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4891909	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco%20de%20Toledo	Francisco de Toledo	Francisco Álvarez de Toledo (Oropesa, 10 July 1515 – Escalona, 21 April 1582), also known as The Viceroyal Solon, was an aristocrat and soldier of the Kingdom of Spain and the fifth Viceroy of Peru. Often regarded as the "best of Peru's viceroys", he is as often denounced for the negative impact his administration had on the Indigenous peoples of Peru. Toledo brought stability to a tumultuous viceroyalty of Spain and enacted administrative reforms which changed the character of Spanish colonial rule and the relationship between the Indigenous peoples of the Andes and their Spanish overlords. With a policy called "reductions", Toledo forcibly relocated much of the Indigenous peoples of Peru and Bolivia into new settlements in order to enforce their Christianization, collect tributes and taxes, and gather Indigenous labor to work in mines and other Spanish enterprises. He has been condemned for the reductions, expanding the forced labor demanded of the Indigenous peoples under the mit'a of the Inca Empire, and executing Túpac Amaru, the last Inca chief of the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba. Toledo held the position of viceroy from November 30, 1569, until 1 May 1581, a total of eleven years and five months. He has been praised as the "supreme organizer" of the immense viceroyalty, giving it a legal structure and strengthening institutions by which the Spanish colony functioned for more than two hundred years. Scholar John Hemming described Toledo as "one of the world's great colonial administrators". He also described him as "honest and honorable but cold and unfeeling...autocratic" and "with the temperament of an ascetic." Birth and early years Francisco de Toledo was born on 15 July 1515 in Oropesa, Castile belonging to the noble family Álvarez de Toledo, while his mother died, which would influence his mood serious and taciturn. Her aunts Mary and Elizabeth were responsible for their upbringing. He was the fourth and last child of Francisco Álvarez de Toledo y Pacheco, II Count of Oropesa, and María Figueroa y Toledo, eldest daughter of Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, II Count of Feria and María Álvarez de Toledo, daughter of the I Duke of Alba de Tormes. At the age of eight he moved to the court of King Charles I of Spain, to serve as a page to the queen consorts Leonor and Isabel. He learned Latin, history, rhetoric and theology, fencing, music, dancing and courtly manners. Serving the Emperor Charles V Francisco de Toledo was fifteen years old when in 1530 King Charles I accepted him at home, accompanying that emperor until his last days in the most varied circumstances of both peace and war. This personal contact with the monarch, who adopted the prudent policy, "Machiavellianism" and the tendency to seek balances between his partners, would serve as a useful experience for further governmental work. In 1535, when he was twenty, he was invested with the habit of a knight of the Order of Alcántara, a religious-military order, and years later was given to this corporation the task of Acebuchar in 1551. The first military action in which intervened was the Conquest of Tunis (1535), a great triumph of the imperial troops over the Ottoman Turks who snatched the plaza in North Africa. Following the emperor on his tour of Europe, the young Álvarez de Toledo passed through Rome, where king Carlos I defied Francis I of France, which triggered another war with that country (the third of the reign of the emperor), between the years 1536–1538. Following the signing of peace, Álvarez de Toledo returned to Spain and later went to Ghent, in Flanders. Once participated in the expedition to the Ottoman Algiers in North Africa, campaign which ended in failure due to bad weather (1541). In the following years he continued to serve the imperial arms, but also participated in the diets, boards and councils. It was a very turbulent time, as well as the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks occurred progress of Protestantism in Germany, region under imperial orbit. In all this time Álvarez de Toledo was near the emperor Charles V. He met the Spanish negotiations with England to start a new war against France. He dealt with the issues of Hispanic America interested about the legal status that should have the Indians. He was in Valladolid when Friar Bartolomé de las Casas appeared before a board of theologians the text of A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies and knew of the writing of the New Laws of the Indies that caused such a stir in Peru. He left Barcelona in 1543 with the emperor, for Italy and Germany during the fourth war against France. He participated in the battles of Gelderland and Düren. In 1556 took place the abdication of Charles I and his consequent trip to Spain, and on November 12, on the way to Monastery of Yuste, entered the castle of Jarandilla de la Vera, which was hosted by its owner, 4th Count of Oropesa, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Figueroa, who was the nephew of Francis and who also received the old ex monarch. The stay lasted until February 3, 1557, when the works in Yuste were finished, final resting place of Charles I. They both served him until his death in 1558. The following years were spent by Álvarez de Toledo in activities related to the Order of Alcántara. Between 1558 and 1565 he remained in Rome, where he participated in the discussion and definition of the Statutes of the Order, as attorney general. Viceroy of Peru Toledo became the fifth viceroy of Peru (which included at the time Bolivia) in 1569. He was appointed viceroy by Philip II of Spain. Peru was the "jewel" of Spain's colonial empire. The conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro in 1532-1533 had given Spain enormous wealth, but Toledo inherited a chaotic situation. The problems facing Toledo included conflicts between and among the Spanish conquerors and the secular and religious authorities in Peru. Corruption by colonial officials was endemic. The Peruvian population of indigenous people, Andeans, had declined by about 75 percent (from 10 million to 2.5 million) from 1520 to 1570 due to conflicts and epidemics of European diseases. A rump state of the Inca Empire still existed outside Spanish control in Vilcabamba. Most seriously, from the viewpoint of Spain, was that the production of silver, a major contributor to Spain's finances, was declining. Until the arrival of Francisco de Toledo as Viceroy, Spanish rule of the Andean population had largely been indirect. Except for Roman Catholic priests, Spaniards were forbidden from living among the Indians and the Spanish extracted tribute and labor from the Andean population through their indigenous leaders, the caciques or kurakas. Other than the often brutal demands of the Spanish colonists for labor and tribute, the Andean Indian cultures remained in many ways little changed from the days when the Incas ruled. Toledo conceived and implemented an ambitious program to "put down neo-Inca insurrection, strengthen colonial government and legal institutions, indoctrinate the native populace in Catholicism, and shore up faltering revenue streams" from mining. General Inspection (Visita General) Toledo arrived in Lima in November 1569. In October 1570 he departed Lima and embarked on a personal inspection of Peru and Bolivia. He took a large entourage, including all the viceregal court with him, for a journey that lasted five years from 1570 to 1575 with lengthy stops in important cities such as Cuzco, Arequipa, and Potosí. Prior to his departure, Toledo appointed at least 42 inspectors who were to visit every repartimiento (region) of the colony collecting information, conducting a census, appointing Andean officials and leaders, and making decisions about matters such as religion and tribute. Toledo instructed the inspectors to prepare the way for the creation of reductions. During his general inspection, Toledo ruled Peru from the road, making decisions on a large number of issues. Destruction of the Neo-Inca State When Toledo arrived in Peru in 1569, a Neo-Inca state with an emperor, Titu Cusi, still existed outside Spanish rule in the remote jungle city of Vilcabamba. Toledo initially hoped to lure Titu Cusi and other Inca nobles to Spanish authority by offering them estates and riches, but in the course of his investigations on the inspection tour, his opinion hardened. Toledo learned that the Inca Empire, and the emperor and his remnant state was still venerated by many Andeans and the Inca religion was still widely practiced. He perceived the Neo-Inca state as a threat to Spanish rule and embarked on a campaign to discredit the legitimacy of the former Inca Empire, the Neo-Inca state, and the Inca religion. In May 1571, Titu Cusi died suddenly. The Incas in Vilcabamba blamed a Catholic priest for his death and killed him. Tupac Amaru became the new emperor. The Incas killed several more Spaniards and Toledo sent a military expedition of 250 Spaniards and 2,000 Andeans to Vilcabamba to destroy the Neo-Inca state. The Spanish captured Tupac Amaru and other Inca nobles and after a brief trial Tupac was beheaded in Plaza de Armas of Cuzco on 24 September 1572. Toledo then continued his campaign to wipe out the heritage of the Incas by destroying religious relics and punishing other Inca nobles. "Toledo rightly saw that the Inca myth would be an inspiration to any rebellious Indians over the coming centuries...but the mystique of the Incas was too strong to be rooted out by the determined Viceroy." The Incas had lost all power, but "the sentimental memory of the imperial past continued to flourish." Reorganizing Peru Toledo accomplished three major tasks in the reorganization of the Viceroyalty of Peru: (1) the mandatory resettlement of Andeans into Spanish-style villages called reductions; (2) the organization of silver and other mines to obtain greater revenue; and (3) the imposition of a country-wide system of forced labor by Andeans. Reductions Reductions were a feature of Spanish colonies throughout the Americans and in the Philippines. In Peru prior to Toledo's Viceroyalty, Andean Indians mostly lived in small, dispersed settlements. The scattered settlements made it difficult for Spanish colonial authorities to impose their rule, but the Andeans' livelihood and survival was often dependent upon their exploitation of several different environments at different elevations and characteristics, the so-called vertical archipelago. A primary motivation for Toledo's reductions "was to establish direct state control and facilitate the church's Christianization of the native population, while enhancing the collection of the tribute tax and the allocation of labor." Toledo said the reductions would protect natives from “being exploited by local landowners and miners, harassed by the colonial judicial system, and deceived by a false religion.” Spanish authorities perceived indigenous groups as volatile and prone to lawlessness and laziness if not controlled. Toledo's most important justification of the reductions was, as he told the king of Spain, that they would be located near the mines that were so important to Spanish finances. Toledo's plans envisioned 840 reductions with a total population of about 1.4 million Andeans, an average of about 1,600 people per reduction. Each reduction resembled a Spanish town with a main plaza and square and a regular grid of streets. Even the design of the houses in the reduction was dictated. They were, for example, to be open to the street to "minimize the danger that too much privacy would lead to idolatry, drunkenness, and illicit sexual intercourse." A priest attended to the spiritual needs of the residents. The leadership of each reduction was the responsibility of a Spanish style government, but the most important official of the reduction was a kuraka, an indigenous leader who had the responsibility of collecting tribute and laborers for mining and other enterprises. Toledo's reductions have been characterized as both mostly successful and as failures. Many towns in Peru and Bolivia trace their foundation to the creation of a reduction. However, concentrating the Andean population into reductions increased the incidence of disease and the population of the old Inca Empire continued to decline for at least another 50 years after Toledo. A report to the king of Spain in the 1580s said that "many of the Indians have died in the mines, in other labors, or from the recurrent epidemics; others have fled to escape their labor and tribute obligations." Mining Mining, especially silver mining, was the most important economic enterprise of the Viceroyalty. A single mountain at Potosi in Bolivia produced an estimated 60% of all the silver mined in the world during the second half of the 16th century. A twenty percent tax on mining was a major source of revenue for the kingdom of Spain. Silver was mined at Potosí by Inca methods, but the purest silver was depleted by the 1560s and production declined. However, the Patio process, a new method of purifying silver ore using mercury, was invented in Mexico. Toledo confiscated the mercury mines at Huancavelica for the Spanish crown and introduced the Patio process. He called it "the most important marriage in the world between the mountain of Huancavelica and the mountain of Potosi." Between 1571 and 1575 production of silver quintupled. The increase in silver and mercury production resulted in a demand for thousands of laborers with much of the demand being filled by forced laborers. Potosi became one of the largest cities of the world with a population as large as London. Forced labor The most important objective of Toledo's reductions was to facilitate access to Andean labor, especially for the mines whose revenues were important to the finances of the mother country of Spain. Other measures He worked hard to convert the Indigenous and provide them with religious training. He tried to adapt the political and social structures of the Incas to life in the viceroyalty. He also used the old system of mita, which had been a form of corvée labour under the Incas, as a form of forced native labor. Under his reforms of the mita, no more than one seventh of the male population of a village could be conscripted, they could not be forced to work far from their native villages, and they were entitled to compensation for their labor. These reforms later were called the Toledo Reforms. Toledo assigned Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa the task of writing a chronicle of prehispanic times in Peru by compiling information given by some of the older survivors from that time. Sarmiento's work is considered an invaluable source of information for that period. Toledo sent the account to the King, in hopes that a museum would be founded. He established the Inquisition in Peru in 1570. Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera founded the city of Córdoba (in modern-day Argentina) on July 6, 1573. Tarija and Cochabamba (both in modern Bolivia) were founded in 1574. In 1574, Toledo accompanied a military expedition to the Chaco region in what is now southeastern Bolivia to repress the Eastern Bolivian Guaraní people who the Inca and Spanish called Chiriguanos (a pejorative name). The Guaraní were raiding Spanish and Indian settlements in the Andes. The expedition was a failure and Toledo nearly died of an illness, probably malaria. In 1579 Francis Drake was ravaging the coast of Peru. Toledo sent a fleet of ships after the Englishman but failed to capture Drake and his galleon the Golden Hind who then went on to capture the treasure galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepción. Afterwards Toledo subsequently built fortifications on the coast for protection against pirates and also established la Armada del Mar del Sur (the Southern Fleet) under Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa in the port of El Callao. He built bridges and improved the safety of travel in the viceroyalty. The first coins minted for Peru (and indeed for South America) appeared between 1568 and 1570. The silver from mines at Potosí circulated around the world. Recall, return to Spain, imprisonment and death In spite of this, Toledo was blamed for the viceregal books not being balanced and taxes not being sent back to Spain. He was recalled to Spain in 1581. There he was jailed until 1582, where he died of natural causes. See also Neo-Inca State Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Further reading Levillier, Roberto. Don Francisco de Toledo, supremo organizador del Perú. Su vida, su obra (1515–1582). 1935 Lohman Villena, Guillermo and Maria Justina Sarabia Viejo, eds. Francisco de Toledo, Disposiciones, gubernativas para el virreinato del Perú, 1569–1574. 2 vols. 1986, 1989. Zimmerman, Arthur Franklin. Francisco de Toledo, Fifth Viceroy of Peru, 1569–1581''. 1938. References External links Fairly long biography Short biography Toledo, Francisco de, 1515 births 1582 deaths People from the Province of Toledo Knights of the Order of Alcántara Viceroys of Peru Burials in the Province of Toledo
4892591	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast%20implant	Breast implant	A breast implant is a prosthesis used to change the size, shape, and contour of a person's breast. In reconstructive plastic surgery, breast implants can be placed to restore a natural looking breast following a mastectomy, to correct congenital defects and deformities of the chest wall or, cosmetically, to enlarge the appearance of the breast through breast augmentation surgery. Complications of implants may include breast pain, rashes, skin changes, infection, rupture, cosmetic changes to the breasts such as asymmetry and hardness, and a fluid collection around the breast. A rare complication associated with textured surfaced implants is a type of lymphoma (cancer of the immune system) known as breast implant-associated anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (BIA-ALCL). There are four general types of breast implants, defined by their filler material: saline solution, silicone gel, structured and composite filler. The saline implant has an elastomer silicone shell filled with sterile saline solution during surgery; the silicone implant has an elastomer silicone shell pre-filled with viscous silicone gel; structured implants use nested elastomer silicone shells and two saline-filled lumen; and the alternative composition implants featured miscellaneous fillers, such as soy oil or polypropylene string. In surgical practice, for the reconstruction of a breast, the tissue expander device is a temporary breast prosthesis used to form and establish an implant pocket for the future permanent breast implant. For the correction of male breast defects and deformities, the pectoral implant is the breast prosthesis used for the reconstruction and the aesthetic repair of a man's chest wall (see: gynecomastia and mastopexy). Uses A mammoplasty procedure for the placement of breast implant devices has three purposes: primary reconstruction: the replacement of breast tissues damaged by trauma (blunt, penetrating, blast), disease (breast cancer), and failed anatomic development (tuberous breast deformity). revision and reconstruction: to revise (correct) the outcome of a previous breast reconstruction surgery. primary augmentation: to aesthetically augment the size, form, and feel of the breasts. The operating room (OR) time of post–mastectomy breast reconstruction, and of breast augmentation surgery is determined by the procedure employed, the type of incisions, the breast implant (type and materials), and the pectoral locale of the implant pocket. Recent research has indicated that mammograms should not be done with any greater frequency than that used in normal procedure in patients undergoing breast surgery, including breast implant, augmentation, mastopexy, and breast reduction. Psychology The breast augmentation patient usually is a young woman whose personality profile indicates psychological distress about her personal appearance and her bodily self image, and a history of having endured criticism (teasing) about the aesthetics of her person. The studies Body Image Concerns of Breast Augmentation Patients (2003) and Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Cosmetic Surgery (2006) reported that the woman who underwent breast augmentation surgery also had undergone psychotherapy, suffered low self-esteem, presented frequent occurrences of psychological depression, had attempted suicide, and had body dysmorphia, a type of mental illness. Post-operative patient surveys about mental health and quality-of-life, reported improved physical health, physical appearance, social life, self-confidence, self-esteem, and satisfactory sexual functioning. Furthermore, the women reported long-term satisfaction with their breast implant outcomes; some despite having medical complications that required surgical revision, either corrective or aesthetic. Likewise, in Denmark, 8% of breast augmentation patients had a pre-operative history of psychiatric hospitalization. In 2008, the longitudinal study Excess Mortality from Suicide and other External Causes of Death Among Women with Cosmetic Breast Implants (2007), reported that women who sought breast implants are almost 3 times as likely to commit suicide as are women who have not sought breast implants. Compared to the standard suicide-rate for women of the general populace, the suicide-rate for women with augmented breasts remained constant until 10-years post-implantation, yet, it increased to 4.5 times greater at the 11-year mark, and so remained until the 19-year mark, when it increased to 6 times greater at 20-years post-implantation. Moreover, additional to the suicide-risk, women with breast implants also faced a trebled death-risk from alcoholism and the abuse of prescription and recreational drugs. Although seven studies have statistically connected a woman's breast augmentation to a greater suicide-rate, the research indicates that breast augmentation surgery does not increase the death rate; and that, in the first instance, it is the psychopathologically-inclined woman who is more likely to undergo a breast augmentation procedure. The study Effect of Breast Augmentation Mammoplasty on Self-Esteem and Sexuality: A Quantitative Analysis (2007), reported that the women attributed their improved self image, self-esteem, and increased, satisfactory sexual functioning to having undergone breast augmentation; the cohort, aged 21–57 years, averaged post-operative self-esteem increases that ranged from 20.7 to 24.9 points on the 30-point Rosenberg self-esteem scale, which data supported the 78.6 per cent increase in the woman's libido, relative to her pre-operative level of libido. Therefore, before agreeing to any surgery, the plastic surgeon evaluates and considers the woman's mental health to determine if breast implants can positively affect her self-esteem and sexual functioning. Complications The plastic surgical emplacement of breast implant devices, either for breast reconstruction or for aesthetic purpose, presents the same health risks common to surgery, such as adverse reaction to anesthesia, hematoma (post-operative bleeding), late hematoma (post-operative bleeding after 6 months or more), seroma (fluid accumulation), incision-site breakdown (wound infection). Complications specific to breast augmentation include breast pain, altered sensation, impeded breast-feeding function, visible wrinkling, asymmetry, thinning of the breast tissue, and symmastia, the "bread loafing" of the bust that interrupts the natural plane between the breasts. Specific treatments for the complications of indwelling breast implants—capsular contracture and capsular rupture—are periodic MRI monitoring and physical examinations. Furthermore, complications and re-operations related to the implantation surgery, and to tissue expanders (implant place-holders during surgery) can cause unfavorable scarring in approximately 6–7 percent of the patients. Statistically, 20 percent of women who underwent cosmetic implantation, and 50 percent of women who underwent breast reconstruction implantation, required their explantation at the 10-year mark. Safety In the 1990s, several reports reviewed the few studies evaluating any increased risk of systemic and auto-immune diseases among women with breast implants. The conclusion at that time was that there was no evidence establishing a causal connection between the implantation of silicone breast implants and either type of disease. However, the Institute of Medicine report pointed out that these earlier studies included too few women to conclusively evaluate the impact on these rare diseases. In addition, many of the studies included women who had breast implants for just a few months, which would be too early to develop a diagnosed autoimmune disease. In recent years, large epidemiological studies have reported clinically and statistically significant increases in some of these diseases. A study by Watad and colleagues that was published in 2018 compared and examined the medical records of more than 24,000 women with breast implants to more than 98,000 "matched controls" who did not have breast implants but shared very similar demographic traits. The study found a statistically significant 22% overall increase in diagnosed autoimmune or rheumatic disorders. The greatest increases in diagnoses for women with breast implants was for Sjögren's syndrome, Multiple Sclerosis (MS), and sarcoidosis, each of which were 58%-98% higher in women with breast implants. That analysis was based on Israeli women with breast implants as confirmed by medical records, and the analyses of diseases were based on diagnoses made after the women got breast implants that were included in medical records during up to 20 years of follow-up. A published study of U.S. women with similar results was published in 2019 by Coroneos and his colleagues at MD Anderson Medical Center. The data were based on two studies with a combined total of almost 100,000 women with breast implants, but many dropped out of the study within a few years of their breast implant surgery. However, of the women in the study for at least two years, the researchers reported an 800% increase in Sjögren syndrome, 700% increase in scleroderma, and almost 600% increase in rheumatoid arthritis among women with breast implants compared to the general population of women of the same age and demographics. Recent research on women who reported autoimmune and other system symptoms but were not diagnosed with an autoimmune disease evaluated whether the women's symptoms changed after their implants were removed. A 2020 study on the effectiveness of explant surgery on women with breast implant illness found that nearly all of 750 women who underwent explant surgery reported a significant improvement in their health within a month after their surgery. Researchers focused on the following symptoms: hair loss, memory loss, dry eyes and/or blurred vision, numbness or tingling in the extremities, chronic fatigue, joint pain, rashes, breast pain, food intolerance, flu-like symptoms, and difficulty breathing. The same authors also published a study on the impact of breast implant removal on breathing difficulties and found a statistically significant improvement in well-established objective measures of pulmonary function following explant surgery. Implant rupture Because a breast implant is a Class III medical device of limited product-life, the principal rupture-rate factors are its age and design; nonetheless, a breast implant device can retain its mechanical integrity for decades in a woman's body. When a saline breast implant ruptures, leaks, and empties, it quickly deflates, and thus can be readily explanted (surgically removed). In some cases, saline implant rupture can result in an infection due to bacteria or mold that had been within the implant, though this is uncommon. The follow-up report, Natrelle Saline-filled Breast Implants: a Prospective 10-year Study (2009) indicated rupture-deflation rates of 3–5 per cent at 3-years post-implantation, and 7–10 per cent rupture-deflation rates at 10-years post-implantation. In a study of his 4761 augmentation mammaplasty patients, Eisenberg reported that overfilling saline breast implants 10-13% significantly reduced the rupture-deflation rate to 1.83% at 8-years post-implantation. When a silicone breast implant ruptures it usually does not deflate, yet the filler gel does leak from it, which can migrate to the implant pocket; therefore, an intracapsular rupture (in-capsule leak) can become an extracapsular rupture (out-of-capsule leak), and each occurrence is resolved by explantation. Although the leaked silicone filler-gel can migrate from the chest tissues to elsewhere in the woman's body, most clinical complications are limited to the breast and armpit areas, usually manifested as granulomas (inflammatory nodules) and axillary lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph glands in the armpit area). The suspected mechanisms of breast implant rupture are: damage during implantation damage during (other) surgical procedures chemical degradation of the breast implant shell trauma (blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, blast trauma) mechanical pressure of traditional mammographic breast examination Silicone implant rupture can be evaluated using magnetic resonance imaging; from the long-term MRI data for single-lumen breast implants, the European literature about second generation silicone-gel breast implants (1970s design), reported silent device-rupture rates of 8–15 per cent at 10-years post-implantation (15–30% of the patients). The study Safety and Effectiveness of Mentor's MemoryGel Implants at 6 Years (2009), which was a branch study of the U.S. FDA's core clinical trials for primary breast augmentation surgery patients, reported low device-rupture rates of 1.1 per cent at 6-years post-implantation. The first series of MRI evaluations of the silicone breast implants with thick filler-gel reported a device-rupture rate of 1 percent, or less, at the median 6-year device-age. Statistically, the manual examination (palpation) of the woman is inadequate for accurately evaluating if a breast implant has ruptured. The study, The Diagnosis of Silicone Breast implant Rupture: Clinical Findings Compared with Findings at Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2005), reported that, in asymptomatic patients, only 30 per cent of the ruptured breast implants are accurately palpated and detected by an experienced plastic surgeon, whereas MRI examinations accurately detected 86 per cent of breast implant ruptures. Therefore, the U.S. FDA recommended scheduled MRI examinations, as silent-rupture screenings, beginning at the 3-year-mark post-implantation, and then every two years, thereafter. Nonetheless, beyond the U.S., the medical establishments of other nations have not endorsed routine MRI screening, and, in its stead, proposed that such a radiologic examination be reserved for two purposes: (i) for the woman with a suspected breast implant rupture; and (ii) for the confirmation of mammographic and ultrasonic studies that indicate the presence of a ruptured breast implant. Furthermore, The Effect of Study design Biases on the Diagnostic Accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Detecting Silicone Breast Implant Ruptures: a Meta-analysis (2011) reported that the breast-screening MRIs of asymptomatic women might overestimate the incidence of breast implant rupture. In the event, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration emphasised that "breast implants are not lifetime devices. The longer a woman has silicone gel-filled breast implants, the more likely she is to experience complications." Capsular contracture The human body's immune response to a surgically installed foreign object—breast implant, cardiac pacemaker, orthopedic prosthesis—is to encapsulate it with scar tissue capsules of tightly woven collagen fibers, in order to maintain the integrity of the body by isolating the foreign object, and so tolerate its presence. Capsular contracture—which should be distinguished from normal capsular tissue—occurs when the collagen-fiber capsule thickens and compresses the breast implant; it is a painful complication that might distort either the breast implant, or the breast, or both. Capsular contracture is diagnosed through a visual and physical examiniation according to level of increasing severity based on the Baker Grade scale: Baker Grade I, Baker Grade II, Baker Grade III, and Baker Grade IV. The cause of capsular contracture is unknown, but the common incidence factors include bacterial contamination, device-shell rupture, filler leakage, and hematoma. The surgical implantation procedures that have reduced the incidence of capsular contracture include submuscular emplacement, the use of breast implants with a textured surface (polyurethane-coated); limited pre-operative handling of the implants, limited contact with the chest skin of the implant pocket before the emplacement of the breast implant, and irrigation of the recipient site with triple-antibiotic solutions. The correction of capsular contracture might require an open capsulotomy (surgical release) of the collagen-fiber capsule, or the removal, and possible replacement, of the breast implant. Furthermore, in treating capsular contracture, the closed capsulotomy (disruption via external manipulation) once was a common maneuver for treating hard capsules, but now is a discouraged technique, because it can rupture the breast implant. Non-surgical treatments for collagen-fiber capsules include massage, external ultrasonic therapy, leukotriene pathway inhibitors such as zafirlukast (Accolate) or montelukast (Singulair), and pulsed electromagnetic field therapy (PEMFT). Repair and revision surgeries When the patient is unsatisfied with the outcome of the augmentation mammoplasty; or when technical or medical complications occur; or because of the breast implants' limited product life, it is likely she might require replacing the breast implants. Common revision surgery indications include major and minor medical complications, capsular contracture, shell rupture, and device deflation. Revision incidence rates were greater for breast reconstruction patients, because of the post-mastectomy changes to the soft-tissues and to the skin envelope of the breast, and to the anatomical borders of the breast, especially in women who received adjuvant external radiation therapy. Moreover, besides breast reconstruction, breast cancer patients usually undergo revision surgery of the nipple-areola complex (NAC), and symmetry procedures upon the opposite breast, to create a bust of natural appearance, size, form, and feel. Carefully matching the type and size of the breast implants to the patient's pectoral soft-tissue characteristics reduces the incidence of revision surgery. Appropriate tissue matching, implant selection, and proper implantation technique, the re-operation rate was 3 percent at the 7-year-mark, compared with the re-operation rate of 20 per cent at the 3-year-mark, as reported by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Systemic disease In the 1990s, the national health ministries of the listed countries reviewed the pertinent studies for causal links among silicone-gel breast implants and systemic and diagnosed autoimmune diseases and breast cancer. A study by researchers at the U.S. National Institute of Health reported an increase in four types of cancer among women with breast implants compared to other plastic surgery patients of the same age and similar demographic traits and health habits. This increase in cancer was attenuated but did not disappear when the researchers followed the women for 5 more years, with a 43% increase in brain cancer and a 63% increase in respiratory cancer compared to other plastic surgery patients. A study by Watad et al. evaluated the medical records of more than 24,000 women with breast implants compared to more than 98,000 women with the same demographic traits who did not have breast implants. The researchers found a statistically significant 22 percent increase in several diagnosed diseases, increasing to more than 60% for Sjogren's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and sarcoidosis After investigating this issue, in 2021 the U.S. FDA revised its "black box warnings" on breast implants to acknowledge the association between breast implants and systemic autoimmune, rheumatologic, and neurological symptoms to state: "Patients receiving breast implants have reported a variety of systemic symptoms, such as joint pain, muscle aches, confusion, chronic fatigue, autoimmune diseases, and others. Individual patient risk for developing these symptoms has not been well established. Some patients report complete resolution of symptoms when the implants are removed without replacement". A 2021 study by Cleveland Clinic physicians investigated the outcome of breast implant removal on women with breast implants who had reported difficulty breathing or tightness in their chest; this is one of the symptoms associated with breast implant illness. The study examined breast implant patients who reported problems breathing, comparing their scores on 6 pulmonary function tests before and after their implants and scar capsules were removed. The researchers reported that 74% of the patients reported significant improvements on at least 3 of the pulmonary function tests. In self-reports, all study participants reported that their breathing improved after their implant surgery. Platinum toxicity Platinum is a catalyst used in the making of silicone implant polymer shells and other silicone devices used in medicine. The literature indicates that small amounts of platinum leaches (leaks) from these implants and is present in the surrounding tissue. The FDA reviewed the available studies from the medical literature on platinum and breast implants in 2002 and concluded there was little evidence suggesting toxicity from platinum in implant patients. The FDA revisited this study and additional literature several years later, reaffirming prior conclusions that platinum catalysts used in implants is likely not ionized and therefore would not represent a risk to women. Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma The FDA has identified that breast implants may be associated with a rare form of cancer called anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL), which some experts believe is believed to be associated with chronic bacterial inflammation. Similar ALCL phenomena have been seen with other types of medical implants including vascular access ports, orthopedic hip implants, and jaw (TMJ) implants. The causal association between breast implants and ALCL was conclusively established in December 2013, when researchers at MD Anderson Cancer Center published a study of 60 women with breast implants who were diagnosed with ALCL in the breast. In 2015, plastic surgeons published an article reviewing 37 articles in the literature on 79 patients and collected another 94 unreported cases, resulting in 173 women with breast implants who had developed ALCL of the breast. They concluded that "Breast implant-associated ALCL is a novel manifestation of site- and material-specific lymphoma originating in a specific scar location, presenting a wide array of diverse characteristics and suggesting a multifactorial cause." They stated that "There was no preference for saline or silicone fill or for cosmetic or reconstructive indications." Where implant history was known, the patient had received at least one textured-surface device. In 2016, the World Health Organization (WHO) officially recognized BIA-ALCL. As of April 2022, the FDA has received 1,130 global medical device reports (MDRs) of BIA-ALCL, including 59 deaths. Since ALCL was thought to be diagnosed in only 1 woman in half a million, 60 women was a much higher number than would be expected. The researchers pointed out that BIA-ALCL could be fatal. If women with implants present with delayed swelling or fluid collection, cytologic studies and a test for the marker CD30 are suggested. The American Society of Plastic Surgery (ASPS) states, "CD30 is the main diagnostic test that must be performed on the seroma fluid as routine pathology or H&E staining can frequently miss the diagnosis." Diagnosis and treatment of breast implant-associated ALCL now follows standardized guidelines established by the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. The current lifetime risk of BIA-ALCL in the U.S. is unknown, but estimates have ranged between one in 70,000 and one in 500,000 women with breast implants, according to the MD Anderson Cancer Center. Countries with breast implant registries have the best data on the risks of BIA-ALCL. For example, as of October 2020, the Therapeutic Goods Administration of Australia and New Zealand reported a "1:3,345 risk with Allergan Biocell and a 1:86,029 risk with Mentor Siltex." AIn the U.S, estimates of the risk of BIA-ALCL in textured implants ranges from 1.79 per 1,000 (1 woman with BIA-ALCL per 559 implants) to 2.82 per 1,000 (1 woman per 355 implants)[2]. As of April 2022, the FDA reported 1,130 medical device reports (MDRs) of BIA-ALCL. Of those MDRs, 59 of the women died . FDA states that 798 of the 1,130 MDRs for BIA-ALCL involved textured breast implants, 37 MDRs involved smooth-surfaced implants, and 295 MDRs did not specify whether the implants were textured or smooth. In some cases, the women who developed BIA-ALCL after smooth breast implants had textured expanders prior to their implants. Most patients had BIA-ALCL affect only one breast with only 8 patients diagnosed with bilateral BIA-ALCL. The most common reported symptom of BIA-ALCL according to the FDA was seroma, followed by breast swelling and pain, capsular contracture, and peri-implant mass or lump. Furthermore, 84 percent of the reported implants were made by Allergan. A study conducted at Memorial Sloan Kettering cancer center of women undergoing prophylactic mastectomies indicated that 1 in 355 women were subsequently diagnosed with BIA-ALCL. Almost all those women had Allergan biocell implants and expanders. These reports strongly suggest that BIA-ALCL develops primarily in patients with textured implants or expanders. In all cases, however, many researchers suspect that BIA-ALCL is an under-recognized, misdiagnosed, and under-reported complication of breast implants. The ASPS and the Plastic Surgery Foundation (PSF) have partnered with the FDA to study this condition and in doing so created the Patient Registry and Outcomes for Breast Implants and Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma Etiology and Epidemiology (PROFILE). The United States FDA strongly encourages all physicians to report cases to PROFILE in an effort to better understand the role of breast implants in ALCL and the management of this disease. Other lymphomas and squamous-cell carcinoma In September, 2022, the FDA announced new information regarding other types of cancers related to breast implants, based on medical device reports (MDRs) of cases of patients with squamous-cell carcinoma or various lymphomas found in the scar tissue around breast implants. The agency reported 10 MDRs about squamous-sell carcinoma found in the capsule scar tissue and 12 MDRs about various lymphomas also in the scar tissue around the breast implants. These new cases do not overlap with cases of BIA-ALCL. SCC and other lymphomas have been found in smooth-surface and textured implants as well as silicone-gel-filled and saline-filled implants. Patients who reported symptoms specified swelling, pain, lumps, and changes to their skin. As of 2022, neither the incidence rate nor prevalence is known. Surgical procedures Incision types Breast implant emplacement is performed with five types of surgical incisions: Inframammary: an incision made to the inframammary fold (natural crease under the breast), which affords maximal access for precise dissection of the tissues and emplacement of the breast implants. It is the preferred surgical technique for emplacing silicone-gel implants, because it better exposes the breast tissue–pectoralis muscle interface; yet, IMF implantation can produce thicker, slightly more visible surgical scars. Periareolar: a border-line incision along the periphery of the areola, which provides an optimal approach when adjustments to the IMF position are required, or when a mastopexy (breast lift) is included to the primary mammoplasty procedure. In periareolar emplacement, the incision is around the medial-half (inferior half) of the areola's circumference. Silicone gel implants can be difficult to emplace via periareolar incision, because of the short, five-centimetre length (~ 5.0 cm) of the required access-incision. Aesthetically, because the scars are at the areola's border (periphery), they usually are less visible than the IMF-incision scars of women with light-pigment areolae; when compared to cutaneous-incision scars, the modified epithelia of the areolae are less prone to (raised) hypertrophic scars. Transaxillary: an incision made to the axilla (armpit), from which the dissection tunnels medially, to emplace the implants, either bluntly or with an endoscope (illuminated video microcamera), without producing visible scars on the breast proper; yet, it is likelier to produce inferior asymmetry of the implant-device position. Therefore, surgical revision of transaxillary emplaced breast implants usually requires either an IMF incision or a periareolar incision. Transumbilical: a trans-umbilical breast augmentation (TUBA) is a less common implant-device emplacement technique wherein the incision is at the umbilicus (navel), and the dissection tunnels superiorly, up towards the bust. The TUBA approach allows emplacing the breast implants without producing visible scars upon the breast proper; but makes appropriate dissection and device-emplacement more technically difficult. A TUBA procedure is performed bluntly—without the endoscope's visual assistance—and is not appropriate for emplacing (pre-filled) silicone-gel implants, because of the great potential for damaging the elastomer silicone shell of the breast implant during its manual insertion through the short (~2.0 cm) incision at the navel, and because pre-filled silicone gel implants are incompressible, and cannot be inserted through so small an incision. Transabdominal: as in the TUBA procedure, in the transabdominoplasty breast augmentation (TABA), the breast implants are tunneled superiorly from the abdominal incision into bluntly dissected implant pockets, whilst the patient simultaneously undergoes an abdominoplasty. Implant pocket placement The five surgical approaches to emplacing a breast implant to the implant pocket are often described in anatomical relation to the pectoralis major muscle. Subglandular: the breast implant is emplaced to the retromammary space, between the breast tissue (the mammary gland) and the pectoralis major muscle (major muscle of the chest), which most approximates the plane of normal breast tissue, and affords the most aesthetic results. Yet, in women with thin pectoral soft-tissue, the subglandular position is likelier to show the ripples and wrinkles of the underlying implant. Moreover, the capsular contracture incidence rate is slightly greater with subglandular implantation. Subfascial: the breast implant is emplaced beneath the fascia of the pectoralis major muscle; the subfascial position is a variant of the subglandular position for the breast implant. The technical advantages of the subfascial implant-pocket technique are debated; proponent surgeons report that the layer of fascial tissue provides greater implant coverage and better sustains its position. Subpectoral (dual plane): the breast implant is emplaced beneath the pectoralis major muscle, after the surgeon releases the inferior muscular attachments, with or without partial dissection of the subglandular plane. Resultantly, the upper pole of the implant is partially beneath the pectoralis major muscle, while the lower pole of the implant is in the subglandular plane. This implantation technique achieves maximal coverage of the upper pole of the implant, whilst allowing the expansion of the implant's lower pole; however, "animation deformity", the movement of the implants in the subpectoral plane can be excessive for some patients. Submuscular: the breast implant is emplaced beneath the pectoralis major muscle, without releasing the inferior origin of the muscle proper. Total muscular coverage of the implant can be achieved by releasing the lateral muscles of the chest wall—either the serratus muscle or the pectoralis minor muscle, or both—and suturing it, or them, to the pectoralis major muscle. In breast reconstruction surgery, the submuscular implantation approach effects maximal coverage of the breast implants. This technique is rarely used in cosmetic surgery due to high risk of animation deformities. Prepectoral or subcutaneous: in a breast reconstruction following a skin-sparing or skin- and nipple-sparing mastectomy, the implant is placed above the pectoralis major muscle without dissecting it so that the implant fills directly the volume of the mammary gland that has been removed. To avoid the issue of capsular contracture, the implant is often covered frontally or completely with a mesh in biomaterial, either biological or synthetic. Post-surgical recovery The surgical scars of a breast augmentation mammoplasty develop approximately at 6-weeks post-operative, and fade within months. Depending upon the daily-life physical activities required of the woman, the breast augmentation patient usually resumes her normal life at 1-week post-operative. Moreover, women whose breast implants were emplaced beneath the chest muscles (submuscular placement) usually have a longer, slightly more painful convalescence, because of the healing of the incisions to the chest muscles. Usually, she does not exercise or engage in strenuous physical activities for approximately 6 weeks. During the initial post-operative recovery, the woman is encouraged to regularly exercise (flex and move) her arm to alleviate pain and discomfort; if required, analgesic indwelling medication catheters can alleviate pain Moreover, significantly improved patient recovery has resulted from refined breast-device implantation techniques (submuscular, subglandular) that allow 95 per cent of women to resume their normal lives at 24-hours post-procedure, without bandages, fluid drains, pain pumps, catheters, medical support brassières, or narcotic pain medication. Types Today, there are three types of breast implants commonly used for mammaplasty, breast reconstruction, and breast augmentation procedures: saline implant filled with sterile saline solution. silicone implant filled with viscous silicone gel. structured implants using nested elastomer silicone shells and two saline filled lumen. A fourth type of implant, composite (or alternative-composite) implants, have largely been discontinued. These types featured fillers such as soy oil and polypropylene string. Other discontinued materials include ox cartilage, Terylene wool, ground rubber, silastic rubber, and teflon-silicone prostheses. Saline implants The saline breast implant—filled with saline solution (biological-concentration salt water 0.90% w/v of NaCl, ca. 300 mOsm/L.)—was first manufactured by the Laboratoires Arion company, in France, and was introduced for use as a prosthetic medical device in 1964. The contemporary models of saline breast implant are manufactured with thicker, room-temperature vulcanized (RTV) shells made of a silicone elastomer. The study In vitro Deflation of Pre-filled Saline Breast Implants (2006) reported that the rates of deflation (filler leakage) of the pre-filled saline breast implant made it a second-choice prosthesis for corrective breast surgery. Nonetheless, in the 1990s, the saline breast implant was the prosthesis most common device used for breast augmentation surgery in the United States, because of the U.S. FDA's restriction against the implantation of silicone-filled breast implants outside of clinical studies. Saline breast implants have enjoyed little popularity in the rest of the world, possessing negligible market share. The technical goal of saline-implant technology was a physically less invasive surgical technique for emplacing an empty breast implant device through a smaller surgical incision. In surgical praxis, after having emplaced the empty breast implants to the implant pockets, the plastic surgeon then filled each device with saline solution, and, because the required insertion-incisions are short and small, the resultant incision-scars will be smaller and shorter than the surgical scars usual to the long incisions required for inserting pre-filled, silicone-gel implants. When compared to the results achieved with a silicone-gel breast implant, the saline implant can yield acceptable results, of increased breast-size, smoother hemisphere-contour, and realistic texture; yet, it is likelier to cause cosmetic problems, such as the rippling and the wrinkling of the breast-envelope skin, accelerated lower breast pole stretch, and technical problems, such as the presence of the implant being noticeable to the eye and to the touch. The occurrence of such cosmetic problems is likelier in the case of the woman with very little breast tissue, and in the case of the woman who requires post-mastectomy breast reconstruction; thus, the silicone-gel implant is the technically superior prosthetic device for breast augmentation, and for breast reconstruction. In the case of the woman with much breast tissue, for whom sub-muscular emplacement is the recommended surgical approach, saline breast implants can produce an aesthetic result much like that afforded by silicone breast implants. Ultrasound examination and outcome studies have revealed that saline and silicone breast implants look and feel similar. Silicone gel implants As a medical device technology, there are five generations of silicone breast implant, each defined by common model-manufacturing techniques. The modern prosthetic breast was invented in 1961 by the American plastic surgeons Thomas Cronin and Frank Gerow, and manufactured by the Dow Corning Corporation; in due course, the first augmentation mammoplasty was performed in 1962. First generation The Cronin–Gerow Implant, prosthesis model 1963, was a silicone rubber envelope-sac, shaped like a teardrop, which was filled with viscous silicone-gel. To reduce the rotation of the emplaced breast implant upon the chest wall, the model 1963 prosthesis was affixed to the implant pocket with a fastener-patch, made of Dacron material (Polyethylene terephthalate), which was attached to the rear of the breast implant shell. Second generation In the 1970s, manufacturers presented the second generation of breast implant prostheses that featured functional developments and aesthetic improvements to the technology: the first technological developments were a thinner-gauge device-shell, and a filler gel of low-cohesion silicone, which improved the functionality and the verisimilitude (size, appearance, and texture) of the silicone-gel breast implant. Yet, in clinical practice, second-generation breast implants proved fragile, and had greater incidences of shell rupture, and of filler leakage ("silicone-gel bleed") through the intact device shell. The consequent, increased incidence-rates of medical complications (e.g. capsular contracture) precipitated faulty-product, class action-lawsuits, by the U.S. government, against the Dow Corning Corporation, and other manufacturers of breast prostheses. the second technological development was a polyurethane foam coating for the shell of the breast implant; the coating reduced the incidence of capsular contracture, by causing an inflammatory reaction that impeded the formation of a capsule of fibrous collagen tissue around the breast implant. Nevertheless, despite that prophylactic measure, the medical use of polyurethane-coated breast implants was briefly discontinued, because of the potential health-risk posed by 2,4-toluenediamine (TDA), a carcinogenic by-product of the chemical breakdown of the polyurethane foam coating of the breast implant. After reviewing the medical data, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration concluded that TDA-induced breast cancer was an infinitesimal health-risk to women with breast implants, and did not justify legally requiring physicians to explain the matter to their patients. In the event, polyurethane-coated breast implants remain in plastic surgery practice in Europe and in South America; and no manufacturer has sought FDA approval for medical sales of such breast implants in the U.S. the third technological development was the double lumen breast implant device, a double-cavity prosthesis composed of a silicone breast implant contained within a saline breast implant. The two-fold, technical goal was: (i) the cosmetic benefits of silicone-gel (the inner lumen) enclosed in saline solution (the outer lumen); (ii) a breast implant device the volume of which is post-operatively adjustable. Nevertheless, the more complex design of the double-lumen breast implant suffered a device-failure rate greater than that of single-lumen breast implants. The contemporary versions of second-generation breast implant devices (presented in 1984) are the "Becker Expandable" models of breast implant, which are primarily used for breast reconstruction. Third and Fourth generations In the 1980s, the models of the Third and of the Fourth generations of breast implant devices were sequential advances in manufacturing technology, such as elastomer-coated shells that decreased gel-bleed (filler leakage), and a thicker (increased-cohesion) filler gel. Sociologically, the manufacturers of prosthetic breasts then designed and made anatomic models (natural breast) and shaped models (round, tapered) that realistically corresponded with the breast- and body- types of women. The tapered models of breast implant have a uniformly textured surface, which reduces the rotation of the prosthesis within the implant pocket; the round models of breast implant are available in smooth-surface- and textured-surface- types. Fifth generation Since the mid-1990s, the fifth generation of silicone-gel breast implant is made of a high-strength, highly cohesive silicone gel that mostly eliminates the occurrences of filler leakage ("silicone gel bleed") and of the migration of the silicone filler from the implant pocket to elsewhere in the woman's body. These implants are commonly referred to as "gummy bear breast implants" for their firm, pliant consistency, which is similar to gummy candies. The studies Experience with Anatomical Soft Cohesive Silicone gel Prosthesis in Cosmetic and Reconstructive Breast Implant Surgery (2004) and Cohesive Silicone gel Breast Implants in Aesthetic and Reconstructive Breast Surgery (2005) reported low incidence-rates of capsular contracture and of device-shell rupture; and greater rates of improved medical-safety and technical-efficacy than that of early generation breast implant devices. Breast-feeding The presence of breast implants currently presents no contraindication to breast feeding, and no evidence to support that the practice may present health issues to a breast feeding infant is recognized by the USFDA. Women with breast implants may have functional breast-feeding difficulties; mammoplasty procedures that feature periareolar incisions are especially likely to cause breast-feeding difficulties. Surgery may also damage the lactiferous ducts and the nerves in the nipple-areola area. Functional breast-feeding difficulties arise if the surgeon cut the milk ducts or the major nerves innervating the breast, or if the milk glands were otherwise damaged. Milk duct and nerve damage are more common if the incisions cut tissue near the nipple. The milk glands are most likely to be affected by subglandular implants (under the gland), and by large-sized breast implants, which pinch the lactiferous ducts and impede milk flow. Small-sized breast implants, and submuscular implantation, cause fewer breast-function problems; however, it is impossible to predict whether a woman who undergoes breast augmentation will be able to successfully breast feed since some women are able to breast-feed after periareolar incisions and subglandular placement and some are not able to after augmentation using submuscular and other types of surgical incisions. Mammography The presence of radiologically opaque breast implants (either saline or silicone) might interfere with the radiographic sensitivity of the mammograph, that is, the image might not show any tumor(s) present. In this case, an Eklund view mammogram is required to ascertain either the presence or the absence of a cancerous tumor, wherein the breast implant is manually displaced against the chest wall and the breast is pulled forward, so that the mammograph can visualize a greater volume of the internal tissues; nonetheless, approximately one-third of the breast tissue remains inadequately visualized, resulting in an increased incidence of mammograms with false-negative results. The breast cancer studies Cancer in the Augmented Breast: Diagnosis and Prognosis (1993) and Breast Cancer after Augmentation Mammoplasty (2001) of women with breast implant prostheses reported no significant differences in disease-stage at the time of the diagnosis of cancer; prognoses are similar in both groups of women, with augmented patients at a lower risk for subsequent cancer recurrence or death. Conversely, the use of implants for breast reconstruction after breast cancer mastectomy appears to have no negative effect upon the incidence of cancer-related death. That patients with breast implants are more often diagnosed with palpable—but not larger—tumors indicates that equal-sized tumors might be more readily palpated in augmented patients, which might compensate for the impaired mammogram images. The ready palpability of the breast-cancer tumor(s) is consequent to breast tissue thinning by compression, innately in smaller breasts a priori (because they have lesser tissue volumes), and that the implant serves as a radio-opaque base against which a cancerous tumor can be differentiated. The breast implant has no clinical bearing upon lumpectomy breast-conservation surgery for women who developed breast cancer after the implantation procedure, nor does the breast implant interfere with external beam radiation treatments (XRT); moreover, the post-treatment incidence of breast-tissue fibrosis is common, and thus a consequent increased rate of capsular contracture. There is tentative evidence that women who have had breast augmentation, have worse breast cancer prognosis. The use of implants for breast reconstruction after breast cancer mastectomy appears to have no negative effect upon cancer-related death. There have been multiple reported cases of other adverse effects of mammography of women with breast implants; ruptures resulting from pressure exerted on the breast implant make up a majority of these cases. Compression may also lead to pain or exacerbate already existing pain in the breasts. History 19th century Since the late nineteenth century, breast implants have been used to surgically augment the size (volume), modify the shape (contour), and enhance the feel (tact) of a woman's breasts. In 1895, surgeon Vincenz Czerny effected the earliest breast implant emplacement when he used the patient's autologous adipose tissue, harvested from a benign lumbar lipoma, to repair the asymmetry of the breast from which he had removed a tumor. In 1889, surgeon Robert Gersuny experimented with paraffin injections, with disastrous results arising from the breakup of the paraffin into smaller bodies following the procedure. 20th century From the first half of the twentieth century, physicians used other substances as breast implant fillers—ivory, glass balls, ground rubber, ox cartilage, Terylene wool, gutta-percha, Dicora, polyethylene chips, Ivalon (polyvinyl alcohol—formaldehyde polymer sponge), a polyethylene sac with Ivalon, polyether foam sponge (Etheron), polyethylene tape (Polystan) strips wound into a ball, polyester (polyurethane foam sponge) Silastic rubber, and teflon-silicone prostheses. In the mid-twentieth century, Morton I. Berson, in 1945, and Jacques Maliniac, in 1950, each performed flap-based breast augmentations by rotating the patient's chest wall tissue into the breast to increase its volume. Furthermore, throughout the 1950s and the 1960s, plastic surgeons used synthetic fillers—including silicone injections received by some 50,000 women, from which developed silicone granulomas and breast hardening that required treatment by mastectomy. In 1961, the American plastic surgeons Thomas Cronin and Frank Gerow, and the Dow Corning Corporation, developed the first silicone breast prosthesis, filled with silicone gel; in due course, the first augmentation mammoplasty was performed in 1962 using the Cronin–Gerow Implant, prosthesis model 1963. In 1964, the French company Laboratoires Arion developed and manufactured the saline breast implant, filled with saline solution, and then introduced for use as a medical device in 1964. FDA approval In 1988, twenty-six years after the 1962 introduction of breast implants filled with silicone gel, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) investigated breast implant failures and the subsequent complications, and re-classified breast implant devices as Class III medical devices, and required from manufacturers the documentary data substantiating the safety and efficacy of their breast implant devices. In 1992, the FDA placed silicone-gel breast implants in moratorium in the U.S., because there was "inadequate information to demonstrate that breast implants were safe and effective". Nonetheless, medical access to silicone-gel breast implant devices continued for clinical studies of post-mastectomy breast reconstruction, the correction of congenital deformities, and the replacement of ruptured silicone-gel implants. The FDA required from the manufacturers the clinical trial data, and permitted their providing breast implants to the breast augmentation patients for the statistical studies required by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. In mid-1992, the FDA approved an adjunct study protocol for silicone-gel filled implants for breast reconstruction patients, and for revision-surgery patients. Also in 1992, the Dow Corning Corporation, a silicone products and breast implant manufacturer, announced the discontinuation of five implant-grade silicones, but would continue producing 45 other, medical-grade, silicone materials—three years later, in 1995, the Dow Corning Corporation went bankrupt when it faced large class action lawsuits claiming a variety of illnesses. In 1997, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) appointed the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to investigate the potential risks of operative and post-operative complications from the emplacement of silicone breast implants. The IOM's review of the safety and efficacy of silicone gel-filled breast implants, reported that the "evidence suggests diseases or conditions, such as connective tissue diseases, cancer, neurological diseases, or other systemic complaints or conditions are no more common in women with breast implants, than in women without implants" subsequent studies and systemic review found no causal link between silicone breast implants and disease. In 1998, the U.S. FDA approved adjunct study protocols for silicone-gel filled implants only for breast reconstruction patients and for revision-surgery patients; and also approved the Dow Corning Corporation's Investigational Device Exemption (IDE) study for silicone-gel breast implants for a limited number of breast augmentation-, reconstruction-, and revision-surgery patients. In 1999, the Institute of Medicine published the Safety of Silicone Breast Implants (1999) study that reported no evidence that saline-filled and silicone-gel filled breast implant devices caused systemic health problems; that their use posed no new health or safety risks; and that local complications are "the primary safety issue with silicone breast implants", in distinguishing among routine and local medical complications and systemic health concerns." In 2000, the FDA approved saline breast implant Premarket Approval Applications (PMA) containing the type and rate data of the local medical complications experienced by the breast surgery patients. "Despite complications experienced by some women, the majority of those women still in the Inamed Corporation and Mentor Corporation studies, after three years, reported being satisfied with their implants." The premarket approvals were granted for breast augmentation, for women at least 18 years old, and for women requiring breast reconstruction. In 2006, for the Inamed Corporation and for the Mentor Corporation, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration lifted its restrictions against using silicone-gel breast implants for breast reconstruction and for augmentation mammoplasty. Yet, the approval was conditional upon accepting FDA monitoring, the completion of 10-year-mark studies of the women who already had the breast implants, and the completion of a second, 10-year-mark study of the safety of the breast implants in 40,000 other women. The FDA warned the public that breast implants do carry medical risks, and recommended that women who undergo breast augmentation should periodically undergo MRI examinations to screen for signs of either shell rupture or of filler leakage, or both conditions; and ordered that breast surgery patients be provided with detailed, informational brochures explaining the medical risks of using silicone-gel breast implants. In March 2019, the FDA hosted a public meeting of their General and Plastic Surgery Devices Advisory Panel to discuss safety issues of silicone and saline breast implants, including BIA-ALCL and breast implant illness. One of the major topics of that public meeting was the evidence that Allergan BIOCELL textured breast implants were the type of breast implants most likely to cause BIA-ALCL. Following the committee meeting, the FDA requested that Allergan recall their BIOCELL textured breast implants and tissue expanders, and in July 2019 Allergan took those BIOCELL textured implants and expanders off the market. Allergan subsequently announced they would contact all customers who had purchased their products to ensure they were aware of the recall. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration established the age ranges for women seeking breast implants; for breast reconstruction, silicone-gel filled implants and saline-filled implants were approved for women of all ages; for breast augmentation, saline implants were approved for women 18 years of age and older; silicone implants were approved for women 22 years of age and older. Because each breast implant device entails different medical risks, the minimum age of the patient for saline breast implants is different from the minimum age of the patient for silicone breast implants—because of the filler leakage and silent shell-rupture risks; thus, periodic MRI screening examinations are the recommended post-operative, follow-up therapy for the patient. In other countries, in Europe and Oceania, the national health ministries' breast implant policies do not endorse periodic MRI screening of asymptomatic patients, but suggest palpation proper—with or without an ultrasonic screening—to be sufficient post-operative therapy for most patients. See also Breast Breast augmentation (Augmentation mammoplasty) Breast enlargement supplements Breast reconstruction Breast reduction plasty Mammoplasty Mastopexy (breast lift) Poly Implant Prothèse Polypropylene breast implants Trans-umbilical breast augmentation (TUBA) References External links Article "Expander-Implant Breast Reconstruction" at Medscape Articles containing video clips Breast surgery Implants (medicine) Medical controversies Prosthetics
