is a town and comune of the Metropolitan City of Bari, Apulia, southern Italy. The town is located on the Murge plateau at above sea level, between the Adriatic and Ionian seas.
Physical geography
Territory
Gioia del Colle is on the top of a hill at 360 m a.s.l. It is located in the southern part of the Murge, in the "Sella di Gioia del Colle". It is between the North-West Murge and the South-West Murge and the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea. The municipal area has an area of 206.48 km² and it reaches a maximum altitude of 435 m a.s.l. and a minimum of 296 m a.s.l. Its area borders to the North-West with Acquaviva delle Fonti, to the North with Sammichele di Bari, to the North-East with Turi, to the East with Putignano and Noci, to the South-East with Mottola, to the South with Castellaneta, to the South-West with Laterza and to the West with Santeramo in Colle.
The landscape is characterized by large wooded areas, in which the Macedonian oaks dominate, more than the downy oak. In particular the Bosco Romanazzi and Serra Capece constitute the most conspicuous part of the wooded area of Gioia del Colle and they extend from Mount Sannace archaeological area to the provincial road that leads to Noci.
The western part of the area is part of the North-West Murge, with isoipse that exceed 400 m a.s.l. towards Santeramo and Laterza, while the Eastern one is part of the South-East Murge, with isoipse over 400 m a.s.l. towards Noci. In the middle, on the contrary, there is a depression (saddle) with an average altitude of 340 m a.s.l., interrupted only by the 360-meter hill on which the city lies.
Climate
Gioia del Colle's climate is mediterranean (Köppen Csa), but it has peaks of continentality due to the altitude and the distance from the sea. Temperature varies between −2 e +12 °C in winter, while it varies between +18 e +35 °C with a high percentage of humidity in summer. Annual rainfall is around 600 mm. It often snows, about once a year, especially if there is cold air of Balkan origin.
History
The current town of Gioia del Colle was born around Castello Normanno-Svevo, a castle of Byzantine origins.
Its name derives from Joha, a reduction of the surname Joannakis. It was a Byzantine family present in these places in the Middle Ages, but there are many opinions and even legends on the origin of the toponym. One of the most famous is that according to a noble woman traveling in the lost area of jewels including a beautiful and precious necklace. The name "Gioia del Colle" was given to the place where the necklace was found. The complex and original history of the city of Gioia del Colle is also illustrated in its particular heraldic coat of arms: a goblet-shaped cup full of jewels and bordered by agricultural motifs. Unlike the coats of arms of the neighboring countries, that of Gioia del Colle, dating back to 1934, is not linked to any symbol depicting families, marquisates or duchies. It tells the presence of a heterogeneous civilization ranging from poverty to wealth, from crafts to large estates . It is inspired by a sculpture made in 1480 by Joannes de Rocca, on a stone walled in the University of Gioia's seat. It depicts three coats of arms: that of Gioia with the inscription Universitas Joe, the Aragonese one with the royal crown and that of the Acquaviva counts of Conversano.
The inhabited area was rebuilt by the Norman Richard of Hauteville, only to be destroyed by William I of Sicily. It was re-founded in 1230 by Frederick II of Swabia on his return from the Crusade. It seems that the castle was a residence where he stopped during his hunting trips. It was then completed by the Angevins who opened windows on the curtain.
Between 1600 and 1800 the successive owners (Acquaviva d'Aragona, the De Mari and Donna Maria Emanuela Caracciolo) removed the appearance of a fortified residence from the complex.
The "new" city, however, would have originated from a much older settlement: Monte Sannace, about 5 km away from today's town. Archaeological excavations, even today, bring to light the remains of a village of Peucetians dating back to the 7th century BC. Gioia was born during the Byzantine dominion and then passed under the Norman dominion, it was given to Count Richard of Hauteville. Frederick II was responsible for the reconstruction of the castle. It was principality of Taranto and fief of the De Mari princes of Acquaviva delle Fonti until the abolition of feudalism.
Marzagaglia's massacre
In 1920 the Marzagaglia massacre took place, in the difficult social and political climate of the first post-war period. On 1 July 6 workers were killed and following day in retaliation three landowners.
Monuments and interesting places
Norman-Hohenstaufen castle
The Gioia del Colle Norman-Swabian Castle is the result of at least three construction interventions: one dating back to the Byzantine period, another to the Norman one and the last to the Swabian one. Initially it consisted of a fortified enclosure in stone ashlars. It was enlarged in the 12th century by the Norman Richard of Hauteville, who transformed it into a noble residence.
The final castle arrangement is due to Frederick II of Swabia around 1230. It has a quadrangular courtyard, halls and rooms that overlook it, and is bordered by four corner towers. Of the four original corner towers, which are mentioned in the book the Terra di Gioia both by the architect and tabular book Honofrio Tangho of 1640 and by Gennaro Pinto of 1653, today only two towers remain: that of De 'Rossi and that of the Empress.
The castle permanently houses the Gioia del Colle National Archaeological Museum.
The main Church
It was built towards the end of the 11th century by Riccardo Siniscalco with the name of "Palatine Church of St. Peter". It was initially dedicated to St. Peter, but it was later renamed "Madonna della Neve". The church was destroyed in 1764 by a fire. In the same year the church was rebuilt and dedicated to the nativity of the Blessed Virgin.This period dates back to the two stone sculptures on the front (S. Filippo Neri and the Madonna with the Child in her womb).
The church was damaged again in 1857, by an earthquake. It was then closed to worship. The church's front and the bell tower were restored in 1893.
The downfall of the bell tower dates back to 1942 and it is due to structural instability between the part built in the 12th century and that of 1893.
The Baptismal Books were established in the church in 1575 and the Registers of the Dead in 1584.
It has inside numerous frescoes dating back to different historical periods and a crypt in which the body of Prince Carlo III De' Mari is buried. It was rebuilt over the centuries, it still retains the original jamb of the entrance door and a sarcophagus used as a washbasin (preserved in the sacristy).
Other churches
Parrocchia Sacro Cuore
Parrocchia Santa Lucia
Parrocchia San Vito
Parrocchia Immacolata di Lourdes
Parrocchia Madonna di Loreto
Chiesa San Rocco
Chiesa Sant'Angelo
Chiesa Sant'Andrea
Chiesa San Domenico
Chiesa San Francesco
Chiesa del Crocifisso
Chiesa della Candelora
Chiesa Maria SS.Annunziata
Chiesa San Giuseppe lavoratore
Old town's arches
Cassano distillery
Gioia area has always been interested in an important wine production, which in the past centuries found a market especially in France. When this trade was closed as a result of the protectionist measures of 1887 between Italy and France, producers began distilling the large quantities of unsold wine to produce cognac and alcoholic beverages.
Following the example of others, in 1891 Paolo Cassano had a distillery set up inside the Cassano farm. The activity of the factory continued until 1914 (in this period the Italian Fides Cognac was born, the best known cognac produced in Gioia), when the company was put into liquidation due to a series of concomitant negative factors that had reduced it excellent profitability. First of all an epidemic of phylloxera which decimated the vineyards of the whole Puglia; furthermore, in 1912 there was a notable increase in taxation together with the abolition of tax rebates for cognac producers.
The distillery passed to the Taranto family which kept in a state of neglect. In 1970 it was then sold to the USL (today public local health authority) to renovate it into a hospital. In 1997 the building was again sold to the municipality of Gioia del Colle.
The ancient distillery represented a pioneering example of the Apulian industry. Due to these considerations the Ministry of Cultural and Environmental Heritage has sanctioned its historical importance with the inscription in the list of monumental and environmental assets with a binding decree of 26 September 1992.
Renovated since 2006, the distillery occasionally hosts exhibitions and festivals, such as the mozzarella festival held in August.
Natural areas
The Boschi Romanazzi are an oasis managed by WWF Italy.
Society
Demographic evolution
Registered inhabitants:
Foreign ethnicities and minorities
Albania, 393
Marocco, 279
Romania, 243
India, 58
Georgia, 52
China, 30
Culture
Instruction
Schools
In Gioia del Colle there are 5 kindergartens, 4 primary schools and 2 lower secondary schools. The secondary schools which are located in the city are: the "Ricciotto Canudo" liceo scientifico, the "Publio Virgilio Marone" liceo classico and the "Galileo Galilei" industrial technical institute.
Museums
National archeologic museum
The Archaeological Museum's rooms are set up inside the Norman-Hohenstaufen Castle. There is a systematic exposure of the numerous grave items from the necropolis of Mount Sannace and Santo Mola which cover a wide chronological period. From the beginning of the 6th to the 2nd century BC. geometric and figurative vases, bronze weapons, fibulae and clay statuettes define the usual composition of the funerary objects of the indigenous center but also of the wider Peucete communities.
Monte Sannace Archaeological Park
The site is 5 km away from the town in the direction of Turi and it has been the subject of archaeological excavations since 1957 by the Superintendence of Antiquities of Puglia and Matera. The excavations have been completed in 1961, they brought to light a settlement of the ancient Peucezi dating back to the 9th century BC. which lasted, with brief interruptions, until the Hellenistic-Roman period (approximately until the 1st century AD).
The archaeological park includes some defensive circuits' areas and the north gate includes numerous tombs and various buildings of the acropolis, as well as a large part of the town.
The finds from the excavations are kept in the National Archeological Museum located inside the Norman-Swabian Castle.
Cinema
Besides having given birth to Ricciotto Canudo, who during his stay in Paris increased the debate around the art of cinema, Gioia del Colle is linked to cinema for having hosted the set of three films, in different eras:
Between 1930 and 1931 some shots of the silent film Idillio, directed by Milanese Nello Mauri, were shot in the city center and in the countryside around Gioia.
In 1964 Pier Paolo Pasolini for the film The Gospel According to St. Matthew whose Gioia del Colle Castle to shoot two scenes: Herod's palace and Salomé's dance, which took place in the north wing of the building's courtyard. The expulsion from the temple, with the priests who attend the events, was filmed – instead – in Castel del Monte.
In 1999, Terra bruciata was set there, Fabio Segatori's debut film with Raoul Bova, Giancarlo Giannini, Michele Placido and Bianca Guaccero.
In 2014 Matteo Garrone chose the Norman-Swabian castle of Gioia del Colle to set some scenes from the film Tale of Tales with Salma Hayek, Vincent Cassel and Toby Johnes.
Music
The Gioia del Colle Music Band won the Venice International Competition in 1924 and the Professional Competition in Rome in 1929.
Since 1998 the international music competition Pietro Argento Award has been held in Gioia del Colle.
In 2012, from the initiative of numerous musicians from Gioia, Rockerella was born, a project of production, historical research, census and coordination of alternative music by Gioia del Colle, which becomes a festival of the same name and produces two compilations and the documentary "Rockerella, history of Gioia del Colle's music from the 1950s to the present day ".
Theaters
Rossini municipal theater
Events
Festa Patronale di San Filippo Neri, 25 – 26 – 27 maggio;
Festa del compatrono San Rocco, 15 – 16 agosto;
Processione dei Sacri Misteri della Passione, Venerdì Santo;
Festival Internazionale TeatroLab2.0 – Chièdiscena, aprile – maggio;
Palio delle Botti, agosto.
Economy
Gioia del Colle is famous for its mozzarella and Gioia del Colle Primitivo wine. There are also important producers of pasta and extra virgin olive oil. Agriculture, dairy industries, cellars, pasta factories and oil mills together with commercial enterprises represent the economic engine of this country. Ansaldo Caldaie was present with a plant for the construction of large industrial boilers, a leader in the international field.
Red, white, rose, sweet dolce and fortified liquoroso wines are permitted in the Italian wine DOC of the area. Red and rose wine grapes are limited to a harvest yield of 12 tonnes/ha while white wine grapes are limited to a yield of 13 tonnes/ha. The reds and roses are a blend of 50–60% Primitivo, a 40–50% blend component of Montepulciano, Sangiovese, Negroamaro and Malvasia (with Malvasia being further limited to a 10% maximum). The whites are composed of 50–70% Trebbiano with other permitted local grape varieties, such as Pampanuto, making up the remainder. A varietal Primitivo wine is permitted, provided the wine is 100% composed of the grape with yields limited to 8 tonnes/ha and a minimum alcohol level of 13%. The dolce wine of the area is composed of at least 85% Aleatico with a 15% maximum blend component of Malvasia, Negroamaro and Primitivo making up the rest. The grapes must also be limited to a harvest yield of 8 tonnes/ha and have a minimum alcohol level of 15%. The liquoroso version must have a minimum alcohol of 18.5%.
Infrastructure and transport
Streets
The main Gioia del Colle's road districts of Gioia del Colle are:
Autostrada A14 Bologna-Taranto, Gioia del Colle exit.
Strada statale 100 di Gioia del Colle.
The train station is on the Bari-Taranto railway and it is Gioia del Colle-Rocchetta Sant'Antonio line.
Airports
The 36th Stormo of the Italian Air Force is at Gioia del Colle "Antonio Ramirez" air base.
Urban mobility
Urban public transport is a service made available by the municipal administration and managed by the Sabato Viaggi company. The network consists of two circular lines, two lines serving the Termosud area, two lines for the industrial area and two lines connecting the main school sites in the municipality of Gioia del Colle.
Administration
Twinning
Târgoviște, Romania
Other administrative information
Gioia del Colle is the capital of the South-East Murgia Barese mountain community, which groups together 6 municipalities.
Sport
Football
The main football team in the city was the A.S.D. Pro Gioia, which played in Group B of the First Category until 2011. It was founded in 1911. The company colors are yellow and black. Currently there is the Partizan Gioia which plays in the Second Category.
Volleyball
The local volleyball team is the New Real Volley Gioia which plays in the Italian A2 series of men's volleyball. The company colors are white and red. The team inherits the glories of the ASPC Volley Gioia and the Gioia del Volley company which boasted 4 seasons in the top flight: 1994–1995, 1995–1996, 2003–2004 and 2004–2005 as well as a Serie A2 Italian Cup final. Currently the structure that hosts the home matches of the New Real Volley Gioia is the PalaCapurso, a sports hall in Gioia del Colle.
After the excellent volleyball tradition started by the main team since 1975, other realities started in the national volleyball scene. The A.S.D. New Volley Joy of women's volleyball plays in the 2012–2013 season in the women's Serie C.
Other sports
Local rugby team Federiciana Rugby A.S.D. was founded in 2010. It plays in the Apulian Serie C of the Italian Rugby Federation. In 2013 the team was refounded taking the name of Rugby Club Granata A.S.D., relying on a new technical guide. In 2017 the team is tinted pink, to become a women's rugby team at 7.
Basketball is played at a youth level. The A.S.D. Gioia Running was founded in 2012 and it participates in running competitions at the regional level.
Paolo Cantore, Patrizia Castellaneta and Vito Acito are militants in the A.S.D. Archers of the Murgia. They are athletes and they several times won the FITARCO regional title in the discipline of archery. Patrizia Castellanete in 2011 won the title of absolute Italian champion and Paolo Cantore in 2014 won the title of Italian team champion.
Sport systems
The local stadium is named "P. Martucci" and it is used by the local football teams. The F.I.G.C.-L.N.D. objected to the use of the facilities for rugby matches. Palasport Gioia del Colle is used for volleyball and basketball and it is called PalaCapurso. Finally, there are the PalaKoutnetsov, known as 'Palestrone' where the youth sector matches of Team Volley Joya (the Academy), of New Volley Gioia (Women's C Series) are hosted as well as matches of the youth championships of other Gioia volleyball teams.
People
Gigi Angelillo, actor.
Ricciotto Canudo, intellectual and theorist of the cinema.
Nicola Legrottaglie, Italian association football player.
Maurizio Vasco, author and journalist, living in New York City.
Bob Pisani, journalist CNBC, whose grandfather was from Gioia del Colle
Frank Stallone Sr., father of Sylvester Stallone, born in Gioia del Colle before emigrating to the United States
Sergeant Romano, of the Bourbon army. (it.)
Sebastiano Cantore, actor and character of TV Series "Sebian"
Trivia
The song L'onorevole Bricolle by Clara Jaione (1948), which Claudio Villa later famously interpreted, is about the wry story of a fictitious "Honorable Bricolle, a Member of Parliament from Gioia del Colle".
References
Bibliography
Vincenzo Tuccillo. La nostra Gioia del Colle. Fasano, Schena Editore, 1998. .
A. Ciancio, C. Colafemmina, C. D'Angela, A. Donvito, M. I. Gatti, M. Girardi, F. Matarrese, R. Striccioli, M. Tondo, A. M. Tripputi. Gioia – Una città nella storia e civiltà di Puglia. Fasano, Schena Editore, 1986. .
L. Bertoldi Lenoci, A. Ciancio, A. Donvito, L. Fico, M. Girardi, N. Lavermicocca, O. Liuzzi, V. Marinelli, A. Muscedra, T. Piacente, D. Posa, G. Salvatori, A. Siciliano, R. Striccioli. Gioia – Una città nella storia e civiltà di Puglia. Vol. 2. Fasano, Schena Editore. .
E. Cavalieri, P. Cordascio, E. M. De Juliis, A. Donvito, M. Donvito, M. Girardi, F. Magistrale, A. Muscedra, V. Marinelli, A. Muscedra, F. S. Perillo, L. Rossi, A. Siciliano, F. Terzulli. Gioia – Una città nella storia e civiltà di Puglia. Vol. 3. Fasano, Schena Editore, 1992. .
Nicola Bitetti. Le chiese di Gioia nella storia e nell'arte. Fasano, Schena Editore, 1986.
Pino Dentico, Nunzio Ponte, (1991), Le ciminiere mute – l'avventura di un'impresa pugliese fra Ottocento e Novecento, Fasano, Schena Editore
Adolfo Armando Celiberti, Pagine di storia gioiese, in "Archivio Storico Pugliese", anno XIV (1961).
Vito Umberto Celiberti, Storia documentaria di Gioia Del Colle, dalle origini a roberto D'Angiò, Bari 2000. Cfr. anche Da Monte Sannace a Gioia "Storia di due città", Bari 2002
External links
Official website
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1962 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1962 24 Hours of Le Mans was a motor race for Experimental cars and Grand Touring cars, staged at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, France on 23 and 24 June 1962. It was the 30th Grand Prix of Endurance and the eighth round of the 1962 International Championship of Manufacturers.
The race was won by Olivier Gendebien and Phil Hill driving a Ferrari 330 TRI/LM.
Regulations
The CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulations body) initiated its new championship aimed specifically for GT cars. The International Championship of Manufacturers was expanded to fifteen races, including endurance and short races and hill-climbs, open to all or some of the eligible classes.
However the Le Mans organisers, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO), realised the public popularity of the Sports Car category and formulated their own development of the existing rules. The aim was to encourage prototypes of potential future GT designs. The maximum engine size for those cars (now called ‘Experimental’) was lifted from 3 to 4 litres. This approach was adopted by the four major endurance events (Sebring, Targa Florio, Nürburgring and Le Mans) who combined to create the Challenge Mondial de Vitesse et Endurance (Speed World Challenge) within the FIA championship that lasted to 1974.
Entries
The ACO's ideas had the desired effect and there were 79 applications for the race to be reduced to 60 cars to practice for the 55 starting places.
Aside from Ferrari and Maserati, a number of companies arrived with new prototypes including Aston Martin, Tojeiro, TVR, Abarth and OSCA. The CSI windscreen rules were influencing design, favouring closed-cars, and only 6 of the 55 starters were open-top.
There were 28 ‘works’ entries. Four-car teams came from Ferrari, Abarth and Panhard et Levassor. Most other works and privateer teams brought 3-car teams.
Again, Ferrari was the dominant marque in the race with 18 entries – the biggest representation from any marque at a Le Mans. Sports-car specialist Abarth was next with 9 cars.
SEFAC Ferrari had bounced back from the chaos at the end of 1961, when top designer Carlo Chiti led a walkout of key staff from the company. His last design, the new 330 TRI/LM was finished by Mauro Forghieri. This last front-engined Ferrari sports car had a 4-litre V12 developing a mighty 390 bhp. It was given to Ferrari's best endurance pair, Phil Hill and Olivier Gendebien. The same engine was also fitted into an updated version of the 250 GTO (Chassis No. 3765), the 330 LMB to be driven by Mike Parkes and Lorenzo Bandini. Ferrari also arrived with two variations of its successful mid-engine cars, the 246 SP V6 for the fan-favourite Rodriguez brothers, and the 268 SP V8 for Ludovico Scarfiotti / Giancarlo Baghetti.
The previous year's TRI/61 cars were sold, one each, to the two Ferrari customer teams: the North American Racing Team (NART) who also had a non-standard 250 GT that had to enter the ‘Experimental’ category. The other went to Italian Count Giovanni Volpi’s Scuderia Serenissima team. However, the count had incurred Enzo Ferrari’s wrath by hiring Chiti and his fellows and could no longer buy Ferrari cars. He therefore got Chiti to redesign a 250 GT with large aerodynamic back end. Nicknamed the ‘breadvan’ its low profile made it very fast, and it was given to Carlo Maria Abate and Colin Davis.
Bucking the trend of moving toward mid-engined cars, the new Maserati T151 was a front-engined 3.9-litre V8 generating 360 bhp and an aerodynamic Kamm tail. Four were entered, including two for Briggs Cunningham and the new Maserati France team. They proved to be the fastest cars on the straights, reaching 287 kp/h (180 mph). However they lost time to the better-handling Ferraris through the curves.
Aston Martin returned to Le Mans with a new prototype based on its DB4 – the Project 212. John Wyer, the team manager and mastermind behind their 1959 Le Mans win was now the company's CEO. The 4-litre Straight-6 engine developed 330 bhp and pushed the car to 270 kp/h (170 mph) down the Mulsanne straight. The car would be raced by Masten Gregory and Graham Hill.
Le Mans regulars, the Ecurie Ecosse team, got John Tojeiro to build them a pair of coupés, utilising a mid-mounted 2.5-litre Coventry Climax F1 engine. The chassis were barely finished in time, and were dispatched to Le Mans unpainted. When the transporter had a traffic accident in Kent en route, it damaged the ready car, so the team chose to scratch the unassembled car.
In the middle-sized engine classes, there was only a single entry from TVR, the small British sports-car manufacturer, in the 2-litre class. A similar British company, Marcos, was in the 1.6-litre class against a pair of OSCA 1600GTs. The 1300cc class was solely contested by five Abarth coupés, now powered by 125 bhp SIMCA engines.
In the smallest classes there was a remarkable change to the entry list from the previous years. Abarth augmented their larger cars with standard 700cc Fiat-engined cars. After the break-up of the Deutsch et Bonnet partnership, Panhard and Bonnet arrived with new cars. Charles Deutsch stayed with Panhard power for the returning works team, while René Bonnet presented his new Djet with Renault engines.
At the recent race at a wet Nürburgring, Colin Chapman’s Lotus 23 driven by Jim Clark had led the whole field. He entered two such cars for Index honours, but was stymied at scrutineering because the front and rear wheels had different numbers of wheel studs. The officials said the compulsory spare wheel therefore could not be universally applied. Chapman pulled the entries and swore he would never return to Le Mans – and never did.
As with previous years, the GT division was dominated by Ferrari cars. As well as three of the 250 GT, there were five of the stunning new 250 GTO entered by customer teams. It carried the 3-litre engine from the Testarossa sports car. Although the GT regulations stipulated that 100 examples had to have been built, Ferrari was able to convince the authorities that it was actually a derivation of an existing model - the 250 GT. Permitted under the rules loophole, it could use that production record to get homologation (the ‘O’ in ‘GTO’).
The previous year's Jaguar E2A prototype had now been homologated as the ‘E-type’ and there were three such cars entered, including Briggs Cunningham’s team again. Cunningham was co-driven by Le Mans race-winner Roy Salvadori because he could not fit into Brigg's Maserati cars. As well as an Austin-Healey 3000, there were also a pair of Aston Martin DB4s including a return from Frenchman Jean Kerguen.
The biggest car in the field was the private American-entry Chevrolet Corvette, virtually stock with its 327 cu in (5.4-litre) Stingray engine modified to produce 360 bhp.
In the 2-litre GT class, the Morgan Plus 4 works car was entered again after being rejected in the previous year for looking too old-fashioned. The Super Sport version had an uprated Triumph engine produce 115 bhp and capable of .
The 1.6-litre class was to be a battle between three Porsche-Abarths (Porsche 356 B Carrera GTL Abarth, also referred to as Porsche 695 GS Abarth) and three works Sunbeams. Porsche had decided not to enter their new Flat-8 in the Experimental class. In the 1.3-litre class it was between the Elites of Team Lotus and the Alfa Romeo Giuliettas of the Scuderia St Ambroeus.
Practice
Once again, the public roads were closed to allow a test weekend on 7–8 April, which 33 entrants availed themselves of. Fastest time was put down by Willy Mairesse in the Ferrari 250 GT SWB, doing a 4:07.1, quicker than his time in the new GTO of 4:10.8.
On race-week, in the Wednesday evening practice Phil Hill, Ferrari's F1 world champion, broke Mike Hawthorn’s longstanding lap record from 1957 by over two seconds (3:55.1). Mike Parkes in the GTO prototype was second fastest (3:58.6), then came Thompson in the Cunningham Maserati (3:59.1), the Aston Martin of Graham Hill (3:59.8), McLaren’s Maserati (4:01.3) and Pedro Rodriguez in the Ferrari (4:02.2).
By contrast the Bianchi’s new Abarth-Simca recorded a 4:34.3. The only serious incident was when Robert Bouharde crashed his small Bonnet Djet at Maison Blanche, destroying the car. He was taken to hospital with a knee injury.
Race
Start
Saturday was fine and sunny. This year Maurice Baumgartner, new President of the CSI, was the honorary starter. Graham Hill was the first under the Dunlop Bridge but got into a drag race down the long straight with Parkes in the GTO prototype. With both cars braking late, the Aston Martin punted the Ferrari off into the sandtrap at Mulsanne corner, immediately costing him many laps. On the second lap Gendebien managed to pass Hill cleanly on the straight. On the third lap the TVR became the first retirement when Peter Bolton pitted with all his water gone, long before any replenishment was permitted.
So for the first hour the big Ferrari led Hill from the three Maseratis of Kimberley, Trintignant and McLaren. Pedro Rodriguez had initially got up to third before slipping back to sixth. Then came the Ferraris of Gurney, Baghetti, Abate’s ‘breadvan’ and Guichet's GTO leading the GT division in tenth. But the better handling and fuel economy of the Ferrari got the Mexican brothers back to second as the pit stops rotated. Pushing Phil Hill hard (he broke Hawthorn's 1957 race lap record in the third hour) they hit the front in the third hour. The other Ferrari of Scarfiotti/Baghetti slotted into a secure third place.
Count Volpi's ‘breadvan’ Ferrari had been running 7th, leading the other GTOs when it was stopped by a broken propshaft in the 3rd hour. After running in fourth for the first three hours, a faulty dynamo on the Aston Martin necessitated a number of pit-stops, taking it out of the running and it finally retired before midnight. The three Maseratis stayed in contact, taking the lead briefly on fuel-stop strategies.
Night
Dick Thompson was the first Maserati to falter (about 8.30pm) when he spun at the Esses with new brake pads, swiping the rear and rupturing his oil-tank. McLaren's Maserati had got into second but threw a tyre-tread that dropped it a number of places. Mike Parkes’ trip to the sandtrap eventually killed the 330 LMB's radiator and they were retired after 10pm.
The two Ferraris swapped the lead throughout the night, thrilling the huge crowd with close racing. Third, and two laps back, was the Scarfiotti Ferrari then the leading GTO, of Noblet. The French Maserati had been running 7th but retired about 2am after an earlier spin on oil had left the suspension dangerously off-balance. The Maserati challenge finally died out when the second Cunningham car, of Hansgen/McLaren running 6th, retired in the 12th hour when its differential packed up.
The Ecosse Tojeiro had been running midfield until just before 11pm when Tom Dickson suddenly found himself coasting in neutral in the fast section approaching Maison Blanche. It was several dangerous minutes, with cars racing past in the darkness before marshals were able to assist pushing the car off the track to safety. The big Chevrolet V8 had likewise been running midfield but soon after the halfway mark Jack Turner accidentally put the car into reverse at the Mulsanne corner. Destroying the gearbox it was left with only third gear and the constant hi-revs soon broke the fuel injection.
Morning
For once a dry night dawned into a sunny day. Only 33 of the 55 starters were still running. Things were falling Ferrari's way until at 4.45am the Rodriguez car suddenly broke its final drive. This finally allowed Hill & Gendebien to ease off and rest a potentially troublesome clutch. There was still drama for Gendebien though when he narrowly missed a big accident with a backmarker that was stopped in the middle of the road after spinning in the dawn light. Three hours later the other Ferrari also retired on the Mulsanne straight, with a broken clutch. This moved up the new Ferrari GTOs onto the podium: Pierre Noblet's privateer entry ahead of the NART modified-GTO of Grossman/Roberts and the Equipe Nationale Belge car of “Beurlys”/”Eldé”.
The two remaining Jaguar E-types were next, the British privateers keeping four laps ahead of Briggs Cunningham. In a race-long duel the leading, Herrmann/Barth, Porsche 2-litre GT had been chasing the smaller 1.2-litre Lotus Elite of Hobbs/Gardner. Both had steadily moved up the field through the night and got into the top-10 during the morning. Then the Lotus dropped onto three cylinders allowing the Porsche to overtake it.
Finish and post-race
Positions remained relatively static for the last four hours, excepting the American Ferrari that slipped to sixth with starter-motor problems. Hill and Gendebien finished a comfortable 5 laps ahead of the Frenchmen. Noblet/Guichet improved from their 3rd-place from the previous year, winning the GT division and finishing a clear 12 laps ahead of the Belgian GTO.
The rest of the field has clusters of close finishes: In the last hour, Cunningham's Jaguar finally managed to get past their British rivals and finished 4th. Peter Sargent's car had a broken engine mount then its gearbox got jammed in top gear but were able to nurse the car home.
In the end, Herrmann and Barth had a strong finish in the Porsche, despite a failing gearbox, and pushed up to finish 7th, less than a lap ahead of the recovering Lotus. Chapman was thrilled to be able to win the Index of Thermal Efficiency (achieving over 20mpg), sharing the prize with the Dubois/Harris Abarth-Simca.
In the battle for the Index of Performance between the French Panhard, Renault and SIMCA, victory went to the sole-surviving CD-Panhard of Guilhardin/Bertaut. In a close finish they just beat two of the new Bonnet-Renault Djets. The ‘old-fashioned’ Morgan soldiered on throughout and after their sole competition Equipe Chardonnet AC Ace retired after only four hours, the finished 13th and claimed the GT 2-litre class win.
Even though only four of their 15 starters made it to the finish, the win made Ferrari the most successful marque at Le Mans, with six wins, ahead of Jaguar's and Bentley's five. As it turned out, it would be the last win for a front-engined car. His fourth win made Olivier Gendebien became the most successful driver at Le Mans – until the arrival of the legendary Jacky Ickx at the end of the decade. That success, and the near miss he had at dawn, convinced him to promptly announce his retirement while on a highpoint.
This was the last Le Mans for OSCA – in 1963 the Maserati brothers sold the company to Count Domenico Agusta, owner of the motorcycle company MV Agusta. Likewise, this was the last hurrah for the original Ecurie Ecosse team, who had won the race outright in 1956 and 1957 with the Jaguar D-type.
Over several years, the young Mexican Rodriguez brothers had excited the crowd with their fast, competitive driving. The younger brother, Ricardo, was killed in November in practice for the non-championship Mexican Grand Prix. He was 20 years old. Paul Armagnac, twice a winner of the Performance Index for DB, had recently built a new circuit at Nogaro in south-western France. This was his last of eight Le Mans as he too was killed at the end of the year, at Montlhèry.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Note: Only the top nine positions are included in this set of standings.
Index of Performance
Taken from Moity's book, at odds with Quentin Spurring's book
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – P.Hill, #6 Ferrari 330 TRI/LM – 3m 55.1s;
Fastest Lap – P.Hill, #6 Ferrari 330 TRI/LM – 3:57.3secs;
Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – 300 000+
Challenge Mondial de Vitesse et Endurance Standings
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (2009) Le Mans 'The Ferrari Years 1958-1965' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960-69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wilkins, Gordon - editor (1962) Automobile Year #10 1962-63 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1962 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 2 December 2017
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 2 December 2017
Sportscars.tv – race commentary. Retrieved 2 December 2017
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 2 December 2017
Team Dan, as archived at web.archive.org – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings.
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 2 December 2017
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1961 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 10 August 2017
YouTube – short British Pathé clip in colour (1 min). Retrieved 2 December 2017
YouTube – short British Pathé clip in b/w (1 min). Retrieved 2 December 2017
motorsport.tv – video summary of the race in colour (10 mins). Retrieved 5 March 2023
24 Hours of Le Mans races
1962 World Sportscar Championship season
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Breslau
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Siege of Breslau
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The siege of Breslau, also known as the Battle of Breslau, was a three-month-long siege of the city of Breslau in Lower Silesia, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland), lasting to the end of World War II in Europe. From 13 February 1945 to 6 May 1945, German troops in Breslau were besieged by the Soviet forces which encircled the city as part of the Lower Silesian Offensive Operation. The German garrison's surrender on 6 May was followed by the surrender of all German forces two days after the battle.
Background
In August 1944, Adolf Hitler declared the city of Breslau to be a fortress (Festung), ordering that it must be defended at all costs. He named Karl Hanke (Gauleiter of Silesia since 1941) to be the city's "Battle Commander" (Kampfkommandant).
On 19 January 1945, the civilian population was forced to leave. Many thousands died in the bitter cold of the makeshift evacuation; many more arrived in Dresden. The German Army, aided by the Home Guard (Volkssturm) and slave labourers, then turned the city into a military fortress: Breslau was to be capable of a lengthy defense against the advancing Soviets. A large area of the city center was demolished and turned into an airfield. Late in January, a regiment of Hitler Youth (Hitler-Jugend) was sent to reinforce the garrison of Festung Breslau. SS regiment "Besslein" (which included volunteers from France and the Netherlands) also took part.
On 2 February 1945, Hanke presented colors to the newly formed Home Guard units in Breslau. On the same day, Major General Hans von Ahlfen became the garrison commander of Fortress Breslau. Ahlfen, who commanded for only three weeks, had been personally selected by the Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Center (Heeresgruppe Mitte), Ferdinand Schörner.
Prelude
The capture of a bridgehead on the west bank of the Oder by the 1st Ukrainian Front during the Vistula–Oder Offensive allowed the Soviet forces to encircle Breslau. Breslau fell in the sector of the Soviet 6th Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Vladimir Gluzdovsky. Gluzdovsky, who had been relieved of his army command for his performance in positional fighting in eastern Belarus during the winter of 1943–1944, commanded the 6th Army on a secondary attack axis during the Vistula–Oder Offensive. Marshal of the Soviet Union Ivan Konev, commander of the 1st Ukrainian Front, in a 31 January directive, ordered the 6th Army to attack the rear of the German forces defending Breslau, and to capture the city within four days of the beginning of the attack, part of the Lower Silesian Offensive. The Breslau attack was not a priority for Konev, as the same directive also tasked his troops with reaching the Elbe and capturing Berlin. However, the capture of Breslau would secure a crucial road junction, ensuing uninterrupted supply of the front.
The start of the attack of the 6th Army was delayed for two days, from 6 to 8 February, by the overstretched supply lines of the front, which resulted from the advances it made during the Vistula–Oder Offensive. Due to a lack of rail transport, fuel and ammunition had to be transported from right bank of the Vistula to the Oder bridgeheads by road. Despite securing vehicles from the units defending the bridgehead, the 6th Army scraped together just 170 vehicles to transport 350 tons of ammunition and 180 tons of fuel. By the morning of 8 February, artillery and mortar units had enough ammunition for between two and five units of fire and infantry guns enough for between one and a half and two units of fire. The only tank support for the army was provided by the 7th Guards Mechanized Corps of Lieutenant General Ivan Korchagin, which late on 7 February fielded 186 T-34 tanks, and 21 each of the ISU-122 and SU-76 self-propelled gun, and the SU-85 tank destroyer – almost at its authorized strength. Only six T-34s were listed as under repair.
Encirclement of Breslau
Nearly an hour of artillery bombardment, begun at 08:35 on 8 February, preceded the start of the 6th Army attack. Elements of the 7th Guards Mechanized Corps crossed to the bridgehead, accompanied by the artillery bombardment, and by 12:00 its first echelon, which consisted of the 24th Guards Mechanized and 57th Guards Tank Brigades, outran their infantry support and advanced into the rear of the German defenses. The two forward brigades ran into fierce German resistance on the railway line from Breslau to the southwest on 10 and 11 February, with the 25th Guards Mechanized Brigade and 57th Guards bogged down at the Domslau station and Koberwitz village and station, respectively. They suffered heavy losses in tanks and men to German tanks and artillery, as well as panzerfausts fired from house basements. Combining their attacks, the 25th and 57th Guards broke through between Domslau and Koberwitz, but were stopped. During the same days, the corps' 24th and 26th Guards Mechanized Brigades, holding defensive positions, were struck by a German tank counterattack between Gross-Baudis and Kostenblut; the latter attempted to break through to Breslau and prevent the encirclement, although the failure of the Soviet attack soon made further counterattacks meaningless.
The 24th and 26th Guards Brigades were relieved by the 309th Rifle Division, fresh from the fighting at Liegnitz, early on 12 February. The bringing up of infantry units strengthened the Soviet defense on the outer edge of the partial encirclement. Another German counterattack, involving the 8th and 19th Panzer Divisions as well as Volkssturm and flak units, began at 18:20 on that day, lasting until 13 February; this extended from Kostenblut to Kanth, to the east of the 10–11 February counterattack as the former was the narrowest part of the encirclement, where the outer and inner rings were separated by only 30 kilometers. It achieved temporary success with the capture of Gross Peterwitz, but was soon pushed back to its jumping-off positions by a Soviet counterattack on its flank. The German situation further deteriorated with the approach of the 273rd Rifle Division, which approached the fighting from the west and north, pushing the German forces further to the south and taking up defensive positions on the line of Strigauer Wasser river, securing the outer encirclement ring. At 14:00 on 13 February, the 309th Rifle Division, after repulsing the German counterattack, began advancing on Breslau from the southwest.
At 08:00 on 13 February a patrol from the corps' 25th Guards Mechanized Brigade discovered a self-propelled artillery regiment of the 5th Guards Army in Rotsurben, a road junction to the south of Breslau. The encirclement was closed when the brigade's 12th Tank Regiment linked up near Rotsurben with the 252nd Tank Brigade of the 31st Tank Corps of the 5th Guards Army. A last breakout attempt was made on the night of 13–14 February by elements of the 269th Infantry Division and other units trapped in Breslau, who attacked the inner ring of the encirclement. Simultaneously, the 19th Panzer Division again attacked the outer ring, with both German forces meeting in the area of Tinz. Two brigades of the 7th Guards Mechanized Corps were involved in heavy night fighting, only restoring their positions by 11:00 on 14 February. The brief corridor created by the German attack enabled the escape of civilians trapped in Breslau in addition to the German soldiers, according to German historian Rolfe Hinze. With the city having been declared a fortress, thousands of forced laborers from local prisons and concentration camps were brought in to build defenses and clear rubble. Many would be executed or would die in the crossfire.
Siege
The infantry units of the 6th Army consolidated the advances of the 7th Guards Mechanized Corps between 14 and 16 February, solidifying the inner ring of the siege. The 7th Guards Mechanized Corps was withdrawn on the night of 15 February due to a German counterattack in the Strigau area; by the evening of 14 February, Korchagin's command was down to 108 T-34s, nine ISU-122s, seventeen SU-85s, and thirteen SU-76s, showing its heavy losses in the encirclement of Breslau. In preparation for the transfer of the 5th Guards Army to another sector, its 294th Rifle Division, advancing on Breslau from the east, was transferred to the 6th Army. The latter also received the 77th Fortified Region from the 52nd Army, which defended the northern bank of the Oder. Beginning on 18 February, the 273rd Rifle Division and the reserve regiments of the 6th Army began relieving the units of the 5th Guards Army to the southeast of Breslau; the composition of the 6th Army remained unchanged for the rest of the siege. The 6th Army besieged the city with the 22nd and 74th Rifle Corps, and the 77th Fortified Region, as well as other smaller units. 50,000 German troops defended the city.
Meanwhile, 22nd Rifle Corps commander Major General Fyodor Zakharov ordered his unit at midday on 14 February to capture the southwestern part of the city and advance to the city center by the end of the day. However, the corps' attacks on the Breslau outskirts in the following days proved unsuccessful. The 309th overcame the Lohbrück–Opperau line, while the 218th Rifle Division took Krietern; the German resistance rendered a speedy advance to the city center in a day unfeasible. The 218th began an attack on the key railway embankment in the southwest of the city on 18 February and captured it on the next day, bringing the Soviet forces within two miles of the city center. The 667th Rifle Regiment of the 218th advanced into the Südpark but was forced to retreat back to the railway line on 20 February by a counterattack of the 55th Volkssturm Battalion, made up of Hitler Youth, supported by the garrison's assault guns. An exaggerated account of the Hitler Youth counterattack was published in the Nazi propaganda newspaper Völkischer Beobachter in an attempt to show the resolution of the defenders.
Failing to storm the city, Gluzdovsky paused to prepare a thoroughly planned attack. According to the plan prepared by his headquarters on 18 February and approved by Konev a day later, the main attack on the city would be delivered from the south along a two-and-a-half kilometer front from Oltashin to the Südpark with the 273rd and 218th Divisions, reinforced by two regiments from the 309th, forming the shock group; these units comprised the army's strongest divisions in terms of manpower, with the 218th and 309th numbering little more than 5,000 men and the 273rd with slightly above 5,400. Despite being at about half of the authorized strength like many Red Army units by this point in the war, these divisions were well equipped with submachine guns, reflecting Soviet infantry tactics, but had a shortage of heavy and light machine guns. Artillery totalling 572 guns was massed in the attack sector. A secondary attack was ordered on both banks of the Oder to eliminate the German defenses that extended along the river to the northwest. By the end of the first day of the attack, the shock group was planned to advance to the city center and reach the Stadtgraben, the old city moat. Another day was given for the storming of the central island as well as the university, post office, and telegraph. The intelligence directorate of the 6th Army estimated German strength at 18,060, with 141 guns and 45 tanks and assault guns at its disposal. To support the assault, the 280 mm mortars of the 315th Battalion were transferred from the northern sector to the southern sector of the 22nd Rifle Corps. The plan assumed that the forces involved would be ready by 20 February.
For the attack, one assault battalion in each regiment was specially formed for urban combat, totalling ten in the entire shock group, including the 22nd Rifle Corps reserve. Each assault battalion was ordered to include a rifle battalion, two 152 mm guns, and either two ISU-152 self-propelled guns or 203 mm guns, a battery of 76 mm guns, and a sapper group with demolitions, a sapper group with obstacle clearing equipment, a group of backpack flamethrowers, a group of anti-tank riflemen, a sniper group, a machine gunner group, and a group of soldiers armed with captured Panzerfausts. For example, the three assault battalions of the 273rd totalled 872 men, with roughly half armed with submachine guns. The ISU-152s were drawn from the understrength 349th Guards Heavy Self-Propelled Artillery Regiment, Gluzdovsky's only armored force, which fielded eight combat-ready self-propelled guns with six under repair on 19 February. The 6th Army headquarters further recommended that subordinate commanders form assault groups integrating single rifle companies with artillery – operating in direct fire mode – and sappers to capture fortified strongpoints.
On the night of 21–22 February, the forces of the 6th Army regrouped and took up jumping off positions for the impending assault. At this time, the 273rd had only two regiments present as the third was still marching into the city from the Strigau area. The divisions of the 22nd Rifle Corps advanced in the traditional manner – two rifle regiment in the first echelon and the third in the second. The assault began at 08:00 with an artillery preparation of two hours and forty minutes. Between 22 and 23 February the 315th Battalion fired 113 280 mm shells, at a relatively short range of four to 5.5 kilometers.
The Siege of Breslau consisted of destructive house-to-house street fighting. The city was bombarded to ruin by artillery of the Soviet 6th Army, as well as the Soviet 2nd Air Army and the Soviet 18th Air Army, and the destruction caused by the German defenders.
On 15 February, the German Luftwaffe started an airlift to the besieged garrison. For 76 days, until 1 May, the Luftwaffe made more than 2,000 sorties with supplies and food. More than of supplies were delivered. On 2 March, Infantry General Hermann Niehoff replaced Ahlfen as garrison commander. Niehoff held the position until the final surrender on 6 May 1945. On 22 February, 6th Army occupied three suburbs of Breslau, and during the next day, the 6th Army troops were in the southern precincts of the city itself. By 31 March there was heavy artillery fire into the north, south, and west of Breslau suburbs. On 4 May the clergy of Breslau — Pastor Hornig, Dr. Konrad, Bishop Ferche, and Canon Kramer — demanded that Niehoff surrender the town. Hanke ordered Niehoff not to have any further dealings with the clergy.
Local German communists called for an end to the resistance of the city in flyers. In a pamphlet titled the "Freiheits-Kämpfer" (English: Freedom fighters) it called for an end to the fighting and told the local population "not to be afraid of the Red Army who came as liberators". Seventeen of the members of the resistance group were executed on Gauleiter Hanke's orders.
Surrender
Hanke flew out to Prague on 5 May in a small Fieseler Storch plane kept in reserve for General Niehoff. On 6 May, after 82 days of siege and shortly before the unconditional surrender of Germany in World War II, General Niehoff surrendered Festung Breslau to the Soviets. During the siege, German forces lost 6,000 dead and 23,000 wounded defending Breslau, while Soviet losses were possibly as high as 60,000. Civilian deaths amounted to as many as 80,000. Breslau was the last major city in Germany to surrender, capitulating only two days before the end of the war in Europe. Gauleiter Hanke had fled to Prague by the time of the city's surrender.
Hanke attached himself to the 18th SS-Freiwilligen-Panzer-Grenadier-Division "Horst Wessel" in the uniform of an SS private, to conceal his identity in the event of capture. The group surrendered to Czech partisans on 6 May and were marching when a train passed their route. Hanke and several other POWs ran to the train and clung on to it. The Czechs opened fire, with Hanke falling first while two other POWs slumped on the track. They were then beaten to death with rifle butts.
Aftermath
Breslau was transferred to Poland in the aftermath of the war and renamed Wrocław. Most of the German inhabitants in Wrocław fled or were forcibly expelled between 1945 and 1949 and moved to Allied Occupation Zones in Germany. A small German minority still remains in the city. The post-war Polish mayor of Wrocław, Bolesław Drobner, arrived in the city four days after the surrender, on 10 May, finding the city in ruins.
See also
Courland Pocket
German World War II strongholds
Prague Offensive
Second Army (Poland)
SS Fortress Regiment 1
Citations
References
1945 in Germany
Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War
Siege of Breslau
Sieges involving Germany
Sieges involving the Soviet Union
Conflicts in 1945
Battles and operations of World War II involving Germany
Sieges of World War II
Urban warfare
February 1945 events in Europe
March 1945 events in Europe
April 1945 events
May 1945 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20military%20personal%20equipment
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Roman military personal equipment
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Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns, and used in an established manner. These standard patterns and uses were called the res militaris or disciplina. Its regular practice during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire led to military excellence and victory. The equipment gave the Romans a very distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies, especially so in the case of armour. This does not mean that every Roman soldier had better equipment than the richer men among his opponents. Roman equipment was not of a better quality than that used by the majority of Rome's adversaries. Other historians and writers have stated that the Roman army's need for large quantities of "mass produced" equipment after the so-called "Marian Reforms" and subsequent civil wars led to a decline in the quality of Roman equipment compared to the earlier Republican era:
Initially, they used weapons based on Greek and Etruscan models. On encountering the Celts, they based new varieties on Celtic equipment. To defeat the Carthaginians, they constructed an entire fleet de novo based on the Carthaginian model. Once a weapon was adopted, it became standard. The standard weapons varied somewhat during Rome's long history, but the equipment and its use were never individual.
Weapons of a Roman legionary
Pugio
A pugio is a dagger that was used by Roman soldiers, likely as a sidearm. Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger underwent some changes during the 1st century. Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more in width. A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face or defined by grooves on either side. It was changed by making the blade a little thinner, about 3 mm, and the handle was also made out of metal. The tang was wide and flat initially, and the grip was riveted through it, as well as through the shoulders of the blade.
Around 50 AD, a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the shoulders of the blade. This in itself caused no great change to the pugio's appearance, but some of these later blades were narrower (under 3.5 cm wide), and had little or no waisting, and had reduced or vestigial midribs.
Throughout the period, the outline of the hilt remained approximately the same. It was made with two layers of horn, wood or bone sandwiching the tang, each overlaid with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with inlaid silver. The hilt was 10–12 cm long overall and the grip was quite narrow; which produced a very secure grip. An expansion or lump in the middle of the handle made the user's grip even more secure.
Gladius
Gladius is the general Latin word for 'sword'. In the Roman Republic, the term gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC. It is considered to be the primary weapon used by soldiers in war. Several different better-known designs followed; among collectors and historical reenactors, the two primary kinds of swords are known as the Mainz gladius, and the Pompeii gladius which follows the Mainz type, which had itself followed the Hispaniensis (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have confirmed the appearance of the earlier version, the gladius Hispaniensis. The legionaries wore their gladii on their right hips. In order to craft a sword with the strength and flexibility of the gladius, blacksmiths used harder steels on the outer layers of the sword while using softer steels in the centre of the blade.
Spatha
A spatha could be any sword (in late Latin), but most often one of the longer swords characteristic of the middle and late Roman Empire. In the 1st century, Roman cavalry started using these longer swords, and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century, Roman infantry also switched to longer swords, as well as mostly changing from carrying javelins to carrying spears.
Shorter weapons (short swords and possibly sometimes daggers) were known as semispathae or half-swords. A large 3rd-century hoard from Künzing included one triangular-bladed short sword and several narrow-bladed short swords (with 23–39 cm blades). Bishop and Coulston suggest that some or all were made from broken spathae.
Spears and javelins (hastae)
Hasta
Hasta is a Latin word meaning a thrusting spear. Hastae were carried by early Roman legionaries (camillan); in particular, they were carried by and gave their name to those Roman soldiers known as hastati. However, during republican times, the hastati were re-armed with pila and gladii, and only the triarii still used hastae.
A hasta was about 1.8 metres (six feet) in length. The shaft was generally made from ash while the head was usually of iron, although early republican hastae also had tips made of bronze.
Javelin
Although Romans often used the word pila to refer to all thrown javelins, the term pilum also means specifically the heavy Roman throwing javelin of the legions. Lighter, shorter javelins existed, such as those used by the velites and the early legions, called verutum. Other types of javelins were adopted by the late Roman army, such as the lancea and the spiculum, which were heavily influenced by the weapons of Italic warriors.
Pilum
The pilum (plural pila) was a heavy javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally somewhat less than long overall, consisting of a wooden shaft from which projected an iron shank about in diameter and long with a pyramidal head. The iron shank was socketed or, more usually, widened to a flat tang. A pilum usually weighed between , with the versions produced during the empire era being somewhat lighter.
Pila were designed to penetrate both shield and armour, wounding the wearer; but, if they simply stuck in a shield, they could not easily be removed. Some believed that the iron shank would bend upon impact, weighing down the enemy's shield and also preventing the pilum from being immediately re-used. Some versions of the shaft may have fallen off on impact, leaving the enemy with a bent shank in their shield. However, recent evidence suggests that many types of pilum did not bend at all, but reduced the effectiveness of enemy shields by simply getting stuck due to the shape of its larger head and thin shank. In fact, there were many cases where the whole shank was hardened, making the pilum more suitable as a close quarters melee weapon, while also rendering it usable by enemy soldiers. Newer work by M. C. Bishop states that the pila are "unlikely to bend under their own weight when thrown and striking a target or ground" - rather, it is human intervention [e.g., improper removal of a pilum stuck in a target] that is responsible in some way, and that Caesar's writings should be interpreted as the pilum bent when soldiers tried to remove them. A sturdy pilum that does not bend upon impact would be in line with the numerous historical Roman writings that state the pilum was often used as a weapon in melee combat:
For example, in "The Gallic Wars" Caesar writes that at Alesia his troops used the pila as spears or pikes. In the "Life of Pompey" and "Life of Antony", Plutarch describes Caesar's men at Pharsalus jabbing upwards at the faces of Pompey's cavalry with their javelins and Marc Antony's men stabbing at Parthian cavalry with theirs. In Arrian in Array against the Alans, Arrian writes that the first four ranks of the formation should use their pila like spearmen, while the rest should use them like javelins.
Projectile weapons
Bow
The sagittarius was armed with a composite bow (arcus), shooting an arrow (sagitta), made of horn, wood, and sinew held together with hide glue. However, Vegetius recommended training recruits "arcubus ligneis", with wooden bows. The reinforcing laths for the composite bows were found throughout the empire, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.
Crossbow
The cheiroballistra, also known as the manuballista, was a crossbow that was occasionally used by the Romans. The ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is a subject of continuing scholarly debate. Roman authors like Vegetius (fl. 4th century) note repeatedly the use of arrow shooting weapons such as arcuballista and manuballista respectively cheiroballista. While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to handheld mechanical weapons, there is disagreement whether these were flexion bows or torsion powered like the recent Xanten find.
The Roman commander Arrian records in his Tactica Roman cavalry training for shooting some mechanical handheld weapon from horseback.
Sculptural reliefs from Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. These are remarkably similar to the later medieval crossbow.
Plumbatae
Late infantrymen often carried a half-dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called plumbatae (from plumbum, meaning "lead"), with an effective range of c. 30 m, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield.
Entrenching tools
Ancient writers, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of spades and other digging implements as important tools of war. A Roman legion when on the march would dig a ditch and rampart around their camps every night where established camps were not available. They were also useful as improvised weapons.
Dolabra
The dolabra was an Italian pickaxe used as an entrenching tool.
Ligo
A mattock /ˈmætək/ is a hand tool used for digging, prying, and chopping. Similar to the pickaxe, it has a long handle and a stout head which combines either a vertical axe blade with a horizontal adze (cutter mattock), or a pick and an adze (pick mattock). A cutter mattock is similar to a Pulaski used in fighting fires. It is also commonly known in North America as a "grub axe".
Falx
The falx was a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge such as a sickle or a scythe. It was used to clear overgrowth.
Torso armour
Metal torso armour was always heavy and expensive, and it was not always available; not all troops wore it. In the early republic few men wore more than a small breastplate, and light cavalry or light infantry wore little or no armour at any time.
Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used a variety of armour types. Some wore mail shirts, while others wore scale armour or lorica segmentata or laminated-strip cuirass. This last type was a complex piece of armour which in certain circumstances provided superior protection to the other types of Roman armour, mail armour (lorica hamata) and scale armour (lorica squamata). The testing of modern replicas has demonstrated that this kind of armour was impenetrable to most direct hits and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable without padding: re-enactors have confirmed that wearing a padded undergarment known as a subarmalis relieves the wearer from bruising both from prolonged wear and from shock produced by weapon blows against the armour. It was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain. In the 3rd century, the segmentata appears to have been dropped and troops are depicted wearing mail armour (mainly) or scale, the standard armour of the 2nd-century auxilia. The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the Notitia show that the army's fabricae (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts. Officers generally seem to have worn bronze or iron cuirasses, as in the days of the principate, together with traditional pteruges.
Lorica segmentata
Lorica segmentata was a type of body armour primarily used in the early Roman Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The armour itself consisted of broad ferrous strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps. The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back by means of brass hooks, which were joined by leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional strips ('shoulder guards') and breast- and backplates. The form of the armour allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections. During the time of its use, it was modified several times, the currently recognised types being the Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50), Corbridge (c. 40 to 120), and Newstead (c. 120 to possibly the early 4th century) types. There is also a little-known fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Julia in Romania, where there appears to have been a hybrid form, the shoulders being protected by scale armour and the torso hoops being fewer in number and deeper.
The earliest evidence of the lorica segmentata being worn is around 9 BC (Dangstetten), and the armour was evidently quite common in service until the 2nd century AD, judging from the number of finds throughout this period (over 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain). However, even during the 2nd century AD, the segmentata never replaced the lorica hamata - thus the hamata mail was still standard issue for both heavy infantry and auxiliaries alike. The last recorded use of this armour seems to have been for the last quarter of the 3rd century AD (Leon, Spain).
There are two opinions as to who used this form of armour. One is that only legionaries (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and praetorians were issued lorica segmentata. Auxiliary forces would more commonly wear the lorica hamata, or lorica squamata. The second viewpoint is that both legionaries and auxiliary soldiers used the segmentata armour and this latter view is supported, to some degree, by archaeological findings. The lorica segmentata offered greater protection than the lorica hamata for about half of the weight, but was also more difficult to produce and repair. The expenses attributed to the segmentata may account for the reversion to ring-mail after the 3rd to 4th century. Alternatively, all forms of armour may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry waned in favour of the speed of mounted troops.
Lorica hamata
Lorica hamata was a type of mail armour used during the Roman Republic continuing throughout the Roman Empire as a standard-issue armour for the primary heavy infantry legionaries and secondary troops (auxilia). They were mostly manufactured out of iron, though sometimes bronze was used instead. The rings were linked together, alternating closed washer-like rings with riveted rings. This produced a very flexible, reliable and strong armour. Each ring had an inside diameter of between 5 and 7 mm, and an outside diameter of 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the lorica hamata had flaps that were similar to those of the Greek linothorax; they ran from about mid-back to the front of the torso, and were connected by brass or iron hooks which connected to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings would have gone into one lorica hamata.
Although labour-intensive to manufacture, it is thought that, with good maintenance, they could be continually used for several decades. Its utility was such that the later appearance of the famous lorica segmentata—which afforded greater protection for a third of the weight—never led to the disappearance of the ubiquitous mail, and, in fact, the army of the late empire reverted to the lorica hamata once the segmentata had fallen out of fashion.
Lorica squamata
Lorica squamata was a type of scale armour used during the Roman Republic and at later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing. It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians, centurions, cavalry troops, and even auxiliary infantry, but could be worn by regular legionaries as well. A shirt of scale armour was shaped in the same way as a lorica hamata, mid-thigh length with the shoulder doublings or cape.
The individual scales (squamae) were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. They could be tinned as well, one surviving fragment showing bronze scales that were alternately tinned and plain. The metal was generally not very thick, 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 in) perhaps being a common range. Since the scales overlapped in every direction, however, the multiple layers gave good protection. The size ranged from as small as 6 mm (0.25 in) wide by 1.2 cm tall up to about 5 cm (2 in) wide by 8 cm (3 in) tall, with the most common sizes being roughly 1.25 by 2.5 cm (0.5 by 1 in). Many had rounded bottoms, while others were pointed or had flat bottoms with the corners clipped off at an angle. The scales could be flat, slightly domed, or have a raised midrib or edge. All the scales in a shirt were generally of the same size; however, scales from different shirts varied significantly.
The scales were wired together in horizontal rows that were then laced or sewn to the backing. Therefore, each scale had from four to 12 holes: two or more at each side for wiring to the next in the row, one or two at the top for fastening to the backing, and sometimes one or two at the bottom to secure the scales to the backing or to each other.
It is possible that the shirt could be opened either at the back or down one side so that it was easier to put on, the opening being closed by ties. Much has been written about scale armour's supposed vulnerability to an upward thrust, but this is probably exaggerated.
No examples of an entire lorica squamata have been found, but there have been several archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts and individual scales are quite common finds—even in non-military contexts.
Lorica musculata
Shields
Scutum
The scutum (Classical Latin: [ˈskuːt̪ʊ̃]; plural scuta) was a type of shield used among Italic peoples in antiquity, most notably by the army of ancient Rome starting about the fourth century BC.[1]
The Romans adopted it when they switched from the military formation of the hoplite phalanx of the Greeks to the formation with maniples (Latin: manipuli). In the former, the soldiers carried a round shield, which the Romans called a clipeus. In the latter, they used the scutum, which was larger. Originally it was oblong and convex, but by the first century BC it had developed into the rectangular, semi-cylindrical shield that is popularly associated with the scutum in modern times. This was not the only kind the Romans used; Roman shields were of varying types depending on the role of the soldier who carried it. Oval, circular and rectangular shapes were used throughout Roman history.
Parma
The parma was a circular shield, three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but was strongly made and regarded as effective protection. Its strength came from its design of gluing multiple layers of wood together while stretching leather across it to eliminate the shields' vulnerability to water. This may have been due to the use of iron in its frame. It had a handle and a shield boss (umbo).
The parma was used in the Roman army of the mid-Republic, by the lowest class division of the army — the velites. The velites''' equipment consisted of a parma, javelin, sword and helmet. Later, the parma was replaced by the scutum.
Caetra
A light shield of wood and leather, the name from Greek (καίτρεα, Hesych.). Used by tribesmen from Hispania, Mauretania, and Britannia.
Helmets
Galea
Roman helmets, galea or cassis, varied greatly in form. One of the earliest types was the Montefortino helmet used by the Republic armies up to the 1st century BC. This was replaced directly by the Coolus helmet, which "raised the neck peak to eye level and set a sturdy frontal peak to the brow of the helmet". The Galea was used from the late 1st century BC to the late 2nd century AD and it drew influence from the Gallic tribes to the north, hence its name. Roman helmets usually featured a bowl protecting the head, an extension at the back with a neck guard, a ridge above the forehead for additional impact protection and decoration, and hinged cheek guards which left the ears exposed for better hearing in the battlefield. They were eventually replaced by the ridge helmet and the Spangenhelm during the late imperial period.
Limb armour
Manica
From early imperial times to after the fall of the Western Empire, some troops wore segmented armour on one or both arms. The manica was first used by gladiators and it was made either from padded cloth or overlapping metal sheets. Roman legionaries are depicted wearing manicas in engravings of the Dacian Wars.
Greave
Greaves, sheet metal protecting the legs, were widely used in the early republic, and by some troops in the imperial army. Early Roman legionaries would wear a single greave on the left leg which was more exposed under the shield, as it was fashion in Italic cultures.
Clothing
Tunic: a basic garment worn under the armour by all soldiers in the republic and early empire. Normally made of wool. Tunics originally consisted simply of a piece of rectangular cloth sewed to an identical piece, with holes for the arms and head left unsewn. Later, it became fashionable for tunics to be produced with sleeves, and worn with braccae.Subarmalis: A padded jacket made out of linen or leather, worn underneath armours such as the lorica hamata or lorica segmentata to provide impact protection as well as better weight distribution and comfort.Focale: a scarf worn by legionaries to protect the neck from chafing caused by constant contact with the soldier's armour (typically lorica hamata or lorica segmentata) and helmet
Balteus: a sword beltCingulum militare: a type of decorated belt denoting rankBraccae: woollen trousersSubligaria: underpants. Their existence was confirmed by one of the Vindolanda tablets.
Cloak: two types of cloaks were used, the sagum and the paenula. Both were made from wool, which insulated and also contained natural oil to repel water. They were fastened with a fibula. The paenula was hooded in colder climates. Since every common soldier slept in the open, it was important that he have a warm full-length wrap, but necessary that he carry it with him each day regardless of his activities. This was accomplished by a cloak of more than body length, double-folded so that it did not fall beneath the knees when worn. An excellent illustration of this is the statue of Caesar Augustus atop the theater in the Roman city of Orange, in what is now France.Caligae: military boots worn by legionaries and auxiliaries throughout the history of the Roman Republic and Empire. The boots were made from leather and laced up the centre of the foot and onto the top of the ankle. Iron hobnails were hammered into the sole for added strength. Similar to the modern cleat.Pteruges: leather or fabric strips that formed a skirt or sleeves to protect limbs while maintaining mobility and ventilation. They were usually part of a padding coat worn under the armour, such as the subarmalis. Pteruges could be fitted with small metal studs and plates to provide additional protection.
Sarcina
A military pack carried by legionaries. The pack included a number of items suspended from a furca or carrying pole. Items carried in the pack included:Loculus: a leather satchel
Waterskin: Roman camps would typically be built near water sources, but each soldier would have to carry his water for the day's march in a waterskin.
Food: each legionary would carry some of his food. Although a Roman army on the move would typically have a baggage train of mules or similar to carry supplies such as food, legionaries were required to carry about 15 days worth of basic food supplies with them.
Cooking equipment: including a patera, cooking pot and skewer.
Entrenching tools: Carried by legionaries to construct fortifications and dig latrines etc. Each legionary would typically carry either a shovel (batillum) or dolabra (mattock) for digging, a turf cutting tool or a wicker basket for hauling earth.Sudis: stakes for construction of camps
Other
Ballista
The ballista was a powerful catapult, consisting of a beam with a frame at the end, mounting two rigid arms powered by torsion in bundles of sinew at each side, which would pull a bowstring between them propelling the projectile. It launched heavy darts called bolts, or spherical stone projectiles of various sizes. Ballistas were fit with grappling hooks to seize enemy vessels during the Roman civil wars. The Romans would develop an improved version with inward facing arms in the 3rd century, the remains of such were found in the town of Hatra in Iraq.
Scorpio
The scorpio was a torsion-powered catapult-type weapon, similar to a smaller ballista, which fired bolts capable of piercing enemy shields and armour. The Roman army supplied 60 to each legion and they were used both offensively during sieges and defensively as part of the Romans' field camp defenses. They were also mounted on ships and carriages to provide support to infantry.
Onager
The onager was a torsion-powered siege engine in which a sinew or horse hair spring mounted on a wooden frame swung an arm vertically against a stop, hurling projectiles in a high arc. It launched stones from a cup or sling, and it was named after a species of Asiatic ass due to its kick.
Buccina
A brass instrument used in the ancient Roman army. It was originally designed as a tube measuring some 11 to 12 feet in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, and played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube was bent around upon itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad C and was strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer grasped while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the curves over his head or shoulder.
The buccina was used for the announcement of night watches and various other announcements in the camp.
The instrument is the ancestor of both the trumpet and the trombone. The German word for trombone, Posaune, is derived from buccina.
Tribulus
A tribulus (caltrop) was a weapon made up of four sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always pointed upward from a stable base (for example, a tetrahedron). Caltrops served to slow down the advance of horses, war elephants, and human troops. It was said to be particularly effective against the soft feet of camels.
The late-Roman writer Vegetius, in his work De Re Militari, wrote:
Miscellaneous
Roman military standards
Vexillum
Vine staff
See also
Military of ancient Rome
Technological history of the Roman military
Notes
References
Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History'' (late 4th century)
External links
Roman military equipment in the British Museum, Hunterian Museum and National Museum of Scotland
For images of authentic Roman military equipment see www.romancoins.info
Ancient Roman military equipment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Official%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Bridge
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The Official Encyclopedia of Bridge
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The Official Encyclopedia of Bridge (OEB) presents comprehensive information on the card game contract bridge with limited information on related games and on playing cards. It is "official" in reference to the American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) which authorized its production and whose staff prepared and/or supervised its various editions.
The first edition of the Encyclopedia was published in 1964 with Richard Frey as Editor-in-Chief; it was the only one with an edition revised for an overseas market (The Bridge Players' Encyclopedia, 1967). The seventh and latest edition was published in 2011 following intermediate editions in 1971, 1976, 1984, 1994 and 2001. The Executive Editor for the first six was Alan Truscott, bridge editor of The New York Times. For the fourth through sixth editions, Henry Francis succeeded Frey as Editor-in-Chief. Frey and Francis were also successive editors of the ACBL monthly membership magazine. Numerous contributing editors to the Encyclopedia were listed in each edition as were members of Editorial Advisory Boards.
The redesigned seventh edition, in preparation since 2006, was released in November 2011. Editor was Brent Manley, with primary assistance from Mark Horton, Barry Rigal, and Tracey Yarbro. This is the first edition to depart from the traditional alphabetical listing of individual entries and present a compilation of entries grouped into chapters, such as Bidding, Conventions and Card Play. Numerous photographs are included, together with two CDs; one containing the full printed version of the Encyclopedia and the other with biographies and tournament results.
First edition – 1964
The first edition set the ground work for the goals and scope of the Encyclopedia. In its forward, Editor-in-Chief Richard L. Frey observed that:
The only previous Encyclopedia of Bridge was edited by Ely Culbertson and published in 1935 ... The ambitious goal set for this Official Encyclopedia of Bridge was simple to state: "To provide an official and authoritative answer to any question a reader might ask about the game of contract bridge and its leading players."
On its dust jacket, the first edition states:
This encyclopedia is the most complete and authoritative book of information, guidance, and instruction for bridge players, ever published. It covers every aspect of bridge in all bridge-playing countries of the world; it contains complete and lucid definitions of every term; it describes and illustrates every standard bid, every recognized convention, and every type of play.
The first edition is divided into two main parts:
Main listings: The Introduction indicates that the entries in the main listings fall into five main categories (technical, historical, procedural, biographical and geographical, and terminological) and are presented alphabetically over 683 pages with entries frequently ending with cross-references to other entries on related category topics. Over 50 bridge-playing countries are listed and brief biographies of over 1,500 American and over 400 other players are recorded.
Bibliography: The main listings are followed by an eight-page bibliography.
The Harvard University online catalog entry for the first edition includes a note that "A great majority of the unsigned technical entries are by Alan Truscott."
Editors
Richard L. Frey, Editor-in-Chief
Alan F. Truscott, Executive Editor
Editorial Advisory Board
Albert H. Morehead, Chairman
B. Jay Becker
Geoffrey L. Butler
Carlos Cabanne
S. Carini-Mazzaccara
Robert de Nexon
Charles H. Goren
Alfred M. Gruenther
Ranik Halle
Johannes Hammerich
Ernst Heldring
Oswald Jacoby
Eric Jannersten
Alvin Landy
Alphonse Moyse, Jr.
Carlo Alberto Perroux
David R. Pigot
Leon Sapire
Alfred Sheinwold
Charles J. Solomon
Michael J. Sullivan
Severo A. Tuason
Harold Vanderbilt
Waldemar von Zedtwitz
Contributing Editors
Russell Baldwin
Jean Besse
George W. Beynon
Easley Blackwood
Jens Boeck
George S. Coffin
Eric Crowhurst
Victor R. Daly
Albert Dormer
Albert Field
Harry Fishbein
Mrs. A.L. Fleming
Sam Fry, Jr.
Richard Goldberg
Harry Goldwater
M. Harrison-Gray
Mrs. Dorothy Hayden
Lee Hazen
Don Horwitz
Monroe Ingberman
Arturo Jaques
Edwin B. Kantar
Edgar Kaplan
Sammy Kehela
Jack Kelly
Edwart Kempson
José Le Dentu
A. Littman-Lemaitre
Paul Lukacs
Arthur Marks
Mrs. Rixi Markus
Philip Merry
Marshall L. Miles
Victor Mollo
Florence Osborn
George Partos
Harry Polunsky
R. Anthony Priday
Terence Reese
William S. Root
Federico Rosa
Dr. George Rosenkranz
Lawrence Rosler
Ernest Rovere
Jeff Rubens
Howard Schenken
Jerome Scheuer
William Seamon
Ramon Skoroupo
Al Sobel
Norman Squire
Sam Stayman
Roy G. Telfer
Alec Traub
Robert Wakeman
Charlton Wallace
Robert W. Wilson
International Edition
In 1967 an edition revised for the needs of a British and European audience was published by Paul Hamlyn (London) under the title The Bridge Players' Encyclopedia. It was described as an International Edition based on The Official Encyclopedia of Bridge of 1964. The edition modified American spellings, 'translated' bidding structures to the more widely used Acol system, omitted biographical notes on some lesser known Americans and added biographical notes on British and European players resulting in coverage of over 50 countries and over 500 players. The editors were Ben Cohen and Rhoda Barrow.
Second edition – 1971
Richard Frey writes that since the first edition of 1964, ... bridge has attracted new adherents throughout the world, systems and conventions have been more and more influenced by "science" and "artificiality" ...
The second edition is divided into four main parts:
Main listings: technical bidding and play, historical, procedural (tournament organization, laws, etc.), geographical, and terminological. As in the first edition, entries frequently end with cross-references to other entries on related topics.
Biographies of leading personalities: The biographies include over 2,000 Americans and over 500 players from elsewhere.
Tournament results: American Bridge Association National Championships, All-American Regional Championships, and European, Far East and South American Championships. World Championships and USBA Grand Nationals are in the main listings
Bibliography: listed according to subject matter.
Editors
Richard L. Frey, Editor-in-Chief
Alan F. Truscott, Executive Editor
Thomas S. Smith, Managing Editor
Editorial Advisory Board
B. Jay Becker
Geoffrey L. Butler
Carlos Cabanne
S. Carini-Mazzaccara
Charles H. Goren
Alfred M. Gruenther
Ranik Halle
Johannes Hammerich
Ernst Heldring
Oswald Jacoby
Eric Jannersten
Edgar Kaplan
Alphonse Moyse, Jr.