4893354	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Keely	Patrick Keely	Patrick Charles Keely (August 9, 1816 — August 11, 1896) was an Irish-American architect based in Brooklyn, New York, and Providence, Rhode Island. He was a prolific designer of nearly 600 churches and hundreds of other institutional buildings for the Roman Catholic Church or Roman Catholic patrons in the eastern United States and Canada, particularly in New York City, Boston and Chicago in the later half of the 19th century. He designed every 19th-century Catholic cathedral in New England. Several other church and institutional architects began their careers in his firm. Early life in Ireland Keely was born in Thurles, County Tipperary, then a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on August 9, 1816, to a family in comfortable circumstances. His draftsman and builder father introduced him to architecture and training in construction; having come from Kilkenny to work on the building of St. Patrick's College, Thurles and Patrick was educated there, though nothing is recorded of his architectural design education. Life in Brooklyn, New York Keely emigrated to the United States, landing at Castle Garden in Manhattan in 1842, and settling in Brooklyn. He arrived at a time when Catholicism in the United States was expanding from its initial footholds in Baltimore, New York City and Boston. Initially, he worked as a carpenter and builder since there were few trained architects practicing and most structures were erected with the design assistance of the client and builder alone. Common practice held that the builder, whether trained as mason or carpenter, crafted his own plans, and details were often executed without even the aid of drawings. For a number of years Keely worked at his trade without attracting attention. During this time, he met the Rev. Sylvester Malone, a Roman Catholic priest his own age. In 1844 Malone was appointed pastor of St. Mary's Church in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, and set about building a new church. As Know nothing sentiment was strong in the area, Malone let it out that the land he had purchased was for a cemetery. When the people in the area decided that they would rather have a church than a graveyard, opposition subsided. Together with Keely, he worked out a plan for a Gothic church possessing pointed arches, pinnacles, and a few buttresses. Working as a carpenter, Keely produced designs from which the new church was built in 1846. Malone renamed it the Church of Ss. Peter and Paul to avoid confusion with another St. Mary's in Manhattan. The stained glass was by the Morgan Brothers, thus establishing a business relationship with Keely that carried through a number of projects. The church was demolished in 1957, when a new Ss. Peter and Paul was built. In 1846, Kelly married Sarah Farmer; they had seventeen children, ten of whom lived to adulthood. Two of his sons worked in his office, another became a successful musician, the fourth, a physician. Sarah Keely died in 1876. Architectural career The Church of Sts. Peter and Paul was considered an epoch in Catholic building in America. The much-praised work established him as a competent architect and builder at a time when a number of new Roman Catholic churches were being planned "but a relative scarcity of competent architects of the Roman Catholic faith, and Keely's reputation for honesty and integrity quickly made him a popular choice among the hierarchy and clergy throughout the eastern United States." Thereafter, Keely effectively became the in-house architect for the Roman Catholic archdioceses and was approached from all sides with requests for designs of churches and other necessary structures for an expanding religious life. Art historian William Pierson Jr. said of Keely that "... he developed a practice which ultimately became a virtual monopoly in Catholic Church building for more than a quarter of a century." In Brooklyn alone there was a great wave of Catholic settlers for whom churches were urgently needed and Keely was the only one thought of to do the work. He continued as a carpenter / craftsman in conjunction with his designing duties. The neo-gothic St. Mary Star of the Sea in Carrol Gardens was built in 1853 with one center aisle and two side aisles. Keely was assisted by carpenter Thomas Houghton. The cornerstone of St. Mary's on Kent Avenue was set in November 1854. The red brick church was dedicated by Bishop John Loughlin and its name changed to St. Patrick's. The building is noted for its roof dormers that illuminate windows in the wall of the nave. St. Brigid's on E 8th St. in Manhattan was built in 1848 to a Carpenter Gothic design by Keely, who carved the five-pinnacle reredos, organ case, and wooden altar himself. Keely designed St. Mary's in Yonkers in 1848. When it was dedicated in November 1851, the name was changed to the Church of the Immaculate Conception, although still popularly called St. Mary's. When the new church, designed by Lawrence J. O'Connor, opened in 1892, Keely's building became the Parish Hall. Keely designed the Jesuit Church of the Immaculate Conception in the South End of Boston in the style of Italian Renaissance Revival in 1858, as well as its walnut case holding the organ pipe work. It was built of white New Hampshire granite. For many years it served as the church for Boston College. Immaculate Conception closed in 2007 and was later sold to developers who planned to convert it to apartments. In 2018, in response from objections raised by area residents, the South End Landmarks Commission denied the developer's request to remove the traceries from the side windows of the Church. Keely also designed the Jesuits Church of the Gesù (Montreal), the college chapel for the Collège Sainte-Marie de Montréal. Built in 1864, it was completed the following year. Influenced by the Church of the Gesù in Rome, it is the only entirely baroque-style church in Montreal. Constructed between 1873 and 1875, St. Bernard's Church on W 14th St. was designed in Ruskinian Gothic style. Its "twin towers, triple-portal entrance, and rose window inset into a pointed arch reveal a masterful blending of French and English influences." The church has at least one Tiffany window. It was the first church dedicated by an American Cardinal, Archbishop of New York John McCloskey. In 2003, St. Bernard's merged with Our Lady of Guadalupe to form the new parish of Our Lady of Guadalupe at St. Bernard Church. The cornerstone of the second St. Francis Xavier Church (Manhattan) West 16th Street was laid in May, 1878 on land immediately to the west of the old church. Keely designed it in a "Roman Basilica" style, —the church has a Neo-baroque exterior with a façade of bluish-gray granite. The main entrance is sheltered by a gabled portico. The stained-glass windows, in a pre-Raphaelite style, were by the Morgan brothers, frequent collaborators of Keely. The church was dedicated by Archbishop Michael Corrigan on December 3, 1882. The current church has been in use since 1882 and underwent extensive restoration on 2001. St. Mary's, Charlestown was commissioned by pastor John McMahon, the younger brother of Bishop Lawrence Stephen McMahon of the Diocese of Hartford, for whom Keely had built St. Joseph's Cathedral. The Gothic exterior combines Rockport granite with brick trim. The church is noted for its hammer-beam oak ceiling with angels, carved by Keely himself. The altar was likely designed by Thomas F.Houghton, Keely's son-in-law and principal draftsman. Cathedrals The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Albany, New York) was Keely's first cathedral. Keely was not a design pioneer, but he followed his era's architectural trends closely. For the cathedral he was most influenced by the ideas of British architect Augustus Pugin, as epitomized in Pugin's 1841 book True Principles. Building took place from 1848 to 1852. Most of the work was done by immigrants; many of them volunteered their time and effort. In 1976 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Cathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption (Fall River, Massachusetts) was built in 1852. The old church remained in place and continued in use while the new church was built around it. When it was time to put on the roof, the old church was dismantled and rebuilt in a near-by location. Parishioners helped in the construction of their new church. Keely designed it in an “Early English” mode of the Gothic Revival style. He later designed St. Joseph (1880) and St. Patrick (1881-1889) churches in Fall River. The cathedral and the entire steeple are stonework composed of native granite. The naves are covered by a shingled roof; the spire rises to a height of . The main entrance is set in a shallow gabled frontispiece. Above it on the main facade is a rose window in the main gable. The interior includes intricate woodwork, with some gilding above the sanctuary. The structure is divided into three naves by granite columns. The central nave rises above the side naves that flank it forming a clerestory that is lined with windows. It is capped by a hammer-beam ceiling that rises above the floor. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. Construction of the Cathedral of the Holy Cross (Boston) commenced in 1867 and was completed in 1875. With local anti-Catholic sentiments a recent memory, the Gothic Revival edifice was intentionally massive, a statement that the Catholics of Boston were here to stay. Bricks from the 1834 riots in Charlestown, in which an Ursuline convent was burned down, were used in the arch over the front door. Built of Roxbury puddingstone with gray limestone trim, it reaches a height of 120 feet. Until the erection of the new Cathedral of St. Joseph (Hartford, Connecticut) in 1957, Holy Cross was the largest cathedral in New England. Supervision of the construction fell largely to Keely and his assistant John A. Dempwolf. After the Diocese of Providence was separated from the Diocese of Hartford in 1872, Hartford needed its own cathedral. The groundbreaking took place on August 30, 1876. Keely designed St. Joseph's as an Early Gothic structure, cruciform in shape and its exterior clad in Portland rough brownstone. Two square towers that rose flanked the main facade, recalling those of the Church of Notre Dame in Montreal, Canada. The interior featured an inlaid ceiling with wood from every country in the world, a rotunda with $100,000 worth of gold leaf, a bishop's throne of carved oak, a marble high altar, and 72 stained glass windows. The original St. Joseph's Cathedral, which was consecrated on May 8, 1892. A fire destroyed the cathedral on December 31, 1956. Its cause was never determined. When the Diocese of Providence was established, the old Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul (Providence, Rhode Island) which had been built by the first Bishop of Hartford, was in disrepair (part of the ceiling actually collapsed on the congregation during a Holy Week ceremony). Bishop Thomas Francis Hendricken, the first Bishop of Providence, also hired Keely to design a new cathedral. The new cathedrals in Hartford and Providence were both built of Connecticut Brownstone and showed a distinct resemblance in their exteriors. The interior of Sts. Peter and Paul has an elaborately coffered, carved, stenciled, and gilded ceiling of cypress wood which features a large painting of The Transfiguration over the Crossing which is surrounded by medallions of the Four Evangelists. They were painted by 19th Century Bavarian artist, William Lamprecht. The three largest cathedrals in New England, Boston and Providence (both still standing), along with Hartford, (lost to fire), are among Keely's greatest accomplishments. Keely later partnered with his wife's brother-in-law, James Murphy in Brooklyn, New York, and Providence, Rhode Island, under the name Keely & Murphy from the 1860s to 1867, until Murphy opened his own practice in Providence. Keely worked throughout the eastern United States and Canada, primarily in the industrial mill towns and cities of the state of New York and New England, principally a designer of Roman Catholic churches or institutional buildings. Among his work were several cathedrals in the Northeast and "many of the more substantial parish churches" later "elevated to cathedral status during the twentieth century." He designed a few churches for Protestant congregations...." Several later noteworthy architects began their careers with Keely's firm, including Elliott Lynch, James Farmer (his wife's brother), James Murphy (his wife's brother-in-law), his son John J. Keely (died 1879, Brooklyn), and son-in-law, Thomas F. Houghton. His son, Charles Keely, an architect in his father's firm died in December 1889 at the age of thirty-five of pneumonia, while in Hartford, consulting with the bishop on business. In 1884, University of Notre Dame awarded Keely its Laetare Medal. The medal has been awarded annually to a Catholic “whose genius has ennobled the arts and sciences, illustrated the ideals of the Church and enriched the heritage of humanity.” Established in 1883, Keely was the second person to receive the award after historian John Gilmary Shea. Keely died on August 11, 1896, after a long illness, while still directing the completion of several churches with his son-in-law, Thomas Houghton. He was buried in Holy Cross Cemetery, Brooklyn, under an inconspicuous polished granite block embossed "KEELY." Works Arkansas Cathedral of St. Andrew, Little Rock Connecticut Church of St. Mary, the Immaculate Conception, Derby Sacred Heart Church, Waterbury Cathedral of St. Augustine (1868), Bridgeport Assumption Church, Ansonia St. Mary of the Immaculate Conception Church, Baltic St. Peter Church, Danbury (Keely and Murphy) Cathedral of St. Joseph Hartford (burned 1956) St. John's Church, Middletown District of Columbia St. Dominic Catholic Church (Washington, D.C.) (1865). Illinois Cathedral of the Holy Name, Chicago (1874) St. James Church, Chicago (demolished, 2014) Nativity of Our Lord Catholic Church, Chicago (1868) St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, Chicago (1871) St. Mary Carmelite Church, Joliet Louisiana St. Joseph Church, New Orleans (1869-1875) Maine Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (1869), Portland St. Joseph's Church (1865), Lewiston St. John's Church (1855), Bangor Maryland Corpus Christi Church, Baltimore St. Joseph's Monastery's Shrine Church Baltimore Congregation of the Passionists' Rectory Baltimore Massachusetts Immaculate Conception Church, Newburyport Holy Trinity Church, Boston Our Lady of Victories Church, Boston St. James Church, Boston St. Mary's Church, Boston (demolished 1977) St. Mary's Church, Taunton St. Francis De Sales Church, Roxbury (original building, demolished) 1859: St. Francis de Sales Church, Charlestown St. Augustine Church, South Boston St. Vincent de Paul Church, South Boston Sts. Peter and Paul Church, South Boston (rebuild of original church by J. Fox Bryant) St. Peter Church Dorchester St. Margaret Church, Dorchester (with Thomas Houghton) St. Thomas Aquinas Church, Jamaica Plain Church of the Holy Redeemer, East Boston Church of the Assumption, East Boston St. John Church, Cambridge (with James Murphy) Sacred Heart Church, Cambridge (with Patrick W. Ford) Sacred Heart Church, Weymouth (burned 2005) Sacred Hearts Church, Malden Sacred Heart Church, Lynn St. Mary Church, Lawrence St. Patrick's Church (1853), Lowell St. Michael Church, Lowell Church of the Immaculate Conception, Lowell St. Peter Church, Lowell (demolished) St. Paul Church, Hingham St. Joseph's Church, Fall River St. Patrick's Church, Fall River St. Lawrence, Martyr Church, New Bedford Cathedral of St. Michael, Springfield Holy Name of Jesus Church, Chicopee St. Joseph Church, Pittsfield St. Jerome Church, Holyoke Michigan Most Holy Trinity Church, Detroit New Hampshire Cathedral of St. Joseph, Manchester (with Patrick W. Ford) New Jersey St. Bridget Church, Jersey City St. Patrick Church, Jersey City St. Peter Church and College Jersey City St. Michael Church, Jersey City Church of the Sacred Heart, New Brunswick St. Peter the Apostle Church, New Brunswick 91856) Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, Paterson (1865) Church of the Sacred Heart Mt. Holly St Patrick's Pro-Cathedral Newark St. Mary Church, South Amboy New York St. Ann's Church, Brooklyn (1860), northwest corner of Gold and Front Streets -razed in 1992. St. Anthony of Padua's Church (Greenpoint, Brooklyn) -In 1975, St. Alphonsus Church was merged into St. Anthony Church, after which the church was renamed St. Anthony – St. Alphonsus Catholic Church. Church of St. Stephen (Brooklyn, New York) -almost completely destroyed by fire in 1951 and rebuilt. St. Bernard's Church (New York City)\|St. Bernard's Church (1873–1875) (now the home of Our Lady of Guadalupe Parish) St. Boniface Church, Brooklyn (now the Brooklyn Oratory) St. Charles Borromeo Church (1868), 21 Sidney Place, Brooklyn, "reputedly his 325th church design." Church of the Holy Innocents, Manhattan (completed 1870) St. Joseph Cathedral, Buffalo St. Joseph's Church, Albany (1855-1860, closed) St. Mary Church, Yonkers (an early church by Keely, replaced in 1880) St. Mary Church, Auburn, 1867–70 St. Vincent de Paul Church, Brooklyn St. John the Baptist Roman Catholic Church, Brooklyn Ohio Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist, Cleveland St. John the Baptist Church, Canton Church of St. Francis de Sales, Toledo (Parish closed, 2005, still open for daily noon Mass) Saints Peter and Paul Catholic Church (Sandusky, Ohio) St. Martin of Tours, Valley City Pennsylvania St. Peter Cathedral (1873–1875), Erie St. Joseph Church, Erie Church of the Assumption, (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) Saint John the Baptist, Philadelphia, PA Rhode Island Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul (1878), Providence (NRHP) St. Charles Borromeo Church, Woonsocket (1867) (NRHP) St. Joseph's Roman Catholic Church (Providence, Rhode Island) (1851) (NRHP) St. Mary Church (1848), Newport (NRHP) South Carolina St. Patrick Church, Charleston Cathedral of Saint John and Saint Finbar, Charleston (1850–1854, burned December 1861), rebuilt as the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist (1907, completed March 2010) Vermont Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, Burlington (burned 1972) St. Peter's Church, Rutland, Vermont St. Bridget Church, West Rutland, Vermont West Virginia St. Francis Xavier Church, Parkersburg Wisconsin St. Bernard's Church, Watertown Canada Blessed Virgin's Chapel, Saint John, NB Church of Le Gesù (1865), Montreal, Quebec St. Mary's Basilica (1820–1899), Halifax, Nova Scotia St. Michael's Basilica, Miramichi, Chatham, New Brunswick Notes References Francis William Wynn Kervick. "Patrick Charles Keely, Architect: A Record of His Life and Work." South Bend, Indiana: S.V., 1953. External links Photo of old St. Joseph's Cathedral, Hartford Photo of St. Patrick's, Brooklyn Kervick, Francis. Patrick Charles Keely, Architect 1816 births 1896 deaths People from Thurles Alumni of St. Patrick's College, Thurles Irish emigrants to the United States Irish-American culture Defunct architecture firms based in New York (state) American ecclesiastical architects Architects of Roman Catholic churches Gothic Revival architects Defunct architecture firms based in Rhode Island Architects of cathedrals Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Brooklyn Laetare Medal recipients Roman Catholic churches in South Carolina 19th-century American architects Architects from County Tipperary
4893575	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania%20in%20the%20Early%20Middle%20Ages	Romania in the Early Middle Ages	The Early Middle Ages in Romania started with the withdrawal of the Roman troops and administration from Dacia province in the 270s. In the next millennium a series of peoples, most of whom only controlled two or three of the nearly ten historical regions that now form Romania, arrived. During this period, society and culture underwent fundamental changes. Town life came to an end in Dacia with the Roman withdrawal, and in Scythia Minorthe other Roman province in the territory of present-day Romania400 years later. Fine vessels made on fast potter's wheels disappeared and hand-made pottery became dominant from the 450s. Burial rites changed more than once from cremation to inhumation and vice versa until inhumation became dominant by the end of the 10th century. The East Germanic Goths and Gepids, who lived in sedentary communities, were the first new arrivals. The Goths dominated Moldavia and Wallachia from the 290s, and parts of Transylvania from the 330s. Their power collapsed under attacks by the nomadic Huns in 376. The Huns controlled Eastern and Central Europe from around 400, but their empire disintegrated in 454. Thereafter the regions west of the Carpathian MountainsBanat, Crişana, and Transylvaniaand Oltenia were dominated by the Gepids. Within a century, the lands east of the mountains became important centers of the Antes and Sclavenes. Hydronyms and place names of Slavic origin also prove the one-time presence of Early Slavs in the regions west of the Carpathians. The nomadic Avars subjugated the Gepids in 568 and dominated the Carpathian Basin up until around 800. The Bulgars also established a powerful empire in the 670s which included Dobruja and other territories along the Lower Danube. Bulgaria officially adopted the Eastern Orthodox variant of Christianity in 864. An armed conflict between Bulgaria and the nomadic Hungarians forced the latter to depart from the Pontic steppes and began the conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 895. Their invasion gave rise to the earliest reference, recorded some centuries later in the Gesta Hungarorum, to a polity ruled by a Romanian duke named Gelou. The same source also makes mention of the presence of the Székelys in Crişana around 895. The first contemporaneous references to Romanianswho used to be known as Vlachsin the regions now forming Romania were recorded in the 12th and 13th centuries. References to Vlachs inhabiting the lands to the south of the Lower Danube abound in the same period. Banat, Crişana, and Transylvania were integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century. These regions were subject to plundering raids by the nomadic Pechenegs and Cumans, who dominated the lowlands east of the mountains. Hungarian monarchs promoted the immigration of Western European settlers to Transylvania from the 1150s. The settlers' descendants, who were known as Transylvanian Saxons from the early 13th century, received collective privileges in 1224. Because of the settlement of the Saxons in their former territories, the Székelys were moved to the easternmost zones of the kingdom. The emergence of the Mongol Empire in the Eurasian Steppes in the first decades of the 13th century had lasting effects on the history of the region. The Mongols subjugated the Cumans in the 1230s and destroyed many settlements throughout the Kingdom of Hungary in 1241 and 1242, bringing the Early Middle Ages to an end. Background Roman provinces and native tribes Contacts between the Roman Empirewhich developed into the largest empire in the history of Europeand the natives of the regions now forming Romania commenced in the 2nd century BC. These regions were inhabited by Dacians, Bastarnae and other peoples whose incursions posed a threat to the empire. The Romans initially attempted to secure their frontiers by various means, including the creation of buffer zones. Finally, they decided that the annexation of the lands of these fierce "barbarians" was the best measure. The territory of the Getae between the river Danube and the Black Sea (modern Dobruja) was the first region to be incorporated into the empire. It was attached to the Roman province of Moesia in 46 AD. The Lower Danube marked the boundary between the empire and "Barbaricum" until Emperor Trajan decided to expand the frontiers over territories controlled by the Dacian Kingdom. He achieved his goal through two military campaigns, the second of which ended with the annihilation of the Dacian state and the establishment of the province of Dacia in 106. It included Oltenia and large portions of Banat, Transylvania, and Wallachia. Many settlers "from all over the Roman world" arrived and settled in the new province in the following decades. Dacia was situated over the empire's natural borders. Dacia was surrounded by native tribes inhabiting the regions of Crișana, Maramureș, and Moldavia, which are now part of Romania. Dacia province was plundered by neighboring tribes, including the Carpians and Sarmatians from the 230s, and by the Goths from the 250s. As the frontiers were to be shortened for defensive purposes, the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Dacia began in the 260s. The province officially ceased to exist under Emperor Aurelian (270–275) who "withdrew the Romans from the cities and countryside of Dacia". Garrisons stationed in Drobeta and Sucidava remained on the northern bank of the river. Origin of the Romanians Romanians speak a language originating from the dialects of the Roman provinces north of the "Jireček Line". This line divided, in Roman times, the predominantly Greek-speaking southern provinces from those where Latin was the principal language of communication. The emergence of Proto-Romanian from Vulgar Latin is first demonstrated by the words "torna, torna, frater" ("turn around, turn around, brother") recorded in connection with an Eastern Roman military action in 587 or 588. The soldier shouting them "in his native tongue" spoke an Eastern Romance dialect of the Balkan Mountains. Grigore Nandris writes that the Romanian vocabulary suggests that the Romanians' ancestors were "reduced to a pastoral life in the mountains and to agricultural pursuits in the foothills of their pasture lands" following the collapse of the Roman rule. A great number of Romanian words of uncertain origin are related to animal husbandry: baci ("chief shepherd"), balegă ("dung"), and brânză ("cheese"), for instance, belong to this group. Many words related to a more settled form of animal husbandry were borrowed from Slavic, including coteţ ("poultry house"), grajd ("stable"), and stână ("fenced pasture"). Romanian has preserved Latin terms for agriculture and the Latin names of certain crops, but a significant part of its agricultural lexis originates from a Slavic-speaking population. The first group includes a ara ("to plough"), a semăna ("to sow"), a culege ("to harvest"), a secera ("to reap"), grâu ("wheat"), in ("flax"), and furcă ("pitchfork"), while a croi ("to cut out"), a plivi ("to weed"), brazdă ("furrow"), cobilă ("plow line"), coasă ("scythe"), lopată ("shovel") and many others are Slavic loanwords. The Romanian religious vocabulary is also divided, with a small number of basic terms preserved from Latin and a significant number of borrowings from Old Church Slavonic. Romanian did not preserve Latin words connected to urbanized society. The Romanians' ethnogenesis cannot be understood based exclusively on written sources, because the earliest records on their ancestors were made by 11th-century Byzantine historians. When referring to the Romance-speaking population of Southeastern Europe, early medieval sources used the Vlach exonym or its cognates, which all derived from the Common Slavic term for speakers of the Latin language. The earliest sources write of the Vlachs of the central territories of the Balkan Peninsula. Late Roman Age Scythia Minor and the limes on the Lower Danube (c. 270–c. 700) The territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea remained a fully integrated part of the Roman Empire, even after the abandonment of Trajan's Dacia. It was transformed into a separate province under the name of Scythia Minor around 293. Before 300, the Romans erected small forts at Dierna and in other places on the northern bank of the Danube in modern-day Banat. In their wider region, Roman coins from the periodmostly of bronzehave been found. The existence of Christian communities in Scythia Minor became evident under Emperor Diocletian (284–305). He and his co-emperors ordered the persecution of Christians throughout the empire, causing the death of many between 303 and 313. Under Emperor Constantine the Great (306–337), a bridge across the Danube was constructed at Sucidava, a new fort (Constantiana Daphne) was built, and ancient roads were repaired in Oltenia. The Lower Danube again became the empire's northern boundary in 369 at the latest, when Emperor Valens met Athanaricthe head of the Gothsin a boat in the middle of the river because the latter had taken an oath "never to set foot on Roman soil". The Huns destroyed Drobeta and Sucidava in the 440s, but the forts were restored under Emperor Justinian I (527–565). Eastern Roman coins from the first half of the 6th century suggest a significant military presence in Olteniaa region also characterized by the predominance of pottery with shapes of Roman tradition. Although Eastern Roman emperors made annual payments to the neighboring peoples in an attempt to keep the peace in the Balkans, the Avars regularly invaded Scythia Minor from the 580s. The Romans abandoned Sucidava in 596 or 597, but Tomis, which was the last town in Scythia Minor to resist the invaders, only fell in 704. North of the limes (c. 270–c. 330) Transylvania and northern Banat, which had belonged to Dacia province, had no direct contact with the Roman Empire from the 270s. There is no evidence that they were invaded in the following decades. Towns, including Apulum and Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, and the surrounding areas continued to be inhabited but the urban areas diminished. The existence of local Christian communities can be assumed in Porolissum, Potaissa and other settlements. On the other hand, evidencemainly pottery with "Chi-rho" (Χ-Ρ) signs and other Christian symbolsis "shadowy and poorly understood", according to archaeologists Haynes and Hanson. Urns found in late 3rd-century cemeteries at Bezid, Mediaş, and in other Transylvanian settlements had clear analogies in sites east of the Carpathians, suggesting that the Carpians were the first new arrivals in the former province from the neighboring regions. Other Carpian groups, pressured by the Goths, also departed from their homeland and sought refuge in the Roman Empire around 300. Nevertheless, "Carpo-Dacians" were listed among the peoples "mixed with the Huns" as late as 379. The Sarmatians of the Banat were allies of the empire, demonstrated by a Roman invasion in 332 against the Goths, their enemies. Sarmatians were admitted into the empire in 379, but other Sarmatian groups remained in the Tisa plains up until the 460s. Gutthiuda: land of the Goths (c. 290–c. 455) The Goths started penetrating into territories west of the river Dniester from the 230s. Two distinct groups separated by the river, the Thervingi and the Greuthungi, quickly emerged among them. The one-time province of Dacia was held by "the Taifali, Victohali, and Thervingi" around 350. The Goths' success is marked by the expansion of the multiethnic "Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov culture". Settlements of the culture appeared in Moldavia and Wallachia at the end of the 3rd century, and in Transylvania after 330. These lands were inhabited by a sedentary population engaged in farming and cattle-breeding. Pottery, comb-making and other handicrafts flourished in the villages. Wheel-made fine pottery is a typical item of the period; hand-formed cups of the local tradition were also preserved. Plowshares similar to those made in nearby Roman provinces and Scandinavian-style brooches indicate trade contacts with these regions. "Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov" villages, sometimes covering an area exceeding , were not fortified and consisted of two types of houses: sunken huts with walls made of wattle and daub and surface buildings with plastered timber walls. Sunken huts had for centuries been typical for settlements east of the Carpathians, but now they appeared in distant zones of the Pontic steppes. The multiethnic Gutthiuda was divided into smaller political units or kuni, each headed by tribal chiefs or reiks. In case of emergency, the tribal chiefs' council elected a supreme leader who was known as iudex regum ("judge of kings") by St Ambrose. Christian prisoners of war were the first missionaries among the Goths. Ulfilas, himself a descendant of a Cappadocian captive, was ordained bishop "of the Christians in the land of the Goths" in 341. Expelled from Gutthiuda during a persecution of Christians, Ulfilas settled in Moesia in 348. Gothic dominance collapsed when the Huns arrived and attacked the Thervingi in 376. Most of the Thervingi sought asylum in the Roman Empire, and were followed by large groups of Greuthungi and Taifali. All the same, significant groups of Goths stayed in the territories north of the Danube. For instance, Athanaric "retired with all his men to Caucalanda"probably to the valley of the river Olt from where they "drove out the Sarmatians". A hoard of Roman coins issued under Valentinian I and Valens suggests that the gates of the amphitheatre at Ulpia Traiana were blocked around the same time. The Pietroasele Treasure which was hidden around 450 also implies the presence of a Gothic tribal or religious leader in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube. It contains a torc bearing the inscription GUTANI O WI HAILAG, which is interpreted by Malcolm Todd as "God who protects the Goths, most holy and inviolate". Gepidia: land of the Gepids (c. 290–c. 630) The earliest reference to Gepidsan East Germanic tribe closely related to the Gothsis found in a formal speech of 291. The anonymous author wrote that the Thervingi joined "battle with the Vandals and Gepids" at that time. The center of an early Gepidia, on the plains northwest of the Meseş Mountains, appears to have been located around Şimleu Silvaniei, where early 5th-century precious objects of Roman provenance have been unearthed. The Huns imposed their authority over the Gepids by the 420s, but the latter remained united under the rule of their king named Ardaric. Although he was one of the favorites of Attila, king of the Huns, he initiated an uprising against the Huns when Attila died in 453. The Gepids regained their independence and "ruled as victors over the extent of all Dacia". Three sumptuous tombs found at Apahida evidence the wealth accumulated by Gepid royals through their connections with the Eastern Roman Empire. A golden ring with crosses found in one of the graves implies its owner's Christian faith. John of Biclar refers to an Arian bishop of the Gepids which suggests that they adopted Christianity through their connection with the Arian Goths. New settlements appearing along the rivers Mureş, Someş, and Târnava reflects a period of tranquility in Gepidia until around 568. The common people in Biharia, Cenad, Moreşti, and other villages lived in sunken huts covered with gabled