Carlo Alberto Perroux
Leon Sapire
Alfred Sheinwold
Charles J. Solomon
Michael J. Sullivan
Severo A. Tuason
Waldemar von Zedtwitz
Contributing Editors
Mrs. Rhoda Barrow
Jean Besse
Easley Blackwood
Jens Boeck
George S. Coffin
Eric Crowhurst
Victor R. Daly
Albert Dormer
Albert Field
Mrs. A.L. Fleming
Sam Fry, Jr.
Richard Goldberg
Harry Goldwater
M. Harrison-Gray*
Mrs. Dorothy Hayden
Lee Hazen
Don Horwitz
Monroe Ingberman
Arturo Jaques
Edwin B. Kantar
Fred Karpin
Sammy Kehela
Jack Kelly*
Edwart Kempson*
José Le Dentu
A. Littman-Lemaitre
Paul Lukacs
Arthur Marks*
Mrs. Rixi Markus
Philip Merry
Marshall L. Miles
Victor Mollo
George Partos
Harry Polunsky
R. Anthony Priday
Terence Reese
William S. Root
Federico Rosa
Dr. George Rosenkranz
Lawrence Rosler
Ernest Rovere
Jeff Rubens
Howard Schenken
Jerome Scheuer
William Seamon
Ramon Skoroupo*
Terry Smith
Al Sobel
Sam Stayman
Roy G. Telfer
Alec Traub
Robert Wakeman
Charlton Wallace
Robert W. Wilson*
Third edition – 1976
Richard Frey comments on several themes in the foreword to the third edition:
We have seen rapid and radical developments in bidding systems; explosions of new cheating scandals and employment of devices to prevent them; the creation of techniques for warning opponents about bids that have unusual meanings ...
... the newly uncovered evidence that bridge was known and played before the earliest previous accreditation (to Russia) of its origin and its name.
The third edition is organized into the same four parts as the second. There are again over 2,500 biographies but newer and stricter criteria were applied and many previous entries have been superseded by new ones; successes in competitions remain in the appropriate event listings.
Editors
Richard L. Frey, Editor-in-Chief
Alan F. Truscott, Executive Editor
Amalya L. Kearse, Editor, Third Edition
Editorial Advisory Board
B. Jay Becker
Geoffrey L. Butler
Carlos Cabanne
S. Carini-Mazzaccara
Herman Filarski
Richard L. Goldberg
Charles Goren
Alfred M. Gruenther
Ranik Halle
Johannes Hammerich
Ernst Heldring
Oswald Jacoby
Eric Jannersten
Edgar Kaplan
José Le Dentu
A. Littman-Lemaitre
Carlo Alberto Perroux
Julius Rosenblum
George Rosenkranz
Leon Sapire
Alfred Sheinwold
Waldemar von Zedtwitz
Contributing Editors
Jean Besse
Easley Blackwood
Jens Boeck
George S. Coffin
Ralph Cohen
Eric Crowhurst
Victor R. Daly
Albert Dormer
Robert Ewen
Albert Field
Mrs. A.L. Fleming
Henry G. Francis
Harold Franklin
Sam Fry, Jr.
Richard Goldberg
Harry Goldwater
Lee Hazen
Don Horwitz
Monroe Ingberman
Arturo Jaques
Edwin B. Kantar
Fred Karpin
Sammy Kehela
Ron Klinger
Rhoda Barrow Lederer
Paul Lukacs
Rixi Markus
Philip Merry
Marshall L. Miles
Victor Mollo
George Partos
R. Anthony Priday
Terence Reese
William S. Root
Lawrence Rosler
Ernest Rovere
Jeff Rubens
Howard Schenken
William Seamon
Edith Simon
Terry Smith
Thomas M. Smith
Sam Stayman
Roy G. Telfer
Alec Traub
Robert True
Dorothy Hayden Truscott
Jo Van Den Borre
Robert Wakeman
Charlton Wallace
Fourth edition – 1984
The fourth edition contains 922 pages — the most of any edition. Again, the pace of change in bridge is great as Richard Frey, now Editor Emeritus having been succeeded as Editor-in-Chief by Henry Francis, notes in the Foreword, ... a quantum leap in the technical material ... many new and intriguing methods and ideas have made their appearance in the past seven years, and some have been widely adopted.
The organization of the fourth edition follows that of the third and second.
Editors
Henry G. Francis, Editor-in-Chief
Alan F. Truscott, Executive Editor
Richard L. Frey, Editor Emeritus
Diane Hayward, Editor, Fourth Edition
Editorial Advisory Board
B. Jay Becker
Geoffrey L. Butler
Carlos Cabanne
S. Carini-Mazzaccara
Benno Gimkiewicz
Richard L. Goldberg
Charles Goren
Ranik Halle
Johannes Hammerich
Denis Howard
Oswald Jacoby
Edgar Kaplan
José Le Dentu
Jaime Ortiz-Patiño
George Rosenkranz
Leon Sapire
Alfred Sheinwold
Waldemar von Zedtwitz
Contributing Editors
Bertrand N. Bauer
Jean Besse
Easley Blackwood
George S. Coffin
Ralph Cohen
Eric Crowhurst
Victor R. Daly
George F. Donaghy
Albert Dormer
Sue Emery
Robert Ewen
Albert Field
Irene (Dimmie) Fleming
Harold Franklin
Sam Fry, Jr.
Richard Goldberg
Harry Goldwater
Lee Hazen
Don Horwitz
Monroe Ingberman
Arturo Jaques
Edwin B. Kantar
Fred Karpin
Steve Katz
Sammy Kehela
Ron Klinger
Rhoda Barrow Lederer
Rixi Markus
Philip Merry
Marshall L. Miles
Richard Oshlaf
George Partos
Richard Anthony Priday
Terence Reese
William S. Root
Lawrence Rosler
Ernest Rovere
Jeff Rubens
William Sachen
William Seamon
Edith Simon
Terry Smith
Thomas M. Smith
Sam Stayman
Peggy Sutherlin
Roy G. Telfer
Alec Traub
Robert True
Dorothy Hayden Truscott
Jo Van Den Borre
Fifth edition – 1994
In the Foreword, Alan Truscott notes,The changes in the technical section have been far greater than in any of the earlier editions, reflecting the many theoretical advances in the past decade.
The four part organization of the book follows the format of its immediate predecessors. More than 2,800 bridge personalities are listed in the biographies, largely updated by Dorthy Fancis; Truscott prepared most of the technical and foreign material with Frank Stewart contributing significantly to the technical; the expanded 21 page bibliography was prepared by William Sachen. Previous editions were published by Crown Publishers Inc. of New York; the 5th edition was published by the American Contract Bridge League.
Editors
Henry G. Francis, Editor-in-Chief
Alan F. Truscott, Executive Editor
Dorthy A Francis, Editor, Fifth Edition
Contributing Editors
Phillip Alder
Carlos Cabanne
Larry N. Cohen
Gabriel Chagas
Hugh Darwen
Sue Emery
Albert Field
Santanu Ghose
Richard Grenside
Olof Hanner
Diane Hayward
Per Jannersten
Jared Johnson
Patrick Jourdain
Edgar Kaplan
Phillip Martin
Svend Novrup
David Parry
R. Anthony Priday
Bill Sachen
Ton Schipperheyn
Frank Stewart
Jess Stuart
Dorothy Truscott
Sol Weinstein
Sixth edition – 2001
The front inside panel of the dust jacket states:
"This work is the most complete and authoritative book of information, guidance and instruction ever published for bridge players."
The Foreword states,This edition has been prepared primarily by Henry Francis, with major contributions and help from Alan Truscott and Barry Rigal. Once again Dorthy Francis has updated American biographies and world-wide tournament results. Tim Bourke, who owns one of the world's most complete bridge libraries and who assembled the Morehead Library at ACBL Headquarters, prepared the bibliography.
The four part organization of the book follows the format of its immediate predecessors. More than 3,000 bridge personalities are listed in the biographies; the 60 page bibliography doubled that of the previous edition.
Editors
Henry G. Francis, Editor-in-Chief
Alan F. Truscott, Executive Editor
Dorthy A Francis, Editor, Sixth Edition
Contributing Editors
Phillip Alder
Carlos Cabanne
Gabriel Chagas
Hugh Darwen
Herman De Wael
Elly Ducheyne-Swaan
Albert Field
Santanu Ghose
Anna Gudge
Mazhar Jafri
Per Jannersten
Danny Kleinman
Eric Kokish
Sandra Landy
Jean-Paul Meyer
Svend Novrup
Julian Pottage
Barry Rigal
Gianarrigo Rona
Seventh edition – 2011
The 7th edition had its beginning about 2006, when decisions were made about the format, the contents and the people who would be involved in putting it together.
It departs from previous editions in several ways. Foremost is the medium: two CD-ROM volumes with one book whose contents match the first CD. All previous editions were one-volume books.
This edition introduces photographs and has many of them. It comes with an index instead of a cross-reference table. In the print volume, both pages and font are bigger. The four-part organization introduced in 1971, with a very large alphabetical part one, has been replaced by about 40 chapters and appendices. The printed book and the first CD both comprise chapters 1 to 26. The second volume, CD only, comprises eight chapters of biographical entries and three appendices on Masterpoints, achievements, and tournament results.
Editors
Brent Manley, Editor
Mark Horton, Co-Editor
Tracey Greenberg-Yarbro, Co-Editor
Barry Rigal, Co-Editor
Contributing editors
Current edition
Henry B. Anderson
Bill Buttle
John Carruthers
Simon Cocheme
Lee Daugharty
Tom Dawson
Judy Dawson
Herman De Wael
Fred Gitelman
Robb Gordon
Terre Gorham
Anna Gudge
Peter Hasenson
Per Jannersten
Peggy Kaplan
Paul Linxwiler
Donna Manley
Jan Martel
Kelley McGuire
Jean-Paul Meyer
Pony Nehmert
Julian Pottage
Jeff Rubens
Frank Stewart
Ron Tacchi
Bob van de Velde
Jeroen Warmerdam
Anders Wirgen
Past editions
Phillip Alder
Jean Besse
Larry N. Cohen
Eric Crowhurst
Albert Dormer
Sue Emery
Robert Ewen
Richard Grenside
Olof Hanner
Maurice Harrison-Gray
Diane Hayward
Monroe Ingbergman
Jane Johnson
Jared Johnson
Patrick Jourdain
Edgar Kaplan
Fred Karpin
Sami Kehela
Rhoda Barrow Lederer
Phillip Martin
Marshall Miles
Victor Mollo
David Parry
Tony Priday
Bill Sachen
Jess Stuart
Alec Traub
Dorothy Truscott
Ray Telfer
Sol Weinstein
Contents
The book contains the following Table of Contents; the first of two compact discs (CD) contains a Portable Document Format (pdf) version of the book.
Chapter 1. History
Chapter 2. ACBL Hall of Fame
Chapter 3. CBF Hall of Fame
Chapter 4. Bridge at the Top
Chapter 5. Bridge Museum
Chapter 6. ACBL – How it Works
Chapter 7. Tournaments
Chapter 8. Trophies
Chapter 9. World of Bridge
Chapter 10. Terminology
Chapter 11. Bidding
Chapter 12. Competitive Bidding
Chapter 13. Conventions
Chapter 14. Systems
Chapter 15. Card play
Chapter 16. Matchpoints vs. IMPs
Chapter 17. Carding
Chapter 18. Advanced Plays
Chapter 19. Squeezes
Chapter 20. Suit Combination
Chapter 21. At the Table
Chapter 22. Mathematics at Bridge
Chapter 23. Rules and "Laws" of Bridge
Chapter 24. Bridge and the Digital Age
Chapter 25. Curiosities
Chapter 26. Rubber Bridge
The second CD provides more information about bridge people and competitions per the following table of contents; its contents are not available in print.
ACBL Hall of Fame
CBF Hall of Fame
Grand Life Masters
Platinum Life Masters
Emerald Life Masters
Diamond Life Masters
Other Noted Personalities
ACBL Presidents
National Tournament Directors
Appendix One — North American Results
Appendix Two — Masterpoints Race Results
Appendix Three — World Championship Results
Bibliographic data
See also
Encyclopedic bibliographies on bridge
References
Contract bridge books
20th-century encyclopedias
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4959550
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20African%20Development%20Foundation
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United States African Development Foundation
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The U.S. African Development Foundation (USADF) is an independent U.S. government agency established by Congress in 1980 to invest directly in African grassroots enterprises and social entrepreneurs. USADF's investments aim to increase incomes, revenues, and jobs by promoting self-reliance and market-based solutions to poverty. USADF targets marginalized populations and underserved communities in the Sahel, Great Lakes, and the Horn of Africa. It partners with African governments, other U.S. government agencies, private corporations, and foundations to achieve transformative results.
The USADF measures grant success in terms of jobs created and sustained, household and enterprise incomes increased, and grantee organizations strengthened. For fiscal year 2021, Congress provided USADF with $33 million to carry out activities.
By the time of its 40th anniversary in December 2020, USADF had invested over $265 million via nearly 4,000 grants to African enterprises and impacted over 10 million lives. A study by Foreign Policy Analytics in 2020 determined that for every $10,000 in USADF grant funding in Africa, 25 workers are hired in the agriculture sector, 19 people in youth-led enterprises, and 79 people in the electrical power sector.
According to the OECD, The largest share of gross bilateral ODA from the United States went to sub-Saharan Africa and to partner countries in the least-developed country (LDC) category.
History
Created by an Act of Congress in 1980 as a government corporation, the African Development Foundation began program operations in 1984. It has since provided financing to more than 1,700 small enterprises and community-based organizations.
1977 – Senators Edward Kennedy and George McGovern sponsored S. 1348, the African Development Foundation Act, in the 95th Congress. It proposed to amend the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 to establish USADF to strengthen the bonds of friendship between the people of Africa and the United States and to assist in the development of Africa. It required such Foundation to cooperate with indigenous organizations representative of Africa and other private, regional, and international organizations. It also authorized such a Foundation to make grants, loans, and loan guarantees to African entities for developmental purposes and required the Foundation to give priority to community self-help projects with the maximum feasible participation of the poor. It also provided for the appointment of a Board of Directors to manage such a Foundation.
1983 – The Senate Foreign Relations Committee held hearings on the nominations of William Pickard, Patsy Blackshear, Charles Wells, Chester Crocker, and Frank Ruddy to the USADF Board of Directors. The Senate confirmed the nominations that same year, during which the USADF Board held its first meeting at the offices of the Inter-American Foundation (IAF) in Virginia, USA.
1984 – USADF began to develop its funding program in earnest in 1984, instituting the Foundation's grants-making processes for sourcing, selecting , and supporting community-led enterprise growth projects and monitoring and evaluation. By September 1984, the USADF Board of Directors awarded grants to 11 grassroots organizations totaling $838,000. This first batch of USADF grants was issued in Botswana, Lesotho, Liberia, Mali, Niger, and Zambia.
1985 – 1987 – USADF carried out its development model in 19 African countries, awarding over 100 grants totaling $10.3 million. By the end of 1987, USADF had developed accords or memorandums of understanding with nine African governments.
1989 – Pastoralism was a major focus for USADF in the 1980s as a result of disastrous droughts in West Africa. In 1989, USADF hosted a Herders' Workshop, convening herders, farmers, and artisans from the Savannah and Sahelian zones in Ndutu, Tanzania, to foster learning and networks.
1994 – In line with USADF's focus on promoting disability-inclusive development, the Foundation in 1994 brought together more than 60 persons with disabilities from 15 African countries in Kampala, Uganda. The attendees represented grassroots community groups and intermediary NGOs involved in horticulture, tailoring, furniture making, bookbinding, leadership and vocational training, and the reintegration of former psychiatric patients into communities. The meeting intended to promote and encourage the transitional process of persons with disabilities moving from a charity to an empowerment model.
1996 – USADF re-activated its development activities in Rwanda in 1996 following the 1994 genocide there that claimed nearly a million lives. One of the early post-1996 grantees was Gahaya Links, a handicraft cooperative started by two Rwandan sisters who returned from being in Tanzania as refugees, with a group of Hutu and Tutsi women sitting around a circle, talking and making baskets together.
1998 – USADF entered into its first host country government co-funding partnership in 1998 with the Republic of Botswana, through which USADF and the Government of Botswana provided matching funds for project grants that foster community-led economic development. Since this first co-funding government partnership, USADF has received over $34 million from African governments to implement community-enterprise programming in their countries, demonstrating a continued interest in partnering with USADF in support of peace and prosperity.
2000 – On May 18, 2000, Congress enacted into law the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) as Public Law 106-200. The legislation significantly enhanced market access to the United States for sub-Saharan enterprises and organizations, including for USADF grantees that are increasingly export-ready and landing deals with major retailers such as Costco (cashews), Macy's (handicrafts), Target (shea butter cosmetics), and Whole Foods (textiles).
2004 – President George W. Bush appointed Dr. Ephraim Batambuze and Jack Leslie to the USADF Board of Directors after the U.S. Senate confirmed their nominations. The two joined USADF's leadership as the Foundation implemented new strategic initiatives to expand trade and investment opportunities between Africa and the United States and to provide African communities with resources to prevent HIV/AIDS and mitigate its social and economic impact.
2006 – Throughout the 2000s, USADF supported critical agriculture commodities, including paprika in Zimbabwe, red onions in Niger, vanilla in Uganda, sesame in Burkina Faso, shea in West Africa, and coffee across East Africa. USADF support of coffee cooperatives has facilitated several of them exporting premium coffee to the United States and Europe.
2011 – USADF launched the Turkana Food Security Program in March 2011 with the strategic goal of boosting food security and reducing dependence on food aid in Turkana County, a highly marginalized, arid, and cattle raid-prone region of Kenya. USADF pledged $10 million in development grants and technical assistance; USADF met this goal, having awarded slightly more than USD $10 million to 53 agriculture and energy grantees in Turkana focused on mostly fishing, irrigated agriculture, and livestock. These projects have directly impacted more than 17,000 people (58% of whom were women) and indirectly benefited more than 88,000 people.
2012 – In Somalia, where nearly 70 percent of youth are unemployed, USADF is filling a skills gap by providing vocational training and job placement for youth between the ages of 15 and 35. USADF provides funding to local Somali NGOs to train unemployed youth and work with local businesses to set up five-month training and apprenticeship programs for the youth. Since 2012, USADF funding has facilitated placement for 6,000 youth. Dahabshiil Bank has provided funding alongside USADF that has facilitated 200 placements. Many of the youth participating in the training reported that their income jumped from $50 a month to $300 a month. In 2020, USADF expanded youth training and apprenticeship to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lagos State in Nigeria, Senegal, South Sudan, and Uganda.
2013 – The U.S. government's Power Africa initiative was launched in 2013, bringing together technical and legal experts, the private sector, and governments from around the world to work in partnership to create 60 million new energy connections in sub-Saharan Africa by 2030. Following this launch, USADF began awarding renewable energy grants to small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and African entrepreneurs and has since awarded more than $11 million to over 115 African off-grid energy enterprises to help combat insufficient access to energy across the continent. To date, USADF has leveraged partnership funds from All On, GE, and Nithio Holdings for this portfolio and held various funding challenges in this sector, including USADF's Women in Off-grid Energy Challenge, All On-USADF Off-grid Energy Challenge, and Sahel-Horn of Africa Off-grid Energy Challenge.
2014 – Congress formally changed the Foundation's name in 2014 from the African Development Foundation (ADF) to the United States African Development Foundation (USADF) to reinforce that USADF is a U.S. federal government agency and not an NGO and to further differentiate USADF from the African Development Fund and African Development Bank.
2014 – USADF launched its youth entrepreneurship portfolio in 2014 by funding 35 young Africans to start or scale their social ventures. This initiative was part of the Mandela Washington Fellowship under the U.S. government's Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI). Since launching the entrepreneurship portfolio, which aims to help social entrepreneurs create employment, USADF has provided catalytic funding to more than 300 African youth entrepreneurs.
2020 – Through a partnership with Mastercard Lab for Financial Inclusion, USADF will empower thousands of smallholder farmers in Uganda by extending the reach of the Mastercard Farmer Network (MFN) platform, giving farmers digital access to markets, valuable inputs, financial services, and real-time pricing information. USADF and Mastercard in 2020 completed Phase I of the agriculture digitization pilot in Uganda and reached more than 13,000 farmers through two farmer producer organizations. USADF and Mastercard have created a follow-on Phase II to refine the model and scale its impact by reaching 300,000 farmers.
2020 – As the COVID-19 pandemic threatened the progress USADF had made with grantees across Africa, USADF developed its COVID-19 response strategy in early 2020. The interventions have sought to respond by providing grantees immediate relief and capital assistance, support grantees in repurposing and reconfiguring business models, and building grantees' resilience. A key component of USADF's COVID-19 response is the Capital for African Resilience-building and Enterprises Support (C.A.R.E.S) initiative, through which the Foundation, by June 30, had provided approximately $3 million for over 330 grantees in 21 African countries. Grantees have used these funds to, among other things, manage increased transport costs, decreased production capacity, and insufficient storage for inputs and inventory. Additionally, USADF committed another $2 million to other sectors suitable to fight the pandemic's effects by providing off-grid energy solutions for rural health clinics and isolation and treatment centers and providing grants to support the development of a Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in Africa Coalition (alongside funding from the Western Union Foundation) to meet communities' PPE needs. The Foundation also provided training to youth in Nigeria in healthcare sector jobs as part of its partnership with Lagos State.
2020 – With the creation and implementation of its youth entrepreneurship summit, held in Kenya in 2018 and Senegal in 2019, USADF scratched the surface of the potential of its convening power. The Foundation enhanced its approach to leveraging its convening power in 2020, creating the Financing, Utilization, Networking in Development (FUND) Africa Summit. More than 200 people participated in the inaugural FUND Africa Summit, held in August 2020, as a virtual event due to COVID-19-related travel and gathering restrictions. FUND Africa provided a platform for notable speakers and subject matter experts to hold discussions with grantees on topics such as navigating the COVID-19 world, augmenting business models, and utilizing technology to find efficiency.
2021 – USADF and the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation (DFC) established the Africa Small Business Catalyst (ASBC) – a partnership to promote investments in technology, innovation, and entrepreneurial solutions in African countries. This program combines DFC's powerful financing tools (loans) with USADF's on-the-ground presence and grant making-expertise. Under the partnership, USADF and DFC will provide loans between $50,000 and $500,000, accompanied by grants between $10,000 and $100,000 to African SMEs.
2022 – USADF made several announcements, including on the margins of the 77th United Nations General Assembly and the U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit President Biden hosted. These include:
A. The signing of a five-year, $20 million co-funding partnership with the Tony Elumelu Foundation focused on youth entrepreneurship and SME strengthening via investment toolkits
B. The signing of a five-year, $10 partnership with the Government of Namibia's Ministry of Industrialization and Trade to provide grant investments that enhance and strengthen the competitiveness of SMEs and ensure sustainable development of the rural economy in Namibia
C. The launch of USADF Off-Grid Energy Challenges focused on energy for healthcare, energy for agriculture, and women in energy
D. The expansion of the USADF and the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) Foundation partnership to increase investment and development in Africa
E. The launch of an annual Diaspora Award to provide funding for U.S.-based businesses owned and led by members of the African Diaspora to strengthen trade and investment relationships with African SMEs.
Operations
Working through a community-led development model, USADF provides grant capital of up to $250,000, capacity-building assistance, and convening opportunities to develop, grow, and scale African enterprises and entrepreneurs. These investments improve lives and impact livelihoods while addressing some of Africa's biggest challenges around food insecurity, insufficient energy access, and unemployment, particularly among women and youth. USADF utilizes 100 percent African staff and local partners on the ground across Africa, making it an agile, impactful, and innovative foreign assistance provider able to operate in areas that are often too remote or fragile to be reached by other U.S. government development agencies.
The budget of USADF is funded through annual United States government appropriations for foreign operations. USADF maximizes taxpayer dollars by linking African host country government funds, corporate social investments, and U.S. Government interagency funding sources to achieve sustainable economic growth opportunities for grassroots, small, and growing enterprises in underserved regions across Africa. USADF has leveraged over $34 million from African governments.
In Fiscal Year 2020, USADF awarded 253 new grants, investing primarily in early-stage agriculture, off-grid energy, and youth and women-led enterprises and skills training programs.
USADF is governed by a board of directors that includes seven members who are nominated by the president of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. The board of directors selects the USADF president and CEO, who manages the day-to-day activities of the foundation.
USADF's current countries of operations can be found on its website.
Programs
USADF's program efforts in Africa align closely with congressional priorities in development, trade and investment, youth and women economic empowerment, and the promotion of stability in fragile states and post-conflict regions. Between 2016 and 2021, USADF was a key contributor to the Global Food Security Act, providing over $61 million in 20 African countries to help approximately 3.4 million people overcome food insecurity. USADF works to improve food security and systems in 6 of 12 Feed the Future target countries.
Since the passage of the Electrify Africa Act in 2014, USADF has invested more than $11 million in over 130 off-grid energy enterprises to help combat insufficient access to energy. On average, for every $10,000 USADF invests in off-grid energy enterprises, 79.3 people are connected to reliable electricity.
Congress in 2019 passed into law the Global Fragility Act which focused on addressing the root causes of fragility and instability. Of USADF's 21-country portfolio, 17 countries are classified as fragile or extremely fragile states by the OECD. USADF's focus on supporting grassroots, community-led enterprises and its emphasis on youth and women entrepreneurs and development model dovetail with the Global Fragility Act's requirement that “participatory, locally-led programs that empower marginalized groups such as youth and women” be a component of the Act's Global Fragility Strategy.
Since 2014, USADF has directly supported more than 300 youth entrepreneurs in 40 countries, providing them with a combined $6 million to launch and expand their businesses across Africa. These businessmen and women work across sectors, from health and education to IT and agribusiness to sell goods and services, create jobs, train youth, and increase incomes. A recent study of USADF's youth entrepreneurship portfolio found that youth-led enterprise grantees in the Sahel reached an average of 12,570 beneficiaries or customers over the course of their grants and hired an average of 15 workers. In the Horn of Africa, youth enterprises reached 2,353 customers and hired an average of 273 workers. In the Great Lakes, USADF-funded youth entrepreneurs reached an average of 403 customers and hired an average of 9 workers.
Types of USADF Grants
USADF implements its model utilizing five primary grant types, which include:
1) Operational Assistance Grant (OAG) – Many community enterprises in Africa require initial capacity building prior to pursuing expansion. OAGs are awarded to groups with a potential for longer-term growth and business success but require business planning, technology assessment, management, and financial systems development, market research, training, and technical assistance to position themselves for follow-on investment. Outputs from the OAG are a business plan, improved production and products, a defined market opportunity, an investment plan, improved management capacity, and a fully auditable set of business records. OAG grants are one to two years long and range from $25,000 to $100,000.
2) Enterprise Expansion Grant (EEG) – The EEG is the principal financing mechanism USADF utilizes to assist grantees with an established market and defined business strategy to scale up their activities. The purpose of the EEG is to assist grantees in generating increased revenues, increasing incomes, improving profitability, creating jobs, and positioning themselves for future investments. Applicants for an EEG must have a business track record that reflects a strong production capacity, market knowledge, quality products, and well-developed financial systems and records that will enable the applicant to obtain a USADF financial certification. EEG grants are typically three to four years in length and range from $100,000 to $250,000.
3) Enterprise Linkage Grant (ELG) – The Enterprise Linkage Grant was developed as a tool to position an enterprise to scale up operations by securing outside financing from targeted investors, donors and/or financial institutions. ELGs are awarded to groups that have built a strong organizational foundation and achieved significant revenue growth but are still considered too high-risk to secure traditional financing. USADF assists these grantees in identifying the financing criteria for one or more targeted funders, further developing the enterprise's operations, and securing follow-on financing independent of USADF. ELG grants are six months to three years in length and average $57,000.
4) Fixed Amount Awards (FAA) – The Fixed Amount Award is a grant type USADF provides for a specific level of financial support where grant risks are identified and mitigated up front, and financial requirements are determined based on a defined set of milestones. The recipient's accountability is based primarily on performance and results as determined by the achievement of established milestones. USADF's off-grid energy and youth and women-led enterprise grants fall within this category. FAAs are generally for a term not to exceed 18 months and range from $10,000 to $100,000.
5) Community Reinvestment Grants (CRG) – Community Reinvestment Grants are reimbursable grants for which a portion of grant funds are repaid and reinvested in local community organizations selected by the grantee, with USADF coordination and assistance as needed. A project undertaken through the reinvested funds must be directed at improving the overall quality of community life through social and economic advancement and improvements to community facilities and services. Grantees enter into their own agreements with recipients of the reinvested funds.
See also
Title 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations
References and notes
External links
African Development Fund website
Independent agencies of the United States government
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4959681
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Seventh-day%20Adventist%20secondary%20schools
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List of Seventh-day Adventist secondary schools
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The Seventh-day Adventist Church runs a large educational system throughout the world. As of 2008, 1678 secondary schools are affiliated with the Church. Some schools offer both elementary and secondary education.
They are a part of the Seventh-day Adventist education system, the world's second largest Christian school system.
Southern Africa and Indian Ocean Division
Botswana
Eastern Gate Academy, Francistown
Emmanuel Adventist Academy, Molepolole
Mogoditshane Adventist Primary, Mogoditshane
Mountain View Adventist Academy, Mogoditshane
South Africa
Aurum Seventh-Day Adventist Academy
Bethel high School
Blue Hills College
Cancele Senior Secondary School
Good Hope High School
Good Hope Primary School
Grahamstown Adventist School
Helderberg Pre-primary, Primary, High School and University
Hillcrest Primary School
Keitsleigh Primary School
Paterson Park
Presda
Riverside Primary School
Sedaven Primary and High School
West Rand Sda Primary School
Zambia
Mupapa Secondary School
Rusangu Secondary School
King' s Highway primary and secondary school
Rusangu University
Emmanuel Adventist Secondary School in Chisamba
Fordina Pandeli Secondary School in Mansa
riverside secondary school
Zimbabwe
Anderson Adventist High School, Gweru
Anderson Adventist Primary School, Gweru
Anderson Mutiweshiri Secondary, Mutiweshiri, Wedza
Bemhiwa Primary School, Bocha
Bulawayo Adventist Secondary School, Bulawayo
Chikwariro Adventist High, Bocha
Chinembiri Secondary
Fairview Primary School, Bulawayo
Gunde Primary and High School, Gweru
Handina Adventist Primary and Secondary School, Nyazura
Hanke Mission Primary and Secondary School, Shurugwi
Karirwi Adventist Mission, Bocha
Katsenga Secondary
Lower Gwelo Primary, Secondary and High School, Lower Gwelo
Lowveld Adventist Primary School, Chiredzi
Mandora SDA Primary School, Mhondoro/Kadoma
Maranatha Adventist High, Primary School, Bulawayo
Marewo Primary School, Bocha
Mauya Secondary School
Mkhosana Adventist Secondary School, Victoria Falls
Mtanki SDA Primary School, Gokwe
Mukwada Primary and Secondary School (Bocha)
Mutoranhanga SDA Primary School, Karoi)
Nemane Adventist High School, Tsholotsho
Nemane Adventist Primary School Tsholotsho
Northwood Adventist Primary School, Mt Pleasant, Harare
Nyahuni Adventist High School
Nyazura Adventist Primary and High School, Nyazura
Phelandaba Primary School, Bulawayo
Ruya Adventist High School, Mount Darwin
Shashane Adventist Primary School, Kezi
Shashane Adventist High School, Kezi
Solusi Primary, Secondary and High School Bulawayo
Soluswe Adventist Primary, Tsholotsho
Tshabanda Primary and Secondary School
Zhombe SDA Primary School, Gokwe, Bomba Business Centre
East and Central Africa Division
Burundi
Lycee Delhove de Buganda, Cibitoke
Lycee Maranatha de Kivoga, Kivoga
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Lukanga Adventist Institute, Butembo, Nord-Kivu
Rwamiko Institute, Goma, Kivu
Songa Institute, Kamina
Ethiopia
Kebena Seventh-day Adventist School, Addis Ababa
Akaki Seventh-day Adventist School, Addis Ababa
Kuyera Adventist Academy, Shoa Region
Wollega Adventist Academy, Gimbie
Durame Seventh-day Adventist School, (Durame)
Abonsa Seventh-day Adventist School, (Durame/Abonsa)
Kenya
Chebwai Adventist Secondary School, Western Kenya Conference
Chuka Adventist secondary school, Tharaka Nithi, Meru
Gatumbi SDA Primary and Secondary Schools, Central Kenya Conference, Kirinyaga County
Kabokyek Adventist secondary school, Kericho
Kagwathi Adventist Secondary School, SabaSaba, Murang'a County
Kamagambo High School and Teachers' College, Kisii County
Kanga High School, Ranen Conference, Migori County
Karura Church School, Nairobi
Kiirua Adventist Secondary School, Meru
Kimolwet Mixed Adventist Secondary School, Nandi County
Kiriiria Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Meru, Kenya
Masii Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Masii
Matutu Mixed Adventist Secondary School, Nyamira Conference
Maxwell Adventist Academy, Mbagathi, Nairobi
Menyenya Mixed Adventist High School, Nyamira Conference
Mutitu Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Kikima
Mweiga Adventist Secondary School, Central Kenya Conference, Nyeri County
Nyambaria Adventist Secondary School, Nyamira Conference, Kenya
Nyanchwa Adventist Secondary School, Kisii
Nyangusu SDA Boarding Primary School, South Kenya Conference
Ombogo Girls' Academy, Homa Bay, Kenya
Omobera SDA Girls' High School, South Kenya Conference
Ranen Mixed Adventist Secondary School, Awendo Kenya
Rift Valley Adventist Secondary School, Molo
Segero Baraton Adventist School, Baraton
Segero Mixed Adventist Secondary School, Western Kenya Field
Rwanda
Gitwe Adventist Secondary School, Gitarama
Rwankeri Adventist Secondary School
Ruhengeri
Gisenyi Adventist Secondary School, Gisenyi
Sudan
Eyira Adventist Vocational Academy, Maridi
Tanzania
Alpha Adventist Schools, Kigoma
Bupandagila Secondary School, Bariadi
Busegwe Girls' Secondary School, Mara
Bwasi Secondary School, Mara
Canan Adventist Primary School, Arusha
Chome Secondary School, Same
Ikizu Secondary School, Musoma
Iringa Adventist Secondary School, Iringa
Kabuku Adventist Training College, Tanga
Kameya Secondary School, Ukerewe
Kitungwa Adventist Secondary School, Morogoro
Kongowe Adventist Primary School, Pwani
Mbeya Adventist Pre and Primary School, Mbeya
Ndembela Secondary school, Tukuyu
Nyabihore Secondary School, Mara
Nyanza Adventist Secondary School, Mwanza
Nyasincha Secondary School, Mara
Parane Secondary School, Same
Suji Secondary School, Same, Kilimanjaro
Tanzania Adventist Primary School, Arusha
Tanzania Adventist Secondary School, Arusha
Temeke Adventist Schools, Dar es Salaam
University of Arusha, Arusha
Mbeya Adventist Secondary School, Mbeya
Northern Asia-Pacific Division
China
Hong Kong Adventist Academy, Clear Water Bay, Sai Kung District, New Territories, Hong Kong
Kowloon Sam Yuk Secondary School, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Tai Po Sam Yuk Secondary School, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong
Closed:
Hong Kong Sam Yuk Secondary School, Happy Valley, Hong Kong
Sam Yuk Middle School, Sai Kung, New Territories, Hong Kong
Korea
Anheung Foreign Language Adventist Academy
Busan Sahm Yook Elementary School
Chuncheon Sahm Yook Elementary School
Daegu Sahm Yook Elementary, Middle, and High School
Daejun Sahm Yook Elementary, and Middle School
Gwangju Sahm Yook Elementary School
Hankook Sahm Yook Middle, and High School
Honam Sahm Yook Middle, and High School
Seohae Sahm Yook Elementary, Middle, and High School
Seoul Sahm Yook Elementary, Middle, and High School
Taegang Sahm Yook Elementary School
Wonju Sahm Yook Elementary, Middle, and High School
Yeongnam Sahm Yook Middle, and High School
Taiwan
The Primacy Collegiate Academy (9-12), Taipei, Taiwan
Taipei Adventist American School (K-8), Taipei, Taiwan
Taiwan Adventist International School (9-12), Yuchih, Nantou County, Taiwan
Closed:
Da Jin Adventist Secondary School, Pin Dong, Taiwan
Inter-American Division
Antigua
Antigua and Barbuda Seventh-Day Adventist Primary School
Antigua and Barbuda Seventh-day Adventist School, St. John's
New Bethel Academy
S.D.A. Early-Childhood Development Center
Bahamas
Bahamas Academy of Seventh Day Adventist, Nassau, New Providence
Grand Bahama Academy, Freeport, Grand Bahama
Barbados
Barbados Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Dalkeith, St. Michael
Belize
Belize Adventist Junior College, Calcutta, Corozal District
Canaan Seventh Day Adventist College, Belize City, Belize District
Eden Seventh Day Adventist High School Santa Elena, Cayo District
Valley of Peace Seventh Day Adventist Academy, Valley of Peace, BMP Cayo District
Providence Seventh Day Adventist High School, San Antonio, Toledo District
Cayman Islands
Cayman Academy, George Town, Grand Cayman
Colombia
Instituto Colombo-Venezolano, Medellín, Antioquia
Costa Rica
UNADECA, Alajuela
Dominica
Dominica Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Portsmouth, Commonwealth of Dominica
Dominican Republic
Adventist Dominican Academy, Bonao
Las Americas Adventist Academy, Azua
Fanny Lopez Adventist Academy, Santo Domingo
Los Girasoles Adventist Academy, Santo Domingo
Juan Pablo Duarte Adventist Academy, Barahona
Maranatha Adventist Academy, Santo Domingo
Maria Trinidad Sanchez Adventist Academy, Romana
Metropolitan Adventist Academy, Santo Domingo
Ozama Adventist Academy, Santo Domingo
La Paz Adventist Academy, Santo Domingo
Grenada (Isle of Spice)
Grenada Seventh-day Adventist Comprehensive School, Mt. Rose, St Patric
Haiti
College Adventiste du Cap-Haïtien
Collège Adventiste de Diquini
Collège Adventiste des Gonaïves
Collège Adventiste de Morija
Collège Adventiste de Pétion-Ville
Collège Adventiste de Vertière
Institut Adventiste Franco-Haïtien
Jamaica
Harrison's Memorial High School, Montego Bay
Kingsway High School, Kingston
May Pen High School, Clarendon
Port Maria High School, St Mary
Portland High School, Portland
St Ann's Bay High School, St Ann
Savanna-la-mar High, Westmoreland
Victor Dixon High School, Mandeville
Willowdene High School, Spanish Town
Mexico
Universidad Linda Vista, Pueblo Nuevo, Solistahuacán, Chiapas
Universidad de Montemorelos, Montemorelos, Nuevo León
Universidad de Navojoa, Navojoa, Sonora
Panama
Colegio Adventista Bilingue de David, Chiriquí
Colegio Adventista Metropolitano, Panama City
Seventh Day Adventist Institute IAP, Chiriquí
Puerto Rico
Bella Vista Academy, Mayagüez
Central Adventist Academy, Caguas
Central Adventist Academy, San Sebastian
East Adventist Academy, Rio Grande
Ellen+Miller (FEDIINS) Academy, San Juan
Metropolitan Adventist Academy, San Juan
North Adventist Academy, Arecibo
North Adventist Regional Academy, Vega Baja
Northwestern Adventist Academy, Aguadilla
South Adventist Academy, Guayama
Southern Adventist Academy, Ponce
Southwestern Adventist Academy, Sabana Grande
Western Adventist Academy (Academia Adventista del Oeste), Mayagüez
Dutch Caribbean
Seventh-Day Adventist School, St. Eustatius
St. Lucia
St. Lucia Seventh-day Adventist Academy, Castries
St. Vincent & the Grenadines
Bequia Seventh Day Adventist Secondary School, Port Elizabeth
Mountain View Adventist Academy, Richland Park, Charlotte
Trinidad & Tobago
Bates Memorial High School, Sangre Grande
Caribbean Union College Secondary School, Maracas-St.Joseph
Harmon School of S.D.A., Tobago
Pinehaven S.D.A. Primary School, Arima
Rio Claro S.D.A. Primary School, Rio Claro
Southern Academy, San Fernando
North American Division
Bermuda
Bermuda Institute, Southampton
Canada
Alberta (12)
Chinook Winds Adventist Academy, Calgary, Alberta
Coralwood Adventist Academy, Edmonton, Alberta
College Heights Christian School, Lacombe, Alberta
Parkview Adventist Academy, Lacombe, Alberta
Prairie Adventist Christian eSchool, Lacombe, Alberta
Higher Ground Christian School, Medicine Hat, Alberta
Mamawi Atosketan Native School, Ponoka, Alberta
Woodlands Adventist School, Ponoka, Alberta
South Side Christian School, Red Deer, Alberta
Sylvan Meadows Adventist School, Sylvan Lake, Alberta
Peace Hills Adventist School, Wetaskiwin, Alberta
British Columbia (14)
West Coast Adventist Christian School, Abbotsford, British Columbia
Fraser Valley Adventist Academy, Aldergrove, British Columbia
North Okanagan Jr. Academy, Armstrong, British Columbia
Bella Coola Adventist School, Bella Coola, British Columbia
Deer Lake School, Burnaby, British Columbia
Peace Christian School, Chetwynd, British Columbia
Chilliwack Adventist Christian School, Chilliwack, British Columbia
Okanagan Christian School, Kelowna, British Columbia
Robson Valley Junior Academy, McBride, British Columbia
Avalon Adventist Junior Academy, Port Hardy, British Columbia
Shuswap Seventh-day Adventist School, Salmon Arm, British Columbia
Pleasant Valley Christian Academy, Vernon, British Columbia
Lakeview Christian School, Victoria, British Columbia
Cariboo Adventist Academy, Williams Lake, British Columbia
Fountainview Academy, Lillooet, British Columbia
Manitoba (1)
Red River Valley Junior Academy, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Nova Scotia (1)
Sandy Lake Academy, Bedford, Nova Scotia
Ontario (10)
Near North Adventist Christian School, Barrie, Ontario
Crawford Adventist Academy – Peel Campus, Caledon, Ontario
Adventist Christian Elementary School, London, Ontario
Grandview Adventist Academy, Mount Hope, Ontario
College Park Elementary School (Oshawa, Ontario), Oshawa, Ontario
Kingsway College, Oshawa, Ontario
Ottawa Adventist School, Ottawa, Ontario
Crawford Adventist Academy East, Pickering, Ontario
Crawford Adventist Academy, Toronto, Ontario
Windsor Adventist Elementary School, Windsor, Ontario
Peel Adventist Elementary School, Brampton, Ontario
Quebec (2)
Greaves Adventist Academy, Montreal
Sartigan Adventist Academy (Académie Adventiste de Sartigan), Saint-Georges, Quebec
Saskatchewan (3)
Curtis-Horne Christian School, Regina, Saskatchewan
Rosthern Christian School, Rosthern, Saskatchewan
Seventh-day Adventist Christian School, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Not Church-owned but affiliated:
Fountainview Academy, Lillooet, British Columbia
Grandview Adventist Academy, Mount Hope, Ontario
United States
South America Division
Argentina
Alta Gracia Adventist Academy, Posadas, Misiones
Bahía Blanca Adventist Academy, Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires Province
Balcarce Adventist Academy, Balcarce, Buenos Aires Province
Capitan Bermudez Adventist Academy, Capitán Bermúdez, Santa Fe Province
Córdoba Adventist Academy, Córdoba
Florida Adventist Academy, Florida, Buenos Aires Province
Formosa Adventist Academy, Formosa
Mariano Moreno Adventist Academy, Posadas, Misiones
Mendoza Adventist Academy, Mendoza
Moron Adventist Academy, Morón, Buenos Aires Province
North Argentine Academy, Leandro N. Alem, Misiones
Parana Adventist Institute, Parana, Entre Ríos
Los Polvorines Adventist Academy, Los Polvorines, Buenos Aires Province
Puerto Iguazú Adventist Academy, Puerto Iguazu, Misiones
Resistencia Adventist Academy, Resistencia, Chaco
River Plate Adventist University Academy, Libertador San Martin, Entre Ríos
Salta Adventist Academy, Salta
Santa Fe Adventist Academy, Santa Fe
Villa Regina Adventist Academy, Villa Regina, Río Negro
Bolivia
Bolivia Adventist University Academy, Vinto, Cochabamba
Los Andes Adventist Academy, La Paz
Brazil
Adventist Agricultural-Industrial Academy, Manaus, AM
Adventist School, Cachoeirinha, RS
Adventist School, Pelotas, RS
Agro-Industrial Adventist Trans-Amazon Academy, Uruara, PA
Anápolis Adventist School, Anápolis, GO
Arruda Adventist Academy, Recife, PE
Belo Horizonte Adventist Academy, Belo Horizonte, MG
Boqueirao Seventh-day Adventist School, Curitiba, PR
Brazil Adventist University Academy, Engenheiro Coelho, Engenheiro Coelho, SP
Brazil Adventist University Academy, Hortolandia, Hortolandia, SP
Brazil Adventist University Academy, São Paulo, São Paulo, SP
Campo Grande Adventist Academy, Rio de Janeiro, RJ
Campo Mourao Seventh-day Adventist School, Campo Mourão, PR
Cascavel Seventh-day Adventist School, Cascavel, PR
Castelo Branco Adventist Academy, Salvador, BA
Central Brazil Academy, Abadiania, GO
Cruzeiro do Sul Adventist Academy, Taquara, RS
Elza Gutzeit Adventist Academy of Altamira, Altamira, PA
Espirito Santo Academy, Colatina, ES
Eunapolis Adventist Academy, Eunapolis, BA
Fortaleza Adventist Academy, Fortaleza, CE
Foz do Iguaçu Seventh-day Adventist School, Foz do Iguaçu, PR
Goiânia Adventist School, Goiânia, GO
Grao Para Adventist Academy, Belém, PA
Gravatai Seventh-day Adventist School, Gravatai, RS
Imperatriz Adventist Academy, Imperatriz, MA
Ipatinga Adventist Academy, Ipatinga, MG
Itaborai Adventist Academy, Itaboraí, RJ
Itabuna Adventist Secondary School, Itabuna, BA
Jacarepagua Adventist Academy, Rio de Janeiro, RJ
Jardim Europa Adventist School, Goiânia, GO
Ji-Parana Adventist Academy, Ji-Paraná, RO
Londrina Seventh-day Adventist School, Londrina, PR
Maceio Adventist Academy, Maceio, AL
Manaus Adventist Academy, Manaus, AM
Maraba Adventist Academy, Marabá, PA
Marechal Rondon Seventh-day Adventist School, Porto Alegre, RS
Maringa Seventh-day Adventist School, Maringá, PR
Minas Gerais Adventist Academy, Lavras, MG
New City Adventist Academy, Ananindeua, PA
Northeast Brazil Academy, Cachoeira, BA
Novo Hamburgo Seventh-day Adventist School, Novo Hamburgo, RS
Novo Mundo Adventist School, Goiânia, GO
Parana Adventist Academy, Ivatuba, Parana
Partenon Seventh-day Adventist School, Porto Alegre, RS
Paul Bernard Adventist Academy, Manaus, AM
Pedro Ludovico Adventist School, Goiânia, GO
Petropolis Adventist Academy, Petropolis, RJ
Porangatu Adventist School, Porangatu, GO
Portão Seventh-day Adventist School, Curitiba, PR
Porto Alegre Seventh-day Adventist School, Porto Alegre, RS
Porto Velho Adventist Academy, Porto Velho, RO
Recife Adventist Academy, Recife, PE
Rio Branco Adventist Academy, Rio Branco, AC
Rio Verde Adventist School, Rio Verde, Goiás, GO
Rio de Janeiro Adventist Academy, Rio de Janeiro, RJ
Salvador Adventist Academy (Villa El Salvador), Salvador, BA
Santa Catarina Adventist Academy, Araquari, SC
Sao Luiz Adventist Academy, São Luís, MA
Tucuma Adventist Academy, Tucuma, PA
Uruaçu Adventist School, Uruaçu, GO
Viamao Seventh-day Adventist School, Viamão, RS
Vila Nova Adventist School, Goiânia, GO
Vitoria Adventist Academy, Vitoria, ES
West Amazon Adventist Academy, Mirante da Serra, RO
Sarandi Seventh-day Adventist Elementary School, Porto Alegre, RS
Chile
Los Ángeles Adventist Academy (Chile), Camino Antuco, Los Ángeles
Angol Adventist Academy, Villa Ecal, Angol
Antofagasta Adventist Academy, Antofagasta
Arica Adventist Academy, Arica
Buenaventura Adventist Academy, Santiago
Calama Adventist Academy, Calama
Chile Adventist University Academy, Chillán
La Cisterna Academy, Santiago
Concepción Adventist Academy (Chile), Concepción
Las Condes Adventist Academy, Las Condes, Santiago
Copiapo Adventist Academy, Copiapó
Molina Adventist Academy, Molina
North Santiago Academy, Santiago
Osorno Adventist Academy, Osorno
Porvenir Adventist Academy, Santiago
Puerto Montt Adventist Academy, Puerto Montt
Punta Arenas Adventist Academy, Punta Arenas
Quilpue Adventist Academy, Quilpué
La Serena Adventist Academy, La Serena
South Santiago Adventist Academy, Santiago
Talcahuano Adventist Academy, Huertos Familiares, Talcahuano
Temuco Adventist Academy, Villa Los Cradores, Temuco
Valdivia Adventist Academy, Valdivia
West Santiago Adventist Academy, Lo Prado, Santiago
Ecuador
Ecuador Adventist Superior Technical Institute Secondary School, Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha
Pacific Adventist Academy, Guayaquil
Quito Adventist Academy, Quito
Paraguay
Asunción Adventist Academy, Asunción
East Paraguay Adventist Academy, Distrito Yguazú, Depto. Alto Paraná
Peru
28 de Julio Adventist College, Tacna
Amazonas Adventist College, Iquitos
Unión Americana Adventist College, Ica
Brasil Adventist College, Jesús María, Lima
Daniel Alcides Carrión Adventist College, La Esperanza, Trujillo
Eduardo F. Forga Adventist College, Arequipa
José Pardo Adventist College, Cuzco
José de San Martín Adventist College, Trujillo
Miraflores Adventist College, Miraflores, Lima
Unión Adventist College, Chaclacayo, Lima
Portales del Saber Adventist College, Ate, Lima
El Porvenir Adventist College, Chepén, Trujillo
Salvador Adventist College, Villa El Salvador, Lima
Ucayali Adventist College, Pucallpa, Ucayali
Uruguay
Uruguay Adventist Academy, Progreso, Canelones
South Pacific Division
Australia
Avondale School (Cooranbong), NSW
Blue Hills College, Goonellebah, NSW
Border Christian College, Thurgoona, NSW
Brisbane Adventist College, Mansfield, QLD
Carlisle Adventist Christian College, Beaconsfield, QLD
Carmel Adventist College, Perth, WA
Central Coast Adventist School, Erina, NSW
Darling Downs Christian School, Toowoomba, QLD
Edinburgh College, Lilydale, VIC
Gilson College, Taylors Hill, VIC
Gold Coast Christian College, Reedy Creek, QLD
Henderson College, Irymple, VIC
Heritage College, Narre Warren South, VIC
Hilliard Christian School, West Moonah, TAS
Hills Adventist College, Sydney, NSW
Macarthur Adventist College, Macquarie Fields, NSW
Macquarie College, Wallsend, NSW
Mountain View Adventist College, Doonside, NSW
Noosa Christian College, Cooroy, QLD
North West Christian School, Penguin, TAS
Northpine Christian College, Dakabin, QLD
Nunawading Christian College, Nunawading, VIC
Prescott Schools including Prescott College, Prospect, SA
Sydney Adventist College, Strathfield, NSW
Tweed Valley Adventist College, Murwillumbah, NSW
Wahroonga Adventist School, Wahroonga, NSW
Not owned by the church but affiliated:
Karalundi College, Meekatharra, WA
Cook Islands
Papaaroa High School, Rarotonga
Fiji
Fulton University (modern name), Sabeto, Nadi
Lautoka ADventist Primary School, Lautoka
Naqia Adventist Primary School, Naqia
Navesau Adventist High School, Wainibuka, Wainibuka
Suva Adventist College, Lami, Suva
Suva Adventist Primary School, Lami, Suva
Vatuvonu Adventist High School, Natewa, Vanua Levu
French Polynesia
Tiarama Adventist College, Papeete, Tahiti
Kiribati
Kauma Adventist High School, Tarawa
Marshall Islands
Delap SDA School
Ebeye SDA School
New Zealand
Auckland Seventh-day Adventist High School, Auckland
Christchurch Adventist School, Christchurch
Longburn Adventist College, Palmerston North
Southland Adventist Christian School, Invercargill
Papua New Guinea
Inonda Adventist Junior High School Oro Province, Popondetta, PNG
Kabiufa Adventist Secondary School, Goroka
Kambubu Adventist Secondary School, Rabual
Mount Diamond Adventist Secondary School, Central Province
Paglum Adventist High School, Western Highlands Province, Mount Hagen, PNG
Koiari Park Adventist High School, Port Moresby, NCD, PNG
Devare Adventist High School, Arawa, Bougainville
Samoa
Samoa Adventist College, Apia
American Samoa
Iakina Adventist Academy, Pago Pago
Solomon Islands
Afutara Adventist Vocational School, Auki, Malaita
Batuna Adventist Vocational School, Marovo Lagoon
Betikama Adventist College, Guadalcanal
Kukudu Adventist College, Western Province
Tonga
Beulah College, Tongatapu
Vanuatu
Aore Adventist Academy, Santo
Epauto Adventist High School, Efate
South Asia-Pacific Division
Sri Lanka
Adventist International School, Negombo
Cambodia
Cambodia Adventist School, Phnom Penh
Church-owned but managed by SALT Ministries:
Adventist International School Siem Reap, Siem Reap
Indonesia
Malaysia
Sabah
Goshen Adventist Secondary School, Kota Marudu
Sabah Adventist Secondary School, Tamparuli
Primary Schools
Adventist Primary School Tamparuli
Adventist Primary School Tenghilan, Tamparuli
Adventist Primary School Gaur, Kota Belud
Adventist Primary School Rangalau, Kota Belud
Adventist Primary School Kalawat, Kota Belud
Adventist Primary School Sungoi, Kota Marudu
Adventist Primary School Tagaroh, Kota Marudu
Adventist Primary School Goshen, Kota Marudu
Adventist Primary School Damai, Kota Marudu
Adventist Primary School Tambuluran, Kota Marudu
Adventist Primary School Bambangan, Kota Marudu
Adventist Primary School Marabau, Kudat
Sarawak
Sunny Hill School, Kuching
Ayer Manis School, Serian
Philippines
Singapore
San Yu Adventist School
Thailand
Adventist Ekamai School, Bangkok
Adventist International Mission School, Muak Lek
Bangkok Advent School
Bangkok Adventist International School, Bangkok
Chiangmai Adventist Academy, Chiang Mai
Eden Valley Academy, Tak
Ekamai International School, Bangkok
Karen Adventist Academy, Mae Hong Son
Ramkhamhaeng Advent International School, Bangkok
Them Amnuay Vithaya, Phuket
Thep Amnuay Hat Yai School, Songkhla
Trinity International School, Bangkok
Korat Adventist International School, Nakhon Ratchasima
Southern Asia Division
India
Seventh-Day Adventist Matriculation High School, Marthandam, (Viricode) Tamil Nadu.
Adventpuram Seventh-day Adventist School, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Ambalavayal Seventh-day Adventist School, Wayanad, Kerala
Azamnagar Seventh-day Adventist High School, Belgaum, Karnataka
Bahraich Seventh-day Adventist Senior Secondary School, Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh
Bangalore (HAL) Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Bangalore, Karnataka
Bangalore Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Bangalore, Karnataka
Bhalki Seventh-day Adventist High School, Bidar, Karnataka
Bidar Seventh-day Adventist High School, Bidar, Karnataka
Bobbili Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Bobbili, Andhra Pradesh
Brooke Side Adventist Higher Secondary School, Shillong, Meghalaya
Busy Bee Seventh-day Adventist High School, Goa
Calicut Seventh-day Adventist School, Kozhikode, Kerala
Chengalpet Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Chengalpet, Tamil Nadu
Chennai Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Chickmagalur Seventh-day Adventist High School, Chickmagalur, Karnataka
Dharmapuri Seventh-day Adventist Matric. Hr. Sec. School, Collectorate, Dharmapuri, Tamil Nadu
Dindigul Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu
E D Thomas Memorial Higher Secondary School, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu
Ernakulam Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Kochi, Kerala
Erode Seventh-day Adventist High School, Erode, Tamil Nadu
Flaiz Memorial Higher Secondary School of Seventh-day Adventists, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh
Hapur Seventh-day Adventist Senior Secondary School, Hapur, Uttar Pradesh
Hatkanangale Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Helen Lowry Higher Secondary School, Aizawl, Mizoram
Hosur Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Hosur, Tamil Nadu
Hubli Seventh-day Adventist High School, Hubli, Karnataka
Hyderabad Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
Ibrahimpatnam Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh
Indore Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Indore, Madhya Pradesh
Iritty Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Iritty, Kerala
Jalahalli Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Bangalore, Karnataka
Jalandhar Seventh-day Adventist Senior Secondary School, Jalandhar, Punjab
James Memorial Higher Secondary School, V.O.C. District, Tamil Nadu
Kadugondanahalli Seventh-day Adventist High School, Bangalore, Karnataka
Kaduthuruthy Seventh-day Adventist School, Kottayam, Kerala
Kariavattom Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Kattachal Seventh-day Adventist School, Kollam, Kerala
KGF Seventh-day Adventist High School, KGF, Karnataka
Khunti Seventh-day Adventist Senior Secondary School, Ranchi, Jharkhand
Khurda Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Khurda District, Orissa
Kochadai Seventh-day Adventist High School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu
Kodambakkam Seventh-day Adventist High School, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Kolar Seventh-day Adventist High School, Kolara, Karnataka
Kolhapur Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Kolkata Seventh-day Adventist High School, Kolkata, West Bengal
Kollam Seventh-day Adventist School, Kollam, Kerala
Kollegal Seventh-day Adventist High School, Kollegal, Karnataka
Kottarakara Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Kottarakara, Kerala
Kovilpatti Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu
Kowdiar Seventh-day Adventist School, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Kozhencherry Seventh-day Adventist School, Kozhencherry, Kerala
Krishnagiri Seventh-day Adventist School, Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu
Kulathupuzha Seventh-day Adventist School, Kollam, Kerala
Kuttapuzha Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Thiruvalla, Kerala
Lakkavaram Seventh-day Adventist High School, E. G. District, Andhra Pradesh
Lasalgaon Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Nasik District, Maharashtra
Lowry Memorial Higher Secondary School, Bangalore, Karnataka
Lucknow Seventh-day Adventist Senior Secondary School, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
M. C. Dhamanwala English Higher Secondary School of Seventh-day Adventists, Surat, Gujarat
Machilipatnam Seventh-day Adventist High School, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh
Madurai Central Seventh-day Adventist Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu
Madurai East Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu
Madurai North Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu
Madurai South Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu
Manamadurai Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Manamadurai, Tamil Nadu
Maninagar Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Mavelikara Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Mavelikara, Kerala
METAS of Seventh Day Adventist School,Surat ,Gujarat
Mysore Seventh-day Adventist High School, Mysore, Karnataka
Navsari Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Navsari, Gujarat
Nedumkandam Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Idukki, Kerala
Nettithozhu Seventh-day Adventist School, Idukki, Kerala
Neyveli Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Neyveli, Tamil Nadu
Seventh day Adventist school Lasalgaon, Nashik, Maharastra
Seventh day Adventist school Vyara, Surat, Gujarat
Nilambur Seventh-day Adventist School, Nilambur, Kerala
Nuzvid Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh
Ottapalam Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Ottapalam, Kerala
Palakkad Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Palakkad, Kerala
Panruti Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Panruti, Tamil Nadu
Pathanamthitta Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Pathanamthitta, Kerala
Periyakulam Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Periyakulam, Tamil Nadu
Pondicherry Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Pondicherry, Puducherry
Pulieranghy Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Pulieranghy, Tamil Nadu
Raymond Memorial Higher Secondary School, Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal
Rohru Seventh-day Adventist High School, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
Rajapalayam Seventh-day Adventist School, Rajapalayam, Tamil Nadu
Sankarankoil Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Sankarankoil, Tamil Nadu
Santhampara Seventh-day Adventist School, Idukki, Kerala
SDA Residential English High School, Nedumkandam, Kerala
Secunderabad Seventh-day Adventist High School, Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh
Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Gandhi Nagar, Puducherry
Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Sadar, Nagpur, Maharashtra
Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Sanpada, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra
Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Shanmugapuram, Puducherry
Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Trichy
Seventh-day Adventist Inter College, "The Retreat", Roorkee, UK
Seventh-day Adventist Senior Secondary School, Vidhan Sabha Marj, Lucknow, UP
Sivakasi Seventh-day Adventist High School, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu
Spicer Memorial College Higher Secondary School, Pune, Maharashtra
Sulthan Battery Seventh-day Adventist School, Sultan Battery, Kerala
Sunshine Home and High School of Seventh-day Adventists, Bangalore, Karnataka
Tambaram Seventh-day Adventist High School, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Thachampara Seventh-day Adventist School, Palakkad, Kerala
Thanjavur Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Thiruchengode Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Thiruchengode, Tamil Nadu
Thirumala Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Thiruvilwamala Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Thrissur, Kerala
Thrissur Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Thrissur, Kerala
Tonia Seventh-day Adventist School, Tonia, Jharkhand
Tuticorin Seventh-day Adventist High School, Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu
Usilampatti Seventh-day Adventist High School, Usilampatti, Tamil Nadu
Vadavathoor Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School, Kottayam, Kerala
Valavanur Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Viluppuram, Tamil Nadu
Vallakadavu Seventh-day Adventist School, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Vattapara Seventh-day Adventist School, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Vijayawada Seventh-day Adventist High School, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh
Virudhunagar Tambakarnar Memorial Seventh-day Adventist Higher Secondary School, Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu
Visakhapatnam Seventh-day Adventist High School, MVP Colony, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Visakhapatnam Seventh-day Adventist High School, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Inter-European Division
Austria
Seminar Schloss Bogenhofen, Bogenhofen
France
Maurice-Tièche Comprehensive School, Collonges-sous-Salève
Germany
Schulzentrum Marienhöhe, Darmstadt
Portugal
Funchal Primary School, Madeira
Oficina de Talentos, Primary school, Lisbon
Oliveira do Douro Secondary School, Vila Nova Gaia
Primary School, Setúbal
Romania
Maranatha Adventist High School, Cluj-Napoca, judetul Cluj
Onisim Adventist High School, Craiova, jud. Dolj
Stefan Demetrescu Adventist High School, Bucharest
Spain
Educativo Adventista de Sagunto, Sagunto, Valencia
Rigel School, Zaragoza
Timón School, Madrid
Urgell School, Barcelona
Switzerland
Adventist Private School, Zürich
Trans-European Division
Croatia
Srednja škola u Maruševcu s pravom javnosti, Maruševec
Finland
Finland Junior College, Piikkio, Finland
Norway
Engesvea Barne og Ungdomsskole, Lillehammer
Nidelven Skole, Trondheim
Tyrifjord Videregående Skole, Røyse
Østmarka Skole, Oslo
Serbia
Gimnazija Živorad Janković, Novi Sad
United Kingdom
Harper Bell Seventh Day Adventist School, Camp Hill, Birmingham, England
The John Loughborough School, Tottenham, London, England (closed 2013)
Stanborough School, Watford, Hertfordshire, England
Euro-Asia Division
Russia
Zaoksky Adventist School, Zaoksky
ZaokSKY Adventist University, Zaoksky
See also
List of Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities
List of Seventh-day Adventist hospitals
Sources
Adventist Yearbook
Adventist Academy Llnks
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4959798
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchin%20Boys%27%20School
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Hitchin Boys' School
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Hitchin Boys' School (HBS) is an academy-status secondary school, with sixth form, located in Hitchin, Hertfordshire, England. Founded in 1632 by John Mattocke, the single-sex school currently educates around 1,500 male pupils. The sixth form is part of a consortium for wider teaching with other schools in the town, mixing some classes with pupils from Hitchin Girls' School and The Priory School.
History
Hitchin Boys' School was founded on 25 July 1632 by John Mattocke. Originally it was an Old Free School, and its first Headmaster was Thomas Heyndy. The rigours of the English Civil War put strain on the teaching at the school, especially as boys were more inclined to watch Oliver Cromwell pass through Hitchin. In 1664 William Patricke succeeded Heyndy as Headmaster. He relaxed the rules of the school, allowing laxer and simpler Latin as well as more English and Mathematics lessons to be taught in the "Free and Easy School", as Patricke put it.
The school in the 17th century
In 1680 Richard Stone became the third Headmaster of the School. He did not know anything about Classics and preferred to live "in the quiet enjoyment of the school". This allowed the students to become lazier than under Patricke, and the Trustees at the school were forced to endure a testing period. After Stone's death in 1691 Sir Ralph Radcliffe employed a new Headmaster – Thomas Cheyney – who invoked discipline and original Latin. Under Cheyney and his successor, Thomas Harris, school life was good, but a fallout between Radcliffe and his co-trustees brought the school to the brink again, and when Harris died in 1709 Radcliffe and Laurence Tristam – another School Trustee – appointed the new Headmaster – James Lawrence – without consulting the other Trustees.
However, the Trustees hatched a counter-attack to this, and summoned the Reverend Richard Finch from London to the School so that when Lawrence, Tristam and Radcliffe arrived, the School had been overthrown. The matter went to a "Chancery suit", and in the end the defence were defeated by a strong argument for putting Finch in the job, with Lawrence proved incapable of teaching. A new board of Trustees was formed, five by the prosecution and four by the defendants.
A new chapter
The Reverend Richard Finch retired in 1720, having created a storm by teaching the boys too well and raising them far above their working-class backgrounds. As a result, the people of Hitchin wanted James Lawrence in the job, and he was forced back into the Mastership by order of a local judge and the people of Hitchin's support. It was not an unmitigated disaster, but Lawrence could not do the job with the same gusto that Finch had. In 1730 the Reverend Mark Hildesley was appointed in Hitchin. He left in 1755 when he became Bishop of Sodor and Man.
The School entered into debt after the Chancery suit of 1709, and after the death of James Lawrence in 1741 a London lawyer called Dodson seized property for debt repayment, became receiver of the trust property and appointed a new Headmaster – John Lyle – to teach at the salary of £17, a very low sum at the time for a Master. The School became more associated with the local church in 1750 when Lyle became the Parish Clerk, with the boys attending church on Wednesday and Friday mornings with Edward Radcliffe. When protests broke out about this, the Lord Chancellor ruled in 1750 that Dodson had to be paid a further £63 in debt repayment with his understudy John Lyle to resign and a new Headmaster – Richard Snell – to be appointed.
But in 1779, Snell was deemed incapable of the "Duties and Business of his place" by the Board of Trustees, and a new Master, William Reynolds, was chosen. He reduced truancy. Visits from the School Carpenter also became rarer. When Reynolds died in 1819 the School had returned to normal. One unfortunate incident occurred in that same year, when Paynes Park was deemed not to be a part of the Boys' School. There were numerous protests, some from men of Hitchin, some from the students, but despite this Paynes Park was taken away and the Boys' School was forced to share Butts' Close with other Hitchin boys.
The succeeding Headmaster was the Reverend Joseph Niblock, writer of The New Improved Classical Latin and English Dictionary in 1825. He spent only 11 of his 25 years in teaching at Hitchin. The School schedule at that point was a 9 o' clock start and finishing at 12 noon every day except for Wednesday and Friday when the School was closed for public prayer at St Mary's Church. Thursday and Saturday working hours were extended until 3 o' clock in the afternoon as a result. Niblock was also said to be "one of the best Greek scholars in England", and a Greek grammar book that he wrote was in use for many years at Eton College, among other public schools.
The discipline scheme
Reports were sent many times during the school year to the Board of Trustees, mainly with discipline reports. There were four classes of conduct: Best, Second Best, Third Class and Fourth Class. There was also a progress rank, from Great to None. As a result, some students received terrible progress ranks but excellent conduct marks. Niblock was very severe when it came to discipline. Suspensions and expulsions were very common, with some students taken out of the School for the punishments they received. When a severe 'crime' was committed the School became a Court of Justice, with culprits becoming 'the accused' and taking evidence on oath. One case saw eight witnesses called to the stand, and a resulting verdict of guilt, with a punishment of suspension – to satisfy the Trustees – and then expulsion upon two boys; one of these boys was found to have committed the crime of "affrontery", and he was expelled for good. The other boy was reinstated upon a letter being written by his father regarding his son's poor conduct.
The end of Niblock, Samuel Goodwin and the Free School
Niblock's usher was a young man called Samuel Goodwin, a man Niblock had taught himself. However thanks to an anonymous letter sent to Niblock, the Reverend determined that Goodwin was an impostor, and expelled him for a breach of rules.
In 1828, a new batch of Trustees were appointed including Lord Dacre (1774–1851), who would in 1929 be commemorated in the name of Wilshere Dacre Primary School found opposite the School grounds. Goodwin's expulsion had caused him to set up a school himself, subsequently reducing numbers in the Free School. The new Trustees passed a new set of rules for the School, including a leaving age of 15, a minimum entrance age of 8, twice school yearly examinations and most importantly, an immediate payment of £500 by any incoming Headmaster into a bond as insurance against discharge or death. The latter caused the resignation of Niblock in 1835; he could not cope with the payments and left, dying in 1842 with two daughters surviving him. His successors were the Reverend William Hopewood, who resigned in 1832, the Reverend E.C. Cumberbatch, who resigned in 1835, and the Reverend W.B. Dyntram, a man who felt he was more important than both students and the Trustees. Seen as a "Blockhead", he soon resigned in 1838, passing power to the last Free School Headmaster John Sugars.
Sugars was a man of education, particularly regarding foreign languages. But he came to the School in its twilight years, and in its twice yearly examinations the Vicar of Hitchin at that time, the Reverend Canon Lewis Hensley, found more and more depressing results, with only four boys taking Latin in 1872. One did Greek but no English and Mathematics was woefully poor. There was no improvement and eventually Sugars had a mental breakdown in 1876. The Trustees closed the School and paid Sugars a small pension.
The School in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
In 1888 the great debate regarding the quality of schools and their students was resolved, with a new proposal of a higher education school, the British School being one example designed for the poorer members of the community. So it was that Frederic Seebohm formed a Scheme, one that would provide for both the girls and boys of Hitchin. Already Dame Mary Radcliffe and Vicar Hildesley (not a relation to Mark Hildelsey) had founded the Girls' School, and so the Boys' School was born again. Natural Science, Drawing and English Grammar were among the subjects to be compulsory teaching for the School. The School was now fee-paying, occasionally £12 a year, sometimes £6 a year.
Now the problem of a site arose. Thanks to donations from several wealthy families, including Seebohm's, the Scheme decided to purchase land known as the Woodlands in Bancroft. It was here that the new School opened on 1 May 1889, its first Headmaster Joseph Edward Little of Lincoln College, Oxford. Ironically, when the ownership of the land was examined it was found to have been John Mattocke's previously. In the beginning the Girls' and Boys' School were both in the large Portmill Lane building, but within two years the new buildings for the Boys' School were ready, and Portmill was free for the Girls' School to do with as they pleased. Compulsory education was still young, and Hitchin was still a market town that saw manual work as a better alternative to written education. Parents removed students if discipline was implemented, set homework was not completed and attendance was poor. In 1897 Little left, dying in 1935.
Jabez King
Jabez King came to the Headmaster's job in January 1898 with just 24 pupils in the School and full permission to do whatever it would take to repair the situation. He was a former Oxford University student with an M.A. in Classics and English. A fearless climber, he placed the traditional chamber pot on one of the spires. He felt a change in discipline was needed so that beatings were rarer, but still occurred in matters such as bullying. Occasionally the Headmaster would make several students swap a lesson of Scripture for an hour of cleaning out the chicken coops and the cow sheds down by the entrance from Bancroft. The School groundsman and cow-herd were summoned with the use of King's megaphone from his Oxford years, and often he left the School on Tuesdays to take part in the local Farmers' Market. Often the running of the School was left to Second Master Freddie Jones. School funds had balanced out again by the end of the 19th century, and in 1908 the School was able to start the Junior Preparatory School for younger boys that would now go to primary and junior schools. A small interview was conducted and if King – the interrogator – liked the boy, he was admitted. The School tuck shop began in 1910, and the following year tar paving was laid in the School Quad to stop excessive amounts of mud getting into the School.
The First World War began soon after, but School life remained about the same. While letters from Old Boys in the fight were placed in the School Chronicle, a prefect system became prominent in 1915, and funds for the war established. Allotments and plots for growing vegetables also emerged in the School fields. The House system began in 1920, but lapsed in 1922 before being revived in that same year due to the change in School schedule of Wednesday becoming a School day and Saturday being a Games day. By 1925 the system had changed twice more, but to the names of Mattocke, Pierson, Skynner and Radcliffe after John Mattocke, Joseph Pierson, Ralph Skynner and the Radcliffe family, all of whom had been School benefactors. In 1926 Jabez King retired, with 265 students at the School. King died in 1931.
Thomas Jones
Thomas Ernest Jones was the third Headmaster of the new Hitchin Boys' Grammar School in 1926. During his time canings were regular, detention automatic for lateness during the General Strike or any other time, and staff regularly carpeted, who left in small droves in the early years of Jones's rule. His motto was "Good manners, good work, good games".
In school, the House Points Scheme was established, with only deductions seemingly of points, not additions, with punishments for those students with the most penalty deductions. The Work and Conduct Cup – now retired and replaced by the Times Shield – was awarded to the House with the least deductions. In 1930 work began on the creation of the main building of the school, and in the autumn of 1931 it was ready for moving into, including the Main Hall, the modern-day Art Rooms, the modern-day Modern Foreign Languages Rooms, the modern-day Science Department and the modern-day Business Studies Room. The former Hall became the Dining Room, the former Science Block the Library and the Art Room the Scout Hut, which is now disused. Trophies and prizes became more prominent in the Jones era, and school uniform became prominent at this time.
With the advent of the Second World War, the arches in the new North Court were sandbagged, with discounts on food and milk established and eating habits changed with the addition of compulsory non-meat meals such as spaghetti cheese. School allotments sprouted up again, but as more of a detention task than required vegetable sources. The force call-ups became more and more regular, and the names of the dead were read at morning assembly. The School trees were felled to provide wood for the War effort, but in 1944 an even bigger change took place in School life. No longer would students pay for school – they would compete under examination. In 1953 Thomas Jones retired.
The school from the mid-20th century to the present
The school was a grammar school until 1974, when it became a comprehensive school.
The school's present site has expanded continuously since its establishment. It began in 1889 as a building known as the 'Schoolhouse', a dining hall (now the school's library), the headmaster's office (part of the present-day reception) and the school hall. The large present-day complex was not established until 1930, as can be determined by a close inspection at the top (or bottom) of the complex's drains. In the late 1980s the local building company Hunting Gate built a new building onto the main school complex that held a new I.T. suite for graphics lessons, a cookery classroom (for the Food Technology) and a large music classroom, as well as several smaller practice rooms for individual student lessons.
There have been also been changes to the outside of the school. In the 1960s a Memorial Pavilion was established honouring the dead of the Second World War. In the late 1960s the original Lower School Block was created, easing the crush of students that had to come out of the main School complex after registration. This contained six classrooms, a small staff room and an office for the newly created job of Head of Lower School. In 2018 this was demolished and replaced with a new building on the same site. The new block includes nine classrooms and additional office space. In the 1990s the School built a new Sports Centre next to the Lower School Block. It also became a local Sports Centre for Hitchin and Hertfordshire, allowing for fitness, badminton, basketball and volleyball sessions among other sports. Conferences are also allowed in the Centre's theory classrooms as well as small individual rooms.
In the late 1980s, the School's hockey/cricket pitch (but not the rugby pitch on the hill) on the top of the grounds (on Butts Close near Wilshere Dacre School, and which was unreliable, particularly for the hockey players) was converted into an all-weather pitch for the benefit of hockey, complete with floodlights. The pitch is used for clubs and groups to hire for events and training; one example is that of the local hockey club Blueharts (which was originally started as the Old Boys' club). The pitch is also used for P.E. lessons and the lunch time activities of cricket and football. When rugby union legend Joe Worsley left the School in the early 1990s, he left the token of his England rugby shirt, which he gained when he was capped against France in the Five Nations in early 1993.
In 2003 construction started on the creation of a Sixth Form Centre (previously the Sixth Form had been forced to establish base in the former School Stables). It was completed in the summer of 2005 and took its first intake of Sixth Formers in September of that year.
In July 2010 Mr. Keith Wadsworth retired as head teacher and Mr. Brown became head, starting in September 2010 and retired in July 2020. With Mr. Moane taking over, who started in September 2020.
The school converted to academy status on 1 January 2013.
From early 2018 to early 2019, a new Performing Arts Block was built and established, containing an auditorium with state of the art lighting and sound systems and several more classrooms for the performing arts. Which replaced the old classrooms in the main school.
It also has state of the art music classrooms and practice rooms for a range of music lessons. All Geography, History and RE lessons take place in this block too.
Traditions
As with many former grammar schools, there are (and were) several traditions at Hitchin Boys' School that have been discontinued or continue to this day.
Founders' Day, normally on 1 July, was originally a large ceremony. All of the students would go to St Mary's Church, accompanied by their teachers, and listen to a large service. Nowadays only the Sixth Form and Year 11 students continue this tradition. Founders' Day also signalled the arrival of the School's Swimming Competition. This was terminated, then revived in 2006 to take place on the afternoon of Founders' Day.
Sports Day
The School Sports Day is also a popular attraction at the school. It began in 1890 when it was held at the Bedford Road football field, including the Hitchin Volunteers. When Jabez King came to the school he realised that it could be used as a fund-raiser on Whit Mondays. As a result, the Sports Day became enjoyed not only by the boys, but also by the townsfolk of Hitchin. Boys could enter as many races as they liked for a small fee, which went to the school. Early prizes included malacca canes, toast racks and cycle lamps, with third place's prize (a pen-knife) used as a way of encouraging competitors to strive for better placings. Alongside the serious athletic events there were also novelty events to keep spectators amused, such as the Fathers' Race. During the First World War prizes were often donated to the War Fund, and the event was kept going by the number of local soldiers who wished to take part. Medals were engraved with Hitchin Grammar School-The War 1915 and distributed by the Lieutenant Colonel of the Scottish Signals Service.
After the War inter-house competition became the main focus of the Sports Day, with the Times Shield becoming the main prize and prizes of small cups and medals awarded instead, bought by cash donations. In 1924 the Victor Ludorum Cup was first awarded, to the boy who gained the most points on Sports Day. In 1926 T.E. Jones changed Sports Day to the first Wednesday, and later a mid-June Saturday. The townsfolk of Hitchin were excluded from the event, with only parents and invited guests being spectators to the event. In 1931 the Junior Victor Ludorum award was first awarded and the Sports Day became Sports Days, with general races on the first days and inter-house events on a second day. This was reverted the following year. During the Second World War, the Sports Day was run as per normal. In 1948 the javelin and discus throwing were introduced to the event, followed by the shot put in 1952 and hop, step and jump in 1958. Even hammer throwing was tried, but the danger of the event (because of the lack of a cage) forced its stoppage. In 1955, after the arrival of M.G. Dolden in 1953, Sports Day was moved to May, a Victor Ludorum Cup was introduced for the intermediate years (14–16), the novelty races were scrapped completely, the tug-of-war was dropped as the finale and the Hitchin Town Band stopped playing at the event, making it school-only for the first time since 1899.
Notable former pupils
Ben Hull, actor
Ben Wilmot, footballer for Stoke City F.C.
Ben Lawson (basketball), Pro basketball player for Rizing Zephyr Fukuoka
Arvind Parmar, tennis player
Joe Worsley, rugby player
Paul Van Carter, film producer
James Bay, singer-songwriter
Kevin Phillips, footballer
Ian Poulter, golfer
Robert Newman, comedian
Hitchin Boys' Grammar School
Sir Peter Bonfield CBE, Chief executive from 1996 to 2002 of BT
Frederic Chapman, publisher
D.G.E. Hall, South East Asia historian
Dr Robin Holliday, molecular biologist
John Holloway, Baroque violinist and conductor
Paul Jesson, actor
David Lambert, General President from 1975 to 1990 of the National Union of Hosiery and Knitwear Workers and from 1991–4 of the National Union of Knitwear, Footwear & Apparel Trades
John Pratt, Canadian politician
E. H. Visiak, writer
Richard Whitmore, former BBC newsreader in the 1970s
Alfred Mendes, writer
References
History of Hitchin Grammar School, Reginald Hines, 1931
The John Mattocke Boys, Joyce Donald, 1989
External links
Hitchin Boys' School Old Boys' Association
EduBase
Secondary schools in Hertfordshire
Boys' schools in Hertfordshire
Hitchin
Buildings and structures in Hitchin
Educational institutions established in the 1630s
1639 establishments in England
Academies in Hertfordshire
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4960615
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical%20improvisation
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Musical improvisation
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Musical improvisation (also known as musical extemporization) is the creative activity of immediate ("in the moment") musical composition, which combines performance with communication of emotions and instrumental technique as well as spontaneous response to other musicians. Sometimes musical ideas in improvisation are spontaneous, but may be based on chord changes in classical music and many other kinds of music. One definition is a "performance given extempore without planning or preparation". Another definition is to "play or sing (music) extemporaneously, by inventing variations on a melody or creating new melodies, rhythms and harmonies". Encyclopædia Britannica defines it as "the extemporaneous composition or free performance of a musical passage, usually in a manner conforming to certain stylistic norms but unfettered by the prescriptive features of a specific musical text." Improvisation is often done within (or based on) a pre-existing harmonic framework or chord progression. Improvisation is a major part of some types of 20th-century music, such as blues, rock music, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers improvise solos, melody lines and accompaniment parts.
Throughout the eras of the Western art music tradition, including the Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods, improvisation was a valued skill. J. S. Bach, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt, and many other famous composers and musicians were known especially for their improvisational skills. Improvisation might have played an important role in the monophonic period. The earliest treatises on polyphony, such as the Musica enchiriadis (ninth century), indicate that added parts were improvised for centuries before the first notated examples. However, it was only in the fifteenth century that theorists began making a hard distinction between improvised and written music.
Some classical music forms contained sections for improvisation, such as the cadenza in solo concertos, or the preludes to some keyboard suites by Bach and Handel, which consist of elaborations of a progression of chords, which performers are to use as the basis for their improvisation. Handel and Bach frequently improvised on the harpsichord or pipe organ. In the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation. However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as common practice Western art music performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras, opera houses and ballets, improvisation has played a smaller role. At the same time, some contemporary composers from the 20th and 21st century have increasingly included improvisation in their creative work.
In Indian classical music, improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances. In Indian, Afghan, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi classical music, raga is the "tonal framework for composition and improvisation". The Encyclopædia Britannica defines a raga as "a melodic framework for improvisation and composition".
In Western music
Medieval period
Although melodic improvisation was an important factor in European music from the earliest times, the first detailed information on improvisation technique appears in ninth-century treatises instructing singers on how to add another melody to a pre-existent liturgical chant, in a style called organum. Throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, improvised counterpoint over a cantus firmus (a practice found both in church music and in popular dance music) constituted a part of every musician's education, and is regarded as the most important kind of unwritten music before the Baroque period.
Renaissance period
Following the invention of music printing at the beginning of the sixteenth century, there is more detailed documentation of improvisational practice, in the form of published instruction manuals, mainly in Italy. In addition to improvising counterpoint over a cantus firmus, singers and instrumentalists improvised melodies over ostinato chord patterns, made elaborate embellishments of melodic lines, and invented music extemporaneously without any predetermined schemata. Keyboard players likewise performed extempore, freely formed pieces.
Baroque period
The kinds of improvisation practised during the Renaissance—principally either the embellishing of an existing part or the creation of an entirely new part or parts—continued into the early Baroque, though important modifications were introduced. Ornamentation began to be brought more under the control of composers, in some cases by writing out embellishments, and more broadly by introducing symbols or abbreviations for certain ornamental patterns. Two of the earliest important sources for vocal ornamentation of this sort are Giovanni Battista Bovicelli's Regole, passaggi di musica (1594), and the preface to Giulio Caccini's collection, Le nuove musiche (1601/2)
Melodic instruments
Eighteenth-century manuals make it clear that performers on the flute, oboe, violin, and other melodic instruments were expected not only to ornament previously composed pieces, but also spontaneously to improvise preludes.
Basso continuo
The basso continuo (accompaniment) was mainly improvised, the composer usually providing no more than a harmonic sketch called the figured bass. The process of improvisation was called realization.
Organ improvisation and church music
see Category:Organ improvisers
According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the "monodic textures that originated about 1600 ... were ready-made, indeed in large measure intended, for improvisational enhancement, not only of the treble parts but also, almost by definition, of the bass, which was figured to suggest no more than a minimal chordal outline." Improvised accompaniment over a figured bass was a common practice during the Baroque era, and to some extent the following periods. Improvisation remains a feature of organ playing in some church services and are regularly also performed at concerts.
Dieterich Buxtehude and Johann Sebastian Bach were regarded in the Baroque period as highly skilled organ improvisers. During the 20th century, some musicians known as great improvisers such as Marcel Dupré, Pierre Cochereau and Pierre Pincemaille continued this form of music, in the tradition of the French organ school. Maurice Duruflé, a great improviser himself, transcribed improvisations by Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire. Olivier Latry later wrote his improvisations as a compositions, for example Salve Regina.
Classical period
Keyboard improvisation
Classical music departs from baroque style in that sometimes several voices may move together as chords involving both hands, to form brief phrases without any passing tones. Though such motifs were used sparingly by Mozart, they were taken up much more liberally by Beethoven and Schubert. Such chords also appeared to some extent in baroque keyboard music, such as the 3rd movement theme in Bach's Italian Concerto. But at that time such a chord often appeared only in one clef at a time, (or one hand on the keyboard) and did not form the independent phrases found more in later music. Adorno mentions this movement of the Italian Concerto as a more flexible, improvisatory form, in comparison to Mozart, suggesting the gradual diminishment of improvisation well before its decline became obvious.
The introductory gesture of tonic, subdominant, dominant, tonic, however, much like its baroque form, continues to appear at the beginning of high-classical and romantic piano pieces (and much other music) as in Haydn's Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/52 and Beethoven's Sonata No. 24, Op. 78.
Beethoven and Mozart cultivated mood markings such as con amore, appassionato, cantabile, and expressivo. In fact, it is perhaps because improvisation is spontaneous that it is akin to the communication of love.
Mozart and Beethoven
Beethoven and Mozart left excellent examples of what their improvisations were like, in the sets of variations and the sonatas which they published, and in their written out cadenzas (which illustrate what their improvisations would have sounded like). As a keyboard player, Mozart competed at least once in improvisation, with Muzio Clementi. Beethoven won many tough improvisatory battles over such rivals as Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Daniel Steibelt, and Joseph Woelfl.
Romantic period
Instrumental
Extemporization, both in the form of introductions to pieces, and links between pieces, continued to be a feature of keyboard concertising until the early 20th-century. Amongst those who practised such improvisation were Franz Liszt, Felix Mendelssohn, Anton Rubinstein, Paderewski, Percy Grainger and Pachmann. Improvisation in the area of art music seems to have declined with the growth of recording.
Opera
After studying over 1,200 early Verdi recordings, Will Crutchfield concludes that "The solo cavatina was the most obvious and enduring locus of soloistic discretion in nineteenth-century opera." He goes on to identify seven main types of vocal improvisation used by opera singers in this repertory:
The Verdian "full-stop" cadenza
Arias without "full-stop": ballate, canzoni, and romanze
Ornamentation of internal cadences
Melodic variants (interpolated high notes, acciaccature, rising two-note "slide")
Strophic variation and the problem of the cabaletta
Facilitations (puntature, simplification of fioratura, etc.)
Recitative
Contemporary
Jazz
Improvisation is one of the basic elements that sets jazz apart from other types of music. The unifying moments in improvisation that take place in live performance are understood to encompass the performer, the listener, and the physical space that the performance takes place in. Even if improvisation is also found outside of jazz, it may be that no other music relies so much on the art of "composing in the moment", demanding that every musician rise to a certain level of creativity that may put the performer in touch with his or her unconscious as well as conscious states. The educational use of improvised jazz recordings is widely acknowledged. They offer a clear value as documentation of performances despite their perceived limitations. With these available, generations of jazz musicians are able to implicate styles and influences in their performed new improvisations. Many varied scales and their modes can be used in improvisation. They are often not written down in the process, but they help musicians practice the jazz idiom.
A common view of what a jazz soloist does could be expressed thus: as the harmonies go by, he selects notes from each chord, out of which he fashions a melody. He is free to embellish by means of passing and neighbor tones, and he may add extensions to the chords, but at all times a good improviser must follow the changes. ... [However], a jazz musician really has several options: he may reflect the chord progression exactly, he may "skim over" the progression and simply decorate with notes from the key of the piece (parent musical scale), or he may fashion his own voice-leading, using his intuition and listening experience, which may clash at some points with the chords the rhythm section is playing.
Contemporary classical music
With the notable exception of liturgical improvisation on the organ, the first half of the twentieth century is marked by an almost total absence of actual improvisation in contemporary classical music. Since the 1950s, some contemporary composers have placed fewer restrictions on the improvising performer, using techniques such as vague notation (for example, indicating only that a certain number of notes must sound within a defined period of time). New Music ensembles formed around improvisation were founded, such as the Scratch Orchestra in England; Musica Elettronica Viva in Italy; Lukas Foss Improvisation Chamber Ensemble at the University of California, Los Angeles; Larry Austin's New Music Ensemble at the University of California, Davis; the ONCE Group at Ann Arbor; the Sonic Arts Group; and Sonics, the latter three funding themselves through concerts, tours, and grants. Significant pieces include Foss Time Cycles (1960) and Echoi (1963).
Other composers working with improvisation include Richard Barrett, Benjamin Boretz, Pierre Boulez, Joseph Brent, Sylvano Bussotti, Cornelius Cardew, Jani Christou, Douglas J. Cuomo, Alvin Curran, Stuart Dempster, Hugh Davies, Karlheinz Essl, Mohammed Fairouz, Rolf Gehlhaar, Vinko Globokar, Richard Grayson, Hans-Joachim Hespos, Barton McLean, Priscilla McLean, Stephen Nachmanovitch, Pauline Oliveros, Henri Pousseur, Todd Reynolds, Terry Riley, Frederic Rzewski, Saman Samadi, William O. Smith, Manfred Stahnke, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Tōru Takemitsu, Richard Teitelbaum, Vangelis, Michael Vetter, Christian Wolff, Iannis Xenakis, Yitzhak Yedid, La Monte Young, Frank Zappa, Hans Zender, and John Zorn.
Contemporary popular music
Psychedelic- and progressive-rock music
British and American psychedelic rock acts of the 1960s and 1970s used improvisations to express themselves in a musical language. The progressive rock genre also began exploring improvisation as a musical expression, e.g. Henry Cow.
Silent-film music
In the realm of silent film-music performance, there were musicians (theatre organ players and piano players) whose improvised performances accompanying these film has been recognized as exceptional by critics, scholars, and audiences alike. Neil Brand was a composer who also performed improvisationally. Brand, along with Guenter A. Buchwald, Philip Carli, Stephen Horne, Donald Sosin, John Sweeney, and Gabriel Thibaudeau, all performed at the annual conference on silent film in Pordenone, Italy, Le Giornate del Cinema Muto. In improvising for silent film, performers have to play music that matches the mood, style and pacing of the films they accompany. In some cases, musicians had to accompany films at first sight, without preparation. Improvisers needed to know a wide range of musical styles and have the stamina to play for sequences of films which occasionally ran over three hours. In addition to the performances, some pianists also taught master classes for those who wanted to develop their skill in improvising for films. When talkies–motion pictures with sound–were introduced, these talented improvising musicians had to find other jobs. In the 2010s, there are a small number of film societies which present vintage silent films, using live improvising musicians to accompany the film.
Venues
Worldwide there are many venues dedicated to supporting live improvisation. In Melbourne since 1998, the Make It Up Club (held every Tuesday evening at Bar Open on Brunswick Street, Melbourne) has been presenting a weekly concert series dedicated to promoting avant-garde improvised music and sound performance of the highest conceptual and performative standards (regardless of idiom, genre, or instrumentation). The Make It Up Club has become an institution in Australian improvised music and consistently features artists from all over the world.
Music education
A number of approaches to teaching improvisation have emerged in jazz pedagogy, popular music pedagogy, the Dalcroze method, Orff-Schulwerk, and Satis Coleman's creative music. Current research in music education includes investigating how often improvisation is taught,<ref>"Composition and Improvisation in Instrumental Methods Courses: Instrumental Music Teacher Educators' Perspectives", Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 205, 2015.</ref> how confident music majors and teachers are at teaching improvisation, neuroscience and psychological aspects of improvisation, and free-improvisation as a pedagogical approach.
In Indian classical music
A raga is one of the melodic modes used in Indian classical music. Joep Bor of the Rotterdam Conservatory of Music has defined Raga as "tonal framework for composition and improvisation". Nazir Jairazbhoy, chairman of UCLA's department of ethnomusicology, characterized ragas as separated by scale, line of ascent and descent, transilience, emphasized notes and register, and intonation and ornaments. A raga uses a series of five or more musical notes upon which a melody is constructed. However, the way the notes are approached and rendered in musical phrases and the mood they convey are more important in defining a raga than the notes themselves. In the Indian musical tradition, rāgas are associated with different times of the day, or with seasons. Indian classical music is always set in a rāga. Non-classical music such as popular Indian film songs and ghazals sometimes use rāgas in their compositions.
According to Encyclopædia Britannica, a raga, also spelled rag (in northern India) or ragam (in southern India), (from Sanskrit, meaning "colour" or "passion"), in the classical music of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, is "a melodic framework for improvisation and composition. A raga is based on a scale with a given set of notes, a typical order in which they appear in melodies, and characteristic musical motifs. The basic components of a raga can be written down in the form of a scale (in some cases differing in ascent and descent). By using only these notes, by emphasizing certain degrees of the scale, and by going from note to note in ways characteristic to the raga, the performer sets out to create a mood or atmosphere (rasa) that is unique to the raga in question. There are several hundred ragas in present use, and thousands are possible in theory."
Alapa (Sanskrit: "conversation") are "improvised melody structures that reveal the musical characteristics of a raga". "Alapa ordinarily constitutes the first section of the performance of a raga. Vocal or instrumental, it is accompanied by a drone (sustained-tone) instrument and often also by a melodic instrument that repeats the soloist's phrases after a lag of a few seconds. The principal portion of alapa is not metric but rhythmically free; in Hindustani music it moves gradually to a section known as jor, which uses a rhythmic pulse though no tala (metric cycle). The performer of the alapa gradually introduces the essential notes and melodic turns of the raga to be performed. Only when the soloist is satisfied that he has set forth the full range of melodic possibilities of the raga and has established its unique mood and personality will he proceed, without interruption, to the metrically organized section of the piece. If a drummer is present, as is usual in formal concert, his first beats serve as a signal to the listener that the alapa is concluded."
Artificial intelligence
Machine improvisation uses computer algorithms to create improvisation on existing music materials. This is usually done by sophisticated recombination of musical phrases extracted from existing music, either live or pre-recorded. In order to achieve credible improvisation in particular style, machine improvisation uses machine learning and pattern matching algorithms to analyze existing musical examples. The resulting patterns are then used to create new variations "in the style" of the original music, developing a notion of stylistic reinjection. This is different from other improvisation methods with computers that use algorithmic composition to generate new music without performing analysis of existing music examples.
See also
Bar-line shift
Free improvisation
Improvisation in music therapy
Impro-Visor (software)
Jam session
Jam band
List of free improvising musicians and groups
Music for People
Musical collective
Musics (magazine)
Non-lexical vocables in music
Prepared guitar
Prepared piano
Side-slipping
S.P.I.T
Notes
Sources
English translation by Warren E. Hultberg and Almonte C. Howell Jr, as The Art of Playing the Fantasia (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.: Latin American Literary Review Press, 1991)
Further reading
Alperson, Philip. 1984. "On Musical Improvisation". The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 43, no. 1 (Fall): 17–29.
Bailey, Derek. 1992. Improvisation: Its Nature and Practice in Music, revised edition. London: British Library National Sound Archive. .
Berliner, Paul. 1994. Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (cloth); (pbk).
Crutchfield, Will. 2001. "Improvisation: II. Western Art Music: 5. The Nineteenth Century: (ii) Vocal music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.
Czerny, Carl. 1833. L'art de préluder: mis en pratique pour le piano par 120 examples de préludes, modulations, cadenses et fantaisien de tous genres. Paris: M. Schlesinger.
Ferand, Ernest T. 1938. Die Improvisation in der Musik; eine Entwicklungsgeschichtliche und Psychologische Untersuchung. Zürich: Rhein-Verlag.
Friedrich, Otto. 1989. Glenn Gould: A Life and Variations. New York: Random House. .
Guido d'Arezzo. 1978. "Micrologus" [ca. 1027], translated by Warren Babb. In Hucbald, Guido, and John on Music: Three Medieval Treatises, edited, with introductions, by Claude V. Palisca; index of chants by Alejandro Enrique Planchart, 57–83. Music Theory Translation Series 3. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. .
Hall, Lucy. 2002. " They're Just Making It Up—Whatever Happened to Improvisation in Classical Music?" The Guardian (12 June).
Heartz, Daniel. 1958–63. "The Basse Dance, Its Evolution Circa 1450 to 1550". Annales musicologiques 6:287–340.
Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. 2004. "Piano Improvisation Develops Musicianship". Orff-Echo 37, no. 1:11–14.
Koenig, Wolf, and Roman Kroitor (prod./dir.). 1959a. Glenn Gould: Off the Record. Film, 30 mins. [Canada]: National Film Board of Canada.
Koenig, Wolf, and Roman Kroitor (prod./dir.). 1959b. Glenn Gould: On the Record. Film, 30 mins. [Canada]: National Film Board of Canada.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. 1953. Concerto No. 24 in C Minor for Piano, edited by Franz Kullak. New York: G. Schirmer.
Nachmanovitch, Stephen. 1990. Free Play: Improvisation in Life and Art. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher; New York: Distributed by St. Martin's Press. (cloth); (pbk); New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. .
Paras, Jason. 1986. The Music for Viola Bastarda, edited by George Houle and Glenna Houle. Music—Scholarship and Performance. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Polk, Keith. 1966. Flemish Wind Bands in the Late Middle Ages: A Study of Improvisatory Instrumental Practices". PhD dissertation. Berkeley: University of California.
R., Ken (2012). Dog Ear: Tritone Substitution for Jazz Guitar. Amazon Digital Services,
Schopenhauer, Arthur. 1958. The World as Will and Representation. Translated from the German by E. F. J. Payne, 2 vols. [Indian Hills, Colorado]: Falcon's Wing Press.
Sancho-Velazquez, Angeles. 2005. The Legacy of Genius: Improvisation, Romantic Imagination, and the Western Musical Canon, PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
Solis, Gabriel, and Bruno Nettl (eds.). 2009. Musical Improvisation: Art, Education, and Society. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. (cloth) (pbk)
Thiollet, Jean-Pierre. 2017. Improvisation so piano''. Paris: Neva Editions.
External links
Robert Levin on Improvisation in Classical Music
Losing Control: Indeterminacy and Improvisation in Music Since 1950 by Sabine Feisst
Improvisation on Improvisation: Karlheinz Essl and Jack Hauser talking about musical improvisation with computers
How to Improvise Jazz Melodies, by Bob Keller
A Jazz Improvisation Primer by Marc Sabatella Information about jazz improvisation
A Fickle Sonance A column about improvisation by Art Lange
Approaches to Improvisation Tutorial on music improvisation techniques
Musical performance techniques
Jazz techniques
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Maryse Mizanin
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Maryse Mizanin (; née Ouellet; born January 21, 1983) is a Canadian professional wrestler, actress, and glamour model. She is signed to WWE, appearing on the Raw brand alongside her husband The Miz, under the ring name Maryse. After spending years modeling, including winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada in 2003, Mizanin participated in the WWE Diva Search competition and was hired by WWE in 2006. She spent time in developmental territories Ohio Valley Wrestling and Florida Championship Wrestling, before being assigned to the SmackDown brand in 2008. That year, Maryse won her first WWE Divas Championship.
In 2009, she was drafted to the WWE Raw brand, and won the Divas Championship for the second time in 2010, making her the first woman to hold it more than once. In 2010, she co-hosted NXT and managed Ted DiBiase, prior to her release from the company in 2011. In 2016, she returned to the company and became the manager of her husband The Miz. That year, she joined the cast of the reality show Total Divas. In 2018, WWE announced a spin-off show titled Miz & Mrs., which stars Mizanin. She and her husband also serve as executive producers.
Early life and career
Ouellet was born in Montreal, Quebec, but grew up in Edmundston, New Brunswick. In high school, Ouellet was the only girl in her class, and ran the school's fashion show. She also began developing a range of makeup products. Ouellet began her modeling career as a beauty pageant contestant, winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada 2003 and finishing second at the International Finals of Miss Hawaiian Tropic 2004. She was also on the cover of Playboy's 2007 Girls of Canada calendar.
Professional wrestling career
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE (2006–2011)
Diva Search and developmental territories (2006–2007)
In mid-2006, Ouellet tried out for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE)'s Diva Search. She made the final cut and was one of the top eight contestants, but was the second person eliminated on July 24. Despite her elimination, she was invited to observe workouts and the training facility at WWE's developmental territory, Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW), along with Brooke Adams. Ouellet later said that she was "very, very excited", as it was her "dream to become a WWE Diva".
Ouellet was officially signed to a WWE developmental contract on August 24, 2007, and was assigned to OVW for training. She made her in-ring debut at an OVW live event in December 2006. In March 2007, she began wrestling in dark matches prior to the OVW television tapings. In mid-2007, Ouellet began managing Sylvain Grenier. When Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) opened in mid-2007, Ouellet was transferred to the new developmental facility, and on September 25, she made her FCW debut as the valet of Ryan O'Reilly along with Lacey Von Erich. Ouellet then started competing in singles and tag team competition, before managing Ted DiBiase, Jr. in December 2007, and was at ringside when he captured the FCW Southern Heavyweight Championship.
Early storylines (2006–2008)
On the September 22, 2006, episode of SmackDown!, Ouellet, known as simply Maryse, was shown on the TitanTron welcoming the Montreal viewers in French to the season premiere of SmackDown! on the CW Network. Maryse made her first official televised appearance on the May 21, 2007, episode of Raw to present American rapper Timbaland's new music video for the single "Throw It on Me", in which she had appeared.
By the time she began appearing regularly on SmackDown at the beginning of 2008, she had adopted a snobby attitude and become a villainous character. On the March 7, 2008, episode of SmackDown, Maryse competed in a swimsuit contest against Victoria, Michelle McCool, Cherry, and Eve Torres, which ended in a brawl between Maryse and Torres. The following week, she was the first eliminated from another swimsuit competition. On March 28, Maryse competed in a "Wet and Wild" match, teaming with Victoria against Cherry and McCool in a losing effort. On a "SmackDown after the bell" video on WWE's website, the tag team Deuce 'n Domino dumped Cherry, who had been their manager, and replaced her with Maryse. Maryse then insulted Cherry, only for Cherry to slap her. On the May 16 episode of SmackDown, Maryse made her in-ring debut in a loss to Cherry, though she defeated Cherry in a rematch the following week. On the June 6 episode of SmackDown!, SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero announced the creation of the WWE Divas Championship, and that same night the Divas competed in a Golden Dreams match to qualify for the championship match at The Great American Bash, which was won by Natalya. On the July 4, 2008, episode of SmackDown!, she competed again in another Golden Dreams match to face Natalya for the championship, however she failed to win. For several weeks, Maryse competed in six-person tag team matches with Victoria and Natalya against Cherry, Michelle McCool and Maria. She suffered a minor broken nose after receiving a bulldog from Maria in August 2008.
Divas Champion (2008–2010)
Maryse began a rivalry with Michelle McCool in September 2008, challenging her for the WWE Divas Championship at Unforgiven, and in a rematch the following week on SmackDown, but failed to win on both occasions. On the September 23 episode of ECW, Maryse defeated McCool in a non-title match. After a month-long absence, Maryse returned at Survivor Series pay-per-view event in November, participating in a five-on-five Divas elimination tag team match, eliminating Kelly Kelly, Mickie James and Candice Michelle; Maryse was the sole survivor of her team, but was ultimately eliminated by Beth Phoenix. At the Armageddon pay-per-view on December 14, Maryse teamed up with Jillian Hall, Victoria and Natalya in a losing effort to McCool, Maria, Kelly Kelly and Mickie James in an Eight-Diva Santa's Little Helper tag team match. On December 19, Maryse pinned Maria to become the number one contender for Michelle McCool's Divas Championship. The following week on SmackDown, Maryse defeated McCool, with Maria as the special guest referee, to win her first Divas Championship. On December 28, at a house show in Raleigh, North Carolina, Maryse dislocated her knee in a tag team match against The Bella Twins (Nikki and Brie). It was later announced that the injury was not major, and therefore only missed a few weeks action. On the January 23, 2009, episode of SmackDown, Maryse returned and sat at ringside commentating during a Divas' tag team match. She returned to in-ring action on February 20, teaming with Michelle McCool in a win against Maria and Eve Torres, where she pinned Torres.
Maryse made her first appearance on Raw on March 2, as a commentator for a match involving the WWE Women's Champion Melina, with Maryse attacking her after the match. The following week, Maryse made her in-ring debut on Raw in a champion vs champion lumberjill match, which she defeated Melina. The rivalry extended to a tag team match on SmackDown on March 13, where Melina and Maria defeated McCool and Maryse. On March 27 episode of SmackDown, Maryse made her first championship defense, losing by disqualification after the returning Gail Kim attacked Maryse and McCool, and thus retained the championship. On April 5, Maryse competed in a 25-Diva Miss WrestleMania battle royal at WrestleMania XXV, but she was eliminated by Beth Phoenix and the match was won by Santina Marella (Santino Marella dressed in drag). Maryse made her last appearance on SmackDown on April 24, retaining her championship against Gail Kim.
As part of the 2009 WWE Draft on April 13, Maryse was drafted to the Raw brand, and in the process, the Divas Championship became exclusive to Raw. She made her first appearance as part of the brand on April 27, teaming with Beth Phoenix, Rosa Mendes, and Jillian Hall in a loss to Santina Marella, Mickie James, Brie Bella and Kelly Kelly. Maryse then began feuding with Mickie James after she cost James a number one contender's battle royal, which was eventually won by Kelly Kelly, by spraying hairspray in her eyes. The following week, Maryse lost a championship match against Kelly by disqualification, meaning the championship did not change hands, and won a subsequent rematch by pinfall two weeks later on June 8. At Night of Champions on July 26, Maryse lost the Divas Championship to James. Despite being only the second Divas champion, her reign of 216 days remained the longest in the title's history for nearly five years, until AJ Lee surpassed her reign in January 2014.
After losing the championship, Maryse underwent a legitimate knee surgery. She returned on the November 23 episode of Raw, disguised as The Gobbledy Gooker, as the guest timekeeper for a Thanksgiving-themed 6-Divas tag team match. After the match, she revealed herself by attacking the Divas Champion Melina. The following week, Maryse made her in-ring return teamed with Jillian Hall in a tag team match against Melina and Gail Kim, where Maryse pinned Melina. On the December 7 episode of Raw, Maryse defeated Gail Kim by dirty tactics, and following the match, Maryse proceed to attack Kelly Kelly, who was working as ring announcer, ordering her to announce she was the next Divas Champion, but was stopped by Melina.
In early 2010, a tournament was held for the newly vacated WWE Divas Championship due to Melina's injury. Maryse entered the tournament, and defeated Brie Bella and Eve Torres in the first round and semi-finals, respectively, to advance to the finals. The tournament's finals were originally scheduled for Elimination Chamber on February 21; instead, the match was changed by the SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero to an interbrand tag team match, where Maryse teamed with her scheduled opponent Gail Kim against LayCool (Michelle McCool and Layla), which was won by LayCool as a result of Maryse abandoning Kim during the match. The following night on Raw, Maryse defeated Kim in the finals to win the championship, becoming the first Diva to have held it twice.
On March 15 episode of Raw, Maryse defeated Kelly Kelly in a non-title match, attacking her after the match before being attacked by Eve Torres and Gail Kim, and saved by LayCool, then joining with them and Vickie Guerrero. On March 26 episode of SmackDown, Maryse teamed up with LayCool, Guerrero and Alicia Fox defeating Beth Phoenix in a 5-on-1 handicap match before being attacked by Kim, Eve, Kelly and Mickie James. At WrestleMania XXVI, on March 28, she was part of the winning team of a 10-Diva tag team match with LayCool, Fox and Guerrero against Phoenix, James, Kim, Torres and Kelly Kelly, but the following night on Raw, she was pinned by Torres in a rematch. Maryse lost the Divas Championship two weeks later to Eve Torres on the April 12 episode of Raw, and was unsuccessful to regain it at Over the Limit pay-per-view in May. At Fatal 4-Way on June 20, Maryse failed to regain the title in a Fatal Four-Way match that also involved then-champion Eve, Gail Kim, and Alicia Fox, which Fox would win pinning her to become the champion.
Managing Ted DiBiase (2010–2011)
On the June 21 episode of Raw, after Ted DiBiase fired Virgil, Maryse became DiBiase's new personal assistant. At Money in the Bank, on July 18, Maryse accompanied DiBiase in his Money in the Bank ladder match for the WWE Championship contract, which she tried to pick the briefcase, but was stopped by John Morrison. Along with DiBiase, Maryse was announced as a mentor for Brodus Clay for the fourth season of NXT on November 30. On Raw, on December 13, Maryse was involved in a battle royal to determine the winner of the Diva of the Year Slammy Award, but was eliminated by Natalya. Clay traded his mentors, Maryse and DiBiase, for Alberto Del Rio on the January 25, 2011, episode of NXT. In late September 2010, Maryse was involved in an storyline with Goldust, in which he stole the Million Dollar Championship from DiBiase, and lost a subsequent mixed tag team match against Goldust and Aksana on October 26.
On March 8, Maryse became the co-host of NXT, alongside Matt Striker. As part of NXT Redemption, Maryse was involved in several romantic storylines, most notably with Yoshi Tatsu, Lucky Cannon, and Hornswoggle. In April, DiBiase made an ultimatum to Maryse for her to choose to continue on the NXT or continue with him. The following week, Maryse chose to continue appearing on NXT, disbanding their alliance in the process. In August, Maryse underwent surgery for an abdominal hernia and took time off WWE programming. After two months of inactivity, Maryse was released from her WWE contract on October 28.
Independent circuit (2012)
On October 5, 2012, Maryse appeared at the Family Wrestling Entertainment (FWE) event Back 2 Brooklyn, performing live commentary. She began appearing regularly for FWE, where she commentated during women's matches.
Return to WWE (2016–present)
On April 4, 2016, episode of Raw, the episode after WrestleMania 32, Maryse returned during a WWE Intercontinental Championship match between the champion Zack Ryder and her husband, The Miz. During the match, Maryse slapped Ryder's father, who was in the front row, in order to distract Ryder and allowed Miz to capture the championship for the fifth time, thus becoming his manager in the process, where the two then became an on-screen power couple. She formally re-introduced herself three days later on the April 7 episode of SmackDown before once more helping Miz to retain his championship over Ryder. She then began to cut various promos with Miz as his host during the Miz TV segments, while calling themselves the "It" Couple. Following a hiatus due to the shoot of a WWE film, Maryse returned to WWE television on the June 27 episode of Raw, where she helped Miz to retain his championship against Kane after she faked an ankle injury.
After being drafted to Smackdown as part of the 2016 WWE draft which took place on July 19, she helped her husband to retain the title on several occasions.
On February 2017, Maryse was involved in her first feud since her return when she and The Miz feuded with the also real-life couple Nikki Bella and John Cena. This culminated in a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania 33, where Maryse and Miz would lose in what was Maryse's first match in over six years. On April 10, Maryse was drafted to the Raw brand along with Miz as part of the "Superstar Shake Up". On June 4, at Extreme Rules, Maryse was in Miz's corner when he won the WWE Intercontinental Championship for the seventh time by defeating Dean Ambrose. In September, following her pregnancy announcement, Maryse stopped appearing on television. On November 19, 2017, she made an appearance on the Survivor Series pay-per-view crowd watching Miz fight United States Champion Baron Corbin.
On January 22, 2018, in the Raw 25 Years special episode, Maryse was honored as part of a segment involving women considered legends that contributed to the company's success, including the Bella Twins, Kelly Kelly, Lilian Garcia, Torrie Wilson, Michelle McCool, Terri Runnels, Maria Kanellis and the Hall of Famers Jacqueline and Trish Stratus. Later she started making backstage promotional videos with Miz supporting him in the WWE Mixed Match Challenge, in which he won alongside Asuka in April in support of the charity Rescue Dogs Rock.
Maryse returned to Smackdown to manage The Miz in July 2018. Following Maryse's interference in The Miz vs. Daniel Bryan match at Summerslam, Maryse and Miz were put in a mixed tag match by the SmackDown General Manager Paige against Brie Bella and Daniel Bryan at Hell in a Cell on September 16 and won. On the September 11 edition of SmackDown Live, Maryse competed in her first singles match in over 8 years, losing to disqualification to Brie Bella. Following this match, Maryse would again stop appearing on television as Miz began a storyline with Shane McMahon. At Elimination Chamber Maryse returned as a face announcing she and The Miz are having their second child. Although Miz was drafted to SmackDown during the 2019 WWE Draft, Maryse went undrafted. Her first post-draft appearance occurred during a pre-recorded segment on SmackDown in December 2019 for Miz's feud with "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt, where she appeared with Miz at their home. Maryse returned to Raw on April 12, 2021, as part of Miz TV. On the same episode, Maryse accompanied and helped The Miz and John Morrison to defeat Damian Priest in a handicap match.
On November 29, 2021, Maryse made a surprise return to Raw, where she accompanied The Miz and confronted Edge in the middle of his first promo after being drafted back to Raw. She made multiple appearances on Raw in the following weeks, including attempting to interfere in the match between Edge and The Miz at Day 1, where Beth Phoenix returned to confront her. On the following week Raw, Edge and Beth Phoenix challenged The Miz and Maryse to a mixed-tag team match at the Royal Rumble, which The Miz accepted. On January 17, 2022, Maryse attempted to persuade Beth Phoenix to cancel their match at the Royal Rumble, and attacked her with a brick in her purse when she refused. The feud concluded in a mixed tag team match at Royal Rumble where Maryse and The Miz lost the match.
Professional wrestling style and persona
Throughout her career, Maryse has been noted for generating heat due to her snobby persona and bossy attitude in the ring, as well as for her comedy skits that often come unexpectedly during her matches and promos.
Other media
In April 2007, she appeared alongside fellow WWE Divas Ashley, Torrie Wilson, Brooke Adams, Layla, and Kelly Kelly in Timbaland's music video "Throw It On Me" featuring The Hives.
Ouellet also made an appearance in the January 2009 issue of Muscle & Fitness, along with Eve Torres and Michelle McCool. She and John Morrison were interviewed on Eurosport in the same year. She also made a special appearance on Redemption Song, which was hosted by WWE wrestler Chris Jericho, along with Candice Michelle, Mickie James, and Eve Torres. She has also appeared in several newspaper interviews, including Tokyo Headline, and was on the cover of Sessions Magazine in October 2010.
In 2012, Maryse was featured on the cover of Le Journal de Montréal, and on MDA Show of Strength with The Miz and other celebrities. In 2015, Ouellet had roles in Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No! and in Santa's Little Helper, the latter starring The Miz. In the same year, she appeared on the E! reality television series WAGS. In 2016, it was announced that Maryse would appear as a main cast member on the sixth season of Total Divas, which prompted her return to WWE. In June 2017, Maryse along with Miz were on the cover of DUB Magazine with a Jeep car.
Maryse has appeared in nine WWE video games. She made her in-game debut at WWE Smackdown vs. Raw 2010, later appearing in WWE Smackdown vs. Raw 2011, WWE '12, and returned in WWE 2K18, WWE 2K19, WWE 2K20, WWE 2K22, WWE 2K23, and WWE 2K Battlegrounds.
In 2018, Maryse and her husband Mike appeared in a reality television series titled Miz & Mrs. It was later announced on July 26 that Maryse would not be returning for the eighth season of Total Divas.
Filmography
Other endeavors
Following her release from WWE in 2011, Ouellet announced her plans for a clothing and jewelry line named House of Maryse.
Beginning in late 2013, Ouellet began working as a realtor in Los Angeles after spending a year earning her real estate license.
Personal life
Ouellet is a native speaker of French, fluent in English, and she is able to read Spanish, although she cannot speak it. Ouellet has a tattoo of her late father's name, Guy, on her left wrist. She has a degree in business administration, and holds a black belt in Kyokushin Karate. Her favorite actress is Scarlett Johansson, her favorite bands are Simple Plan and Nickelback, and she loves techno music. Ouellet is vegetarian.
She was inspired to become a professional wrestler by Lita. She cites Lita and Victoria as her dream opponents.
In 2013, Ouellet got engaged to longtime boyfriend and fellow wrestler Mike Mizanin, better known by his ring name, The Miz. The two were married in The Bahamas on February 20, 2014.
On March 27, 2018, Maryse gave birth to their first child, a daughter named Monroe Sky Mizanin.
During Elimination Chamber on February 17, 2019, the couple announced they are expecting their second child, due in September. Their daughter Madison Jade Mizanin was born on September 20, 2019.
On June 27, 2018, Ouellet officially became an American citizen. The couple resides in Thousand Oaks, California as of 2019.
Championships and accomplishments
Beauty pageant
Hawaiian Tropic
Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada (2003)
Runner-up International Finals of Miss Hawaiian (2004)
Professional wrestling
Bleacher Report
Diva/Knockout of the Year (2009)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Ranked No. 9 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Divas Championship (2 times)
Divas Championship Tournament (2010)
References
External links
1983 births
21st-century female professional wrestlers
Activists from Montreal
Actresses from Montreal
Francophone Quebec people
Canadian beauty pageant winners
Female models from Quebec
Canadian female professional wrestlers
American beauty pageant winners
American female models
American female professional wrestlers
Canadian expatriate professional wrestlers in the United States
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian film actresses
Canadian television actresses
American film actresses
American television actresses
French Quebecers
Glamour models
Living people
Miss Hawaiian Tropic delegates
Models from Montreal
Participants in American reality television series
People with acquired American citizenship
Professional wrestlers from New Brunswick
Professional wrestling managers and valets
WWE Diva Search contestants
People from Edmundston
WWE Divas Champions
Professional wrestlers from Montreal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester%20Arndale
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Manchester Arndale
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Manchester Arndale (one of a number of shopping centres in the UK by the same developers, also known simply as the Arndale Centre or the Arndale) is a large shopping centre in Manchester, England. It was constructed in phases between 1972 and 1979, at a cost of £100 million. Manchester Arndale is the largest of the chain of Arndale Centres built across the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. It was redeveloped after the 1996 Manchester bombing.
The centre has a retail floorspace of just under (not including Selfridges and Marks and Spencer department stores to which it is connected via a link bridge), making it Europe's third largest city-centre shopping mall. It is one of the largest shopping centres in the UK, with 41 million visitors annually, ahead of the Trafford Centre, which attracts 35 million.
History
The Manchester Arndale was built between 1971 and 1979 on Market Street in Manchester city centre by developers Town & City Properties, the successors to the Arndale Property Trust, with financial backing from the Prudential Assurance Company and Manchester Corporation. The first phase opened in 1975. It was the largest Arndale Centre in the United Kingdom.
Arndale Property Trust
The Arndale Property Trust, formed in the early 1950s, took its name from its founders, Arnold Hagenbach and Sam Chippindale. Hagenbach, a Yorkshireman of Swiss extraction, owned a chain of baker's shops and had invested in retail premises from 1939. Chippindale was an estate agent and former civil servant from Otley. Arndale was unusual, though not unique, amongst property companies in being based outside London and specialising in retail property. Hagenbach invested more and was the quieter partner. Chippindale was blunt and outspoken but was able to persuade sceptical northern councils to accept the company's proposals, where London-based developers could not. Arndale bought property north of Market Street in 1952.
Redevelopment plans
The city council recognised before the end of the Second World War that the area around Market Street was in need of redevelopment, and a plan was drawn up between 1942 and 1945 but no progress was made. The City Surveyor stated in 1962: "Manchester [is] crystallised in its Victorian setting ... A new look for the city has been long overdue. ... Its unsightly areas of mixed industrial, commercial and residential development need to be systematically unravelled and redeveloped on comprehensive lines. Only in this way can a city assume its proper place as a regional centre." The corporation used compulsory purchase orders to speed redevelopment at the bomb-damaged Market Place (between the Corn Exchange and the Royal Exchange—the development has since been demolished), at the CIS buildings, and at Piccadilly. In the view of the surveyor, "These schemes have greatly improved the appearance of the central area of the City". The corporation's preferred development was a tower above a two or three-storey podium, the form used in all three developments, and later that of the Arndale. Corporation planners added the land and buildings they owned to those acquired by Arndale to increase the size of the available plot.
Retail centre
Manchester was traditionally the dominant retail centre of the conurbation and region, and Market Street was the main shopping street from about 1850. Manchester's position weakened during the 1960s as the range of goods available elsewhere increased. Salford had concentrated its three main retail areas into one, with the aim of eliminating the need for residents to travel to Manchester to shop. Stockport town centre had been cleared of cotton mills to improve its appearance, and a major through route had been closed to build the Merseyway Shopping Centre, which doubled local retail spend. In quantitative terms, while in 1961 Manchester's retail spend was 3.7 times that of the next biggest shopping area in the conurbation, by 1971 this had fallen to 2.8 times.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the desire to provide modern shopping facilities was prevalent among most councils in major cities, where the Victorian buildings could not accommodate the needs of modern retailers. Other examples from the period include the Bull Ring, Birmingham and the Merrion Centre, Leeds.
Plan of 1965
A 1965 version of the scheme, costed at £15 million and bounded by Market Street, Corporation Street, Withy Grove and High Street, was intended to be the UK's biggest single shopping centre. The only change to the boundaries (as of 2009) was in 1973 (i.e. before opening) onto the site of the former Manchester Guardian offices on the opposite side of Market Street. Boots took the (gross) extension in its entirety, their biggest store at the time.
Town & City Properties
Arndale Property Trust was acquired by Town & City Properties in April 1968. A public enquiry into the development started on 18 June 1968, with a submission that the existing street pattern, while historic, was "hopelessly inadequate for modern requirements". The city planning officer gave evidence that "the development would be comparable with the best carried out in North America and Scandinavia". The scheme was to include seven public houses and a 200-bed hotel. An economist gave evidence that spending in central Manchester would double by 1981. The enquiry finished on 8 July 1968 and reported in early November 1969. The inspector approved the scheme, noting that the region north of Market Street needed redeveloping, and it was sensible to redevelop the frontage. Manchester corporation compulsorily purchased a further of property in 1970 using money raised by selling land outside the city bought for overspill housing.
Pre-1971 streets and buildings
The area was a patchwork of mostly Victorian buildings on a 17th and 18th century layout of streets, alleys, and courts. A map used for the 1961 meeting of the British Association shows shops fronting Market Street and Cross Street, with warehousing or office buildings behind.
Neither Stewart's The Stones of Manchester (1956) nor Sharp et al.'s survey Manchester Buildings (1966) describe the area or any buildings in particular. Stewart is generally strong on Victorian architecture, and none of its 60 "principal buildings" were within the redevelopment area. Sharp et al. covered older and new buildings; of the many described over fifty are in the city centre but none were in the cleared area. Pevsner, writing in 1969 when clearance was imminent, found nothing of note. the town clerk, described the buildings as obsolescent in evidence to the public enquiry. Shop Property predicted in 1971 that as "new buildings replace the existing dilapidated ones" the city centre would lose its Coronation Street image, and become "very attractive" to retailers. The Guardian, which had offices in Cross Street, wrote in 1976 that Market Street had been "depressing and decaying" for 30 years.
Later descriptions are more complimentary. Spring (in 1979) wrote of "monstrosities that have ousted the city's grand heritage of nineteenth century commercial and industrial architecture—if the recently completed mammoth and distinctly lavatorial Arndale Centre is anything to go by". Hamilton (in 2001) wrote that the area reflected Manchester's wealth and leadership in the middle of the 19th century, with buildings designed by leading UK architects. Moran (in 2006) called it a "maze of characterful streets".
In the early 1960s, the area had several establishments that made Manchester, in Lee's description, a rival to Hamburg as the "fun city of Europe". Unlicensed coffee bars where people listened to live and recorded music and which did not serve alcohol were effectively outside police control. A 1965 police report by plain-clothes cadets known as the "mod squad" described them as unsanitary, dimly-lit drug dens, run by "men of colour", where young men were fleeced of their money and young women trapped into prostitution. The Manchester Corporation Act 1965 was passed after the report and closed most of them. The Cinephone Cinema was the first in Manchester to show 'continental' X-rated films, mostly erotica. Second-hand bookstalls and what Lee described as "Manchester's very own Carnaby Street" had opened by the early 1970s. The Seven Stars on Withy Grove was one of Manchester's oldest pubs, with a licence dating back to 1356; Redford claimed it to be "oldest licensed house in Great Britain", though this was probably not the case.
Design and construction
The architects were Hugh Wilson and J. L. Womersley. Their work together included Hulme Crescents and the Manchester Education Precinct. Womersley, as Sheffield City Architect, was responsible for the post-war redevelopment of Sheffield in the 1950s and 1960s including the city centre as well as extensive residential estates, notably Park Hill.
The developers and the corporation did not allow the architects a free hand. The developers demanded a closed building with little natural light and rejected a more open, roof-lit design. The corporation insisted on a bus station, market, car parking, an underground railway station, and provision for deck access to subsequent developments. Cannon Street was to be kept open with no shop frontages. Corporation Street and High Street were allowed shop fronts on the returns to Market Street. Market Street, a busy thoroughfare, had shop fronts as pedestrianisation was proposed, though this did not happen until 1981. Display windows were forbidden on most of the external walls of the centre and were instead inside. The architects, developers, and city council did not communicate well. The architects realised that "the brief [as] given ... would produce a very introverted building. And we said this would not be attractive".
Construction started in 1972 and the centre opened in stages, with the Arndale Tower and 60 shops opening in September 1976, followed by Knightsbridge Mall (the bridge over Market Street) in May 1977, the northern mall in October 1977, the market hall, Boots, and the bridge to the Shambles (over Corporation Street) in 1978, and the bus station off Cannon Street and anchor stores Littlewoods and British Home Stores in 1979. On opening, the centre contained 210 shops and over 200 market stalls.
The cost, estimated at £11½ million in the public enquiry in 1968, rose to £26 million by 1972, and to £30 million by 1974, forcing the formation of Manchester Mortgage Corporation, a partnership of Town & City, the Prudential Assurance Company, and Manchester Corporation. The joint company, run by Manchester Corporation, raised £5 million on the stock market (a first for a company formed by a local authority), after the Prudential admitted it could not fully fund the project. Town & City came close to bankruptcy, forcing them into a reverse takeover of Jeffrey Sterling's Sterling Guarantee Trust in April 1974 and a £25 million rights issue in 1975–6. Costs reached £46 million by 1976, of which £13 million came from the council. The final cost, described as "enormous" by Parkinson-Bailey, was £100 million, made up of £11.5 million for land, £44.5 million for the building, and £44 million for fitting out.
Early days
The centre was divided by Market Street and Cannon Street. South of Market Street, on the site of the old Guardian buildings, was a branch of Boots. Market Street was bridged by a mall, Knightsbridge and later Voyager Bridge. The part between Market Street and Cannon Street was mostly two-storey and contained most of the anchor stores and access to the office block. Ground-level entrances were at the upper level from High Street and at the lower level from Corporation Street, taking advantage of a slope of about . A centrally-placed entrance from Market Street entered via a mezzanine into Hallé Square, a full-height open space. These areas remained fundamentally unchanged in 2009. North of Cannon Street, the lower floor was occupied by the bus station, with the upper floor shops, and 60 flats above them. At the High Street end was a two-floor market area. Cannon Street was bridged by a mall at the Corporation Street end and underpassed by a tunnel at the High Street end. There was a continuous pathway around the centre, but not at a single level. At the High Street end a multi-storey car park was sited above the market centre and Cannon Street. In all there were of mall. Underneath the centre was a full-circuit full-height service road, in length, with access from Withy Grove. By taking advantage of the change in height, the architects hoped to solve the problem of persuading shoppers to use the upper shopping area. While the northern part had no anchor stores, the car park and bus station meant that foot traffic passed through the area, avoiding quiet spots.
The interior of the centre originally featured a sculpture by the Czech artist Franta Belsky entitled Totem. Installed in 1977, it stood on a polished terrazzo plinth in the middle of a fountain. It symbolised the economic history of Manchester and included a representation of a capstan from the Manchester Ship Canal. Belsky originally intended it to function as a water sculpture but this idea was abandoned by the developers. Totem was awarded the Medal of the Royal British Society of Sculptors for 1976. The sculpture was later removed in 1987/88 during refurbishment works and discarded.
The final building was considered excessively large. The Guardian described it in 1978 as "an awful warning against thinking too big in Britain's cities" and "so castle-like in its outer strength that any passing medieval army would automatically besiege it rather than shop in it". The underground railway scheme was abandoned by 1976 and the only deck access was across Corporation Street to another Town & City development in the Shambles. At the official opening, one of its champions, Dame Kathleen Ollerenshaw, Mayor of Manchester, commented, "I didn't think it would look like that when I saw the balsa wood models". The "unrepentant" architects responded that they had provided what they had been asked to provide. Kenneth Stone said in 1978, "We're not responsible for everything in there, but we're not sorry about the decisions we took as opposed to those which were forced upon us." The critics' opinion did not mellow with time, and the centre was described in 1991 as "aggressive externally". The Economist noted in 1996 that it had "long been regarded as one of Europe's ugliest shopping centres. ... the epitome of lousy modern architecture ... [the outside] was hated". The Financial Times in 1997 called it "outstandingly ugly" and in 2000 "one of Britain's least-loved buildings".
The main cause of its poor reception was its external appearance. Most of the centre was covered by pre-cast concrete panels faced with ceramic tiles. The tiles, made by Shaw Hathernware, were a deep buff, variously described as "bile yellow", "putty and chocolate" (some parts were brown) and "vomit-coloured". They inspired the epithet "the longest lavatory wall in Europe" and variations. According to The Guardian, the description was coined by Norman Shrapnel, the paper's political columnist.
Consequences
A backlash against comprehensive development was underway before the centre opened. Amery and Dan Cruickshank's The Rape of Britain, with a foreword by John Betjeman, was published to mark European Architectural Heritage Year in 1975. The book describes the redevelopment of about 20 towns under the heading "scenes of rape" and uses the Arndale as an example of "brutal obliteration" undertaken by "the mind that seriously believes that the centre of Manchester should look like a futuristic vision or a barbaric new city borrowed from Le Corbusier". In the same year the pressure group Save Britain's Heritage was formed, in part to discourage the wholesale demolition of unremarkable industrial buildings in the north of England. Several factors, including the property slump of 1974–6, changes to local government in 1974, and changes in the law after the Poulson affair, in which developers corrupted politicians to expedite schemes against the wider public interest, acted against further developments of the size and type of the Arndale. Built Environment commented that while Arndales are "an asset to any town", this scheme "smacks of opportunism beyond the general interest of the city as a whole".
The presence of over of retail space distorted shopping patterns in Manchester city centre and many established retailers and retail districts struggled to adapt. Oldham Street lost large stores from their long-term sites and it was clear the area would suffer. Closures of shops and former textile warehouses comparable to those cleared for the Arndale meant the area quickly became run-down and in Bennison et al.'s eyes "almost fossilised". The area remained run down until it was revitalised as the Northern Quarter in the late 1990s. Piccadilly Plaza, completed in 1966, lost trade when the Arndale opened and was put up for sale for £10 m in the middle of 1979; as a shopping centre, it never recovered.
Stocks argues that these factors lay behind the Greater Manchester County Council's strategic view that the county had too much retail capacity. From 1977 onwards the GMC consistently opposed further development, and would not support any before 1986. Trade increased in the early 1980s, though GMC policy against development and for retaining the relative importance of the retail centres remained. By the mid-1980s, the trend in retailing had moved from city centres to out-of-town.
The GMC was abolished in 1986 and, in Stocks' terms, "applications for major shopping schemes began to slop over the unmanned dam". A consequence of pent-up applications was that the adjacent newly created authorities of Salford and Trafford found themselves in a "prisoner's dilemma" over competing out-of-town schemes, at Barton Locks and Dumplington, broadly similar in size to the Arndale. By 1989, planning applications for almost of retail space in Greater Manchester were unresolved. A public enquiry (followed by action in the appeal court, and a case in the House of Lords) approved the Dumplington proposal (the Trafford Centre). Construction began in 1995.
Refurbishment
The typical life span of a shopping centre is about 10–20 years, at which point the owners may do nothing, refurbish or demolish. In the Arndale, refurbishment began about six years after opening. Artificial lighting and undistinguishable malls, with multiple dead ends and no obvious circular route, meant that shoppers were, in Morris's words, "bewildered by its maze-like intensity". Parkinson-Bailey described the centre as "never the pleasantest place to shop in ... hot and stuffy". Criticisms were addressed in a half-million pound upgrade in which roof lights were inserted to allow in daylight and pot-plants introduced. To improve navigation and to tone down the appearance, the flooring of each area was given a distinct colour scheme, decorative ironwork was installed, and a fountain was placed at one corner and a double-floor height aviary placed at another. The Arndale's own radio station, Centre Sound, was installed. Hallé Square housed a food court by day and could be used as a concert area by night if required. Beddington describes the results as "workmanlike but unromantic".
Town & City changed its name to Sterling Guarantee Trust in 1983, and in February 1985 merged with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (known as ), also run by Jeffrey Sterling. decided to refurbish Knightsbridge (the bridge over Market Street) and double the rents. Work took place in 1990–1, and the most visible change was a £9 m food court (Voyagers) in an area not previously open to the public. The refurbishment was a success and increased the centre's popularity. Other refurbishments took place in 1991–3, despite opposition from traders who objected to changes that might take the centre 'up-market'. The northern part of the centre saw little investment for years, and the market hall was seen as ripe for improvement.
The bus station became Manchester's busiest, handling 30,000 passengers and 1,500 bus movements per day by 1991. It was unpopular with travellers, especially women. Described as "dirty and horrible", its poorly lit interior was identified by Taylor as inherently threatening and a "landscape of fear".
As a shopping centre Manchester Arndale was outstandingly successful, and the critics' opinions were not universally held – especially by its owners. By 1996 the Arndale was fully let, raised £20 m a year in rents, was the seventh busiest shopping area in the UK in terms of sales, and was visited by 750,000 people a week. The poet Lemn Sissay wrote
The Arndale Centre was always just the Arndale Centre. A palace of Perspex and people. A light extravaganza. ... a shopper's heaven on earth. In all its gargantuan glory I love it. Whether it is ugly or not is a purely subjective opinion. It is wonderful inside."
1996 IRA bombing
The centre became a target for terrorists. Arson attacks in April 1991 were followed by firebombs in December 1991 which caused extensive damage to four stores. The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) was blamed for the incidents, in which the devices were placed in soft furnishings during shopping hours. After the second attack, Christmas shopping continued much as normal the following day in the unaffected stores. An unnamed fireman noted, "What bugs me is if there's a big one planted there's a lot of glass around here, and a lot of people will be killed".
At about 09:20 on Saturday morning, 15 June 1996, two men parked a lorry containing a bomb on Corporation Street between Marks & Spencer and the Arndale. At about 09:45, a coded warning was received by Granada TV. The usual weekend population of shoppers was supplemented by football fans in town for the Russia v Germany match of UEFA Euro 1996, due to be staged on Sunday at Old Trafford. About 80,000 people were cleared from the area by police and store staff using procedures developed after an IRA bombing incident in 1992, assisted by outside staff experienced in crowd control drafted in to help with the football fans. The bomb exploded at 11:17, shortly after the army bomb squad arrived from Liverpool and began making it safe. Nobody was killed, but over 200 people were injured, some seriously, mostly by flying glass, though one pregnant shopper was thrown in the air by the blast.
In all 1200 properties on 43 streets were affected. Marks and Spencer's and the adjacent Longridge House were condemned as unsafe within days, and were demolished. The Arndale's frontage on Corporation Street and the footbridge were structurally damaged. The reinsurance company Swiss Re estimated that the final insurance payout was over £400 m, making it at the time the most expensive man-made disaster ever.
Redevelopment
In the immediate aftermath of the bombing, the southern half of the centre was repaired and refurbished. The northern half was patched up, with buses originally stopping on Cannon Street itself before the bus station was eventually replaced by Shudehill Interchange in January 2006. Marks and Spencer, which was particularly badly damaged in the explosion, reopened in a separate building, linked to the main mall on the first floor by a glass footbridge which was designed by Stephen Hodder. Shortly after opening the large branch, the building was split into two independent shops. Half remained a branch of Marks and Spencer while the side facing The Triangle became a branch of Selfridges.
In Autumn 2003, as the final stage of rebuilding the city centre after the bombing, the whole of the half of the centre-north of Cannon Street was closed and demolished. Over the next two to three years, the northern half of the centre was completely rebuilt and extended. The first phase of the "northern extension", known as 'Exchange Court', opened on 20 October 2005. Exchange Court features Britain's flagship and the world's largest Next store. This was followed by the second phase, known as 'New Cannon Street', which opened on 6 April 2006. Stores in this phase include a new flagship branch of TopShop and Topman.
On 7 September 2006, the third and final phase of the northern extension opened. The new Winter Garden features stores such as a new Superdry (formerly HMV, Zavvi & Virgin Megastores), a Waterstone's bookshop, and a new single-level unit for the Arndale Market. The completed mall provides a link from Exchange Square and The Triangle to the Northern Quarter, and from Market Street to The Printworks.
The southern half of the centre was also refurbished. Halle Square was modernised, including new skylights, but there is still a major difference in levels of natural light between the original malls and the northern extension, where the designers sought to maximise it.
Recent developments
By the late 1990s, the centre was no longer owned by the Arndale Property Trust. In the early 21st century the centre was jointly owned by M&G Real Estate and Intu Group until June 2020, when the bankrupt Intu went into administration.
With the large-scale redevelopment of the centre since the 1996 bombing, it has a retail floorspace of , making it Europe's largest city-centre shopping mall, a record it has held continuously since construction apart from a brief spell during the northern redevelopment when the title was held by the Birmingham Bullring.
As part of the renovation, most of the tiles have been removed and replaced by sandstone and glass cladding. Manchester Arndale houses the largest Next store, with the largest glass store frontage in the UK, and also the largest Office Shoe store outside London as of April 2010.
In August 2015 the Arndale announced the launch of its first-ever Charity Star initiative, with the centre fundraising for a chosen charity for one whole year.
In around 2021, the last part of the original Arndale and the adjacent Aleef News, was refurbished, to make way for two tenants, Sports Direct and Tim Hortons. The yellow tiles remain untouched.
Food court
Like many large shopping malls, Manchester Arndale has a food court. The Food-Chain, opened as Voyagers in 1991, is an 800-seat food court situated on the second floor above the far south-west tip of the centre. It can be reached by an escalator encased in glass from Market Street, by a lift accessed from the outside of Boots, and from the first floor at the south-western tip of the centre close to Argos and the first-floor entrance to Boots.
Transport
In the 1970s, plans to construct an underground railway station appeared in the Picc-Vic tunnel scheme. Royal Exchange station was planned to be built underneath Cross Street to serve both the Arndale and the Royal Exchange. The scheme was cancelled but a subterranean void was constructed beneath the centre to enable the future addition of an underground station.
Today the Manchester Arndale is served by three stations on the Manchester Metrolink tram system, , and Shudehill Interchange, which is also a bus station.
See also
List of shopping malls by country
Trafford Centre - Manchester's out of town shopping centre in nearby Trafford
References
Bibliography
External links
Manchester Arndale Centre home page
Manchester Arndale Market home page for Manchester Arndale's Market
Capital Shopping Centres (CSC) - Manchester Arndale
Arndale
Tourist attractions in Manchester
History of Manchester
Shopping malls established in 1975
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llandough%2C%20Penarth
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Llandough, Penarth
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Llandough (/lænˈdɒk/; [ɬan'doːχaɨ vaχ]) is a village, community and electoral ward in the Vale of Glamorgan (), Wales, approximately 2.3 miles (3.7 km) south west of Cardiff city centre, and approximately 1.3 miles (2 km) north west of Penarth.
Toponymy
Llandough is an anglicisation of the Welsh placename , which as a combination of the words (meaning 'church') and (Saint /), followed by (meaning 'small', however, consonant mutation in Welsh means this is changed to ).
History
Excavations have shown that the village's history goes back to the Roman occupation of Wales.
Until the mid-1960s, Llandough was a small farming and quarrying village but experienced an expansion involving the building of a large number of houses, a primary school, and a block of six shopping units. These shops have since been demolished.
There were around six thatched cottages in the village around 1960, but only one now remains – Pound Cottage.
Llandough became a separate community from Penarth in 1982, though its residents retained a right to be buried in Penarth Cemetery at the same cost until 2007.
Buildings
St Dochdwy's Church
Llandough was long believed to be one of the main ecclesiastical centres in south east Wales, and was the site of a monastic community known as Bangor Dochau, by St Dochau in the 5th century. Evidence to support this claim was found when the excavations of the Roman villa revealed post-Roman burials, and by during another excavation in 1994, when the remains of over 800 individual burials dating from the 4th century to the 12th century AD were revealed.
The monastery became defunct in around the early 11th century, however the site continued in use as a parish church.
The first permanent church building was built in the 12th century, was restored in the 18th century, and remained in use until 1820. The original church was replaced in the 19th century by the Llandaff diocesan architects, Prichard and Seddon. However, this church was deemed too small for the growing population of the village and was replaced after 40 years of service by the current church. The first for the 19th century churches was dismantled and re-erected at Leckwith, where it was re-dedicated to St James. The building has since been converted into a pair of houses.
The current church was built in 1866. It was designed by architect Samuel Charles Fripp of Bristol, and built by David Jones of Penarth for a cost of £2,600.
A Celtic stone cross dating back to the 10th or 11th century still stands in the churchyard today. The stone includes an inscription IRBICI, which means “[the stone] of Irbic”, but nothing is known of this person or exactly why the cross was erected. The cross has been mutilated at the top but otherwise is complete. The monument is made of Sutton stone and measures by . Renovation work was carried out on the cross in July 2013. A replica can be seen at National Museum Cardiff.
To the west of the church are three fragmentary components of a well-fortified house dating from the 1420s or 1430s, believed to have been built by John de Van.
Great House Farm
Great House Farm stood alongside St Dochdwy's church, and was the site of a Celtic monastery and a missionary centre.
The remains of a soldier and his horse were found under the floor of the dining room when the stone floor was replaced with timber. It is thought that there was a battle on the site and the soldier was buried where he lay in his armour. His remains were re-buried in St Dochdwy's churchyard and his visor and lance are now in Amgueddfa Cymru – Museum Wales. A petition for the preservation of the farm was signed by 1,700 people in 1974.
The farm was opened on occasions for locals, schoolchildren, and visitors to learn about how people lived in the past. A cheese drying room was hollowed out of a solid wall. There was a bedroom where travelling monks would have taken their rest. Guglielmo Marconi slept here while working on his wireless telegraphy experiments between Lavernock Point and Flat Holm.
The farm was demolished in 1988 by British Petroleum Pension Funds, following a 33-year dispute over ownership. The site is now mostly vacant and overgrown, awaiting housing development. Housing was built on what was once the fields of Great House Farm in the 1960s, as well as the current Llandough primary school, which was opened in 1970 by James Callaghan, a local MP.
Roman Villa
The site of a Roman villa was uncovered in 1979 when the Housing Association began work for blocks of flats. The Glamorgan and Gwent Archaeological Trust started excavation with the help of volunteers. There were indications that the villa stood between the second half of the 2nd century and the middle of the 4th century. It was built of mortar with roofs of red pottery tiles and Pennant sandstone. The walls were rendered with plaster, and the floors made of bricks and crushed tiles. A well-persevered sunken bath was found in the main living quarters.
A skeleton, skull, and bones were found on the site, remains of a Romano-British family, possibly farmers.
A last-minute bid to save the villa was unsuccessful and the flats of Corinthian Close and Tuscan Close were built.
Barons Court
Baron's Court, originally known as Cogan Pill, is a late 15th or early 16th-century hall house with 19th-century additions.