roofs but with no hearths or ovens. They were primarily farmers, but looms, combs, and other products evidence the existence of local workshops. Trading contacts between Gepidia and faraway regions is evidenced by finds of amber beads and brooches manufactured in the Crimea, Mazovia or Scandinavia. The Avar invasion of 568 ended the independent Gepidia. Written sources evidence the survival of Gepid groups within the Avar Empire. For instance, Eastern Roman troops "encountered three Gepid settlements" on the Tisa plains in 599 or 600. Hunnic Empire (c. 400–c. 460) The Huns, a people of uncertain origin, were nomadic and wandered "with the wagons" in the 370s. They were eminent mounted archers who imposed their authority over an increasing number of neighboring peoples. Their first ruler whose seat was located in the Lower Danube region was Uldin, initially an important ally and later an enemy of the Eastern Roman Empire between 401 and 408. The Eastern Roman government paid an annual tribute to the Huns from the 420s. Gold flowing from the empire transformed the Hun society. The introduction of a centralized monarchy is evidenced in a report written by Priscus of Panium, an Eastern Roman envoy sent to the ruler of the Huns, Attila, in 448. At that time, Gothic was widely spoken in the royal court since "the subjects of the Huns" spoke "besides their own barbarous tongues, either Hunnic or Gothic, oras many as have commercial dealings with the western RomansLatin". The Huns imposed their authority on a sedentary population. Priscus of Panium refers to a village where he and his retinue were supplied "with millet instead of corn" and "medos (mead) instead of wine". Attila's sudden death in 453 caused a civil war among his sons. The subject peoples revolted and emerged the victors at the Battle of Nedao in 454. The remnants of the Huns withdrew to the Pontic steppes. One of their groups was admitted to settle in Scythia Minor in 460. After the first migrations Between Huns and Avars (c. 450–c. 565) The last "Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov" objects once widespread in Gutthiudasuch as fine wares and weaponsare dated to the period ending around 430. According to Coriolan H. Opreanu, the same period is characterized by "population shifts" which caused the abandonment of many villages and the appearance of new settlements. Botoşana, Dodeşti, and other sites east of the Carpathians demonstrate the simplification of pottery forms and a decline in the use of the fast potter's wheel from the 450s. Around the same time, semi-sunken huts with stone or clay ovens appeared in Moldavia and Wallachia, forming ephemeral settlements with an area smaller than . The locals practiced an "itinerant form of agriculture", instead of manuring the soil. Differences in local pottery indicate the coexistence of communities isolated from each other by marshes, forests or hills. For instance, contemporary Cândeşti produced a significant quantity of wheel-made pottery, Târgşor was characterized by crushed-shard tempered vessels, and a sample of the most common "Kolochin" vessels was found in the Budureasca Valley. There are few known cemeteries from the second half of the 5th century, pointing to common use of cremation without the use of urns or pits. On the other hand, a huge biritual necropolis at Sărata-Monteoru produced more than 1,600 cremation burials, either in wheel-made urns or in pits without urns. Small cemeteries with inhumation graves have been found at Nichiteni and Secuieni. Jordanes, Procopius and other 6th-century authors used the terms "Sclavenes" and "Antes" to refer to the peoples inhabiting the territory north of the Lower Danube. The Antes launched their first campaign over the Lower Danube in 518. After they concluded a treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire in 545, the Sclavenes started to plunder the Balkan provinces. Both ethnic groups seized many prisoners of wars during their raids, but they were ready to integrate them "as free men and friends". The names of early 6th-century leaders of the Sclavenes or Antes are unknown. This supports ancient authors' claims that both ethnic groups lived "under a democracy". The same conclusion can be drawn from Procopius's report of the "phoney Chilbudius"a young Antian serf who "spoke the Latin tongue"who was dispatched by his fellow tribesmen to negotiate with the Eastern Roman Empire in 545. The disappearance of bronze and gold coins from sites north of the Lower Danube demonstrates an "economic closure of the frontier" of the Eastern Roman Empire between 545 and 565. The same period is characterized by a tendency towards cultural unification in Moldavia, Oltenia and Wallachia. Handmade pots with very similar incised designs evidence the "existence of a cross-regional set of symbols shared" by either potters or consumers. Pots, spindle whorls and other objects decorated with crosses or swastikas have been unearthed at Cândeşti, Lozna, and other sites. The use of handmade clay pans for baking bread was spreading from the regions south and east of the Carpathians towards lands over the Dniester and the Lower Danube. Avar Empire (c. 565–c. 800) The Avars occupied Gepidia in 567, less than a decade after their arrival in Europe. They were nomadic pastoralists, who settled in the lowlands. Stirrups found at Sânpetru German are among the earliest finds in Romania attributed to the Avars. They received agricultural products from farming communities settled in their domains and neighboring peoples subjected to their authority. Emperor Justin II hired, in 578, the Avars to attack the Sclavenes who resumed their plundering raids against the empire around that time. The names of some of the Sclavene leaders were first recorded in the following period. One of them, Musocius, "was called rex in the barbarian tongue". Graves of males interred together with horses found at Aiud and Band prove the Avars' settlement in Transylvania in the early 7th century. Their cemeteries are centered around salt mines. Spursnever found in Avar context but widely used in Western Slav territories were unearthed in Şura Mică and Medişoru Mare, suggesting the employment of non-Avar horsemen in the 8th century. Large "Late Avar" cemeteries used by several generations between c. 700 and c. 800 imply "an advanced degree of sedentization" of the entire society. The Avar Empire collapsed after the Franks launched three campaigns against the westernmost Avar territories between 791 and 803. Soon afterwards the Bulgars attacked the Avars from the southeast, and Charlemagne settled Avar groups in Pannonia. Emergence of new powers (c. 600–c. 895) The Lower Danube region experienced a period of stability after the establishment of the Avar Empire. Archaeological sites in Moldavia, Oltenia and Wallachia became characterized by the growing popularity of hand-made vessels with finger impressions and by a decline in detectable cemeteries. Ananias of Shirak, a 7th-century Armenian geographer described the "large country of Dacia" as inhabited by Slavs who formed "twenty-five tribes". Villages of sunken huts with stone ovens appeared in Transylvania around 600. Their network was expanding along the rivers Mureş, Olt and Someş. The so-called "Mediaş group" of cremation or mixed cemeteries emerged in this period near salt mines. The Hungarian and the Romanian vocabulary of salt mining was taken from Slavic, suggesting that Slavs were employed in the mines for centuries. Bistriţa ("swift"), Crasna ("nice" or "red"), Sibiu ("dogwood"), and many other rivers and settlements with names of Slavic origin also evidence the presence of Slavs in Transylvania. The Turkic-speaking Bulgars arrived in the territories west of the river Dniester around 670. At the Battle of Ongal they defeated the Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Emperor Constantine IV in 680 or 681, occupied Dobruja and founded the First Bulgarian Empire. They soon imposed their authority over some of the neighboring tribes. The great variety in burial rites evidences the multi-ethnic character of the Bulgarian Empire. Even the Bulgars were divided in this respect; some of them practiced inhumation and others cremation. Initially, a sharp distinction existed between the Bulgars and their subjects, but the Slavicization of the Bulgars soon began. Opreanu writes that the "new cultural synthesis" known as the "Dridu culture" developed in the Lower Danube region around 680. New settlements and large cemeteries show that the region experienced a steady demographic rise in the 8th century. The large, unfortified "Dridu" settlements were characterized by traditional semi-sunken huts, but a few houses with ground-level floors have also been unearthed in Dodeşti, Spinoasa, and other places. "Dridu" communities produced and used gray or yellow fine pottery, but hand-made vessels were still predominant. Fine, gray vessels were also unearthed in the 9th-century "Blandiana A" cemeteries in the area of Alba-Iulia, which constitutes a "cultural enclave" in Transylvania. Near these cemeteries, necropolises of graves with west–east orientation form the distinct "Ciumbrud group". Female dress accessories from "Ciumbrud graves" are strikingly similar to those from Christian cemeteries in Bulgaria and Moravia. From an earlier date are the cremation cemeteries of the "Nuşfalau-Someşeni group" in northwestern Transylvania, with their 8th- and 9th-century tumuli, similar to the kurgans of East Slavic territories. Contemporaneous authors rarely dwelled on early medieval Southeastern Europe. For instance, the Royal Frankish Annals makes a passing reference to Abodrites living "in Dacia adjacent to the Danube near the Bulgarian border" on the occasion of their envoys' arrival in Aachen in 824. Bulgaria's territory increased under Krum (c. 803–814), who took Adrianople and forced at least 10,000 of the town's inhabitants to settle north of the Lower Danube in 813. The ambitions of his son Omurtag (814–831) in the regions of the rivers Dnieper and Tisa are attested by two columns erected in the memory of Bulgar military leaders who drowned in these rivers during military campaigns. Emperor Arnulf sent envoys, in 894, to the Bulgarians to "ask that they should not sell salt to the Moravians", suggesting a Bulgarian control over either the Transylvanian salt mines or the roads to Moravia. In the same year, the nomadic Hungarianswho had arrived in the Lower Danube region from the steppes of Eastern Europe in 837 or 838became involved in a conflict between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire on the latter's behalf. The Bulgarians incited another nomadic tribe, the Pechenegs, to invade the Hungarians from the east, while the Bulgarians also attacked them from the south. The two synchronized attacks forced the Hungarians to cross the Carpathian Mountains in search for a new homeland. About 300 years later, Anonymus, the author of Gesta Hungarorum, wrote a comprehensive list of polities and peoples of the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. He wrote about the Hungarian conquest of the territory but did not mention Simeon I of Bulgaria, Svatopluk of Moravia and the conquerors' opponents known from contemporary sources. Instead, he wrote of a number of personalities unknown by other chroniclers. In Gesta Hungarorum, Menumorut ruled over "the peoples that are called Kozár" in Crişana. Anonymus also wrote of the Székelys ("previously the peoples of King Attila") living in the territory for centuries who joined the invading Hungarians. Banat, according to Anonymus, was ruled by Glad who had come "from the castle of Vidin." Glad is described to employ "Cumans, Bulgarians and Vlachs" in his army. Anonymous also wrote of Gelou, "a certain Vlach" ruling in Transylvania, a land inhabited by "Vlachs and Slavs". Gelou's subjects are portrayed as having "suffered many injuries from the Cumans and Pechenegs". Formation of new states and the last waves of migrations First Bulgarian Empire after conversion (864–1018) Boris I, the ruler of Bulgaria, converted to Orthodox Christianity in 864. He promoted vernacular worship services, thus Old Church Slavonic was declared the language of liturgy in the Bulgarian Orthodox Church in 893. One of the earliest examples of Cyrillic scriptan alphabet strongly associated with Slavonic liturgywas found in Mircea Vodă in Romania. The Cyrillic inscription from 943 refers to a "župan Dimitrie". Byzantine troops occupied large portions of Bulgaria, including modern Dobruja, under Emperor John I Tzimiskes (969–976). After his death an anti-Byzantine uprising led by four brothers broke out. One of the brothers, David, was killed by Vlachs in the present-day border region between Greece and North Macedonia. In 1018, the Byzantines conquered the whole territory of the Bulgarian Empire and the Archbishop of Ohrid acquired ecclesiastic jurisdiction in 1020 over the Vlachs living there. Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin (c. 895–c. 1000) The way taken by the Hungarians across the Carpathian Mountains when they started the conquest of the Carpathian Basin varies from source to source. According to Gesta Hungarorum, the Hungarians descended through the northern passes to the lowlands, bypassing Transylvania, and only began the invasion of the regions east of the Tisa after the conquest of the western regions. Gesta Hungarorum says the Vlach Gelou of Transylvania died fighting the Hungarians, while his subjects chose "for themselves as lord Tétény", one of the Hungarian leaders. Anonymus also wrote of Menumorut's defeat, but said he preserved his rule in Crişana until his death by giving his daughter in marriage to Zolta, heir to Árpád, the head of the Hungarians. In a contrasting account, the Illuminated Chronicle writes of Hungarians fleeing through the eastern passes of the Carpathian Mountains to Transylvania where they "remained quietly" and "rested their herds" for a while before moving further west. The so-called "Cluj group" of small inhumation cemeteriesgraves with west–east orientation, often containing remains of horses appeared on both sides of the Apuseni Mountains around 900. Their military character evidences that the people using them formed a "double defensive line" organized against the Pechenegs. Transylvanian cemeteries of the "Cluj group" cluster around salt mines. Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus identified "the whole settlement" of Hungary with the lands where the rivers Criş, Mureş, Timiş, Tisa and Toutispossibly the Begaran around 950. The concentration of objects of Byzantine provenance at the confluence of the Mureş and Tisa shows that this territory was a regional center of power. Accordingly, the seat of Gyula, a Hungarian chieftain baptized in Constantinople around 952, most probably existed in this region. On the other hand, Hungarian chronicles associate Gyula's family with Transylvania. Place names from the nomadic stratum of Hungarian toponymythose corresponding to proper names or Hungarian tribal names, including Decea, Hotoan, and Ineu also evidence that major Hungarian groups settled in Transylvania from the 950s. An early "Bijelo Brdo" cemetery belonging to a 10th- and 11th-century archaeological culture with finds from all over the Carpathian Basin was found at Deva. Patzinakia: land of the Pechenegs (c. 895–c. 1120) The Turkic-speaking Pechenegs took the control of the territories east of the Carpathians from the Hungarians around 895. Emperor Constantine VII wrote that two Pecheneg "provinces" or "clans" ("Kato Gyla" and "Giazichopon") were located in Moldavia and Wallachia around 950. The change of dominion had no major effect on the sedentary "Dridu" villages in the region. The settlements in Moldavia and Wallachia, most of them built on river banks or lake shores, remained unfortified. Sporadic finds of horse brasses and other "nomadic" objects evidence the presence of Pechenegs in "Dridu" communities. Snaffle bits with rigid mouthpieces and round stirrupsnovelties of the early 10th centurywere also unearthed in Moldavia and Wallachia. Cemeteries of the locals show that inhumation replaced cremation by the end of the 10th century. The Eymund's saga narrates that Pechenegs (Tyrkir) with Blökumen "and a good many other nasty people" were involved in the disputes for the throne of Kievan Rus' in 1019. An 11th-century runic inscription on a stone from Gotland narrates that a Varangian man was murdered "on a voyage abroad" by Blakumen. Both Blökumen and Blakumen may refer to Vlachs inhabiting the regions east of the Carpathians, although their translation to "black men" cannot be excluded. Graffiti depicting ships and dragons in Scandinavian style were found in the Basarabi Cave Complex at Murfatlar. Large groups of Pechenegs pressured from the east by the Ouzes received asylum in the Byzantine Empire in 1046 and 1047. All the same, Pecheneg populations remained in the regions north of the Lower Danube even thereafter. Some of them were admitted into the Kingdom of Hungary in the next decades, where they were settled in southern Transylvania and other regions. Byzantine revival and the Second Bulgarian Empire (970s–c. 1185) Around 971, Emperor John I Tzimiskes established the theme or "district" of Paristrion in the territories occupied between the Balkan Mountains and the Lower Danube. Naval bases were built at Capidava, Noviodunum, and Păcuiul lui Soare on the river. Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the annexed territories often expressed their hostility towards imperial rule. Anna Comnena relates how local Vlachs showed "the way through the passes" of the Balkan Mountains to invading Cumans in 1094. All the same, Vlachs served in the imperial army, for instance during an imperial campaign against the Kingdom of Hungary in 1166. New taxes imposed by imperial authorities caused a rebellion of Vlachs and Bulgarians in 1185, which led to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The Vlachs' eminent status within the new state is evidenced by the writings of Robert of Clari and other western authors, who refer either to the new state or to its mountainous regions as "Vlachia" until the 1250s. Kingdom of Hungary (c. 1000–1241) Stephen I, the first crowned king of Hungary whose reign began in 1000 or 1001, unified the Carpathian Basin. Around 1003, he launched a campaign against "his maternal uncle, King Gyula" and occupied Transylvania. Stephen I later turned against Ahtum, "who had been baptised in the Orthodox faith in Vidin", and conquered Banat. Hartvik, Stephen I's hagiographer, wrote that the monarch "divided his territories in ten bishoprics". In the territory of modern Romania, three Roman Catholic dioceses were established with their seats in Alba Iulia, Biharea (from the last decades of the 11th century in Oradea), and Cenad. Royal administration in the entire kingdom was based on counties organized around royal fortresses. In modern Romania's territory, references to an ispán or count of Alba in 1097, and to a count of Bihor in 1111 evidence the appearance of the county system. The counties in Banat and Crişana remained under direct royal authority, but a great officer of the realm, the voivode, supervised the ispáns of the Transylvanian counties from the end of the 12th century. Eastward expansion of "Bijelo Brdo" villages along the Mureş continued in the 11th century. Cauldrons and huts with hearths carved into the soil were the characterizing items of the period. Nevertheless, semi-sunken huts with stone ovens from Sfântu Gheorghe, Şimoneşti and other villages evidence the survival of the local population. The lands between the Carpathians and the Tisa were plundered by Pechenegs in the 1010s and in 1068, by Ouzes in 1085, and by Cumans in 1091. Cluj, Dăbâca and other royal forts built of earth and timber were strengthened after the 1068 attack. In these forts appeared the so-called "Citfalău cemeteries", dependent upon late 11th-century royal legislation forcing commoners to set up their graveyards around churches. The early presence of Székelys at Tileagd in Crişana, and at Gârbova, Saschiz, and Sebeş in Transylvania is attested by royal charters. Székely groups from Gârbova, Saschiz, and Sebeş were moved around 1150 into the easternmost regions of Transylvania, when the monarchs granted these territories to new settlers arriving from Western Europe. The Székelys were organized into "seats" instead of counties, and a royal officer, the "Count of the Székelys" became the head of their community from the 1220s. The Székelys provided military services to the monarchs and remained exempt of royal taxes. A great number of Flemish, German, and Walloon "guest settlers" arrived in Transylvania around 1150. Wheel-made fine vessels with analogies in Thuringia found at Şelimbăr demonstrate the advanced technology they introduced to their new home. An account of royal revenues from the 1190s shows that almost one-tenth of all royal income derived from taxes they paid. In 1224, King Andrew II granted collective privileges to those inhabiting the region between Orăștie and Baraolt. The Diploma Andreanum confirmed the custom of freely electing their priests and local leaders; only the right to appoint the head of their community, the "Count of Sibiu", was preserved for the monarchs. The Transylvanian Saxonsas they were collectively mentioned from the early 13th century—also received the right to "use the forests of the Romanians and the Pechenegs" along with these peoples. The earliest royal charter referring to Romanians in Transylvania is connected to the foundation of the Cistercian abbey at Cârța around 1202, which was granted land, up to that time possessed by Romanians. Another royal charter reveals that Romanians fought for Bulgaria along with Saxons, Székelys and Pechenegs under the leadership of the Count of Sibiu in 1210. The Orthodox Romanians remained exempt from the tithe payable by all Catholic peasants to the Church. Furthermore, they only paid a special in kind tax, the "fiftieth" on their herds. Organized settling continued with the arrival of the Teutonic Knights in Ţara Bârsei in 1211. They were granted the right to freely pass through "the land of the Székelys and the land of the Vlachs" in 1222. The knights tried to free themselves from the monarch's authority, thus King Andrew II expelled them from the region in 1225. Thereafter, the king appointed his heir, Béla, with the title of duke, to administer Transylvania. Duke Béla occupied Oltenia and set up a new province, the Banate of Severin, in the 1230s. Cumania: land of the Cumans (c. 1060–1241) The arrival of the Cumans in the Lower Danube region was first recorded in 1055. A 17th-century version of the Turkic chronicle Oghuzname relates that Qipchaq, the ancient Cuman hero, fought against the Ulak (Romanians), along with other nations. Cuman groups assisted the rebelling Bulgarians and Vlachs against the Byzantines between 1186 and 1197. "Dridu" villages of the lowlands east of the Carpathians were abandoned between 1050 and 1080, around which time new settlements appeared on higher land on both banks of the Prut. A sharp decrease from 300 to 35 in the number of archaeological sitessettlements, cemeteries and coin hordsevidences a population decline which continued well into the 13th century. Byzantine troops marching towards Transylvania through the territory east of the Carpathians encountered "a land entirely bereft of men" in 1166. A coalition of Rus' princes and Cuman tribes suffered a sound defeat by the Mongols in the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223. Shortly thereafter Boricius, a Cuman chieftain, accepted baptism and the supremacy of the king of Hungary. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania was set up in his territories in 1228. A letter of 1234 written by Pope Gregory IX refers to a "certain people within the Cuman bishopric called Walati" (Vlachs) who even persuaded Catholic Hungarians and Germans to accept the ecclesiastic authority of Orthodox prelates. Mongol invasion (1241–1242) The Mongols, who had decided to invade Europe in 1235, attacked the Cumans in 1238. Masses of Cumans sought refuge in Bulgaria and Hungary. The Mongols crossed the Carpathians in March 1241, and soon afterwards they destroyed "the rich village of the Germans" (Rodna), and took Bistrița, Cluj, and Oradea. Another Mongol army "proceeded by way of the Qara-Ulagh" ("Black Vlachs"), and defeated their leader named "Mishlav". They also entered Transylvania, sacked Alba Iulia, Sibiu, the abbeys at Cârța and Igriș, and Cenad. The Mongol invasion lasted for a year, and the Mongols devastated huge swathes of territory of the kingdom before their unexpected withdrawal in 1242. Matthew Paris and other contemporaneous scholars considered the Mongol invasion as a "sign of apocalypse". Whole villages were destroyed, and many were never rebuilt. According to a royal charter of 1246, Alba Iulia, Harina, Gilău, Mărişelu, Tășnad and Zalău were almost depopulated. Another charter from 1252 evidences that Zec, a village on the Olt, was totally deserted. Aftermath A new period of intensive settlements began in Banat, Transylvania and other regions within the Kingdom of Hungary after the withdrawal of the Mongols. King Béla IV was also considering settling the Knights Hospitallers in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube. His diploma of 1247 for the Knights evidences the existence of four Romanian polities in the region. They were under the rule of voivodes Litovoi and Seneslau, and of knezes Farcaș and John. Internal conflicts characterized the last decades of the 13th century in the Kingdom of Hungary. For instance, a feud between King Béla and his son, Stephen caused a civil war which lasted from 1261 to 1266. Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy, Voivode Litovoi attempted to get rid of the Hungarian monarchs' suzerainty in the 1270s, but he fell in a battle while fighting against royal troops. One of his successors, Basarab I of Wallachia was the first Romanian monarch whose sovereignty was internationally recognized after his victory over King Charles I of Hungary in the Battle of Posada of 1330. See also Balkan–Danubian culture Banat in the Middle Ages Bulgarian lands across the Danube History of the Székely people Footnotes Sources Primary sources Ammianus Marcellinus: The Later Roman Empire (AD 354–378) (Selected and translated by Walter Hamilton, With an Introduction and Notes by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill) (2004). Penguin Books. . Anna Comnena: The Alexiad (Translated by E. R. A. Sewter) (1969). Penguin Books. . Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); Anonymus and Master Roger; CEU Press; . Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (Greek text edited by Gyula Moravcsik, English translation b Romillyi J. H. Jenkins) (1967). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. . Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus by John Kinnamos (Translated by Charles M. Brand) (1976). Columbia University Press. . Eymund's Saga (1989). In Vikings in Russia: Yngvar's Saga and Eymund's Saga (Translated and Introduced by Hermann Palsson and Paul Edwards). Edingburgh University Press. pp. 69–89. . Eutropius: Breviarium (Translated with an introduction and commentary by H. W. Bird) (1993). Liverpool University Press. . Genethliacus of Maximian Augustus by an Anonymous Orator (291) (Translation and Notes by Rodgers) (1994). In: In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini (Introduction, Translation, and Historical Commentary with the Latin Text of R. A. B. Mynors by C. E. V. Nixon and Barbara Saylor Rodgers) (1994); University of California Press; . Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary (Translated by Nora Berend) (2001). In: Head, Thomas (2001); Medieval Hagiography: An Anthology; Routledge; . Master Roger's Epistle to the Sorrowful Lament upon the Destruction of the Kingdom of Hungary by the Tatars (Translated and Annotated by János M. Bak and Martyn Rady) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); Anonymus and Master Roger; CEU Press; . Maurice's Strategikon: Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy (Translated by George T. Dennis) (1984). University of Pennsylvania Press. . Philostorgius: Church History (Translated with an Introduction and Notes by Philip R. Amidon, S. J.) (2007). Society of Biblical Literature. . Procopius: History of the Wars (Books VI.16–VII.35.) (With an English Translation by H. B. Dewing) (2006). Harvard University Press. . Royal Frankish Annals (1972). In: Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard's Histories (Translated by Bernhard Walter Scholz with Barbara Rogers); The University of Michigan Press; . The Annals of Fulda (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II) (Translated and annotated by Timothy Reuter) (1992). Manchester University Press. . The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284–813 (Translated with Introduction and Commentary by Cyril Mango and Roger Scott with the assistance of Geoffrey Greatrex) (2006). Oxford University Press. . The Geography of Ananias of Širak (AŠXARHAC’OYC’): The Long and the Short Recensions (Introduction, Translation and Commentary by Robert H. Hewsen) (1992). Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag. . The Gothic History of Jordanes (in English Version with an Introduction and a Commentary by Charles Christopher Mierow, Ph.D., Instructor in Classics in Princeton University) (2006). Evolution Publishing. . The History of Theophylact Simocatta (An English Translation with Introduction and Notes: Michael and Mary Whitby) (1986). Clarendon Press. . The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. . The Successors of Genghis Khan (Translated from the Persian of Rashīd Al-Dīn by John Andrew Boyle) (1971). Columbia University Press. . Secondary sources Further reading Brezeanu, Stelian (2001). History and Imperial Propaganda in Rome during the 4th Century a. Chr, A Case Study: the Abandonment of Dacia. In: Annuario 3; Istituto Romano di cultura e ricerca umanistica. Pop, Ioan Aurel (1999). Romanians and Romania: A Brief History. Columbia University Press. . Durandin, Catherine (1995). Historie des Roumains [=History of the Romanians]. Librairie Artheme Fayard. . Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane, 275–376 [=Military History of Post-Roman Dacia, 275–376]. Editura Cetatea de Scaun. . External links "FROM DACIA TO ERDŐELVE: TRANSYLVANIA IN THE PERIOD OF THE GREAT MIGRATIONS (271-896) (István Bóna)" "TRANSYLVANIA IN THE MEDIEVAL HUNGARIAN KINGDOM (896–1526) (László Makkai)" Romanian history: Romanian Principalities