It was built for Sir Mathew Cradock (died 1531) and passed his grandson Sir George Herbert, the first Sherif of Glamorgan (1494 to 1543). His younger son William, who was sheriff in 1552 and 1567 reputedly enlarged the house. It remained in the Herbert family, who also held St Fagans Castle, for many generations, becoming a farmhouse in 1642 with the grand hall converted to a barn. In 1790 the building was purchased by Lord Bute. Restored and remodelled c 1850 by H S Corbett, relative and agent of the Marquess of Bute, as a house for himself.
Many of the current features of the building date from this restoration, but it is to be noted that it is the only surviving medieval hall building in South Wales still open from floor to roof.
It has since been a Toby Carvery chain restaurant, and is now a pub/restaurant.
Llandough Institute
The Llandough and Leckwith War Memorial Institute was opened by the Marchioness of Bute in 1924. It was built using donations from families from the two villages. The original hall was replaced 50 years later and formally opened by Sir Cennydd Traherne. Both the original and the current halls have been used for village functions, except during the WWII years when the building was used by the Royal Air Force. An anti-aircraft battery and balloon barrage unit were also situated in the village, and smoke screen motors were often used to throw smoke screens over Cardiff.
Rose Cottage
The Baptist congregation of Llandough originally met in Rose Cottage, opposite Lewis Road on Penlan Road. The cottage was derelict by 1963, and has been demolished. The original garden walls still exist in front of the flats built on the site.
Llandough Baptist Church
Built in 1859 as the successor to the Rose Cottage meeting house, the main building was constructed of stone from Llandough quarry with a slate roof. There was no interior ceiling. A number of extensions and modernisations were made after 1979.
Lewis Road terraces
Numbers 1, 3, 5 and 7 Lewis Road were built around 1830. The terraced houses were constructed from square cornered limestone, with slate roofs, and store forecourt walls. Originally the windows and doors had flat arches but some of these features have been removed through modernisation.
Between 1830 and 1971, 1 Lewis Road has operated as a village shop, a bakery, a post office, and a grocers.
The Blacksmith's Cottage
The Blacksmith's Cottage, now 89 Penlan Road, is a single-storey stone building dating from around 1760. It originally had a thatched roof which has been replaced by a tiled roof. The current kitchen area incorporates the blacksmith's oven, in the form of a brick dome.
The National School
The stone building on the corner of Penlan Road and Lewis Road was the first National School in the Penarth area, dating from 1825. It was the initiative of the rector, Rev. James Evans, and was supported by the 2nd Marquess of Bute. At that time the population of Llandough was around 200, and the majority had Welsh as their first language.
The school building was constructed in stone with a slate roof and brick-edged windows and was planned to accommodate between 50 and 60 children. Behind the school a smaller house was constructed as the residence of the school teacher.
By 1870 the village's population had increased to over 700, and in 1872 the school was replaced by a new building opposite. The new school was planned to accommodate around 125 children and served as an elementary school until January 1941, when it was badly damaged by bombing during World War II.
The national school building is now a private house.
Pen-Y-Lan House
Pen-Y-Lan House, now 91 Penlan Road, was built in 1680 and is one of the oldest houses in the village. Originally the house was a one-up, one-down, but it has been extended to the rear and now has three bedrooms. The house is built of stone and originally had a thatched roof, which has been replaced by slate.
The Policeman's House and Old Post Office
Number 18 and 20 Penlan Road were built between 1840 and 1874 in stonework with slate roofs.
Number 20 was the village's police station until around 1954. Its garage incorporated the Air Raid Precautions post during World War II.
Number 18 was the original Post Office for Llandough.
Pound Cottage
Pound Cottage is a grade II listed building and was constructed around 1830 on land belonging to the Bute estate. It is as a two-storey thatched cottage with whitewashed walls. It was formerly the home of the village pound keeper, who was responsible for catching and keeping stray animals. The stone walled pound attached to the building was demolished in 1950.
There have been multiple alterations and additions, including single-storey extensions at each end, both of which are thatched. The cottage is now the last thatched cottage in Llandough.
Pound Cottage served as a sweetshop for some years.
Primrose Cottage
Primrose Cottage was built as three small cottages called Primrose, Moss Rose, and Rosemary in the period 1840–1878. Each cottage was a one-up, one-down with stone spiral staircases.
University Hospital Llandough
University Hospital Llandough is a district general hospital managed by the Cardiff and Vale University Health Board. It was opened in 1930 as Llandough Hospital and joined the National Health Service in 1948. It was renamed as 'University Hospital Llandough' in 2008 to reflect its links with the Cardiff University School of Medicine.
Y Bwthyn Bach
Also known as The Welsh House and The Little House, the house was constructed from materials left over from the construction of University Hospital Llandough. It was presented as a gift from the people of Wales to the Duke and Duchess of York (the future King George VI and Queen Elizabeth) in March 1932 for the 6th birthday of Princess Elizabeth (the future Queen Elizabeth II). It was transported to the royal family's house, Royal Lodge in Windsor Great Park near Windsor Castle, and has been used as a playhouse by children of the royal family ever since.
The house was designed by Cardiff architect Mr E C Morgan Willmott and had a thatched roof. The house is with ceilings high, two-thirds the size of a normal house, and composed of a parlour, a kitchen, a bedroom, and a bathroom. The house is decorated throughout and has furniture and fittings to scale.
Demography
The demographic figures date from the United Kingdom Census 2011 are as follows:
Schools
Llandough currently has one primary school. All together there have been three. In the Victorian era, the school was situated on Penlan Road. Another school was later built, but was bombed in World War II. The current school was built in 1970. The school has approximately 180 pupils, and is one of the feeder schools for Penarth's largest secondary school, St. Cyres.
Parks and Recreation
King George V Playing Field
King George V Playing Field is the main park and recreational area in Llandough. Situated between Lewis Road and Greenway Close it features a football pitch, a multi-use games area, a tennis court, an enclosed children's play area, and car parking.
The multi-use games area was constructed in 2020 and is suitable for a range of activities, including football and basketball. Funding came from the Vale Council's Strong Communities Grant Fund (£45,000), Section 106 contributions from nearby developments (£20,000) and a £20,000 Place for Sport grant from Sports Wales.
Pocket Parks and Village Green
Llandough community council owns and maintains the village green, a village garden on Spencer Drive, and the Book Green pocket park near the junction of Llandough Hill and Penlan Road.
Allotment gardens
Llandough has a 67-plot allotment site on Corbett Road, which is managed by the community council., proposals for a new allotment site on Lewis Road are being discussed by the community council.
Health Meadow
Cardiff and Vale University Health Board has plans to develop a seven-field site adjacent to University Hospital Llandough into an outdoor wellbeing and healthcare facility.
Transport
Roads
The main road through the village is the B4267. From the junction on Llandough Hill to the Merrie Harrier junction on the A4055 (Barry Road) it is named Penlan Road, and from the Llandough Hill junction forwards it is named Leckwith Road. Llandough Hill connects the village to the A4160 (Penarth Road).
Buses
Llandough is served by 21 bus stops.
Train
The nearest train station to Llandough is Cogan Station approximately 0.4 miles (0.6 km) away. Services run to Aberdare, Barry Island, Bridgend, Merthyr Tydfil, and Pontypridd, with all services passing through Cardiff Central, operating at four trains per hour in each direction.
Bike
There is an OVO bikes (operated by Nextbike) hire station within the grounds of University Hospital Llandough offering electrically assisted bicycles.
Governance
Community Council
The Community Council was established in 1982 and consists of 10 Councillors, a part-time Clerk and two part-time Caretakers.
The council manage Llandough's allotments site, the village fete, and community engagement.
The present chairman of the council (2022/23) is Cllr Lucy Barrowclough.
Vale of Glamorgan Council
Llandough's ward elects a county councillor to the Vale of Glamorgan Council.
The ward is currently represented by Cllr George Carroll (Conservatives).
Welsh Government
Vaughan Gething represents Cardiff South and Penarth in the Senedd (Labour & Co-operative Party), succeeding Lorraine Barrett.
Four other Members of the Senedd also represent the area: Joel James (Conservative), Andrew RT Davies (Conservative), Heledd Fychan (Plaid Cymru) and Rhys ab Owen (Plaid Cymru).
Westminster
The MP for Cardiff South and Penarth is Stephen Doughty (Labour & Co-operative Party) who was re-elected on 10 December 2019.
Administrative boundary
The map below shows the administrative boundary of Llandough.{
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Gallery
External links
Llandough Community Council Website
Excavations at Llandough Monastery
The Llandough Girdle
Llandough Early Mediaeval Cemetery
Genuki Llandough Resources
The Early Medieval Monastic Cemetery at Llandough, Glamorgan
www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Llandough and surrounding area
An Early-medieval Monastic Cemetery at Llandough
References
Communities in the Vale of Glamorgan
Vale of Glamorgan electoral wards
Villages in the Vale of Glamorgan
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4961385
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln%20National%20Forest
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Lincoln National Forest
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Lincoln National Forest is a unit of the U.S. Forest Service located in southern New Mexico. The Lincoln National Forest covers an extensive 1.1 million acres in southeastern New Mexico. Established by Presidential Proclamation in 1902 as the Lincoln Forest Reserve, the forest begins near the Texas border and contains lands in parts of Chaves, Eddy, Lincoln, and Otero counties. The Lincoln National Forest is home to three major mountain ranges: Sacramento, Guadalupe and Capitan. The three Ranger Districts within the forest contain all or part of a total of four mountain ranges, and include a variety of different environmental areas, from desert to heavily forested mountains and sub-alpine grasslands. Clean air, water, and soil are necessary elements that the National Forests contribute to the environment. Established to balance conservation, resource management, and recreation, the lands of the Lincoln National Forest include important local timber resources, protected wilderness areas, and popular recreation and winter sports areas. The forest headquarters is located in Alamogordo, N.M. with local offices in Carlsbad, Cloudcroft, and Ruidoso.
History
The land was inhabited in pre-Columbian times by the Niit'a-héõde band of the Mescalero Apache. The modern Lincoln National Forest traces its origins to several different forest reserves and national forests designated in the 1902-1908 period. These included the Lincoln Forest Reserve, a 545,256 acre area established July 26, 1902 around Capitan and Lincoln, the 78,480 acre Gallinas Forest Reserve established on November 5, 1906, in the Gallinas Mountains west of Gallinas, the Guadalupe National Forest, established April 19, 1907 in the mountains along the Texas border, and the Sacramento National Forest, created on April 24, 1907, to reserve the forested heights of the Sacramento Mountains near Alamogordo. Scattered throughout south-central New Mexico, these individual units contained lands in the Guadalupe, Sacramento, Sierra Blanca/White Mountains, Capitan and Gallinas ranges, and encompassed environments from the desert shrubs at the floor of the Chihuahuan Desert through forests of Piñon, Pine and Juniper to sub-alpine grasslands above the tree-line.
The process of integrating these individual units into a single, unified National Forest began in July 1908, when President Theodore Roosevelt signed Executive Order 908, which combined a number of national forests in the Southwestern states into larger units. One of the first foresters was Arthur Ringland who later founded the international relief organization, CARE. One element of this order was to add the Gallinas National Forest, a tract of land around the Gallinas Mountains west of Corona, New Mexico to the existing Lincoln National Forest. Another element of Roosevelt's Executive Order that would have a great impact on the development of the Lincoln National Forest was the decision to combine the existing Guadalupe and Sacramento National Forests into the Alamo National Forest. A wholly new administrative unit, the Alamo National Forest was headquartered in Alamogordo and led by inaugural Forest Supervisor Arthur M. Neal.
Nearly nine years later, on June 6, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson signed an Executive order that transferred the lands of the Alamo National Forest to the control of the Lincoln National Forest. As a result of this order, the main elements of the Alamo National Forest, the public lands around the Sacramento and Guadalupe Mountains, were transferred to the Lincoln, greatly expanding its size. The last major change in the Forest's boundaries came in 1945, when administrative control of the former Gallinas National Forest was transferred from the Lincoln to the sprawling Cibola National Forest. Officially transferred in 1958. the Gallinas area was renamed the Mountainair Ranger District, with its headquarters in Mountainair.
The forest
The modern Lincoln National Forest is composed of three separate units, the Smokey Bear Ranger District, headquartered in Ruidoso, the Sacramento Ranger District, headquartered in Cloudcroft, and the Guadalupe Ranger District, with its headquarters in Carlsbad.
Sacramento Ranger District
Originally established April 24, 1907 as the Sacramento National Forest, the heavily forested southern Sacramento Mountains, east of Alamogordo, were combined with the Guadalupe National Forest to form the Alamo National Forest in July 1908. One of the two major elements of the new forest, the former Sacramento National Forest was divided into a number of smaller ranger districts within the larger unit. These included the La Luz, Mayhill, and Weed Ranger Districts, all of which administered lands around their respective villages. On June 6, 1917, these lands became part of the Lincoln National Forest, when their parent organization, the Alamo National Forest was disestablished. As a result of this order, some areas of the former Sacramento National Forest, like La Luz Ranger District, lost their independent status, others were renamed, such as the Fresnal district, which became the Cloudcroft Ranger District, and others, like Mayhill and Weed, retained their original names and designations. In 1961, the Cloudcroft, Mayhill and Weed Ranger Districts were consolidated and given their current designation, the Sacramento Ranger District of the Lincoln National Forest.
Rising high above the gypsum sands of White Sands National Park and the city of Alamogordo, the Sacramento district encompasses much of the southern half of the Sacramento Mountains. Located immediately south of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, which covers the northern half of the mountains, the district is primarily composed of Douglas Fir, Ponderosa pine, aspen, and oak, as well as numerous creeks and waterfalls. The district is traversed east–west by that section of U.S. 82 between Artesia and Alamogordo, which goes through the villages of Cloudcroft and Mayhill. Other roads include New Mexico State Road 6563, also known as the Sunspot Scenic Byway, which runs between Cloudcroft and the village of Sunspot, and NM 244, which exits the district north of Cloudcroft and enters the Mescalero Apache Reservation.
Trestle
A heavily forested area in an otherwise arid environment, the Sacramento Mountains have long been used for timber harvesting. To expedite the transport of timber to processing facilities and markets, the Alamogordo and Sacramento Mountain Railway was constructed in 1898 by the El Paso and Northeastern Railway, a short-line railroad that connected El Paso, Texas and Alamogordo. A genuine engineering marvel, the Alamogordo and Sacramento Mountain Railway climbed 4,747 feet over 32 miles of track, and included numerous switchbacks, trestles, and grades as high as 6.4%. Though the track was removed in 1948, evidence of the railroad is visible throughout the district. The most visible remnant of the railroad is the 320-foot trestle over Mexican Canyon near Cloudcroft. Crossing 52 feet above the canyon floor the trestle can be seen from vista points on U.S. 82 and by a number of short trails beginning at the Trestle Recreation Area, a day-use facility on the western edge of Cloudcroft.
Sunspot Observatory
The high mountains of the Sacramentos are also home to the National Solar Observatory's Richard B. Dunn Solar Telescope, considered the world's premier high resolution optical solar telescope at the time of its inauguration in 1969.
Located in the southern end of the district, the observatory is open to the public on a seasonal basis and can be accessed by the scenic New Mexico State Road 6563, also known as the Sunspot Scenic Byway, a two-lane paved road that travels the 15.5 miles between Cloudcroft and the village of Sunspot.
Smokey Bear District
Part of the original Forest Reserve established in 1902, the modern Smokey Bear Ranger District administers lands north of Capitan and Lincoln, in the Capitan Mountains, and south of Capitan to Ruidoso, immediately east of the Sierra Blanca or White Mountains. The area was initially divided into the Baca Ranch Ranger District, renamed the Capitan District in February 1919, along the Rio Bonito north of Lincoln, and the Mesa and Ruidoso Ranger Districts further south. The Mesa and Ruidoso districts were combined in October 1929 into the White Mountain Ranger District, a designation that lasted until 1952 when both areas resumed their original names. All of these areas were combined in 1960 and given their current designation, the Smokey Bear Ranger District.
423,416 acres in size, and ranging in elevation from 5,400 to 11,580 feet in the Capitan Mountains, the Smoky Bear district embraces a number of different environments, and includes desert shrubs, forests of pinyon pine, juniper, and spruce, and high-elevation grasslands above the treeline. The area also includes the Forest's two designated Wilderness Areas and one of the two ski areas, Ski Apache near Ruidoso. The district can be reached via U.S. 70, which traverses much of the southern part of the district and passes through the village of Ruidoso. Another highway, U.S. 380, crosses a thin stretch of public lands east of Carrizozo and crosses through Capitan and Lincoln.
Smokey Bear
The Lincoln National Forest is home to Smokey Bear, found in 1950. The real-life tale of Smokey Bear is one of the most enduring stories to come out of the long history of the forest. The bear cub was rescued from the devastated forest after the Capitan Gap fire of 1950. Rescued from a burnt tree by either a New Mexico Department of Game and Fish ranger or a group of soldiers from nearby Fort Bliss seconded to fight the blaze, the cub was flown to Santa Fe by New Mexico Ranger Ray Bell for treatment of burns and other injuries.
The bear was eventually named Smokey Bear, after the Forest Service's symbol of fire safety on public lands, which had been created in 1944 by artist Harry Rossol. Now the living symbol of fire awareness and prevention, Smokey Bear was flown to the National Zoo in Washington D.C. The subject of hundreds of thousands of visitors and letters, the bear lived at the zoo until his death in 1976. Eulogized by the Washington Post as a transplanted New Mexico native with many years of government service, Smokey Bear was returned to his native land and buried near Capitan in November 1976.
Lincoln County War
Lincoln County, in which much of the district is located, was the site of the 1878-79 Lincoln County War, a complex and bloody struggle between ranchers, bankers, politicians, and hired gunmen for control of the county. One of the major events in the war took place in the village of Lincoln itself, when forces supporting Sheriff George W. Peppin besieged the house of merchant Alexander McSween over several days while soldiers from nearby Fort Stanton stood by. McSween was killed by gunfire, but a number of his supporters, known as "regulators," escaped, led from the burning building by a young tough named William Bonney, later known as the famous gunfighter Billy the Kid. The violence continued until early 1879, when Federal troops arrived to support local law enforcement in returning the area to the rule of law.
Guadalupe Ranger District
Part of a rugged and remote landscape of mountains and ridges, the 288,540 acre Guadalupe Ranger District begins at the Texas and New Mexico border and follows the spine of the Guadalupe Mountains northwest for nearly 50 miles. Originally established on April 19, 1907, as the Guadalupe National Forest, with its headquarters in Carlsbad, the area became part of the newly created Alamo National Forest in July 1908, as the Carson Seep Ranger District. When the Alamo was disestablished in June 1917, the Guadalupe area became part of the Lincoln National Forest, where it was re-designated the Guadalupe Ranger District.
The district is part of the Guadalupe Mountain range, an exposed area of the Capitan Reef, a Permian-era (251 to 299 million years ago) barrier that partially encircled the Delaware Sea, a 150 mile long and 75 mile wide sea to the south and east.
Running north-northwest from the more famous Guadalupe and El Capitan peaks on the Texas side of the border, the Guadalupe Ranger District forms the back reef of the northernmost section of the Capitan Reef. Ranging in elevation from 7500' in the south to 3500' in the north, the district begins at the Texas-New border in a series of steeply-walled canyons before gradually changing into rolling hills and small canyons that run east into the valley of the Pecos River.
Lookout towers
Given the importance of fire prevention and fire fighting in the heavily forested areas of the Lincoln National Forest it is not surprising that there have been a number of fire lookout towers constructed on forest lands. Of the sixteen fire lookout structures once in the forest, 9 are still extant, and six of those are listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The structures range from the unique stone structure of the Montjeau Lookout, a 1930s Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) project in the Smoky Bear Ranger District, to the Sacramento Lookout, a 14x14 live-in cab on a 62-foot high steel tower located west of Cloudcroft, to the 7x7 ft. Dark Canyon Lookout, standing 48 feet over the deep canyons of the southern Guadalupe District above its CCC-constructed observer's cabin and sheds. Most of these Lookouts offer some sort of public access, and two of them, Carissa and Wofford, are under consideration for conversion to rental cabins.
Climate
Since the forest encompasses a wide range of environments temperatures vary with elevation. At higher elevations ( and up), summer temperatures range from (night) to (day), while winter temperatures can drop to a at night and rise to during the day. At lower elevations (), summer temperatures range from , while during the winter, temperatures rarely fall below and usually run from teens to 50s (-10 °C to +10 °C). At the lowest elevations (below ), temperatures are generally higher throughout the year.
Spring is the windy season. These high winds dry the forest to the point of extreme fire danger. Fire is a constant threat in the Lincoln National Forest; notable wildfires in the forest include the 1950 Capitan Gap Fire and the 2022 McBride Fire. The fire season usually starts in March or April and continues through mid-July. If the fire danger becomes too high, open fires may be prohibited, and forest areas and roads may be closed. July through September is classified as the rainy season, which aids in fire prevention. The first snowfalls usually occur in late October, or early November. This season can continue for four or five months. Villages at medium elevations, such as Ruidoso and Capitan, annually receive 20-30 inches of snow, while higher elevations, such as the village of Cloudcroft, often receive 60 inches in a year.
Forest economics
Along with preservation and recreation, resource management and use is one of the main principles of the National Forest system. Initially created, in part, to help regulate the free grazing of livestock, which by the 1880s was leading to a significant loss of resources, one of the oldest uses for the forest area has been grazing. Over the last one hundred years the use of public lands for grazing has proved to be a stable and consistent addition to the local economy. As an example, a study by the Cooperative Extension Service at New Mexico State University, demonstrated that between 1970 and 2003 the average number of calves on forest lands was 6,233 head. During the same period, the price per calf at market averaged $530, implying that over the 33-year period livestock grazing rights contributed $3.3 million to the local economy.
Another major type of resource in the forest is timber, the mighty oak, Ponderosa pine, and fir trees that cover much of the forest area. The importance of this resource has been known to generations of Natives and settlers, both Mexican and Anglo, as well as by the construction and railroad building industries that helped push Anglo society ever further west, and eventually connected the markets of the East Coast with the resources of the West. Along with grazing, logging is the oldest economic use of the forest area, and according to the NMSU study, generated an average of $11 million annually from 1970 to 1990 for the economies of the four counties in which the forest is contained. In terms of total economic impact, the massive diminution of consumptive activities on the Lincoln since 1990 has cost the region $14.7 million in potential revenues, comparable to the estimated income of 930 local residents.
The third use of forest resources is tourism, or "dispersed recreation" as it is referred to by the Forest Service. Since the extension of rail lines, and later highways, into southern New Mexico in the late 19th/early 20th centuries tourism has been a consistent part of the economics of the Lincoln. In 2004, the Forest Service's National Visitor Use Monitoring Study (NVUM) showed 735,237 visitors to the forest in that year. These visitors, multiplied by the estimated cost of an 8-hr Recreational Visitor Day (RVD), calculated as $5.93 in the NMSU study, implied a direct economic impact of 4.6 million, and a total impact of $8.33 million, including direct, indirect, and induced impacts on the region. While this is a substantial impact on the region, tourism remains the least stable and consistent of the three forest uses, and the one most vulnerable to change, both from local issues, such as fire and drought, and from larger regional or national issues, such as economic instability and high seasonal gasoline prices.
While the debates on forest planning and operations are often defined by the tension between these various uses—grazing, logging, and dispersed recreation—studies, such as the NMSU paper quoted above, have shown that no one industry can produce enough economic benefit for the region to offset the loss of revenues implied by the removal of one or both of the other two.
Firewood collection
While organized commercial logging has been drastically reduced in the forest area since 1990, the public use of the timber and forest resources by the public has continued, mainly in the collection of firewood. Forest visitors can purchase permits entitling them to collect up to four cords of timber, both "dead and down" and "green standing" from designated firewood collection areas throughout the forest. These permits are available at the Forest Headquarters and the three Ranger District offices.
Christmas trees
Along with collecting firewood, another long-standing tradition in the Lincoln National Forest is the cutting of Christmas trees during the holiday season. Permits to harvest Christmas trees can be purchased at the Forest Headquarters or any of the three District Ranger Offices.
Recreation
Ranging from the floor of the Chihuahuan Desert to the forested peaks of the Sacramento and White Mountains, the Lincoln National Forest is a popular destination for year-around recreation, offering developed and dispersed camping, group picnic and camping facilities, developed trails for hikers, equestrians, and OHV's, wilderness areas, ski areas, and designated snow play areas. Hiking, picnicking, and camping are just a few activities popular within the Lincoln National Forest. Other outdoor sports include mountain biking and dirt bike racing. Because the environment changes rapidly, hikers, campers, hunters, etc. must constantly be aware of safety concerns.
Smokey Bear Ranger District
The Smokey Bear district has 6 developed family campgrounds and 2 group-camping areas. Three of these areas, Montjeau, Baca, and Skyline are free, the others are fee areas. Two areas located at lower elevation, Three Rivers and Baca, are open year-around. The others, located at higher elevations, generally operate on a May to September schedule, subject to weather.
Picnic areas include Schoolhouse Canyon on the Rio Bonito, and Cedar Creek Picnic Area, which has picnic tables, grills, water, and restrooms. Cedar Creek also offers a covered group picnic pavilion that can be reserved by groups of less than 40.
The district has over 50 hiking trails of varying lengths and all difficulty levels. The majority of these trails are less than three miles in length and are located within the two designated wilderness areas. Longer backpacking trails include the 20-mile long Crest Trail (T25) in the White Mountain Wilderness and the 11.1 mile long South Base Trail (T57 ) in the Capitan Wilderness.
Sacramento Ranger District
The most heavily developed of the three ranger districts, the Sacramento district has 10 developed campgrounds and 5 group-camping sites. Three areas, James Canyon, Upper Karr Canyon, and Lower Karr Canyon are free. Upper Karr is open year-round, while the others are generally open from May to September, weather permitting. Popular day-use picnic sites include the Trestle Recreation Area near Cloudcroft, and Bluff Springs, a partially developed area near a scenic waterfall.
There are more than 50 trails within the district to challenge hikers of all skill levels. Many of these trails explore small canyons, lead to natural features, such as waterfalls and springs, and follow the abandoned beds of the railroads that once hauled timber from the high forests down the desert floor.
While the majority of these trails are shorter than 3 miles in length, the Sacramento district has several long multi-day backpacking trails, including the 29-mile long Rim Trail (T105). The district also includes the 5-mile long Dog Canyon National Recreation Trail, which begins immediately west of the forest in Oliver Lee Memorial State Park, south of Alamogordo and climbs over 3000 ft to the heart of the forest.
Guadalupe Ranger District
The most remote of the three ranger districts, the Guadalupe district only has one developed facility, Sitting Bull Falls Picnic Area. An oasis in the desert located approximately 20 miles west of Carlsbad, Sitting Bull Falls has covered picnic tables, fire grills, water, restrooms, and access to a number of trails, including a .5 mile trail (T68A) to the 150-ft. Sitting Bull Falls. This is a day-use facility only, with no camping allowed.
The district has 23 developed trails, most of which are 3 miles in length or less. These trails can be found in all parts of the district, from the deep canyons in the south to the rolling hills further north and range from easy to difficult.
The majority of these trails are also open to pack and service animals. Neither mechanized or motorized vehicles are allowed on the trails in the Guadalupe district, though OHV's are allowed on most forest roads. Scenic drives in the district include an approximately 50-mile trip west from Carlsbad on N.M. 137 to 5 Points Vista, a scenic overlook with views of the Guadalupe Mountains and the Rim, the 1500' - 2000' cliff that extends the entire north–south length of the district and which marks the western edge of the Guadalupe range.
Wilderness areas
The Lincoln is home to a pair of designated wilderness areas, the Capitan Mountains Wilderness and the White Mountain Wilderness, both located in the Smoky Bear Ranger District.
Capitan Mountains Wilderness
The Capitan Mountains Wilderness was created as part of the New Mexico Wilderness Act of 1980 (Public law 96-550), passed in December 1980, which placed 34,000 acres of public lands in the rugged mountains north of Lincoln and north-east of Capitan into the National Wilderness Preservation System.
Protecting a rare (for New Mexico) east–west mountain range, the Capitan Mountains Wilderness measures 12 miles long and from two to six miles wide. Elevations range from about 5,500 feet to 10,083 feet at the top of Capitan Peak.
Because of the rugged nature of the area there are few trail heads into the wilderness and those require the use of a 4-wheel drive, high-clearance vehicle.
White Mountain Wilderness
The White Mountain Wilderness was created in 1964 as part of the bill (Public Law 88-577) that created the National Wilderness Preservation System. Originally protecting 28,118 acres NW of Ruidoso, the size of the wilderness area was increased by 16,860 acres in 1980.
Beginning on the northern border of the Mescalero Apache Reservation west of Sierra Blanca Peak, the wilderness follows the main ridge of the White Mountains (Sierra Blanca in Spanish) north 12.5 miles. Ranging from 4–12 miles in width the wilderness also includes numerous side canyons and a few year-round streams.
Passenger vehicles can access the over 50 trails in the wilderness from the Three Rivers, Nogal Canyon, Crest and Mill's trailheads. Other trail heads can be accessed by 4-wheel, high-clearance vehicles.
As with all designated wilderness areas mechanized and motorized vehicles are prohibited in the White Mountains and Capitan Mountains Wildernesses. Access can only be by foot or horse.
Totally undeveloped, these areas have no amenities and require hikers and backpackers to practice "Leave No Trace" camping techniques.
Dispersed camping
Many areas of the Lincoln National Forest are open to dispersed camping, meaning that visitors are allowed to drive up to 300' from public roads onto forest lands for camping. This type of primitive camping is free and does not require a permit. Since these are undeveloped areas there is no water, restrooms, or other amenities. Not all forest lands are open to dispersed camping, so visitors should consult the current Motor Vehicle Use Map for the specific Ranger District to find eligible areas. Popular areas for dispersed camping are the Upper Bonito Dispersed Camping Area, NW of Ruidoso in the Smokey Bear Ranger District and Lower Karr Canyon in the Sacramento R.D. south of Cloudcroft.
Equestrian and mountain-biking trails
While there are no designated equestrian campgrounds, pack and saddle animals are allowed on the vast majority of trails within the forest. Mountain bikes are permitted on most of the trails in the Sacramento district, as well as 10+ trails in the Smokey Bear district. Mechanized vehicles are not permitted on any trail in the Guadalupe district.
OHVs
The roads and developed trails of the Lincoln National Forest are popular areas for Off-Highway Vehicles (OHVs), such as motorcycles and ATVs. All three districts allow OHVs less than 50" wide on designated forest service roads. Riders should consult the current Motor Vehicle User Map to see which forest roads are open to OHVs. There are also a large number of trails open to OHVs in both the Sacramento and Smokey Bear Ranger Districts, including the last 28 miles of the Rim Trail (T105). All trails in the Guadalupe Ranger District are closed to motorized vehicles.
Winter activities
Winter in southern New Mexico brings new recreational opportunities to all parts of the Lincoln National Forest from the dry, desert lowlands to the snowy, high mountain areas. Snow skiing and snowboarding is available at Ski Apache, a Mescalero Apache-owned resort on Sierra Blanca, in the Smokey Bear Ranger District approximately 15 miles west of Ruidoso. The Upper Karr Canyon Area near Cloudcroft is designated for snow sledding and tubing, and two trails, the 1.9 mile Fir Trail (T122) and the 2.8 mile Little Apache Trail (T124) are maintained in winter as cross-country skiing trails. These trails can be accessed from the Silver Overflow Campground in the Sacramento Ranger District, near Cloudcroft. For campers, the Three Rivers and Baca campgrounds in the Smokey Bear district and the Upper Karr Canyon site in the Sacramento district are open year-round.
Location and access
Towns and cities
The following towns and villages lie within the bounds of the Lincoln National Forest:
Cloudcroft, New Mexico
High Rolls, New Mexico
Mayhill, New Mexico
Ruidoso, New Mexico
Ruidoso Downs, New Mexico
Sacramento, New Mexico
Sunspot, New Mexico
Timberon, New Mexico
Queen, New Mexico
Capitan, New Mexico
Lincoln, New Mexico
Larger cities near the Forest include:
Alamogordo, New Mexico
Carlsbad, New Mexico
Las Cruces, New Mexico
El Paso, Texas
Transportation
Airports
Sierra Blanca Regional Airport, located about northwest of Ruidoso
Major highways
The following major highways traverse the Lincoln National Forest:
U.S. Route 70
U.S. Route 82
U.S. Route 380
NM 37
NM 48
Nearby attractions
The Lincoln National Forest is only one of many public lands in the south-central region of New Mexico. Immediately west of the Sacramento Ranger District is White Sands National Park, known to millions for its shifting ocean of fine, white gypsum sand. A small section of the enormous dune field, located west of Alamogordo on U.S. 70, White Sands offers dune field access, picnic sites, and primitive camping.
South of Alamogordo is Oliver Lee Memorial State Park, a New Mexico state park on the canyon floor west of the Sacramento Mountains. A full service park with both tent and RV camping, group camping and group picnic areas, Oliver Lee is also the trailhead for the Dog Canyon Trail, which climbs 2000' into the forested mountains of the Sacramento District.
West of White Sands and approximately 70 miles west of Alamogordo is the recently created Organ Mountains–Desert Peaks National Monument, a unit of the Bureau of Land Management created to protect the jagged Organ Mountains on the eastern outskirts of Las Cruces. Though a newer park, the area does contains a camp ground and trail heads for day hikes into the mountains.
South of the Guadalupe District and west of Carlsbad lies two renowned national parks, Carlsbad Caverns and Guadalupe Mountains National Parks. Located on U.S. 62/180 approx. 30 miles west of Carlsbad, Carlsbad Caverns National Park is a world-famous site for exploring both developed and undeveloped caves. Primarily a day-use area, the park does have limited opportunities for backpacking on the high ridges west of the cavern's entrance. Immediately west of Carlsbad Caverns, on the Texas side of the border, is Guadalupe Mountains National Park. Established in 1970, GMNP protects Guadalupe Peak and El Capitan, the two tallest mountains in the state, as well as scenic McKittrick Canyon, known for its fall colors. A favorite destination for hikers and backpackers, GMNP has a number of trails for both day hikes and backpacking. Shorter trips lead to a number of historical areas, such as the Butterfield Stagecoach station near Pine Springs, while longer treks climb high into the mountains and far into the adjacent salt-flats. One of the more popular hikes is the 4.5 mile trail to the top of Guadalupe Peak, where decades of climbers have signed the register book at the summit. A number of semi-developed back-country campsites make possible a wide range of multi-day trips. For campers, GMNP has two developed campgrounds, one at Pine Springs, near the park headquarters on U.S. 62/180 and Dog Canyon, on the New Mexico side, approximately 70 miles west of Carlsbad.
See also
Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation
Alamo National Forest
Sacramento National Forest
Guadalupe National Forest
Smokey Bear
Lincoln County War
External links
Lincoln National Forest
White Mountains Wilderness
Capitan Mountains Wilderness
Village of Ruidoso Tourism Office
Cloudcroft Online
Ski Apache
References
National Forests of New Mexico
Protected areas of Chaves County, New Mexico
Protected areas of Eddy County, New Mexico
Protected areas of Lincoln County, New Mexico
Protected areas of Otero County, New Mexico
Tourist attractions in Alamogordo, New Mexico
Protected areas established in 1902
1902 establishments in New Mexico Territory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian%20occupation%20of%20Lebanon
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Syrian occupation of Lebanon
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The Syrian occupation of Lebanon ({{lang-ar|الاحتلال السوري للبنان}; ) began in 1976, during the Syrian intervention in the Lebanese Civil War, and ended on April 30, 2005, after the Cedar Revolution and several demonstrations in which most of the Lebanese people participated. The withdrawal agreement was signed by President Bashar al-Assad and Saad Hariri, son of Rafic Hariri, whose assassination triggered the series of events leading to the withdrawal.
In January 1976, a Syrian proposal to restore the limits to the Palestinian guerrilla presence in Lebanon, which had been in place prior to the outbreak of the civil war, was welcomed by Maronites, but rejected by the Palestinian guerrillas. In October 1976, at a meeting of the Arab League, Syria accepted a ceasefire. The League ministers decided to expand an existing small Arab peacekeeping force in Lebanon, but it grew to be a large Arab Deterrent Force consisting almost entirely of Syrian troops. The Syrian military intervention was thus legitimized and received subsidies from the Arab League for its activities. Throughout the years of occupation, the Assad regime advocated the irredentist notion of "Greater Syria" ("al-Suriyya al-Kubra"), implementing various steps to integrate Lebanon into the Syrian fold.
In 1989, at the end of the civil war, two rival administrations were formed in Lebanon: a military one under Michel Aoun in East Beirut and a civilian one under Selim el-Hoss based in West Beirut; the latter gained the support of the Syrians. Aoun opposed the Syrian presence in Lebanon, citing the 1982 UN Security Council Resolution 520. In the resulting "War of Liberation", which erupted in March 1989, Aoun's forces were defeated and he himself exiled from Lebanon. In 1991, a Treaty of "Brotherhood, Cooperation, and Coordination", signed between Lebanon and Syria, legitimized the Syrian military presence in Lebanon. It stipulated that Lebanon would not be made a threat to Syria's security and that Syria was responsible for protecting Lebanon from external threats. In September that same year, a Defense and Security Pact was enacted between the two countries.
With the consequent adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1559 and following the assassination of the Lebanese ex-premier Rafic Hariri in 2005, and the alleged involvement of Syria in his death, a public uprising called the Cedar Revolution swept the country. Syria completed its full withdrawal from Lebanon on 30 April 2005.
Background
The Lebanese Civil War that began on 13 April 1975 was the backdrop against which the Syrian military presence in Lebanon was established.
The Middle East's geopolitical landscape was reshaped by the conflicts and wars of June 1967 and October 1973. Israel's resounding win in 1967, compounded by its occupation of the Sinai Peninsula, East Jerusalem and the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights, dealt a catastrophic blow to Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and the pan-Arabist ideology. The 1973 War was accompanied by superpower tensions and direct American involvement in the conflict resolution.
Since the start of the conflict between the Arab states and the State of Israel, Lebanon found itself squeezed between Israel and Syria, Lebanon's combative larger neighbours. Lebanon itself is touched by the different confessional adherences and by regional and global politics.
Lebanon entered a brutal and protracted civil war in 1975. Disputes erupted between mostly Christian Lebanese militias (known as the Lebanese Right) and Palestinian militias, as well as predominantly non-Christian Lebanese militias (commonly referred to as the Lebanese Left).
In January 1976, its proposal to restore the limits to the Palestinian guerrilla presence in Lebanon, that had been in place prior to the outbreak of the civil war, was welcomed by Maronites and conservative Muslims, but rejected by the Palestinian guerrillas and their Lebanese Druze-led and leftist allies. Syria's interventions came in response to appeals from Maronite leaders, who were under attack by leftists and Palestinians. After a confrontation with Lebanese Forces Leader, Bachir Gemayel, the relationship between the Syrian forces and the Maronite leaderships deteriorated. In 1977, tensions turned into hostility, and turned into an open all-out conflict between the two parties.
Simultaneously, Syria was concerned about the weak military of Lebanon as it would be a danger for Syria in their fight with Israel. Recognizing that themself also were vulnerable to an attack, Syria moved from mediation to indirect intervention in supporting guerrilla groups to, finally, the deployment of Syrian troops in Lebanon.
Syrian invasion of Lebanon
On 31 May 1976, the Syrian army began an invasion of Lebanon. Two thousand troops and 60 tanks marched in three columns during a three-pronged offensive. The first column marched south across Shuf towards Sidon, where it was halted by PLO forces. The second column moved west along the Beirut - Damascus axis, before being stopped at Beirut. Another column moved north through the Bekaa valley, before then going west towards Tripoli, where it was stopped by Christian forces. The offensive had been halted by 10 June. In his public address on 20 July, Hafez al-Assad re-iterated the notion of a "Greater Syria", stating: "Syria and Lebanon were one state and one people... and have shared interests and a common history"
A second Syrian offensive in mid-October 1976 succeeded at capturing all of central Lebanon as well as some of the country's most important urban centres. The hostility between Syria and Israel made Lebanon the 'perfect' playground as it is strategically located as a buffer between the north of Israel and Western Syria. Given Syria's proximity and historical ties with Lebanon as part of what was known as "Greater Syria", Syria has always been interested in domestic Lebanese politics.
Syrian involvement in the fighting between various Lebanese militias that erupted around the first of the year had previously been limited to tactical actions carried out by portions of the Palestine Liberation Army under Damascus' supervision. Around 4 April, these efforts were bolstered by a virtual blockade of Lebanon's ports by Syrian navy forces, ostensibly to prevent the fighting factions from receiving resupply of arms and ammunition. Syrian armed forces regular infantry and armored units arrived into Lebanese territory with force less than a week later.
Occupation period
By October 1976, Syria had caused significant damage to the strength of the leftists and their Palestinian allies, but at a meeting of the Arab League, it was forced to accept a ceasefire. The League ministers decided to expand an existing small Arab peacekeeping force in Lebanon. It grew to be a large deterrent force consisting almost entirely of Syrian troops. The Syrian military intervention was thus legitimized and received subsidies from the Arab League for its activities.
In the late 1980s, General Michel Aoun was appointed President of the Council of Ministers by President Amine Gemayel, a controversial move since Aoun was a Maronite Christian and the post was by unwritten convention reserved for a Sunni Muslim. Muslim ministers refused to serve in Aoun's government, which was not recognized by Syria. Two rival administrations were formed: a military one under Aoun in East Beirut and a civilian one under Selim el-Hoss based in West Beirut; the latter gained the support of the Syrians. Aoun opposed the Syrian presence in Lebanon, citing the 1982 UN Security Council Resolution 520. Defending Syrian military presence by portraying Lebanon as an integral part of the Syrian nation and denying allegations of Soviet support, Hafez al-Assad stated to The New York Times in 1983: “Lebanon and Syria are one single people, one single nation. We may be divided into two independent states, but that does not mean that we are two different nations... I would even argue that the feeling of kinship between Syria and Lebanon runs deeper than it does between states in the United States... Soviet Union is not in Lebanon and never was present there, neither before nor after the Israeli invasion. If the aim is to do away with the Syrian presence in Lebanon, Syria, as I told you, has been at home in Lebanon for centuries. Eight years ago, we answered the call of the President of the Lebanese republic and the heart-rending call of the Lebanese people.”
The Syrian military remained in Lebanon; after a successful campaign against the Lebanese Forces militia who had controlled Beirut port, Aoun, now with massive popular support in his East Beirut enclave, declared a "War of Liberation" against the Syrian forces.
Conflict with the Lebanese Army that was led by Michel Aoun began on 14 March 1989. Casualties among civilians on both sides from indiscriminate artillery bombardments across the front line were numerous. Aoun initially received a greater degree of international support than el-Hoss, but this ended abruptly with the American build-up for war with Iraq over Kuwait. Aoun had received considerable support from the Iraqi government, anxious to weaken the rival Baathist government in Damascus; in October 1990 the Syrian forces attacked and occupied the Presidential Palace at Baabda.
Aoun took refuge in the French embassy and was later exiled from Lebanon to France. Circumstances surrounding his exile are controversial; his apprehension and exile are variously attributed to Syrian forces, Israel Defense Forces, Shiite militias, and the Lebanese Forces militia of Samir Geagea.
Since then, Syrian forces remained in Lebanon, exercising considerable influence. In 1991, a Treaty of "Brotherhood, Cooperation, and Coordination", signed between Lebanon and Syria, legitimized the Syrian military presence in Lebanon. It stipulated that Lebanon would not be made a threat to Syria's security and that Syria was responsible for protecting Lebanon from external threats. In September that same year a Defense and Security Pact was enacted between the two countries.
After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of Hafez al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.
With the consequent adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1559 and following the assassination of the Lebanese ex-premier Rafik Hariri and allegations of Syrian involvement in his death, a public uprising nicknamed the Cedar Revolution swept the country. On 5 March 2005, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad announced that Syrian forces would begin its withdrawal from Lebanon in his address to the Syrian parliament. Syria completed its full withdrawal from Lebanon on 30 April 2005.
Foreign interference
The Syrian occupation was a proxy war because of two reasons, the first one by reason of the number and purposes of the militias that participated. Major militias were organized along Maronite, Druze, Shi'a and Sunni identities. Militias were organized rather on political identities than confessional ones. This caused that the same confessional groups could battle each other. Amal and Hezbollah, even though both are Shi'a militias, fought brutal fights for control of the community.
Second, in the conflict, diverse foreign powers were involved as well as the militias they backed. Just about every major militia in Lebanon established a proxy relationship with a foreign state. Both Lebanon's neighbours, Syria and Israel, were among the top donors and sponsored militias from the beginning to the end of the conflict. After a few years, following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and a change in the dynamics of the Iran-Iraq war, Iran became actively committed in the conflict. Libya, Iraq and to a lesser extent, the United States and the Soviet Union, supplied backing to various militias. In the first half of the Lebanese Civil War, the PLO, Palestine Liberation Organization, was both a proxy and a benefactor, which was unusual in proxy warfare history.
Iran
Iran, starting from 1982, began influencing events in Lebanon. Iran, which experienced the Islamic Revolution in 1979, is linked with Syria, primarily due to mutual anti-Iraqi sentiment. Iran wants to build a presence in Lebanon, which would allow it to share a common border with Israel and land fertile ground for extreme Islamic doctrine. Moreover, Iran discovered a long-ignored Shiite community enraged by Lebanon's establishment and hostile to Israel. Israel and Hezbollah have been fighting a low-intensity guerrilla war since 1985.
United States of America
Soviet Union
Assassinations
Kamal Jumblatt
On 16 March 1977, Kamal Jumblatt was gunned down in his car near the village of Baakline in the Chouf mountains by unidentified gunmen. His bodyguard and driver also died in the attack.
Prime suspects include the pro-Syrian faction of the Lebanese Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP), in collaboration with the Ba'ath Party. In June 2005, former secretary general of the Lebanese Communist Party George Hawi claimed in an interview with Al Jazeera, that Rifaat al-Assad, brother of Hafez al Assad and uncle of Syria's current President Bashar al-Assad, had been behind the killing of Jumblatt.
Bachir Gemayel
On 14 September 1982, the Lebanese president Bachir Gemayel was addressing a speech in Achrafieh, at 4:10 PM, a bomb was detonated at the headquarters, killing him and 26 other politicians.
Habib Shartouni, a member of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party, was later arrested for the assassination. He was imprisoned for 8 years, until Syrian troops took over Lebanon at the end of the war and freed him on 13 October 1990. Eventually, then-president Amine Gemayel, the brother of Bachir, did not condemn Shartouni because of immense Syrian pressure.
Units involved
Between 1976 and 2005, Syria had on average between 20,000 and 40,000 troops in Lebanon. The major formations deployed in Lebanon were the 47th Armoured Brigade, 62nd Armoured Brigade, most of the 10th Mechanized Division (2 armored brigades - the 76th and the 91st, 1 mechanized infantry brigade, 1 artillery brigade), plus 5 Special Forces regiments deployed in strategic and tactical locations, and at least 1 Air Defense Brigade. Before 1984, a brigade of the Defense Companies was also deployed in Beirut, Sidon and Tripoli to fight Sunni militias and train pro-Syrian militias. Officers of the Military Intelligence, General Security Directorate, and Air Force intelligence were tasked with Syria's administration in Lebanon. Ghazi Kanaan and Rustum Ghazaleh were the two intelligence officers who controlled Lebanon throughout this period.
Diplomatic exchange
In October 2008, both Syria and Lebanon decided to have diplomatic relationships by establishing embassies for the first time in history since both countries gained their national independence during the 1940s. Two months later, the Syrian Embassy was opened in Beirut. In March 2009, Lebanon followed and opened its embassy in Damascus.
Special Tribunal for Lebanon
The Special Tribunal for Lebanon was formed in the wake of the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri on 14 February 2005. Following which the Syrian military presence ended on 26 April 2005 after the Cedar Revolution that took place as a reaction to the assassination.
In 2010, as rumors abounded of an indictment to members of Hezbollah and rising tensions, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad visited Lebanon for the first time since the Hariri's assassination along with Saudi King Abdullah.
Political status
Analyzing whether and when the Syrian presence was a military occupation under international law, Gerhard von Glahn writes that "The mandate of the Force was renewed several times before it officially expired on 27 July 1982, at the time of the Israeli siege of Beirut. The Lebanese government refused to request that the mandate be renewed by the Arab League. Instead, in September 1986, Lebanon requested an end to the Syrian presence in Lebanon. It would appear that lacking legal authority from both Lebanon and the Arab League, Syria's military forces had to be regarded henceforth as illegal occupants of Lebanon."
Comparing Syrian occupation of Lebanon with the Soviet occupations of Eastern Europe, Professor of Middle East Studies Mordechai Nisan writes:"Throughout the modern history of the Arab world, Nasser oppressed his Egyptian people, Saddam Hussein his Iraqi people, and Muammar Qaddafi his Libyan people. But Hafez el-Assad oppressed not only his Syrian people but the Lebanese people as well. Dictatorship was not an uncommon regime form, but a successful and long-term conquest was unusual. Egypt fought in Yemen (1963–67) and Iraq invaded Kuwait (1990), but only Syria occupied a fellow Arab country for thirty years... Stalinism in Eastern Europe and Assadism in Lebanon offer certain similarities for consideration. Military invasion, political manipulation, and ideological co-optation supplied the means for the Soviet Union to penetrate and dominate Eastern Europe; these were also methods employed by Syria against Lebanon. The common goal was the homogenization of thought and culture under centralized rule."
See also
Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon
Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon
Lebanon bombings and assassinations (2004–present)
List of assassinated Lebanese politicians
Notes
Bibliography
External links
The Syrian Occupation of Lebanon
The Syrian Occupation of Lebanon
Pining for Freedom: Syrian occupation suffocates Lebanon, and the world shrugs
Ending Syria's Occupation of Lebanon: The U.S. Role
Forecast of the Lebanese economy in the post-Syrian occupation era
"SYRIA/LEBANON: The Occupied/Occupied", PBS FRONTLINE/World
1976 in Lebanon
1976 establishments in Lebanon
2005 disestablishments in Lebanon
1970s in Lebanon
1980s in Lebanon
1990s in Lebanon
2000s in Lebanon
20th century in Lebanon
Lebanese Civil War
Lebanon–Syria relations
Military occupation
Military history of Syria
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colleges%20within%20universities%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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Colleges within universities in the United Kingdom
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Colleges within universities in the United Kingdom can be divided into two broad categories: those in federal universities such as the University of London, which are primarily teaching institutions joined in a federation, and residential colleges in universities following (to a greater or lesser extent) the traditional collegiate pattern of Oxford and Cambridge, which may have academic responsibilities but are primarily residential and social. The legal status of colleges varies widely, both with regard to their corporate status and their status as educational bodies. London colleges are all considered 'recognised bodies' with the power to confer University of London degrees and, in many cases, their own degrees. Colleges of Oxford, Cambridge, Durham and the University of the Highlands and Islands (UHI) are 'listed bodies', as "bodies that appear to the Secretary of State to be constituent colleges, schools, halls or other institutions of a university". Colleges of the plate glass universities of Kent, Lancaster and York, along with those of the University of Roehampton and the University of the Arts London do not have this legal recognition. Colleges of Oxford (with three exceptions), Cambridge, London, and UHI, and the "recognised colleges" and "licensed halls" of Durham, are separate corporations, while the colleges of other universities, the "maintained colleges" of Durham, and the "societies of the university" at Oxford are parts of their parent universities and do not have independent corporate existence.
In the past, many of what are now British universities with their own degree-awarding powers were colleges which had their degrees awarded by either a federal university (such as Cardiff University) or validated by another university (for example many of the post-1992 universities). Colleges that had (or have) courses validated by a university are not normally considered to be colleges of that university; similarly the redbrick universities that, as university colleges, prepared students for University of London External Degrees were not considered colleges of that university. Some universities (e.g. Cardiff University) refer to their academic faculties as "colleges", such purely academic subdivisions are not within the scope of this article.
Traditional collegiate universities
Oxford and Cambridge
The two ancient universities of England, Oxford and Cambridge (collectively termed Oxbridge), both started without colleges (in the late eleventh and early thirteenth century respectively). The first college at Oxford, University College, was founded in 1249, and the first at Cambridge, Peterhouse, followed in 1284. Over the following centuries, the universities evolved into federations of autonomous colleges, with a small central university body, rather than universities in the common sense. While many of the student affairs functions are housed in the colleges, each college is more than a residence hall, but they are far from being universities. While college life and membership is an important part of the Oxbridge experience and education, only the central university body has degree-awarding power. Historically the colleges were created as a way of ensuring discipline among the notoriously unruly students. While most colleges at the two universities are independent corporations, three Oxford colleges (Kellogg College, St Cross College, and Reuben College) are "societies" established and maintained by the central university; the newest, Reuben College, was formally established in 2019 and admitted its first students in 2021.
In addition to accommodation, meals, common rooms, libraries, sporting and social facilities for its students, most colleges admit undergraduate students to the university and, through tutorials or supervisions (but not necessarily classes), contribute to the work of educating them, together with the university's departments/faculties.
The faculties at each university provide lectures and central facilities such as libraries and laboratories, as well as examining for and awarding degrees. Academic staff are commonly employed both by the university (typically as lecturer or professor) and by a college (as fellow or tutor), though some may have only a college or university post. Nearly all colleges cater to students studying a range of subjects.
At many colleges, the uniquely British custom of comensality is followed, meaning faculty usually eat together with students within their college, sharing ("co-") a table ("mensa").
Almost all of the Oxbridge colleges are fully independent legal entities within the universities, owning their own buildings, employing their own staff, and managing their own endowments. The colleges vary widely in wealth; the richer colleges often provide financial support to the poorer ones. It is entirely possible for some colleges to be in better financial health than the universities of which they are a part. Currently about 2/3 of the £4.3 billion endowment of Cambridge University is in the hands of its colleges, and therefore just 1/3 belongs to the central university.
Typically a student or fellow of an Oxbridge college is said to be "living in college" if their accommodation is inside the college buildings. Most colleges also accommodate students, especially graduate students, in houses or other buildings away from the college site.
Graduate students do not receive education from their college. Graduate students at Cambridge and Oxford have to name two college choices on their application, which goes to the department/faculty, and if the university accepts them, it guarantees that the applicant will have a college membership, although not necessarily at the favoured college(s).
Durham University
Durham University is also collegiate in nature, and its colleges hold the same legal status of 'listed bodies' as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. Durham's colleges are (with two exceptions) owned by the university. They are explicitly defined in the university's statutes, meaning that permission of the Privy Council is needed to create (or abolish) colleges.
At the time of Durham's foundation, Oxford and Cambridge were the only two universities in England, thus Durham, following their example, pursued a collegiate model from the start. Two important innovations were, however, made that were later taken up for the colleges of the plate glass universities (below) and the residential colleges of US universities: the colleges at Durham were (starting with the original University College) owned by the university rather than being independent like Oxbridge colleges; and the teaching was done centrally rather than in the colleges, with the colleges being residential and responsible for student discipline, as had originally been the case at Oxford and Cambridge. The Durham model has been described as "a far better model for people at other institutions to look to, than are the independent colleges of Oxford and Cambridge".
This model was challenged by the admission to the university as teaching colleges of the College of Medicine and Armstrong College in Newcastle (now Newcastle University) in the latter half of the 19th century, and more recently of University College, Stockton (since divided into two non-teaching colleges with teaching organised separately). Hild Bede also surrendered its teacher training duties to the university on becoming a maintained college in 1979. Generally, Durham colleges are not now financially independent, exceptions being the recognised colleges of St Chad's and St John's, and Ushaw College, a licensed hall of residence. While university teaching is not carried out in the colleges, St John's College has teaching in Cranmer Hall, a Church of England theological college; St Chad's College also trained Anglican priests until the 1970s and Ushaw College was a Catholic seminary until 2011.
Although the colleges do not have any teaching duties as part of the university, they do provide meals, common rooms, libraries, sporting, scholarships and social facilities for their members. The colleges also play a large role in the pastoral care of students, with each college having a personal tutorial system, JCR, MCR and SCR and either a master or principal in charge of the everyday running of the college. The colleges have a role in the admissions of students, although not as large as those at Oxbridge, and normally confined to identifying students that suit the college ethos and atmosphere – departments are responsible for admissions to the university, each college for admissions to that college. Applicants can indicate their college preference through UCAS, as with Oxford and Cambridge.
As of 2020/21, there are 17 colleges in Durham City (one, Ustinov, postgraduate only): the 5 Bailey colleges located on the historic peninsula, which are usually thought of as being more traditional; the 10 Hill colleges on Elvet Hill, near the Mountjoy site on the south side of Durham; Ustinov College in Neville's Cross; and the College of St Hild and St Bede on the Leazes Road site on the north bank of the Wear. Two colleges previously based at the Queen's Campus in Stockton-on-Tees relocated to Durham over 2017–2018. Ushaw College, a few miles west of Durham, remains a licensed hall of residence but has not taken students since closing as a seminary in 2011. The 17th college, South College opened in September 2020.
University of Lancaster
The University of Lancaster is defined by its royal charter to be a collegiate university. It has nine colleges, eight of which are for undergraduate students and one – Graduate College – which is for postgraduate students. The undergraduate colleges consist of: Bowland; Cartmel; County; Furness; Fylde; Grizedale; Lonsdale and Pendle, all of which have their own bars with different themes. The undergraduate colleges were founded between 1964 (when the university was established) and 1974, with Graduate College being added in 1992.
All students and staff at Lancaster are college members. Colleges are independent of university education, instead providing on-campus accommodation, social events and sporting teams. Undergraduate students must choose from one of the eight undergraduate colleges; on-campus accommodation is usually a key factor in this choice. Postgraduate students are always assigned to the Graduate college, whereas staff members may choose any college. Students must pay a college membership fee. There is a programme of inter-college sports, with the winner being awarded the Carter Shield.
University of York
The University of York is collegiate and as of December 2022 there are eleven colleges. The colleges are more centralised than at Oxbridge and although they are not listed bodies they perform the same roles as colleges at Durham, and they play an important role in the pastoral care of the student body. One college, Wentworth, is postgraduate only. The day-to-day running of the colleges is managed by an elected committee of staff and student members chaired by the college's Provost. Colleges have a junior common room for undergraduate students, which is managed by the elected junior common room committee, and a graduate common room for post-graduate students, as well as a senior common room, which is managed by elected representatives of the college's academic and administrative members.
Intercollegiate sport is one of the main activities of the colleges. Currently there are 21 leagues with weekly fixtures, in addition a number of one day events are organised as well. In 2014 the "College Varsity" tournament was created, with sporting competitions held between York's colleges and the colleges of Durham University. York hosted the first tournament which was won by Durham's colleges; the second tournament was hosted by Durham in 2015, who won again. The third tournament was held in York in 2016, with York winning for the first time, and the fourth in Durham in 2017, with the hosts reclaiming the title.
University of Kent
All students at the University of Kent are part of one of the eight colleges. Each college has a Master, who is responsible for enforcing University regulations and ensuring safe student conduct. Each college also has an elected student committee. There are seven colleges (Eliot, Rutherford, Keynes, Darwin, Turing, Park Wood, and Woolf) on the Canterbury campus, with Woolf being "mainly postgraduate", and Medway College on the Medway campus. The initial four colleges (Elliot, Rutherford, Keynes and Darwin) were established between 1965 and 1970, after which no new college was established at the Canterbury campus until Woolf in 2008. This has since been followed by Turing (2014) and Park Wood (2020). Chaucer College (1992), located on the same campus, enjoys some common life with the University of Kent, but remains independent, and is not a constituent college of the university.
University of Roehampton
The University of Roehampton, London has its roots in the traditions of its four constituent colleges – Digby Stuart, Froebel, Southlands and Whitelands – which were all formed in the 19th century. Each college has a "providing body", an independent charity that owns the freehold or leasehold interest of the college's property. The university holds long-term leases and management agreements with the providing bodies for three of the colleges, and a rolling seven-year licensed and management agreement for Whitelands. While the colleges were all originally independent, they have now merged into the university, with the last college (Whitelands) merging in 2012.
Federal universities
University of London
The University of London is a federal university comprising 17 member institutions. Following the passing of the University of London Act 2018, constituent colleges can apply to become universities in their own right while remaining members of the federal university; twelve of the colleges applied for university status in 2019. The university's statutes under the 2018 act allow for member institutions to have either "the status of a college" or "the status of a university"; all 17 member institutions remain colleges.
For most practical purposes, ranging from admissions to funding, the member institutions operate on a semi-independent basis, with many having awarded their own degrees whilst remaining in the federal university since 2008. For historical reasons the two founding colleges, University College and King's College, have names resembling those of Oxbridge colleges.
As originally established in 1836, London was an examining board and degree awarding body for affiliated colleges. Starting with UCL and King's, which were named in the original charter, the list of affiliated colleges grew to include everything from grammar schools to the universities of the British Empire by 1858, when the affiliated college system was abandoned and London's degree examinations thrown open to anyone. Following a campaign led by UCL and King's in the late 19th century, the university became a federal body in 1900. The Constitution evolved during the 20th century, with power shifting towards the central University and then back towards the colleges. In the mid-1990s the colleges gained direct access to government funding and the right to confer University of London degrees themselves, and from 2008 those colleges that held their own degree awarding powers were allowed to use them while remaining part of the federation.
The nine largest colleges of the university are King's College London; University College London; Birkbeck; Goldsmiths; the London Business School; Queen Mary; Royal Holloway; SOAS; and the London School of Economics and Political Science. The specialist colleges of the university include the Royal Veterinary College, the Courtauld Institute of Art and St George's, specialising in medicine. Imperial College London was formerly a member before it left the University of London in 2007 on becoming a university in its own right. Heythrop College was a former college specialising in philosophy and theology that closed in 2018.
Later the expansion of the university saw the growth of the small specialist colleges such as the Royal Academy of Music and Institute of Education, University of London (now part of UCL) either by being established within or merging into the university.
Since the mid-1990s, all University of London colleges have been Recognised Bodies with the right to confer University of London degrees. From 2005 onwards, the Privy Council has granted independent degree awarding powers to most of the colleges, many of which have, since 2008, awarded their own degrees rather than London degrees.
The University of London also has three Central Academic Bodies: the School of Advanced Study, the University of London Institute in Paris (ULIP), and the University of London Worldwide, which are under the direct control of the central University and are not considered colleges.
University of Wales
In the University of Wales, colleges were the lower tier of institutional membership in the federal structure, below constituent institutions, following the reorganisation of the university in 1996. Prior to this, the member institutions were all called colleges. After 2007 the colleges and constituent institutions all became independent universities, with the University of Wales shifting to a confederal structure where it validated degrees from these and other institutions. This arrangement ended in 2011 and it was announced that the university would merge with the University of Wales Trinity Saint David. From August 2017 the two institutions have been functionality merged.
University of the Arts London
The University of the Arts London (UAL) comprises six specialist art and design colleges, dating from the mid-1850s, that were brought together for administrative purposes. The colleges are not Listed Bodies and do not have separate legal status, but maintain their separate identity and teach their own courses within the university. As a consortium of teaching colleges, each teaching their own courses, joined under the umbrella of the central University, UAL is essentially federal, but differs from UHI and London in that its colleges are not independent bodies.
University of the Highlands and Islands
The University of the Highlands and Islands (UHI) is a federal collegiate university consisting of 13 independent "academic partner" colleges and a central executive office. Like the colleges of Oxford, Cambridge and Durham, and those of London prior to the mid-1990s, UHI colleges are Listed Bodies.
Universities with associated colleges
A few universities, while operating as unitary institutions, have associated colleges in federal relationships.
Queen's University Belfast
Queen's University Belfast has a federal relationship with two associated university colleges, Stranmillis University College and St Mary's University College. These are listed bodies under part two of the listed bodies order, the same status as colleges of Oxford, Cambridge, Durham and the University of the Highlands and Islands.
University of South Wales
The University of South Wales encompasses the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama. Like the university colleges associated with Queen's University Belfast, this is a listed body under part two of the listed bodies order.
See also
Sixth form college
University college
List of colleges and universities
List of residential colleges
House system
Residential College
References
Educational stages
Universities and colleges in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon-McMillan%20School%20District
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Canon-McMillan School District
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The Canon-McMillan School District is a large public school district covering the Borough of Canonsburg, Cecil Township and North Strabane Township in Washington County, Pennsylvania. The district operates one high school (9th–12th), one middle school (7th–8th), two intermediate schools (5th–6th) and five elementary Schools (K-4th).
District information
The Canon-McMillan School District is the largest school district in Washington County in terms of enrollment, and the size of its student body is increasing annually. On average, the district receives around a hundred new students each school year. Enrollment has been increasing at this rate for about a decade, and is projected to continue doing so as long as the local economy continues to flourish. Canon-McMillan is in class AAAAAA (6A) WPIAL for most of its athletic programs. The district's mascot is the "Big Mac", similar to another common mascot called a Highlander, which is typically displayed as a soldier of a Scottish regiment. Canon-McMillan's school colors are blue and gold, while the alternate colors are white with blue or gold. The district is predominantly suburban, and also serves rural portions of North Strabane Township near the town of Eighty Four and the semi-rural area southwest of the Allegheny County line in Cecil Township, Washington County. The school district borders South Fayette Twp. School District (In Allegheny County) to the north. In Washington County, the district adjoins both Peters Twp. and Ringgold School Districts to the east, Chartiers - Houston to the west, Fort Cherry to the northwest, Trinity Area School District to the southwest, and Bentworth Schools to the southeast.
Athletics
Athletically, Canon-Mac has been known as a wrestling powerhouse for decades. Most recently, the school has also been known for its boys basketball program and as WPIAL and PA state powers in boys and girls soccer. Their Varsity Girls Soccer team won the PIAA AAAA State Championship in 2016 and was State runner- up in 2014. Boys soccer won WPIAL championships in 2012, 2015, and 2019. Their Varsity softball team won the PIAA State Championship in 2013, and WPIAL Championship in 2012 & 2013. Their varsity girls volleyball team won their first ever WPIAL championship in 2019, upsetting heavily favored North Allegheny in the finals. Their Varsity baseball team won the PIAA State Championship in both 2008 and 2018 as well as their first ever WPIAL championship in 2018. Their varsity hockey team won the Penguins Cup in 2010 and 2015. The boys basketball team had its best season in school history at the time in 2018, with 19 straight wins and a 21–2 overall record. The team's winning streak unfortunately came to an end with a loss to Baldwin, and the season ended with a loss to Woodland Hills in the WPIAL semi-finals, preventing Canon-Mac from moving on to the finals, however, the season still added to the school's long legacy of athletic success. The team topped their own record from the previous year in 2019, becoming WPIAL section champions with only one regular season loss and reaching the WPIAL finals. Despite losing the final game to City League section champions Taylor Allderdice, the season still went down as one of Canon - Mac's greatest athletic feats. The school's wrestling team has won WPIAL titles in 1983, 1985, 1991, 1993, 1995, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013. In 2012, the wrestling team took home their 1st PIAA State dual meet Championship Title in the school's history before winning the state championship again in 2013. In 1992, 2011, 2012 and 2013, members of the team won the State Individual Tournament team championship by collecting the most points.
Transportation
Transportation in the Canon-McMillan School District is provided mainly by school bus. The district also operates a small number of school vans and short buses (mostly for students that are physically handicapped and/or suffer from severe mental disabilities, as well as students with behavioral or emotional issues that may cause disruption on a typical school bus.) Most van and short bus services are provided by third-party transit contractors. The school district is also legally bound by the state to provide transportation to private academies and parochial schools lying within its service zone. The Canon-Mac full size bus fleet is composed almost entirely of Blue Bird Vision school buses; second and third generations; built from 2008–present. The district also has about ten-first generation Visions; built from 2003 to 2007; most of which remain in route service currently, but are soon to be retired. Among other buses retained by the district, two Thomas bodied Freightliner FS-65s (buses 10 and 31) remain in route service, alongside at least five of their newer counterparts, the Thomas Saf-T-Liner C2 buses, ordered by the district during the 2012 and 2015–2017 model years. Two to four more full size FS-65s no longer in route service are kept at the Support Facility as backup buses for situations when route buses may not be operable for some reason. The district also began to add IC CE school buses to its fleet in 2019. Other student transport vehicles of the district include Ford E-Series passenger vans, Ford Transit passenger vans, Thomas Minotour short buses based upon Ford E-Series chassis, and short Thomas Conventional buses on either Freightliner FS-65 or International 3800 chassis. The district fleet once included Blue Bird TC/2000 type D buses, however these have all been retired and sold off. Several Blue Bird bodied full size International 3800s have been sold by the district as well, and only one of these buses remains today, repainted and with stop sign, warning lights, passenger windows, and most passenger seats removed. This bus serves primarily as an equipment transporter for the high school band and rarely travels with passengers aboard.
School buildings and other facilities
The Canon-McMillan School District contains nine academic school buildings and three athletic complexes that are separate from the schools, as well as a school bus garage and a central administration building.
High school
Canon-McMillan High School is the largest school building in the district, both geographically and by student population. Currently, about 1,700 students in grades 9–12 attend CMHS. The school was originally built and opened as Canon-McMillan Senior High School in 1958 with grades 10–12, and has been expanded and renovated in 1966, 1983, 1988, 1994, 2001–2003, and 2017–2019. CMHS has two gymnasiums (Main and Auxiliary), a natatorium, a weight room, and a mat room for wrestling practice as its athletic facilities. The school also has four outdoor tennis courts and formerly had an open playing field and outdoor exercise yard on its premises. An auditorium is also featured.
The 1966 and 1983 extensions to CMHS both added additional classrooms, and the school's name was changed from Canon-McMillan Senior High to just Canon-McMillan High School in 1983. This was due to the district's reorganization plan which called for the 9th grade to be moved to the high school and for the junior high schools (which became middle schools at that point in time) to take on the 6th graders. The 1983 project also renovated the interior of the entire existing building, added seats to the auditorium, and reconfigured the athletic wing by replacing the original gym with a larger one that contained pull-out bleachers and an elevated walking track. The auxiliary gym, weight room, and mat room were added in 1988, and some other minor floor plan modifications were also made to other parts of the school at that time. The restrooms and locker rooms in that part of the building were remodeled and slightly modified in 1994.
The 2001–2003 project was the longest and most major renovation in the school's history. This project completely demolished and rebuilt the school's academic wings, added more parking, and moved the library, cafeteria, kitchen, and teacher's lounge closer to the school's entrances. A centrally located commons area with high vaulted ceilings; known as the Atrium; was also created during this time. Some minor repainting took place in both gyms, and the wood flooring of both was replaced. A press box and more pull-out collapsible bleachers were added to the main gym above the elevated track, and the exercise yard was eliminated as it was in the way of the new set of loading docks and part of the new classroom portion of the school. The natatorium was also built in this area, and has two entrances off of the hallway in the athletic wing. The performing arts and technology wing was also expanded, and the original loading docks, which were located at the end of that wing, became secondary loading docks. The main entrance to the school was modernized and the doors pushed about 8 feet forward, and most of the building's front fascia was re-bricked to give a more clean and updated appearance. A large digital sign was also added to the front of the school as part of the project. In total, about 90 percent of the original building was either renovated or replaced, and the entire student and staff populations benefited from the project. It would effectively relieve severe overcrowding at CMHS for the next 8 years, and increase student capacity from barely 1,200 students to around 1,500 students. The student body would continue to grow, however, and by 2011, the enrollment at the school had exceeded the 1,500 student maximum.
The school would remain overcrowded until 2017, when a new classroom extension was begun. Both academic wings were extended back, and the parking lot that used to be behind them was removed. The open playing field off of the athletic wing was paved over and made into a new lot to make up for lost parking area. Brand new Jumbotron-style scoreboards were installed in the main gym, along with revamped signage on the press box and outside of the doors. The auditorium was also remodeled with fresh paint, new ceilings, all new seats, and the expansion of the stage and backstage areas. New, better lighting systems and brand new acoustic wall panels were also installed, and the total seating capacity was significantly increased. The band room was nearly doubled in size and also received acoustic panels and other sound mitigation improvements. The teacher's lounge was again relocated, due to the cafeteria being expanded into its former location, and a security vestibule was added to the main office entrance. The reception portion of the office was remodeled and reconfigured to accommodate the new feature. Most building work and all major parts of the project concluded in February 2019. Some minor cosmetic landscaping work continued into the summer of 2019.
Intermediate/middle schools
Canon-McMillan Middle School is currently the only middle school in the Canon-McMillan School District and educates students in 7th and 8th grades. Present enrollment numbers around 1,100 students.
The current building was constructed during 2022 and opened to students in January 2023. It replaced the old Canonsburg Middle School building which dates back to 1967. The current school is larger than the one it replaced, and also houses new school board and central administration offices for the entire district.
Cecil Intermediate School is one of two intermediate schools in the Canon-McMillan School District and currently holds around 500 students in grades 5 and 6. The school opened in 1963 as Cecil Junior High School and originally taught students in the 7th, 8th, and 9th grades. Beginning in 1983, the school held grades 6–8 and had its name changed to Cecil Middle School and finally, in 2002, 5th grade was added and grades 7 and 8 were dropped, and the school became the Cecil Intermediate School of today.
North Strabane Intermediate School is the second intermediate school in the district and has a student body of around 550. It accommodates grades 5 and 6 and is the third newest school building in the district. The site next to Borland Manor Elementary was cleared in 2000 and the school opened in 2002, although it was not fully completed until 2003. There are also multiple baseball/softball fields with permanent dugouts, a small press building and digital scoreboards outside of the school, used for competition as well as softball practice.
Elementary schools
Borland Manor Elementary School is the oldest operational school building in the district as of 2018. The school is home to around 320 students in grades K-4. It was built in 1954 as new housing was developed in the area and is adjacent to North Strabane Intermediate School (details above). The school was partially remodeled in the early 90s, but its condition has unfortunately once again declined since then.
Hills-Hendersonville Elementary School teaches about 300 students in Kindergarten through 4th grade. The school opened in 1965 and an expansion is planned in the years ahead, as the school is currently operating at maximum capacity, however the exact dates of the project have not yet been determined. Minor renovations and visual updates took place in 2012.
Muse Elementary School enrolls around 730 students in grades K-4. This facility was built in 2018. It was the district's newest facility until the opening of the new Canon-McMillan Middle School in January, 2023. Muse is also the largest elementary school in the district by enrollment. The current building replaced the original Muse Elementary, which was built in 1936 and razed upon completion of the new school in 2017. The current school is a consolidation of the now closed Cecil and First Street Elementary Schools (which opened in 1936 and 1924 respectively) into the Muse facility. The new school is more than 4 times the size of its predecessor geographically.
South Central Elementary School currently has a student body numbering about 470 pupils in grades K-4. The school opened in 1966 and was renovated and expanded in 1995. The project included interior repainting, minor floor plan alterations, remodeling of the library and main office, and the addition of windows to all classrooms with walls to the outside. A scientific plant growing lab/greenhouse, still one of only two in the district, was also added to the school at that time.
Wylandville Elementary School. The school opened to students in 1966 and is currently populated by about 220 students in grades K-4, making it the smallest school in the district by enrollment. Wylandville was last renovated in 1979 and is to be overhauled in the next few years, as age, decay, and outdatedness have taken their toll on the current building significantly. The projected date for a new facility to open on this site is for the 2026-2027 school year. It is also home to the district's second greenhouse, known as the "Living Classroom".
Other facilities
Big Mac Stadium serves as the Canon-McMillan School District's main athletic facility. It was initially built up as a formal stadium in the 1970s, however, the grounds that it occupies have been used for community sporting events since the 1930s. The stadium is sometimes also called Canon-McMillan Stadium or Canonsburg Stadium. It recently underwent renovations to expand seating areas and add new locker rooms and more parking. It had its running track resurfaced and artificial turf replaced in 2016. The stadium received artificial turf for the first time in 1998, which was when the last major renovation prior to the most recent one occurred. It is located just off Jefferson Avenue near the heart of Canonsburg, and is adjacent to the district's former Central Administration building.
McDowell Field is the district's primary baseball practice complex, named for the road on which it is located. Besides a baseball diamond, the site also contains multipurpose playing fields and service buildings which house locker rooms, restrooms, a concession stand, a press room, and the controls for the scoreboard.
West McMurray Road Soccer Complex, alternatively known as Van Eman Field, is a triangular grass field divided into several small soccer pitches and serves as a practice field for the Canon-McMillan Youth Soccer Association, the district league for boys and girls soccer at the elementary school level. The de facto name Van Eman Field comes from Van Eman Creek, which runs near the site. The entire field is fenced in. There is a North Strabane Township municipal pump station on the premises, which is fenced off separately from the field itself to prevent unauthorized access. The site does not have any permanent buildings besides a basic wooden shelter that are accessible to its users, as portable toilets and a utility trailer are only used at the field seasonally.
Canon-McMillan Support Facility serves as both the district's school bus/school van garage and the headquarters for the district-wide maintenance and custodial department. It is a large, aircraft hangar-like building providing indoor parking and maintenance space for most of the district's buses, vans, and maintenance vehicles, with an attached annex designated for offices and the service and repair shop. It was built in 1990 and is diagonally across the street from the high school.
Canon-McMillan Central Administration Building formerly held the school board and central administration offices. Since January 2023 these offices have been moved to a dedicated section of the new middle school. This old administration building was built in the 1970s and is in front of Big Mac Stadium on Jefferson Ave. It has become the location for the district's Technology Department and the lower level locker rooms are still in use.
History
The Canon-McMillan School District was founded on September 15, 1954 in a merger between the Canonsburg, Cecil Township, and North Strabane Township schools. Canon-McMillan High School was formerly known as Canonsburg High school and Cecil High School when the name was changed. The high school moved to its current location in 1958. The district is named for Col. John Canon and the Rev. John McMillan. John McMillan's Log School; which dates back to the 1780s, is located outside the present day Canonsburg Middle School.
Comprehensive list of schools
The Canon-McMillan School District operates a total of nine schools:
Canon-McMillan High School
Canon-McMillan Middle School
North Strabane Intermediate School
Cecil Intermediate School
Borland Manor Elementary School
Hills-Hendersonville Elementary School
Muse Elementary School
South Central Elementary School
Wylandville Elementary School
There are also two former schools in the district that closed on June 1, 2017 after Muse Elementary was completely overhauled and expanded:
First Street Elementary School
Cecil Elementary School
A third defunct school, Hawthorne Elementary School, closed in 1982 due to declining district wide enrollment at the time. The school was demolished in 1986.
Canonsburg Middle School was relocated and renamed to Canon-McMillan Middle School in 2023, the previous building is no longer in use.
It opened in 1967 as Canon-McMillan Junior High School, and was built on the former site of the original Canonsburg High School, demolished a few years earlier. The original school's historic auditorium still remains as a freestanding building however, initially dating back to the 1920s, and still in use for school and community functions to this day. Canon-McMillan Junior High originally held students in grades 7–9. In 1983 it changed to grades 6-8 and was renamed Canonsburg Middle, and in 2002 it changed again to grades 7 and 8, which it would serve until its closure.
Notable alumni
Notable people who have attended the school district include:
Mike Hull – linebacker for the Miami Dolphins
Doug Kotar – former running back for the New York Giants
Demi Moore – actress
Brandon Neuman – member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Bill Schmidt – 1972 Olympics javelin bronze medal winner
Archie Strimel – soccer goalkeeper
Sully Dunn – rock musician and America's Got Talent contestant
References
External links
District website
School districts established in 1954
Canonsburg, Pennsylvania
School districts in Washington County, Pennsylvania
Education in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area
1954 establishments in Pennsylvania
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure%20Island%20%28TV%20franchise%29
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Treasure Island (TV franchise)
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Treasure Island is a reality competition television franchise. The programme originated in New Zealand in 1997, where it was originally produced by Touchdown Television and broadcast by TVNZ, with later editions produced for broadcasters in Australia and Ireland. In the programme, contestants are isolated on a remote Fijian island (early shows were filmed in Tonga) and compete for a cash prize of NZ$25,000. From the 2019 edition, the winner of the Celebrity Treasure Island will receive NZ$100,000 and NZ$50,000 for the regular season their chosen charity.
Concept history
The Treasure Island concept was created by former Touchdown producer Darryl McEwen after searching in the local library for a story on which he could base a reality gameshow before the successful Swedish programme Expedition Robinson – the original version of the Survivor format.
Challenges
1997–2001: Contestants are required to complete a quiz on a computer about Treasure Island and about their teammates during an elimination challenge. Once both teams finished the quiz, the computer would generate the two lowest-scoring members (one from each tribe) as to who will be leaving the island.
2002–2007: In 2002, the winning team eliminated one person from their own tribe. The eliminated person will eliminate one of their opposition team members. In 2003, Terminator/Elimination challenge was introduced. One selected member of the team would compete with one selected member of the opposing team in a 'terminator' challenge. The winner would become the terminator and would eliminate one member from both teams at the end of each day.
2019–present: Tribes competed for various challenges including Rewards, face-offs and Captain's Test. Charity Challenges were introduced as individual challenges and rotated between teams daily. $170,000 was raised in the 2019 edition while 2021 season raised $215,000 across various charities across Aotearoa.
Series franchise overview
Legend:
Currently airing franchise
Franchise with an upcoming season
Franchise no longer aired
Status unknown
New Zealand series overview
Treasure Island (1997–2007, 2023–present)
Season 1 (1997)
Also called Treasure Island 1 was shot in Fiji in 1997. Levi Bowen was the season's winner with Pieta Keating coming in second.
This season consists of 5 episodes. In Episode 1, 19 people were shortlisted from 3,000 applicants. They spend a weekend doing some team activities before 12 castaways were officially cast. The remaining 7 who didn't make the cast include Nikki (37, Farmer & Mother of 4 from Temuka), Daniel (25, Lawyer from Wellington), Hugo (22, Student from Dunedin), Ana (23, Special need teacher from Rakaia), Paul (25, Internet Technologist from Auckland), Clint (19, Student from Te Kauwhata) & Anneke (21, Trainee teacher from Devonport, Auckland) who withdrew from casting and was replaced by Loretta (20, Media Studies student).
They cast flew to Nadi, Fiji and travelled westward to an inhabited island. Castaways were divided into 2 teams of six (3 men and 3 women). North (red) Team consist of Angus (32, Insurance Loss Adjuster from North Shore Auckland), Debbie (36, Stay-at-home Mother from Whangarei), Matt (28, PhD Genetics Student from Dunedin), Pieta (22, Writer/TV presenter from Auckland), Sunny (20, Advertising Clerk from New Plymouth) and Tama (24, Webpage designer). South (Blue) Team consist of Ally (24, Account Manager from Auckland), Chris (43, IT project manager from West Auckland), Herbie (22, Youth worker from Auckland), Levi Bowen (24yo, Trainee pilot and kitchen fitter from Hamilton East), Loretta (20, Media Studies student) and Susan Hornsby (29, Lawyer from Wellington). Every five days, two people were eliminated by a test. Day 5 - Tama (North) & Susan (South). Day 10 - Matt (North) & Chris (South). Day 13 (Unschedule elimination test) - Sunny (North) & Loretta (South). Day 15 - Debbie (North) & Herbie (South). Day 20 - Angus (North) & Ally (South). Day 21 - Pieta lost the treasure hunt. Levi won $25,000.
An additional special episode Treasure Island Revisited were showcased 2 weeks after the grand finale.
Episode 1 – A reality series in which 12 people are deposited on a Pacific Island, with four weeks to survive and find hidden treasure. Today 19 New Zealanders participate in outdoor challenges, where only 12 will be selected to continue with the adventure.
Episode 2 – Two teams made up of 12 people try to crack coded messages to find more parts of treasure map, the two eliminated contestants are Tama Keane and Susan Hornsby.
Episode 3 – Two teams made up of 10 people try to crack coded messages to find more parts of treasure map, the two eliminated contestants are Matt Lambeth and Chris Robinson.
Episode 4 – Two teams made up of eight people try to crack coded messages to find more parts of treasure map, the eliminated contestants are Sunita Torrance, Loretta Blackburn, Debbie Ujdur and Herbert Sherman.
Episode 5 – Two teams made up of four people try to crack coded messages to find more parts of treasure map, the eliminated contestants are Angus Bradley, Ally Fox and Pieta Keating, the winner of the $25,000 is Levi Bowen.
Episode 6 – A behind the scenes look at the reality series in which 12 people are deposited on a Pacific Island, with four weeks to survive and find hidden treasure.
Season 2 (1999)
A reality series in which 16 people are deposited on a Pacific Island in Tonga with four weeks to survive and find hidden treasure and hosted by previous contestant Pieta Keating. The 16 people were separated into two tribes with Tongan names based on the geographical camp base; Hahake (East) and Hihifo (West)
Radio DJ Tanya Pouwhare from Palmerston North was the season's winner against Graham. Gisborne C4 music TV host Clarke Gayford and Chad made it to the final 4.
Episode 1 – 20 people endure the audition weekend and the final 16 are selected.
Episode 2 – The 16 people arrive at their island and divide into two groups.
Episode 3 – Teams struggle to understand a cryptic message and personality conflicts ensue, lack of food causes a snake fest, and Nikki and Maea are eliminated.
Episode 4 – Teams are desperate for food, Hihifo suffer the effects of poorly prepared kape (Tongan taro), a pig is caught, tempers flare as there are difficulties decoding the clues, and Mia and Daile are eliminated.
Episode 5 – Team Hihifo delay their rivals through trade and speed ahead to their second part of the map, Harry and Hayden are eliminated.
Episode 6 – Team internal conflicts continue, Hihifo find the fifth part of the treasure map, but lose equipment and food to Hahake in tough trade talks.
Episode 7 – Tensions arise between Revell and his Hihifo teammates, Michele braves a 15-metre climb up a palm tree, Diana and Michele are eliminated.
Episode 8 – Hahake and Hihifo both race to the Kava Altar to find the seventh piece of the treasure map, Hahake are angry that their outrigger canoe was taken without their knowledge, Revell and Kane are eliminated.
Episode 9 – Today, Chad and Clarke are eliminated, the last two contestants Tanya and Graham fight it out for the $25,000 by following a series of clues, Hahake team member Tanya is the winner.
Episode 10 – The last time they met they were battling it out on a deserted island in the pacific, now they meet again on TREASURE ISLAND 2: THE REUNION.
Season 3 (2002)
Treasure Island: Extreme was hosted by model Jacqui Rickards. The 16 personnel from the police, SAS, armed forces and soldiers competed against each other in the most "extreme" condition in the show history. They were marooned offshore of the island without any food, water or shelter and were separated into Blue Team and Red Team. On each elimination day, both teams lost a team player. John "Horse" McLeod was the season's winner.
A notable incident happened when the SAS contestant Baz Rice was eliminated from the game and refused to leave, instead of hiding in the jungle. Because of previous threats made to rival contestants, a security warning was issued to other competitors. He eventually returned from the jungle and left the island.
Episode 1 – A reality series in which 16 of New Zealand's armed services elite arrive at their island and divide into two groups.
Episode 2 – Red win the challenge and Roo and Red are eliminated.
Episode 3 – Red win the third challenge, Baz and Tomo are eliminated but Baz goes missing.
Episode 4 – Blue win the fourth challenge, Jeff considers leaving the island, Barry collapses in the water, Hayden breaks rules by swimming out to a yacht at night, Baz is found and Jeff and Nancy are eliminated.
Episode 5 – Red win the fifth challenge, Hayden and Phill are eliminated.
Episode 6 – Blue team win the sixth challenge, Red win bonus water, AJ and Barry Duffield are eliminated.
Episode 7 – Blue win the challenge and Daz and Muddi are eliminated.
Episode 8 – Blue win the challenge, Blue win bonus water and food, Aroha and Kelvin are eliminated, Horse finds the hidden treasure against Paul.
Season 4 (2005)
Superstars of Treasure Island was hosted by singer Jon Stevens. This season saw past winners and past season favourites put back onto the island, which included past Irish and Australian winners.
Euakafa Village (Blue team) consisted of Louise Wallace (NZ), John 'Horse' McLeod (NZ), Bernadette Duffy (Ireland), Emma Forster (Australia), Josh Kronfeld (NZ), John 'Cocksy' Cocks (NZ), James Wirtanen (Australia) and Aroha Treacher (NZ). Taunga Village (Red team) consisted of Michael Laws (NZ), Levi Bowen (NZ), Sean O'Brien (Ireland), Pieta Keating (NZ), Brent Todd (NZ), Sally Maxwell (Australia), Cassie Edwards (Australia) and Erika Takacs (NZ)
Josh Kronfeld was the season's winner, becoming the first person to win two seasons of Treasure Island consecutively.
Episode 1 – Teams establish camp and complete their first challenges.
Episode 2 – Bernadette Duffy and Cassandra Edwards are eliminated and a coup replaces Michael Laws with Brent Todd as Team Chief for Team Taunga.
Episode 3 – James Wirtanen and Michael Laws are eliminated and a coup replaces Louise Wallace with John McLeod (Horse) as Team Chief for Team Euakafa.
Episode 4 – Louise Wallace and Levi Bowen are eliminated and a coup replaces John McLeod (Horse) with Emma Forster.
Episode 5 – Aroha Treacher and Erika Takacs are eliminated and a coup replaces Emma Forster with Josh Kronfeld as Team Chief for Team Eakafa.
Episode 6 – Sally Maxwell and Emma Forster are eliminated and two coups threaten the chiefs position but remains.
Episode 7 – Sean O'Brien is eliminated, loyalty issues arise in the camps and a coup replaces John Cocks with Brent Todd as Team Chief for the new team.
Episode 8 – Pieta Keating is eliminated and a coup replaces John (Horse) McLeod with Brent Todd as Team Chief for the new team.
Episode 9 – The competitors are given their next challenges and John McLeod (Horse) is eliminated.
Episode 10 – The last three competitors are given their final challenges and Josh Kronfeld wins and finds the treasure against Brent Todd & John "Cocksy" Cocks
Season 5 (2006)
Treasure Island: Couples at War was hosted by Jon Stevens in his second stint on the show. This season put 8 celebrity couples against each other; these included former Miss Popularity Vicky-Lee McIntyre & Scotty Rocker, Vadim Dale & Natalie Franzman, Jaimee Provan & Johnny Claxton, Bridgette O'Sullivan and Lance O'Sullivan, Simon Doull & Peggy Bourne, JJ Feeney & Dominic Harvey, Paula Stockwell & Zane Nicholl and Courtney Robinson & Mark Hewlett.
The O'Sullivan were the season's winners with Simon Doull and his partner Peggy Bourne coming in second.
Episode 1 – A reality series in which eight couples are deposited on an island and must survive and find hidden treasure, today the teams are decided and the challenges begin.
Episode 2 – The couples adjust to their separation, teams must find missing teammates, team leaders Lance O'Sullivan and Jay-Jay Feeney drink disgusting milkshakes and a surprise exit for Mark and Courtney.
Episode 3 – Divisions within the teams, Vadim and Natalie go head to head in an endurance challenge, the teams navigate an obstacle course blindfolded and the women win a challenge and take the men's goats.
Episode 4 – An elimination challenge sees Paula and Zane leave the island, the contestants must solve clues to find food, Vicky-Lee becomes the new leader of the women's team when Jay-Jay Feeney is overthrown.
Episode 5 – The fallout from the leadership swap in the women's team, the team leaders must go up against their partners in a challenge, an elimination challenge sees Jay-Jay Feeney and Dominic Harvey leave the island and new team leaders Peggy Bourne and Vadim Dale take control.
Episode 6 – The women are frightened by noises in the night, the men win a memory challenge and secure themselves more food, Vadim beats Peggy in the leaders challenge and wins steaks for the men, Natalie and Vadim win a romantic night away from their teams, Vicky-Lee and Scotty beat Jaimee and Johnny in the elimination challenge and the teams become one again.
Episode 7 – Illness and injury abound, Vadim wins outright leadership before a challenge sees Bridgette take control, the contestants are concerned about strange occurrences on the island and Lance and Bridgette win a luxury night together.
Episode 8 – Peggy and Simon win the Chief's challenge, Vadim and Natalie beat Scotty and Vicky-Lee in the elimination challenge leaving Vadim and Natalie with three pieces of the map.
Episode 9 – Lance and Bridgette are accused of cheating and get put straight into the elimination round, Peggy and Simon get the final piece of the map, Vadim and Natalie compete in the elimination round against Lance and Bridgette and lose, leaving the Island.
Episode 10 – The final two couples face off against each other and Lance and Bridgette O'Sullivan win the grand prize.
Episode 11 – A special programme that looks back and reveals the truth about what happened behind the scenes on previous series of Treasure Island.
Season 6 (2007)
Treasure Island: Pirates of the Pacific was hosted by former celebrity contestants Matthew Ridge. This season initial featured two tribes – The Buccaneers, which included, New Zealand Idol runner-up Michael Murphy, former New Zealand Warriors league player Monty Betham, Aja Rock, Carolyn Taylor, Jay Quinn, Elizabeth Grey; and The Corsairs, which included Australian disgraced rugby union player Wendell Sailor and David Beckham's former assistant Rebecca Loos, April Ieremia, Glen Osbourne, Steve Devin and Li Ming Hu.
The first twist of the season is an additional tribe, also known as The Others – consist of Dancing With The Stars Hayley Holt, DIY Rescue builder Doug Thompson, personal trainer Keri Ropati, Mr India NZ Jay Singh, Miss Hawaiian Tropic Carena West and Cleo Bachelor Of The Year Nick Curnow. Dancing with the Stars dancer Hayley Holt was the season's winner with Wendell Sailor coming in second.
Episode 1 – A reality series in which 18 celebrities are transported to a Fijian island, are split into teams and the challenges begin.
Episode 2 – Team captains Jay Quinn and April Ieremia must escape from water filled barrels, new team The Others join game to compete for $50,000, teams must race to find missing captains, and Michael Murphy loses blindfold elimination race and is first to leave island.
Episode 3 – Teams must race to collect coconuts from water and bring them to shore, Monty Betham wins captains challenge to keep leadership and loot five items from The Others camp, and Jay Singh is the second to leave island.
Episode 4 – Teams must carry their captains through obstacle course, captains must shoot five netball hoops and their teammates eat live grubs for each missed shot, Li Ming Hu loses high wire elimination challenge and is third person to leave island.
Episode 5 – Teams must cross three floating pontoons and dive for gold bars, Steve Devine wins captain's memory challenge to keep leadership, captains put weakest members into slave trade auction, and Rebecca Loos is fourth person to leave island.
Episode 6 – A look back at the cunning tactics, shocks, surprises, truth and the lies that have shaped the game so far.
Episode 7 – Teams must collect coconuts to win an outdoor bathroom, see-saw a team member high enough to light fuse hung in the air, Rebecca Loos returns to join the Corsairs team as a prize, and Jay Quinn and Keri Ropati are next to leave island.
Episode 8 – Teams must negotiate an obstacle course chained together, captains face a maths test, and Carolyn Taylor and Steve Devine are the next to leave island.
Episode 9 – Celebrities must compete in an individual challenge, Monty Betham and Glen Osborne choose new teams, captains are hung upside-down and tortured by other team, and Carena West and Elizabeth Gray are next to leave island.
Episode 10 – Teams must fire coconuts into barrel to avoid team member being subjected to snakes crabs and leeches, captains must retrieve rocks from sea floor to complete puzzle, and Aja Rock and Rebecca Loos are next to leave island.
Episode 11 – Teams are merged and game becomes individual, celebrities nominate who they would like to kick off island, they must collect clues from beneath water to solve puzzle, crack pirate code to unscramble words, and Nick Curnow is next to leave island.
Episode 12 – Celebrities must navigate a minefield blindfolded, they are split into three teams of pairs for the remainder of the competition and sent to separate camps, teams must retrieve coconuts from floating pontoon and fill bucket with coconut milk, and Monty Betham and Glen Osborne are next to leave island.
Episode 13 – The final show-down between The Corsairs (Hayley Holt & Wendell Sailor) vs The Buccaneers (April Ieremia & Doug Thompson) goes when they must memorise legend of Treasure Island and race to find pirate skeletons. Wendell Sailor and Hayley Holt win tie-breaker challenge and must turn on each other in race to find hidden treasure, and Hayley Holt wins $50,000 of treasure.
Season 7 (2023)
After 16 years of hiatus, the seventh edition of Treasure Island also known as Treasure Island: Fans vs Faves returned to Fiji which premiered on January 30, 2023 with Tomasel returning as host without Chisholm. TVNZ announced Jayden Daniels will be co-host with Tomsel in the upcoming season which will be broadcast on TVNZ 2 and TVNZ+. Eight fans go head to head with eight celebrities from previous seasons, all looking for redemption and hungry for the win. This season was the first season to include former seasons contestants and winner since Superstars of Treasure Island in 2005. Matty Mclean won the treasure hunt on Day 15 and took $50,000 for Zeal NZ. Lana Searle and Dame Susan Devoy were the other two finalists. This season raised $120,000 across 9 various charities across New Zealand.
Celebrity Treasure Island (2001–04, 2019–present)
Season 1 (2001)
Series 1 was hosted by Pieta Keating for the second consecutive season. This was the first Celebrity season and the third season altogether.
Following the format of TV2's hit show Treasure Island, 14 celebrities divide into two teams to compete for $20,000 for the Youthline charity. South Team - Blue: Frank Bunce, rugby player; Nicky Watson, model; John "Cocksy" Cocks, My House, My Castle handyman; Katrina Hobbs, actor; Dominic Bowden, music show presenter; Jane Kiely, TV presenter; Trent Bray, swimmer.
North Team - Red: Sally Ridge, Changing Rooms designer; Danny Morrison, NZ Cricketer; Nicki Sunderland, ZM DJ; Anthony Ray Parker, actor; Stacey Daniels, TV presenter; Andy Dye, Changing Rooms builder; Erika Takacs, singer. TV handyman John "Cocksy" Cochs won, with television presenter Stacey Daniels coming in second.
Episode 1 – Following the format of TV2's hit show Treasure Island, celebrities divide into two teams to compete for $20,000 for the Youthline charity. Let the games begin. Both teams establish camp and solve their first clues.
Episode 2 – The teams hunt for food, decipher clues and bid $4,200 for a mystery box of food.
Episode 3 – The teams continue their quest to solve clues and find bounty, have a trade meeting after contraband is discovered, and Nicki and Trent are eliminated.
Episode 4 – Teams continue their quest to solve clues and find bounty, have a trade meeting, and Danny and Jayne are eliminated.
Episode 5 – North win a challenge for a breakfast, conflict, anger, and physical clash erupts between Anthony Ray Parker and John Cocks, teams have a trade meeting, Dominic and Erika are eliminated.
Episode 6 – North win a challenge for a chocolate cake, teams have a trade meeting, Nicky and Anthony Ray Parker are eliminated.
Episode 7 – South win a challenge for a cooked chicken, Sally and Katrina are eliminated.
Episode 8 – Four famous faces will become two. Final elimination Frank and Andy are eliminated. There's more pain than they can bear to think about - no food, no fun, just the relentless pursuit of buried treasure. Because just one of them will take home $20,000 for Youthline. John wins the battle against Stacey for the grand prize.
Season 2 (2003)
Season 2 was hosted by Pieta Keating for the third consecutive season. The contestants were split into two teams – Girls Team, which included Greer Robson, Eva Evguenieva, Louise Wallace, Nicky Watson, Suzanne Paul, Jenny May Coffin and K'lee; and the Boys Team, which included Paul Ellis, Cory Hutchings, Michael Laws, Matthew Ridge, Jason Gunn, Ewen Gilmore and Marc Ellis. Shortland Street actress and current lawyer Greer Robson was the season's winner, with ex-Shortland Street star, Paul Ellis coming in second.
Episode 1 – A reality series in which 14 celebrities are divided into 2 teams and establish camp and complete their first challenges.
Episode 2 – K'Lee and Marc Ellis are eliminated.
Episode 3 – The teams are evacuated due to bad weather, and Jason Gunn and Jenny-May Coffin are eliminated.
Episode 4 – The teams face new mental and physical challenges and Suzanne Paul and Ewen Gilmour are eliminated.
Episode 5 – The teams face new mental and physical challenges, and Nicky Watson and Matthew Ridge are eliminated.
Episode 6 – The teams face new mental and physical challenges and Michael Laws and Louise Wallace are eliminated.
Episode 7 – The final terminator challenges and Eva Eugeneva and Cory Hutchings are eliminated.
Episode 8 – Greer Robson wins the $30,000 treasure for the First Foundation charity for talented children.
Episode 9 – The celebrities reunite to review their experiences on the island.
Season 3 (2004)
Season 3 was hosted by previous contestant Louise Wallace. The season's contestants included Josh Kronfeld, Simon Barnett, Brent Todd, Ian Roberts, Maz Quinn, Troy Flavell, Torenzo Bozzone, Matthew Ridge, Aja Rock, Charlotte Dawson, Jayne Kiley, Joe Cotton, Lana Coc-Kroft, Wendy Botha, Hayley Marie Byrnes, Nicky Watson. TV presenter Lana Coc-Kroft was struck down with a virus and had to be evacuated off the island. Ex-All Black Josh Kronfeld was the season's winner, with Simon Barnett coming in second place.
Episode 1 – Teams establish camps and complete first challenges.
Episode 2 – The teams face their first terminator challenge, Charlotte is marooned for a night and Troy Flavell, and Hayley Marie Byrnes are the first contestants eliminated.
Episode 3 – Ian Roberts is crippled by a bad back and is encouraged to leave the island, plus league player Matthew Ridge and model Nicky Watson arrive to join the teams.
Episode 4 – Joe Cotton and Josh Kronfeld are caught cheating, Nicky Watson is eliminated.
Episode 5 – Clashes in the women's camp, Aja Rock becomes new women's captain, Matthew Ridge and Jayne Kiely are eliminated.
Episode 6 – Food is in desperation, further clashes in the women's camp, and Wendy Botha-Todd and Terenzo Bozzone are eliminated.
Episode 7 – Josh gets frustrated with the game and the victorious terminator is forced to swap team members with the opposite team.
Episode 8 – A mystery illness strikes Red captain, Lana Coc-Kroft, and Aja Rock and Lana Coc-Kroft are eliminated.
Episode 9 – Josh Kronfeld and Brent Todd are handcuffed together for 24 hours, Joe Cotton sneaks food to the opposing team, and Maz Quinn and Brent Todd are eliminated.
Episode 10 – Josh Kronfeld becomes the winner of 2004 Celebrity Treasure Island.
Episode 11 – The celebrities reunite to review their experiences on the island.
Season 4 (2019)
Celebrity Treasure Island 2019 marked the show's return after a hiatus of more than a decade. Hosted by Survivor NZ producer and host, Matt Chisholm, as well as ZM radio's Drive host Bree Tomasel. The classic Kiwi game show featured 16 celebrity castaways paired up as they completed challenges for the chance to win $100,000 for their charity of choice in Fiji. The season premiered on Sunday 18 August, 7 pm and continues Monday & Tuesday 7.30 pm, TVNZ 2. This was to be the final show that Matt Chisholm presented with TVNZ. Sam Wallace was the sole Kāhu member left, and the eventual winner, who took $100,000 for Starship Hospital. Shane Cameron and Gary 'The Wiz' Freeman were the other two finalists, and Athena Angelou finished fourth. This season raised $170,000 across 9 various charities across Aotearoa.
Season 5 (2021)
After a COVID-19 pandemic enforced break in 2020, the fifth edition of Celebrity Treasure Island was filmed over summer 2021 on the coast of Ngātaki, in Northland, New Zealand, instead of the usual location, Fiji. The season premiered on 6 September, and airs weekly, Monday to Wednesday, at 7:30 PM on TVNZ 2. Chisholm and Tomasel returned as hosts. 21 new celebrity castaways take part on home soil, going head-to-head for the chance to win $100,000 for their chosen charity.
Chris Parker was the sole Katipō member left, and the eventual winner, who took $100,000 for Rainbow Youth Inc. Edna Swart and Lance Savali were the other two finalists. This season raised $215,000 across 13 various charities across Aotearoa.
Season 6 (2022)
The sixth edition of Celebrity Treasure Island was filmed in the summer of 2022 on the coast of Northland, New Zealand with Chisholm and Tomasel returned as hosts. Va'aiga 'Inga' Tuigamala was confirmed to be part of the cast who died ahead of filming Celebrity Treasure Island. The rest of the cast were officially announced in August 2022 with Mike King, Dame Susan Devoy & Ron Cribb who entered the game as mystery intruders, joining Alex King, Siobhan Marshall & Guy Montgomery. Courtenay Louise, Te Kohe Tuhaka, Karen O'Leary, Shimpal Lelisi and Perlina Lau. Melodie Robinson, Cam Mansel, Elvis Lopeti, Dylan Schmidt & Cassie Roma. Jesse Tuke, Eds Eramiha, Lynette Forday, Dr Joel Rindelaub and Iyia Liu.
This season premiered on 5 September, and airs weekly, Monday to Wednesday, at 7:30 PM on TVNZ 2 and TVNZ+; hosted by Matt Chisholm and Bree Tomasel. One of the twenty-one celebrities will win a grand prize of $100,000 for their chosen charity. Jesse Tuke won the treasure hunt on Day 27 and took $100,000 for Live Ocean. Courtenay Louise and Elvis Lopeti were the other two finalists. This season raised $205,000 across 14 various charities across Aotearoa.
Season 7 (2023)
The seventh edition of Celebrity Treasure Island also known as Celebrity Treasure Island: Te Waipounamu was filmed in the summer of 2023 in Te Waipounamu, New Zealand with Tomasel returning as host without Chisholm and Jayden Daniels returned after hosting Treasure Island: Fans vs Faves with Tomasel. This season premiered in September 18, and airs weekly, Monday to Wednesday, at 7:30 PM on TVNZ 2 and TVNZ+. One of the eighteen celebrities will win a grand prize of $100,000 for their chosen charity.
James Mustapic won the treasure hunt on Day 18, taking $100,000 for Gender Minorities Aotearoa. Courtney Dawson and Turia Schmidt-Peke were the other two finalists. This season raised $170,000 across nine various charities across New Zealand. James was the only person in history who had not competed in any elimination challenge and won the treasure hunt on his first attempt.
Australian Treasure Island (2000)
The Australian version, Treasure Island A Quest for Survival, produced by David Mason premiered on the Seven Network following the 2000 Summer Olympics. It aired on Sunday nights at 7pm, premiered on 10 January 2000 with 9 episodes.
16 plucky Australians are cast adrift on a remote Tongan island in the South Pacific hoping to overcome challenges in the hunt for A$50,000 in treasure. The contestants have been selected for their practical abilities, sense of adventure and their sense of humour - which they'll need as the tropical paradise becomes more nightmarish by the day. They'll lie, cheat and sabotage to get their booty, but only one member of each team will make it to the end. Every three days, the castaways must mark on a map where they think the treasure is - and the ones furthest away will be sent home. After a gruelling training camp, the groups were whittled down from ten to eight - voted for by the team members.
The 16 castasways were split into two teams –
West Team which included Michael "Mike" Kent, Emma Forster, Daniel Popping, Sally Maxwell, Cassandra 'Cassie' Edwards, Justine Salkilld-Campbell, Steve Ibbotson Craig Sharpe; and the East Team which included Tomi Pitra, Gavin Heath, Maggie Dawson, Monika Karwan, Alexandra "Alex" Simpson, Frank Matzka, Kym Clare and James Wirtanen, with James Wirtanen being crowned the winner.
Four contestants took part in the franchise's international edition, Superstars of Treasure Island. Emma Forster & James Wirtanen in Euakafa Village (Blue team) and Sally Maxwell & Cassandra 'Cassie' Edwards in Taunga Village (Red team).
Irish Treasure Island (2001–2002)
Treasure Island was one of Ireland's first major reality programme. It ran for two series, airing through the summers of 2001 and 2002 on RTÉ One. Based on a New Zealand format, two groups of strangers lived and survived on a remote island in Tonga with one winner taking home the £50,000 prize. COCO Television also produced the spin-off series Treasure Island Uncut and Treasure Island Live for RTÉ Network 2. The show was axed after its second series and replaced by Cabin Fever in 2003.
Series 1 (2001)
The first series aired on RTÉ One at 8pm each Sunday night from 15 July to 12 September 2001. Commissioned by Billy McGrath - then Commissioning Editor of Entertainment - it was RTÉ's and Ireland's first major reality TV series.
Almost 31,000 people applied to take part in the first series. The first programme involved 22 people vying to be part of the final 16. They ranged in age from 19 to 63. The group of 22 would then be taken to Killary Harbour, Connacht, where they faced a series of physical and psychological challenges. After two days the final 16 were chosen and taken immediately to Dublin Airport, where they departed for Tonga. When they arrived on the island the teams were split into two teams, the East/Blue team and the West/Red team locating on each side of the island.
A spin-off series was shown on Network 2 called Treasure Island Uncut on Monday nights at 10:35 pm.
Blue Team: Yvonne Cronin (Winner), Tom Tom O'Brien, Becky Fennel, Robin Creagh, Geoff Fisher, Sheila Comerford, Lewize Crothers, Peter Finn
Red Team: Tom Barton (2nd Place), Patrick Doorey, Carole Ross, Paul Gannon, Faith Atkinson, Mary Ann McCormack, Martin Laheen, Ann Murphy
Series 2 (2002)
The second series aired between June 16 and August 30, 2002. Before becoming a Senator, Mark Daly appeared on this series of Treasure Island; he came third in the series. The spin-off series Treasure Island Uncut was again shown on Network 2, but RTÉ introduced a new spin-off series for RTÉ One called Treasure Island Live, that was hosted by Brendan Courtney and shown on Tuesday nights at 8 pm.
Sean O'Brien won the treasure hunt beating Ann Collins, Annette Woolley, Aoife MacCana, Bernadette Duffy, Chantelle McCann, Damian Manning, Dave O'Brien, Ian Tighe, Mark Daly, Mary T. O'Connor, Patricia O'Mahony, Sabine Sheehan, Sean Paul Teeling, Trevor McDaniel and Winston Roberts.
Sean O'Brien (the winner of Series 2) and his wife Bernadette Duffy (a contestant of Series 2), took part in the franchise's international edition, Superstars of Treasure Island.
References
External links
Official Treasure Island website
Official Celebrity Treasure Island website
TVNZ original programming
1997 New Zealand television series debuts
Australian game shows
2000s Australian reality television series
Irish game shows
Irish reality television series
New Zealand game shows
New Zealand reality television series
Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios
Television series revived after cancellation
Reality television series franchises
Warner Bros. Television Studios franchises
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Caseidae
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Caseidae are an extinct family of basal synapsids that lived from the Late Carboniferous to Middle Permian between about 300 and 265 million years ago. Fossils of these animals come from the south-central part of the United States (Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas), from various parts of Europe (European Russia, France, Germany, Sardinia, and Poland), and possibly from South Africa if the genus Eunotosaurus is indeed a caseid as some authors proposed in 2021. Caseids show great taxonomic and morphological diversity. The most basal taxa were small insectivorous and omnivorous forms that lived mainly in the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian, such as Eocasea, Callibrachion, and Martensius. This type of caseid persists until the middle Permian with Phreatophasma and may be Eunotosaurus. During the early Permian, the clade is mainly represented by many species that adopted a herbivorous diet. Some have evolved into gigantic forms that can reach in length, such as Cotylorhynchus hancocki and Alierasaurus ronchii, making them the largest Permian synapsids. Caseids are considered important components of early terrestrial ecosystems in vertebrate history because the numerous herbivorous species in this family are among the first terrestrial tetrapods to occupy the role of primary consumer. The caseids experienced a significant evolutionary radiation at the end of the early Permian, becoming, with the captorhinid eureptiles, the dominant herbivores of terrestrial ecosystems in place of the edaphosaurids and diadectids.
In 2016 and 2022, paleontologists proposed a semiaquatic lifestyle for the most derived genera like Cotylorhynchus and Lalieudorhynchus, but this hypothesis is disputed by other researchers.
With a fossil record spanning from the Late Carboniferous to the Middle Permian, caseids are one of the basal synapsids groups (formerly known as “pelycosaur”) having the largest stratigraphic range. They also represent one of only two basal synapsid groups (along with the Varanopidae) to survive in therapsid-dominated terrestrial communities. Thus, the last known caseids come from the strata of the middle Permian (Upper Roadian-Wordian) of France and European Russia, where they cohabited notably with dinocephalians. These last caseids still show a certain morphological diversity with medium to large herbivores (Ennatosaurus and Lalieudorhynchus), as well as small predatory or omnivorous forms such as Phreatophasma and possibly Eunotosaurus. Caseids are so far unknown in Upper Permian strata and probably disappeared at the end of the Middle Permian. They were replaced by pareiasaurs (with similar dentition) and dicynodonts.
Description
Caseids measured from less than to in length. They had a small head wider than high and with a forward-inclined snout, a very short neck, a long tail, robust forelimbs, and a body of variable proportions depending on their diet. Small insectivorous species like Eocasea had an unexpanded trunk. Others with an omnivorous diet like Martensius had a barely enlarged rib cage, a more elongated skull, smaller nostrils, and a snout less inclined forward than in herbivorous caseids. The latter were characterized by their disproportionately small skull compared to the size of the body. The postcranial skeleton indeed shows a spectacular increase in the volume of the rib cage, which becomes very wide and barrel-shaped, probably to accommodate a particularly developed intestine, necessary for the digestion of high-fiber rich plants. In these forms, the skull has very large external nostrils and a very short facial region with a strong forward inclination of the end of the snout which clearly overhangs the dental row. The temporal fenestrae are also relatively large (especially in Ennatosaurus), the supratemporals are large in size, and, on the occipital surface, the paroccipital processes are massively developed, establishing strong supporting contacts with the squamosals. The dorsal surface of the skull is covered with numerous small pits. These suggest the presence of large scales on the head of these animals. Numerous labial foramina running parallel to the ventral edge of the premaxilla and maxilla, as well as along the dorsal edge of the dentary, suggest the presence of scaly "lips" which must have concealed the dentition when the jaws were closed. The teeth, simply conical and pointed in insectivorous species, adopt in herbivorous species a leafy or spatulate morphology and are provided with more or less numerous cuspules. Numerous small teeth also adorned several bones of the palate. Herbivorous species do not show a simple evolutionary trend towards increasing tooth complexity. Thus, the teeth of the basal taxa Casea and Arisierpeton have three cuspules just like in the more derived forms Cotylorhynchus and Caseopsis. Ennatosaurus and Euromycter, which occupy an intermediate phylogenetic position, have teeth bearing 5 to 7 cuspules and 5 to 8 cuspules respectively. Angelosaurus, one of the most derived caseids, has teeth with 5 cuspules. In Angelosaurus the teeth have a bulbous morphology with very short and wide crowns. Their sturdiness and the significant wear they show, indicate that Angelosaurus must have fed on tougher plants than those on which most other herbivorous caseids fed. Herbivorous caseids also show very different dietary adaptations from those seen in another group of basal synapsids, the Edaphosauridae. The latter had, in addition to the marginal dentition, a dental battery made up of numerous teeth located both on the palate and on the inner surface of the lower jaws. In herbivorous caseids, the palatal teeth are smaller, and the inner surface of the lower jaws bears no teeth. Instead of a dental battery, they had a massive tongue (as indicated by the presence of a highly developed hyoid apparatus found in Ennatosaurus and Euromycter) perhaps rough, with which they had to compress food against the palatal teeth.
The forelimbs of caseids are often more robust than the hindlimbs. It has indeed been observed that the bones of the forelimbs gained in robustness from the beginning of the evolution of the group, before the appearance of large species, while the hindlimbs remained slenderer. These characteristics suggest that the initial strengthening of the forelimbs was probably related to a particular function such as digging, and that this trait was later exapted by more derived and larger caseids to support their weights of up to several hundred kilograms. During their evolutionary history, caseids also show a reduction in their phalangeal formula. The most basal caseids like Eoasea, Callibrachion, and Martensius possessed the plesiomorphic condition of early amniotes with a phalangeal formula of 2-3-4-5-3 for manus and 2-3-4-5-4 for pes. In Euromycter the manus has a formula of 2-3-4-4-3 (the pes is unknown). In the more derived forms like Cotylorhynchus the manus and pes show a phalangeal formula of 2-2-3-3-2. Along with this reduction in the number of phalanges, the proportions of the autopods also change in derived caseids with metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges becoming shorter and broader. At the extreme of this specialization the genus Angelosaurus has short, broad, and smooth ungual phalanges which resemble hooves rather than claws.
Footprints
Many vertebrate tracks have been proposed as belonging to Caseidae. In the early 2000s, large footprints known as Brontopus giganteus from the Permian Lodève basin in southern France were considered to belong either to a caseid or dinocephalian therapsid. In 2019, Lorenzo Marchetti and colleagues, however, determined that dinocephalians were most likely the trackmakers of the ichnogenus Brontopus. In 2012, Rafael Costa da Silva and colleagues proposed that the ichnogenus Chelichnus, widely distributed in Permian desert facies (fossil dunes) of Europe, North America and South America, could represent caseids footprints. In 2019, Marchetti and colleagues, however, reinterpreted Chelichnus as a nomen dubium and a taphotaxon, this type of track showing false anatomical features generated by locomotion on sandy inclined paleosurface. In 2014, Eva Sacchi and colleagues described the ichnotaxon Dimetropus osageorum from about a hundred isolated footprints and several trackways from the early Permian Wellington Formation in Oklahoma. The morphological study of these footprints and their comparison with tetrapod skeletons revealed that they probably belong to a large caseid comparable in size to Cotylorhynchus romeri (the latter from more recent strata). According to Sacchi and colleagues, some footprints from the Lodève Basin (unspecified geological formation) are similar to those from the Wellington Formation and these authors designate them as Dimetropus cf. osageorum. The study by Sacchi et al. also demonstrates that the ichnogenus Dimetropus exhibits great morphological variation and that its producers can be assigned to different zoological groups among non-therapsid synapsids and not just Sphenacodontidae as once thought. In 2021, Rafel Matamales-Andreu and colleagues assigned footprints found in the Lower Permian (Artinskian-Kungurian) Port des Canonge Formation in Mallorca to a caseid. These footprints resemble those of D. osageorum but they also have differences. These footprints are left in open nomenclature as cf. Dimetropus sp.. They are, however, smaller than those of D. osageorum and would have been produced by a caseid of modest size with proportions comparable to Ennatosaurus.
Paleobiology
Diets
During their evolutionary history, caseids shifted from faunivorous to herbivorous diet, a pattern that also occurred independently in other Carboniferous and Permian tetrapod groups such as Captorhinidae and Edaphosauridae. Earliest and most basal caseids, such as the late Carboniferous Eocasea and the early Permian Callibrachion had an unexpanded rib cage and dentition composed of very small conical teeth suggesting an insectivorous diet. Another basal caseid, Martensius, has a slightly enlarged barrel-shaped trunk and dentition in which teeth indicative of an insectivorous diet in juveniles have been ontogenetically replaced in adults by teeth suggesting an omnivorous diet. In Martensius, the adult was still able to feed on insects, but it also possesses a draft of the herbivorous diet specializations present in later caseids, such as a relatively short, slightly forward-inclined snout, and a dentition that is almost homodont in the upper jaws and completely homodont in lower jaws. The sequence of dental trait acquisition in Martensius suggests that intestinal vegetation processing preceded oral processing in the evolution of caseid herbivory. A juvenile insectivorous diet would have provided the opportunity for successful introduction into the intestine of microorganisms capable of endosymbiotic cellulolysis, particularly if the prey ingested were herbivorous insects which harbor such microorganisms in their viscera. Subsequently, the caseids adopted a strictly herbivorous diet and evolved into gigantic forms. These herbivorous caseids had spatulate teeth equipped with more or less numerous cuspules and a very enlarged and barrel-shaped rib cage which must have housed highly developed intestines necessary for the digestion of plants with low nutritional value. This adaptation would partly explain the diversification and expansion of the group at the end of the Lower Permian and during the Middle Permian, because it allowed them to exploit a fiber-rich plant resource that had by then become abundant and widespread. Nevertheless, small probably faunivorous caseids like Phreatophasma seem to have persisted until the Middle Permian.
Semiaquatic vs terrestrial lifestyle
Caseids are generally considered primarily terrestrial animals. Everett C. Olson in particular considered that the degree of ossification of the skeleton, the relatively short feet and hands, the massive claws, the limbs with very powerful extensor muscles, and the solid sacrum, strongly suggested a terrestrial lifestyle. Olson did not rule out that the caseids spent some time in water, but he considered locomotion on land to be an important aspect of their lifestyle. It has been suggested that the very powerful forelimbs, with strong and very tendinous extensor muscles, as well as very massive claws, could be used to dig up roots or tubers. However, the very short neck implied a low amplitude of vertical movements of the head which precluded the large species from feeding at ground level. Another hypothesis suggests that the caseids could have used their powerful forelimbs to fold large plants towards them, which they would have torn off with their powerful claws. Other hypotheses suggest that some caseids such as Cotylorhynchus used their limbs with powerful claws to defend themselves against predators, or during intraspecific activities linked in particular to reproduction. According to Olson, an interesting thing about this, is that almost all known specimens of the species Cotylorhynchus hancocki have one to ten ribs broken and healed during life. Finally, for some authors, the large derived caseids would have been semiaquatic animals that used their hands with large claws like paddles, which could also be used to manipulate the plants on which they fed.
In 2016, Markus Lambertz and colleagues questioned the terrestrial lifestyle of large caseids like Cotylorhynchus. These authors showed that the bone microstructure of the humerus, femur and ribs of adult and immature specimens of Cotylorhynchus romeri resembled that of aquatic animals more than that of terrestrial animals, the bones having a very spongy structure, an extremely thin cortex, and having no distinct medullary canal. This low bone density would have been a handicap for animals weighing several hundred kilos with a strictly terrestrial lifestyle. Lambertz et al. also argued that the joints between the vertebrae and the dorsal ribs allowed only small ranges of motion of the rib cage, thus limiting costal ventilation. To overcome this, they proposed that a proto-diaphragm was present to facilitate breathing, especially in aquatic environment. These authors also consider that the arid paleoclimates to which the caseid deposits correspond are not incompatible with an aquatic lifestyle of these animals. These paleoenvironments in fact included a significant number of water bodies (rivers, lakes and lagoons). The arid conditions could have been the reason why the animals would sometimes congregate and eventually die. In addition, arid environments have a low density of plants, which would require even more locomotor effort to find food. Thus, for Lambertz et al., large caseids like Cotylorhynchus must have been mainly aquatic animals that only came on dry land for the purposes of reproduction or thermoregulation.
This hypothesis is however disputed by Kenneth Angielczyk and Christian Kammerer as well as by Robert Reisz and colleagues based on paleontological and taphonomic data combined with the absence in these large caseids of morphological adaptations to an aquatic lifestyle. According to Angielczyk and Kammerer, the low bone density of caseids identified by Lambertz et al. does not resemble that of semiaquatic animals, which tend to have a more strongly ossified skeleton to provide passive buoyancy control and increased stability against current and wave action. Cotylorhynchus bone microstructure is more similar to what is seen in animals living in the open ocean, such as cetaceans and pinnipeds, which emphasize high maneuverability, rapid acceleration and hydrodynamic control of buoyancy. However, the caseid morphology was totally incompatible with a pelagic lifestyle. Thus, due to these unusual data, Angielczyk and Kammerer consider that the available evidence is still insufficient to question the more widely assumed terrestrial lifestyle of caseids. Robert Reisz and colleagues also dispute the supposed semiaquatic lifestyle of the caseids on the fact that the latter possess no morphological adaptations to an aquatic lifestyle and, in the case of the species Cotylorhynchus romeri, on the interpretation that this animal lived in a dry environment for part of the year as indicated by the presence of numerous skeletons of the amphibian Brachydectes preserved in aestivation and of the lungfish Gnathorhiza, another well-known aestivator.
In 2022, Werneburg and colleagues proposed a somewhat different semiaquatic lifestyle, in which large caseids like Lalieudorhynchus (whose bone texture is even more osteoporotic than in Cotylorhynchus) would be ecological equivalents of modern hippos, passing part of their time in the water (being underwater walkers rather than swimming animals) but coming on dry land for food.
Evolution
Caseids first appear in the fossil record at the end of the Carboniferous and are already present in both North America and Europe with small predatory forms like Eocasea and Datheosaurus. These faunivorous caseids also exist at the beginning of the lower Permian, such as Callibrachion, and may have existed until the base of the middle Permian with Phreatophasma. During the Permian, the representatives of the clade mainly evolved towards herbivory. These herbivorous caseids experienced an important evolutionary radiation during the second half of the lower Permian by becoming, with the moradisaurine captorhinid eureptiles, the main herbivores of terrestrial ecosystems instead of edaphosaurids and diadectids. The decline of edaphosaurids and the propagation of caseids coincides with an aridification of the environment that occurred from the Artinskian and which would have favored the caseid expansion. Sedimentological and taphonomic data indicate that the majority of edaphosaurids favored humid habitats (their remains are found mainly in lacustrine and marshy deposits) while herbivorous caseids generally lived in drier biotopes where ponds and streams water were ephemeral. The last caseids date from the Middle Permian and are mainly known in Europe with Phreatophasma and Ennatosaurus from the Roadian-Wordian of Russia, Alierasaurus from the Roadian-(Wordian?) of Sardinia, and Lalieudorhynchus from the late Wordian-early Capitanian of southern France. In North America, Angelosaurus romeri and Cotylorhynchus bransoni from the Chickasha Formation in Oklahoma probably date to the early Roadian, while the caseids from the San Angelo Formation in Texas are slightly older and may straddle the Kungurian-Roadian boundary but it is not yet clear whether they date from the latest Kungurian or from the earliest Roadian.
Paleobiogeography
Caseid fossils have been found in the southern and central United States (Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas), France, Germany, Poland, Sardinia, and European Russia. This geographical distribution corresponds to the paleoequatorial belt of Pangaea during the Carboniferous and the Permian, with the exception of the Russian localities which were located at the level of the 30th parallel north where a more temperate climate prevailed. The absence in Russia of terrestrial vertebrate localities prior to the Kungurian does not allow us to know the precise moment of the arrival of caseids in this region of the world. According to Werneburg and colleagues, the presence of caseids at this paleolatitude suggests their possible existence in the temperate regions of Gondwana. A possible Gondwanan occurrence was proposed as early as the 1990s by Michael S.Y. Lee and in 2021 by Asher J. Lichtig and Spencer G. Lucas, who reinterpreted the middle Permian taxon Eunotosaurus from South Africa as a small burrowing caseid. Between these two dates, other researchers classified Eunotosaurus as a parareptile or a pantestudines. If the first three authors are correct, Eunotosaurus would be the first caseid found in the Southern Hemisphere and the last known representative of the family with a latest Capitanian age for the most recent specimens. Elsewhere in Gondwana, the presence of the ichnotaxon Dimetropus in the Permian of Morocco suggests the future discovery of basal synapsids (including caseids) in the Permian basins of North Africa, which were also part of the paleoequatorial belt and constituted one of the main migratory routes between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Phylogeny
The family Caseidae was erected by Samuel Wendell Williston in 1911. In 1940, Alfred Sherwood Romer and L.W. Price placed Caseidae and Edaphosauridae in the same suborder, which they named Edaphosauria. This group is now abandoned, the edaphosaurids being closer to the Sphenacodontia (with which they form the clade Sphenacomorpha) than to the caseids. The latter are grouped with the Eothyrididae in the clade Caseasauria, which represent the most basal synapsids.
The first phylogenetic analysis of caseids was published in 2008 by Hillary C. Maddin and colleagues. In this analysis, the genus Oromycter occupies the most basal position within the clade. Ennatosaurus is the sister group of a clade containing Cotylorhynchus romeri and Angelosaurus dolani. This analysis reveals for the first time the paraphyly of the genus Casea, the species “Casea” rutena representing a distinct genus which will be named in 2011 Euromycter.
Below is the first cladogram of caseids published by Maddin et al. in 2008.
Another phylogenetic analysis carried out in 2012 by Benson includes the genus Trichasaurus which occupies an intermediate position between Casea broilii and “Casea” rutena. Ennatosaurus is identified as the sister group of a clade including Angelosaurus and the three species of Cotylorhynchus. Within the latter genus, Cotylorhynchus romeri is the sister group of the two species C. hancocki and C. bransoni.
Below is the cladogram of Caseasauria published by Benson in 2012.
In 2015, Marco Romano and Umberto Nicosia published the first cladistic study including almost all Caseidae (with the exception of Alierasaurus ronchii from Sardinia, then considered too fragmentary). This study again resolves the genus Casea as paraphyletic, with the species “Casea” nicholsi representing a distinct unnamed genus. In their most parsimonious analysis, Ruthenosaurus is closely related to Cotylorhynchus hancocki. Ennatosaurus occupies a higher position than in previous analyses, and is identified as more closely related to Angelosaurus dolani. However, the close relationship between A. dolani and Ennatosaurus may be biased by the extreme incompleteness of the material from the North American species.
Below is the cladogram of caseids published by Romano and Nicosia in 2015.
A phylogenetic analysis published in 2016 by Neil Brocklehurst and colleagues includes for the first time the genera Callibrachion and Datheosaurus which are identified as basal caseids occupying an intermediate position between Eocasea and Oromycter.
Below is the phylogenetic analysis published by Neil Brocklehurst and colleagues in 2016.
In 2017 Romano and colleagues published the first phylogenetic analysis including the genus Alierasaurus. The latter is recovered as the sister taxon of the genus Cotylorhynchus.
Below is the phylogenetic analysis published by Romano and colleagues in 2017.
In describing the species Martensius bromackerensis in 2020, Berman and colleagues published two cladograms in which Martensius is identified as one of the most basal caseids, and is positioned just above the Late Carboniferous Eocasea martini. In the first cladogram, the position of the remaining caseids is poorly resolved. In the second cladogram, Casea broilii is positioned above Martensius bromackerensis, and is followed by a polytomy between Oromycter dolesorum, Trichasaurus texensis, and a clade of remaining caseid. Within these remaining taxa, a sequence of branching taxa begins with Casea nicholsi, followed by Euromycter rutenus, then Ennatosaurus tecton, then Angelosaurus romeri, then an apical clade of the three Cotylorhynchus species plus Alierasaurus ronchii. In this final clade, Cotylorhynchus hancocki and C. bransoni are sister taxa and the clade forms a polytomy with C. romeri and Alierasaurus ronchii.
Below are the two caseid cladograms published by Berman and colleagues in 2020.
In 2022, Werneburg and colleagues described the genus Lalieudorhynchus and published a phylogenetic analysis which concluded that the genera Angelosaurus and Cotylorhynchus are paraphyletic and are represented only by their type species. In this analysis, Cotylorhynchus romeri is positioned just above the genus Angelosaurus, and forms a polytomy with a clade containing Ruthenosaurus and Caseopsis and another clade containing Alierasaurus, the two other species of Cotylorhynchus and Lalieudorhynchus. Within this latter clade, Alierasaurus is the sister group of “Cotylorhynchus” bransoni and a more derived clade including Lalieudorhynchus and “Cotylorhynchus” hancocki.
Below is the cladogram published by Werneburg and colleagues in 2022.
Notes
References
External links
Tree of Life
Palaeos Vertebrates 390.100 Synapsida
Caseasaurs
Prehistoric synapsid families
Taxa named by Samuel Wendell Williston
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20Edwards%20%28composer%29
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Ross Edwards (composer)
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Ross Edwards (born 23 December 1943) is an Australian composer of a wide variety of music including orchestral and chamber music, choral music, children's music, opera and film music. His distinctive sound world reflects his interest in deep ecology and his belief in the need to reconnect music with elemental forces, as well as restore its traditional association with ritual and dance. He also recognises the profound importance of music as an agent of healing. His music, universal in that it is concerned with age-old mysteries surrounding humanity, is at the same time connected to its roots in Australia, whose cultural diversity it celebrates, and from whose natural environment it draws inspiration, especially birdsong and the mysterious patterns and drones of insects. As a composer living and working on the Pacific Rim, he is aware of the exciting potential of this vast region.
Early life and education
Ross Edwards was born and raised in Sydney, Australia. His parents were Frank Edwards, an engineer, and Marjorie Robertson. His great-grandfather was the publisher George Robertson of Angus & Robertson. Drawn to music at an early age, his first attempts at composition date from his fourth year, but it was not until the age of 13, when taken to a concert by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra by his aunt that featured Beethoven's Fifth Symphony and Liszt's First Piano Concerto, that he became intensely aware of his vocation to become a composer.
Edwards attended Sydney Grammar School, which did not offer music at the time. At 15 years of age, Edwards was granted permission to enter the New South Wales Conservatorium of Music to study piano, oboe, harmony, counterpoint and theory during lunch hours and weekends. In 1963, after being awarded a Commonwealth Scholarship to the University of Sydney, he enrolled in a Bachelor of Arts degree, but became frustrated and dropped out after a year. Due to the benevolent intervention of composers Peter Sculthorpe and Peter Maxwell Davies, he was able to earn a scholarship and complete a Bachelor of Music degree at the University of Adelaide's Elder Conservatorium in 1969, where his teachers included Peter Maxwell Davies (then composer-in-residence), Sándor Veress and Richard Meale. During vacations he worked as assistant to Peter Sculthorpe, gaining valuable insight into the working life of a composer. A further Commonwealth Scholarship enabled Edwards to complete his studies with Peter Maxwell Davies in London in 1970, earning a Master of Music degree, after which he spent 18 months composing at a remote Yorkshire farmhouse. Today, Edwards holds higher doctorates from the Universities of Sydney and Adelaide.
Returning to Sydney in 1970, Edwards taught in the Music Department of Sydney University and in 1974 married Helen Hopkins, one of his students. In the same year he became a lecturer in the Sydney Conservatorium's School of Composition, remaining there until 1980, when he began working as a freelance composer and lecturer. Working from their home in the coastal village of Pearl Beach, Edwards and his wife Helen, a piano teacher, led an idyllic and productive life until the education of their two children necessitated moving back to Sydney in 1984.
Musical career
Reclusive by nature, Ross Edwards has largely eschewed following a career path as such, neglecting to promote his work and responding mainly to the inner dictates of his vocation. Based in Sydney and often retreating to work in the Blue Mountains west of the city, he has an acute sense of place and belonging, claiming to draw on his experience as "a composer living and working in Australia and relating to the world from an Australian perspective." Far from being isolationist, however, the surface of Edwards' music is often highly eclectic, making oblique references to many cultures in what he describes as an "intuitive search for unity within diversity". He has also stated that underlying all his music "the natural environment remains the supreme generative force".
In spite of his natural reticence, Edwards' works have been featured at such international music festivals as the Vale of Glamorgan Festival, Wales; the Edinburgh International Festival; the Australian Festival of Chamber Music, Townsville; the Mostly Mozart Festival, New York; the City of London Festival; the Darwin International Guitar Festival; the Canberra International Music Festival; the Adelaide Festival; the Melbourne Festival; the Tucson Winter Chamber Music Festival, Arizona; International Society for Contemporary Music Festivals in Stockholm, Basel, Warsaw and Sydney; and the Festivals of Sydney and Perth.
Significant events
Significant events include the award of a joint Australian Broadcasting Corporation/Australian Bicentennial commission to compose the violin concerto Maninyas (1988); the Australia Council's Don Banks Music Award (1989); Australian Creative "Keating" Fellowships in 1990 and 1995; and award of the Order of Australia – AM (1997). The composition of Dawn Mantras, Sydney's contribution to the millennium celebrations, was telecast worldwide to an audience of billions, attracting great international acclaim. In 2007 he was Musica Viva Australia's Featured Composer.
Collaborations
In 2005, Edwards' oboe concerto Bird Spirit Dreaming, originally composed for oboist Diana Doherty and the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, had its US premiere by Doherty, the New York Philharmonic and Lorin Maazel, after which it was toured worldwide and received enthusiastically. Another notable success was the 2010 UK premiere of the violin concerto Maninyas, given at the 2010 Edinburgh International Festival by its dedicatee, Dene Olding, the Sydney Symphony Orchestra and Vladimir Ashkenazy. This work has also gained international popularity through choreography for dance, notably by Stanton Welch for the San Francisco Ballet. Another Welch/Edwards collaboration, the ballet Zodiac, was successfully premiered by the Houston Ballet in 2015. Edwards' music, with its unique rhythms, has a natural affinity with dance.
Another important collaboration with Australian saxophonist Amy Dickson, who now lives in London has produced three new works: the saxophone concerto Full Moon Dances (2012); the double concerto Frog and Star Cycle, for whose 2016 premiere Dickson was paired with the Scottish percussionist Colin Currie and accompanied by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra; and Bright Birds and Sorrows, which Dickson premiered at the 2017 Musica Viva Festival in Sydney with the Elias String Quartet, visiting from the UK.
Musical style and philosophy
Early period: the influence of the natural world
In the early 1970s Edwards experienced an unexpected crisis. Disenchanted by the European music of the time, which was itself in crisis due to the waning of the Modernist movement, he found himself unable to compose for several years. Having returned to Australia due to the terminal illness of his mother, and while lecturing at the Sydney Conservatorium, he moved in 1974 with his wife and infant son to the village of Pearl Beach, north of Sydney, where his sister-in-law had a holiday house. Pearl Beach, which adjoined the Brisbane Water National Park "buzzing with wildlife", had an immediate effect on him and his work. "The summer days were swathed in the drones of cicadas with their mysteriously abrupt starts and stops and, at evening, the insects would start up. I was entranced by the insect chorus because it seemed to be on the verge of conveying some profound message which was ultimately elusive. All the temporal relationships in my music – the relative lengths of phrases and sections – are influenced by these ancient voices, whose near-symmetries and inconsistently varied repetitions often seem close to our inherited musical syntax. I don’t doubt that, over the millennia, such voices have generated much of the world’s music and it’s not hard to detect their presence in various surviving folk and religious traditions".
Austerity and contemplation: the Sacred Series and beyond
The result of Edwards' move to Pearl Beach was a leap from the fierce complexity of some of his earlier work to a series of austere, meditative compositions (e.g., Tower of Remoteness (1978) and Etymalong (1984)), which became known as his Sacred Series, based on close listening to and absorption of the complex sound of the natural environment combined with his reading of Zen texts and commentaries.
To Edwards' surprise, these skeletal compositions "found favour with the apostles of Orthodox Modernism," unaware that their position was being quietly subverted. It became vividly apparent, however, when, in 1982, his Piano Concerto burst upon the scene. "Some other pieces I wrote in the 1980s, however, ruffled establishment feathers both here and abroad and all but destroyed my reputation as a so-called serious composer. The most notorious example is, without doubt, my Piano Concerto, composed in Pearl Beach in 1982. My original intention for this work was to compose something … stark and introspective, but some unseen force seemed to dictate otherwise. In what seemed like a moment of sheer revelation, the outside world burst in on me and I suddenly became aware that I had the extraordinary privilege of living in a paradise of sun-blessed ocean and joyously shrieking parrots gyrating in the warm air, and that this ecstasy simply had to be transmitted through music. Conformist critics, especially English ones, gave me hell but, fortunately, the public responded positively, and this remains one of my most popular pieces."
What followed was a process of integrating extreme positions – of gradually developing a musical language that spoke both to Edwards himself and, through him, to those prepared to listen. In the 1980s, the response to his music began to gain momentum, divided between the enthusiasm of those who perceived it as fresh direction – "a statement of independence from the impetus of cultural globalism" – and those who saw it as "a betrayal of Modernist idealism". Edwards largely stayed aloof from these so-called "style wars", seeking his own instinctual voice in the midst of controversy.
The Maninya style: the dance of nature
Throughout the 1980s, the shapes, rhythms and temporal relationships Edwards subconsciously gleaned from walking in the Brisbane Water National Park began increasingly to inform the structure and texture of his music, which took on the character of angular, animated chant, with subtly varied repetition of rhythmic cells over elaborated drones. This "dance-chant", as he called it, sometimes mistakenly aligned with the minimalist movement, was closely examined by Paul Stanhope, who claimed that it suggested ritualistic behaviour. Edwards' description of it as his maninya style originates from a spontaneously conceived nonsense text which he set to music in Maninya I (1986), and which was to spawn a series of maninya pieces culminating in the Maninyas violin concerto of 1988. While its quirky rhythms and chirpy, pentatonic melodic shapes are antithetical to the austere spiritual quietude of the sacred series, the maninya style also has its origin in nature, bringing the drones of insects and cicadas, the calls of birds and the mysterious temporal proportions into the concert hall. Edwards also notes that he had become fascinated by the music of the Sufis and the African mbira, and that these may have been influential. From this time, Edwards' language, though firmly rooted in the Australian bush, begins to look outward and bear traces of an eclectic attitude to come. The maninya style has persisted throughout his work, as has the sacred, each increasingly infiltrated by symbols from and references to other cultures which preserve a reverence for the Earth.
Whereas Edwards' early maninya pieces tended to be static, ritualistic blocks of sound, Edwards began in the 1990s a series under the generic title "enyato", also extracted from the 1981 nonsense poem and given to connote "contrast". The enyato pieces are typically in two-movement form, the first slow, introductory; the second lively, dance-like. Examples are Prelude and Dragonfly Dance (1991) for percussion ensemble, and Blackwattle Caprices (1998), for solo guitar. In his study, Beyond Sacred and Maninyas, Philip Cooney maintains that these pieces may be seen as move towards a fusion of opposites, a steady progression towards the world of the later symphonies and concerti, where Edwards has been concerned with achieving greater richness and breadth.
Diversity and eclecticism
Since the turn of the 21st century, Edwards' music, especially in his diverse larger scale works, has begun to integrate the many consistent elements of his earlier work – ranging from childlike simplicity, embellished Eastern pentatonicism, medieval Western modality, fragments of plainchant, occasional outbursts of expressionistic angst, complex textures which include the development of motives and Western counterpoint, Eastern heterophony, and a deep spiritual dimension with both Eastern and Western overtones. There are allusions to indigenous music but not direct quotations: where the didjeridu occurs its function has always been discussed between composer and performer. To these he has often added theatre and ritual, costume, lighting and dance, most manifest in such orchestral works as Bird Spirit Dreaming (2002), Full Moon Dances (2012) and Frog and Star Cycle (2015). Cultural symbols such as the Virgin Mary and her Eastern equivalent, Guanyin, goddess of compassion, make frequent appearance in the guise of the Earth Mother, protector and nurturer of the environment – Edwards' work has always had a strongly ecological focus. Behind the vivid surface activity however, the mysterious Australian bush is always present as a constant backdrop, providing unity and coherence.
In the 1970s, Edwards' attunement to the sounds of nature in a mindful, meditative way had a powerful effect on his music. He came to regard the sacred pieces as sonic contemplation objects similar to the honkyoku repertoire of the Japanese shakuhachi. Years later he re-established contact with Dr Graham Williams, a friend from student days, who had given up his career as a pianist to train as a meditation teacher in the Burmese and Tibetan traditions. Williams who, as director of the Lifeflow Meditation Centre in Adelaide and was developing a uniquely Australian form of meditation, perceived that all of Edwards' music possessed a quality that naturally induced a meditative state.