4894039	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary%20layer%20thickness	Boundary layer thickness	This page describes some of the parameters used to characterize the thickness and shape of boundary layers formed by fluid flowing along a solid surface. The defining characteristic of boundary layer flow is that at the solid walls, the fluid's velocity is reduced to zero. The boundary layer refers to the thin transition layer between the wall and the bulk fluid flow. The boundary layer concept was originally developed by Ludwig Prandtl and is broadly classified into two types, bounded and unbounded. The differentiating property between bounded and unbounded boundary layers is whether the boundary layer is being substantially influenced by more than one wall. Each of the main types has a laminar, transitional, and turbulent sub-type. The two types of boundary layers use similar methods to describe the thickness and shape of the transition region with a couple of exceptions detailed in the Unbounded Boundary Layer Section. The characterizations detailed below consider steady flow but is easily extended to unsteady flow. The bounded boundary layer description Bounded boundary layers is a name used to designate fluid flow along an interior wall such that the other interior walls induce a pressure effect on the fluid flow along the wall under consideration. The defining characteristic of this type of boundary layer is that the velocity profile normal to the wall often smoothly asymptotes to a constant velocity value denoted as ue(x). The bounded boundary layer concept is depicted for steady flow entering the lower half of a thin flat plate 2-D channel of height H in Figure 1 (the flow and the plate extends in the positive/negative direction perpendicular to the x-y-plane). Examples of this type of boundary layer flow occur for fluid flow through most pipes, channels, and wind tunnels. The 2-D channel depicted in Figure 1 is stationary with fluid flowing along the interior wall with time-averaged velocity u(x,y) where x is the flow direction and y is the normal to the wall. The H/2 dashed line is added to acknowledge that this is an interior pipe or channel flow situation and that there is a top wall located above the pictured lower wall. Figure 1 depicts flow behavior for H values that are larger than the maximum boundary layer thickness but less than thickness at which the flow starts to behave as an exterior flow. If the wall-to-wall distance, H, is less than the viscous boundary layer thickness then the velocity profile, defined as u(x,y) at x for all y, takes on a parabolic profile in the y-direction and the boundary layer thickness is just H/2. At the solid walls of the plate the fluid has zero velocity (no-slip boundary condition), but as you move away from the wall, the velocity of the flow increases without peaking, and then approaches a constant mean velocity ue(x). This asymptotic velocity may or may not change along the wall depending on the wall geometry. The point where the velocity profile essentially reaches the asymptotic velocity is the boundary layer thickness. The boundary layer thickness is depicted as the curved dashed line originating at the channel entrance in Figure 1. It is impossible to define an exact location at which the velocity profile reaches the asymptotic velocity. As a result, a number of boundary layer thickness parameters, generally denoted as , are used to describe characteristic thickness scales in the boundary layer region. Also of interest is the velocity profile shape which is useful in differentiating laminar from turbulent boundary layer flows. The profile shape refers to the y-behavior of the velocity profile as it transitions to ue(x). The 99% boundary layer thickness The boundary layer thickness, , is the distance normal to the wall to a point where the flow velocity has essentially reached the 'asymptotic' velocity, . Prior to the development of the Moment Method, the lack of an obvious method of defining the boundary layer thickness led much of the flow community in the later half of the 1900s to adopt the location , denoted as and given by as the boundary layer thickness. For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate channel that behave according to the Blasius solution conditions, the value is closely approximated by where is constant, and where is the Reynolds number, is the freestream velocity, is the asymptotic velocity, is the distance downstream from the start of the boundary layer, and is the kinematic viscosity. For turbulent boundary layers along a flat plate channel, the boundary layer thickness, , is given by This turbulent boundary layer thickness formula assumes 1) the flow is turbulent right from the start of the boundary layer and 2) the turbulent boundary layer behaves in a geometrically similar manner (i.e. the velocity profiles are geometrically similar along with the flow in the x-direction, differing only by scaling parameters in and ). Neither one of these assumptions is true for the general turbulent boundary layer case so care must be exercised in applying this formula. Displacement thickness The displacement thickness, or , is the normal distance to a reference plane representing the lower edge of a hypothetical inviscid fluid of uniform velocity that has the same flow rate as occurs in the real fluid with the boundary layer. The displacement thickness essentially modifies the shape of a body immersed in a fluid to allow, in principle, an inviscid solution if the displacement thicknesses were known a priori. The definition of the displacement thickness for compressible flow, based on mass flow rate, is where is the density. For incompressible flow, the density is constant so the definition based on volumetric flow rate becomes For turbulent boundary layer calculations, the time-averaged density and velocity are used. For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate that behave according to the Blasius solution conditions, the displacement thickness is where is constant. The displacement thickness is not directly related to the boundary layer thickness but is given approximately as . It has a prominent role in calculating the Shape Factor. It also shows up in various formulas in the Moment Method. Momentum thickness The momentum thickness, or , is the normal distance to a reference plane representing the lower edge of a hypothetical inviscid fluid of uniform velocity that has the same momentum flow rate as occurs in the real fluid with the boundary layer. The momentum thickness definition for compressible flow based on the mass flow rate is For incompressible flow, the density is constant so that the definition based on volumetric flow rate becomes where are the density and is the 'asymptotic' velocity. For turbulent boundary layer calculations, the time averaged density and velocity are used. For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate that behave according to the Blasius solution conditions, the momentum thickness is where is constant. The momentum thickness is not directly related to the boundary layer thickness but is given approximately as . It has a prominent role in calculating the Shape Factor. A related parameter called the Energy Thickness is sometimes mentioned in reference to turbulent energy distribution but is rarely used. Shape factor A shape factor is used in boundary layer flow to help to differentiate laminar and turbulent flow. It also shows up in various approximate treatments of the boundary layer including the Thwaites method for laminar flows. The formal definition is given by where is the shape factor, is the displacement thickness and is the momentum thickness. Conventionally, = 2.59 (Blasius boundary layer) is typical of laminar flows, while = 1.3 - 1.4 is typical of turbulent flows near the laminar-turbulent transition. For turbulent flows near separation, 2.7. The dividing line defining laminar-transitional and transitional-turbulent values is dependent on a number of factors so it is not always a definitive parameter for differentiating laminar, transitional, or turbulent boundary layers. Moment method A relatively new method for describing the thickness and shape of the boundary layer uses the mathematical moment methodology which is commonly used to characterize statistical probability functions. The boundary layer moment method was developed from the observation that the plot of the second derivative of the Blasius boundary layer for laminar flow over a plate looks very much like a Gaussian distribution curve. The implication of the second derivative Gaussian-like shape is that the velocity profile shape for laminar flow is closely approximated as a twice integrated Gaussian function. The moment method is based on simple integrals of the velocity profile that use the entire profile, not just a few tail region data points as does . The moment method introduces four new parameters that help describe the thickness and shape of the boundary layer. These four parameters are the mean location, the boundary layer width, the velocity profile skewness, and the velocity profile excess. The skewness and excess are true shape parameters as opposed to the simple ratio parameters like the H12. Applying the moment method to the first and second derivatives of the velocity profile generates additional parameters that, for example, determine the location, shape, and thickness of the viscous forces in a turbulent boundary layer. A unique property of the moment method parameters is that it is possible to prove that many of these velocity thickness parameters are also similarity scaling parameters. That is, if similarity is present in a set of velocity profiles, then these thickness parameters must also be similarity length scaling parameters. It is straightforward to cast the properly scaled velocity profile and its first two derivatives into suitable integral kernels. The central moments based on the scaled velocity profiles are defined as where is the displacement thickness and the mean location, is given by There are some advantages to also include descriptions of moments of the boundary layer profile derivatives with respect to the height above the wall. Consider the first derivative velocity profile central moments given by where the first derivative mean location is the displacement thickness . Finally the second derivative velocity profile central moments are given by where the second derivative mean location, , is given by where is the viscosity and where is the wall shear stress. The mean location, , for this case is formally defined as ue(x) divided by the area under the second derivative curve. The above equations work for both laminar and turbulent boundary layers as long as the time-averaged velocity is used for the turbulent case. With the moments and the mean locations defined, the boundary layer thickness and shape can be described in terms of the boundary layer widths (variance), skewnesses, and excesses (excess kurtosis). Experimentally, it is found that the thickness defined as where , tracks the very well for turbulent boundary layer flows. Taking a cue from the boundary layer momentum balance equations, the second derivative boundary layer moments, track the thickness and shape of that portion of the boundary layer where the viscous forces are significant. Hence the moment method makes it possible to track and quantify the laminar boundary layer and the inner viscous region of turbulent boundary layers using moments whereas the boundary layer thickness and shape of the total turbulent boundary layer is tracked using and moments. Calculation of the 2nd derivative moments can be problematic since under certain conditions the second derivatives can become positive in the very near-wall region (in general, it is negative). This appears to be the case for interior flow with an adverse pressure gradient (APG). Integrand values do not change sign in standard probability framework so the application of the moment methodology to the second derivative case will result in biased moment measures. A simple fix is to exclude the problematic values and define a new set of moments for a truncated second derivative profile starting at the second derivative minimum. If the width, , is calculated using the minimum as the mean location, then the viscous boundary layer thickness, defined as the point where the second derivative profile becomes negligible above the wall, can be properly identified with this modified approach. For derivative moments whose integrands do not change sign, the moments can be calculated without the need to take derivatives by using integration by parts to reduce the moments to simply integrals based on the displacement thickness kernel given by For example, the second derivative value is and the first derivative skewness, , can be calculated as This parameter was shown to track the boundary layer shape changes that accompany the laminar to turbulent boundary layer transition. Numerical errors encountered in calculating the moments, especially the higher-order moments, are a serious concern. Small experimental or numerical errors can cause the nominally free stream portion of the integrands to blow up. There are certain numerical calculation recommendations that can be followed to mitigate these errors. The unbounded boundary layer description Unbounded boundary layers, as the name implies, are typically exterior boundary layer flows along walls (and some very large gap interior flows in channels and pipes). Although not widely appreciated, the defining characteristic of this type of flow is that the velocity profile goes through a peak near the viscous boundary layer edge and then slowly asymptotes to the free stream velocity u0. An example of this type of boundary layer flow is near-wall air flow over a wing in flight. The unbounded boundary layer concept is depicted for steady laminar flow along a flat plate in Figure 2. The lower dashed curve represents the location of the maximum velocity umax(x) and the upper dashed curve represents the location where u(x,y) essentially becomes u0, i.e. the boundary layer thickness location. For the very thin flat plate case, the peak is small resulting in the flat plate exterior boundary layer closely resembling the interior flow flat channel case. This has led much of the fluid flow literature to incorrectly treat the bounded and unbounded cases as equivalent. The problem with this equivalence thinking is that the maximum peak value can easily exceed 10-15% of u0 for flow along a wing in flight. The differences between the bounded and unbounded boundary layer was explored in a series of Air Force Reports. The unbounded boundary layer peak means that some of the velocity profile thickness and shape parameters that are used for interior bounded boundary layer flows need to be revised for this case. Among other differences, the laminar unbounded boundary layer case includes viscous and inertial dominated regions similar to turbulent boundary layer flows. Moment method For exterior unbounded boundary layer flows, it is necessary to modify the moment equations to achieve the desired goal of estimating the various boundary layer thickness locations. The peaking behavior of the velocity profile means the area normalization of the moments becomes problematic. To avoid this problem, it has been suggested that the unbounded boundary layer be divided into viscous and inertial regions and that the boundary layer thickness can then be calculated using separate moment integrals specific to that region. That is, the inner viscous region of laminar and turbulent unbounded boundary layer regions can be tracked using modified moments whereas the inertial boundary layer thickness can be tracked using modified and moments. The slow rate at which the peak asymptotes to the free stream velocity means that the calculated boundary layer thickness values are typically much larger than the bounded boundary layer case. The modified and moments for the inertial boundary layer region are created by: 1) replacing the lower integral limit by the location of the velocity peak designated by , 2) changing the upper integral limit to h where h is located deep in the free stream, and 3) changing the velocity scale from to . The displacement thickness in the modified moments must be calculated using the same integral limits as the modified moment integrals. By taking as the mean location, the modified 3-sigma boundary layer thickness becomes where is the modified width. The modified second derivative moments can be calculated using the same integrals as defined above but with replacing H/2 for the upper integral limit. To avoid numerical errors, certain calculation recommendations should be followed. The same concerns for the second derivative moments in regards to APG bounded boundary layers for the bounded case above also apply to the modified moments for the unbounded case. An example of the modified moments are shown for unbounded boundary layer flow along a wing section in Figure 3. This figure was generated from a 2-D simulation for laminar airflow over a NACA_0012 wing section. Included in this figure are the modified 3-sigma , the modified 3-sigma , and the locations. The modified ratio value is 311, the modified ratio value is ~2, and the value is 9% higher than the value. The large difference between the and compared to the value demonstrates the inadequacy of the boundary layer thickness. Furthermore, the large velocity peak demonstrates the problem with treating interior bounded boundary layers as equivalent to exterior unbounded boundary layers. δmax thickness The location of the velocity peak, denoted as is an obvious demarcation location for the unbounded boundary layer. The main appeal of this choice is that this location is approximately the dividing location between the viscous and inertial regions. For the laminar flow simulation along a wing, umax located at δmax is found to approximate the viscous boundary layer thickness given as + indicating the velocity peaks just above the viscous boundary layer thickness δv. For the inertial regions of both laminar and turbulent flows, is a convenient lower boundary for the moment integrals. If the width, , is calculated using as the mean location then the boundary layer thickness, defined as the point where the velocity essentially becomes u0 above the wall, can then be properly identified. The 99% boundary layer thickness A significant implication of the peaking behavior is that the 99% thickness, , is NOT recommended as a thickness parameter for the exterior flow, unbounded boundary layer since it no longer corresponds to a boundary layer location of consequence. It is only useful for unbounded laminar flow along a very thin flat plate at zero incidence angle to the flow direction since the peak for this case will be very small and the velocity profile will be closely approximated as the bounded boundary layer case. For thick plates-walls, non-zero incidence angles, or flow around most solid surfaces, the excess flow due to form drag results in a near-wall peak in the velocity profile making not useful. Displacement thickness, momentum thickness, and shape factor The displacement thickness, momentum thickness, and shape factor can, in principle, all be calculated using the same approach described above for the bounded boundary layer case. However, the peaked nature of the unbounded boundary layer means the inertial section of the displacement thickness and momentum thickness will tend to cancel the near wall portion. Hence, the displacement thickness and momentum thickness will behave differently for the bounded and unbounded cases. One option to make the unbounded displacement thickness and momentum thickness approximately behave as the bounded case is to use umax as the scaling parameter and δmax as the upper integral limit. Further reading Rosenhead, Louis, ed. Laminar boundary layers. Clarendon Press, 1963. Lagerstrom, Paco Axel. Laminar flow theory. Princeton University Press, 1996. Schlichting, Hermann, Boundary-Layer Theory, 7th ed., New York: McGraw-hill, 1979. Frank M. White, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, 5th Edition, 2003. Notes References Prandtl, Ludwig (1904), “Über Flüssigkeitsbewegung bei sehr kleiner Reibung,” Verhandlungen des Dritten Internationalen Mathematiker-Kongresses in Heidelberg 1904, A. Krazer, ed., Teubner, Leipzig, 484–491(1905). Schlichting, Hermann (1979), Boundary-Layer Theory, 7th ed., McGraw Hill, New York, U.S.A. Swanson, R. Charles and Langer, Stefan (2016), “Comparison of NACA 0012 Laminar Flow Solutions: Structured and Unstructured Grid Methods,” NASA/TM-2016-219003. Wang, Xia, George, William, and Castillo, Luciano (2004), "Separation Criterion for Turbulent Boundary Layers Via Similarity Analysis," J. of Fluids Eng., vol. 126, pp. 297-304. Weyburne, David (2006). "A mathematical description of the fluid boundary layer," Applied Mathematics and Computation, vol. 175, pp. 1675–1684 Weyburne, David (2014). "New thickness and shape parameters for the boundary layer velocity profile," Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, vol. 54, pp. 22–28 Weyburne, David (2017), "Inner/Outer Ratio Similarity Scaling for 2-D Wall-bounded Turbulent Flows," arXiv:1705.02875 [physics.flu-dyn]. Weyburne, David (2020a). "A Boundary Layer Model for Unbounded Flow Along a Wall," Air Force Tech Report: AFRL-RY-WP-TR-2020-0004,DTIC Accession # AD1091170. Weyburne, David (2020b). "The Unbounded and Bounded Boundary Layer Models for Flow Along a Wall," Air Force Tech Report: AFRL-RY-WP-TR-2020-0005, DTIC Accession # AD1094086. Weyburne, David (2020c). "A New Conceptual Model for Laminar Boundary Layer Flow," Air Force Tech Report: AFRL-RY-WP-TR-2020-0006, DTIC Accession # AD1091187. Whitfield, David (1978). "Integral Solution of Compressible Turbulent Boundary Layers Using Improved Velocity Profiles," AEDO-TR-78-42. Boundary layers Aerodynamics
4894490	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Korean%20famine	North Korean famine	The North Korean Famine (), also known as the Arduous March or the March of Suffering (), was a period of mass starvation together with a general economic crisis from 1994 to 1998 in North Korea. During this time there was an increase in defection from North Korea which peaked towards the end of the famine period. The famine stemmed from a variety of factors. Economic mismanagement and the loss of Soviet support caused food production and imports to decline rapidly. A series of floods and droughts exacerbated the crisis. The North Korean government and its centrally planned system proved too inflexible to effectively curtail the disaster. North Korea attempted to obtain aid and commercial opportunities, but failed to receive initial attention. Estimates of the death toll vary widely. Out of a total population of approximately 22 million, somewhere between 240,000 and 3,500,000 North Koreans died from starvation or hunger-related illnesses, with the deaths peaking in 1997. A 2011 U.S. Census Bureau report estimated the number of excess deaths from 1993 to 2000 to be between 500,000 and 600,000. Arduous March The term "Arduous March" or "March of Suffering" became the official metaphor for the famine following a state propaganda campaign in 1993. The Rodong Sinmun urged the North Korean citizenry to invoke the memory of a fable from Kim Il Sung's time as a commander of a small group of anti-Japanese guerrilla fighters. The story, referred to as the Arduous March, is described as "fighting against thousands of enemies in 20 degrees below zero, braving a heavy snowfall and starvation, the red flag fluttering in front of the rank". As part of this state campaign, uses of words such as 'famine' and 'hunger' were banned because they implied government failure. Citizens who said deaths were due to the famine could be in serious trouble with the authorities. A special group (the Simhwajo) was set up to purge the citizens responsible. Background In North Korea, people are required to call the great famine the March of Hardship (). It was one of the most important events in the history of North Korea, because it forced the regime and its people to change their lives in fundamental and unanticipated ways. Only about 20% of North Korea's mountainous terrain is arable land. Much of the land is only frost-free for six months, and only one crop can be grown on it per year. The country has never been self-sufficient in food production, and many experts considered it unrealistic for the country to try to be. Due to North Korea's terrain, farming is mainly concentrated among the flatlands of the four western coastal provinces. This allows a longer growing season, levelled land, substantial rainfall, and well-irrigated soil which permits the high cultivation of crops. Along with the western coastal provinces, fertile land also runs through the eastern seaboard provinces. However, interior provinces such as Chagang and Ryanggang are too mountainous, dry, and cold to support farming. In the 1980s, the Soviet Union embarked on political and economic reform. It began to demand that North Korea repay the Soviet Union for all of the past and current aid which it sent to North Korea – amounts which North Korea could not repay. By 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved, ending all aid and trade concessions, such as cheap oil. Without Soviet aid, the flow of imports to the North Korean agricultural sector ended, and the government proved to be too inflexible to respond. Energy imports fell by 75%. The economy went into a downward spiral, with imports and exports falling in tandem. Flooded coal mines required electricity to operate pumps, and the shortage of coal worsened the shortage of electricity. Agriculture reliant on electrically-powered irrigation systems, artificial fertilizers and pesticides was hit particularly hard by the economic collapse. Most North Koreans had experienced nutritional deprivation long before the mid-1990s. The country had reached the limits of its productive capacity, and could not respond effectively to exogenous shocks. North Korea's state trading companies emerged as an alternative means of conducting foreign economic relations. From the mid 1980s, these state trading companies became important conduits of funding for the regime, with a percentage of all revenues going "directly into Kim Jong Il's personal accounts... [which have been] used to secure and maintain the loyalty of the senior leadership". The country soon imposed austerity measures, dubbed the "eat two meals a day" campaign. These measures proved inadequate in stemming the economic decline. According to Professor Hazel Smith of Cranfield University: Without help from these countries, North Korea was unable to respond adequately to the coming famine. For a time, China filled the gap left by the Soviet Union's collapse and propped up North Korea's food supply with significant aid. By 1993, China was supplying North Korea with 77 percent of its fuel imports and 68 percent of its food imports. Thus, North Korea replaced its dependence on the Soviet Union with dependence on China. In 1993, China faced its own grain shortfalls and need for hard currency, and it sharply cut aid to North Korea. In 1997, So Kwan-hui, the North Korean Minister of Agriculture, was accused of spying for the United States government and sabotaging North Korean agriculture on purpose, thus leading to the famine. As a result, he was publicly executed by firing squad by the North Korean government. Causes Floods and drought The economic decline and failed policies provided the context for the famine, but the floods of the mid-1990s were the immediate cause. The floods in July and August 1995 were described as being "of biblical proportions" by independent observers. They were estimated to affect as much as 30 percent of the country. As devastating floods ravaged the country in 1995, arable land, harvests, grain reserves, and social and economic infrastructure were destroyed. The United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs reported that "between 30 July and 18 August 1995, torrential rains caused devastating floods in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). In one area, in Pyongsan county in North Hwanghae province, of rain were recorded to have fallen in just seven hours, an intensity of precipitation unheard of in this area... water flow in the engorged Amnok River, which runs along the Korea/China border, was estimated at 4.8 billion tons over a 72 hour period. Flooding of this magnitude had not been recorded in at least 70 years". The major issues created by the floods were not only the destruction of crop lands and harvests, but also the loss of emergency grain reserves, because many of them were stored underground. According to the United Nations, the floods of 1994 and 1995 destroyed around 1.5 million tons of grain reserves, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stated that 1.2 million tons (or 12%) of grain production was lost in the 1995 flood. There were further major floods in 1996 and a drought in 1997. North Korea lost an estimated 85% of its power generation capacity due to flood damage to infrastructure such as hydropower plants, coal mines, and supply and transport facilities. UN officials reported that the power shortage from 1995 to 1997 was not due to a shortage of oil, because only two out of a total of two dozen power stations were dependent on heavy fuel oil for power generation, and these were supplied by KEDO (the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization). About 70% of power generated in the DPRK came from hydropower sources, and the serious winter-spring droughts of 1996 and 1997 (and a breakdown on one of the Yalu River's large hydro turbines) created major shortages throughout the country at that time, severely cutting back railway transportation (which was almost entirely dependent on electric power), which in turn resulted in coal supply shortages to the coal-fueled power stations which supplied the remaining 20% of power in the country. A 2008 study, however, found no variation in children's nutrition between counties that had experienced flooding and those that had not. Failure of the public distribution system North Korea's vulnerability to the floods and famine was exacerbated by the failure of the public distribution system. The regime refused to pursue policies that would have allowed food imports and distribution without discrimination to all regions of the country. During the famine, the urban working class of the cities and towns of the eastern provinces of the country was hit particularly hard. The distribution of food reflected basic principles of stratification of the communist system. Food was distributed to people according to their political standing and their degree of loyalty to the state. The structure is as follows (the World Food Program considers 600 grams of cereal per day to be less than a "survival ration"): However, the extended period of food shortages put a strain on the system, and it spread the amount of available food allocations thinly across the groups, affecting 62% of the population who were entirely reliant on public distribution. The system was feeding only 6% of the population by 1997. Long-term causes The famine was also a result of the culmination of a long series of government decisions that accrued slowly over decades. The attempt to follow a closed-economic model caused the regime to abandon the possibility of engaging in international markets and importing food and instead restrict demand such as carrying out a "Let's eat two meals a day" campaign in 1991. Attempts to increase exports and earn foreign exchange through the Rajin Sonbong free trade zone in 1991 were unsuccessful – it was located in the most isolated part of North Korea and lacked a clear legal foundation for international business. The North Korean government also missed the opportunity for the short-term option to borrow from abroad to finance food imports after defaulting on foreign loans in the 1970s. Healthcare Inadequate medical supplies, water and environmental contamination, frequent power failures, and outdated training led to a health care crisis that added to the overall devastation. According to a 1997 UNICEF delegation, hospitals were clean but wards were devoid of even the most rudimentary supplies and equipment; sphygmomanometers, thermometers, scales, kidney dishes, spatulas, IV giving sets, etc. The mission saw numerous patients being treated with homemade beer bottle IV sets, which were clearly not sterile. There was an absence of ORS (oral rehydration solution) and even the most basic drugs such as analgesics and antibiotics. Widespread malnutrition With the widespread destruction of harvests and food reserves, the majority of the population became desperate for food, including areas well established in food production. In 1996, it was reported that people in "the so-called better-off parts of the country, were so hungry that they ate the maize cobs before the crop was fully developed". This reduced expected production of an already ravaged harvest by 50%. People everywhere were affected by the crisis, regardless of gender, affiliation or social class. Child malnutrition, indicated as being severely underweight, was found at 3% in 1987, 14% in 1997 and 7% in 2002. Military Songun is North Korea's "Military First" policy, which prioritizes the Korean People's Army in affairs of state and allocates national resources to the "army first". Even though the armed forces were given priority for the distribution of food, this did not mean that they all received generous rations. The army was supposed to find ways to grow food to feed itself and to develop industries that would permit it to purchase food and supplies from abroad. The rations received by military personnel were very basic, and "ordinary soldiers of the million-strong army often remained hungry, as did their families, who did not receive preferential treatment simply because a son or daughter was serving in the armed forces". Women Women suffered significantly due to the gendered structure of North Korean society, which deemed women responsible for obtaining food, water and fuel for their families, which often included extended families. Simultaneously, women had the highest participation rate in the workforce of any country in the world, calculated at 89%. Therefore, women had to remain in the workforce and obtain supplies for their families. Pregnant and nursing women faced severe difficulties in staying healthy; maternal mortality rates increased to approximately 41 per 1000, while simple complications such as anemia, hemorrhage and premature birth became common due to vitamin deficiency. It was estimated that the number of births declined by about 0.3 children per woman during that period. Children Children, especially those under two years old, were most affected by both the famine and the poverty of the period. The World Health Organization reported death rates for children at 93 out of every 1000, while those of infants were cited at 23 out of every 1000. Undernourished mothers found it difficult to breast-feed. No suitable alternative to the practice was available. Infant formula was not produced locally, and only a small amount of it was imported. The famine resulted in a population of homeless, migrant children known as Kotjebi. Estimated number of deaths The exact number of deaths during the acute phase of the crisis, from 1994 to 1998, is uncertain. According to the researcher Andrei Lankov, both the extreme high and low ends of the estimates are considered inaccurate. In 2001 and 2007, independent groups of researchers have estimated that between 600,000 and 1 million people, or 3 to 5 percent of the pre-crisis population, died due to starvation and hunger-related illness. In 1998, US Congressional staffers who visited the country reported that: "Therefore, we gave a range of estimates, from 300,000 to 800,000 dying per year, peaking in 1997. That would put the total number of deaths from the North Korean food shortage at between 900,000 and 2.4 million between 1995 and 1998". W. Courtland Robinson's team found 245,000 "excess" deaths (an elevated mortality rate as a result of premature death), 12 percent of the population in one affected region. Taking those results as the upper limit and extrapolating across the entire North Korean population across the country's provinces produces an upper limit of 2,000,000 famine-related deaths. Andrew Natsios and others estimated 2-3 million deaths. According to research by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2011, the likely range of excess deaths between 1993 and 2000 was between 500,000 and 600,000, and a total of 600,000 to 1,000,000 excess deaths from the year 1993 to the year 2008. Black markets At the same time, the years of famine were also marked by a dramatic revival of illegal, private market activities. Smuggling across the border boomed, and up to 250,000 North Koreans moved to China. Amartya Sen had mentioned bad governance as one of the structural and economic problems which contributed to the famine, but it seems that the famine also led to widespread government corruption, which nearly resulted in the collapse of old government controls and regulations. When fuel became scarce while demand for logistics rose, so-called servi-cha (, "service cars") operations formed, wherein an entrepreneur provides transportation to businesses, institutions and individuals without access to other means of transportation, while the car is formally owned by a legitimate enterprise or unit that also provides transportation permits. With the desperation derived from famine and informal trade and commercialization, North Koreans developed their black market, and moreover, they were surviving by adapting. Andrei Lankov has described the process as the "natural death of North Korean Stalinism". The average official salary in 2011 was equivalent to $2 USD per month while the actual monthly income could be estimated to be around $15 USD because most North Koreans were earning money from illegal small businesses; trade, subsistence farming, and handicrafts. The illegal economy is largely dominated by women because men are expected to attend their places of official work even though most of the factories are non-functioning. International response Initial assistance to North Korea started as early as 1990, with small-scale support from religious groups in South Korea and assistance from UNICEF. In August 1995, North Korea made an official request for humanitarian aid and the international community responded accordingly: Beginning in 1996, the U.S. also started shipping food aid to North Korea through the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) to combat the famine. Shipments peaked in 1999 at nearly 600,000 tons making the U.S. the largest foreign aid donor to the country at the time. Under the Bush administration, aid was drastically reduced year after year from 320,000 tons in 2001 to 28,000 tons in 2005. The Bush administration was criticized for "using food as a weapon" during talks over the North's nuclear weapons program, but insisted the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) criteria were the same for all countries and the situation in North Korea had "improved significantly since its collapse in the mid-1990s". South Korea (before the Lee Myung-bak government) and China remained the largest donors of food aid to North Korea. The U.S. objects to this manner of donating food due to the North Korean state's refusal to allow donor representatives to supervise the distribution of their aid inside North Korea. Such supervision would ensure that aid does not get seized and sold by well-connected elites or diverted to feed North Korea's large military. In 2005, South Korea and China together provided almost 1 million tons of food aid, each contributing half. Humanitarian aid from North Korea's neighbors has been cut off at times in order to provoke North Korea into resuming boycotted talks. For example, South Korea decided to "postpone consideration" of 500,000 tons of rice for the North in 2006, but the idea of providing food as a clear incentive (as opposed to resuming "general humanitarian aid") has been avoided. There have also been aid disruptions due to widespread theft of railway cars used by mainland China to deliver food relief. Post-famine developments North Korea has not yet resumed reliable self-sufficiency in food production and as a result, it periodically relies on external food aid from South Korea, China, the United States, Japan, the European Union and other countries. In 2002, North Korea requested that food supplies no longer be delivered. In 2005, the World Food Programme (WFP) reported that famine conditions were in imminent danger of returning to North Korea, and the government was reported to have mobilized millions of city-dwellers in order to help rice farmers. In 2012, the WFP reported that food would be sent to North Korea as soon as possible. The food would first be processed by a local processor and it would then be delivered directly to North Korean citizens. Agricultural production increased from about 2.7 million metric tons in 1997 to 4.2 million metric tons in 2004. In 2008, food shortages continued to be a problem in North Korea, although less so than in the mid to late 1990s. Flooding in 2007 and reductions in food aid exacerbated the problem. In 2011, during a visit to North Korea, former US President Jimmy Carter reported that one third of children in North Korea were malnourished and stunted in their growth because of a lack of food. He also said that the North Korean government had reduced daily food intake from in 2011. Some scholars believed that North Korea was purposefully exaggerating the food shortage, aiming to receive additional food supplies for its planned mass-celebrations of Kim Il Sung's 100th birthday in 2012 by means of foreign aid. Escaped North Koreans reported in September 2010 that starvation had returned to the nation. North Korean pre-school children are reported to be an average of shorter than South Koreans, which some researchers believe can only be explained by conditions of famine and malnutrition. Most people only eat meat on public holidays, namely Kim Jong Il's birthday, the Day of the Shining Star on February 16 and Kim Il Sung's birthday, the Day of the Sun on April 15. One report by the Tokyo Shimbun in April 2012 claimed that since the death of Kim Jong Il in December 2011, around 20,000 people had starved to death in South Hwanghae Province. Another report by the Japanese Asia Press agency in January 2013 claimed that in North and South Hwanghae provinces more than 10,000 people had died of famine. Other international news agencies have begun circulating stories of cannibalism. On the other hand, the WFP has reported malnutrition and food shortages, but not famine. In 2016, UN Committee on the Rights of the Child reported a steady decline in the infant mortality rate since 2008. An academic analysis in 2016 found that the situation had greatly improved since the 1990s and that North Korea's levels of health and nutrition were on par with other developing countries. In 2017, the analyst Andrei Lankov argued that previous predictions of a return to famine were unfounded, and that the days of starvation had long since passed. A survey in 2017 found that the famine had skewed North Korea's demography, impacting particularly male babies. Women aged 20–24 made up 4% of the population, while men in the same age group made up only 2.5%. Chronic or recurrent malnutrition dropped from 28 percent in 2012 to 19 percent in 2017. In June 2019, after a report made by the United Nations stated that North Korea had experienced the worst harvests in over a decade along with severe food shortages that affected 40% of North Korea's population, South Korea enacted a plan to provide US$8 million worth of food aid to North Korea. The South Korean government's aid to North Korea is widely viewed as having a political agenda of improving inter-Korean relations, despite the South's government insistence on separating the aid from politics. See also Kotjebi Potato production in North Korea Economy of North Korea History of North Korea World Food Programme Sunshine Policy North Korea–South Korea relations North Korea–China relations References Further reading Lankov, Andrei. “Trouble Brewing: The North Korean Famine of 1954–1955 and Soviet Attitudes toward North Korea". Journal of Cold War Studies 22:2 (Spring 2020) pp:3-25. online External links Newspaper account (Daily Telegraph) including famine deaths of kindergarten children. Korea Forest Service 1990s in North Korea 1994 in North Korea 1995 in North Korea 1996 in North Korea 1997 in North Korea 1998 in North Korea Agriculture in North Korea Famines in Asia History of North Korea Kim Il Sung Kim Jong Il Disasters in North Korea 20th-century famines