List of works
Orchestral
Mountain Village in a Clearing Mist (1972)
Veni Creator Spiritus for string orchestra (1993)
Chorale and Ecstatic Dance for string orchestra (1994)
Chorale and Ecstatic Dance for full orchestra (1995)
White Ghost Dancing (1999, rev. 2007)
Emerald Crossing (1999)
Entwinings, for string orchestra (2016)
Dances of Life and Death, for wind orchestra (2017)
Symphonies
Symphony No. 1 "Da Pacem Domine" (1991)
Symphony No. 2 "Earth Spirit Songs" (1996–97)
Symphony No. 3 "Mater Magna" (1998–2000)
Symphony No. 4 "Star Chant" (2001)
Symphony No. 5 "The Promised Land" (2005)
Concertos
Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1982)
Maninyas, Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (1981–88)
Arafura Dances, Concerto for Guitar and String Orchestra (1995)
Bird Spirit Dreaming, Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra (2002)
Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra (2007)
Full Moon Dances, Concerto for Saxophone and Orchestra (2011)
Frog and Star Cycle, Double Concerto for Saxophone and Percussion (2015)
Other orchestral works with soloist
Yarrageh, Nocturne for Percussion and Orchestra (1989)
The Heart of Night for shakuhachi and orchestra (2004–5)
Spirit Ground for violin and orchestra (2010)
Vocal
The Hermit of Green Light – Four Poems of Michael Dransfield (1979)
Maninya I (1981)
Maninya V (1986)
Maninya VI (1995)
Christina’s Lullaby (2010)
Five Senses – Five Poems of Judith Wright (2012)
Choral
Five Carols from Quem Quaeritis (1967)
Eternity (1973)
Ab Estatis Foribus (1980)
Flower Songs (1986–7)
Dance Mantras (1992)
Dawn Mantras (1999)
Dawn Canticle (2000)
Mountain Chant – Three Sacred Choruses (2002–3)
Southern Cross Chants (2004)
Mantras and Alleluyas (2007)
Mass of the Dreaming (2009)
Sacred Kingfisher Psalms (2009)
Miracles (2014)
Opera, dance and music theatre
Christina's World, chamber opera to libretto by Dorothy Hewett (1983)
Sensing, dance video with Graeme Murphy and the Sydney Dance Company (1992)
Maninyas – ballet to Edwards' violin concerto Maninyas choreographed by Stanton Welch for the San Francisco Ballet (1996)
The Cries of Australia, with Barry Humphries (1997)
Koto Dreaming for the 2003 Asian Music and Dance Festival, Sydney
To the Green Island, orchestral score for Nicolo Fonte's ballet The Possibility Space for The Australian Ballet (2008)
Zodiac, orchestral score choreographed by Stanton Welch for the Houston Ballet (2015)
Instrumental music
Bagatelle, for oboe and piano (1968)
Monos I, for solo cello (1970)
The Tower of Remoteness, for clarinet and piano (1978)
Marimba Dances (1982)
Ten Little Duets for treble instruments (1982)
Ecstatic Dances, for two flutes or flute and clarinet (1990)
Ecstatic Dance, arranged for two woodwinds or two strings
Prelude and White Cockatoo Spirit Dance (Enyato II), for solo violin or solo viola (1993)
Ulpirra, for a solo woodwind (1993)
Guitar Dances, for solo guitar, arr. Adrian Walter (1994)
Four Bagatelles for oboe and clarinet (1994)
Enyato IV, for bass clarinet and marimba (1995)
Raft Song at Sunrise, for solo shakuhachi (1995)
Binyang, for clarinet and percussion (1996)
Blackwattle Caprices, for solo guitar (1998)
Two Pieces for Solo Oboe, 1. Yanada, 2. Ulpirra (1998)
Djanaba, for guitar and marimba, also arr. for two guitars (2002)
Prelude and Laughing Rock, for solo cello (1993–2003)
Water Spirit Song, from Koto Dreaming, for solo cello and various solo woodwinds (2003)
More Marimba Dances (2004)
Two pieces for Organ (2004)
Nura, sonata for flute and piano (2004)
The Harp and the Moon, for solo harp (2008)
Mystic Spring – Songs and Dances for a Treble Woodwind (2009)
Exile, for violin and piano (2010)
Melbourne Arioso for solo guitar (2016)
Keyboard music
Monos II, for solo piano (1970)
Five Little Piano Pieces (1976)
Kumari, for solo piano (1980)
Three Little Piano Pieces for the Right Hand Alone (1983)
Etymalong, for solo piano (1984)
Three Children’s Pieces, 1. Fipsis, 2. Gamelan, 3. Emily's Song (1983)
Pond Light Mantras for two pianos (1991)
Three Australian Waltzes, 1. Sassafras Gully Waltz, 3. Sandy Stone's Waltz (1997–8)
A Flight of Sunbirds – Nine Bagatelles for Four Hands (2001)
Mantras and Night Flowers, 9 bagatelles for solo piano (2001)
Two Pieces for Organ (2004)
Piano Sonata (2011)
Bird Morning, for two pianos and didjeridu (2015)
Sea Star Fantasy, piano solo (2015)
Lake Dreaming, for two pianos (2017)
Ensemble music
Laikan, sextet for flute, clarinet, percussion, piano violin and cello (1979)
Maninya II, for string quartet (1982). Withdrawn and partly incorporated into String Quartet No. 3 (see below).
Reflections, sextet for piano and percussion (1985).
Maninya III, for wind quintet (1985), later incorporated into Incantations (see below)
Prelude and Dragonfly Dance, for percussion quartet (1991)
Chorale and Ecstatic Dance, for string quartet. Also known as Enyato I. (1993)
Veni Creator Spiritus for double string quartet (1993)
Arafura Dances, arranged for harp and string quartet (1995)
Tyalgum Mantras, for variable ensemble (1999).
Piano Trio (1999)
Emerald Crossing, for piano quartet (1999). Later incorporated into Piano Quartet (see below).
Dawn Mantras, for shakuhachi, tenor saxophone (or cor anglais), didjeridu, percussion, child soprano, children's choir, men's choir. (1999)
Enyato V, for flute, guitar, percussion, violin and cello (2001)
Island Landfall, for flute, clarinet, piano, 2 violins, viola and cello (2003)
Incantations, for wind quintet (2006)
String Quartet No. 1 "Sparks and Auras" (2006, revised 2009)
String Quartet No. 2 "Shekina Fantasy" (2008, revised 2010)
String Quartet No. 3 "Summer Dances" (2012)
Gallipoli, for string quartet (2014)
Animisms, suite for flute, clarinet, percussion, violin and cello (2014)
Bright Birds and Sorrows, suite for soprano saxophone and string quartet (2015)
Voice of the Rain, for shakuhachi and string quartet (2016)
Piano Quartet (2017)
Awards, nominations and accolades
APRA-AMC Art Music Awards
The APRA-AMC Art Music Awards (previously Classical Music Awards) are presented annually by Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) and Australian Music Centre (AMC) since 2002. They "honour the achievements of composers, performers and industry specialists in the contemporary classical genre."
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|rowspan="2"| 2003 ||Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra (Edwards) – Diana Doherty || Best Performance of an Australian Composition ||
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| Song for Emily (Edwards) – 200 Guitar Duo || Instrumental Work of the Year ||
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| 2005 || Concerto for Guitar and Strings (Ross Edwards) – Karin Schaupp, Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra, Richard Mills (conductor) || Orchestral Work of the Year ||
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| 2006 || Oboe Concerto (Edwards) – Diana Doherty, Melbourne Symphony Orchestra || Orchestral Work of the Year ||
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| 2007 || Piano Trio (Edwards) – The Australian Trio || Instrumental Work of the Year ||
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|rowspan="2"| 2008 ||Symphony No. 4 "Star Chant" (Edwards, Fred Watson) – Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, Richard Mills (conductor); Adelaide Chamber Singers, Carl Crossin (director); Adelaide Philharmonia Chorus, Timothy Sexton (director) ||Vocal or Choral Work of the Year ||
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| More Marimba Dances (Edwards) || Instrumental Work of the Year ||
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|rowspan="2"| 2011 || Kalkadunga Man (William Barton, Edwards, Sarah Hopkins, Rosalind Page, Dan Walker) – The Song Company, William Barton (soloist) || Performance of the Year ||
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| Joan Sutherland Performing Arts Centre – Composer-in-Focus 2010 with Ross Edwards || Award for Excellence in Music Education ||
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| rowspan="2"| 2012 || Spirit Ground (Edwards) – West Australian Symphony Orchestra, Margaret Blades (soloist) || Work of the Year – Orchestral ||
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| Sacred Kingfisher Psalms (Edwards) – The Song Company || Work of the Year – Vocal or Choral ||
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| 2013 || Full Moon Dances (Edwards) – Sydney Symphony, Miguel Harth-Bedoya (conductor), Amy Dickson (saxophone) || Work of the Year – Orchestral ||
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| 2015 || Ross Edwards – Contribution to Australian chamber music || Award for Excellence by an Individual ||
In 2009, ABC Classic FM conducted a listener survey of favourite symphonies entitled Classic 100 Symphony. Australian composers were voted in three positions of the top 100; Edwards' Symphony No. 1 Da pacem Domine was placed at number 67.
In 2011, ABC Classic FM conducted a listener survey of favourite work of the 20th century entitled Classic 100 Twentieth Century. Australian composers were voted in eight positions of the top 100; Two of Edwards' works appeared: Violin Concerto Maninyas (number 45) and Dawn Mantras (number 49).
In 2016 Ross Edwards was awarded the David Harold Tribe Symphony Award for Frog and Star Cycle, Double Concerto for Saxophone and Percussion.
Don Banks Music Award
The Don Banks Music Award was established in 1984 to publicly honour a senior artist of high distinction who has made an outstanding and sustained contribution to music in Australia. It was founded by the Australia Council in honour of Don Banks, Australian composer, performer and the first chair of its music board.
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| 1989
| Ross Edwards
| Don Banks Music Award
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Personal life
Ross Edwards married Helen Hopkins, one of his students, in 1974. She is currently his manager, having spent many years as a piano teacher, and has always been a committed supporter of his work. They have two children, Jeremy and Emily.
References
External links
Biography of Ross Edwards – maintained by the Australian Music Centre
http://www.rossedwards.com/
1943 births
Living people
20th-century Australian male musicians
20th-century Australian musicians
20th-century classical composers
21st-century Australian male musicians
21st-century Australian musicians
21st-century classical composers
APRA Award winners
Australian film score composers
Australian male composers
Male film score composers
Members of the Order of Australia
Musicians from Sydney
People educated at Sydney Grammar School
Sydney Conservatorium of Music alumni
University of Adelaide alumni
University of Sydney alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuda%20Doctrine
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Fukuda Doctrine
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is a Japanese foreign policy doctrine, based on a 1977 speech by Japanese Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda, stating that Japan would never become a military power. On the contrary, the policy proposes to enhance relations with Southeast Asian countries in wide-ranging fields, as well as to increase cooperation with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its member countries. The Fukuda Doctrine serves as the foundation of Japanese diplomacy toward the rest of Asia.
Historical background
Takeo Fukuda
Takeo Fukuda was an expert in economics. He took on the role of an ‘economic prime minister’ under Miki's administration from 1974 to 1976. During this time, he established the Ministerial Conference on Economic Measures, enabling cross-ministry and agency talks on finance, wage and labor issues.
Fukuda subsequently became the 67th prime minister of Japan, lasting for only one term from 1976 to 1978. However, he was not forced out of office before he had gotten two major diplomatic reforms executed. Under Fukuda cabinet, Japan conducted an omnidirectional peace diplomacy, and signed Japan-China Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1978. He pushed forward Japan's pacifistic position while making an effort to strengthen relations with Asian countries.
Phases of Japan’s Southeast Asian Policy prior to the Fukuda Doctrine
After the Second World War, Japan's policies towards Southeast Asia, can be divided into two distinct phases - a period of reparations (1952-1964) and a period of regional economic development (1965-1975). The historic events and the features of those periods have contributed to the development of Fukuda Doctrine and the subsequent policies towards the region.
Period of Reparations (1952-1964)
The first period in the relationship between Japan and Southeast Asia, can be characterized by Shigeru Yoshida’s “Economic Diplomacy”, officially promulgated in 1957. The so-called “Yoshida Doctrine” put high priority on development and aimed at peaceful expansion of Japan's economic power in foreign markets, in order to rebuild the economy and raise the living standards of the Japanese population. As a part of this policy, Japan sought to improve ties with the Southeast Asian region. Reparations settlements between Japan and Southeast Asian countries played a significant role in such environment as they served as a tool which provided a ground for rebuilding of the relations, severed by Japanese aggression during the war. During this period, Japan paid reparations to Burma, Philippines, Indonesia, Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). Other than reparations in the strict sense, Japan also provided “quasi-reparations” in the form of grants and aid to Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore. This way, reparation payments paved the way for Japan's economic involvement in Southeast Asia, allowing it to pursue economic interest in the region.
Another aspect of this period, again motivated by the goal of expanding Japan's economy, is the policy of a triangular relationship with the US and Southeast Asia. This strategy, coordinated with US Cold War policies, aimed at bringing together Japanese know-how, US capital and Southeast Asian raw materials, in order to secure strategic resources and sustain the economic growth.
Period of Regional Economic Development (1965-1975)
The second phase of Japanese policy towards Southeast Asia is characterized with the active involvement of Japan in the region's development. This was partly due to the increasing pressure from the international community that Japan share a burden on the international arena as a “developed” country. On the other hand, this shift towards participation in the region was motivated by the new US policy on the development of Southeast Asia that aimed to protect South Vietnam from communist expansion. These changes contributed to the extensive Japanese engagement towards Southeast Asia, manifested through huge investments of capital and the involvement in development plans and projects. During this period Japan assisted the establishment of Asian Development Bank; the Asian and Pacific Council (ASPAC); the Ministerial Conference for the Economic Development of Southeast Asia etc. In spite of the increased involvement, however, the essence of the Japanese policy didn't change significantly, as it remained focused on the triangular relationship it was fostering.
During the early 1970s Japan was at the turning point for its post-war process, after Okinawa's reversion, and the normalization of Sino-Japanese diplomatic relations. However it had no clear vision for its future diplomatic policies. Meanwhile, the international society continued viewing Japan as solely pursuing its own economic interests. With the end of the Vietnam war in 1975 and the US withdrawal from the region, Japan was expected to take on international responsibility in Southeast Asia. As a result, Japan became determined that as the second-biggest economic power at the time, it should make international contribution to the region, setting the starting point of the vision of the Fukuda doctrine.
Japan-ASEAN relations prior to the Fukuda Doctrine (1967-1977)
Japan initially viewed ASEAN as economically strategic, but remained insouciant to the association until the early 1970s. ASEAN was established at a time when the Japanese government was prioritizing the reversion of Okinawa from the United States over an active role in the ASEAN region. When Japan was rid of the Okinawa problem, attitude towards ASEAN had already turned negative. ASEAN's adoption of a neutralization policy in 1971 was deleterious to Japan's foreign policy on supporting an organization whom incorporated neutralization.
Towards 1975, however, the Tokyo government had no choice but to abandon its foreign policy on minimal involvement with organization embodying neutralization, and to establish negotiations with ASEAN countries. The growing fear of Japan's economic domination amongst Southeast Asian nations resulted in collective actions by ASEAN against Japan, exemplified by acute anti-Japanese demonstrations.
Changes in Southeast Asian security environment following the new realities of 1975 engendered a major shift in Japan's approach to foreign policy in the region. Prior to 1975, conflict between East and West defined the security of ASEAN in purely military terms, which also meant the insignificant role of Japan in the view of ASEAN nations. After the liberation of Vietnam and the fall of Kampuchea government to the communists, combined with the declining presence of American forces in Southeast Asia, ASEAN nations began to perceive their own security in terms of raising the standard living of their people. The recognition that military power alone could not secure ASEAN interests gave way to a new priority of economic well-being. This change in priority led to a redefinition of security from that of a military perspective to one that was economic, wherein Japan could play a decisive role in contributing to ASEAN economic development and political stability.
Core Elements of the Doctrine
Japan Rejects the Role of a Military Power
"First, Japan, a nation committed to peace, rejects the role of a military power”
Fukuda stated that even though Japan had the capability to rearm and to produce nuclear weapons, it steered clear of resurrecting its military past. Fukuda used article 9 of the 1946 constitution to reassert Japan's pacifist stance post-war. For the ASEAN nations and Southeast Asia as a whole, this statement served as a psychological reassurance to the memories of Japanese aggression in the second world war.
Japan Increases Mutual Confidence and Trust
"Second, Japan, as a true friend of the countries of Southeast Asia will do its best for consolidating the relationship of mutual confidence and trust based on “heart-to-heart” understanding with these countries”
The Prime Minister called for mutual confidence and trust between Japan and ASEAN by emphasizing the words “heart to heart” in his definition of a development of relation between Japan and ASEAN.
Japan as an Equal Partner of ASEAN: Mutual Dependence
"Third, Japan will be an equal partner of ASEAN and its member countries, and cooperate positively with them in their own efforts to strengthen their solidarity and resilience"
Fukuda declared Japan as “an equal partner” who would “walk hand-in-hand with ASEAN.” The word “equal” implied the fear of Japanese economic dominance (“economic animal”) amongst ASEAN members – by being “an equal partner,” Japan would no longer seek dominance in the Asian scene nor would it regard other Asian nations as inferior to itself.
Goals of the Doctrine
Role of Securing Stable Coexistence between ASEAN and Indochina
Japan's efforts to providing itself a political role in ASEAN and Indochina was dubbed a neo-realist approach, made possible by a declining United States presence and commitments in Southeast Asia. This approach, manifested by the rejection of military force and emphasis on economic power, demonstrated Japan's belief in the use of soft power. It was for this very reason that Japan was so keen on encouraging the development of multilateralism in Southeast Asia.
This approach to foreign policy in a sense was intended to establish a ‘political coordination’ between Japan and ASEAN as a regional actor. Fukuda had warned, in the area of trade, it was not in Japan's interest to form an exclusivist economic bloc with ASEAN. The Prime Minister's warning in effect functioned as a switch to a ‘political role’ in ASEAN and Indochina from its conventional practice of providing economic assistance. Moreover, by forging close diplomatic ties, what Sueo Sudo calls a ‘special relationship,’ with the organization through the use of FDI, ODA and other financial aids, Japan would try to establish a greater role for itself in the development of ASEAN region. Fukuda further implied Japan's responsibility in the region and its larger role as a world leader by acting as an informant on current developments in international issues that could directly affect member nations.
Provide an Alternative to the Soviet Union and PRC
The sudden American withdrawal from Indochina left Southeast Asia vulnerable to pressure from the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China (PRC), both of which were not in the interest of Japan.
The Soviet Union and China, aware of an opportunity presented in Southeast Asia following the decline of U.S. hegemony in the region, grappled for influence. China, in particular, was concerned with the “Soviet hegemony” in the internal communist movement and took concrete measures to prevent further Soviet influence. The 1978 Asia visit to Malaysia and Singapore by Prime Minister Deng Xiao Ping reflected PRC's attempt to win over the ASEAN governments as an ally capable of supporting PRC's interest in the region. On the other hand, the Soviet Union developed a thought-control system in which it would try to coax Southeast Asian nations into thinking of Chinese diplomacy as a form of new imperialism. The Soviet deputy foreign minister visit to ASEAN states to discuss on friendship treaties and economic aids stands as a strong proof for its determination in Southeast Asia during the 1970s. Japan, imbibing all the happenings and changes in the power balance in Southeast Asia, feared for its position, security, and economy which, until the early 1970s, had been under the United States wing. As the last resort to curb further communist influence, Japan decided to offer itself as an alternative power base of Asia. Argued by Haddad, this goal is perhaps the true “thrust of the Fukuda doctrine.”
To exercise power politics, Japan took responsibility for the strengthening of member states’ economies and the inculcation in ASEAN a belief in the idea of peaceful coexistence with the three communist states of Laos, Kampuchea and Vietnam. The strengthening of ASEAN economies would raise the standard of living of the people, hence improving the image of Japan in the region. Moreover, the peaceful coexistence belief undergirded by Japan would serve as a bulwark against the penetration of Soviet Union and People's Republic of China. ASEAN was initially formed as a non-communist alliance, which meant the members shared a common feeling of threat from the Indochinese communist states. Malaysia and Thailand, in particular, bordered these states and were exercising joint military operations along their borders against communist guerrillas. This consternation worked to Japan's advantage. ASEAN needed a strong base against communist influence as the U.S. withdrew from the region, and Japan was the only power within suitable distance. As Thai Commerce Minister Suthi alluded on the relationship between Japan and Southeast Asia,
“Thailand is a country which is adjacent to communist nations…Japan and Thailand have the relationship of mutual dependence and assistance. The development of Thailand also serves to ensure Japan’s security.”
The statement implied the close connection between Japan and Southeast Asian nations' security.
Subsequent Developments of Japan’s Policies
The Japanese policies after the promulgation of the Fukuda Doctrine in regards to Southeast Asia can be divided into three main areas: bridging the gap between ASEAN and Indochina; serving as economic model and providing economic assistance; and promoting Japanese soft power.
Political Role of Bridging the Gap in Southeast Asia
After the end of the Vietnam War, Japanese assumed a political role of bridging the gap between Indochina and ASEAN. It attempted to utilize economic assistance to foster better relationships between the three Indochinese countries Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and the other states in the region. In regards to building bridges between Southeast Asian countries with Vietnam in particular, Japan employed two tactics. First, it granted economic aid to Hanoi, hoping that it would be used to purchase commodities from other ASEAN countries. It was argued that with developing economic ties, the relations between the two sides would improve. Second, Japan attempted, to resort to discontinuation of its aid to Hanoi in order to exert pressure on the latter's behavior toward neighboring countries. In addition, Japan tried to assist the postwar reconstruction of the country, by providing grant of 55 million dollars to the Government of South Vietnam for the purchase of necessary Japanese equipment and materials.
At the end of 1978, however, Japan's current policy towards Vietnam could no longer continue, as Vietnam invaded Cambodia - an act widely condemned by the international community, including US, China and most of ASEAN members. In April 1979 Japan notified, unofficially, Vietnam the freeze of all assistance and made renewal contingency upon Vietnamese withdrawal from Cambodia. In addition, following the US stance on the issue, Japan continued to see the Government of Democratic Kampuchea as the legitimate government of Cambodia and refused to recognize the Government set by Vietnam in Phnom Penh. It may be argued that it would have been more beneficial to Japan to have a softer stance to Vietnam and keep the channels of dialogue open, however it was not ready to assume such political role and part ways with the US. This showed that even after the Fukuda Doctrine, there was still a large discrepancy between Japan's economic power and its political role in the international arena.
Yet, in spite of Japan's failure to play a political role of building bridges in regards to Indochina and Vietnam in particular, Japan managed to strengthen its position in the region. Following the Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea, it undertook to provide increased economic assistance, especially to Thailand to help the country cope with the new menace from Indochina, supporting the "front line" state of the conflict.
The Role of Economic Assistance
The second area of development of Japanese policies after the Fukuda Doctrine is Japan's economic strategy towards Southeast Asia. During the 1970s Japan realized the importance of furthering the interests of Japanese businesses and included this component in its foreign policy. This coincided with the assumption that Japan has achieved the third stage of the “flying geese” pattern of development - an economic model that was influential to Japanese lawmakers at the time. That change encouraged transfers of labor-intensive industries to Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian countries were also eager to receive Japanese Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the pursuit of their own industrialization. The transfer was further supported by Japanese Official Development Assistance (ODA), which at the time was mainly tied aid. It paved the way for Japanese businesses to work on development projects and promoted the penetration for Japanese FDI in the region. As a result of this convergence of interests, Southeast Asian countries first welcomed Japanese textile industries, then electronics and vehicle-assembly businesses, contributing to the development of new economic links.
FDI's role increased even more during the 80s, after the Plaza Accord of 1985, that appreciated the yen and gave an incentive to Japanese companies to produce abroad. The main beneficiaries of those increased capital flows were Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand. By 1992 Japan had become the largest investor in the region, excluding the Philippines, where the US still remained in the first place.
Aid also came from the private sector. In July 1977, the Overseas Trade Development Association Foundation of Japan (OTDAF) revised its rules, easing restrictions on loans to medium and small Japanese companies’ overseas investments. The new rule allowed firms to request for loans even if it did not hold more than 50% of the investment.
Following the Fukuda Doctrine, Japan undertook major changes in terms of its ODA. As the international community had started to recognize Japan as a developed country, it had to start bearing the accompanying responsibilities. After the US's withdrawal from the region, Japan had to replace America's presence with an expansion of aid and trade networks in the region. For that purpose Japan undertook to increase ODA in 1978, announcing a plan to double its ODA in three years in the First Medium-Term Target of ODA. In that spirit, Japan's ODA dramatically grew in magnitude from the late 1970s throughout the 1980s. In 1983 it became the third largest donor country among the DAC members and the second largest in 1986. Over 30% of the total Japanese ODA by 1980 was directed to Southeast Asia, with the main recipient being Indonesia, followed by Thailand, Philippines and Malaysia.
In addition to this rapid expansion of the amount of ODA, Japan launched another major change. Due to the growing criticisms by industrial nations of the commercial orientation of Japanese aid and its vast foreign trade surplus, combined with US pressure to eliminate tied ODA loans, in 1978 Japan decided to start untying its aid. It issued a joint communiqué with the US, announcing these intentions. The move was going to make the Japanese development projects accessible to other companies, especially allowing US companies to compete for Japanese aid-funded contracts. The process of untying continued during the 1980s and 1990s with the levels of untied loans increasing from 65.2% in 1980 to 97.7 in 1995.
In regards to the shaping of “special” relationship with ASEAN, Japan engaged with the organization in many ways, including negotiations to establish the Common Fund, the International Tin Agreement, rubber and sugar agreements. In the 1977 Second Japan-ASEAN Forum various agreements were reached - such as providing 1 billion to ASEAN industrial projects; further study of STABEX (export stabilization) by a joint committee of Japanese and ASEAN experts; reduction of tariff and non-tariff barriers and improvement of the generalized preference system for ASEAN products within the framework of the Tokyo Round; establishment of cultural exchange programs. And although all of these agreements were implemented in the following years (except STABEX), economic cooperation between Japan and ASEAN did not progress significantly, leading to ASEAN's dissatisfaction. Even after Japan's reduction of tariffs in 1978 on a number of products, including coconut oil, palm oil, bananas, shrimps, and canned pineapples, ASEAN still demanded much larger concessions. It can be argued that in a sense, Fukuda's aspirations for "heart-to-heart" relations had unexpectedly raised ASEAN's hopes for Japan's economic offers to the region. In the following years trade negotiations became the core aspect of Japan-ASEAN economic relations. However, as economic cooperation progressed rather slowly, criticisms and negative feelings dominated Japan-ASEAN relations.
Japanese Soft Power and Promoting Japanese Image
One of the reasons for the birth of the Fukuda Doctrine was partly the concern for Japan's image in Southeast Asia. It may be argued that the rise of anti-Japanese feelings in the 1970s and the backlash toward the rapidly increasing dependence on Japan in regards to trade, investment and assistance contributed to the formulation of the doctrine. As it is described by Kazuo Ogoura: “Some people sarcastically labelled the country “Faceless Japan” or “Banana Japan”, the latter implying that the Japanese did not understand Asia because they were yellow on the outside (Asian in appearance) but white on the inside (Western in thinking).”
These sentiments had an influence in the way Japan established its future policies. The country decided to project its soft power as a mean to broaden its relations beyond the economic field, further contributing to long-term stable ties with Southeast Asia. The Japanese strategy was adopted based on two main factors: Japan becoming the second biggest world economy and model for Asian countries; the inability of other Asian countries to utilize soft-power in the same manner. The soft power approach included various elements, such as economic influence (ODA) and socio-cultural aspects (promotion of culture, exchanges, and cooperation on different levels).
As a part of that policy, the ASEAN Cultural Fund was established in 1977 to promote intra-ASEAN cultural exchanges as well as between ASEAN countries and third parties. Two years later, in 1979 the Southeast Asia Youth Invitation Program was set to encourage better mutual understanding through the invitation of outstanding young Southeast Asian leaders to Japan. A Japan Scholarship Fund for ASEAN Youth for an yearly amount of 3 million dollars was also established. Other initiatives included: the Human Resources Development Project (1981); the Japan-ASEAN Research Cooperation Fund (1982) promoting intra-ASEAN area studies and Japan-ASEAN academic exchange; the ASEAN Japan Friendship Program for the 21st Century (1983) promoting students trips and exchanges.
Problems Faced by the Doctrine
The doctrine was not without problems, at least on the Japanese side. Immediately following the agreement on setting aside 1 billion yen to fund construction projects, the Diesel plant proposal was met with opposition from Indonesia which feared competition with its domestic industry. The disagreement was eventually resolved when Indonesia and Singapore reached an export-limitation agreement in which Singapore would not export any engines to Indonesia unless requested. Nevertheless, this difference in views amongst member states increased anxiety on the Japanese side, whom demanded member states reach a mutual agreement if they want funds to be extended.
The Japanese were further concerned with the capability of recipient nation's infrastructure. The members of ASEAN were much behind in technological development, causing Japanese diplomats to be worried about the feasibility of advanced technical projects in the region. Furthermore, Japan was cautious of ASEAN members’ order of priority, often worrying that ASEAN members were not highly appreciative of the proposed Japanese-funded industrial projects.
The STABEX (export stabilization) fund proposal also faced complications on the Japanese side. Despite continuous reassertion of a desire for a STABEX system, Japan had so far only agree on a joint-examination of the possibility of establishing such a fund. The problem with STABEX is its defiance to the previously agreed GATT and its high political sensitivity. Internationally, ASEAN is pressuring Japan to open up its import markets while the Western counterpart requests it to decrease exports. Domestically, the Liberal Democratic Party’s electoral votes were highly dependent on the business and agricultural sectors, both of which are hostile to STABEX for reasons of competition.
Significance of the Doctrine
Developments on the Southeast Asian Relations
The Japan-Southeast Asia friend and foe relationship can be characterized by material interests and historical antagonism caused by Japan’s imperialistic past. However, Overall, there was an enhancement of the relations.
A significant incident was the increase of Southeast Asia’s anxiety in the 1970s when Japan expanded its economic practices and raised exports of synthetic rubber. The Tokyo government eased the tension by accepting ASEAN demands and limiting its production of synthetic rubber, attending ASEAN Post Ministerial Meeting (PMC), and becoming a dialog partner.
The enhancement of the Japan-Southeast Asia relations was not only a result of Japan’s reassurance efforts, but also a result of two significant fears brought about by the change in the strategic landscape of the region. One is the emergence of a power vacuum caused by the U.S. withdrawal from the region and the shift of the structure of rivalry from U.S. versus the Soviet Union and China to the Soviet Union versus China and U.S. The other is Japan’s rising influence in the region at the time. Japan was undergoing a rapid economic development, reviving material power and geostrategic resources such as Okinawa. In this situation, the Fukuda Doctrine reassured that despite the power vacuum, Japan would not dominate the region.
Japan's consistent adherence to the Doctrine contributed to the longevity of the positive relations. Japan participated in the peacebuilding missions in Southeast Asia since the 1990s. The emphasis was put on “human security” during the 1997 Asian financial crisis, during which Japan supported social stability through economic assistance. Furthermore, Japan has also been supporting ASEAN’s community-building efforts since the early 2000s, in an attempt to strengthen its political-security and to form economic and socio-cultural communities. The Fukuda Doctrine, as Kei Koga, a researcher of the Center for Strategic and International Studies writes in his report, Transcending the Fukuda Doctrine, “has been instrumental in defining Japan’s approach toward ASEAN’s efforts to integrate politically.”
Koga further argues that the current Japan-Southeast Asian relations have developed beyond socio-cultural, economic, to include political and security dimensions, and at a point where they can help shape and direct the region. Further progress is essential, considering the rise of China and the uncertainty over US-Southeast Asia policy under President Donald Trump.
International and Domestic Reactions
International Reactions
The reactions of ASEAN countries shifted from being cautious but optimistic in August, to openly hostile at the end of 1977. If the promises could be fulfilled, the Doctrine was welcomed. In fact, The ASEAN members, regretting America's withdrawal, initially encouraged Japan to play a bigger role as long as Japan doesn't become a military threat. Nonetheless, the feeling of suspicion that Japan would not fulfill the promise of the doctrine was prevalent among these countries due to Japan's past of not delivering its promises. Additionally, the fact that Japanese visible trade surplus for July was as much as US$2.05 billion added to the extant feeling of suspicion. The reaction gradually turned inimical, which could be perceived to be Japanese ‘foot dragging’. There was caution, for example on Japanese credibility, with no aid to ASEAN being made.
China's reaction, on the other hand, was more complex. It supported Japan's effort for a larger influence, in that Japan was strengthening its defensive power in the region. This was due to China's intention to minimize the influence of the Soviet Union, which was identified as China's primary enemy. However, simultaneously, it was not delighted to see a U.S. ally exercising influence on Southeast Asia.
The United States's response was positive. Present American policy in Southeast Asia take root in July 1973 with the announcement of the Nixon Doctrine. As a consequence of this doctrine, America pulled its land forces out of Asia. Following the Nixon doctrine, America espoused another major set of beliefs. The Ford Doctrine, announced in 1975, called for the normalization of relations with China. These elements, along with the collapse of the three Indochinese countries to communism, shaped American policy towards ASEAN countries, with the key determination being the protection of the non-communist countries while maintaining good relations with China and withdrawing from the region. Thus, America, as well as China, was supportive of Japan's new advance in the region.
The reaction of Vietnam, the most powerful Indochinese communist state, changed before and a while after the Fukuda visit. Its attitude went from being hostile to a more benign one. At first, Vietnam viewed Japan as a supporter of capitalist interest due to Japan-U.S. alliance and ASEAN as a hostile military alliance.
However, the growing hostility resulting from a war with Kampuchea in 1978, and the need for outside funding for its ambitious five-year economic development plan left Vietnam little choice but to seek for financial support from Japan. Despite Japanese conditionality, the full repayment of outstanding debts of South Vietnam's, Fukuda made an extraordinary statement that moved the stalled negotiations forward, which received a positive reaction from Vietnam.
Overall, the Doctrine was perceived as a promise of a strengthening of political and economic bonds, however, over time, the reversal of the trend could be depicted. This reversal was due to the fear that Japan would be less focused on ASEAN. Japan's external and internal policies in the last quarter of 1978, was affected by the development of Sino-Japanese relations, the change of leadership from pro-ASEAN leader Fukuda to pro-China leader Ohira, the competition for the “China market” among OECD countries, the uncertainty in the Southeast Asia region with the influx of refugees into ASEAN from the conflicts in Indochina.
Domestic Reactions
Domestic views of the government's new policy towards ASEAN were diverse. Views of press, the bureaucracy, the business community and opposition (political) parties were different, but essential.
The press, in spite of being criticized for sympathizing with the Liberal Democratic Party, exercised great influence over national consensus on Japan's new role in Southeast Asia. Journal articles published during and after the visit predominantly argued in favor of the Fukuda doctrine. If any criticism were visible, it would only be in the area concerning the articulation of the doctrine. The press demanded that the doctrine does better to change Japan's narrow attitude towards foreign nations and improving its cultural ties with other countries, particularly Southeast Asia, as well as refining the educational system to one that puts greater emphasis on foreign languages.
Likewise, the bureaucracy regarded the visit as an invariable success, and that it proved the Prime Minister's ability to convince his hosts “to open a new page in Asia’s history.” Despite the Ministry of Finance resistance to cultural fund, the bureaucracy nevertheless wholly agreed to endorse the doctrine.
The reaction of the business community, in contrast, was to some degree intricate. Amongst positive reactions to the Overseas Trade Development Association Foundation of Japan's revision, there was a growing fear that the unbridled assistance to Southeast Asian industrialization may ineluctably drive Japanese manufacturers out of the ASEAN market. Regardless, those supporting of the doctrine argued against such thought by interpreting industrialization as the increase in standard of living which could subsequently engender higher income and more demand for Japanese products.
Opposition parties, on the other hand, found themselves with no saying in the materialization of the doctrine. The Social Democratic Party (JSP) and Japanese Communist Party (JCP) meekly argued that the doctrine was merely a reassertion of Japan's subservience to the United States in another form. In particular, the JCP disproved aid to puppet governments, deploring that it was no different from America's aid to ineptitude government of Saigon, Phnom Penh and Vientiane. The two parties, however, never really found support for their statements.
The reaction of the people in Japan, by the end of 1997, was comparably hostile, and Fukuda's popularity was declining. This was due to the well-known fact of American displeasure with the Japanese economy, and the feeling of unrest in Japan as the unemployment rate was not improving.
Relevance of the Doctrine Today
Significance to Trust
The Fukuda Doctrine has received considerable attention over the years in Japan and Southeast Asia. The articulation and the implementation of the Doctrine improved Japan's image. The Doctrine itself became “a symbol of amity and cooperation between Japan and Southeast Asia.” According to the opinion polls in seven ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam) in 2014, the majority of the public believed that their state-to-state relationship with Japan was friendly and dependable.
Significance to Policy Making
The Doctrine continues to be significant for Japan's policy towards Southeast Asia relations in the post-Cold War era. The doctrine served as “the blueprint of Japan’s foreign policy towards Southeast Asia", and established new norms with its three principles. The Fukuda Doctrine survived the Cold War, unlike the Brezhnev Doctrine, or the Nixon Doctrine that disappeared under it. Rather, it strengthened the discourse about the Japan-Southeast Asian relations into the 21st century. Thus, there is an expectation that it'll evolve and remain relevant.
References to the Doctrine
References to the Doctrine are still being made. The son of Fukuda Takeo, Fukuda Yasuo, made a reference to it when he became Prime Minister in 2007. Although he did not update the Doctrine as anticipated, he declared that ASEAN and Japan would be ”partners thinking together, acting together and sharing a future vision.”
This was later highlighted in ASEAN Chairman's Statement on the ASEAN Post Ministerial Conferences (PMC) + 1 Sessions in Singapore in 2008. It read; “The Meeting welcomed the “New Fukuda Doctrine,” in which Prime Minister of Japan Yasuo Fukuda declared that ASEAN and Japan would be partners thinking together, acting together and sharing a future vision.” Other than diplomats, journalists and scholars also made reference to the Doctrine in major conferences held in Japan and Southeast Asia in 2007, to mark the 30th anniversary for the doctrine.
Relevance to Africa
According to Tadokoro Masayuki’s argument in 2010, the principles of the Doctrine are relevant not only for Southeast Asia, but also for Africa today. He argues that “given the amicable relations that have developed between Japanese and the people in ASEAN countries since then, we should not be too cynical about the roles played by such political initiatives,” and that “For Japan, Africa represents neither an object of pity nor a security threat nor a mere supplier of natural resources nor a giant zoo, but rather a partner with whom Japanese should be willing to work together.”
Deficiency of the Fukuda Doctrine
However, the principles of the Doctrine are considered not enough to articulate the current relationship and to enhance it. In the post-Cold War era, ASEAN has expanded its functions to include strengthening the security for regional peace and stability. ASEAN's importance has increased due to the strategic uncertainty by the power shift to China. Japan has advanced “de facto regional integration” with ASEAN through aid, trade, investment and cultural exchanges. ASEAN, as a result, has gained the dominant position in the region. Japan-Southeast Asia relations are now at a point where they can help shape and direct the region. Japan and ASEAN are both pursuing goals to better the issues of human rights, the rule of law, and other democratic principles. Kei Koga argues that there is an opportunity to enhance their political cooperation that transcends the Fukuda Doctrine, in pursuing these shared goals.
See also
Yoshida Doctrine
Foreign policy doctrine
Foreign policy of Japan
International economic cooperation policy of Japan
Official development assistance Japan
ASEAN
Five-Year Plans of Vietnam
References
Literature
Sueo Sudo. “Japan-ASEAN Relations: New Dimensions in Japanese Foreign Policy”, Asian Survey 28, no. 5 (1988): 509–25.
Sueo Sudo (1992). The Fukuda Doctrine and ASEAN: new dimensions in Japanese foreign policy. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Mendi Wolf (2001). Japan and South East Asia. Vol.2, The Cold War era 1947-1989 and issues at the end of the Twentieth century. London: Routledge.
Foreign relations of Post-war Japan
Foreign policy doctrines
1977 in Japan
1977 in international relations
Japanese foreign policy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%20Boyce
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Ed Boyce
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Edward Boyce (November 8, 1862 – December 24, 1941) was president of the Western Federation of Miners, a radical American labor organizer, socialist and hard rock mine owner.
Early life
Edward Boyce was born in County Donegal, Ireland in 1862 and was the youngest of four children. His father died at an early age. Boyce was educated in local schools. He emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts at age 19.
Boyce took his first job as a construction worker for the Milwaukee Northern Railroad, an interurban line between Milwaukee and Sheboygan, earning $1.25 a day at the job. He managed to save $100 by 1883 and then moved west to Leadville, Colorado, where he arrived in 1883. Boyce sent the next four years working in the mines. He joined the Leadville Miners' Union, an affiliate of the Knights of Labor in 1884.
Boyce left Leadville for Idaho, where he worked at various mines in Coeur d'Alene and also in Butte, Montana before moving to Wardner, Idaho. He joined the Wardner Miners' Union in 1888, and was later elected its corresponding secretary.
Coeur d'Alene strike
In 1892, the 30-year-old Boyce became an active leader in a strike near Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. In January 1892, railroad companies serving the area increased the shipping rate of ore. The mine owners decided to close the mines for four months until a compromise with the railroads could be reached. This action threw 1,600 miners out of work.
The mines reopened two months early, but wages had been slashed by 15 percent. The miners struck. The owners offered to restore wages to their previous levels but refused to recognize the union, an offer Boyce and the other union leaders rejected. When three scab workers were forced to join the union by a mob of miners (a fourth fled the county), the Coeur d'Alene Mine Owners' Association obtained an injunction from the United States district court at Boise, Idaho, preventing anyone from interfering with the working of the mines. The mine owners began importing scabs at the rate of 16 workers a day from outside the region. Company militia provided protection. (Idaho's state constitution contained a prohibition against the creation or use of private militia, but the law was not enforced.)
Random incidents of violence heightened the tension: A guard exchanged words with a miner and was whipped. Two drunk guards picked a fight with a group of miners in a local bar. Three guards armed with rifles threatened a miners' camp. Late in the evening of Sunday, July 10, the miners discovered that their union secretary, Charles Siringo, was a mine owner spy hired from the Pinkerton Agency. During that evening and into the early morning hours of July 11, armed miners surrounded the shuttered Frisco mill of the Gem mine. A firefight broke out. During the gun battle, miners dropped a barrel of gunpowder down the flume of the mill; the powderkeg exploded, destroying the mill and killing a non-union miner.
The mine owners demanded that Governor N. B. Willey, a former mine manager, proclaim martial law. Although violence in the region had ended, Willey called out the National Guard. President Benjamin Harrison ordered federal troops to back up the Idaho state troops. Martial law lasted four months. Nearly 600 miners were arrested and confined in a large outdoor prison, or bullpen. But since most of the local inhabitants were miners or sympathized with them, the state had little chance of obtaining convictions.
Several union leaders, however, were arrested for violating the district court's injunction—Ed Boyce among them. Boyce and the other union officials were confined in the Ada County Jail.
Formation of the WFM
The Coeur d'Alene miners had received financial assistance from miners' unions in Butte, who had paid legal fees for their attorney, James H. Hawley. While the union leaders were still in jail, Hawley suggested that mine unions in the West needed to form a united front, and the union leaders agreed. The Western Federation of Miners (WFM) was formed in 1893 in Butte.
Boyce served a six-month jail term for contempt of court for his role in the 1892 Coeur d'Alene miners' strike, and was blacklisted by the mine owners. After his release in 1893, Boyce prospected for a time in Montana's Bitterroot Mountains before returning to Coeur d'Alene. He obtained work in the mines and was elected president of the Coeur d'Alene Executive Miners' Union, a post he held until 1895.
Although not present for its founding, Boyce attended the WFM's second convention in 1894 and was elected to its executive board. With its headquarters in Coeur d'Alene, nearly all the mines in the Idaho panhandle except for the Bunker Hill and Sullivan Mine recognized the union. Still, the WFM barely survived the next three years.
Public service
In 1894, Boyce was elected to the Idaho state senate as a Populist from Shoshone County, Idaho. Boyce battled for the eight-hour day for miners, the establishment of an arbitration board to settle labor disputes, and an investigation of the 1892 mining war. He objected to appropriations for the state militia, charging that it was a tool used by the state and mine owners to suppress labor. He called for legislation to forbid employment of aliens, to outlaw yellow-dog contracts and prohibit company stores. In one of the most dramatic speeches he ever made, Boyce denounced the blacklist:Senate bill fifty six provides for no class, no special legislation, but under its provisions those relentless persecutors, known as corporations, are prevented when they discharge an employee from following him with a blacklist and depriving him of the means of earning an honest living in another part of the state….Why do you not produce some argument against it to show that it should not become a law? No, it is not necessary: you of the Republican party have the votes to kill the bill and that is all you desire. But remember these words: the laboring men of Idaho have asked you for bread and you give them a stone: we ask you for justice and you treat us with scorn, but the day is fast approaching when your action will be condemned by every man who has one drop of manly blood in his veins.
The Populists were unable to pass the legislation they desired, and Boyce—disillusioned with the political process—quit after one term.
WFM presidency
While serving in the Idaho legislature, Boyce resigned as president of the Coeur d'Alene Executive Miner's Union in 1895, and took a job as a general organizer for the WFM. In 1896, Boyce was elected president of the Western Federation of Miners. He served until 1902. James Maher was elected WFM secretary-treasurer the same year. Boyce and Maher worked well together. They pumped life into the faltering federation, and the WFM began a period of rapid growth.
William "Big Bill" Haywood heard Boyce make a speech in that first year as president of the WFM, and Haywood decided to become a union member. Haywood later became WFM secretary-treasurer, and a major figure in the American labor movement. In late 1899, Boyce established the WFM's journal, the Miner's Magazine. The first issue came out in early 1900.
Leadville, Colorado miners' strike
The Cloud City Miners' Union (CCMU), Local 33 of the WFM went on strike in 1896 over a reduction in wages that had persisted since the depression of 1893. The Coronado Mine was re-opened with armed replacement workers during the strike, and an incident on September 21 resulted in shooting and dynamite explosions. After surface buildings were burned, the Colorado governor sent the Colorado National Guard to Leadville. Boyce was one of twenty-seven union men who were jailed, but all of the union's leaders were released for lack of evidence.
Radical positions
At the 1897 WFM convention in Salt Lake City, Utah, Boyce told his fellow union members to arm themselves:I deem it important to direct your attention to Article 2 of the Constitutional Amendments of the United States—'the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.' This you should comply with immediately. Every (local) union should have a rifle club. I strongly advise you to provide every member with the latest improved rifle, which can be obtained from the factory at a nominal price. I entreat you to take action on this important question, so that in two years we can hear the inspiring music of the martial tread of 25,000 armed men in the ranks of labor.
AFL and WLU
Boyce led the WFM to join the American Federation of Labor the year he became WFM president. The affiliation lasted only until the spring of 1898. Samuel Gompers had refused to give striking Colorado miners strike benefits, and Boyce heatedly debated the issue with Gompers. But, convinced that the conservative and craft unionism policies of the AFL were inadequate to the task of organizing workers, Boyce led the WFM out of the AFL.
In 1898, Boyce, a strong believer in industrial unionism, led the WFM to found the Western Labor Union. The Western Labor Union (later the American Labor Union) was established in direct opposition to the craft-oriented AFL, and included workers from all industries.
Bunker Hill mine bombing
In April 1899, WFM officials demanded that the Bunker Hill and Sullivan Mine recognize the union. The mine owners' response was to fire all union members. Militant union members then blew up the Bunker Hill and Sullivan ore concentrator in the town of Wardner, at the time the largest ore concentrator in the world. Governor Frank Steunenberg declared martial law and President William McKinley ordered U.S. troops from Montana into the area. The miners were rounded up and once again herded into a bullpen. Some of the miners were released after denying that they belonged to any subversive organization.
Boyce was charged with conspiring to blow up the concentrator. Boyce had been in Wardner conferring with local union officers only a week before the explosion. In 1906, former union member and Boyce business associate Harry Orchard told a court that he knew Boyce had planned and approved the bombing of the Bunker Hill and Sullivan Mine. Governor Steunenberg told a United States House of Representatives Committee on Military Affairs that he was convinced Boyce had "inaugurated or perfected this conspiracy by, choosing 20 men from different organizations in that county and swearing them. These 20 men chose one each and swore him, and the 40 each chose a man and swore him, and the 80 each chose a man and swore him. In that way there were at least 160 men in this conspiracy to do this thing, sworn to secrecy."
Boyce denied the charges, and no indictment was ever issued. But the influence of the Western Federation of Miners in Idaho had nearly been destroyed, and its leaders dispersed. New headquarters were established in Denver, Colorado, where Idaho officials could not so easily extradite and try WFM officials. Beginning in 1900, Boyce also edited the WFM journal, Miners Magazine. He left the position when he retired as union president in 1902.
Adopting socialism
In 1901, Boyce successfully led a campaign to have the WFM adopt socialism as its official economic policy. An ardent socialist, Boyce famously declared:There can be no harmony between organized capitalists and organized labor. Our present wage system is slavery in its worst form. … Advise strikes as the weapon to be used by labor to obtain its rights, and you will be branded as criminals who aim to ruin the business interests of the country. Change from the policy of simple trades unionism that is fast waning, and you will be told that your action is premature, as this is not the time. Pursue the methods adopted by capitalists and you will be sent to prison for robbery or executed for murder. Demand, and your demands will be construed into threats of violence against the rights of private property calculated to scare capital. Avail yourself of your constitutional rights and propose to take political action, and you will be charged with selling out the organization to some political party. Counsel arbitration, and you will be told that there is nothing to arbitrate. Be conservative, and your tameness will be construed as an appreciation of the conditions thrust upon you by trusts and syndicates. Take what action you will in the interests of labor, the trained beagles in the employ of capital from behind their loathsome fortress of disguised patriotism will howl their tirade of condemnation.
Boyce became an associate of Eugene V. Debs, and endorsed the Socialist Party platform. Boyce also urged the WFM to slowly buy up mines and mining company stock, to replace the wage system with union-owned mines.
Marriage and retirement
On May 14, 1901 in Butte, Montana, Boyce married Eleanor Day, the sister of Harry L. Day, a former bookkeeper who had become a wealthy mine owner. Day and Fred Harper, a local prospector, had discovered the Hercules mine, one of the richest silver and lead mines in the Coeur d'Alene region. The newlyweds honeymooned at the Boyce family home in Ireland.
Boyce declined renomination as WFM president in 1902. He had become disillusioned with mismanagement in some WFM locals. But strong opposition to his continuing presidency had emerged in the powerful Butte Miners' Union, Local 1 of the WFM. In his farewell address, Boyce still remained the firebrand: "There are only two classes of people in the world. One is composed of the men and women who produce all; the other is composed of men and women who produce nothing, but live in luxury upon the wealth produced by others." Socialism, he still argued, was the only way "to abolish the wage system which is more destructive of human rights and liberty than any other slave system devised."
Later life
After his retirement from the WFM, Ed Boyce attended several more WFM conventions. He supported the WFM's creation of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1905, and testified on behalf of Haywood, Moyer and others at their 1907 murder trial. But Boyce gradually separated himself from organized labor, and eventually declined to discuss his part in the miners' union.
The Boyces moved to Wallace, Idaho and then in 1909 to Portland, Oregon. Boyce became an avid reader of social theory and Irish poetry. The Boyces lived quietly, often passing the whole day sitting in the same room reading. Eleanor Boyce took an interest in art and became a member of the Portland Art Association. The Boyces donated freely to a number of local charities.
Boyce invested in the luxurious Portland Hotel Company in 1911, as well as in other real estate ventures in the city. He was the Portland Hotel's vice-president from 1920-29 and its president from 1930 until his death in 1941. In 1936, Boyce was elected president of the Oregon Hotel Association. On December 31, 1923, the Hercules mine partnership was dissolved and the Hercules Mining Company (now Day Mines, Inc.) incorporated in Delaware. Eleanor Day Boyce was the largest stockholder.
Death and legacy
Boyce died on December 24, 1941. He left an estate valued at slightly over $1 million. Eugene V. Debs wrote a month later that Boyce had been "virtually forgotten by the officials of the organization he served at a time when it required real men to speak out for labor." Eleanor Day Boyce returned to Wallace after her husband's death, where she died on January 9, 1951.
Footnotes
Further reading
Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Gary M. Fink, ed. Wesport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984.
Coeur d'Alene Mining Wars. Reference Series No. 210. Boise: Idaho State Historical Society, no date.
Dubofsky, Melvyn and McCartin, Joseph A. We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World. 2nd ed. Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1988.
Debs, Eugene V. Letters of Eugene V. Debs, 1874-1926. J. Robert Constantine, ed. Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1991. Available online at Debs Collection: Abstracts of Correspondence, Cunningham Memorial Library, Indiana State University
Gaboury, William J. 'From Statehouse to Bull Pen: Idaho Populism and the Coeur d'Alene Troubles of the 1890s.' Pacific Northwest Quarterly. LVIII (January 1967).
Gompers, Samuel. The Samuel Gompers Papers: An Expanding Movement at the Turn of the Century, 1898-1902. Peter J. Albert and Grace Palladino, eds. Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1995. Available online at Samuel Gompers Papers, University of Maryland College Park
Jensen, Vernon H. Heritage of Conflict: Labor Relations in the Nonferrous Metals Industry Up to 1930. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1950.
Lukas, J. Anthony. Big Trouble: A Murder in a Small Western Town Sets Off A Struggle for the Soul of America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998.
McBride, James D. 'The Brisbee Deportation of 1917.' Journal of Arizona History. 23 (Autumn 1982).
Philpott, William. The Lessons of Leadville; or, Why the Western Federation of Miners Turned Left. Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1995.
Suggs, Jr. George S. Colorado's War on Militant Unionism: James H. Peabody and the Western Federation of Miners. Tulsa: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972.
American trade union leaders
Industrial Workers of the World members
American miners
Irish emigrants to the United States
1862 births
1941 deaths
Activists from Portland, Oregon
Politicians from County Donegal
People from Shoshone County, Idaho
Idaho socialists
Oregon socialists
Western Federation of Miners people
American trade unionists of Irish descent
Idaho state senators
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4963325
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duino%20Elegies
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Duino Elegies
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The Duino Elegies () are a collection of ten elegies written by the Bohemian-Austrian poet Rainer Maria Rilke. He was then "widely recognized as one of the most lyrically intense German-language poets", and began the elegies in 1912 while a guest of Princess Marie von Thurn und Taxis at Duino Castle, on the Adriatic Sea. The poems were dedicated to the Princess upon their publication in 1923. During this ten-year period, the elegies languished incomplete for long stretches of time as Rilke had frequent bouts with severe depression—some of which were related to the events of World War I and being conscripted into military service. Aside from brief periods of writing in 1913 and 1915, he did not return to the work until a few years after the war ended. With a sudden, renewed burst of frantic writing which he described as a "boundless storm, a hurricane of the spirit"—he completed the collection in February 1922 while staying at Château de Muzot in Veyras, Switzerland. After their publication in 1923, the Duino Elegies were soon recognized as his most important work.
The Duino Elegies are intensely religious, mystical poems that employ the symbolism of angels and salvation, but in a manner atypical of Christian interpretations. Rilke begins the first elegy in an invocation of philosophical despair, asking: "Who, if I cried out, would hear me among the angelic orders?" () and later declares that "each single angel is terrifying" (). While labelling of these poems as "elegies" would typically imply melancholy and lamentation, many passages are marked by their positive energy. Together, the Duino Elegies are described as a metamorphosis of Rilke's "ontological torment" and an "impassioned monologue about coming to terms with human existence", discussing themes of "the limitations and insufficiency of the human condition and fractured human consciousness ... man's loneliness, the perfection of the angels, life and death, love and lovers, and the task of the poet".
Rilke's poetry, and the Duino Elegies in particular, influenced many of the poets and writers of the twentieth century. In popular culture, his work is frequently quoted on the subject of love or of angels and referenced in television programs, motion pictures, music and other artistic works, in New Age philosophy and theology, and in self-help books.
Writing and publication history
Duino Castle and the first elegies
In 1910 Rilke completed the loosely autobiographical novel, Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge (The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge) in which a young poet is terrified by the fragmentation and chaos of modern urban life. After he experienced a psychological crisis accompanied by severe depression. Rilke was invited in late 1911 to Duino Castle by Princess Marie von Thurn und Taxis, whom he had met a few years earlier.
Rilke and Marie collaborated on a translation of Dante's La Vita Nuova (The New Life) while at Duino. After the Princess left to join her husband at their Lautschin estate, Rilke spent the next few weeks alone to focus on his work. While writing Das Marien-Leben (The Life of Mary) in January 1912, Rilke claimed that he heard a voice calling in the roar of the wind while walking along the cliffs near the castle, speaking the words that would become the first lines of the Duino Elegies: "" ("Who, if I cried out, would hear me among the hierarchies of angels?") He quickly wrote them in his notebook and completed the draft of the '"First Elegy" that night. Within days, he drafted the "Second Elegy" and composed passages and fragments that would later be incorporated into later elegies—including the opening passage of the "Tenth Elegy".
In the following years, Rilke worked sporadically on the elegies. While staying at Ronda, Spain in 1913, he wrote part of what would become the "Sixth Elegy". He moved to Paris later that year where he continued work on the "Sixth Elegy" and completed the "Third Elegy". During World War I, Rilke wrote the "Fourth Elegy", completing it the day before he was conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian army in November 1915. After Rilke was discharged in 1916, he returned to Munich for the duration of the war, but wrote very little poetry during that time.
Château de Muzot and the creative "hurricane"
It wasn't until 1920 that Rilke began to focus on completing the Duino Elegies. Rilke, who had become romantically involved with Baladine Klossowska, journeyed to Switzerland looking to find a place to live near Geneva, where he could immerse himself in French culture. Rilke and Klossowska wanted to move into the Château de Muzot, a 13th-century manor house that lacked gas and electricity, near Veyras in the Rhone Valley, but they had trouble negotiating the lease. At Rilke's suggestion, Werner Reinhart, a Swiss merchant who used his wealth to support composers and writers, leased the property on their behalf. In July 1921, Rilke and Klossowska had moved in. Later, Reinhart bought the property and turned it over to Rilke for life.
During the summer of 1921, Rilke's daughter Ruth became engaged. In December, he sent a letter to Gertrud Ouckama Knoop, widow of his deceased friend and mother of the dancer Wera Ouckama Knoop, who was once a friend of Ruth's, announcing the engagement. In turn, Gertrud sent an account of Wera's death at age 19 that moved Rilke to compose the Sonnets to Orpheus and complete the Duino Elegies. Rilke wrote that Wera's image dominates and moves the Sonnets. They frequently refer to her, directly addressing her by name and indirectly through allusions to a dancer or the mythical Eurydice. Rilke composed in a rush of inspiration: writing nearly all the poems of Part I of the Sonnets between 2–5 February 1922, completing the Duino Elegies between 7–15 February, and completing the remaining poems of Sonnets between 16–22 February. Rilke saw the creation of the Sonnets and Elegies as a twin birth. In the midst of his writing, Rilke wrote Klossowska: "That which weighed upon and tortured me is accomplished ... but never within my heart and mind have I borne such a hurricane. I am still trembling from it ... And I went out to caress this old Muzot, just now, in the moonlight." Immediately after completing the Elegies, he wrote Lou Andreas-Salomé that he had finished "all in a few days; it was a hurricane, as at Duino that time: all that was fiber, fabric in me, framework, cracked and bent."
Publication and reception
Duino Elegies, which is 859 lines long, was published by Insel-Verlag in Leipzig in 1923. Prominent critics praised the work and compared its merits to the works of Hölderlin and Goethe. During the 1920s, many of the younger generation of poets and writers did not like Duino Elegies because of the poems' obscure symbols and philosophy. The poet , who is associated with the literary circle of Stefan George, dismissed the poems as "mystical blather" and described their "secular theology" as "impotent gossip". Novelist Hermann Hesse describes Rilke as evolving into his best poetry with the Duino Elegies, that "at each stage now and again the miracle occurs, his delicate, hesitant, anxiety-prone person withdraws, and through him resounds the music of the universe; like the basin of a fountain he becomes at once instrument and ear". In 1935, critic Hans-Rudolf Müller argued that Rilke could be seen as a mystic and the poems could be treated as mystical literature, whereas more recent critics believe the poems should be seen as a study of mysticism itself.
Theodor W. Adorno wrote "But the fact that the neoromantic lyric sometimes behaves like the jargon, or at least timidly readies the way for it, should not lead us to look for the evil of the poetry simply in its form. It is not simply grounded, as a much too innocent view might maintain, in the mixture of poetry and prose.... The evil, in the neoromantic lyric, consists in the fitting out of the words with a theological overtone, which is belied by the condition of the lonely and secular subject who is speaking there: religion as ornament." Adorno further believed the poems reinforced the German value of commitment that supported a cultural attraction towards the principles of Nazism.
Symbolism and themes
Throughout the Duino Elegies, Rilke explored themes of "the limitations and insufficiency of the human condition and fractured human consciousness ... mankind's loneliness, the perfection of the angels, life and death, love and lovers, and the task of the poet". Philosopher Martin Heidegger remarked that "the long way leading to the poetry is itself one that inquires poetically", and that Rilke "comes to realize the destitution of the time more clearly. The time remains destitute not only because God is dead, but because mortals are hardly aware and capable even of their own mortality." Rilke explores the nature of mankind's contact with beauty, and its transience, noting that humanity is forever only getting a brief, momentary glimpse of an inconceivable beauty and that it is terrifying. At the onset of the First Elegy, Rilke describes this frightened experience, defining beauty as
... nothing
but beginning of Terror we're still just able to bear,
and why we adore it so is because it serenely
disdains to destroy us.
Rilke depicted this infinite, transcendental beauty with the symbol of angels. However, he did not use the traditional Christian interpretation of angels. He sought to utilize a symbol of the angel that was secular, divorced from religious doctrine and embodied a tremendous transcendental beauty. In this, however, Rilke commented that he was greatly influenced by the depiction of angels found in Islam. For Rilke, the symbol of the angel represents a perfection that is "beyond human contradictions and limitations" in a "higher level of reality in the invisible". Where there is incongruity that adds to mankind's despair and anxiety is due to human nature keeping us clinging to the visible and the familiar. As mankind encounters the invisible and unknown higher levels represented by these angels, the experience of the invisible will be "terrifying" (in German, ).
As mankind came in contact with the terrifying beauty represented by these angels, Rilke was concerned with the experience of existential angst in trying to come to terms with the coexistence of the spiritual and earthly. He portrayed human beings as alone in a universe where God is abstract and possibly non-existent, "where memory and patterns of intuition raise the sensitive consciousness to a realization of solitude". Rilke depicted the alternative, a spiritually fulfilling possibility beyond human limitations, in the form of angels. Beginning with the first line of the collection, Rilke's despairing speaker calls upon the angels to notice human suffering and to intervene. There is a deeply felt despair and unresolvable tension in that no matter man's striving, the limitation of human and earthly existence renders humanity unable to reach out to the angels. The narrative voice Rilke employed in the Duino Elegies strives "to achieve in human consciousness the angel's presumed plenitude of being" (i.e. being, or existence, in German: ).
Rilke used the images of love and of lovers as a way of showing mankind's potential and humanity's failures in achieving the transcendent understanding embodied by the angels. In the Second Elegy, Rilke wrote:
Lovers, if Angels could understand them, might utter
strange things in the midnight air.
He depicted "the inadequacy of ordinary lovers", and contrasted a feminine form of "sublime love" and a masculine "blind animal passion". At the time the first elegies were written, Rilke often "expressed a longing for human companionship and affection, and then, often immediately afterwards, asking whether he could really respond to such companionship if it were offered to him ..." He noticed a "decline in the lives of lovers ... when they began to receive, they also began to lose the power of giving". Later, during World War I, he would lament that "the world has fallen into the hands of men". In the face of death, life and love are not cheap and meaningless, and Rilke asserted that great lovers are able to recognize all three (life, love, and death) as part of a unity.
In a 1923 letter to Nanny von Escher, Rilke confided:
Two inmost experiences were decisive for their [i.e., The Sonnets to Orpheus and The Duino Elegies] production: The resolve that grew up more and more in my spirit to hold life open toward death,and on the other side, the spiritual need to situate the transformation of love in this wider whole differently than was possible in the narrower orbit of life (which simply shut out death as the other).
The Fifth Elegy is largely inspired by Pablo Picasso's 1905 Rose Period painting Les Saltimbanques ("The Acrobats", also known as "The Family of Saltimbanques"), in which Picasso depicts six figures pictured "in the middle of a desert landscape and it is impossible to say whether they are arriving or departing, beginning or ending their performance". Rilke depicted the six artists about to begin their performance, and that they were used as a symbol of "human activity ... always travelling and with no fixed abode, they are even a shade more fleeting than the rest of us, whose fleetingness was lamented". Further, Rilke in the poem described these figures as standing on a "threadbare carpet" to suggest "the ultimate loneliness and isolation of Man in this incomprehensible world, practicing their profession from childhood to death as playthings of an unknown will ... before their 'pure too-little' had passed into 'empty too-much.
Because of the profound impact that the war had on him, Rilke expressed hope that the task of the intellectual in a post-war world would be to render the world right, preparing people for those gentle transformations that lead to a more serene future. He envisioned the Duino Elegies and the Sonnets to Orpheus as part of his contribution.
Influence
The earliest published translation of the Duino Elegies was by Edward and Vita Sackville-West It was published in 1931 by Hogarth Press in England, and titled Duineser Elegien: Elegies from the Castle of Duino. As of 2014, at least 24 English-language translations had been published.
Rilke is often seen as a spiritual guide in popular culture. In the United States, his poetry has been read as wisdom literature, and has been compared to the thirteenth-century Sufi (Muslim) mystic Rumi (1207–1273), and 20th century Lebanese-American poet Kahlil Gibran (1883–1931). In popular culture, Rilke is frequently quoted or referenced in television programs, motion pictures, music and other works when these works discuss the subject of love or angels. Rilke's works have also been appropriated for use by the New Age community and in self-help books, and he has been reinterpreted "as a master who can lead us to a more fulfilled and less anxious life".
Rilke's work, and specifically, the Duino Elegies have influenced many poets, including Galway Kinnell, Sidney Keyes, John Ashbery, and W. H. Auden. The novelist Thomas Pynchon novel Gravity's Rainbow shows echoes of Rilke; its first lines mirror the first lines of the first elegy, with a "sound [that] is [the] scream of a V-2 rocket hitting London in 1944"; and The New York Times reviewer of Gravity's Rainbow wrote that, "the book could be read as a serio-comic variation on Rilke's Duino Elegies and their German Romantic echoes in Nazi culture".
Rilke's Duino Elegies influenced Hans-Georg Gadamer's theories of hermeneutics—understanding how an observer (i.e. reader, listener, or viewer) interprets cultural artifacts (i.e. works of literature, music, or art) as a series of distinct encounters. Gadamer saw Rilke as a philosophical poet whose work reveals the limits of human comprehension. He argues that the alienation of the contemporary world stands as an obstacle to making sense of such encounters. According to Gadamer, Rilke's point toward how to approach those limits, by making these part of ourselves interpretation and reinterpretation can we address the existential problems of humanity's significance and impermanence.
References and notes
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Journals
Newspapers
Online sources
Primary Sources
See also
List of Duino Elegies Translations
External links
The Duino Elegies in German
The Duino Elegies on Poemist
Download of a recitation by Irene Laett: Begin of the First Elegie in German
1912 poems
1922 poems
1923 books
Austrian books
Poetry by Rainer Maria Rilke
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia%20%28United%20States%29
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Colonia (United States)
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In the United States, a colonia is a type of unincorporated, low-income, slum area located along the Mexico–United States border region that emerged with the advent of shanty towns. These colonias consist of peri-urban subdivisions of substandard housing lacking in basic services such as potable water, electricity, paved roads, proper drainage, and waste management. Often situated in geographically inferior locations, such as former agricultural floodplains, colonias suffer from associated issues like flooding. Furthermore, urbanization practices have amplified the issues, such as when developers strip topsoil from the ground in order to subdivide land, the resulting plains become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and disease. Traditional homeownership financing methods are rare amongst colonias residents, and therefore these areas consist of ramshackle housing units built incrementally with found material on expanses of undeveloped land. Colonias have a predominant Latino population where 85 percent of those Latinos under the age of 18 are United States citizens. The U.S. has viewed border communities as a place of lawlessness, poverty, backwardness, and ethnic difference.
Despite the economic development, liberalization and intensification of trade, and strategic geographic location, the southern U.S. border region is one of the poorest in the nation. Most cases had shown that these communities formed when landowners illegally sold and subdivided rural lands, often to buyers who did not understand the terms under which this land was being sold. The contract for deed through which plots were offered by land developers often made false promises that utilities would be installed.
The majority of these communities have no water infrastructures and lack wastewater or sewage services. Where sewer systems do exist there are no treatment plants in the area, and untreated wastewater is dumped into arroyos and creeks that flow into the Rio Grande or the Gulf of Mexico.
More than 2,000 colonias are identified within the U.S. The highest concentration is in the Rio Grande Valley, Texas, with others in New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Evidence suggests that there are more than 1,800 designated colonias in Texas, around 138 in New Mexico, 77 in Arizona, and 32 in California. These settlements are part of an informal sector or informal economy that is not bound by the structures of government regulations within labor, tax, health and safety, land use, environmental, civil rights, and immigration laws.
Etymology
The Spanish word colonia means a 'colony' or 'community'. In Mexican Spanish, it is specifically a 'residential quarter [of a city]', and a colonia proletaria is a shantytown. In Spanglish, the English-Spanish mix, colonia began to be used to refer primarily to Mexican neighborhoods about thirty years ago. A 1977 study uses the term colonia to describe rural desert settlements with inadequate infrastructure and unsafe housing stock. Since these Hispanic neighborhoods were less affluent, the word also connoted poverty and substandard housing. In the 1990s, colonias became a common American English name for the slums that developed on both sides of the Mexico–United States border.
The history of the word colonias in the United States, and its interpretation through politics, suggests that places called colonias are not to be perceived as natural or prosperous communities. In many parts of Texas, Spanish-language terms are often used to frame and highlight a class difference.
The term colonia is an essential symbol for public policy in the United States, and this Spanish name is a critical component for constructing public and policy attention, underscoring the settlements' differences and labelling them as racialized and distinct places, which has a powerful way of constructing and reinforcing marginality.
Definition
Section 916 of the Cranston–Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act (1990) (NAHA) defines colonias as any "identifiable community" determined by objective criteria that include the lack of potable water and adequate sewage systems, the lack of decent, safe, and sanitary housing, and which were in existence before the passage of the Act. According to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the term colonias has a specific meaning within the U.S., referring to a community within the rural Mexico–U.S. border region with marginal conditions related to housing and infrastructure. Other definitions and criteria for a colonia are used by the Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Texas Code.
History
Researchers traced the first colonias in Texas to the 1950s and early 1960s.
These appeared as an informal housing solution for low-income predominantly Hispanic wage-earners through a model referred to by scholars as the "incremental approach".
Due to the rise of the maquiladora industry—foreign-owned factories in Mexico creating goods for export—the border population quickly grew and in 1965 created a housing shortage for these workers.
The overlap of four variables attributed to the development of colonias: high demand from a population of low-income wage earners meeting a low supply of affordable housing, a supply of low-cost and fruitless land, the absence of regulations on the subdivision of that land, and a legal way for that land to be sold to individuals. Land developers began purchasing low-value land in peri-urban areas where strict enforcement of housing and environmental laws was either weak or nonexistent.
During this period the sale of rural lands without basic housing policies was lawful. Colonias were hidden from view due to physical isolation and properties were divided into small lots, which would be bought by low-income families via contracts for deed. These deals, which sold unimproved lots, included undocumented and thus unenforceable promises to provide basic provisions such as water, sewage, and electricity.
Because these deals lacked a foreclosure period or buyer's protection, any property that was not paid in full could be repossessed and resold by the sellers, who retained title for the land and were allowed to keep all payments the buyer had made. As more dwellings appeared with minimal infrastructure, the value of the land decreased and ultimately became more affordable as a living option for low-income families on the border.
Colonia communities grew rapidly in the 1990s when the number of residents almost doubled from 1990 to 1996. This can be subject to the effects of globalization and the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, which industrialized the Mexico–United States border, created many jobs, and encouraged migration.
People shifted from traditional agricultural labor to work in transportation, construction, and manufacturing.
This led to an increased informality of U.S. housing, with colonias forming and growing because of the border's strategic location and trade liberalizations.
However, due to the lack of financial mobility, colonia residents face significant challenges escaping the colonia bubble. In June 1996, the Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs successfully obtained a waiver from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to set new housing-standards for colonias. The resulting standards provided a basis for safe and sanitary housing to alleviate the existing health risks. These standards are necessary for economic development in colonias because unsafe infrastructures and lack of education and jobs inhibit their growth.
As of 2007, Texas had the largest concentration of colonia residents in the U.S., with approximately 400,000 living in over 2,000 colonias. New Mexico had the second largest, followed by Arizona and California. However, as remote location and stealthy development characterize many colonias, exact counts are difficult and figures can quickly change. Despite the high count of individuals living in these areas, the severity of the living standards in colonias has yet to become common knowledge for U.S. citizens. Scholars have found that little has been done to remedy the living standards of the colonians, as their situation has become normalized by the public and associated with the "lawlessness" of the Mexico–U.S. border region. Scholars have criticized the naming of these settlements as colonias, stating that the use of the Spanish word not only creates difficulties within the public policy sector of government, but also fosters the notion that these settlements are alien and not a part of the U.S. However, those within the public that do recognize colonias and their living conditions view them as "border slums", while scholars have since the 1990s described them as a "third world" within the United States. While poor living standards do persist in these areas, a positive side does exist for colonias and is often disregarded by media and policymakers. For the border region's poor, colonias provide affordable housing and the opportunity to obtain the American Dream of owning a home. Some scholars have praised colonians for seeking the realization of this dream through self-help. Because of this, the informed public has begun urging policymakers to make decisions that will not eliminate colonias but instead both enhance the living conditions and promote the incremental approach as a housing strategy, stating that this informal housing option creates opportunity.
Colonias by state
Divergent state subdivision regulations have influenced the historical development of colonias, and how each state defines a colonia. Independent historical accounts should be considered by state.
Colonias in Texas
Around the 1950s, developers began creating subdivisions along the Mexico–U.S. border on agriculturally poor properties, divided land in small parcels, and provided few services; the development of the properties, intended for low-income buyers, was the beginning of the Texas colonias. By 1995, the state passed laws against developing subdivisions without services. From 1995 and 2011, the office of the Texas Attorney General had 87 judgments against developers who created properties without services. The office of the Texas Attorney General said that, by 2011, Texas had about 2,294 colonias and estimates that about 500,000 lived in the colonias. As of 2011 Hidalgo County has the largest number of colonias in Texas, though estimating their population is difficult due to isolation, shared addresses, rapid changes in development, and mistrust of government.
Colonias in New Mexico
In New Mexico, about 150 colonias have qualified for colonia-funding sources such as HUD, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), etc. In New Mexico, there are two types of colonias: small towns and subdivisions. Although many of New Mexico's colonias consist of rural small towns, they were considered colonias because of the absence of resources. Conflicts with acceptable water, sewers, and safe and clean housing that the colonias faced brought on the requirement of Section 916 of the National Affordable Housing Act of 1992.
In New Mexico, land was sold contract-for-deed; however, before 1990, New Mexicans were allowed to divide their property into four parcels without violating the law. Within a couple of years, landowners were then allowed to split their land into two parcels, but after some time, the subdivision law was amended to close this "loophole utilized by colonia developers".
Characteristics
Demographics
Colonias can be found in each U.S. state on the Mexican border: Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Residents are mostly Hispanic and about 65% of the colonia population were born in the United States. Overall, colonias consist of low-income communities with families that cannot afford goods in a formal economy. In a random survey by the Texas Department of State Health Services, it was found that half of the families have incomes of less than $834 a month. About 70% of colonia residents have not graduated from high school and many lack English-language skills, which hampers their job mobility, suppresses wages, and the ability to seek assistance. The unemployment rate for families in colonias is 18%, compared to 11% in neighbouring cities.
Residents of colonias pay, on average, 58% of their income on housing. In comparison, a two-bedroom apartment in Albuquerque, New Mexico costs $830, only 20% of the average income in the U.S. Colonia housing costs too much relative to the resident earnings and the living conditions are significantly worse.
Housing
Colonias may be lacking in all types of essential physical infrastructure and public services, such as clean water, sanitary sewage, and adequate roads. Most colonia housing does not meet construction standards and building codes. Houses are often built little by little, starting as shabby tents of wood and cardboard. Only 54% of colonia residents in Texas have sewer service and about 50% drink water from a non-tap source. Because they do not qualify for financing, Colonia residents buy their land on a contract for deed, in which land ownership stays with the seller until the entire purchase is paid. This land eventually ends up to be worthless as the market for colonia housing is very low. Most houses cannot pass inspections to qualify for repairs and further improvements. The housing situation in Cameron County, Texas lacks certain infrastructure and requires $44 million to upgrade all of the homes. Financially, families living in colonias lack the assets to add improvements in order for sustainability.
These poor minority communities are also prime targets for hazardous waste facilities because of their inability to file lawsuits. Most such facilities in New Mexico are located within a radius of a colonia. These include landfills, power plants, and waste facilities which all have negative impacts on the communities' lifelong health. The legal options available to colonia residents to fight the placement of these facilities are slim. Many are unaware of the public benefits available to them, and applying for benefits can be a struggle when extensive documentation and many visits to state offices are required. Ultimately, immigrants in the border region face language barriers and fear of retaliation against family members without any form of identification.
Health disparities
Health-related quality of life
A 2008 pilot study of factors affecting health-related quality of life (HRQL) of Mexican-American adults living in colonias found that colonia residents fall below the U.S. average. By examining Mexican-Americans residing in Hidalgo County, Texas, investigators found that Mexican Americans living in colonias share similar mental health patterns compared to the U.S. average but their physical health was worse. Data collected through a household survey in 2002 and 2003 by the Integrated Health Outreach System Project (IHOS) was analyzed to describe the population in terms of sociodemographic status, HRQL, and other variables. In the responses to this survey, 81% considered that access to healthcare services was a problem; 62.5% mentioned housing; 76.5% perceived not having enough recreational and cultural activities; 86% perceived social issues; and 41.1% perceived physical environmental problems, specifically polluted air or water. In conclusion, the research provides significant data acknowledging health disparities colonia residents continuously face.
In June 2010 The Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law released a report that claims there is enough data in the historical record to demonstrate a direct correlation between abated health outcomes, health disparities, and premature morbidity and mortality with one's zip code. Researchers have determined that, for people of color or low income, this can predetermine their life expectancy.
Alcohol use, anxiety, traumatic stress, and hopelessness
In a 2009 study, a participatory model of one hundred Mexican-origin colonia residents showed that participants who met the criteria for alcohol dependence showed more symptoms of anxiety and post-traumatic stress than the national average. Investigators found that among Mexican-American immigrants, lifetime prevalence for any anxiety disorder in men was 9% and 18% for women. For Mexican Americans born in the United States, 20% of men and 27% of women met the criteria for anxiety disorders. Mexican Americans living in colonia have considerable health risks due to unsafe living conditions, low educational attainment, high unemployment, comparatively high rates of communicable illness, lack of access to health care, and poverty. Furthermore, the study found that people living in colonias had the highest rates of binge drinking and alcohol dependence correlated with anxiety, traumatic stress, and hopelessness.
In a 2005 study, researchers found that "people with low socioeconomic status have dramatically higher disease risks and shorter life spans" than wealthier people. Therefore, poor people have less access to health care and more incidents of harmful lifestyles associated with drinking, smoking, and obesity.
School-based nutrition
In nutritional research, investigators assessed the experiences of child food insecurity and seasonal instability within Mexican-origin mother-child dyads living in Mexico–U.S. border colonias. By focusing on food insecurity, which is known to cause health effects across a lifespan, investigators sought to understand the effects of school-based and summertime nutrition programs amongst women and their children, specifically within Texas-border colonias. An important attribute of this research was that the study depended on a multi-level analysis, which relied on repeated measurements. It also took into account the perceptions and experiences of children within the research.
According to research, food insecurity among Hispanic and Mexican-origin U.S. households exceeds national estimates (Nalty, 2013). Furthermore, in 2011, 26.2% of Hispanic families in the United States were food insecure, and 17.4% households with child-food insecurity were Hispanic.
Childhood obesity
In consultation with local decision-makers, 2013 research of childhood obesity in Mexican-American low-income communities resulted in recommendations addressing related issues within communities like colonias. Four policy ideas came about:
establishing sustainable community-based health programs;
improving neighborhood infrastructure and safety;
increasing access to parks;
supporting community organizations to disseminate health education to parents and children.
According to a 2009 study by R. Gottlieb, food issues "are particularly pronounced in low-income communities where lack of access to fresh, affordable healthy food has direct health and nutritional consequences". He explains that core land-use factors such as housing, transportation, and commercial space are issues of food justice and environmental justice, and that addressing these issues can help reduce health disparities among border residents.
Education
Education in the border region is substandard on both sides. While completion and attainment rates are much higher in the U.S. than in Mexico, they are far below the U.S. average. The low levels of education along the border region are due to lack of proper infrastructure, low property-tax funding for schools, and pressing financial need which sees children contributing to family incomes. The primary problem with the education system in colonias is the lack of funding.
In Texas, the Texas Education Agency determines education directives while the majority of school funding comes from local property taxes. For the low-income colonias, these directives can present fiscal obstacles which stand in the way of the quality of education. Population growth among the colonias make it so the funding of education is controversial and socially divisive. There is also a problem in finding direct-service providers who will educate the children in the colonias. School districts have taken measures to attract teachers to the prospect of working in these areas, though finding qualified teachers has become an increasingly difficult task.
Public policy action
Rather than being illegal, colonias are considered "extra-legal", in that they circumnavigate the law rather than violating it. In response to these systems, scholars are split between egalitarian and libertarian approaches. Those that support the egalitarian approach believe that colonias currently demonstrate a notion of inferiority for those that dwell there; in response, they propose standards of living enforced by government regulation. However, supporters of the libertarian style favor the informality of this living system for providing an affordable housing option for those in need, and criticize government action to impose living standards without providing colonians with the resources to sustain them.
the housing quality of colonias continues to be unregulated. Informality in housing continues to expand while the social distance between the middle class and lower class expands. Fewer opportunities are available to the uneducated and poor. However, legal expert Jane Larson has proposed a policy of progressive realization, which would gradually extend standards in colonias. Incentives such as microcredit programs are being implemented which then allow families to reach acceptable levels of housing quality. The model addresses equality by setting a standard for housing based upon compliance of available resources, and would commit the government and people towards the common goal of sustainable housing. However, this does not mean that governments do not have obligations once a certain standard is reached. The progressive realization model requires continual progress in a relationship between law and society, which directly corresponds to the choices of those living in colonias.
Enhancing the lives of the colonians through policy has proven to be difficult and slow. Funding for infrastructure projects for colonias is contingent on defining a "colonia", and establishing effective criteria for this purpose has proven to be a challenge. The Farm Housing provisions of the United States Code define a colonia as a community that (1) is in the state of Arizona, California, New Mexico, or Texas; (2) is within of the Mexico–U.S. border (except for any metropolitan area exceeding one million people); (3) on the basis of objective criteria, lacks adequate sewage systems and lacks decent, safe, and sanitary housing; and (4) existed as a colonia before November 28, 1990. Other definitions are used by specific governmental agencies (e.g.: HUD, USDA, Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], and the Texas Code). Many scholars criticize the existing federal criteria as being too broad in that most definitions of colonias are based on the archetype that exists on the border in Texas. While colonias in Texas are known for being peri-urban settlements with mostly Hispanic dwellers, settlements in California are located in old rural towns with ethnically diverse populations. This has hindered colonia infrastructure development in California. Criteria have also been described as too narrow, relying on numeric values to determine whether a settlement qualifies. Under the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), funds designated within the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) were to benefit colonias along the Mexico–U.S. border, defined by various numeric values. However, colonias such as those in Riverside and San Diego counties are disqualified from the CBDG for being within metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) with over a million people. Similarly, the U.S. Department of Agriculture limits its colonias to settlements of no more than 20,000 residents, disqualifying the majority of communities seeking funding in California. The EPA's definition of colonias derives from NAFTA, which limits these colonias to a distance from the border. This limits all designated colonias in California to roughly the area of Imperial County.
Programs
Multinational environmental agreements
The North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) is an international environmental-agreement between the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. NAFTA sought to promote economic growth by lowering most of the existing barriers to trade. While many advocates of NAFTA argued that it would indirectly increase the standard of living and thus environmental spending on the border, many critics commented on the fact that only a single sentence in the agreement's preamble addressed the environmental impacts of promoting free trade. In order to ensure that NAFTA would pass, the Clinton Administration pushed for NAAEC as a side agreement specifically to aid border environmental issues. From NAAEC came the creation of the Commission on Environmental Cooperation (CEC), an institution providing a forum for environmental-law enforcement disputes to be resolved. Scholars generally agree that the NAAEC's diction is ambiguous and does not clearly define the authority that the organization has; it is also unclear whether violators are obligated to respond to inquiries made by the CEC, and thus few parties have actually been investigated and punished for failing to cooperate.
The charter creating the Border Environment Cooperation Commission (BECC) and North American Development Bank (NADB) was the first multinational agreement to address the problems faced by colonians. These two binational institutions were created to resolve issues that revolve around land contamination and sustainable water/wastewater infrastructure and compensate for CEC's shortcomings. However, BECC/NADB does not explicitly address the colonias themselves but rather the Mexico–U.S. border, defining the border as areas in the U.S. "within 100 kilometers [62 miles] and the area in Mexico that is within 300 kilometers [190 miles] of the international boundary." BECC/NADB consists of a board comprising members from both the U.S. and Mexican governments, and thus lies equally within the jurisdiction of each nation's government; this includes the Administrator for EPA and the Secretaries of State and Treasury from the U.S., and the Secretaries for the Environment and Natural Resources, Treasury, and External Relations from Mexico, as well as one state representative and non-governmental organization from each country. The BECC certifies projects that meet criteria in order to receive funding from the NADB. Projects can be proposed by anyone; in doing this, the BECC/NADB seek to promote public participation in sustainably developing the Mexico–U.S. border.
Though the programs have been praised as revolutionary, critics have said progress is slow with NADB; it failed to fund a single infrastructure project within a year of its creation, despite the approval of several projects by BECC. These programs have been criticized for failing to consider who will pay to maintain the completed infrastructure. Because BECC is not a regulatory agency, its decisions are not enforceable. Critics of BECC/NADB have suggested the implementation of punitive measures such as monetary penalties to complement the system of incentives currently in place.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
The Crantston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1990 was created to help families that did not own homes to make down-payments for purchasing homes, expand on the supply of affordable housing for low-income families, and promote cooperation between all levels of government and the private sector in this expansion. The Act is considered one of the most-important policies relating to U.S. colonias for setting aside funds from the Community Development Block Grant Program (CDBG) to go directly towards enhancing their living standards, and bringing to the public an awareness of colonias in California, Arizona, and New Mexico. These CDBG funds are particularly used to improve potable water, sewer systems, and sanitary housing in the colonias. The Act is credited for inspiring other agencies, such as the EPA, to fund programs targeting development on the Mexico–U.S. border.
Critics have stated that HUD's focus has been on preventing the development of colonias rather than seeking to provide those of low-income with a larger supply of affordable housing. As is the case with BECC/NADB, critics have also claimed that the projects seeking to improve infrastructure have been underwhelming. Scholars have urged the HUD to make use of its ability to work with the private sector by encouraging private investment in the direct development of the current colonias. Rather than eliminating the colonias, many have proposed to instead have the private sector create better dwellings at low costs within the area while also improving the already-established dwellings.
Advocacy groups
Housing and community advocacy organizations work to alleviate poverty in colonias by promoting self-help housing programs that provide colonia residents with resources to build their own homes, fostering community empowerment and raising public awareness. These groups include the Texas Low Income Housing Information Service (TxLIHIS), an affordable-housing-advocacy nonprofit organization, and the Colonias Development Council in New Mexico.
See also
Hidden America: Life in the Colonias ABC News
Pueblos jóvenes, the vast shantytowns of Lima, Peru
Favela, Brazilian shantytowns or slums, primarily in Rio de Janeiro.
Cortiço in Brazil and Portugal, a poor urban area.
Maquiladora, manufacturing operation in free trade zone.
References
Bibliography
Gangster, Paul and David E. Lorey, 2008. The US-Mexican Border into the Twentieth Century
Mangin, William and John F.C. Turner. 1968. "Barrida Movement", Progressive Architecture, 37:56:154-62.
Mangin, William. 1967. "Latin American Squatter Settlements: A Problem and a Solution." Latin American Research Review. 2:3: 65-98 (Summer, 1967)
Peach, J., and J. Williams. 2003. Population and Economic Dynamics on the U.S.-Mexican Border: Past, Present, and Future. Southwest Consortium of Environmental Research and Policy Monograph 1: "The U.S.-Mexico Border Region: A Road Map to a Sustainable 2020" (27 May 2008), https://web.archive.org/web/20090325114635/http://scerp.org/pubs/m1c4.pdf.
Turner, John F.C. 1963. "Dwelling Resources in South America." Architectural Design 37:360-93.
Turner, John F.C. 1972. "Housing as a Verb." in Freedom to Build. Ed Robert Fichter and John F. C. Turner. New York: The MacMillan Company.
Turner, John F.C. 1976. Housing by People: Towards Autonomy in Building Environments. London: Marion Boyars.
Turner, John F.C. 1982. "Issues in Self-Help and Self-Managed Housing." in Self-Help Housing: A Critique. ed. Peter M. Ward London: Mansell Press. 99–113.
Turner, John F.C. 1991. "Foreword." in Beyond Self-Help Housing. Ed. Mathéy, K. London: Mansell Press.
United Nations Center for Human Settlements (UNCHS) 2007. Enhancing Urban Safety and Security: Global Report on Human Settlements. London: Earthscan.
Ward, Peter M. 1978. "Self-help housing in Mexico City: Social and Economic Determinants of Success," Town Planning Review. 49:38-50.
Ward, Peter M. 1999. Colonias and Public Policy in Texas and Mexico; Urbanization by Stealth. Austin: University of Texas Press http://www.netlibrary.com/Reader/ (27 May 2008).
Ward, Peter M. 2005. "The Lack of Cursive Thinking in Social Theory and Public Policy: Four Decades of Marginality and Rationality in the So-Called 'Slum.'" in Rethinking Development in Latin America. ed B. Roberts and C. Wood. University Park, PA: Penn State U Press 271–296.
Ward, Peter M. 2007. "Colonias, Informal Homestead Subdivisions, and Self-Help Care for the Elderly Among Mexican Populations in the United States." in The Health of Aging Hispanics; The Mexican-Origin Population. Eds. Jacqueline L Angel and Keith E. Whitfield. New York: Springer. 141–162.
Ward, Peter M. and J. Carew. 2000. "Absentee Lot Owners in Texas Colonias: Who Are They and What Do They Want?" Habitat International. 24:327-345.
Ward, Peter M. and Paul A. Peters. 2007. "Self-Help Housing and Informal Homesteading in Peri-Urban America: Settlement Identification Using Digital Imagery and GIS." Habitat International 31:205-218.
Ward, Peter M., E. Jimenez, and G. Jones. 1993. "Residential land price changes in Mexican cities and the affordability of land for low-income groups". Urban Studies 30:9:1521-1542.
Ward, Peter M., Flavio de Souza, and Cecilia Guisti. 2004. "'Colonia' Land Housing Market Performance and the Impact of Lot Title Regularization in Texas." Urban Studies 41:13:2621-2646.
Ward, Peter ed. 1982. Self-Help Housing: A Critique. London: Mansell Press.
Ward, Peter. 2004. "Informality of Housing Production at the Urban-Rural Interface: the Not-So-Strange Case of Colonias in the U.S., Texas, the Border and Beyond." in Urban Informality, ed. Anaya Roy and Nezar AlSayyad 243–270. Berkeley, California: Lexington Center for Middle Eastern Studies.
Wilson R. and Menzies P 1997. The colonias water bill: communities demanding change.
Wilson, Robert Hines. 1997. "Public policy and community: activism and governance in Texas". Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 229–274.
Additional sources
Pepin, Madeleine, "Texas Colonias: An Environmental Justice Case Study"
Huntoon, Laura and Becker, Barbara, 2001, "Colonias in Arizona: A Changing Definition with Changing Location"
External links
Colonias History
Texas Low Income Housing Information Service(TxLIHIS)
Colonias Development Council
Census Designated Place Program
Texas colonias
"Colonias Prevention." Texas Attorney General
Mexico–United States border
Slums in North America
Poverty in the United States
Squatting in the United States
Housing in the United States
Housing in Texas
Housing in New Mexico
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Liu
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Henry Liu
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Henry Liu (; 7 December 1932 – 15 October 1984), often known by his pen name Chiang Nan (), was a Taiwanese-American writer and journalist. He was a vocal critic of the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party), then the single ruling party of the Republic of China in Taiwan, and was most famous for writing an unauthorized biography of Chiang Ching-kuo, then president of the Republic of China. He later became a naturalized citizen of the United States, and resided in Daly City, California, where he was assassinated by Bamboo Union members who had been reportedly trained by the Kuomintang's military intelligence division.
Biography
Liu was born on in Jingjiang, Jiangsu, Republican China. When he was nine years old, his father was killed by Communists. When he turned sixteen, he was drafted into the Nationalist Revolutionary Army, and he left for Taiwan in 1949. After leaving the military, he worked for the state-run radio and later as a reporter for the Taiwan Daily News, where he was sent on assignment to Hong Kong, Manila, and the Vietnam War. After marrying his wife Helen Cui Rong-Zhi, he became a foreign correspondent in 1967, and moved to Washington DC, where he took graduate classes at American University and worked part-time as an interpreter for the State Department.
Later, his emigration to the United States was said to be motivated in part because he felt the government of Taiwan was suppressing him. He became a United States citizen in 1973–74, around the same time he left the Taiwan Daily News. After leaving the newspaper, Liu published articles, essays and books that were critical of the Chiang family and associated people, including Chiang Kai-shek, Soong Mei-ling, Chiang Ching-kuo, K. C. Wu and Wang Sheng, with books on Long Yun and K. C. Wu planned at the time he was assassinated.
Liu ran two gift shops in Fisherman's Wharf and San Mateo and was a freelance journalist for several publications in Hong Kong and the San Francisco Journal, a US-based Chinese-language newspaper published by Maurice Chuck. After publishing several articles about the Chiang family, he received a letter from General Wang Sheng warning him from publishing a biography of Chiang Ching-kuo. He proceeded to publish an unauthorized biography of Chiang Ching-kuo in 1975, which was formed from three articles he had written in 1975 about Chiang's life prior to 1949. Liu planned to update the biography to cover more recent history, but was once again warned against writing about the Chiang family by Admiral Wang Hsi-ling in 1977. Liu finally revised the biography after a meeting late in 1983 where he favorably received a suggestion to tone down the criticism of the Chiang family from a family friend, former intelligence agent, and his former publisher on the Taiwan Daily News, Hsia Hsiao-hua. Following the suggestion, Liu received from Taiwan.
Assassination
On 15 October 1984, Liu was in the garage of his home in Daly City, California shortly after 9 a.m. Helen Cui, Henry's wife, had noticed two Asian men riding bicycles near their house that morning and the morning before; she heard loud noises in the garage and discovered her husband had been killed. The assassination had been planned by Chen Chi-li, leader of the Bamboo Union Triad, and carried out by two Bamboo Union members, Wu Tun and Tung Kuei-sen. Chen was acting on the request of the head of the Kuomintang's Military Intelligence Bureau, Vice Admiral Wang Hsi-ling, who had requested that Liu be "[given] a lesson" after writing articles critical of the Kuomintang government. Wu and Tung cornered Liu in his garage, and the three men struggled, ending after Wu shot Liu in the head and Tung shot Liu twice in the abdomen.
Some of Liu's friends suggested the "somewhat gossipy" biography of Chiang Ching-kuo delved into the background of Chiang Kai-shek's mother too deeply, while others suggested he was about to publish some works harmful to some governmental officials. Police ruled out robbery early in the investigation and an ROC spokesman denied government involvement.
Confession of Chen Chi-li
Preparations for the assassination of Liu started in July 1984, according to the tape-recorded confession of Chen Chi-li, leader of the Bamboo Union Triad. Earlier, in the wake of the 1979 Kaohsiung Incident, Chen had reorganized the Bamboo Union to assist the Kuomintang-led government in gathering information and suppressing dissidents. In July 1984, Chen and an unnamed "prominent Taiwan movie producer" received espionage training after being inducted into the service of military intelligence.
On 14 August 1984, Chen and the movie producer met with Vice Admiral Wang Hsi-ling, the head of the Kuomintang's Military Intelligence Bureau, and two of Wang's officials, Major General Hu Yi-min () and Colonel (no relation). During the meeting, Chen Chi-li and the movie producer were told that Liu had betrayed the Republic of China as an agent of the People's Republic of China with his criticism.
Chen Chi-li and the movie producer arrived in the United States on 14 September 1984, but the producer unexpectedly backed out shortly afterward for personal reasons, leaving Chen Chi-li to recruit two other Bamboo Union members who had also recently arrived in the US to assist him in the assassination, and Tung Kuei-sen. Wu had left Taiwan earlier in September, after local police had found a gun in his tea shop. Tung had arrived in July to explore business opportunities in southern California. The original plot would have used local northern California Bamboo Union members to carry out the assassination, but the head of the San Francisco branch failed to meet them in late September as planned.
On 9 October 1984, Chen Chi-li and two other men drove from Los Angeles to San Francisco. Tung joined the group on 12 October 1984. Chen Chi-li was observed while conducting surveillance in Liu's Daly City neighborhood, being later identified as "the Asian man who couldn't speak English" by neighborhood children who had found him feeding candy to their lost dog on 13 October 1984.
After the assassination, Liu's killers fled to Los Angeles, where Chen Chi-li telephoned officials in Taiwan to confirm the hit prior to boarding a plane to Taiwan. After reading news accounts of the murder, Chen Chi-li realized he had been duped into believing that Liu was a communist agent, and he recorded his confession on 18 October 1984. The killers were reportedly offered each by Wang for the successful killing, but they refused the money.
Chen's October confession mentions the existence of a second recording of a conversation between Chen and "high officials" in the Kuomintang government. The FBI sought the second recording, but the existence of the second recording was never conclusively proven. Although the FBI did not comment officially, friends of Chen Chi-li claimed they were questioned about the whereabouts of the second recording, as well as about any links between Chen and Chiang Hsiao-wu.
Legal actions
Chen and Wu were arrested in Taiwan along with 300 other members of the Bamboo Union during a 13 November 1984 government crackdown on organized crime. Chen reportedly confessed to his and Wang's roles while imprisoned, and two days later, on 15 January 1985, the three officials named in the confession were relieved of their duties and placed under arrest. At that time, an investigation by the FBI and Daly City police surfaced; they had been quietly questioning Los Angeles-area Bamboo Union members, seeking a copy of Chen's October recording. The government of Taiwan continued to deny culpability in the death of Liu, claiming that Wang and his subordinates were not acting as agents of the Taiwanese government. The existence of the tape-recorded October confession remained a rumor until the Los Angeles Times obtained a copy of the recording in March 1985 from Chang An-lo, a friend of Tung who had hosted him in September 1984.
Daly City Police Lieutenant Thomas Reese was allowed to interview Wu and Chen in prison, later filing an affidavit in January 1985 to support a warrant for Wu's arrest. The affidavit provided the motive for Liu's murder, with Wu stating that Chen had told him that "Liu had written some bad things about Taiwan and its president," and Chen had asked him to help "beat up or fix up" Liu.
Chen Chi-li's associates claimed that Chen was a close friend of Chiang Hsiao-wu, Chiang Ching-kuo's second son. Chiang Hsiao-wu was also claimed to have close ties to the Taiwanese security network, but Chiang denied both claims in a statement to the Times. Wang would later deny that Chiang Hsiao-wu was involved.
Chen and Wu had been in custody in Taiwan since November 1984, and the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was pushing for their return to the United States to face criminal charges. Daly City Police had requested the fingerprints and photographs of the suspects. Officials from Taiwan refused to remand the suspects to United States custody pending the results of their own investigation and possible trial, citing the fact that Taiwan and the US had no formal extradition treaty.
In March 1985, the FBI discovered the October tape recording made by chief hitman Chen Chi-li implicating Republic of China military intelligence in the killing, whereupon they began to pressure the government to bring Liu's killers to trial. The FBI investigation was confirmed by United States Attorney Joseph Russoniello. The investigation was conducted with the State Department serving as go-between for the FBI and the government of Taiwan. Meanwhile, the House of Representatives passed a non-binding resolution urging Taiwan to remand custody of the murder suspects to the United States for trial.
Chen and Wu went on trial in April 1985, with Tung being tried in absentia. The military tribunal of Wang and his subordinates followed in April 1985.
Criminal trials
At a pre-trial hearing in Taipei, Chen Chi-li claimed that Wang Hsi-ling of Kuomintang intelligence ordered the assassination, stating that Liu was a double agent who had spied for both Taiwan and China. However, Chen claimed he instructed his associates to disobey Wang's orders and instead wanted Liu to be injured, not killed, after learning that Liu's parents had been killed by Chinese communists. Chen and Wu were convicted in April 1985 and sentenced to life imprisonment, after tearfully begging to avoid the death penalty. In May 1985, a month after his conviction, Chen retracted this statement, stating that Wang had only ordered that Liu be taught a lesson, not killed, which brought Chen's story in agreement with Wang's testimony during his nearly-simultaneous military tribunal. The life sentences were upheld under two separate court rulings. Under Taiwan law, both Chen and Wu were eligible for parole after serving ten years of their sentence.
Meanwhile, Wang and his subordinates were subjected to a military tribunal. Two sessions were held; during the first, on 4 April 1985, Chen Chi-li was called to testify, where he and Wang sparred over who bore greater responsibility for Liu's death. During the second, Wang denied that he had authorized the killing, only that he had discussed the possibility of "giving [Liu] a lesson" and that his sole mistake was failing to inform his superiors that Chen was responsible when he learned of the killing, effectively shielding any higher governmental officials from blame. His subordinates stated they contacted Chen only at Wang's request and therefore bore no personal responsibility in following orders. The tribunal ended with no other witnesses called, resulting in Wang's April 1985 conviction and sentence of life imprisonment; his subordinates were each sentenced at the same hearing to two and a half years in prison for acting as accessories to the murder. The life sentence for Wang was upheld during a later review, although Wang was also eligible for parole after ten years.
Tung Kuei-sen had been rumored to be living in the Philippines, as he was not detained during the November 1984 Taiwan crackdown on Bamboo Union members when Chen and Wu had been arrested. Tung was eventually captured in Brazil in September 1985, and was extradited to the United States. He first stood for federal trial in 1986 in New York, where he was found innocent of racketeering but convicted of conspiring to import and distribute heroin. At the 1986 trial, Tung's defense attorneys argued that Tung had been duped into murdering Liu by appealing to his sense of patriotism. Tung testified that he was following government orders to assassinate Liu.
Following the trial in New York, Tung was extradited to California in March 1987 to stand trial for the murder of Henry Liu. Based on testimony that he had killed Henry Liu in the 1986 federal trial, Tung was ordered to stand trial in June 1987, with the actual trial commencing in March 1988, where despite his earlier testimony, he pleaded innocent to the murder charge. Tung testified during the trial that Chen Chi-li was relaying the order to kill Liu from Chiang Hsiao-wu, a "big boss," but he was found guilty of first-degree murder after just forty-five minutes of deliberation. Because Tung had been extradited from Brazil, he was not eligible for the death penalty. Instead, he was sentenced to twenty-seven years in prison, to run consecutively after the twenty-year federal sentence for drug smuggling charges. Tung was the only one of the six named conspirators to stand trial in the United States, despite State Department requests to have Chen Chi-li and Wu Tun stand trial as well.
Tung later filed an appeal for his murder conviction and sentence, which stated that the trial court should have requested a manslaughter verdict rather than murder, as he was acting out of patriotism. The appeal was rejected and his sentence upheld in 1990.
Summary of penalties
Chen Chi-li, sentenced to life in prison (April 1985); commuted to 15 years and granted parole (January 1991)
Wu Tun, sentenced to life in prison (April 1985); commuted to 15 years and granted parole (January 1991)
Tung Kuei-sen, sentenced to 27 years to life in prison (May 1988); stabbed to death while in prison (1991)
Wang Hsi-ling, sentenced to life in prison (April 1985); commuted to 15 years and granted parole (January 1991)
Hu Yi-min, sentenced to 2.5 years in prison (April 1985);
Chen Hu-men, sentenced to 2.5 years in prison (April 1985); after release, changed his name to Chen Yi-chiao () and later promoted to director of a Military Intelligence Bureau department
Civil suit
Liu's widow Helen filed a suit in a United States district court against the Republic of China and the six named conspirators, alleging that his murder had been arranged by Taiwanese officials acting in an official capacity. Although the suit survived an early motion to dismiss as an act of state grounds, Judge Eugene F. Lynch dropped Taiwan from the suit in 1987 based on Wang's military tribunal, which had concluded that Wang was not acting on behalf of the government of Taiwan, nor could his superiors have predicted his actions. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Lynch's decision, ruling (Liu v. Republic of China) that the ROC government was liable under the doctrine of respondeat superior; a petition for certiorari from the ROC government to the U.S. Supreme Court was subsequently rejected. The suit was finally settled out of court.
Fallout
The assassination became a major political scandal in Taiwan, and American officials were critical of the Kuomintang for allegedly orchestrating an assassination on United States soil.
In a December 1985 speech, Chiang Hsiao-wu's father Chiang Ching-kuo declared ″If someone asks me whether anyone in my family would run for the next presidential term, my reply is, ′It can't be and it won't be. Prior to the Henry Liu murder, Chiang Hsiao-wu was the only one of Chiang Ching-kuo's sons mentioned as a potential successor to his father; the younger Chiang later served on the trade mission to Singapore, a move seen as soft exile.
In popular culture
The assassination was the subject of the book Fires of the Dragon by David E. Kaplan. A fictionalized version of the assassination was portrayed in the 2009 film Formosa Betrayed.
See also
List of journalists killed in the United States
Bai Wanxiang, who masterminded Liu’s assassination
Chen Wen-chen, another noted dissident who died under mysterious circumstances, potentially also a late example of White Terror suppression
Lin Yi-hsiung, whose twin daughters and mother died after his arrest in another incident cited as an example of White Terror
Kashmir Princess, another case of the Taiwanese government likely being involved in an overseas assassination
References
Notes
Bibliography
Taiwan Communiqué
External links
1932 births
1984 deaths
1984 murders in the United States
Taiwanese emigrants to the United States
American male journalists
American writers of Taiwanese descent
Assassinated American journalists
Taiwanese people murdered abroad
People murdered by Chinese-American organized crime
People murdered in California
Writers from Taizhou, Jiangsu
American people of Chinese descent
Deaths by firearm in California
Crimes in the San Francisco Bay Area
Journalists killed in the United States
20th-century American biographers
People from Daly City, California
Fu Hsing Kang College alumni
20th-century journalists
1984 murders in Asia
American male biographers
White Terror (Taiwan)
People killed in intelligence operations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercules%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29
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Hercules (Marvel Comics)
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Hercules is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Debuting in the Silver Age of Comic Books, the character is based on Heracles of Greek mythology (despite using the name of his Roman equivalent, Hercules). Since his first appearance, he has been a perennial member of the superhero team the Avengers.
The character has appeared in various forms of media, including television series and video games. Brett Goldstein portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor: Love and Thunder (2022).
Publication history
Hercules was adapted from the Greek mythology hero Heracles by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby. The character debuted in The Avengers #10 (November 1964) as a minion of Immortus, although that appearance was revealed to be an impostor in the limited series Avengers Forever (December 1998–November 1999). The character's first formal appearance in the Marvel Universe became Journey into Mystery Annual #1 (October 1965), which established Hercules as being a rival of the Norse god of thunder, Thor.
Hercules became a regular guest star in the title The Mighty Thor, appearing in issue #126 (March 1966). The character guest-starred in Tales to Astonish #79 (May 1966), and his deadlocked battle with the Hulk, as told by Lee, Kirby, and Bill Everett, has come to be regarded as a classic. The tale parallels Hercules and the Hulk's titanic strength, short temper, and simple-mindedness, while contrasting their lot in life: Hercules being a beloved hero and pampered celebrity, while the Hulk is a hated and feared fugitive. The character teamed up with the Avengers in issue #38 (March 1967), but was not yet an official member; he was merely a guest of the Avengers during his banishment from Olympus. In issue #45 of The Avengers, Hercules became a "full-fledged Avenger" by way of Goliath's announcement to the press during the first annual "Avengers Day". Hercules also guest starred in Marvel Team-Up #28 (December 1974) and Marvel Premiere #26 (November 1975) before starring along with four other heroes in The Champions which ran for 17 issues (October 1975–January 1978). After this, Hercules made a guest appearance in Marvel Two-In-One #44 (October 1978).
Hercules starred in two limited series by writer-artist Bob Layton, with both set in an alternate universe. A 24th century version of Hercules starred in Hercules, Prince of Power #1-4 (September–December 1982), which was popular enough to spawn a sequel, Hercules, Prince of Power #1-4 (March–June 1984). The storylines dealt with Hercules's exile from Olympus, completion of a series of quests and opportunity to leave his past behind and create a new identity.
Hercules remained a constant guest star in both Thor and The Avengers, playing a significant role in the "Avengers Under Siege" storyline in The Avengers #270–277 (August 1986–March 1987), involving supervillain team the Masters of Evil. The story lead directly into the "Assault on Olympus" storyline in The Avengers #281–285 (July 1987–November 1987), in which Hercules left the team.
The character starred in the self-titled limited series Hercules vol. 3, #1–5 (June–Sep. 2005), and guest starred in the limited series Thor: Blood Oath #1–6 (Nov. 2005-Feb. 2006), a retrospective story that depicts the second meeting between the Hercules and Thor.
At the conclusion of the "World War Hulk" storyline, Hercules received a self-titled publication when Marvel changed the name of the third volume of the Incredible Hulk series to The Incredible Hercules, effective as of issue #113 (Feb. 2008), and written by Greg Pak and Fred Van Lente. The series concluded with The Incredible Hercules #141 (April 2010), and was followed by the 2-issue mini-series Hercules: Fall of an Avenger (March–April 2010). The mini-series is scheduled to lead into the relaunched new title, Prince of Power #1 (May 2010), also written by Pak and Van Lente.
Writers Greg Pak and Fred Van Lente started a brand new Hercules series, entitled Herc, featuring the hero without powers, but wielding mythical arms.
Fictional character biography
1960s
Hercules first appears when pulled from the past by the villain Immortus to battle the Thunder God Thor. This story is not referenced in the character's next appearance, which depicts Hercules and Thor as apparently meeting for the first time. The discrepancy is eventually explained when it is revealed that the first "Hercules" encountered was actually an alien Space Phantom in disguise.
Hercules guest-stars in an extended Thor storyline, defeating a depowered Thunder God (punished by Odin for loving the mortal woman Jane Foster). Hercules unwittingly becomes the slave of fellow Olympian god Pluto when he signs a contract which he thinks is for a film, but actually states that he will now rule the Netherworld instead of Pluto. Hercules is eventually rescued by Thor (now at full strength) who battles and defeats Pluto's underworld minions. Pluto opts to void the contract rather than accept the destruction of his realm. While under the contract, Hercules has a chance encounter with the Hulk, fighting the monster to a standstill.
Hercules reappears as the thrall of the Asgardian villainess Enchantress who is using water from the spring of Eros and tries to use him to destroy the Avengers, but after being freed from the spell by one of Hawkeye's arrows using brimstone, and being banished from Olympus for one year by Zeus for going to Earth without permission, aids the team for an extended period against foes such as the Mad Thinker; Namor the Sub-Mariner; Diablo; Dragon Man; the Red Guardian; Whirlwind and the Titan Typhon who has imprisoned the Olympians in the Land of Shades, until leaving for Olympus. The character returns briefly during a storyline set directly after the Kree-Skrull War in which the returning Avengers witness an amnesiac Hercules being abducted by two Titans. After dealing with a disruption in New York City caused by the Olympian Ares, the Avengers travel to Olympus and free both Hercules and the Olympian gods who have been turned to crystal by Ares using the Ebony sword. They find out from the Black Knight's spirit he lost his memory after being thrown from Olympus and drifting for six days and nights.
1970s
Hercules continues to aid Thor in several connected storylines. Thor mistakenly battles Hercules when trying to rescue an Asgardian goddess from the underworld, but together they defeat instigators Ares and Pluto who are trying to take over Olympus; battle the Destroyer and then Herald of Galactus Firelord before a confrontation with Ego the Living Planet on Galactus's behalf, as Galactus has been defeated by Ego. Hercules is temporarily possessed by the entity the Dweller-in-Darkness and guest stars with hero Spider-Man in title Marvel Team-Up. before reappearing in the title Thor, aiding Asgardian goddess Sif locate an artifact called the Runestaff of Kamo Tharnn. Hercules also visits California and battles old foe Typhon.
Hercules becomes a founding member of the superhero team the Champions, aiding the mortal heroes against the machinations of Olympians Pluto and Hippolyta. The character appears during the Korvac saga, and after being kidnapped by the Elder of the Universe the Collector is freed (with the other Avengers) by comrade Hawkeye to battle the cosmic entity Korvac who has absorbed power from Galactus's ship, giving him god-like power, and traveled from the 31st century to remake the Universe. Although killed in battle, Hercules and many of the Avengers are resurrected by the entity before dying. Hercules also appears in a humorous story with Fantastic Four member the Thing.
1980s
Hercules reappears during the "Celestial saga", joining an invasion force comprising Olympian gods and other allies that storms the realm of Olympia (occupied by the Eternals). After a cameo appearance with the Avengers, Hercules reappears and aids the heroes of Earth against an invasion of New York City by the legions of the fire demon Surtur. Hercules rejoins the Avengers and aids the team against threats such as Maelstrom; the Blood Brothers; the android Vision when malfunctioning; Terminus; the space pirate Nebula and the villains Kang the Conqueror and Immortus.
During the "Avengers Under Siege" storyline, Baron Helmut Zemo assembles an army of supervillains to form the fourth version of the Masters of Evil. Courtesy of a paid pawn, Hercules is drugged at a bar in order to incapacitate him. Hercules, however, manages to return to Avengers Mansion and singlehandedly engages the Masters of Evil, being eventually beaten unconscious by Goliath, Mister Hyde, and the Wrecking Crew. Although the Masters of Evil are defeated, Hercules remains in a coma as a result of his injuries. The next storyline, titled, "Assault On Olympus" deals with the consequences of Hercules's injuries, as he is taken from the hospital by fellow Olympian Hermes and returned to Olympus. The Avengers eventually pursue - also aided by sometime member Namor the Sub-Mariner who is kidnapped by Greek god Neptune - and discover they are being blamed by Zeus for Hercules's condition, as Hercules mentioned them in his coma. As the Avengers battle several of the gods and Zeus himself, the Titan Prometheus restores Hercules to full health using part of his life force, Doctor Druid uses his powers to restore Hercules's sanity, and Zeus accidentally attacks Hercules, after which he stops the fight. He hears from his son that the Avengers are not at fault. After that Zeus decides to ban the Olympians from Earth.
During the "Evolutionary War" storyline, Hercules defeats a misguided High Evolutionary by mutating "beyond godhood". Hercules eventually returns to his normal form and aids Thor against villains such as the Mongoose and Doctor Doom. After Hercules stars in a Hollywood film of dubious quality as a fictionalized version of himself, Zeus punishes him for this "travesty" by sending him on a mission to restore the lost faith of Magma, an active worshiper of the Greek gods. Hercules's demonstrations of strength and heroism fail to convince Magma that he is the real Greek god, and Zeus ignores his pleas to show her Olympus. However, she comes to believe Hercules after witnessing his eloquent reaction to a mortal's death.
1990s
Together with Thor, Hercules confronts the Wrecking Crew once again, and recovers his confidence and defeats the villains when the Thunder God feigns defeat. After a brief appearance in the "Black Galaxy" saga, where he is trapped inside a Celestial, Hercules rejoins the Avengers as a reserve member and is upgraded to active status during the "Collection Obsession" storyline, aiding the team against Thane Ector and the Elder of the Universe the Collector and then during the Operation: Galactic Storm storyline.
The other gods continue to feud with Hercules, with Ares - possessing the body of Eric Masterson who currently wields a missing Thor's power - launching an unsuccessful attack. When Hercules falls in love with a mortal woman called Taylor Madison, the goddess Hera intervenes and attempts to kill her, although this is prevented when Ares warns Zeus. Hercules discovers that Madison was actually a construct created by Zeus to lure out Hera, and attacks his father. Zeus is angered by "his son's lack of respect", and strips Hercules of his immortality and half his strength, forbidding him from ever returning to Olympus.
A despondent Hercules helps the Shi'ar warrior Deathcry return to her homeworld, and on returning to Earth is devastated to learn that the Avengers - and the Fantastic Four - have apparently sacrificed themselves to stop the entity known as Onslaught, although they have really been sent into a pocket universe. Hercules briefly joins the commercial superhero team Heroes for Hire, and travels to Greece with Spider-Man to meet the threat of Dr. Zeus. He eventually reunites with his Avenger comrades, aiding the team against Morgan Le Fey. before choosing to remain an inactive member.
After a misunderstanding Hercules is manipulated into fighting Thor, but aids the Thunder God (together with the Asgardian entity the Destroyer) against the Dark Gods, who have conquered Asgard.
Hercules decides to locate Erik Josten - now reformed and renamed "Atlas" and a member of Thunderbolts - who as "Goliath" participated in the beating of Hercules by the Masters of Evil. Hercules finds and attacks Josten until former Avenger Hawkeye (now leader of the Thunderbolts) convinces him to stop, although at the cost of their friendship. Hercules also aids the Avengers against the avatar group, the Exemplars.
2000s
Hercules becomes a drunkard, dismayed at the dissolution of the Avengers during the "Disassembled" storyline, and the destruction of Asgard and disappearance of Thor. Hera takes advantage of Hercules's vulnerability and via her pawn Eurystheus (an ancient rival of Hercules during the Twelve Labors) proposes he complete a modern version of the classic Labors for a reality television show. Despite opposition from villains such as the Abomination, the organization HYDRA, and awkward tasks such as retrieving the shield of Captain America, Hercules is successful. Hercules is also forgiven by former wife Megara, who Hercules accidentally killed - a deception revealed by a humbled Hera.
Hercules encounters Thor for the second time in a retrospective story; and guest stars in a humorous story with heroine She-Hulk, Hercules being successfully sued by the villain Constrictor for injuring him. Hercules also aids fellow Greek god Ares against the Japanese gods when they attempt to overrun Olympus. Hercules eventually wins back his lost fortune in a poker match with the Constrictor.
During the "Civil War" storyline Hercules is depicted as an opponent of the Superhuman Registration Act, and calls the pro-registration heroes "traitors". Taking the alias of "Victor Tegler" - an information technology consultant with help from Nick Fury - to hide from pro-registration forces, Hercules is dismissed by Iron Man, believing he cannot even spell 'registration'". Hercules helps the Secret Avengers escape after the cyborg Thor clone is first released. Hercules, however, kills the cyborg Thor clone in the final battle between the two sides, claiming that it is an insult to the Odinson, before smashing its head open with a hammer while yelling 'Thou art no Thor.
Hercules also stars in the "World War Hulk" storyline, featuring a flashback to a period when the superhero team the Champions are still together. In the flashback the team mistakenly attack the Hulk, with the delay almost killing a gravely ill Jennifer Walters. Hercules and former Champions teammate Angel reconcile with the Hulk. Together with several other super beings, Hercules forms a loose-knit group called the "Renegades" to attempt to stop the Hulk when he invades New York City, then helping with rescue and recovery operations in the ruins of the destroyed city then departing before being apprehended.
After the conclusion of World War Hulk, Hercules embarks on series of adventures with companion Amadeus Cho, a teenage genius and "sidekick". Hercules encounters long-time foe Ares, who poisons the hero with venom from the mythical Hydra. After being driven mad by the venom and embarking on a destructive rampage, Hercules is eventually stopped by former Champions teammate the Black Widow (who also neutralizes Cho when he attacks spy organization S.H.I.E.L.D.).
Hercules plays a pivotal role in the "Secret Invasion" storyline, forming a team called the God Squad (consisting of Ajak; Amatsu-Mikaboshi; Demogorge and Snowbird) to neutralize the Skrull gods directing the invasion of Earth. Hercules is made leader of the team, as the representative of the Western Gods. When Nightmare asks for the team's fears as they try to get his help to get to the Skrull gods, he sees Hercules's fear from losing his armor bearer Hylas. Hercules and Snowbird form a romantic attachment, and together slay Kly'bn, the leader of the Skrull pantheon by impaling him with the dead Atum's spine (with Amatsu-Mikaboshi assuming this role and ending the intervention by Skrull divinity). This event is immediately followed by the storyline "Love and War", in which Hercules and allies Cho; Namora and the goddess Athena attempt to thwart Amazon leader Artume, who reshapes so that the world is dominated by the Amazon females. Hera and Pluto take advantage of the chaos and an absent Zeus to attempt to kill Hercules and Athena. Hercules aids Cho's lover - Delphyne - slay Artume and take her place as queen, and with Athena is able to reset reality.
Although successful, Athena dispatches Hercules and Cho to Hades to find Zeus as he is needed to counter Hera. The pair are waylaid in Hades by the Dark Elf Malekith the Accursed - disguised as the Asgardian god Balder the Brave - who requests the characters embark on a mission into Svartalfheim, the home of the Dark Elves. Despite Pluto using the spirit of Hercules's adoptive father, they are able to retrieve Zeus. During a humorous series of events, Hercules is forced to disguise himself as Thor and eventually marry Alflyse, the Queen of the Dark Elves.
During the "Dark Reign" storyline Cho finds out that the activities of the Elder God Chthon are causing a "chaos cascade". To meet this threat Cho and Hercules form a new team of Mighty Avengers along with U.S. Agent, Vision, Hank Pym, Stature, Quicksilver and Jocasta. The team goes on to break into the Baxter Building, battle the Unspoken in China, visit the Inhumans to return their stolen Xerogen crystals, fight a cosmic cube empowered Absorbing Man, and capture Loki for information about the Scarlet Witch. When Pym requests that Loki join the team, Hercules and the others lose faith in him as a leader and quit.
2010s
Hercules teams with both the Mighty and New Avengers to stop Hera from remaking the universe with a device called Continuum. Hercules battles Typhon in the alternate Continuum universe and defeats him. Athena appears after the fight, but instead of coming to help she seemingly destroys the Continuum universe with Hercules still inside. She explains that he had to die so that Amadeus Cho could replace him as the new "Prince of Power". A funeral service is held at the Parthenon in Athens, where many of Hercules's comrades pay their respects and share memories. Athena appoints Amadeus as the new leader of the Olympus Group. Amadeus travels to Hades, only to discover that Hercules is, in fact, not dead. Cho tells Athena he intends to use all their resources to find Hercules and bring him back. Cho teams with Bruce Banner to build a machine that can scan all of reality, but discovers it would take over a billion years to locate Hercules. Amadeus then embarks on a quest to gain the power of a god, competing against Vali Halfling and the Pantheon and teaming up with Thor. Once Cho becomes a god and attains omniscience, he realizes that he is inadequate to wield such power. First he returns Hercules to Earth, then transfers all his new powers into him.
During the events of Chaos War, Amatsu Mikaboshi arrives on Earth with an army of slave gods, destroying the dream dimension and causing people all over the world to enter a sleep-coma. He then destroys the afterlives of all the cultures of the world, freeing the dead to walk the Earth. The newly super-powered Hercules assembles a second God Squad to battle Mikaboshi, who now calls himself the Chaos King. The combined efforts of the God Squad, Alpha Flight, the Hulk family, and deceased members of the Avengers and X-Men manage to keep the Chaos King's armies at bay, while Cho and Galactus work on a way to transport the entire Earth into the safety of the Continuum universe. Hercules is able to seal off the Chaos King in the Continuum, saving the world. Hercules then uses up all of his power in order to restore the universe, leaving him reduced to a mortal man once again.
Hercules reappears in Brooklyn, armed with an array of Olympian weapons stolen from the armory of his deceased brother Ares. They include a magic sword called the Sword of Peleus, the Shield of Perseus (an unbreakable shield that turns anyone who looks at it to stone), arrows that can penetrate through anything, and the Helm of Hades (a helmet of invisibility). He gets a job bartending at a Greek run bar and restaurant in Brooklyn. He later battles Hobgoblin in a construction site, who was attempting to intimidate the owner of the restaurant into selling it to the Kingpin. After defeating him, Hercules discovers that the owner's daughter sold him out to Hobgoblin and confronts her, until Kingpin appears and tells the owner he can keep the restaurant, taking Hobgoblin with him. After his victory becomes public, the restaurant becomes successful and Hercules becomes a local hero and celebrity.
During the Fear Itself storyline, Hercules comes across Basilisk, Griffin, Man-Bull, and an unidentified woman robbing a bank. They had all recently escaped from the Raft during the breakout caused by Juggernaut, who was transformed into Kuurth: Breaker of Stone. Hercules soon discovers that the woman is actually the witch goddess Hecate. During the fight, Hecate looks into the Shield of Perseus and regains her memories of taking over Brooklyn. She then teams up with Kyknos (the son of Ares) in order to take over the city. The pair manage to turn some people against Hercules due to the chaos that the Serpent's Worthy created. Basilisk and Man-Bull flee when they see Hercules use the Shield of Perseus. The Griffin has an unexpected reaction to the magic forces at work, which cause him to devolve into a savage beast. He saves Hercules's life and becomes his new steed, allowing him to fly around the city. Hercules recovers upon hearing the prayers of his worshipers and finds himself in the Griffin's care, only to discover that Brooklyn has been reshaped into a nightmare landscape. Hercules and the Griffin manage to find where Basilisk and Man-Bull are hiding and recruit their help. The villains approach Hecate and Kyknos using a ruse involving Hercules being turned to stone. Hercules quickly revives and saves the villains by killing Kyknos, then prevents Ares from being resurrected by kicking over his altar. Hecate flees and Brooklyn is returned to normal.
During the Spider-Island storyline, the Greek owners/operators of the bar where Hercules works have fled the dangers of New York City and returned to Greece, leaving Hercules in charge. He befriends an elderly African man named A. Nancy who loves stories. One night Herc is bitten by a bed bug that gives him spider powers, which he uses to fight crime. The Queen of Spider Island reveals herself to Herc and makes him her slave. She sends Spider-Herc against the X-Men, who were in town after fighting lizard people in the sewers. They try to reason with him, but he attacks them with the Sword of Peleus. Due to the mutagenic properties of Spider-Man's powers, Spider-Herc mutates into Herc-Spider mid-battle. Shortly after, the X-Men are trapped in a magic web, and the Greek goddess Arachne appears. Instead of fighting, it is revealed that Arachne is very attracted to Herc's new form and they embrace, while the X-Men are forced to watch. While Arachne is preoccupied, A. Nancy breaks into her home and steals her mythical woven tapestry. He reveals himself as the African spider god Anansi, a collector of stories, when he's attacked by Elektra, who takes the tapestry from him. Hercules is later cured of his spider transformation by Peter Parker, along with everyone else infected.
Hercules later encounters Zeus, who was depowered by his wife Hera because of his infidelity and womanizing. During that time, he discovers Elektra stealing a museum artifact from the Hand. After battling the Hand ninjas, Hercules discovers, through Kingpin, that Elektra is stealing mystical artifacts for Baba Yaga, a Slavic witch who was summoned by the Russian mob, who plans to absorb the magic of the artifacts to gain a youthful appearance and increase her power. He manages to locate Baba Yaga after Elektra steals his weapons. Herc and Zeus infiltrate the witch's home and Herc, with Elektra's help, defeats Baba Yaga. He then lets Zeus absorb the magic from the artifacts, restoring his godly powers, and they part ways.
Hercules is called upon to act as a guest instructor at Avengers Academy when most of the main faculty are preoccupied with the events of Avengers vs. X-Men. The school is suddenly visited by Captain America, who asks that the facility be used to hold the younger members of the X-Men until the fighting is over. Kavita Rao and Madison Jeffries urge their students to comply with the Avengers, but many are resentful of the confinement. Hercules arranges an Olympic competition between the two schools in order to ease tensions and avoid an actual fight from taking place. Sebastian Shaw (who was also being held at the academy) escapes and the faculty members of both schools try to keep him from reaching the students. Hercules is defeated because Shaw is able to absorb the magic energy from his weapons. Shaw then tells the X-Men students to escape before fleeing himself. Hercules urges Tigra to let the kids join the fight if they want to, believing they had no right to hold them against their will in the first place. Some of the X-Men students remain at Avengers Academy while many join the fighting, and Hercules reflects that while the older generation has only found war, at least some of the kids were able to find peace.
As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel event, Hercules, isolated and shunned by the hero community, attempts to regain his reputation as a true hero, by adapting himself into modern society. During that time, he takes on the threats of the Uprising Storm, a group of new gods consisting of Catastrophobia: God of War, Horrorscope, and Cryptomnesia: God of Data as they plan to wipe out the old gods.
During the Civil War II storyline, Hercules is seen at a bar talking to Amadeus Cho, who has become the new Hulk, when the city is suddenly under attack by a Celestial and both spring into action. During the battle, while Amadeus helps the other heroes, Hercules encounters the Uprising Storm, who tell him of their plan to destroy the world and turn him into one of them by teasing him into believing that the other heroes don't want him anymore. Back home, he confines his encounter to his friends and, after a pep talk from his landlady Sophia, decides to reunite the ancient heroes in order to battle the Uprising Storm. Upon gathering the ancient heroes, known as the Gods of War, Hercules informs them of the situation when the Uprising Storm suddenly show up. They begin to battle, with the Uprising Storm getting the upper hand. In the middle of the fight, Hercules begins to destroy the city when Cryptomnesia uses the brand he placed on him to turn him into a God of Chaos, forcing the others to fight him while the Uprising Storm watch. During the battle, Hercules is confronted by Steve Rogers, Captain Marvel, Spider-Man and Medusa who attempt to stop his rampage. After a brief fight, the Gods of War inform the heroes of the Storm and the curse placed on Hercules, though they don't see them. Steve and Gilgamesh then go to free Hercules from the curse which Steve does by yelling "Avengers Assemble". After the brand disappears and the other heroes leave, Hercules informs his friends about the Storm's true intentions, total destruction, and that they must be stopped. Later, while Hercules, Sigurd, Gilgamesh, Beowulf and Theseus ambush the Storm in their hideout, an abandoned hotel, Ire, Lorelei and Tiresias perform a ritual to weaken the Storm. Initially, the ritual has no effect until Horrorscope is defeated and killed by Ire and Lorelei, when she teleported to the apartment to kill them, while Catastrophobia and Cryptomnesia are killed by Gilgamesh and Hercules respectively. After killing Cryptomnesia, Hercules is congratulated by Athena, who offers him a place in Olympus. Hercules turns it down so that he can continue to live on Earth as a true hero.
In the aftermath of Civil War II, Hercules rejoins the Avengers, where they foil an ambush by Kang the Conqueror. While the others are trapped in limbo as a result of time paradoxes created by Kang, Hercules (immune to Kang's current tactics of targeting the infant Avengers as nobody knows exactly where or when he was born) goes to Vietnam where he fights two versions of Kang attacking a temple who were looking for an infant version of Kang. After Hercules finds the child, the Avengers return from limbo and start fighting until Vision sends Wasp back in time to return baby Kang to his era. After Wasp succeeds, the Avengers make a plan to defeat Kang for good. They assemble the original Avengers from the past and join forces to attack Kang's alternate versions at the same time. After defeating Kang, each of the Avengers return to their timelines. The Avengers are then recruited by a reformed Doctor Doom operating as Iron Man to defeat a coven of young witches. They later battle Avenger X, a member of the original New Avengers, who attempted to eliminate the team until Wasp shrinks her to sub-atomic levels.
During the Secret Empire storyline, Hercules appears as a member of the Underground following Hydra's conquest of the United States. Hercules and Quicksilver lead a strike force to find the Cosmic Cube fragments so that they can use it to restore Captain America to normal. Upon convincing Sam Wilson to smuggle them out of the country, the team goes to locate a Cosmic Cube fragment which is in possession of Ultron. Upon arriving, they encounter Hydra's Avengers led by Steve Rogers and are captured by Ultron. They later manage to escape while Ultron gives the team his fragment. During a mission in Madripoor, Hercules got turned to stone by Gorgon though he managed to knock him down amongst his petrification. Back at their hideout, Hercules goes to the infirmary to heal until Hydra arrives and attacks the base. The heroes then battle Hydra's Avengers and a revived Bruce Banner as the Hulk until the base explodes. After their hideout is destroyed, the heroes witness Sam Wilson reassuming the mantle of Captain America. With the use of the Cosmic Cube fragment, they manage to help destroy the Planetary Defense Shield and the Darkforce dome over Manhattan and liberate all the imprisoned Inhumans. While attacking Hydra forces at the United States Capitol, the Underground are surprised by Steve Rogers, who was wearing a Cosmic Cube-powered armor. They later witness the final battle between the Hydra Steve Rogers and the real Steve Rogers and the restoration of America. In the aftermath of the event, Hercules and Vision go to a coffee shop where they discuss about immortality and its ups and downs. They're later signaled by Sam and Thor, who received a call about a supervillain attack, and spring into action. Hercules and the other Avengers joined forces with the Champions in order to prevent the High Evolutionary from merging Earth 1 and Earth 2.
The original Champions (Hercules, Iceman, Angel, Ghost Rider and Darkstar) reunite at the location of their former headquarters in Los Angeles to mourn the death of the Black Widow. They battle a group of decommissioned Sentinels while out at a West Hollywood nightclub.
When the Human Torch starts losing his powers he asks Hercules for advice on how to restore them. Hercules had recently found a way to get his own powers back after losing them fighting the Chaos King. Johnny and the Thing find him at a bar in Brooklyn drinking non-alcoholic beer. He tells them about how he was healed by a scientist named Rachna Koul. He takes them to her secret lab ( located somewhere in the forests of Colorado ) where she explains that she was able to repair the biological conduit connecting Herc to the source of his godly power.
During the events of No Surrender, Hercules is sent to the Roman Colosseum with Rogue‘s team of Avengers in order to battle the Lethal Legion. The team then traveled to Antarctica to fight against the Black Order. Later Hercules, and his teammates attempt to stop the Hulk from rampaging through Avengers HQ. Hercules and Sunspot use their combined strength to stabilize the "world-engine" that is protecting the Earth while Thor and Lightning recharge it. Herc, Thor, and Wonder Man travel to Asgard to celebrate their victory.
2020s
When Hercules tried to track down his resurrected family, he instead was captured by them. He was freed by the reformed Guardians of the Galaxy. He aided the Guardians in stopping the mad gods, but at the cost of Star-Lord's life. Following the battle with Gamora's West Spiral Arm Guardians, Hercules began a relationship with Noh-Varr.
Powers and abilities
Hercules possesses the typical powers of an Olympian god, including superhuman strength, durability, speed, reflexes, stamina and endurance. He is the strongest of the Olympians, being capable of feats such as lifting and hurling a giant sequoia tree, smashing rocks to powder, sealing an entire cliff around an opponent with his bare hands, knocking out a yellow-crested Titan, and dragging the island of Manhattan (though this was later retconned to be merely a boast he had made, and not a genuine feat). His superstrong legs allow him to run at speeds of over 100 mph, and leap over a hundred feet into the air. He can withstand blows from Thor, and possesses a complete resistance to high caliber bullets. He is able to recover from injuries with superhuman speed and efficiency.
Hercules is highly skilled in archery, boxing, Greco-Roman wrestling, and claims to have invented the martial art Pankration. In combat, he occasionally wields a golden-looking adamantine mace - stated and shown to be equal in durability to Thor's own mystical hammer Mjolnir (though it is not enchanted with additional abilities as Mjolnir is) - forged by the Greek god Hephaestus. As an Olympian, he is resistant to all earthly diseases, possesses a healing factor, immortality, and also has some immunity to magic. However, his strength can be taken by significant Olympian magic, such as that of Zeus.
Hercules sacrificed his godly powers to save humanity in the wake of the Chaos War, and was completely powerless. Despite this, he retained his exceptional physical condition compared to a normal human, incredible skills in archery and hand-to-hand combat and access to magical weapons and items that help in battle. At the start of the 2015 Hercules series, his powers made an unexplained return. They were later revealed to have been restored through scientific means. At this time, Hercules made use of both antique and modern weapons, such as assault rifles, tasers, grenade launchers, and others.
Reception
Critical reception
Joe George of Den of Geek stated, "Hercules morphed into a lovable lunkhead and, eventually, a complex character whose good-natured love of adventure made him a valuable ally to heroes across the Marvel Universe. [...] Hercules became less an arrogant lout looking for fights and more a hero whose joi de vivre drove him toward adventure. When writer Al Ewing added Herc to his lineup of The Guardians of the Galaxy, he added a softer side to the character, as evidenced by his tender romance with hot-headed Kree warrior Noh-Varr. None of these writers changed the fundamental aspects of Hercules. He’s still far from the smartest guy in the room, and he still refuses to back down from a fight. But he’s now become the jock you could never hate, the guy who always gets the boy or girl he wants (and Herc wants most boys and girls he encounters), but isn’t a jerk about it. He’s the muscle-bound beefcake who always has your back and wants to lift your spirits."
Volumes
Herc - 2011
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Herc #1 was the 40th best selling comic book in April 2011.
Greg McElhatton of CBR.com called Herc #1 a "a good, standard superhero title," stating, "Herc #1 wasn't what I was expecting, but it was still a fun read. If you don't mind a more superhero-friendly take on the character (rather than the strangeness-and I say that with great affection and admiration-of "Incredible Hercules"), give it a whirl. If giving up the humor and co-star is too much for you, though? Well, you've been warned." Jesse Schedeen of IGN gave Her #1 a grade of 8 out of 10, asserting, "Neil Edwards delivers some solid visuals as well, which is good considering consistent pencils have long been a problem with Herc's books. Edwards continues to grow and improve as a storyteller. While his style still bears too much resemblance to Bryan Hitch's at times, there are far worse artists to emulate. And Scott Hanna's inks ensure Edwards panels are often more refined and neat than Hitch's these days. Edwards' only real flaw is that he fails to accurately capture the stylized new look of the villain that appears in the final pages. This isn't a bad start for the newest chapter in Hercules' career. But again, Van Lente and Pak do the hero a disservice by de-emphasizing the humor to the extent they have. Hopefully that will change as the series builds its cast and Herc's new status quo."
Incredible Hercules - 2008
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Incredible Hercules #113 was the 18th best selling comic book in January 2008. Incredible Hercules #113 was the 196th best selling comic book in 2008.
Jesse Schedeen of IGN gave Incredible Hercules #113 a grade of 9 out of 10, saying, "Almost as much a breakout star as his half-brother, Ares is finally getting the exposure he deserves with Incredible Hercules. I was ready for the God of War to explode onto the scene after Michael Avon Oeming's recent mini-series. Unfortunately, he didn't explode so much as limp his way into the ranks of Mighty Avengers. Pak and van Lente seem to have a better handle on the character, as he comes across as much more intelligent and brutal than the dim-witted jock seen in the Avengers books. At this point the only things keeping Incredible Hercules from ranking as the best book of the week are the unfortunately-timed Immortal Iron Fist and the slightly underwhelming pencils of Khoi Pham. I don't want to be too hard on Pham. This is some of the best work I've seen from the artist so far. Still, it doesn't quite measure up to what we're seeing in some of the other Aftersmash books. If only Ed McGuinness were drawing this series instead of Hulk. I think I'd be in comic book heaven."
Hercules - 2015
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Hercules #1 was the 49th best selling comic book in November 2015. Hercules #1 was the 475th best selling comic book in December 2015.
Levi Hunt of IGN gave Hercules #1 a grade of 7.8 out of 10, writing, "Hercules seems like a strange series to launch amidst so many Avengers and X-Men premiere issues. But don’t let the hero’s C-list status keep you away from this book in favor of those bigger hitters – Hercules is a fun and well written book that finds a few ways to stand out in the current tidal wave of “fun and light” comics. The first thing you’ll notice about the issue is how strong the dialogue and conversation is, the issue is a bit wordy but absolutely flies by – Dan Abnett’s use and pacing of language is exemplary. Abnett also finds clever ways to make Hercules relevant in this modern setting, while also not forgetting his roots. That mix of modern and ancient will be the hook going forward and it’s a promising one. Finally is Luke Ross on the art, his contributions to the book aren’t as praise-worthy as Abnett’s, but he really does well with the character acting."
Accolades
In 2012, IGN ranked Hercules 21st in their "Top 50 Avengers" list.
In 2019, CBR.com ranked Hercules 4th in their "Marvel Comics: The 10 Most Powerful Olympians" list.
In 2021, CBR.com ranked Hercules 6th in their "Marvel: 10 Most Powerful Olympians" list and in their "10 Bravest Gods In Marvel Comics" list.
In 2021, Screen Rant included Hercules in their "10 LGBTQ+ Marvel Heroes That Should Join The MCU" list.
In 2022, Sportskeeda ranked Hercules 1st in their "10 best Greek gods from Marvel comics " list.
In 2022, Collider ranked Hercules 15th in their "19 Most Powerful Marvel Characters" list.
In 2022, Screen Rant included Hercules in their "10 Most Powerful Olympian Gods In Marvel Comics" list and in their "10 Most Powerful Thor Villains, In The Movies & Comics" list.
In 2022, CBR.com included Hercules in their "13 Most Powerful Marvel Demigods" list, in their "10 Greatest Avengers, Ranked By Experience" list, and in their "10 Most Muscular Heroes In Marvel Comics" list.
Other Marvel characters named Hercules
Varen David—In 1940, Timely Comics (Marvel's predecessor) published the adventures of a strongman called "Hercules" in Mystic Comics #3 & 4. In 2009, this character was profiled in Marvel's Marvel Mystery Handbook and identified as "Varen David".
Unnamed member of the Order-A member of the Order codenamed "Hercules" first appeared in Civil War #7 (2007).
Other versions
"Heroes Reborn"
In an alternate reality depicted in the 2021 "Heroes Reborn" miniseries, Hercules fought Power Princess, but was turned into a statue and kept outside her headquarters in the Statue of Liberty. In the present, a mysterious thunderstorm temporarily brings him back to life, but Power Princess subdues him and turns him back.
Marvel Zombies
A zombified version of Hercules appears in Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness. He and several zombies participate in an attack on Doctor Doom's castle to reach the humans inside.
In the prequel Marvel Zombies: Dead Days, Hercules was one of several heroes who survived the zombie plague. However, he is later crushed to death by a zombified Hulk.
24th Century Hercules
An alternate universe version of Hercules stars in a humorous limited self-titled series which depicts his adventures in the 24th century. Banished from Olympus by Zeus in order to learn humility, Hercules travels into deep space where he meets the Rigellians, who loan him Recorder #417. After having adventures on several planets, Hercules arrives in the Omacron star system, where he confronts the cosmic entity Galactus, who humbles him. Following this, Hercules saves the world Galactus intended to devour at the time.
In the sequel series, which took on a dark tone and takes place 41 years after the first series, Hercules and Recorder #417 meet and eventually befriend an alien Skrull called Skyppi. They later face a cosmic version of the hero Red Wolf and a villain devoted to the Titan Thanos who breaks into the tomb of Kree hero Captain Marvel to steal his Nega-Bands. Hercules eventually returns to Olympus and proves to Zeus, who had gone insane and seemingly killed the other gods, he has learned humility by fighting him and sparing his life. However, Zeus reveals the gods now exist in another plane of existence and he is to join them. Before he leaves, Zeus advises Hercules to found his own dynasty now that he is free of his past.
Hercules, Recorder, and Skyppi later returned in an issue of the reprint series Marvel Tales, and the graphic novel Hercules, Prince of Power: Full Circle. In the latter, the trio are captured by Emperor Arimathes, a son born of a past romantic adventure Hercules had and never knew existed. After learn Arimathes had been manipulated by his vengeful mother into becoming a cruel tyrant, Hercules vows to save his son. A three-part storyline in the anthology series Marvel Comics Presents served as an epilogue to the events of the graphic novel.
This version of Hercules last appeared in a third limited series, Hercules: Twilight of a God. Set 75 years after the events of the first limited series, Hercules' three grandchildren, a new Silver Surfer, and the Galactus Black Hole that threatens all life in the galaxy. The fates of Skyppi, Recorder #417 and Arimathes are revealed as Hercules sacrifices himself to stop the galactic threat's expansion and, in doing so, alters the destiny of both himself and Galactus.
MC2
In the possible future MC2 imprint title A-Next, Hercules appears as one of the remaining original Avengers. He also had a son named Argo the Almighty, who aids the next generation of Avengers.
Maestro
When the Hulk initially found Dystopia, Hercules was in charge of the collection of human survivors, now calling himself "the Maestro". An encounter with Rick Jones confirmed for the Hulk that Hercules is now only interested in ruling humans and having sparring matches or sex. Although the Hulk expresses little interest in helping ordinary people for the sake of helping them after they caused the apocalypse, he infiltrates Alchemax's remains to create the Dogs of War to oppose Hercules's forces.
X-Treme X-Men
X-Treme X-Men vol. 2 #7 (2013) depicts an alternate version of Hercules who is in a same-sex relationship with his version of Wolverine, the British Governor General of Canada. In issue #10, after Hercules revealed his relationship with Wolverine to Zeus, Zeus banished them to the pit of Tartarus as he sees himself as the only god allowed to consort with mortals. During the "X-Termination" crossover, "Age of Apocalypse", Nightcrawler's trip home results in three evil beings that destroy anyone they touch being released. Several casualties resulted, including Hercules.
Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Hercules appears as one of Nick Fury's Howling Commandos.
In other media
Television
Hercules appears in the "Mighty Thor" segment of The Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Len Birman.
Hercules makes a cameo appearance in the X-Men: The Animated Series episode "One Man's Worth".
Hercules makes cameo appearances in the Fantastic Four episodes "To Battle the Living Planet" and "Doomsday".
Hercules appears in The Super Hero Squad Show, voiced by Jess Harnell.
Hercules appears in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H., voiced by Townsend Coleman. This version has a history with the Hulk, sports an ego, and causes more problems than he can solve.
Hercules appears in the Avengers Assemble episode "The Incredible Herc", voiced by Matthew Mercer.
Film
Hercules appears in the mid-credits scene of the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor: Love and Thunder (2022), portrayed by Brett Goldstein.
Video games
Hercules appears as an NPC and boss in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced by Sean Donnellan.
Hercules appears in Marvel Super Hero Squad: The Infinity Gauntlet, voiced by Jess Harnell.
Hercules appears as a playable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
Hercules appears in Marvel Heroes, voiced by Travis Willingham.