4894587	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful%20Dead%20discography	Grateful Dead discography	The discography of the rock band the Grateful Dead includes more than 200 albums, the majority of them recorded live in concert. The band has also released more than two dozen singles and a number of videos. The Grateful Dead formed in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1965 amid the counterculture of the 1960s. They had many musical influences, and their music evolved to a great degree over time. They made extensive use of improvisation, and are considered one of the originators of jam band music. The founding members were Jerry Garcia on guitar and vocals, Bob Weir on guitar and vocals, Phil Lesh on bass and vocals, Bill Kreutzmann on drums, and Ron "Pigpen" McKernan on organ, harmonica, percussion, and vocals. Pigpen died in 1973, but the other four remained with the band for its entire 30-year history. Second drummer Mickey Hart was also in the band for most of that time. Others who were band members at different times were keyboardists Tom Constanten, Keith Godchaux, Brent Mydland, Vince Welnick, and Bruce Hornsby, and vocalist Donna Jean Godchaux. While they were together, from 1965 to 1995, the Grateful Dead released thirteen studio albums and nine contemporary live albums. The nine live albums were recently recorded and mostly contained previously unreleased original material. They filled the role of traditional studio albums, and were an integral part of the contemporaneous evolution of the band. (The Dead's second album, Anthem of the Sun, was an experimental amalgam of studio and live material.) In 1991, the band started releasing retrospective live albums, a practice that has continued to the present time. There are several series of these albums. The "traditional" live releases were created by remixing multitrack recordings of concerts. A second series of live albums, from 1993 to 2005, was Dick's Picks, concert recordings selected for their musical excellence but made using stereo recordings that did not allow the different musical parts to be remixed. Another series of albums was released in 2005 and 2006 in the form of digital downloads. This was followed by a series from 2007 to 2011 called Road Trips, and then, starting in 2012, by Dave's Picks. The Grateful Dead's video albums include some albums that were released as both audio CDs and concert DVDs, either separately or together, and some that were released only on video, as well as two theatrical films. The band has also released several compilation albums and box sets. Studio and contemporary live albums Unconventionally, the Grateful Dead made the release of live albums a common occurrence throughout their career. Because many were recently recorded and included previously unreleased original material, they often filled the role of traditional studio albums. An integral part of the contemporaneous evolution of the band, such live albums are included in this section. Compilation albums Box sets Retrospective live albums Traditional releases Dick's Picks In the 1990s and 2000s, the Grateful Dead released numerous live concert recordings from their archives in three concurrent series. The "From the Vault" series are remixes of multi-track recordings made at the time of the concerts. The "View from the Vault" series are also multi-track remixes, but are released simultaneously as albums on CD and as concert performance videos on DVD. (The first three volumes were also released on VHS videotape.) Both of these series are included in the "Retrospective" live albums list above. The third series of concert releases is Dick's Picks, which are based on two-track concert recordings. Unlike multi-track recordings, two-track recordings cannot be remixed, only remastered. Therefore, the sound quality of the Dick's Picks series, while generally very good, is not quite as high as that of the other official releases of live recordings, as explained in the various "caveat emptor" notices on the CD boxes. The Dick's Picks series, which started in 1993, was named after Grateful Dead tape vault archivist Dick Latvala. Latvala selected shows with the band's approval and oversaw the production of the albums. After Latvala's death in 1999, David Lemieux became the Dead's tape archivist and took over responsibility for producing subsequent Dick's Picks releases, as well as his own Dave's Picks series. Latvala and Lemieux worked with recording engineer Jeffrey Norman, who was in charge of mastering the CDs. The last Dick's Pick's compilation was released in 2005. Volume 15 and later were released in HDCD format. This provides enhanced sound quality when played on CD players with HDCD capability, and is fully compatible with regular CD players. Digital downloads In the summer of 2005 the Dead began offering download versions of both their existing live releases, and a new Internet-only series, The Grateful Dead Download Series, that was available through their own online store (which offered the albums in both 256 kbit/s mp3 files and FLAC files – a preferred audio standard for those who archive Dead and other fan-made live recordings on the Internet) and the iTunes Music Store (which offered them in their 256 kbit/s AAC format). Not surprisingly, these Internet-only albums have met with the same success as their CD-based brethren. The Download Series is no longer available for purchase on the Grateful Dead's website. However, they are still available for purchase from the iTunes Music Store as well as from Nugs.net, which offer them in FLAC, Apple Lossless Audio Codec (ALAC) and mp3 formats. Amazon also has them available in mp3 format. {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Year !Title !Album details !Recording date & location \|- \|rowspan="9"\|2005 \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 1 \| Released: May 3, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|April 30, 1977 Palladium, New York, New York \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 2 \| Released: June 7, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|January 18, 1970 Springer's Inn, Portland, Oregon \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 3 \| Released: July 5, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|October 26, 1971 The Palestra, Rochester, New York \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 4 \| Released: August 2, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|June 18, 1976 Capitol Theatre, Passaic, New Jersey \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 5 \| Released: September 6, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|March 27, 1988 Hampton Coliseum, Hampton, Virginia \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 6 \| Released: October 4, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|March 17, 1968 Carousel Ballroom, San Francisco, California \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 7 \| Released: November 1, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|September 3, 1980 Springfield Civic Center Arena, Springfield, Massachusetts September 4, 1980 Providence Civic Center, Providence, Rhode Island \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 8 \| Released: December 6, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|December 10, 1973 Charlotte Coliseum, Charlotte, North Carolina \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series: Family Dog at the Great Highway \| Released: December 6, 2005 Label: Grateful Dead \|February 4, 1970 Family Dog at the Great Highway, San Francisco, California \|- \|rowspan="4"\|2006 \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 9 \| Released: January 3, 2006 Label: Grateful Dead \|April 2 – 3, 1989 Civic Arena, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 10 \| Released: February 7, 2006 Label: Grateful Dead \|July 21, 1972 Paramount Northwest Theatre, Seattle, Washington \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 11 \| Released: March 7, 2006 Label: Grateful Dead \|June 20, 1991 Pine Knob Music Theater, Clarkston, Michigan \|- \|Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 12 \| Released: April 4, 2006 Label: Grateful Dead \|April 17, 1969 Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2008 \|Road Trips Full Show: Spectrum 11/5/79 \| Released: 2008 Label: Grateful Dead \|November 5, 1979 The Spectrum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \|- \|Road Trips Full Show: Spectrum 11/6/79 \| Released: 2008 Label: Grateful Dead \|November 6, 1979 The Spectrum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2020 \| Workingman's Dead: The Angel's Share \| Released: July 1, 2020 Label: Rhino \| Outtakes from the Workingman's Dead studio sessions \|- \|American Beauty: The Angel's Share \| Released: October 15, 2020 Label: Rhino \| Outtakes from the American Beauty studio sessions \|- \| 2023 \| Wake of the Flood: The Angel's Share \| Released: August 18, 2023 Label: Rhino \| Outtakes from the Wake of the Flood studio sessions \|} Road Trips The Road Trips series of albums is the successor to Dick's Picks. The series started after the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year contract with Rhino Records to release the band's archival material. The Road Trips releases are created using two-track concert recordings, but unlike Dick's Picks they each contain material from multiple concerts of a tour. The production of the CDs is supervised by vault archivist David Lemieux, with mastering by sound engineer Jeffrey Norman. Like the later Dick's Picks, the Road Trips albums are released in HDCD format. Dave's Picks The Dave's Picks albums followed the Road Trips series. They are named after Grateful Dead tape archivist David Lemieux. Unauthorized legal releases These albums are not bootlegs. They were released legally, but without the band's consent or cooperation. Videos This section does not include the following videos which were also released as audio CDs and are listed in "Retrospective live albums" above: View from the Vault, Volume One View from the Vault, Volume Two View from the Vault, Volume Three View from the Vault, Volume Four The Closing of Winterland Truckin' Up to Buffalo Rocking the Cradle: Egypt 1978 Crimson White & Indigo Giants Stadium: June 17, 1991Singles 7" Singles Collection In 2017, the Grateful Dead began offering the 27 singles released throughout the band's history on 7-inch colored vinyl, for sale exclusively on their website, dead.net. Each 7-inch vinyl features remastered audio, and packaging designed by artists for each single and B-side. Live albums by recording date Following is a list of Grateful Dead live albums in recording date order. The dates listed are the principal recording dates and do not include bonus tracks or bonus discs.Rare Cuts and Oddities 1966 (live tracks) – February–July 1966Birth of the Dead (disc two) – July 196630 Trips Around the Sun – July 3, 1966 – February 21, 199530 Trips Around the Sun: The Definitive Live Story 1965–1995 – July 3, 1966 – February 21, 1995So Many Roads (1965–1995) (live tracks) – July 16, 1966 – July 9, 1995So Many Roads (1965–1995) Sampler (live tracks) – July 16, 1966 – March 30, 1994July 29 1966, P.N.E. Garden Aud., Vancouver Canada – July 29, 1966The Grateful Dead (50th Anniversary Deluxe Edition – disc 2) – July 29–30, 1966Vintage Dead – Late 1966Historic Dead – Late 1966Fallout from the Phil Zone – September 3, 1967 – March 18, 1995Anthem of the Sun (50th Anniversary Deluxe Edition – disc 2) – October 22, 1967Shrine Exposition Hall, Los Angeles, CA 11/10/1967 – November 10, 1967Anthem of the Sun (live material) – November 10, 1967 – March 31, 1968Grayfolded – January 20, 1968 – September 13, 1993Road Trips Volume 2 Number 2 – February 14, 1968Dick's Picks Volume 22 – February 23–24, 1968Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 6 – March 17, 1968Grateful Dead Origins – August 21, 1968Two from the Vault – August 24, 1968Aoxomoxoa (50th Anniversary Deluxe Edition – disc 2) – January 24–26, 1969Live/Dead – January 26 – March 2, 1969Live at the Fillmore East 2-11-69 – February 11, 1969Fillmore West 1969: The Complete Recordings – February 27 – March 2, 1969Fillmore West 1969 – February 27 – March 2, 1969Fillmore West 1969: February 27th – February 27, 1969Fillmore West 1969: February 28th – February 28, 1969Fillmore West 1969: March 1st – March 1, 1969Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 12 – April 17, 1969Dick's Picks Volume 26 – April 26–27, 1969Road Trips Volume 4 Number 1 – May 23–24, 1969Dave's Picks Volume 43 – November 2 and December 26, 1969Dick's Picks Volume 16 – November 8, 1969Dave's Picks Volume 10 – December 12, 1969Dave's Picks Volume 6 – December 20, 1969 – February 2, 1970Dave's Picks Volume 30 – January 2, 1970Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 2 – January 18, 1970Dave's Picks Volume 19 – January 23, 1970Grateful Dead Download Series: Family Dog at the Great Highway – February 4, 1970History of the Grateful Dead, Volume One (Bear's Choice) – February 13–14, 1970Dick's Picks Volume 4 – February 13–14, 1970Family Dog at the Great Highway, San Francisco, CA 4/18/70 – April 18, 1970Dick's Picks Volume 8 – May 2, 1970Road Trips Volume 3 Number 3 – May 15, 1970American Beauty (50th Anniversary Deluxe Edition – disc 2 & 3) – February 18, 1971Three from the Vault – February 19, 1971Workingman's Dead (50th Anniversary Deluxe Edition – disc 2 & 3) – February 21, 1971Grateful Dead – March 24 – April 29, 1971Ladies and Gentlemen... the Grateful Dead – April 25–29, 1971Winterland: May 30th 1971 – May 30, 1971Grateful Dead (50th Anniversary Deluxe Edition – disc 2) – July 2, 1971Road Trips Volume 1 Number 3 – July 31 – August 23, 1971Dick's Picks Volume 35 – August 6–24, 1971Dave's Picks Volume 3 – October 22, 1971Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 3 – October 26, 1971Dick's Picks Volume 2 – October 31, 1971Road Trips Volume 3 Number 2 – November 15, 1971Dave's Picks Volume 26 – November 17, 1971Dave's Picks Volume 48 – November 20, 1971Dave's Picks Volume 22 – December 6–7, 1971Listen to the River: St. Louis '71 '72 '73 – December 9, 1971 – October 30, 1973Fox Theatre, St. Louis, MO 12-10-71 – December 10, 1971Dick's Picks Volume 30 – March 25 – 28, 1972Dave's Picks Volume 14 – March 26, 1972Europe '72 – April 7 – May 26, 1972Europe '72: The Complete Recordings – April 7 – May 26, 1972Europe '72 Volume 2 – April 7 – May 26, 1972Steppin' Out with the Grateful Dead: England '72 – April 7 – May 26, 1972Rockin' the Rhein with the Grateful Dead – April 24, 1972Hundred Year Hall – April 26, 1972Dark Star – May 4, 1972Lyceum '72: The Complete Recordings – May 23 –26, 1972Lyceum Theatre, London, England 5/26/72 – May 26, 1972Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 10 – July 21, 1972Dave's Picks Volume 24 – August 25, 1972Sunshine Daydream – August 27, 1972Dave's Picks Volume 46 – September 9, 1972Dick's Picks Volume 23 – September 17, 1972Dick's Picks Volume 36 – September 21, 1972Dick's Picks Volume 11 – September 27, 1972Light into Ashes – October 18, 1972Dave's Picks Volume 11 – November 17, 1972Houston, Texas 11-18-1972 – November 18, 1972Dick's Picks Volume 28 – February 26–28, 1973Dave's Picks Volume 32 – March 24, 1973Dave's Picks Volume 16 – March 28, 1973Dave's Picks Volume 21 – April 2, 1973Here Comes Sunshine 1973 – May 13 – June 10, 1973 RFK Stadium, Washington, D.C. 6/10/73 – June 10, 1973Postcards of the Hanging – June 10, 1973 – March 24, 1990Pacific Northwest '73–'74: The Complete Recordings – June 22, 1973 – May 21, 1974Pacific Northwest '73–'74: Believe It If You Need It – June 22, 1973 – May 21, 1974Dave's Picks Volume 38 – September 8, 1973Dick's Picks Volume 19 – October 19, 1973Winterland 1973: The Complete Recordings – November 9–11, 1973Dave's Picks Volume 5 – November 17, 1973Road Trips Volume 4 Number 3 – November 21, 1973Dick's Picks Volume 14 – November 30 – December 2, 1973Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 8 – December 10, 1973Dick's Picks Volume 1 – December 19, 1973Dave's Picks Volume 42 – February 23, 1974Dave's Picks Volume 13 – February 24, 1974Dick's Picks Volume 24 – March 23, 1974Dave's Picks Volume 9 – May 14, 1974Playing in the Band, Seattle, Washington, 5/21/74 – May 21, 1974Road Trips Volume 2 Number 3 – June 16–18, 1974Dave's Picks Volume 34 – June 23, 1974Dick's Picks Volume 12 – June 26–28, 1974Dave's Picks Volume 17 – July 19, 1974Dave's Picks Volume 2 – July 31, 1974Dick's Picks Volume 31 – August 4–6, 1974Dick's Picks Volume 7 – September 9–11, 1974Steal Your Face – October 16–20, 1974The Grateful Dead Movie Soundtrack – October 16–20, 1974One From the Vault – August 13, 1975Road Trips Volume 4 Number 5 – June 9, 1976June 1976 – June 10 – 19, 1976Dave's Picks Volume 28 – June 17, 1976Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 4 – June 18, 1976Dave's Picks Volume 18 – July 17, 1976Dave's Picks Volume 4 – September 24, 1976Dick's Picks Volume 20 – September 25–28, 1976Dick's Picks Volume 33 – October 9–10, 1976Live at the Cow Palace – December 31, 1976Dave's Picks Volume 29 – February 26, 1977Capitol Theatre, Passaic, NJ, 4/25/77 – April 25, 1977Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 1 – April 30, 1977May 1977: Get Shown the Light – May 5 – 9, 1977Boston Garden, Boston, MA 5/7/77 – May 7, 1977Cornell 5/8/77 – May 8, 1977Memorial Auditorium, Buffalo, NY 5/9/77 – May 9, 1977May 1977 – May 11–17, 1977Dick's Picks Volume 29 – May 19–21, 1977Dick's Picks Volume 3 – May 22, 1977Dave's Picks Volume 1 – May 25, 1977Dave's Picks Volume 41 – May 26, 1977To Terrapin: Hartford '77 – May 28, 1977Winterland June 1977: The Complete Recordings – June 7–9, 1977Dick's Picks Volume 15 – September 3, 1977Dave's Picks Volume 45 – October 1 – 2, 1977Road Trips Volume 1 Number 2 – October 7 – 16, 1977Dave's Picks Volume 33 – October 29, 1977Dave's Picks Volume 12 – November 4, 1977Dick's Picks Volume 34 – November 5, 1977Dave's Picks Volume 25 – November 6, 1977Dick's Picks Volume 10 – December 29, 1977Dave's Picks Volume 23 – January 22, 1978Dick's Picks Volume 18 – February 3–5, 1978Dave's Picks Volume 37 – April 15, 1978Dave's Picks Volume 15 – April 22, 1978Dave's Picks Volume 7 – April 24, 1978Dick's Picks Volume 25 – May 10–11, 1978July 1978: The Complete Recordings – July 1 – 8, 1978Red Rocks: 7/8/78 – July 8, 1978Rocking the Cradle: Egypt 1978 – September 15 – 16, 1978Road Trips Volume 1 Number 4 – October 21–22, 1978The Closing of Winterland – December 31, 1978Live at Hampton Coliseum – May 4, 1979Road Trips Volume 1 Number 1 – October 25 – November 10, 1979Road Trips Full Show: Spectrum 11/5/79 – November 5, 1979Road Trips Full Show: Spectrum 11/6/79 – November 6, 1979Dave's Picks Volume 31 – December 3, 1979Dave's Picks Volume 47 – December 9, 1979Dick's Picks Volume 5 – December 26, 1979Road Trips Volume 3 Number 1 – December 28, 1979Road Trips Volume 3 Number 4 – May 6–7, 1980Go to Nassau – May 15–16, 1980Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 7 – September 3–4, 1980Reckoning – September 25 – October 31, 1980Dead Set – September 25 – October 31, 1980The Warfield, San Francisco, California, October 9 & 10, 1980 – October 9 – 10, 1980Dave's Picks Volume 8 – November 30, 1980Madison Square Garden, New York, NY 3/9/81 – March 9, 1981In and Out of the Garden: Madison Square Garden '81, '82, '83 – March 9, 1981 – October 12, 1983 Dick's Picks Volume 13 – May 6, 1981Dave's Picks Volume 20 – December 9, 1981Road Trips Volume 4 Number 4 – April 6, 1982Dick's Picks Volume 32 – August 7, 1982Dave's Picks Volume 39 – April 26, 1983Dave's Picks Volume 27 – September 2, 1983Dick's Picks Volume 6 – October 14, 1983Dave's Picks Volume 35 – April 20, 1984Dave's Picks Volume 49 – April 27–28, 1985Dick's Picks Volume 21 – November 1, 1985Dave's Picks Volume 36 – March 26 – 27, 1987Dylan & the Dead – July 4–26, 1987Giants Stadium 1987, 1989, 1991 – July 12, 1987 – June 17, 1991View from the Vault, Volume Four – July 24–26, 1987Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 5 – March 27, 1988Road Trips Volume 4 Number 2 – March 31 – April 1, 1988Infrared Roses – 1989–1990Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 9 – April 2–3, 1989Truckin' Up to Buffalo – July 4, 1989Crimson White & Indigo – July 7, 1989Robert F. Kennedy Stadium, Washington, D.C., July 12 & 13, 1989 – July 12–13, 1989Formerly the Warlocks – October 8–9, 1989Without a Net – October 9, 1989 – April 1, 1990Nightfall of Diamonds – October 16, 1989Spring 1990 (The Other One) – March 14 – April 3, 1990Terrapin Station (Limited Edition) – March 15, 1990Spring 1990 – March 16 – April 2, 1990Spring 1990: So Glad You Made It – March 16 – April 2, 1990Dozin' at the Knick – March 24 – 26, 1990Wake Up to Find Out – March 29, 1990View from the Vault, Volume Three – June 16, 1990Dave's Picks Volume 44 – June 23, 1990View from the Vault, Volume One – July 8, 1990Dave's Picks Volume 40 – July 18 – 19, 1990Dick's Picks Volume 9 – September 16, 1990Road Trips Volume 2 Number 1 – September 18–20, 1990View from the Vault, Volume Two – June 14, 1991Saint of Circumstance – June 17, 1991Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 11 – June 20, 1991Dick's Picks Volume 17 – September 25, 1991Ready or Not – June 23, 1992 – April 2, 1995Dick's Picks Volume 27 – December 16, 1992Road Trips Volume 2 Number 4'' – May 26–27, 1993 See also Jerry Garcia discography References External links Grateful Dead discography at the Grateful Dead Family Discography The Compleat Grateful Dead Discography Discographies of American artists Discography Folk music discographies Rock music group discographies
4894646	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian%20Space%20Agency	Iranian Space Agency	The Iranian Space Agency (ISA, Persian: Sāzmān-e Fazāi-ye Irān) is Iran's governmental space agency. Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation in 2009. Iran is one of the 24 founding members of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), which was set up on 13 December 1958. History ISA was established on 28 February 2004, according to the Article 9 of the Law for Tasks and Authorizations of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology passed on 10 December 2003 by the Parliament of Iran. Based on the approved statute, ISA is mandated to cover and support all the activities in Iran concerning the peaceful applications of space science and technology under the leadership of a Supreme Council of Space chaired by the President of Iran. The council's main goals included policy making for the application of space technologies aiming peaceful uses of outer space, manufacturing, launching and use of the national research satellites, approving the space related state and private sector programs, promoting the partnership of the private and cooperative sectors in efficient uses of space, identifying guidelines concerning the regional and international cooperation in space issues. To follow and implement the strategies set by the council, ISA affiliated with the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology in the form of an autonomous organization, was organized. The president of ISA held the position of the Vice-Minister of Communications and Information Technology and the secretariat of Supreme Council of Space at the same time. In 2015, Iran's space program was quietly suspended by President Rouhani following international pressures. It has then been reinvigorated by President Raisi in 2021. Budget The proposed budget for the Iranian year 1393 (2014–2015) was 1,865,583 million rials (US$71,753,192). Other related organizations have received separate budget allocations. Iranian Space Research Center has received an additional 1,751,000 million rials (US$67,346,100) of budget for the year 1393. The budget for the year 2008 was mentioned to be US$3.9 billion (2008). However it was not apparent whether the allocation was just for one year or a longer period. Under president Hassan Rouhani, the proposed 2017-budget for the Iranian Space Agency fell to a low of US$4.6 million. Satellite launch vehicle (SLV) Safir SLV Iran has developed an expendable satellite launch vehicle named Safir SLV. Measuring 22 m in height with a core diameter of 1.25 m, with two liquid propellant stages, a single thrust chambered first stage and a two-thrust chambered, step-throttled second stage, the SLV has a lift off mass exceeding 26 tons. The first stage consists of a lengthened up-rated Shahab-3C. According to the technical documentation presented in the annual meeting of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, it is a two-stage rocket with all liquid propellant engines. The first stage is capable of carrying the payload to the maximum altitude of 68 kilometers. The Safir-1B is the second generation of Safir SLV and can carry a satellite weighing 60 kg into an elliptical orbit of 300 to 450 km. The thrust of the Safir-1B rocket engine has been increased from 32 to 37 tons. Simorgh SLV In 2010, a more powerful rocket named Simorgh was built. Its mission is to carry heavier satellites into orbit. The Simorgh rocket is long, and has a mass of 77 tonnes (85 tons).[4] Its first stage is powered by four main engines, each generating up to of thrust, plus a fifth which will be used for attitude control, which provides an additional . At liftoff, these engines will generate a total of of thrust. Simorgh is capable of putting a 350-kilogram (770 lb) payload into a low Earth orbit. In 2015, Israeli media reported the missile is capable of taking a crewed spacecraft or satellite into space. The first flight of the Simorgh rocket occurred on 19 April 2016. Zuljanah SLV On February 1, 2021, Iran said it successfully tested its latest satellite launch vehicle named "Zuljanah" which is capable of carrying satellites weighing up to 220 kg into a 500 km orbit. The SLV has three stages and is equipped with 2 solid fuel engine stages and a last liquid fuel stage, with the first and second stages having 75 tons of thrust each. Qoqnoos SLV On 2 February 2013, the head of the Iranian Space Agency, Hamid Fazeli mentioned that the new satellite launch vehicle, Qoqnoos will be used after the Simorgh SLV for heavier payloads. Soroush 1 & 2 SLV ISA has plans to build SLVs (named "Soroush" 1 & 2) in the future with a capacity to place 8 tons and 15 tons payloads in space (i.e. 200 km orbit) respectively. Launch history Orbital launches On 17 August 2008, Iran proceeded with the second test launch of a two-stage Safir SLV from a site south of Semnan city in the northern part of the Dasht-e-Kavir desert. Reza Taghizadeh, head of the Iranian Aerospace Organization, told state television "The Safir (Ambassador) satellite carrier was launched today and, for the first time, we successfully launched a dummy satellite into orbit". On 2 February 2009, Iranian state television reported that Iran's first domestically made satellite Omid (, meaning "Hope") had been successfully launched into Low Earth orbit by Iran's Safir rocket and therefore Iran became the 9th country to put a domestically built satellite into orbit. The operation was made to coincide with the 30th anniversary of the Iranian Revolution. In February 2011, Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announced that there will be many launches of indigenously produced orbiters in 2011–2012 period. Iran plans to send one-ton satellites into an orbit of 1000 km and is setting up a new launch base for this purpose. Iran is also planning to launch satellites into orbits of up to 36,000 km. Sub-orbital launches On 25 February 2007, the Iranian state-run television announced that a rocket, created by the ministries of science and defense and which carried an unspecified cargo, was successfully launched. This could have been the maiden test flight of the three staged Safir SLV which ended in a failure. Later on it was noted by Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad that the failure was due to a technical problem in the last stage of the rocket. On 4 February 2008, Iran successfully launched a two-stage all solid-fuel sub-orbital sounding rocket Kavoshgar-1 (Explorer-1), for a maiden sub-orbital test flight from Shahroud, its newly inaugurated domestic space launch complex. The first stage of the rocket detached after 90 seconds and returned to Earth with the help of a parachute while the second stage reached a 200 km altitude before reentering the Earth's atmosphere after 300 seconds. The third section of the rocket, containing an atmospheric probe, climbed to 250 km while successfully transmitting scientific data on the atmosphere and the electromagnetic waves on its path back to Earth. It deployed a parachute after six minutes at a lower altitude. The second Kavoshgar (Kavoshgar-2), which carried a space-lab and a restoration system, was launched in November 2008. Animals in space Iran the 6th country to send animals in space. On 3 February 2010, ISA launched a Kavoshgar-3 (Explorer-3) rocket with one rodent, two turtles, and several worms into sub-orbital space and returned them to Earth alive. The rocket was enabled to transfer electronic data and live footage back to Earth. The Iranian Aerospace Organization (IAO) showed live video transmission of mini-environmental lab to enable further studies on the biological capsule. This was the first biological payload launched by Iran. Iran is the sixth country to send animals in space. On 15 March 2011, the ISA launched the Kavoshgar-4 (Explorer-4) rocket carrying a test capsule designed to carry a monkey but without living creatures on board. Kavoshgar-5 (Explorer-5) carrying a live monkey was launched for a 20-minute sub-orbital flight in September 2011, however the mission failed. On 3 October 2011, Iran indefinitely postponed further plans while scientists reviewed readiness for future missions. In May 2012, Iran announced that it would send more living creatures into the space by the summer. Following the last failed attempt, ISA was seeking to successfully send a monkey into space by 2013. ISA head Hamid Fazeli told the Iranian news agency Mehr that the designated monkeys are currently in quarantine. On 29 January 2013, Iranian state media announced that a monkey was sent into space and returned safely aboard the Pishgam capsule, after having reached a height of 120 km. This was the first time that Iran has sent a primate into space, 54 years after the first monkeys Able and Baker returned safely. No details on the timing or location of the launch were given. On 14 December 2013, Iran launched a second monkey, named Fargam, on a suborbital flight. The monkey is reported to have been retrieved successfully and safe, after the short 15-minute flight. Satellites Iran is the 9th country to put a domestically built satellite into orbit using its own launcher. Launched satellites On 28 October 2005, a Kosmos-3M booster rocket launched Sina-1. The joint Iranian Russian Sina-1 project cost US$15 million, and the launch made Iran the 43rd country to possess its own satellite. Environment 1, a joint research satellite of Iran, China and Thailand was launched on a Chinese Long March 2C carrier rocket on 6 September 2008, aimed at boosting cooperation on natural disasters such as flooding, drought, typhoon, landslide and earthquake. The twin Earth observation satellites of eight planned were launched from Taiyuan SLC. The satellites will work as a constellation with six other satellites yet to be launched. Its observational footprint is 720 km. With a lifespan of more than three years, they have state-of-the-art imaging systems and infrared cameras and provide a global scan every two days. Iran had shouldered US$6.5 million out of the $44 million of the total project cost. Omid, Iran's first satellite placed into orbit in February 2009 using a domestic launcher, the Safir. Omid was described as a data-processing satellite for research and telecommunications. Rasad-1 is an imaging satellite that has been built and launched successfully by Iran. The satellite was sent into the 260 kilometres orbit