Collected editions
24th Century Hercules
References
External links
GREEK WEEK Part I -Pak & Van Lente talk Hercules's Past, Comic Book Resources, March 17, 2008
GREEK WEEK Part II- "Hulk vs. Hercules: When Titans Clash", Comic Book Resources, March 19, 2008
GREEK WEEK Part III: Artist Rafa Sandoval, Comic Book Resources, March 19, 2008
Love, Olympian Style: Pak & Van Lente talk "Incredible Hercules", Comic Book Resources, September 4, 2008
Avengers (comics) characters
Characters created by Jack Kirby
Characters created by Stan Lee
Comics characters introduced in 1965
Fantasy comics
Fictional archers
Fictional bisexual men
Fictional exiles
Fictional gods
Marvel
Classical mythology in Marvel Comics
Greek and Roman deities in fiction
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
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Marvel Comics male superheroes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1961 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1961 24 Hours of Le Mans was a motor race for Sports cars and Grand Touring cars staged at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, France on 10 and 11 June 1961. It was the 29th Grand Prix of Endurance and the fourth race of the 1961 World Sportscar Championship. Ferrari and Maserati were the main contenders, with Aston Martin an outside chance.
Ferrari's competition soon wilted in the race – the Maseratis were fast but fragile. The Aston Martins, though reliable, couldn't match the Italian cars’ pace. In the end it was a race between the two works team cars and the North American Racing Team entry driven by the Rodriguez brothers. When the private entry failed with just two hours to go, it was a clear 1–2 result for the Ferrari works team with the Olivier Gendebien, Phil Hill Ferrari 250 TRI/61 winning from the similar car driven by Mike Parkes and Willy Mairesse. A privately-entered Ferrari GT 250 was third with an American-run Maserati Tipo 63 fighting it way back up to fourth, a full 22 laps behind the winning car.
Regulations
The second year of the new FIA regulations did not see significant changes. The controversial windscreen rules regarding minimum height and width were also updated with a maximum slope, which closed the loophole that Maserati had cleverly worked around in the previous year.
For its part, race-organisers, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) increased the maximum continuous driving stint up from 52 to 60 laps, given the faster speeds the cars were running at. However, the total driving time remained at 14 hours per driver. The time to complete the final lap time-limit was shortened from 30 to 20 minutes to reduce the incidents of slow or stationary cars out on the circuit trying to run down the clock to finish.
Scrutineering was moved from the Place des Jacobins in Le Mans city to the circuit. Finally, this year the ACO trialled a new IBM race-timing computer system (which had a few teething problems) and opened the first French automobile museum.
Entries
With the dropping interest in the World Championship, from both manufacturers and fans, there were only 65 entries in total for the race. With two entries rejected, there were 55 starters and 8 reserves. It could be said that the modern Le Mans started in 1961 with the presence of significant mid- and rear-engined cars.
Official ‘works’ entries numbered 26, although Maserati and Aston Martin both gave support to their customer teams. Biggest team presence was the 5-strong Deutsch & Bonnet team, with 4-car entries from the Scuderia Ferrari, Porsche, Abarth and NART teams.
Once again Ferrari dominated the entry list with 11 cars spreads across both the Sport and GT divisions. The racing division of the company was now entitled Societa Esercizio Fabbriche Automobili e Corse (SEFAC) and it arrived with four cars. Two were the latest iteration of the proven Testarossa race-winner, for their best endurance-racing partnership: Phil Hill / Olivier Gendebien as well as Willy Mairesse with Ferrari-debutante Mike Parkes. There was also the new, very fast, mid-engined Ferrari 246 SP which had already impressed in the season to be driven Ferrari's lead F1 drivers Wolfgang von Trips / Richie Ginther. The 2.4-litre V6 engine developed 270 bhp. The final works entry was a prototype of the new GT car being built for the upcoming 1962 rules changes. It still had the 3-litre V12 engine used in the Testarossa and was driven by Giancarlo Baghetti and Fernand Tavano (who had won the GT-division in the 1960 race as a Ferrari privateer). The North American Racing Team (NART) was also entered, with the TR61 car that had won the Sebring race. It would be driven by the very fast, young, Rodriguez brothers, Pedro and Ricardo
Maserati arrived with a new model, the Tipo 63, with a mid-mounted, 3-litre variant of the famous 250F V12 Grand Prix engine. It was said to be capable of 300 kp/h (185 mph) on the Mulsanne Straight. Two were entered by Briggs Cunningham, who had raced it at Sebring and a third for the Scuderia Serenissima, who had run it in the Targa Florio. Camoradi did not send its cars this year. Cunningham himself was entered with Bill Kimberley in a longtail 2-litre T60.
Representing Great Britain was Aston Martin and Cooper. Jaguar was a notable absentee for the first time since 1950. The Border Reivers, the only team to break up the Ferrari monopoly at the previous year's results, returned with their DBR1/300. This year Jim Clark was paired with two-time winner Ron Flockhart. His former team, Ecurie Ecosse, ran the new Cooper T57. Running with the 2.6-litre FPF Climax engine it was underpowered on the straights, but excellent handling kept it competitive.
Porsche arrived with three of their new RS61 cars, each with a different Flat-four engine. The 2-litre variant now developed 185 bhp with a top speed of 155 mph (250 kp/h). It was driven by Masten Gregory and Bob Holbert. The two coupés were driven by the Porsche F1 team drivers Hans Herrmann / Edgar Barth and Jo Bonnier/Dan Gurney.
Completing the 2-litre field, Triumph once again entered three cars in the Sports division, as its TR4 had not been homologated for GT racing as yet.
The smaller-engined classes were well supported once again, with Abarth, Austin Healey and OSCA taking on the dominant Deutsch et Bonnet cars. As well as the standard, reliable HBR-4 cars, DB also introduced its new mid-engined HBR-5 spyder for Vidilles/Moynet.
Six Abarth entries included four works cars. The little 701cc Fiat engine developed a mere 64 bhp. A special 850cc-variant (developing 73 bhp and doing 120 mph on the Mulsanne straight) was in the reserves to be driven by New Zealanders Denis Hulme/Angus Hyslop. OSCA arrived with one of their successful 750 Sport cars as a works entry and an up-engined 988cc entered by NART for the Index prizes.
Once again the GT division was dominated by Ferrari with seven privateer entries. Stirling Moss was back, with Graham Hill, this time in a Ferrari co-entered by Rob Walker and NART. This year, their main competition would come from the Aston Martin DB4s of John Ogier's new Essex Racing Team (who also ran a DBR1/300 in the Sports division) and French privateer Jean Kerguen. Re-styled by Zagato, they were the biggest cars in the field with their 3.7-litre engines.
Otherwise, the mid-range GT classes were rather limited. A pair of French AC Aces were the only entries in the 2-litre class, Lotus had the 1.3-litre category to itself with five Elites entered including two works cars. There was competition in the 1.6-litre class though, with Porsche up against Sunbeam returning to Le Mans after over 30 years away
Curiously, Chris Lawrence's Morgan 4+4 entry was rejected by the ACO because it looked, essentially, too old-fashioned and not meeting the ‘spirit of the race’.
Practice
Over the April test weekend, the Ferrari 246 SP was fastest, three seconds ahead of Hill in the Testarossa and fully nine seconds from the Maserati Tipo 63s. The Ferrari 250 GT was fully 20 seconds faster than its Aston Martin competition. However, Jo Schlesser crashed one of the GTs, breaking his arm and leg, keeping him out of the race.
In official practice, Ginther in the 246 SP was again fastest. Mike Parkes, who had never driven a Testarossa before, was immediately on the pace with 4th fastest time.
Race
Start
The day of the race started with light showers, but by the time 4pm came around the overcast conditions had dried out the circuit. Moss, as always, was quick but by dint of starting further up the grid, Jim Clark's Aston Martin was first car under the Dunlop bridge. Two of the last to get away were Mike Parkes’ Ferrari and Augie Pabst's Maserati. But at the end of the first lap, Ginther in the 246 SP led Hill's Testarossa, Hansgen's Maserati then Pedro Rodriguez in the NART Ferrari, Clark, Moss & Salvadori. Within five laps, Rodriguez had got to the front and together with Ginther and Hill they built a gap from the chasing pack, swapping places often. The first pitstops and driver-changes came after 90 minutes of racing. The 246SP was able to run up to 15 minutes longer before refuelling, therefore building up a bit of a lead.
The showers returned around 6pm, wet enough to make the track very slippery. Walt Hansgen went off at speed at Tertre Rouge, while running fourth. The impact broke his arm and cracked some vertebrae. Bill Halford, running 7th in the Ecosse Cooper soon after taking the wheel, went off at the Dunlop Curve, hitting the embankment at nearly 200 km/h (120 mph). The car rolled, throwing Halford out but he luckily escaped with just scratches and bruises. Then Bill McKay crashed the Ecosse Sprite at Maison Blanche also breaking his arm.
Stirling Moss & Graham Hill had been putting in incredible lap-times with their Ferrari GT, easily leading the GT division, but also ahead of the Aston Martin and Maserati prototypes. Moss even recorded the 7th fastest racing lap ever on the circuit. By 7pm they were running fifth overall.
At 8pm, after four hours and two pitstops, the race order was the Ferraris of von Trips, P.Rodriguez, P.Hill and Parkes. Salvadori was 5th, the last car on the lead lap. Then came the Ferrari GTs of Moss, Tavano and Noblet with Clark in 9th. The UDT Lotus was leading the Index of Performance, with von Trips in second .
Night
The rain continued into the early evening. Then about 10.30pm Ginther had to pit to have its lights fixed that cost them 10 minutes and several laps. This left Hill/Gendebien ahead of the rival Rodriguez brothers then their teammates Parkes/Mairesse. What prevented the race becoming a dull, repetitive procession was the inter-team rivalry between NART and the works team. Close racing in a damp night meant the lead changed repeatedly through the night. At 1am, after 9 hours, the two leading cars had done 123 laps, Parkes-Mairesse 3 laps back, then Ginther/von Trips, Moss/Hill and Salvadori/Maggs all on 118 laps. Seventh was the Pabst/Thompson Maserati two laps further back.
However, at 1.30am the Walker Ferrari was nobbled by a dislodged fan blade slicing a radiator hose, ending its fine run.
The Ferrari GT prototype had been running very well, staying in the top ten, stalking the Walker 250 GT, however in the early hours of Sunday it was retired with engine issues.
Not long before that Clark's Aston Martin had blown its engine on the Mulsanne straight while he was running 5th. The Essex Aston Martin of Salvadori/Maggs moved up to fifth place.
At 4am, the Rodriguez brothers led from the three works Ferraris, then the Aston Martin and the recovering Maserati. Noblet's Ferrari GT was 7th, ahead of Tavano's GT prototype, the leading Porsche (Bonnier/Gurney) and Trintignant's GT. The privateer DB of Masson/Armagnac was leading the Index of Performance from the Contrillier/Foitek Abarth.
Morning
By dawn the track was drying again. But at 7.30am, the NART car came into the pits with a bad misfire, and it took half an hour to fix. Von Trips and Ginther had driven hard after their delay and managed to get back up to second place, four laps behind Hill/Gendebien. But then at 8am, another bad miscalculation by the Ferrari team ran von Trips out of fuel in consecutive Le Mans. The Essex Aston Martin had been lapping consistently, moving up to 4th when the Ferrari retired. However it was retired mid-morning with a split, leaking, oil tank.
Another hard pursuit, this time by the NART Ferrari trying to make up their lost half hour, kept the spectators interested. By midday they had overtaken Mairesse and was in second. But the strain finally told on the engine and at 2pm, with just 2 hours to go, the Rodriguez’ Ferrari crawled into the pits with terminal engine issues. Bonnier and Gurney had been running a strong 5th but became the first Porsche retirement when its engine broke after 12.30pm. The French Aston Martin GT had been running well, 3rd in class behind the Ferraris and 9th overall. But with an hour to go, at its last pitstop, a mechanic left a spanner in the engine and it short-circuited the battery.
Finish and post-race
From there on, the team Ferraris held station with the race finishing under soft rain. Hill and Gendebien, the 1958 winners, won again finishing three laps () ahead of their teammates Parkes/Mairesse. Third place, and thirteen laps further back, was the privateer Ferrari GT of Noblet/Guichet ahead of the Pabst/Thompson Maserati. Porsche had a better race this year, with the all-American Gregory/Holbert works car finishing an excellent 5th, after consistently running in the top-10 from Saturday night. The Herrmann/Barth car came in 7th, while the Porsche GT of Linge/Pon was 10th, easily winning its class.
Briggs Cunningham had an uncomplicated race in the 2-litre Maserati, never missing a beat as it finished 8th. In fact, it was the car that spent the shortest time in the pits during the race. Triumph again staged a formation finish, however this year its three cars were classified, the best one finishing 9th. In the competitive 850cc class, it was the two ‘Kiwis’ in the Abarth 850 that beat the chasing DBs home by a clear six laps. The Foitek/Condrillier Abarth had the great misfortune to break an oil-pipe on the penultimate lap preventing the Italian marque claiming a 1-2 class finish.
This 5th win for Ferrari put it on equal footing with Bentley and Jaguar for most victories. The win contributed to a significant year for Ferrari. Bandini and Scarfiotti won the final round at the new race at Pescara securing the World Championship. Baghetti went on a purple streak winning his first three F1 races and becoming the only driver to win an F1 World Championship race in his first opportunity, at Reims. Ferrari won the F1 Constructor's Championship and Phil Hill and Wolfgang von Trips were the two contenders for the Driver's title that was sadly decided when von Trips was killed at Monza.
This was also the last Le Mans for Stirling Moss who had a career-ending crash at Goodwood early in the next year. In his ten appearances he never won, but his speed and competitiveness was always a highlight for the spectators.
The Index of Performance again went to a DB, but not the works team. Instead it was the small Equipe Chardonnet which won the prize. The special Sunbeam coupé won the Index of Thermal Efficiiency, and the company promptly produced a short run of the “Harrington Le Mans” model to capitalise on its success.
This was the last year of the Sportscar World Championship (in its current form) as the FIA had decreed that going forward, the Championship would be based around GT cars.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Class winners are in Bold text.
Did not finish
Did not start
Class winners
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Index of Performance
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest lap in practice – Ginther, #23 Ferrari 246 SP – 4m 02.8s;
Fastest lap – Ricardo Rodriguez, #17 Ferrari 250 TRI/61 – 3:59.5secs;
Distance –
Winner's average speed –
FIA World Sportscar Championship: post-race standings
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (2009) Le Mans 'The Ferrari Years 1958-1965' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960-69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wilkins, Gordon - editor (1961) Automobile Year #9 1961-62 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1961 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 21 November 2017
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 21 November 2017
Sportscars.tv – race commentary. Retrieved 21 November 2017
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 21 November 2017
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 21 November 2017
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 21 November 2017
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1961 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 10 August 2017
YouTube “Corvette at Le Mans” colour documentary by GM (35 mins). Retrieved 12 November 2017
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1961 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasue
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Krasue
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The Krasue (, ) is a nocturnal female spirit of Southeast Asian folklore. It manifests as the floating, disembodied head of a woman, usually young and beautiful, with her internal organs still attached and trailing down from the neck.
The Krasue belongs to a constellation of similar mythological entities across different regions of Southeast Asia; these regional variations all share in common that they are characterized by a disembodied woman's head with organs and entrails hanging from its neck. Along with the Krasue, there is the Ahp () in Cambodia; the Kasu (, ) in Laos; the Kuyang () or Leyak () in Indonesia; the Ma lai () in Vietnam; manananggal () in the Philippines; Pelasik, Pelesit, penanggalan or penanggal () in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore. Japanese folklore also has yokai creatures called nukekubi and rokurokubi that are quite similar to their Southeast Asian counterparts.
According to Thai ethnographer Phraya Anuman Rajadhon, the Krasue is accompanied by a will-o'-the-wisp-like luminescent glow. The explanations attempted about the origin of the glow include the presence of methane in marshy areas. The Krasue is often said to live in the same areas as Krahang, a male spirit of the Thai folklore.
This spirit moves about by hovering in the air above the ground, for it has no lower body. The throat may be represented in different ways, either as only the trachea or with the whole neck. The organs below the head usually include the heart and the stomach with a length of intestine, the intestinal tract emphasizing the ghost's voracious nature. In the Thai film Krasue Valentine, this ghost is represented with more internal organs, such as lungs and liver, but much reduced in size and anatomically out of proportion with the head. The viscera are sometimes represented freshly daubed with blood, as well as glowing. In contemporary representations her teeth often include pointed fangs in yakkha () or vampire fashion. In the movie Ghosts of Guts Eater she has a halo around her head.
The Krasue has been the subject of a number of films in the region, including My Mother Is Arb (). Also known as Krasue Mom, this Cambodian horror film has the distinction of being the first film made in the People's Republic of Kampuchea after the absence of locally-made films and the repression of local folklore in Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge era.
In the Philippines there is a similar ghost, manananggal, a local spirit that haunts pregnant women.
Legends
Origin
Belief in the existence of the Krasue is shared across Southeast Asia, and its origin is difficult to verify. However, it likely originates from folklore. In Thailand, the Krasue is believed to be a cursed individual (usually a female) who engaged in various sins and fraudulent conducts during her previous life. After she dies, her sins cause her to be reborn as a phut () that has to live off wasted, uncooked or rotten food. In recent time, the Thai entertainment industry has fictionalized the origin of Krasue as cursed from an Ancient Khmer princess, as in Demonic Beauty (2002). The kidnapped princess of the Khmer kingdom cheated on her husband (the general), with a soldier. The soldier was decapitated while the Khmer princess was burned to death. However, before she died, she chanted a spell to protect her mortal body but was only able to save her head and her organs.
This depiction, however, merely is just an attempt to put a royal touch or to reinvent a mythical beginning to a well-known story of an essentially folk origin, strictly for entertainment and commercial purpose.
One critic notes that the director of Demonic Beauty probably just wanted to depict "Krasue" as an evil alien demon, originating from the witchcraft and black magic of a foreign (i.e. Cambodian's) Pagan Culture, which is ultimately subdued and defeated by the more-enlightened Buddhist Culture of Thailand.There are other oral traditions that say that this spirit was formerly a rich lady that had a length of black gauze or ribbon tied around the head and neck as protection from the sunlight. This woman was then possessed by an evil spirit and was cursed to become a Krasue. Other popular legends claim that the origin of the spirit may have been a woman trying to learn black magic that made a mistake or used the wrong spell so that her head and body became separated. Past sins are also related to the transmission of the Krasue curse; women who aborted or killed someone in a previous life will become a Krasue as punishment. Other folk stories talk about a person being cursed to become a Krasue after having consumed food and drink contaminated with a krasue's saliva or flesh. Popular imagination also claims that the transformation into a Krasue is largely restricted to the relatives of women practicing witchcraft "Mae Mot" (แม่มด) or "Yai Mot" (ยายมด), especially their daughters or granddaughters. Often women acting strangely in a community are suspected of becoming nightly a Krasue by other members of the village.
Cambodian folklore
The word អាប (Ahp/Aap), derived from a Sanskrit word आप्यति (āpyati, "to cause anyone to suffer").https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/អាប Ahp in Cambodian folklore, is usually a woman who is half spirit and half-mortal. During the daytime, they appeared to look like normal human beings but during nighttime they ascended, leaving their mortal body with only their head and their organs, gravitating to find food. They were believed to feast on smelly things; blood, raw meats, villager's farm animals, corpses, feces, placentas, newborns, etc. Their weaknesses are thorns and guard dogs.
Ahp are witches who failed practicing powerful black magic, causing it to backfired cursing themselves. Others believe that Ahp are black magic practitioners, borrowing a demon(evil spirit)'s power by letting them possess their body at night, as an exchanged. "Ahp" have to pass their curse onto another woman to be able to enter the cycle of reincarnation; it could be their daughter, granddaughter, relatives or any other women that is in their womanhood also practicing witchcraft but some believe it could just be passed through the exchanged of bodily fluid to any women, usually tricked. Witches in khmer are called, "mae thmob" ម៉ែធ្មប់ (mother witch) "yeay thmob" យាយធ្មប់ (grandmother witch).
In order to protect pregnant women and their child from becoming victims, their relatives place thorny branches around the house as a barrier. This improvised thorny fence discourages the Ahp from coming to suck the blood and causing other suffering to the pregnant woman. After delivery, the woman's relatives must take the cut placenta far away for burial to hide it from the Ahp. If the placenta is buried deep enough the spirit would not be able to find it. It is believed that it would bring great calamities to the child and its family if an Ahp ate the mother's placenta.
Thai folklore
The Krasue is under a curse that makes it ever hungry and always active in the night when it goes out hunting to satisfy its gluttony, seeking blood to drink or raw flesh to devour. It may attack cattle or chickens in the darkness, drinking their blood and eating their internal organs. It may also prey on pieces of cattle, such as water buffalo that have died of other causes during the night. If blood is not available the Krasue may eat feces or carrion. Clothes left outside would be found soiled with blood and excrement in the morning, allegedly after she had wiped her mouth. Therefore, villagers would not leave clothes hanging to dry outside during the night hours.
The Krasue hides the headless body from which it originates in a quiet place because it needs to join it before daybreak, living like a normal person during the day, although having a sleepy look. To crush the still headless body of the krasue is fatal to the spirit. The flying head will return after hunting but rejoin with the wrong body which will lead it to suffer torment until death. If the top part of the body fails to find the lower half before daybreak it will die in terrible pain. The Krasue will also die if its intestines get cut off or if its body disappears or gets hidden by someone. Some folk beliefs hold that the creature can be destroyed by burning it. The main foes of the Krasue are mobs of angry villagers carrying torches and machetes. They may catch the Krasue and kill it or watch where she goes before dawn and destroy her body.
There is a legend said that the people who are wounded should be aware of the Krasue because it can smell the blood and will come to eat the blood at night when people fall asleep. However, there are ways to prevent the Krasue from coming inside the house. House-owners usually build spiky fences or grow spiky bamboo to protect themselves from the Krasue. Krasue is scared of spiky things because its intestine might get stuck and it could not escape.
21st-century sightings
Strange red lights floating up the paddy fields in the area of Phachi District, Ayutthaya Province, near Wat Tako were sighted in mid-June 2014 and was believed to be from a Krasue. Soon after, hundreds of teenagers (in some nights ranging to thousands) flocked in the area reportedly to prove the truth. This has caused damage to this field. The landlord insists that there are no Krasue here and the lights seen were actually a floating lantern bird chaser.
In September 2015, one image was shared on online social networks allegedly shot at Ban Phai village, in the area of Chae Hom District, Lampang Province, depicting a Krasue that has guts and internal organs trapped with thorny branches. However, the villagers denied the report and clarified that there was no village named Ban Phai at the area.
The death of a great number of chickens from mysterious circumstances at a farm in Nakhon Luang District, Ayutthaya Province, on the night of October 4, 2015 was blamed by local villagers on the activity of the Krasue.
In February 2016, at Ban Don Pho Thong, Mueang Suphan Buri District, Suphan Buri Province, some villagers found strange lights floating at night which they believed to be a Krasue. This news has caused many people to panic.
In May 2016, villagers at Ban Khok Ta Kerd, Mueang Surin District, Surin Province saw strange green and red lights rising up and down the paddy fields at night.
In early August 2016 at Ban Song Yang, Mueang Amnat Charoen District, Amnat Charoen Province, video clips from smartphone cameras shot by individuals in the area showed red lights floating at night, believed to be a Krasue.
By the end of 2016, one image has been shared on online social networks in Thailand. The image was shot in Buachet District, Surin Province, and shows an entity that looks like a human's face on a tree at night nearby a light. The image is believed to be depicting a Krasue.
In early 2017, at Ban Lao Luang, Mueang Kalasin District, Kalasin Province, a stampede occurred and villagers rode in motorcycles to go to the area where an individual shot a video showing red lights floating at above the ground. The video shows that the light has already floated away. A man reported that at the time he lived in Yang Talat District, he would frequent the woods at night and while at the woods he looked at the sky and saw a Krasue. According to him, he cannot see the Krasue's face because it was covered by long hair, but he can make out the long fangs and the bright lights. It was reportedly able to escape when he drew his gun to shoot it.
In mid-July 2017, a video clip was shared on online social networks, showing an alleged entity floating in the air at the same level as a tree in the area at night. The entity was being witnessed by either a security guard or a police officer standing and looking with suspicion. There is no information as to where the video came from, and no additional details were available. However, it was found out that the entity was actually a drone, decorated as a man's face as a hoax.
In mid-May 2023, teenagers at Chet Samian Subdistrict, Photharam District, Ratchaburi Province, they gathered in a group chatting around midnight at the edge of the irrigation canal. Suddenly, the youngest one noticed a strange red light floating in the direction of them. The other one shouted "Krasue!" and they all hurried away on a motorbike. In which this event was recorded by a teenager and posted the clip on TikTok. An elderly local man said the area used to be rampant with Krasue in the past. This Krasue is named "I Kueam" and believed that it floats across the river from the opposite side.
In mid-October 2023, there were at least three eyewitness sightings of a Krasue in Lopburi Province. Two of them were young women. Another was a 70-year-old farmer. Most of the story takes place in mid-September, but it became famous about a month later. The elderly farmer said he had a serious confrontation with a Krasue on the night of September 18 at 01:30 a.m. It appeared to be a woman in her 60s with shoulder-length white hair and bared teeth at him. As he was about to hit it with the shovel he was carrying, it floated away. He claims that Krasue tried to break into his duck and chicken coops. Later on the night of October 13 at 09:30 p.m., he experimented by hanging a duck's carcass from a rain tree. It turned out that a Krasue appeared and snatched up the duck and floated away, sucking out all of its intestines. This time he had another witness who was a neighbour. Another eyewitness was a young woman said she encountered the Krasue in a field on the night of September 19 while waiting for her young husband to farm. She said it floated along the surface of the water in the rice fields along with its intestines. She tried to take a video clip with her cell phone but was only able to capture two blurry photos. While another eyewitness was a 21-year-old woman who had just given birth a short time before. She woke up at 02:00 a.m. because her baby was crying. When she finished taking care of the baby, she went to the bathroom. When she came out she saw a strange light in front of the house and when she opened the curtains to see. It looked like something was floating past. She said she had left a large amount of blood-stained sanitary pads in a garbage bag in front of the house. All three cases occurred in different areas in two districts, Tha Wung and Mueang Lopburi. These three had never known each other before. In the case of an elderly farmer in Tha Wung, this was rejected by the local government. Claiming that the Krasue he encountered was actually a masked thief who had come to steal his ducks and chickens. But both he and the young woman who saw Krasue completely denied it, they confirmed what they encountered was definitely not human.
Krasue references in Thai culture
There is information from The Royal Academy which provides examples of how belief in the Krasue has been reflected in Thai culture for centuries, for example:
An abnormally tiny banana (caused by a mutation) is said to be eaten by a Krasue.
A gluttonous person who eats too fast is usually said to "eat like a Krasue" or to be "as gluttonous as Krasue".
Glowing mushroom in Khonkaen province is called "Krasue Mushroom".
In Chonburi province, there is a village named "Nong Krasue" (Krasue marsh). Now, the name has been changed to "Nong Krasaem" (Happiness marsh) to make it less scary.
Scientific explanation
A possible scientific explanation is that Krasue sightings are caused by blazing flames from methane gas particles emitted from rotten organic matters such as found in farms and fields, where Krasue sightings are commonly reported. However, according to Associate Professor Dr. Sirintornthep Towprayoon, an energy researcher from King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, the hypothesis that the Krasue is actually burning methane gas particles is impossible because not enough methane is emitted from rotten organic matter to be able to cause an ignition and that even if the methane gas particles did ignite, the burning would be confined to the surface of the organic, flammable matter and will not lead to floating flames that allegedly give the illusion of the Krasue.
An anatomical interpretation is that when the head is pulled off from the human body, other organs such as the intestines, heart, and lungs will not come together with the head.
In media
Film and television
Countries where the Krasue tale is popular have adapted it to film. Several Thai films depict this spirit, including 1973 movie Krasue Sao (Ghosts of Guts Eater), with Sombat Metanee, which features a fight between two Krasues, Krasue krahai lveat/Filth Eating Spirit' (1985) Itthirit Nam Man Phrai (Oil of Eternal Life) made in 1984, with Tanid Pongmanoon and Praew Mardmarud, Krasue Kat Pop (1990) with Bin Bunluerit and Trirak Rakkarndee, Krasue Krahailueat (Bloodthirsty Krasue), , made in 1995 with Thida Teerarat, Tamnan Krasue (Demonic Beauty) released in 2002, which ties the Krasue to a Khmer curse; Krasue Valentine (2006) by Yuthlert Sippapak, Krasue (The Gluttonous Fear) made in 2007, with Jedsada Roongsakorn and Sirintorn Parnsamutr, Krasue Fat Pop (2009) with Chutima Naiyana, in which Krasue fights against Phi Pop, and Fullmoon Devil (2011) by Komson Thripong. Krasue also appears in erotic movies such as Krasue Rak Krasue Sawat (2014) and Wan Krasue Sao (2013) In all these movies Krasue plays a central role, but she also appears in many other movies in lesser roles, such as in Phi Ta Wan Kap Achan Ta Bo (2008) , among others. More recently, the Krasue appears in the 2019 horror film Inhuman Kiss (Thai: แสงกระสือ), and its 2023 sequel, Inhuman Kiss 2 (), scheduled for theatrical release in Thailand on 30 March 2023.
Krasue, as Ahp (also spelt Arp or Aap), is present in the Cambodian horror films Neang Arp (Lady Vampire) (2004), Tiyen Arp រឿង ទាយាទអាប (Heredity of Krasue) (2007), Arp Kalum (The Sexiest Ahp) (2009) and Phlerng Chhes Arp Ahp Wearing A Helmet Season 1 រឿង អាបពាក់មួកសុវត្ថិភាព វគ្គ១ Ahp Wearing A Helmet Season 2 រឿង អាបពាក់មួកសុវត្ថិភាព វគ្គ2 (Released in 2012) Hong Kong's Witch with the Flying Head (飛頭魔女) (1977), which includes a Krasue spitting flames and firing laser beams and that was dubbed in Thai as Krasue Sawat (กระสือสวาท), meaning "Lovely Krasue", and Indonesia's Mystics in Bali (1981) also feature local versions of Krasue. In the Vietnam War-era drama Freedom Deal by Camerado, President Nixon orders the 1970 military incursion into Cambodia, unwittingly unleashing a legion of local ghosts similar to the Krasue.
This ghost appears periodically in Thai television soap operas (ละคร). Krasue, a popular lakhon aired between 20 December 1994 and 21 March 1995, as well as the more recent Krasue Mahanakhon (กระสือมหานคร) —in which the ghost story for a change is against a background of young city people instead of the usual rural or traditional setting— feature a Krasue in the central role. The theme song of the 1994 Krasue TV soap opera became very famous. There was a remake in 2011 named Krasue Cham Sin (กระสือจำศีล), but it was poorly cast and produced, not being able to reach the popularity of the 1994 lakhon. A Krasue has been also comically featured in a Sylvania light bulb commercial for Thai audiences and in a more recent dietary supplement ad. A rather ugly Krasue also appears in the animated film Nak.
The American anthology streaming television series Creepshow features a Krasue in the season three episode "Drug Traffic".
Others
Representations of Krasue, often humorous, are very common in Thai comic books.Comic page
Since the Krasue is a popular subject in some places of Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand, there are even costumes, dolls, keyholders and lamps sold and worn in Krasue form.
A Krasue features as the main antagonist of the 2013 horror game Eyes: The Horror Game. This interpretation shows the Krasue as a woman who was abused by her husband to the point of death, being reincarnated as a ghost to enact revenge. The Krasue lurks around an abandoned mansion, where the player acts as the role of a thief, where they must retrieve an allocated amount of money bags (depends on difficulty), before being able to leave. The game's story-line, has some reference to the original folktale story, as the story talks of a "curse", and "flames", which is supposedly trapped in a photo.
See also
Dullahan
Onryō
Hungry ghost
Leyak
Langsuyar
Nukekubi
Manananggal (Philippine mythology)
Penanggalan (Malay culture)
Thai folklore
Vengeful ghost
Notes
References
Bibliography
Chutima Pragatwutisarn (2010) (ชุติมา ประกาศวุฒิสาร), Evil Woman in a Beautiful Body: Femininity and the Crisis of Modernity in Thai Society, Chulalongkorn University
Baumann, Benjamin (2013) Tamnan Krasue - Constructing a Khmer Ghost for a Thai Film. in: Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia (14)
Baumann, Benjamin (2014) "From Filth-Ghost to Khmer-Witch: Phi Krasue’s Changing Cinematic Construction and its Symbolism", in: Horror Studies'' 5(2), pp. 183–196
Baumann, Benjamin (2016) "The Khmer Witch Project: Demonizing the Khmer by Khmerizing a Demon", in: Bräunlein and Lauser (eds.) Ghost Movies in Southeast Asia and Beyond. Leiden: Brill. pp. 141–183
Baumann, Benjamin. 2020. "Thai Monsters. Phi Krasue: Inhuman Kiss (Mogkolsiri, 2019)." In Monsters. A Companion, edited by Simon Bacon, 101–9. Oxford Peter Lang.
External links
Tamnan Krasue-Constructing a Khmer Ghost for a Thai Film
Macula's illustration of (krasue)
Southeast Asian culture
Thai ghosts
Laotian legendary creatures
Cambodian legendary creatures
Mythological hematophages
Female legendary creatures
Cambodian legends
Mythological monsters
Monsters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwang%20Pu%20Chen
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Kwang Pu Chen
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Kwang Pu Chen (; 1880 – July 1976) was a Shanghai-based Chinese banker and State Councillor. He was the founder of the first modern Chinese savings bank, the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank, the Shanghai Commercial Bank, a travel agency, as well as the China Assurance Corporation Ltd.
He was one of China's most successful entrepreneurs in the twentieth century, particularly influential in the financial and business world of Shanghai. He played a key role in negotiating financial aid from the United States in 1937-1940, working with Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau.
Linsun Cheng, in his Banking in Modern China: Entrepreneurs, Professional Managers, and the Development of Chinese, says, "It is almost impossible to describe any significant innovation in the history of modern Chinese banks without mentioning K. P. Chen's name."
Early life
In 1880, K. P. Chen was born in Dantu, Jiangsu province into a family with little education. He caught the attention of compradores of a foreign firm who decided to sponsor his education in America. He studied at Simpson College in Iowa and Ohio Wesleyan University before graduating with a business degree from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.
After graduation, as part of the sponsorship agreement, he worked as an intern in an American bank for a year. He then returned to China where he joined the Nanyang Quanyehui or the Nanjing South Seas Exhibition, a China-hosted international exposition that showcased to the world both China’s modernization and cultural heritage.
Career
The Jiangsu Bank
K. P. Chen began his China banking career in 1913, when he joined a provincial government bank, the Kiangsu Provincial Bank, as its General Manager. There, he introduced something new nearly every day, believing innovation necessary for success.
He broke with tradition and moved the bank's headquarters from Jiangsu to the banking capital of Shanghai, made loans on credit of goods rather than personal credit and invited Western accountants to regularly audit the bank's balance books.
The bank established warehouses for its commodities lending operations, the first to do so in China.
He did all this in just a year, after which he was forced to resign when he refused to disclose the names of the bank's customers to a local warlord.
The Shanghai Commercial & Savings Bank (The Shanghai Bank)
In Shanghai in June 1915, K. P. Chen, together with some others including Chinese Red Cross President Zhuang Dezhi, founded the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank. Chen was appointed the bank's first General Manager. Chen had 80,000 Yuan in initial capital to found the bank. Their initial capital was so small the bank became known as "the Little Shanghai Bank".
His guiding principle was “service to society, support for industry, and prosperity to enhance international trade” and he made sure that his staff must be very polite and patient with their clients, small depositors. In his address to his staff in Qingdao branch, he emphasized that they must appreciate their customers business—whether for one or 100 Chinese dollars—must do their best to give their customers convenience, and must be friendly to businessmen. He said “the customer’s psychology always favors a busy place,” because the sight of a busy firm will make people trust it and claimed that the aim of The Shanghai Bank was to serve society and not just make a profit. So, even though some services would not be profitable, they still had to be offered. Chen Guangfu xiansheng lüezhuan (The short biography of Chen Guangfu, Taipei: Shanghai shangye chuxu yinhang, 1977, p. 31).
Innovation seems to have come naturally to K. P. Chen. It did not stop with the Kiangsu Bank. At the Shanghai Bank, contrary to what other banks were doing at the time, he concentrated on attracting deposits from the public instead of notes issuance.
K. P. Chen was the first to introduce "one dollar" accounts, encouraging savings among individual members of the greater public and took the lead in introducing many different types of savings programs.
The Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank's motto, very reflective of Chen's values, was "service to society, support for industry, and development of international trade."
In 1928 the Shanghai Bank handled over 6 million Yuan in foreign exchange and became the number one private bank handling foreign exchange in China. The Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China became upset because of The Shanghai Bank's efforts to promote their foreign exchange business, and decided to refuse The Shanghai Bank's foreign exchange contracts. In retaliation K. P. Chen refused to accept contracts from the Chartered Bank and made this known to the Shanghai banking community through The Shanghai Bankers Association and The Shanghai Foreign Bankers Association, whom he rallied to his cause. Eventually the Chartered Bank came to cooperate with the Shanghai Bank through the mediation of a third party.
In 1931 he created a special trust department in the bank initially to rent out safety deposit boxes but later on including insurance and real estate operations among other things.
He traveled all over China. In the 1930s K. P. Chen would go into the Chinese countryside and attempt to make small farmers "banking-conscious", as observed by a Chartered Bank manager who accompanied Chen on one of his stints. "Don't go to Sinkiang. It's a very hard trip—even dangerous. And when you come back, no one will believe what you find there." he once told a Time Inc.'s Nanking correspondent, Frederick Gruin.
Travel Service Department of the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank
In 1923 K. P. Chen was treated badly when booking his passage at a British-run travel agency. On returning to Shanghai he decided to establish a travel service department within his bank to compete with the foreign travel agencies.
Having made the necessary preparations he submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Communications under the Northern Warlords Government (1912–1927), asking for permission to establish a travel service department and to sell train tickets on a commission basis.
Whilst the proposal was vociferously opposed by the many foreigners occupying important positions in many Chinese railways build with foreign loans at the National Railway Through Transport Conference, it was finally adopted thanks to the support of General Director of Communications Ye Gongche and others, and on August 1, 1923, the Travel Service Department of the Shanghai Commercial, the first of its kind run by Chinese compatriots, was born in the Banks Building on Ningpo road. It operated on a trial basis and opened only to those from "polite society" instead of to the wider populace, providing a comparatively limited business scope.
Its official opening ceremony was held on June 1, 1927 and the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank travel department was formally registered as the China Travel Service. Unfortunately, the average daily turnover in the next few months was too low to cover costs. This embarrassing situation provoked a series of complaints from the board of directors and Chen was obliged to make a thorough reshuffle.
With a total investment of US$50,000, the travel agency was separated from its parent company and had to take on the whole responsibility for its profit and loss from then on. Chen Xiangtao, once an official from the Shanghai Public Communications Bureau was assigned the post of general manager. In April 1928, it changed its name to China Travel Service (holdings) Co. Ltd. (abbreviated as CTS (holding)). The year 1931 was the heyday for the CTS, they won the right to deal in European train tickets for Chinese traveling overseas. In the same year CTS opened up more than 20 chain hostels around the country and its annual profits reached more than US$4 million.
The CTS halted its travel service during the War of Resistance against Japan (1937–45) but was unable to recover after the communist revolution in 1949. Along with the management of the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank, the CTS evacuated to Taiwan, but was unable to resume operations. It declared bankruptcy in Taipei in July 1954 and retreated from the arena, but its epoch-making contribution to the Chinese Tourism Industry is still dwelt upon with great relish.
The mainland assets of the CTS were seized by Communist authorities, and today its successor is one of the state-owned large-scale lead enterprises managed by the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission of the State Council. The core business of CTS (holdings) includes travel, industry invests (steel and iron), the related real estate development and distribution trade.
The Three Musketeers
K. P. Chen cultivated close relationships with Li Ming (founder and CEO of Chekiang Industrial Bank and Chairman of the Shanghai Bankers Association), and Chang Kia-ngau who like he was, represented a new generation of modern bankers.
Half of his initial capital for the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank came from Li's sources.
In 1916, both K. P. Chen and Li Ming stood up for Chang Kia-ngau and accused the government of wrongfully issuing the order when Chang's Bank of China's Shanghai office got into trouble for refusing to obey the governments order to suspend banknote remittance. After this incident, the Bank of China was able to assert its independence from the Yuan Shih-k'ai regime in Peking and started nearly two decades of tremendous growth as China's largest private bank.
K. P. Chen initially became close to Chang Kia-ngau when he became a private financial consultant to the Bank of China at the time between leaving the Kiangsu Provincial Bank and the founding of the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank.
Probably because of his tiny initial capital, K. P. Chen received a long term interbank deposit of 50,000 Yuan from Chang Kia-ngau's Bank of China as reserve capital encouraging close cooperation between the two banks. Chen and Chang shared a vision of using private capital to develop and modernize the country.
Liu Hongsheng, Insurance and The China Development Bank
In 1927 K. P. Chen teamed up with Liu Hongsheng (1888–1956) to establish an insurance company. Three years later Liu Hongsheng mortgaged his new eight-story group office building to K. P. Chen to raise the capital for launching The China Development Bank.
China's Wartime Finance Advisor
K. P. Chen was head of China's Currency Stabilization Board.
During World War II, the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank was devoted to consolidating the economy. In order to solve the financial problems, K. P. Chen represented the government of the Republic of China and negotiated with U.S.A. for loans. Some agreements were made:
1936: US-China Gold-Silver Agreement
1938: $25,000,000 Export-Import Bank loan
1939: Tung Oil Loan Agreement
1940: Tien Tin Loan Agreement
K. P. Chen led a Chinese delegation to Washington in 1936, seeking to persuade the United States to modify its silver purchasing policy.
In 1938 when the Chinese Ambassador Wellington Koo called on U. S. Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau to seek financial aid, the U. S. Secretary told him it might be advisable for the Chinese Government to send K. P. Chen (whom Morgenthau had negotiated with in the past) to America to enquire after credit for the purchase of flour and grain goods. The loan was to be based on tong oil exports.
In 1939 Finance Minister H.H. Kung, through K. P. Chen, endeavored to obtain assistance from the American Commercial Credit for the purchase of four airplanes, badly needed by the China National Aviation Corporation. K. P. Chen also participated in concluding a contract at Detroit to purchase 1,000 trucks from General Motors and Chrysler for the Chinese government.
In April 1940, K. P. Chen again traveled to the United States, this time to facilitate a loan based on tin exports from Yunnan.
Time magazine on Monday, Apr. 6, 1942 reported that "Shy, determined Chinese financier K.P. Chen stuck a feather in his cap last week. From Chungking he wired Manhattan's Universal Trading Corp. to pay the final installment on a $22,000,000 Export-Import Bank loan smack on the tung-oil barrel head—nearly two years before the last installment on the loan was due." This showed U.S. Treasury officials that China could do business even when Japan controlled its coast. When he sought to borrow money from Washington in 1938, democracy was not considered good security but tung oil, essential in high-grade paints and varnishes, was. To make this work he founded Universal Trading Corp. in Manhattan to manage tung-oil sales, budgeting one-half of the proceeds to repay the debt. He also organized Foo Shing Trading Corp. in China to gather and ship the oil.
K. P. Chen made outstanding contributions in stabilizing the monetary system and raising funds for war of resistance.
After the communist revolution in mainland China, K.P. Chen followed the Kuomintang-led government to Taiwan, though his Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank was unable to reestablish its headquarters until 1954. In 1964, the bank was allowed to resume operations. It was the only private bank from the mainland which was allowed to resume commercial operations after the retreat to Taiwan. In 1976, K.P. Chen was succeeded by Chu Ju-tang as chairman of the bank.
Close Shave
In December 1941, K. P. Chen together with Finance Minister and Vice Premier H.H. Kung, his wife Soong Ai-ling and her sister, Madame Sun Yat-sen were caught in Hong Kong when war erupted in Asia. Amid a torrential downpour of bombs and artillery shells, K. P. Chen, Kung, and Madame Sun, were hustled into a plane, flown over the Japanese lines and set safely down, 200 miles inland. (From the Dec. 22, 1941 issue of TIME magazine).
Public Office
On April 17, 1947 Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, President of the National Government of the Republic of China nominated K. P. Chen to membership of the then new state council.
Champion of Human Capital Development
K. P. Chen believed in the power of people and saw his investment in their development as an investment in the future profits of the bank.
He approved an annual budget of 12,000 tael in silver and invited a former manager of the Deutsch-Asiatische Bank to lecture his staff on the theory and practice of foreign exchange market.
He set up an educational fund to send senior managers to America to continue their education and practice advanced banking skills there.
The bank had a global business network through its overseas representative offices managed by its senior managers.
Other positions
K. P. Chen, whose bank had been involved with the cotton industry since its early days, served as Chairman of the Cotton Control Commission or CCC. He was close to T. V. Soong, the Minister of Finance and Founder and Director of the National Economic Council, whose idea it was to make private entrepreneurs and capital a vital part of the CCC's nation-building efforts, and had long been involved in state-private projects sponsored by Soong.
K. P. Chen was the dynamic chairman of the Universal Trading Corporation (UTC), a wholly owned subsidiary of China's Nationalist Government, formed for the purpose of promoting Sino-American foreign trade. Chen, a successful, self-made capitalist entrepreneur, believed that UTC could be the perfect vehicle for his stewardship of China’s postwar economic reconstruction. He also placed a premium on Sino-American cooperation and communication.
K. P. Chen was Chairman of the China Committee of International Chamber of Commerce. He was also Chairman of China's Foreign Trade Commission.
K. P. Chen was a signatory to the 1938 appeal for U. S. support by 10 Chinese Associations in Shanghai following the occupation of Manchuria by Japan. (United States Department of State / Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1932. The Far East Volume III (1932) -- The Far Eastern crisis: occupation of Manchuria by Japan and statement of policy by the United States, pp. 1–754)
K. P. Chen was a major financier of industrial projects. Often working together with others, he set up various textile, metals and trading companies. He was a member of the board of Fan Xudong's Yongli Group of Companies.
Evaluation
Chen is considered one of China's most important bankers in the 20th century.
Linsun Cheng, in his Banking in Modern China: Entrepreneurs, Professional Managers, and the Development of Chinese, says, "It is almost impossible to describe any significant innovation in the history of modern Chinese banks without mentioning K. P. Chen's name."
On Monday, Mar. 18, 1940, Time magazine described him thus:
"Middle-aged Banker Chen (University of Pennsylvania '09) looks so much like a Westerner's idea of a Chinese banker that wily and subtle-minded Americans have difficulty in believing he is as simple and direct as he is... bespectacled, careful, shy of the press, close-mouthed (in the Calvin Coolidge rather than Sumner Welles sense), he has no hobbies, makes no picturesque Oriental remarks, works 24 hours a day at the unglamorous business of cementing U.S.-Chinese trade relations, and considers Chinese repayment of U. S. loans his personal responsibility. His pride: that China has repaid $2,300,000 of her previous $25,000,000 loan, is now, because of U. S. needs for tung oil and tin, ahead of schedule."
The most important elements in his success were his American education and connections; his sense of professionalism (demonstrated by his opposition to official interference); his ability to compete and collaborate with foreign firms; his desire to innovate and explore various business strategies; his skill at obtaining community and professional support; and the unity of Chinese bankers.
See also
Chinese financial system
Notes
References
Tianshi, Yang. "Hu Shi and Chen Guangfu." Chinese Studies in History 39.3 (2006): 51-79.
Lee, Pui-tak. The Making of Modern Chinese Financial Entrepreneurship: The Case of Chen Guangfu (University of Hong Kong)
Ho Kwong Shing Lawrence. "China's Quest for American Monetary Aid: The Role of Chen Guangfu, 1935-1944". Ph.D. Thesis. The University of Hong Kong. 2010.
Lee, P. T. Emergence of Modern Chinese Financial Corporations: Case Study of Shanghai Commercial And Savings Bank, China Assurance Corporation Ltd, and China Travel Agency Centre of Asian Studies Department, July 1998 - June 2000)
Andrea McElderry. "Confucian Capitalism?: Corporate Values in Republican Banking" (Univ. of Louisville) Modern China, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Jul., 1986), pp. 401–416 (c) 1986 Sage Publication Inc.
Whither Japan - Page 122 by Shuxi Xu - 1941 | Today's announcement follows three months' negotiations with US financial mission headed by Dr. KP Chen. It was further announced that the credits would be ...
Morgenthau Diary (China): Prepared by the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the ... - Page 551 | by United States. Congress. Senate. Judiciary - 1965 | On his return from Chungking to Hong Kong, Mr. Cochran had a talk with KP Chen in which the latter indicated his desire to withdraw from the Board. ...
Morgenthau Diary (China): Prepared by the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the ... - Page 885 | by United States. Congress. Senate. Judiciary - 1965 | Mr. KP CHEN On April 17, 1942 Mr. KP Chen, chairman of the Currency Stabilization Board, appeared much older and more fatigued than the year before when he ...
Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments: Hearing Before the Subcommittee to Investigate ... - Page 2337 | by United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary - 1954 | I told him that I learned from Mr. KP Chen that wood oil, tung oil, the annual production is about 44000 tons a year and in about five years, ...
The Amerasia Spy Case: Prelude to McCarthyism - Page 21 | by Harvey Klehr - History - 1996 - 280 pages | In 1940 Solomon Adler and Frank Coe, another Treasury Department employee who was a member of the CPUSA, introduced Chi to KP Chen, the Nationalist ...
The Amerasia Papers: A Clue to the Catastrophe of China ... Prepared by the Subcommittee to ... - Pages 1216, 1373, 1374 | by United States. Congress. Senate. Judiciary Committee - 1970 | It has been learned that Keswick proposed the formation of a Chinese company in the United States by KP Chen and Bang HOT and others ...
A History of Modern Shanghai Banking: The Rise and Decline of China's Financial Capitalism - Page 293 | by Zhaojin Ji - Business & Economics - 2003 - 325 pages | ... fl Chase Bank Chen Bulei Chen Guangfu (KP Chen) Chen Guofu Chen Yun ...
Institute of Pacific Relations: Hearings, Eighty-second Congress, First[-second] Session ... | by United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary - 1953 | ... I told him that so far as I was informed, ! in this country, having arrived with KP Chen, but that to get 1 public perhaps is difficult. ...
Shanghai: Revolution and Development in an Asian Metropolis - Page 9 | edited by Christopher Howe - Science - 1981 - 461 pages | ... the Chien brothers (Chien Chao-nan and Chien Yu-chieh) and the bankers, KP Chen (Ch'en Kuang-fu) and Chang Kia-ngau (Chang Chia-ao). ...
Guide to Nanking and the Nanyang Exposition - Page 9 | 1910 - 55 pages | KP Chen Hwei-teh, 13.
83-1: Executive Sessions of The Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of The Committee ... - Page 3433 | by United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Governmental Affairs - 2003 | There were also Chinese members of the boards, Mr. KP Chen was one, and he was the head of the Shanghai Commercial Bank, and Mr. Tsu ...
The Life and Political Economy of Lauchlin Currie: New Dealer, Presidential Advisor and ... - Page 392 | by Roger J. Sandilands - 1990 | ... the finance minister whom he urged the Generalissimo to replace by someone more honest and efficient. He recommended KP Chen as an alternative. ...
The Cambridge History of China - Page 775 | edited by John K. Fairbank, Denis Twitchett - History - 1983 - 1120 pages | ... the interests of the Chinese residents on the Shanghai Municipal Council), he was in touch with the bankers Sung Han-chang and KP Chen as well as the ...
Repeal of Silver Purchase Acts: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and ... - Page 38 | by United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Banking and Currency - 1955 - 368 pages | ... The Chinese representatives were: KP Chen, YC Koo, and P. W. Kuo. Apparently the
Shanghai Money Market - Page 26 | by Shinwei Peng - 1946 - 56 pages | Mr. KP Chen, founder and chairman of the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank a year or so ago assured the author that the aim of that bank was to help ...
The China Journal - Page 221 | by China Society of Arts and Science | It is being sponsored whole-heartedly by such prominent Chinese leaders as Dr. PW Kuo, Mr. Ling Kang-hou, Mr. Yue Tso-ting, Mr. KP Chen, Mr. Tu Yueh-sen, ..
"China To-day" Series - Page 83 | 1934 | A Standing Committee of the Board was elected, the members being Mr. T. V. Soong, Chairman of the Bank of China, Mr. Hu Chun, Mr. KP Chen, Mr. YM Chien, ...
Appalachia - Page 296 by Boston Appalachian Mountain Club | One of these cultured gentlemen was Mr. KP Chen, a banker well known on both sides of the Pacific, and another was Mr. Pan, who was installing comfortable ...
Journal - Page 23 by American Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines | ... ability of his Chinese associates on the board: Chairman KP Chen, of the Shanghai Commercial Bank; ...
No Fears, Hidden Tears: A Memoir of Four Score Years : the Autobiography of John Lewis Keeshin - Page 84 by John Lewis Keeshin - 1983
China Today: Chin Jih Chung-kuo - Page 4 by Taiwan China Today Society, T'ai-pei Institute of Chinese Culture, Institute for Advanced Chinese studies, China Today Society, Chung-kuo wen hua hsüeh yüan. Chung-Kuo wen hua yen chiu so, Tai pei Chung-Kuo wen hua yen chiu so, Inc United Publishing Center, Chinese Institute of Translation and Research
Going to War with Japan, 1937-1941 - Page 194 by Jonathan G Utley - History - 2005 - 256 pages Harry Dexter White memo, March 16, July 12, 1938, folder 189, box 62, RG 56; Morgenthau diary, box 127, 109; HH Kung letter to KP Chen, Aug.
Banking in Modern China: Entrepreneurs, Professional Managers, and the Development of Chinese ... - Page 257 by Linsun Cheng
Chinese Economic Journal and Bulletin by China. Shi ye bu. Guo ji mao yi ju, China. Jing ji tao lun chu. Published by Bureau of Foreign Trade, Ministry of Industry [etc.]
Chinese Economic Bulletin - Page 104 | by China. Jing ji tao lun chu, China. Industrial and Commercial Information Bureau, China. Shi ye bu. Guo ji mao yi ju | ... who are as follows:— Li Ming, General Manager of the Chekiang Industrial Bank; KP Chen, General Manager of the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank;
Chinese Economic Journal and Bulletin - Page 187 | by China. Shi ye bu. Guo ji mao yi ju, China. Jing ji tao lun chu | KP Chen and John H. Chen, Managing Directors of the Bank. The Chairmanship of the Board of Directors was entrusted to Dr. HH Kung. The Board of Supervisors ...
Chinese Economic Bulletin - Page 240 | by China. Jing ji tao lun chu, China. Industrial and Commercial Information Bureau, China. Shi ye bu. Guo ji mao yi ju
Chinese Economic Bulletin - Page 263 | by China. Jing ji tao lun chu, China. Industrial and Commercial Information Bureau, China. Shi ye bu. Guo ji mao yi ju
Chinese Economic Bulletin - Page 253 | by China. Jing ji tao lun chu, China. Industrial and Commercial Information Bureau, China. Shi ye bu. Guo ji mao yi ju
Chinese Economic Bulletin - Page 382 | by China. Jing ji tao lun chu, China. Industrial and Commercial Information Bureau, China. Shi ye bu. Guo ji mao yi ju
Lee P.T. Banker and banking business in modern China: conference and publication of the diaries of K.P. Chen—To study banker and banking business in modern China: conference and publication of the diaries of K.P. Chen (Hang Seng Bank Golden Jubilee Education Fund for Research, July 2001)
"Tung Oil Wanted" Apr. 6, 1942, TIME magazine
Time Inc.'s Nanking correspondent, Frederick Gruin, Monday, Oct. 20, 1947
"Everyday Life" Mar. 18, 1940, Time magazine
"Emergency As Usual," Dec. 22, 1941, Time magazine
Chen Guangfu Pioneered China's Modern Tourism; Part 2 Yao Huiyuan, Cao Lingjiao, Jeffery Seow
External links
Finding aid to the K.P. Chen papers at Columbia University Rare Book & Manuscript Library
Personal papers of Chen Guangfu / K. P. Chen deposited in the Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University.
1880 births
1976 deaths
Businesspeople from Jiangsu
Chinese bankers
Taiwanese bankers
People from Zhenjiang
Taiwanese people from Jiangsu
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni
Members of the 1st Legislative Yuan
Members of the 1st Legislative Yuan in Taiwan
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4964763
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne%20N.%20Aspinall
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Wayne N. Aspinall
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Wayne Norviel Aspinall (April 3, 1896 – October 9, 1983) was an American lawyer and politician from Colorado. He is largely known for his tenure in the United States House of Representatives, serving as a Democrat from 1949–1973 from Colorado's Fourth District. Aspinall became known for his direction of the House Interior and Insular Affairs Committee, of which he was the chairman from 1959–1973. Aspinall focused the majority of his efforts on western land and water issues.
His actions supporting resource development often drew the ire of the increasingly powerful environmental lobby in the 1960s. David Brower, a prominent executive director of the Sierra Club, said that the environmental movement had seen "dream after dream dashed on the stony continents of Wayne Aspinall." The congressman returned the animosity, calling environmentalists "over-indulged zealots" and "aristocrats" to whom "balance means nothing." This battle shaped Aspinall's congressional career.
Biography
Aspinall was born in Middleburg, Logan County, Ohio in 1896 and moved to Palisade, Colorado in 1904. He studied at the University of Denver until World War I, when he enlisted in the armed services (the Air Service of the Signal Corps). He returned to DU after his discharge and graduated in 1919. After several years of teaching around the state, he enrolled in law school in Denver and graduated in 1925. In 1930, he won a seat in the Colorado State House of Representatives, serving as Speaker in 1937 and 1938 before moving to the State Senate from 1939 to 1948. He served in World War II as a captain in Military Government during 1943 and 1944 as well. In 1948, he chose to run for national office, hoping for it to be a stepping stone to Colorado's governorship. However, he would stay in the U.S. House for 24 years.
Living on Colorado's Western Slope defined Aspinall's political ideology. His family had traditionally voted Republican, but the party's in-fighting in 1912 between Theodore Roosevelt and William H. Taft disillusioned Aspinall. However, despite becoming a Democrat, his rural roots shaped a relatively conservative philosophy. He believed in limited federal involvement in western land and water issues; to him, localities could better decide the uses of their resources. "When I was young…I lived outside the little town of Palisade, and the townspeople always seemed to call the shots. Then I moved to Palisade, and the bigger town of Grand Junction always seemed to call the shots. Then I went to the state Legislature, and the Eastern Slope…seemed to call the shots. And in Congress, the big metropolitan areas seemed to hold all the marbles."
His service in the U.S. House ended in 1972 with his loss in the Fourth District Democratic primary. However, Aspinall remained active in politics. He voiced his opinions on the need for the United States to become self-reliant for its energy needs, pushing oil shale development until his death in 1983.
Colorado history remembers Aspinall as one of the state's most influential politicians. Known as "The Chairman," he led the Interior and Insular Affairs Committee during a period that defined future water and land policy in the United States. Colorado governor Richard Lamm, a Democrat who had several ideological differences with Aspinall, remarked that "[N]o one in our history has done more to win Colorado a place at the table in Washington." He had a son, Owen Aspinall, who went on to become Governor of American Samoa.
Colorado River Storage Act of 1956
Aspinall favored dams and water reclamation projects for several reasons: (1) the power they generated; (2) general recreational use; and (3) he felt the key to Western economic prosperity lay in obtaining permanent stored supply of water for economic purposes. In Aspinall's mind, Americans had many opportunities to enjoy scenic areas, so damming a few of them would not hurt the country. After his career, he boasted that he had brought over $1 billion worth of water projects to his district. According to his observers, he "never met a dam he didn't like."
The Colorado River Storage Project (CRSP) came before Congress in the early to mid-1950s. The bill, sponsored by Wayne Aspinall and several western allies, called for damming several areas in the Upper Basin of the Colorado River. It included the Echo Park Dam proposal, located within Dinosaur National Monument. This became a volatile issue between environmentalists and water project advocates. Located just below the Green and Yampa Rivers, the proposed high dam would have created a 43,000 acre (170 km2) lake, flooding the Green River Canyon for and the Yampa River Canyon for . However, because of increased environmental awareness around the country, the majority of the public opposed the project. In 1954 alone, the Department of the Interior received 20,000 pieces of mail about the plan, and one insider estimated the letters ran 80 to 1 in opposition of the project.
In 1954 and 1955, environmentalists defeated the controversial aspects of the CRSP. In '55, Aspinall conceded that for the bill to pass, he needed to sacrifice the Echo Park plan. Several more compromises between the two sides gave way to the Colorado River Storage Act of 1956 (Public Law 485, in chapter 203), which called for the creation of other irrigation projects and several large dams, including the Glen Canyon Dam in Utah, which created Lake Powell. Other projects created from the CRSP included the Flaming Gorge, Navajo, and Curecanti reservoirs. For his compromise, Aspinall gained five other reclamation projects and three hydroelectric dams for the Fourth District. The bill passed the House 256–136 in March 1956 and then-President Dwight Eisenhower signed it into law soon thereafter.
Frying Pan Arkansas Project of 1962
This plan, originally proposed in 1951, called for water diversion out of the Frying Pan and Roaring Fork Rivers on the Western Slope of Colorado to the Arkansas River, which flowed to a drier climate in the southeast part of the state. Because the Front Range (Boulder, Denver, Colorado Springs, and Pueblo) had a tremendous population advantage over the Western Slope, most of the state favored the project. Precedent for this maneuver had been set in 1937 with the Colorado-Big Thompson Project, which transferred Western Slope water to farmers in northeast Colorado.
Because he wanted to focus the House's efforts on the CRSP in the mid-'50s, Aspinall tabled Fry-Ark until 1960. However, when the issue resurfaced, Aspinall's opinion created controversy in his own district. Many of his constituents disapproved of sending their water to the Front Range. Aspinall, however, pushed the plan through because he realized that as a strong proponent of public water development, it seemed contradictory for him to block reclamation projects that benefited others. The bill passed in August 1962 when Aspinall attained a plan calling for the construction of a reservoir on the Roaring Fork River near Aspen, which would compensate the Western Slope for its loss of water.
Fry-Ark demonstrated Aspinall's resolve to proliferate the amount of publicly funded water projects throughout the West, pitting him against the wishes of the majority of his constituents in the early 1960s. He quickly regained favor with them, however, when its precedent eventually brought more dams and reclamation projects back to the Fourth District.
Wilderness Act of 1964
One of the first comprehensive pieces of environmental legislation during the era faced a lengthy battle in Congress between Presidents Kennedy and Johnson and western politicians like Aspinall. When the Wilderness bill first came to the House in 1961, Aspinall employed various stall tactics to never allow the popular bill out of the Interior Committee. He continued this through 1962 and into '63, earning him the wrath of the country's environmentalists, preservationist politicians, and a large amount of the public.
However, in November 1963 Aspinall made a deal with John F. Kennedy. Aspinall greatly desired a public land review commission (see below), while one of Kennedy's primary goals was the passage of the Wilderness Act. Aspinall agreed to release the bill in exchange for the administration's cooperation with the land commission. (Also, Kennedy's assassination on November 22, 1963 created an ethos in Washington that essentially made Kennedy a martyr. Lyndon Johnson took up and pushed through many of his legislative goals because of public empathy.)
Before Aspinall let the Wilderness Act of 1964 pass, he dropped the original request of 55 million acres (220,000 km2) of protected wilderness to only 9.1 million acres (37,000 km2). He also inserted a clause, called the "1984 clause," that allowed mining interests to still have access to many of these areas until December 31, 1983. Despite these concessions, the House passed it 373-1 and Lyndon Johnson signed it in September. The act also refused to turn over exclusive power to the executive branch, keeping some power in Congress for public land oversight. Ironically, the National Wildlife Federation named Aspinall their "Conservationist of the Year" in 1964 for his role in the eventual passage of the bill.
Colorado River Basin Act of 1968 and the Central Arizona Project
From 1966 to 1968, Aspinall took on the final significant water project battle of his congressional career. The purpose of the Colorado River Basin Project, according to supporters, was to build dams to generate revenue and energy for communities in the Lower Basin of the Colorado River without using much of the Upper Basin's river water. The primary focus of the project was the Central Arizona Project (CAP). CAP supporters, among other demands, wanted to build two dams, one that would flood Grand Canyon National Monument and part of Grand Canyon National Park (Bridge Canyon Dam), with the other on the edge of the Grand Canyon (Marble Canyon Dam). Aspinall originally supported this, claiming it would generate revenue for all Colorado River Basin states. In turn, however, he demanded that his district receive five reclamation projects for his support. Several congressmen, including Arizona senator Carl Hayden, saw this as action as a move that held the state hostage, and many would come to resent Aspinall for it.
Environmentalists vehemently opposed the CAP because of its detriment to the scenery of the Grand Canyon. Aspinall would later say "We viewed the development of the river as the only reasonable, practicable, safe, and logical way for millions of Americans and visitors to enjoy the canyon bottom which to date so few have had an opportunity to visit or view." However, during the debate, the Sierra Club mocked that philosophy, purchasing an ad in national newspapers in July 1966. "Should we also flood the Sistine Chapel so tourists can get nearer the ceiling?" it asked.
Sensing that he couldn't break the stalemate, Aspinall dropped the Grand Canyon dams from the CRPB in late August 1967. The bill eventually passed in the middle of 1968, creating the Colorado River Basin Act. However, in exchange for this compromise, Aspinall did receive five projects for Colorado (the Dallas Creek, Animas-La Plata, West Divide, San Miguel, and Dolores projects).
Of those five, only two were eventually built (Dolores and Dallas Creek). The Animas-La Plata project is currently under construction, and is one of the last major water projects in the West. Jimmy Carter declared a "Hit List" in 1977 on what he felt was wasteful spending on "pork barrel" water projects, eliminating the other three (among others). Furthermore, no new major reclamation projects were approved during the rest of the era, partly because Aspinall's heavy-handed demands that constrained the legislation broke apart the western coalition of politicians that supported the construction of water projects.
Public Land Law Review Commission
Kennedy's concession in 1963 to enact the Wilderness Act gave Aspinall the go-ahead to organize his pet project, the Public Land Law Review Commission (PLLRC) in 1965. The PLLRC reviewed all federal regulations affecting the control and uses of the nation's public lands and recommended changes that would help the federal government manage these areas more efficiently. Aspinall served as the commission's chair for the entirety of its existence, from 1965 until 1970.
The final report came out on June 23, 1970. Titled "One Third of the Nation's Lands," it gave 137 recommendations to Richard Nixon and Congress. Among its suggestions:
States should have a greater say in how public lands are managed
Congress should have greater say in the uses of public land because the executive branch exerted too much singular influence
All public-land issues should be concentrated under a new Department of Natural Resources, with committees in the House and Senate
The Secretary of the Interior's power to withdraw public lands from development without Congressional approval should be limited
Regional mining, timber, and grazing needs should be supported to increase economic growth in local communities
The federal government should help stimulate the oil shale industry
Environmentalists blasted its findings. The Sierra Club accused the study of being "oriented toward maximum immediate commercial exploitation..." predicated upon a world with an "ever-expanding economy and unlimited resources." Others stated that the report only considered studies and opinions favorable to Aspinall's political ideology. Many citizens were also still unhappy with Aspinall for blocking the creation of the Redwood National Park in California for half of the decade until its passage in 1968, and they saw this as more evidence that he served as a mouthpiece for the extractive industries' interests in Congress.
Aspinall proposed HR 9211 in his final session in Congress to implement many of the PLLRC's recommendations, but it failed to pass. During the height of the environmental movement, many of these suggestions were unacceptable to the public. However, later bills spawned from the ideas in the PLLRC, such as the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976.
1970 and 1972 Democratic primaries
After over two decades in office, the turbulent forces of the 1960s and early '70s caught up with Aspinall. With liberalism gaining strength throughout the country by protesting the Vietnam War and advocating civil rights for African Americans and equal rights for women, reformers gained control of the Democratic Party. They jumped on the opportunity to remove one of the party's most conservative members.
In 1970 a young Democrat named Richard Perchlik challenged Aspinall in the Fourth District Democratic primary. Although Aspinall won by over 11,000 votes in his first primary challenge since 1948, Perchlik's campaign portrayed Aspinall as old (74 at the time) and out of touch with the ideals of liberals on the war and the environment. The challenger also accused "The Chairman" of being too connected to the extractive special interests and railed against him for his role in what reformers viewed as a flawed seniority system in Congress.
Aspinall's friend and colleague, Democratic congressman Byron Rogers of Colorado's First District, did not survive 1970's primary season, however. A young liberal lawyer from Denver, Craig Barnes, defeated Rogers (although Barnes himself lost the general election). Rogers had a similar philosophy and legislative record to Aspinall, seemingly foreshadowing Aspinall's fate in 1972.
The degree to which Aspinall appreciated the challenge of liberal Democrats is debated. He did say that "this drive toward liberalism, organization of committees, etc., is causing me to wonder if I haven't reached the place where I should let some younger and more militant person take over." However, he never altered his campaign message in 1972, even after the Republican-controlled Colorado General Assembly redrew the state's district lines to include largely liberal precincts in the Fourth District. "Wayne Aspinall represents all the interests because all the people have interest in our resources," his campaign said, continuing to target the miners, ranchers, and loggers that lived on the Western Slope. He never attempted to alter his message to assuage the concerns of his new liberal constituents.
His opponent in the 1972 Democratic primary, Alan Merson, employed the same strategy that Perchlik and Barnes used two years previously. Merson attacked Aspinall for being slow to recognize developing energy problems, promoting policies that fed constant growth, building needless water projects, and being a tool of special interests. Merson received extensive external aid, accepting endorsements from The New York Times, Field and Stream, and even Reader's Digest. The environmental lobby provided most of the support to Merson's campaign, with $20,000 coming from the League of Conservation Voters. Environmental Action, having named Aspinall to their 1972 "Dirty Dozen" list of biggest congressional enemies to the environment, also endorsed Merson.
Using the young, liberal vote on the Front Range, Merson defeated Aspinall in the primary 53% to 47%. History credits Aspinall's loss to his age, the strength of the environmental issue in 1972, and the redistricting that cost "The Chairman" much of his conservative support on the Western Slope.
However, redistricting still favored Republicans, despite the liberal Merson's victory. Moving urban voters into the Fourth split the Democratic vote and consolidated Republican strength. Merson lost to James Paul Johnson, who had been Aspinall's unsuccessful Republican opponent in 1966, in the general election in November 1972.
Post-Congressional life
Aspinall stayed relatively active after leaving office in January 1973. He crossed party lines and endorsed Gerald Ford for president in 1976. He also pressed for further exploration of oil shale in the late 1970s, serving on the board of directors for the Paraho Oil Shale Demonstration, Inc., hoping to lead the country to an alternative energy source to end American reliance on oil during the energy crisis caused by the Arab Oil Embargo.
He proudly took part in the Sagebrush Rebellion, a western philosophy popular from 1979–1982 that attempted to reclaim some federally protected land for determination by states and local governments.
Aspinall resumed the practice of law, was a resident of Palisade, Colo., until his death there October 9, 1983; he was cremated, and his ashes were interred at Orchard Mesa Municipal Cemetery, Grand Junction, Colorado. The United States Post Office and Courthouse in Grand Junction was renamed the Wayne N. Aspinall Federal Building in 1972.
References
Aspinall, Wayne N. Papers, Election Files and Grand Junction Office Files. 1948–1973. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado at Boulder Libraries, Archives. Accessed February 27, 2006.
Schulte, Steven C. Wayne Aspinall and the Shaping of the American West. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2002.
Sturgeon, Steven Craig. Wayne Aspinall and the Politics of Western Water. Doctoral Thesis. History, 1998, University of Colorado at Boulder. Directed by Prof. Patricia Nelson Limerick.
External links
http://digital.library.du.edu/findingaids/view?docId=ead/m008.xml;query=;brand=default Guide to the Wayne Aspinall Papers at the University of Denver, retrieved 2014-09-25.
Biography at the US Congress
1896 births
1983 deaths
20th-century American politicians
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Army personnel of World War II
Colorado lawyers
Democratic Party Colorado state senators
Democratic Party members of the Colorado House of Representatives
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Colorado
Military personnel from Colorado
People from Logan County, Ohio
People from Mesa County, Colorado
School board members in Colorado
Speakers of the Colorado House of Representatives
Sturm College of Law alumni
United States Army officers
20th-century American lawyers
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