by a Safir rocket launcher on 15 June 2011. It beams back to earth pictures with 150-meter resolution. It decayed from orbit three weeks after launch, on 6 July 2011. Navid-e Elm-o Sanat (also known as 'Ya Mahdi') which is an "experimental satellite" built by students for testing camera and telecommunications equipment was revealed to the public on 3 February 2010. It has store-dump capability and a resolution of 400 meters. On 3 February 2012, Iranian press reported that Iran has successfully launched its domestically built Navid-e Elm-o Sanat satellite into orbit. The satellite remained in orbit for two months, before reentering the atmosphere on 1 April 2012. Fajr, is an imaging satellite which also carries an experimental locally made GPS system built by Iran Electronics Industries. The satellite had a life span of 1.5 years and an imaging resolution of 500 meters. It is the first Iranian satellite to use "cold gas thruster" and has solar panels. Originally, it was to be launched in 2012. As were alleged, non-announced by Iran one failed launches of Fajr satellites occurred on 23 May in 2012. Finally, Fajr was successfully launched and placed into orbit on 2 February 2015. On 26 February 2015, Fajr reentered Earth's atmosphere after 23.8 days in orbit. Dousti, satellite designed for Earth observation. Launched by a Safir rocket on 5 February 2019. The launch failed. AUT-SAT, is a microsatellite being developed by students of Amirkabir University of Technology. It is designed as a remote sensing satellite with store-dump capability. It was launched on 15 January 2019 by a Simorgh rocket, but failed to reach orbit. Amir Kabir satellite, weighing 80 kg, will reportedly be placed in a Sun-synchronous orbit of 660 km in radius, and will remain in space between three and five years. The launcher is expected to be a Simorgh missile. On 9 February 2020, Iran successfully launched the communication satellite, Zafar 1, through a Simorgh rocket from Imam Khomeini Space Center at 19:15 local time. However, spokesman for the defence ministry's space programme, Ahmad Hosseini, notified that the satellite didn't reach the required speed in its final moments for being put in the orbit. On 22 April 2020, Iran successfully launched "Noor" (Farsi for "Light"), a military satellite, into a 426 x 444 km / 59.8° orbit. On 31 December 2021, Iran launched a Simorgh rocket carrying "three research cargos into space". However, following the launch a defence ministry spokesman, Ahmad Hosseini, confirmed the mission had failed to put its three payloads into orbit after the rocket was unable to reach the required speed. France described the launch as "regrettable" as it was conducted amid renegotiations of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action. On 8 March 2022, Iran reportedly sent its second “Nour-2” military satellite into 500 km orbit. The Khayyam, a high resolution imaging satellite, was successfully launched into orbit by a Russian Soyuz rocket on 9 August 2022. Noor-3, also called Najm is the third satellite of the Noor class, was launched on a Qassed launcher on 27 September 2023 to a 450 kilometer orbit. It has a weight of 24kg with a resolution of 6 to 4.8 meters. Unlaunched satellites Nahid (1), satellite with folding solar panels. Toloo, is the first of a new generation of reconnaissance satellites being built by Iran Electronics Industries with SIGINT capabilities. It will be launched by a Simorgh. Nasir 1, Iran's indigenously designed satellite navigation system (SAT NAV) has been manufactured to find the precise locations of satellites moving in orbit. Sharif satellite was originally scheduled for launch in 2012 is an observation satellite with an imaging resolution of better than 12.5 meters. The satellite is manufactured by Sharif University of Technology. Zafar-1, is an imaging satellite to be launched in 2012 and will have a resolution better than 80 meters. The satellite will be sent into a geostationary orbit. The launcher is expected to be a Simorgh missile. Mesbah (meaning 'Lantern') was to be built by Iran in collaboration with Italy's Carlo Gavazzi Space S.p.A. Mesbah was a Low Earth orbit telecommunication satellite. The satellite was never launched as both Russia and Italy refused to cooperate with Iran anymore on space projects. The original Mesbah project was later on replaced by indigenous Mesbah-2 which is to be built and launched by Iran alone. It was reported, in April 2011, that the US$10 million satellite built in Italy, has not been delivered to Iran. Italy has refused to hand over the satellite to Iran under the pretext of international sanctions on Iran. Iran maintains that the satellite be handed over for its launch by an Iranian satellite carrier. Mesbah-2 is a limited application communication satellite which was conceived as a locally designed satellite after the original Mesbah project failed to materialize due to international pressures on Iran. It will have a life span of 3 years with store dump capability and its own navigation system. It is scheduled for launch in 2012. Qaem, is a geosynchronous communication satellite that is being developed by Iran and is scheduled to be launched on an Iranian carrier by 2016. The satellite is going to have a life expectancy of 15 years, broadcasting TV and Radio channels. Pars Sepehr, is a remote sensing satellite being built and to be launched from Iran. Its launch date is not yet confirmed. Pars-2, is a remote sensing satellite being built and to be launched from Iran. Its launch schedule has not yet been announced. ZS4 is an Iranian satellite to be launched by an Iranian launcher. Its mission role and launch date have not been revealed. Sina-2 is a small satellite that will replace the mission role of Sina-1. SM2S is an Iranian satellite to be launched by an Iranian launcher. Its mission role and launch date have not been revealed. Iran is also to implement 10 satellite projects with Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) members. The organization has defined 10 projects on designing, building and launching light satellites, middle class satellites weighing 500–600 kg, research satellites, remote-sensing and telecommunications satellites. Besharat satellite is being built by Iran with collaboration of some OIC members which have volunteered in the project. It is to be launched by Iran. The countries which are jointly working with Iran on the project are Pakistan, Turkey, Malaysia and some Arab countries. Its launch date is not yet confirmed. Saar (Starling) will be produced by Iran's Khajeh Nasir Toosi University of Technology. Zohreh, is a geosynchronous communication satellite which was originally proposed before the Revolution in the 1970s as part of a joint Indian-Iranian project of four Iranian satellites to be launched by the then upcoming NASA Space Shuttles. Iran had also negotiated with France to build and launch the satellites but the project never materialized. In 2005, Iran negotiated with Russia to build and launch the first Zohreh satellite under an agreement worth $132 million with the satellite launch date stipulated as 2007–2008. The new agreement had followed the earlier failed negotiations with Russia in 2003 when Russia cancelled the project under US pressures. The satellite was to be of Express-1000 type and capable of relaying telephone, fax, data and television signals with a life span of 15 years. In September 2010, Iran announced that it will build and launch the satellite locally as the foreign contractors had refused to complete the project. New launch date for the satellite was announced as 2014. Russia had announced in 2009 that it is not going to cooperate with Iran on any space projects but reversed course again following the lifting of international sanctions against Iran in 2015. Iran has also solicited NASA's cooperation in future space projects. Ekvator, a geosynchronous communications satellite built by ISS Reshetnev for Iran in a continuation of previous Russia-Iran space cooperation efforts. As of October 2022, Ekvator is expected to be launched on a Proton-M rocket in early 2024. Space centers The main launch site of the Iranian Space Agency is Shahrud, located at , where suborbital Shahab 3s LV have been launched. Qom, located at , is the other launch site. On occasion of the inaugural launch of Iran's first Safir-class sub-orbital rocket called Kavoshgar-1 (Explorer-1), Iran unveiled on 4 February 2008, its first Satellite Launch Center in Semnan city. The facility includes an underground command and control center, a tracking station and a launchpad among other structures. In December 2010, it was announced that due to geographical limitations of first space center in injecting satellite into orbit, studies have been carried out for setting up a second (satellite) launch pad. The new national spaceport of Iran, named after Imam Khomeini, is being built in Semnan. This new port is to be used to launch all future Iranian space missions similar to American Kennedy Space Center or the Baikonur Cosmodrome. In March 2011, Jane's Information Group reported on the basis of its satellite imagery analysis of Iranian space launch sites that Iran is aggressively building complex facilities with very rapid pace showing the nation's inclinations towards space readiness. In June 2013, Iran inaugurated its first space monitoring center located near Delijan in Markazi province, according to Iran's Defense Minister General Ahmad Vahidi the new center which was named Imam Ja'far Sadeq would mostly be used to track and detect space objects and satellites passing overhead using radar, electro-optic and radio systems. The government plans a space launch site near Chahbahar. Internet constellation The government has announced that there will be a internet satellite to combat Starlink. Human spaceflight program Iran expressed for the first time its intention to send a human to space during the summit of Soviet and Iranian Presidents at 21 June 1990. Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev reached an agreement in principle with then-President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani to make joint Soviet-Iranian crewed flights to Mir space station but this agreement was never realized after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Almost two decades later the Iranian News Agency claimed on 21 November 2005, that the Iranians have a human space program along with plans for the development of a spacecraft and a space laboratory. Iran Aerospace Industries Organization (IAIO) head Reza Taghipour on 20 August 2008, revealed Iran intends to launch a human mission into space within a decade. This goal was described as the country's top priority for the next 10 years, in order to make Iran the leading space power of the region by 2021. In August 2010, President Ahmadinejad announced that Iran's first astronaut should be sent into space on board an Iranian spacecraft by no later than 2019. According to Iranian human space program, the first sub-orbital spaceflight was take place by 2016 at an altitude below 200 kilometers as preparation for the eventual orbital spaceflight. No such vehicle was developed. On 17 February 2015, Iran unveiled a mock prototype of crewed spaceship that would be capable of taking astronauts into space. According to Iran's Space Administrator, this program was put on hold in 2017 indefinitely. In 2021, the spaceship was being prepared to send a human into space by 2026. Space station According to unofficial Chinese internet sources, an Iranian participation in the future Chinese space station program has been discussed. This involvement might range from simply sending astronauts to the 60 ton class space station to contributing with development of a space laboratory module. International human spaceflight cooperation has officially been disclosed for the first time after the launch of the Chinese Shenzhou 7 spacecraft. Lunar program In 2011 and 2012, Western media has quoted that Iran has plans to land an astronaut on the Moon by 2025. However Iran doesn't have a medium lift rocket, therefore sending a human to space is unlikely due to the lack of equipment. Controversy The Iranian space program has been condemned by United States and Europe because of their concern over its military potential. Some analysts have compared the relatively fast Iranian advancement in space technology to Soviet Sputnik program with the prediction that this advancement will propel Iran's military capability in other areas as well. The military concerns over Iran's space program has been exacerbated over Safir rocket's advanced 2nd stage which Iran has kept secret by not releasing any technical information related to the second stage of the rocket, keeping outside observers guessing over the technicalities. For Radio Free Europe, independent experts interviewed disagreed with assertion made by the U.S. and various European countries. SIPRI's Tytti Erästö stated space launch vehicle program can contribute to missile development yet it isn't a shortcut for development of long range missiles such as intercontinental ballistic missiles, historically the ICBMs were converted to SLVs and never was in history SLV converted to ICBM. IISS Michael Elleman stated that claims made by the U.S. such as Mike Pompeo are grossly exaggerating contribution of SLV program to ICBM program and that it is misguided to suggest that SLV program is cover for nuclear capable ICBMs as claims made are a political statement. ST Analytics Markus Schiller stated that there is no indication that Iran is trying to develop missiles with range longer than 2000 km as Iran has been working on improving accuracy of their existing short and medium range missiles. Sabotage by the U.S. In 2019, the New York Times reported that the U.S. has been sabotaging Iran's space program for years and that it planned to widen its efforts. See also Aerospace Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Anousheh Ansari – First Iranian-American cosmonaut Colonization of Mars Colonization of the Moon Economy of Iran International rankings of Iran in science and technology Iran Aviation Industries Organization List of first orbital launches by country List of government space agencies List of Iranian research centers List of missions to the Moon National spacefaring programs Science and technology in Iran References External links Iranian Space Agency Space Science Iranian Space Agencies (listing) Iran space program Shahab SLV Aerospace Industries Organization Iran in Space Globalsecurity.org Videos Imam Khomeini Space Center – Iran – Nuclear Threat Initiative (2013) Space program of Iran Government agencies of Iran Government agencies established in 2003 2003 establishments in Iran Science and technology in Iran Scientific organisations based in Iran Space agencies
4894735	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1966 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1966 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 34th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 18 and 19 June 1966. It was also the seventh round of the 1966 World Sportscar Championship season. This was the first overall win at Le Mans for the Ford GT40 as well as the first win for an American constructor in a major European race since Jimmy Murphy's triumph with Duesenberg at the 1921 French Grand Prix. It was also the debut Le Mans start for two significant drivers: Henri Pescarolo, who went on to set the record for the most starts at Le Mans; and Jacky Ickx, whose record of six Le Mans victories stood until beaten by Tom Kristensen in 2005. Regulations The year 1966 saw the advent of a completely new set of regulations from the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale – the FIA's regulations body) – the FIA Appendix J, redefining the categories of motorsport in a numerical list. GT cars were now Group 3 and Prototypes were now Group 6, Sports Cars were still Group 4 and Special Touring Cars was a new category defined by Group 5. (Group 1 and 2 covered other Touring Cars, Group 7 led to the Can-Am series, with Group 8 and 9 for single-seaters). As Group 7 were ineligible for FIA championship events, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) opened its entry list to Group 3, 4 and 6. The FIA mandated minimum annual production runs of 500 cars for Group 3 (up from 100 previously) and 50 for Group 4, which also had a maximum engine capacity of 5000cc. There were no engine limits on the GTs or Prototypes. As before, the Groups were split up in classes based on engine size, there was a sliding scale of a minimum weight based on the increasing engine size (from 450 to 1000 kg for 500 to 7000cc) as was fuel-tank capacity (60 to 160 litres). Along with the new Appendix J, after four years of focus on GT racing the FIA announced the International Manufacturer's Championship, for Group 6 Prototypes (2L / >2L), and the International Sports Car Championship for Group 4 (1.3L / 2L / 5L). Entries With the new regulations this year the ACO received a huge 103 entry requests. Such was the interest in Group 6 there were 43 prototypes on the starting grid and only 3 GT cars: After 2 years of its 3-year program, Ford had very little to show for its immense investment. Extensive work was done in the wind tunnel, and improving the brakes, handling and engine – not least improving the fuel economy. The 7-litre Ford NASCAR race engine now put out ca. 550 bhp but was registered as "485 hp" as a result of Ford's lowered rev-limit setting for the 24h race. The new year started with promise with Ken Miles and Lloyd Ruby winning both the inaugural 24 Hours of Daytona and then 12 Hours of Sebring. Copying Ferrari's tactic of overwhelming numbers, they put in fifteen Mark II entries; eight were accepted by the ACO. This time six were built and prepared by Holman & Moody. Shelby ran three cars for Americans Dan Gurney and Jerry Grant, Miles was now paired with New Zealander Denny Hulme after Ruby had been injured in a plane crash a month earlier. The third car was the all-Kiwi pairing of Bruce McLaren and Chris Amon. Holman & Moody, the successful Ford NASCAR race team also brought another trio of GT40`s as backups, – for Mark Donohue/Paul Hawkins, Ronnie Bucknum/Dick Hutcherson, and Lucien Bianchi/Mario Andretti. One of the big improvements Holman & Moody brought with them was a quick-change brake pad system to save time in the pits. The British team Alan Mann Racing had two cars prepared by Ford Advanced Vehicles, for Graham Hill/Dick Thompson and John Whitmore/Frank Gardner. Each of the eight cars was painted in a colour from the Mustang road-car range. Ferrari's response to the Mk II was the new Ferrari 330 P3. Shorter and wider than the P2, it kept the same 4-litre engine but with fuel-injection now put out 420 bhp. The works team had a pair of closed-cockpit versions for John Surtees/Ludovico Scarfiotti and former winners Lorenzo Bandini/Jean Guichet. An open-cockpit variant was given to the North American Racing Team (NART) for Pedro Rodriguez/Richie Ginther. But their race preparation had been limited by strike action in Italy. NART also entered a long-tailed P2, rebodied by Piero Drogo and driven by last year's winner Masten Gregory with Bob Bondurant. There were also P2/P3 hybrids for the Ecurie Francorchamps (Dumay/"Beurlys") and Scuderia Filipinetti (Mairesse/Müller). Finally there was a P2 Spyder for Maranello Concessionaires (Attwood/Piper). Fighting on two fronts, the company also took on Porsche in the 2-litre class with its Dino 206 S with a pair from NART and another for Maranello. Nino Vaccarella, race winner in 1964, was furious when he found out he was ‘demoted’ to drive the Dino rather than the P3 and threatened to walk out, but did, in the end run the car. Chevrolet was the other player in the over 2-litre class. Ex-Ferrari engineer Giotto Bizzarrini had fallen out with Renzo Rivolta and with his own company brought his new design, the P538, but still using the 5.3L Chevrolet engine. The other Chevy was in Texan Jim Hall's Chaparral 2D. The 5.3L small block put out 420 bhp and had a semi-automatic transmission. Driven by Phil Hill and Jo Bonnier, they made a big impact winning the Nürburgring round just two weeks earlier. Porsche came with a new model – the 906 designed by the team led by Ferdinand Piëch. With the 2.0L flat-6 engine from the 911, it had recently been homologated for Group 4 with the requisite 50 cars. It was race-proven too, after winning the Targa Florio the month before. However three "langheck" (long-tail) prototypes were also entered by the works team, driven by Hans Herrmann/Herbert Linge, Jo Siffert/Colin Davis and Udo Schütz/Peter de Klerk. Alfa Romeo, and its works team Autodelta, had withdrawn from racing for a year to prepare a new car for 1967. But this year, a significant new manufacturer entered the fray: Matra had bought out Automobiles René Bonnet in 1964, rebadging the Djet. However it was a new design that was entered. The M620 had a 2-litre version of the BRM Formula 1 engine developing 245 bhp that could match the Porsches in speed, making 275 kp/h (170 mph). The three cars were driven by up and coming young French single-seater drivers Jean-Pierre Beltoise/Johnny Servoz-Gavin, Jean-Pierre Jaussaud/Henri Pescarolo and Jo Schlesser with Welshman Alan Rees. Remarkably, given British dominance of the race barely a decade earlier, there were only three British cars in this year's race. Defending class-champions Austin-Healey had two works entries. The other was a Marcos Engineering kit-car based on a Mini Cooper 'S' chassis. Entered by Frenchman Hubert Giraud and driven by Jean-Louis Marnat and Claude Ballot-Lena, the team was able to get a works engine and gearbox from BMC. The spectators laughed at the small car and its apparent resemblance to a flea. But the Mini Marcos would become the 'darling of the crowds' later on in the race. Alpine, after its poor showing in the previous year, returned with 6 cars. The new A210 had a 1.3L Gordini-Renault engine with a Porsche gearbox making it more durable if only a little faster at 245 kp/h (150 mph). This year a new customer team, the Ecurie Savin-Calberson was supported by Alpine, with former Index winner Roger Delageneste. Charles Deutsch (CD) brought his new aerodynamic SP66. The car was powered by a 1130cc Peugeot engine, marking the return of the French company last seen in the 1938 race. Another competitor in the small prototypes was ASA. Originally a Ferrari design by Carlo Chiti and Giotto Bizzarrini before their famous walk-out from Ferrari, it was sold to the new Italian company and uprated with a 1290cc engine giving 125 bhp. Two cars were entered, one by ASA and one by NART. The new Group 4 category started attracting interest as the earlier prototypes were meeting the homologation and production requirements. There were six GT40s entered by customer teams, with the 4.7L engine. Jochen Rindt, the previous year's winner, had moved across from Ferrari to Ford, in the new Canadian Comstock Racing Team. They joined Ford France, Scuderia Filipinetti and new privateers Scuderia Bear and Essex Wire. Joining Skip Scott, team owner of the Essex Wire team, was a 21-year old Jacky Ickx in his Le Mans debut. Up against them was Ed Hugus’ modified Ferrari 275 GTB and the Equipe Nationale Belge ran its 250 LM. Porsche also ran three regular 906s in the Sports category, two works entries as well as one for their Paris importer Toto Veuillet. With Shelby now fully concentrated on the Ford program, the Cobra GTs were abandoned. There were only three GT entries: the Ferrari customer teams Ecurie Francorchamps and Maranello Concessionaires both entered a 275 GTB. The third was a quiet though significant entry: Jacques Dewes, ever the pioneering privateer, brought the first Porsche 911 to Le Mans. Production of what would become the ubiquitous Le Mans car had started in late 1964 and the new 911 S model had its ‘boxer’ 6-cylinder engine tuned to 160 bhp. Finally, in a sub competition of its own, there was the tire race between Firestone, Dunlop, and Goodyear. Practice Once again there was rain at the April testing weekend. And once again there was tragedy with a fatal accident. American Walt Hansgen's Ford hit water on the pit straight and aquaplaned. He aimed for the escape road at the end of the straight, not realising it was blocked by a sandbank, which he hit at about 190 km/h (120 mph). Taken with critical injuries to the American military hospital at Orléans, he died five days later. A notable absentee at the test weekend was the Ferrari works team. Chris Amon was fastest at the test weekend in the experimental Ford J-car with a 3:34.4 lap. But come race-week it was Gurney who put in the fastest qualifying lap of 3:30.6, a second faster than his stablemates Miles, Gardner and McLaren. Ginther was 5th in the fastest Ferrari with a 3:33.0, with Parkes and Bandini in 7th and 8th respectively. Phil Hill, in the Chaparral, broke up the Ford-Ferrari procession in 10th. Jo Siffert put the quickest Porsche 22nd on the grid with 3:51.0, with Nino Vaccarella's Ferrari in 24th (3:53.5) and Jo Schlesser's Matra just behind it (3:53.5). Over the test weekend, Mauro Bianchi had surprised many in the 1-litre Alpine, going as fast as the 1959 Ferrari Testa Rossas. The quickest Alpine in practice was Toivonen/Jansson (4:20.1), well ahead of the best CD (Ogier/Laurent 4:27.5) and the Austin-Healey's (4:45.1) and ASAs (4:49.8). There were also two significant dramas in practice. The biggest news was the walkout of Ferrari's lead driver John Surtees. He and team manager Eugenio Dragoni had decided that he, as the fastest Ferrari driver and driving with Mike Parkes, would act as the hare to bait and break the Fords. He was also still recovering from a big accident the previous year and would hand over to Scarfiotti if he got overly tired. Yet during raceweek, with news that new FIAT chairman Gianni Agnelli would be at the race, Dragoni changed the plan, putting Scarfiotti (Agnelli's nephew) in first. Surtees was furious and stormed off to Maranello to argue his case with Enzo Ferrari. Not listened to, Surtees, Ferrari's 1964 F1 World Champion, quit the team. The second incident was more serious – Dick Thompson in the Alan Mann Ford Mk II collided with Dick Holqvist who was going far slower in the Scuderia Bear Ford GT40 and pulled right in front of him at Maison Blanche. Holqvist spun off with heavy damage, while Thompson was able to get back to the pits. While repairing the damage, officials told the team that they were disqualified for Thompson leaving the scene of a major accident. Thompson was adamant he had advised pit officials, and in the hearing Ford's director of racing Leo Beebe threatened to withdraw all Fords. He was supported by Huschke von Hanstein who was prepared to withdraw the Porsche team as well. In the end, the car was reinstated though Thompson was banned. This still posed a problem for Ford as they were lacking spare drivers, with injuries with A. J. Foyt, Jackie Stewart and Lloyd Ruby. In the end Australian Brian Muir, who was in England was flown over to France. He did his two laps, his first ever at Le Mans on raceday morning to qualify. Race Start On a cool and cloudy afternoon, it was Henry Ford II this year who was the honorary starter. Last-minute raindrops caused a flurry of tyre changes and some cars switched from Firestone to Goodyear or Dunlop. At the end of the first lap Ford's cars led – Hill ahead of Gurney then Bucknum, Parkes in the Ferrari, followed by Whitmore's Ford, the Chaparral, then the GT40s of Scott and Rindt. There had been instant excitement when Edgar Berney spun his Bizzarrini on the start-line amongst the crowd of departing cars. Miles had to pit after the first lap to fix his door because earlier, he had slammed the door on his helmet. Also pitting on the first lap was Paul Hawkins whose Ford broke a halfshaft going down the Mulsanne Straight lurching him sideways at nearly 350 km/h. The Holman & Moody crew took 70 minutes to repair it only for Mark Donohue to have the rear boot blow off down the Mulsanne and find the differential had been terminally damaged. On the third lap Gurney took the lead, which he held onto until the first pit-stops. McLaren was being delayed by his tyres going off, so the team quietly changed from Firestones to Goodyears. After only 9 laps, Rindt's Ford blew its engine at the end of the Mulsanne straight, so there would be no consecutive win. At the end of the first hour Fords were 1-2-3, with Gurney leading by 24 seconds from Graham Hill and Bucknum. Fourth, 20 seconds further back, was the first NART Ferrari, of Rodriguez. Meanwhile, Miles had been putting in extremely fast laps, breaking the lap record and getting back up to 5th place. Parkes was 6th ahead of Bonnier in the Chaparral who had already been lapped. Within another hour Miles and Hulme had taken the lead. At 8pm, only the Miles and Gurney Fords and Rodriguez's Ferrari were on the lead lap (#64). At dusk it started to drizzle, reducing the power advantage of the big Fords, and allowing the Ferraris to keep in touch. The Fords were further delayed as a number chose to change brake pads early. By then all three Dinos were out with mechanical issues, removing one threat to Porsche. A major accident occurred when Jean-Claude Ogier's CD got loose on spilt oil at the Mulsanne kink and was hit hard side-on by François Pasquier in the NART ASA. Both cars hit the wall and caught fire, and Ogier was taken to the hospital with two broken arms. Night After 6 hours, heavy rain was pouring down. Ginther's NART Ferrari was leading from Parkes, chased by the Fords of Miles and Gurney on the same lap, McLaren a lap behind, then Bandini and Andretti two laps back. But Andretti was soon sidelined with a blown headgasket, as was the Hill/Muir Ford which had broken its front suspension coming out of Arnage corner. As the rain eased, the Fords of Miles and Gurney retook the lead. Just before midnight Robert Buchet aquaplaned coming over the crest at the Dunlop Bridge and crashed the French Porsche. The Chaparral had been running well initially, getting as high as 5th, until a broken alternator stopped them also just before midnight while running in 8th. Another heavy downpour at 12.30 contributed to a big accident in the Esses. Guichet had just spun his Ferrari in the rain and got away when Buchet arrived and crashed his Porsche. Then Schlesser's Matra ran into the CD of Georges Heligouin avoiding the accident. As the damage was being cleared, Scarfiotti crashed his P3 into the Matra and all four cars were wrecked, although only Scarfiotti was taken to hospital, with minor bruising. During the night the Ferraris started to suffer from overheating. When the NART P3 retired from 4th with a broken gearbox at 3am, and the Filipinetti car of Mairesse/Müller from 5th an hour later, the Ferrari challenge was spent – there would be no privateer-saviours for the marque this year. At halfway the Ford Mk IIs held the top-4 places (Miles/Hulme, Gurney/Grant, McLaren/Amon, Bucknum/Hutcherson) with GT40s in 5-6-8: Essex, Filipinetti and Ford-France (Revson/Scott, Spoerry/Sutcliffe, Ligier/Grossman). Siffert/Davis were leading a train of Porsches in 7th and the nearest Ferrari was the Bandini/Guichet P3 limping in 12th. Ford told their cars to drop to 4-minute laps, but Gurney and Miles kept racing hard for the lead. Morning What could have been a procession was anything but for Ford. At 8 am, a pit-stop for the Filipinetti Ford running 5th spilled petrol on a rear tyre. On his out-lap Spoerry lost traction and spun at the Esses wrecking the car. The Ford-France and Essex cars had already retired with engine issues during the night. At 9am the Gurney/Grant car, which had been dicing for the lead with Miles & Hulme (against strict team orders), retired from 1st when the car blew a headgasket. That left Ford with only three Mk IIs left (albeit running 1-2-3) as all the GT40s had retired as well. Porsches now held the next five places and the two Ferrari GTs were 9th and 10th chased by the Alpines. Finish and post-race With the field covered it was now that Leo Beebe, Ford racing director, contrived to stage a dead heat by having his two lead cars cross the line simultaneously. The ACO told him this would not be possible — given the staggered starting formation, the #2 car would have covered 20 metres further, and thus be the race winner. But Beebe pushed on with his plan anyway. At the last pit stop, the Mark IIs were still in front. Miles/Hulme were leading, followed by McLaren/Amon holding station on the same lap. The gold Bucknum/Hutcherson car was third, but twelve laps behind. Miles was told to ease off to allow McLaren to catch up with him. Just before 4pm, it started to drizzle again. As the Miles's #1 car and McLaren's #2 car approached the finish, McLaren crossed the finish line just ahead of Miles. Miles, who was upset about the team orders, lifted off to allow McLaren to finish a length ahead. Additionally, McLaren had covered more distance during the race due to the starting positions. Regardless of the reason, McLaren's #2 was declared the winner. At their last pitstop, the 7th-placed Porsche of Peter Gregg and Sten Axelsson was stopped by engine problems. Gregg parked the car waiting for the last lap, but at 3.50pm he could not get it restarted and missed the formation finish. The other Porsches came in 4th to 7th led by Siffert/Davis, who also claimed the Index of Performance. The Stommelen/Klass car in 7th was the first, and only, Sports car to finish. Finally, the new 911 GT ran well and finished 14th starting a long record of success. Four Alpines finished this year, 9-11-12-13, with that of Delageneste/Cheinisse from the Ecurie Savin-Calberson winning the Thermal Efficiency Index. The final finisher was the little Mini Marcos. Formerly the object of laughter, it had become a crowd favourite running like clockwork. As car after car ran into trouble and dropped out, the little Marcos, by this time nicknamed 'la puce bleue' (the blue flea) wailed on. Despite finishing 26 laps behind the rest of the field. the car eventually came home at an incredible 15th overall. It had taken three attempts for Ford to win Indianapolis and the NASCAR Championship, and now it added the Le Mans 24 Hours. Chrysler had first entered in 1925, and after 41 years it was the first win for an American car. The official Ford press release, dated July 5, 1966, claimed: The Ford team's decision was a big disappointment for Ken Miles, who was aiming for the 'Endurance Racing Triple Crown'—winning Daytona-Sebring-Le Mans—as a reward for his investment in the GT40 development. "I'm disappointed, of course, but what are you going to do about it." Beebe also later admitted he had been annoyed with Miles racing Gurney, disregarding team orders by potentially risking the cars' endurance. Two months later, Ken Miles died at Riverside while testing the next generation Ford GT40 J-Car, which became the Mk IV that won Le Mans in 1967. In a race of attrition it was fortunate the big teams brought such quantity – only 3 of the 13 Fords finished and only the two GTs finished from the 14 Ferraris entered. By contrast, 5 of the 7 Porsches finished (including their 911 in the GT class) as did four of the six Alpines, showing much better reliability. It was the first time that the 3000 miles/125 mph mark had been exceeded. With the bitter failure of Ferrari's 330 P3 mirroring the failure of the Ford prototypes the previous year (and with salt rubbed into the wound with Ford's formation finish), the "Ford-Ferrari War" moved into its climactic phase. The Le Mans results boosted Ford over Ferrari for the 1966 Manufacturers' Championship. Ford's answer to Ferrari's next weapon, the 330 P4, was delayed by development problems, handing Ferrari a rematch with the Mk IIs that so dominated them at LeMans, at the 1967 Daytona 24 Hours. After a defective batch of transaxle shafts sank Ford's effort, Ferrari took a 1-2-3 finish with their new P4s and returned the favor of Ford's victory formation. Ford's Mark IV was ready in time for the 12 Hours of Sebring, where it won on its maiden outing. Three more examples were produced and prepared for the Le Mans 24 Hours, while Ford's championship hopes rested on the older GT40s and the new GT40-derived Mirages to gain points in the intervening races. After a disappointing showing at Monza and a controversial denial of championship points from a Mirage win at the Spa event, Ford saw limited opportunity for taking the Manufacturers' title again and instead concentrated on a last hurrah at Le Mans, where the leading Mark IV, driven by Dan Gurney and A. J. Foyt, won handily. Ferrari took the Manufacturers' title for 1967, edging up-and-coming Porsche by two points. The Ford-Ferrari War was ended by new rules for 1968 that eliminated the P4s and Mark IVs from eligibility for the Sports Prototype class with a 3-litre engine capacity limit. The GT40s met the production requirement and 5 litre limit for homologation in the new Group 4 class. Ferrari found the production requirement for homologating the P4 under Group 4 daunting and withdrew from competition in the sport-racer classes. Neither Ford nor Ferrari fielded a factory team for the Manufacturers' Championship that year; however, the John Wyer team running the Group 4 GT40s brought home the title for Ford and in 1969 achieved wins with the GT40 at Sebring and Le Mans. When Ferrari was able to enter a homologated car for 1970, the class they competed in was dominated by the Porsche 917. Several cars of the original 24-hours race have survived and have been restored to their former glory. The crowd-pleasing Mini Marcos was club raced, rallied and hill climbed, road registered twice and repainted five times only to be stolen in the night of 30 October 1975 from beneath a flat in Paris. Three days earlier Marcos-boss Harold Dermott had made a deal to buy the car with the intention to restore it and put on museum display. Several people searched for the car ever since, but it was only found back in December 2016 in Portugal by Dutchman Jeroen Booij. Legacy in popular culture Go Like Hell The race became the subject of a 2009 book, detailing the race and the famous background rivalry between Enzo Ferrari and Henry Ford II, by A. J. Baime titled Go Like Hell—the words shouted by Bruce McLaren to Chris Amon as they drove to their famous victory. Rumors of a movie adaptation of the book, an Amazon best seller, circulated from 2013 to 2015. The book attained a "4.5 star" rating by book review website GoodReads.com. The 24 Hour War A 2016 documentary film, produced and directed by Americans Nate Adams and comedian Adam Carolla, features the Le Mans rivalry between Ferrari and Ford. The production was well received critically, attaining a "100%" rating on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes. Ford v Ferrari Ford v Ferrari (known as Le Mans '66 in the UK and other territories) is a sports drama film distributed by 20th Century Fox, based on the rivalry between Ford and Ferrari for dominance at Le Mans. Directed by James Mangold, starring Matt Damon and Christian Bale in the roles of Carroll Shelby and Ken Miles, respectively. The film was released on 15 November 2019. At the 92nd Academy Awards, the film received four nominations, including Best Picture and Best Sound Mixing, and won for Best Sound Editing and Best Film Editing. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text. Did not finish Did not start Class winners Note: setting a new Distance Record. Index of thermal efficiency Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. Index of performance Taken from Moity's book. Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance. Statistics Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Fastest Lap in practice – D.Gurney, #3 Ford GT40 Mk II – 3:30.6secs; Fastest Lap – D.Gurney, #3 Ford GT40 Mk II – 3:30.6secs; Distance – Winner's Average Speed – Attendance – 350 000 Challenge Mondial de Vitesse et Endurance standings As calculated after Le Mans, Round 4 of 4 Citations References Armstrong, Douglas, English editor (1967) Automobile Year #14 1966–67 Lausanne: Edita S.A. Clarke, R.M., editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966–1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Fox, Charles (1973) The Great Racing Cars & Drivers London: Octopus Books Ltd Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949–1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960–69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1966 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 20 March 2018 Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 20 March 2018 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 20 March 2018 Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 20 March 2018 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 20 March 2018 Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 20 March 2018 YouTube "This Time Tomorrow" – Colour film by Ford about their race (30mins). Retrieved 8 April 2018 YouTube "Eight Metres" – Colour film about the race & the finish (30mins). Retrieved 8 April 2018 YouTube – Colour film about the start & the finish (5mins). Retrieved 8 April 2018 YouTube – Silent b/w footage including start (2mins). Retrieved 8 April 2018 YouTube "British Pathé" – Silent b/w footage including start (2mins). Retrieved 8 April 2018 YouTube – modern footage interviewing the pit crew of Ford #1 (5mins). Retrieved 8 April 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1966 in French motorsport
4895134	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Country%20Carnival	West Country Carnival	The West Country Carnival Circuits are an annual celebration featuring a parade of illuminated carts in the English West Country. The celebration dates back to the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. The purpose is to raise money for local charities. The series of parades in each town now form a major regional festival. Some carts cost in excess of £40,000 to build and are the result of thousands of hours work throughout the year. History The timing of the West Country Carnival close to the British celebration of Bonfire Night on 5 November is no coincidence, as the roots of the original carnival in Bridgwater date back to 1605. Guy Fawkes is the character most associated with the plot to blow up the Houses of Parliament, however the instigator was Jesuit priest Robert Parsons from Nether Stowey, a short distance from Bridgwater. Parsons and his colleagues Edmund Campion and Ralph Emerson were Catholics, who wanted to put an end to the Protestant monarchy and parliament of the day, in order to put an end to Catholic persecution. In 1580, they were discovered attempting to garner favour with northern-English based nobility in the English Mission, and were then associated with the failed Spanish Armada of 1588, both plots to replace Protestant Elizabeth I of England with catholic Mary Queen of Scots. After the execution of Campion and natural death of Emerson, Parsons continued to plot to restore Catholic power in England, and hence his last ill-fated attempt against parliament and King James VI on 5 November 1605. After the failure of the Gunpowder Plot, Parsons was key in corresponding with Thomas Morton over the authority of use of St Paul in the creation and implementation of the Jacobean Oath of Allegiance. Bonfire night is a major annual celebration across the whole of England, but it is likely that the reason that the West Country Carnival was originally so keenly celebrated is that the South West towns were predominantly Protestant – hence the celebration of Robert Parsons' (and Guy Fawkes') failure. The religious origins of the event are almost forgotten and far less significant today. Bridgwater The original Bridgwater celebrations consisted of a large bonfire at the Cornhill. Built out of a large wooden boat, around one hundred tar barrels were added, together with just about anything else available which could be burned. This tradition was stopped due to lack of old wooden boats to burn, and because a number of good boats were thrown onto the fire and burnt by over-enthusiastic revellers. Effigies or "guys" representing the gunpowder plot instigators were added to the fire by local groups of people known as gangs. It would seem it was these gangs who started the trend towards a procession, as they paraded their guys towards the bonfire. As years passed by, the tradition was continued and the annual celebration became more and more elaborate, involving costumes, and music, until the key feature of the event was a large carnival procession. The local people who dressed up and took part in the event were known as Masqueraders or Features - terms still used today to describe the parade participants. There were no parades during the Second World War, but a local carnival enthusiast William Henry Edwin Lockyer also known as "Nosey" walked the carnival route for six years with a group known as The Kilties, to keep the tradition alive. In 2020 and 2021, the procession featuring carts was cancelled due to the COVID-19 Pandemic, to replace the 2020 Bridgwater procession a live stream was held on carnival night showing some of the best carnival carts over the years. In 2021, smaller Masquerade parades were put on in Bridgwater and Burnhum-On-Sea, which featured most of the clubs in the previous years carnivals, enter with walking entries on a smaller route. Squibbing In addition to the carnival procession, the tradition of "squibbing" still occurs after the procession ends. A squib locally is a firework which is held aloft by a person known as a "squibber" on the end of a long wooden handle called a "cosh". One hundred squibbers stand in line in Bridgwater town centre making an unusual but impressive sight for visitors who crowd the High Street. Originally the squibs were made specially for the carnival and were known as the Bridgwater Squib, and culminated with a large bang as each squib extinguished. With modern Health and Safety concerns it has become difficult to purchase such squibs, and owing to the rising cost of insurance the present-day squibs have no bang. Lines of flammable liquid are also run along the ground by the squibbers and lit to add to the spectacle. Visitors often think the whole sight looks a little dangerous, but the event is well organised and nobody has been hurt to date. Modern times The Bridgwater carnival first modernised in 1881 and was originally lit by lamps; electric lights were first introduced in 1913. Bridgwater carnival now consists of a display of over 40 large vehicles up to long, festooned with dancers and up to 22,000 lightbulbs, that follows a route over two to three hours. 2005 included the Masquerade 2000 entrants from Notting Hill Carnival. Bridgwater now attracts around 150,000 people from around the West Country, UK and globally. Parking from the M5 is well sign posted and plentiful, and managed by the committee in association with Avon and Somerset Police. Public access grandstands were introduced in the mid-1990s, which have increased in popularity over recent years. The carnival's purpose is to raise money for local charities from money collection carts in the procession. Between 2003 and 2007, around £115,000 was raised at Bridgwater Carnival. In 2010, the Heritage Lottery Fund awarded the Carnival in Somerset Promotion Project £41,000 to promote and conserve carnival heritage. The project aims to raise awareness of the history of the carnivals within schools and the local community. Carnival concert The carnival concert takes place in the weeks leading up to the carnival. At these concerts, carnival clubs perform on stage wearing their costumes and using pieces of scenery. After being poorly patronised for a period, the carnival concert has become a highly popular attraction in recent years, with tickets to see the event in a Bridgwater hall selling out very quickly – partly due to increased publicity, and partly as the popularity of the carnival increases it is an easy access way to see the carnival over more days. Calendar changes The Bridgwater carnival had traditionally been held on Bonfire night, or 5 November. This was then formalised in 1919 after the First World War, as the carnival circuits were formed to be held on the first Thursday of November – Thursday was traditionally early closing day for shops in Bridgwater. Local Government Authorities and businesses were keen to the reschedule the event to a weekend date – presumably to make it more convenient for visitors to attend. This met strong resistance from many locals who believe the tradition of so many years should be maintained, and from others who are concerned that the new timing could affect the ability of clubs to participate in other local carnival processions – North Petherton carnival has traditionally taken place on the following Saturday. The new timing would also spoil another local tradition known as Black Friday, when locals celebrate their hard work on carnival in an alcoholic manner. However, accepting that shops and work times in the present have changed greatly and the local economic business need, the Bridgwater Carnival Committee decided, not without much controversy, to move the carnival to a Friday with effect from 2001. This was part of a strategy to keep the carnival alive in the long term, with the committee working with Sedgemoor District Council to provide entertainment for visitors from mid-day on carnival day. The dates will change again from 2012, with Bridgwater on the first Saturday in November. It is hoped that as a result of the changed date many visitors will come earlier and stay longer, perhaps taking in some of the other carnivals and entertainment provided locally. Carnival circuit The Bridgwater carnival was the first carnival of its type, however other carnival processions within the South West began some years ago. They start in late August and continue until late November. The oldest and largest circuit is the Somerset County Guy Fawkes Carnival Association Circuit which starts at Bridgwater, with many of the carts will appear in all of the carnivals. Prizes are awarded in several categories for the best carts in each carnival. The four circuits are: East Devon Circuit: the first Saturday in September, Seaton, Colyton; Axminster; Sidmouth; Budleigh Salterton; Exmouth; Ottery St Mary; Honiton; Wessex Grand Prix Circuit: Mere; Frome; Shaftesbury; Gillingham; Wincanton; Castle Cary; Trowbridge; Warminster South Somerset Federation Of Carnival Committee Circuit: Wellington held on the last Saturday in September; Ilminster; Chard; Taunton; Somerset County Guy Fawkes Carnival Association Circuit Bridgwater on the first Friday in November; North Petherton the day after on the Saturday; Burnham-on-Sea on the following Monday; Shepton Mallet on the following Wednesday; Wells on the following Friday; Glastonbury & Chilkwell the day after on the Saturday and Weston-super-Mare on the following Monday; the last carnival in the whole circuit Circuit from 2012: Bridgwater on the first Saturday in November; Burnham-on-Sea on the following Monday; Weston-super-Mare on the following Friday; North Petherton on the second Saturday; Shepton Mallet on the following Wednesday; Wells on the following Friday; and Glastonbury on the third Saturday. There is one unofficial carnival in the circuit, held at Midsomer Norton. There is also a series of individual carnivals not part of any circuit, including Blandford Forum, Melksham, South Brent, South Petherton. In 2020, all the carnival circuits were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Carts and floats Uniquely in the West Country, the vehicles are called carts, unlike other carnivals where the term carnival float is used. The term cart is still used today to describe the large and elaborate trailers used in the procession. Carts are built by local clubs of individuals funded totally by charitable donations and sponsorship from local businesses. Carts are always themed, with no restriction on the theme from the organising committee. Regularly chosen themes include: Popular children's books — like Alice in Wonderland Favourite children's characters — such as Disney characters Scenes or themes from history — like Prehistoric, Victorian or famous Battles Scenes or themes from around the world — such as Australia, Rio de Janeiro or Spanish Travel and transport — such as cars or trains, e.g., The Chattanooga Choo-Choo Popular themes of the day — including pop songs or dances The future or exploration — such as space Carts include both music and costumed people to complete their theme. People and items on the cart can either be moving or static in tableau. Today these carts are driven by farm tractors or trucks, and usually also tow a large diesel-driven electricity generator to provide the huge amount of power required to power the carts. Some generators used can provide over one megawatt of power, with 10,000 to 30,000 lamps not uncommon on a modern-day cart. The towing vehicles themselves are often decorated to match the rest of the cart and generator, and in some cases modified so that the driver is positioned low down between the two front wheels. This allows for a higher degree of decoration without obscuring the driver's view. The length of the entire cart is often built to the maximum allowable of . These carts are interspersed with walking exhibits known as masqueraders, either groups or singles, occasional marching bands or majorette troupes, and charity collectors who take donations from the spectators. Carnival clubs Carts or floats are built by local clubs (CC), which as local charities themselves are aimed specifically and solely at raising funds for other charities which operate within their locality. Clubs generate all funds required to build and operate their carts totally by charitable donations from individuals and sponsorship from local businesses — all funds raised during the carnival season are wholly distributed by the club charity. Some carts cost in excess of £20,000 to build and are the result of thousands of man-hours work throughout the year. Most clubs are based around local working or social circles, such as pubs and clubs. Many clubs have specialist Juvenile Carnival clubs (JCC) for the under 16s. To join an adult 16 and over club, an initiation ceremony is often involved. All work is carried out in the spare time of the club members on a voluntary basis – often working all night in the final few days to get carts ready. Controversies and accidents During the early days of carnivals until the mid 1990s blackface used to be a common occurrence on carnival carts. Carnival clubs have also been accused of cultural appropriation, as many of the carts portray people of different religions and backgrounds. In a letter to the Bridgwater Mercury, a viewer of the carnival said that Renegades CC 2018 entry 'Ganesh’s Journey Home' was "blatant racism and cultural appropriation" and the performers had "inappropriately wore traditional dress that isn’t their own. The comments left disagreed heavily stating 'All colours of people are welcome at carnival clubs, black, white, Indian, Asian, etc.' Another reader said 'Actually ridiculous! What is wrong with celebrating another culture?' In 2017, Ramblers Carnival Club accidentally used tanning bulbs on their cart at Bridgwater Carnival, reportingly resulting in 7 people reporting being sent to hospital. In 2019, a road crew member for Marketeers Carnival Club was 'allegedly knocked to the ground' by a member of the public who was walking next to the cart. The crew member said "I was walking along with the cart and a man was walking in the opposite direction. I think he ran into me, shoulder barged me in the chest which pushed me to the ground. He carried on walking away. I hit the floor and fell between the cart and the generator. I managed to get back on my feet to avoid the cart and continue on with the procession." In 2022, North Somerset LGBT forum was refused to enter Burnham On Sea carnival with the name 'Fifty Shades Of Gay' as the organisers said the "entry wasn’t suitable for family audiences" and the committee were concerned about "how the public would react" also they said the charity should have entered as a trade entry. This came as a shock to the charity as they entered Bridgwater Carnival the previous weekend with no issues. Burnham On Sea Carnival issued a statement saying "we would like to apologise distress and upset this has caused". The committee then stated that the entry would have breached carnival rules as the entry featured 'excessive advertising' since it had been entered into a non-commercial category of ‘Class 7 – Groups of Masqueraders'. The Carnival chairman said "there was absolutely no homophobia behind this at all...this was a case of the carnival’s rules being potentially broken with excessive advertising...We are an all-inclusive event" The charity was then invited by Weston-Super-Mare and Glastonbury to participate in their carnivals. In 2022, a viewer of Exeter Carnival pointed out that on Nunsford Nutters cart a rainbow dinosaur which some linked to the LGBT+ community was called 'Mega-sorearse'. After Exeter Carnival got wind of this, they revoked their award and said "there are serious lessons to be learnt" and that they "do not condone the float.". Nunsford Nutters issued an apology stating, "we would like to send our deepest apologies to anyone who was affected or upset by the comment we had on our cart" and acknowledged the gag "may not have been to everyone’s taste." The club also stated, "we have members who are part of the LGBT community and saw no issue with the comments". See also Carnival Festivals in the United Kingdom References http://www.cispp.org.uk/ Bibliography "Remember Remember". The Story of Bridgwater Carnival, written by Chris Hocking who was president of Bridgwater Guy Fawkes Carnival Committee Somerset Carnivals: A Celebration of 400 Years, Roger Evans & Peter Nichols, "Bridgwater with and without the 'e' " ''', Roger Evans, A History of Bridgwater, J.C. Lawrence, Bridgwater Victorian Days, Philip James Squibbs, Somerset in the Age of Steam, Peter Stanier, Everyone's A Winner'', Brendon Hill. External links BBC Somerset: Carnival, 2009 History of Somerset Culture in Somerset Festivals in Somerset Carnivals in the United Kingdom Recurring events established in 1605 Bridgwater Annual events in England 1605 establishments in England Festivals established in the 17th century
4895341	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN%20Chat	MSN Chat	MSN Chat was the Microsoft Network version of IRCX (Internet Relay Chat extensions by Microsoft), which replaced Microsoft Chat, a set of Exchange-based IRCX servers first available in the Microsoft Comic Chat client, although Comic Chat was not required to connect. History Client Compatibility According to the MSN Chat website, the following were required to use the MSN Chat Service: Windows 95 or later Internet Explorer 4.0 or later OR; Netscape Navigator 4.x The Microsoft Network Chat Control was developed as an ActiveX Component Object Model (COM) Object. ActiveX, being a Microsoft technology provided limited compatibility for other products. The other major platforms beside Internet Explorer that MSN Chat was supported on, was Netscape Navigator and MSNTV (formerly known as WebTV). To ensure the MSN Chat network was only being connected to by authorized clients, Microsoft created and implemented a SASL based Security Service Provider authentication package known as GateKeeper. This used a randomized session key to authorize users not using the Microsoft Passport (now Microsoft account) system. Microsoft used another SSP known as GateKeeperPassport, that worked from the same method but required certain attributes related to the user's account. Defeating the "Authentication Challenge" There have been various methods through the use of mIRC to access the MSN Chat Network. Most of the methods were through the use of the MSN Chat Control itself, yet others were more complicated. In the beginning, shortly after the move from Microsoft Chat, the MSN Chat Network could be directly connected to through any IRC Client to irc.msn.com on port 6667. Perhaps because of abuse or other factors, such as the desire to authenticate users based on their Microsoft Passport, Microsoft implemented GateKeeper and GateKeeperPassport, and integrated both into their chat control. The weakness of GateKeeper and the fact the early MSN Chat Controls (1.0−3.0) had public functions for doing GateKeeper authentication seemed to indicate Microsoft wanted third parties to be able to access their network as before, but they wanted to be able to control automated abuse. In any event, these public functions allowed normal IRC clients to authorize themselves. With the release of the MSN Chat Control 4.0, the public functions were removed. Users found a way to authorize by a "Proxy Method", forcing the Chat Control to bridge connections between mIRC and the Chat Network. With the release of the MSN Chat Control 4.2 and later, they blocked this proxy method by having the chat control hash the IP address of the server to which it was instructed to connect into the response to the challenge in authentication. If the control was instructed to connect to any address other than the server, it would not match the server's hash and thus authentication would fail. A few later third party clients could authenticate without the control and were adjusted to compensate for this change. Versions The versions of MSN Chat were designed from IRC3 through to IRC8, Even with the newer versions, MSN Chat still had the possibility to replicate older MSN Chat versions by issuing the IRCVERS command. It is believed that IRC referred to the original IRC Daemon, and IRC2 referred to IRCX. IRC3 MSN Chat 1.0 was introduced as an ActiveX object for use within Internet Explorer. GateKeeper (version 1) authentication was enabled. As the client did not specify a GUID, a random GateKeeper address was issued by the server. Directory (better known as FINDS) servers were created to distribute the load between servers. IRC4 - UNKNOWN. Further research is required. IRC5 GateKeeper (version 2) authentication was enabled. The major difference between v1 and v2 was that the client specified a GUID that was stored in the Windows Registry, which allowed each client to have a unique, and semi-permanent GateKeeper address. USER command is no longer required. GateKeeperPassport was enabled, this allowed the client to relay cookies received from the passport.net service as a method of permanent authentication. Non-passport nicknames must now be prefixed with a '>', which is displayed as 'Guest_' by the official client. Passport user nicknames are no longer able to be changed without first disconnecting. Guest nicknames may still be changed, but the official client offers no way to do so. Basic icons are shown next to the user's name, they identify MSN Staff (Sysops and Admins) with the MSN Butterfly, users who are away with a coffee cup, and spectators with a pair of glasses. IRC6 - IRC7: MSN Chat introduces profile icons, Profile icons indicated if the member had a profile, gender (if known), and if the user had a picture IRC8: As MSN Chat had now become a Subscription Only (Premium) service, This introduced extra user and channel modes. The channel mode 'S' was added to indicated that only subscribers could talk. The user mode 'B' (to indicate the user was subscribed) and O (to indicate the user was not subscribed) were added. With the exception of Official MSN Staff. It was impossible for a user with the mode "O" to chat in a channel with the Channel Mode "S". Update to the GateKeeper Authentication method (known as the "4.5 Auth", due to the MSN Chat Control 4.5 being the first to implement it). It was a slight change, that added the value taken from the Server Parameter (before the ":" (if one is present)) to a MD5 Checksum. Third-party applications The use of third-party applications on the MSN Chat Network was not prohibited, although it was unsupported. Third-party applications were required to use the same Authentication Methods as the MSN Chat Control. The second change was the major part, allowing the Chat Control to bridge the connections between the Client and MSN Chat Service. The most popular third-party applications were mIRC, IRC Dominator and Viperbot. Scripts were often downloaded from sites such as TechGear007. Notable features Webchat using MSN's Chat Control Chat nicknames Profiles Chatroom creation Emoticons Chatroom listings User created rooms MSN created rooms MSN WebTV chats Celebrity chats Adult chats, moderate content chats, all aged chats Integration with MSN groups Authentication GateKeeper The GateKeeper (and closely related GateKeeperPassport) authentication mechanisms are SASL authentication mechanisms as defined in the IRCX Drafts. After the introduction of authentication on MSN Chat, Gatekeeper was the only authentication method that the public could use. During the initial handshake, the client would send a packet only containing the 16 byte header to the server, and the server would reply with a header, coupled with a 128 bit Cryptographic nonce. Finally, the client would create a 128 bit cryptographic hash of the nonce received from the server using a secret key, sending this as a subsequent authentication reply after the header, and immediately before a 16 byte GUID. The cryptographic hash function used was hmac-md5, and the secret key was "SRFMKSJANDRESKKC" (case sensitive). Defeating GateKeeper Early implementations of the GateKeeper authentication mechanism did not create a barrier to entry, as the authentication API that Microsoft had created was available to other program developers. After some time, Microsoft removed the ability for developers to use/see the API that had been embedded in the MSN Chat Control, and it can be safely assumed from this time that Microsoft wanted access to be from the official chat control only. The GateKeeper authentication made an appearance in the WebTV/MSNTV client. It was quickly realised that it was also possible to connect by creating a proxy that would load the MSN Chat Control temporarily as required, relaying nonce and hashes between the server and control, before closing the chat control. The difficulty with this method is that it was often slow, didn't work, or could crash applications due to requiring the ActiveX control to be used in Microsoft Internet Explorer, or MSIE based web controls. It is likely possibly that an alternative browser (such as Netscape Navigator, Firefox, etc) could have been used to host the MSN Chat Control, as there was a NPAPI version available from Microsoft. In July 2002, a user named zmic reverse engineered the MSN Chat Control, and produced a python script that was able to login without the use of the MSN Chat Control. The python script was buggy, but was later re-written in multiple programming languages by various authors. The user eXonyte had written some code which could be used (via WINE) on Linux. It's believed that this was the first time MSN Chat had been used outside of Windows. When GateKeeper version 3 was introduced, it was a very minor change that had added the string of the server name (as defined in the Chat Control parameter "Server") to the hash. The additional string would not include a colon or port if they were present. This appeared to be an effort to defeat the proxy method of accessing the service, but was quickly overcome as users shared the information that the IP had been added to the hash. This information was likely leaked from someone in Microsoft, as there were rumours of the upcoming change before the new GateKeeper version was released. It wasn't until around 2018 that the user JD noticed that the various keys from zmic's reverse engineering were likely derivatives of another key, and he was able to find the plain text key - before finding the algorithm used. Upon sharing this information with Sky, they quickly discovered the underlying cryptographic hash function was HMAC-MD5. There are still just two bytes that are unknown in the GateKeeper authentication header, however it was tested against the MSN Chat Server many times, and the server didn't appear to differentiate between the values of those two bytes. There's a possibility that the two bytes are random bytes of memory. NTLM Like GateKeeper, NTLM and NTLMPassport were implemented as SASL authentication mechanisms as defined in the IRCX protocol. NTLM Authentication was not available to be used by the MSN Chat Control, and the only known client implementation is in the MSN Chat Admin Client, which is a very basic client that was created to be used by MSN Chat staff, based on the publicly available MS Chat version 2.5. NTLM credentials were not available to normal users. It is believed that MSN Chat staff used NTLM to authenticate, and that they authenticated through Microsoft's Active Directory. It is possible that MSN Chat staff were connected directly to Microsoft's network, or connected via a virtual private network (VPN). MSN Chat staff also had the ability to login via the less secure USER/PASS method documented in RFC 1459. This was used heavily with the official chat bots, as it required no knowledge of SASL authentication mechanisms. Passport GateKeeperPassport and NTLMPassport were extensions to the GateKeeper and NTLM authentication mechanisms. The Passport extensions allowed the user to identify with a '.net Passport' (later known as a Windows Live Passport, now known as a Microsoft Passport). When a client attempted to register using a passport authentication extension, instead of receiving the usual asterisks to indicate that authentication is successful (as noted in IRCX drafts), they would be presented with a further subsequent authentication command, with only the string 'OK' as a parameter. The user would then send back an authentication command without the header, using two variables known as PassportTicket and PassportProfile (taken from the browser cookies MSPAuth and MSPProf) to identify themselves. Both variables were preceded by a string representation of an 8 digit hex number indicating the length of the variable, and must be presented in the correct order. When using GateKeeperPassport, the GUID specified after the GateKeeper hash should be a null GUID - Literally \0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0. Example PassportTicket and PassportProfile being sent: AUTH GateKeeperPassport S :0000000EPassportTicket0000000FPassportProfile\r\n Whilst it is assumed the same format is used with NTLMPassport, it can not be confirmed as NTLMPassport usage has not been witnessed. Active MSN Chat staff were using NTLM and were considered Guests, although the Guest prefix ">" was not enforced, instead a "'" prefix was used, which is noted to be a Unicode nickname prefix in the IRCX Drafts. User levels MSN Chat had the following user levels: Staff: Admin Sysop Guide Bot Users: Owner Host Participant Spectator Similar services There are many chat networks attempting to simulate the service that was provided by the Microsoft Network, which use the "MSN Chat Control". These simulation chat networks are often referred to as "MSN Chat Clones". These are generally small chat networks, which often rely on home-made IRC servers, or IRCX servers. Many of the "MSN Chat Clones" are non-compliant and do not follow the RFC 1459 (IRC) or the "eXtensions to Internet Relay Chat" (IRCX) standards and often contain many bugs/exploits that may cause a denial of service with the MSN Chat Control. Many of the MSN Chat Clones started up directly after MSN closed its services (2006), and additional networks have continued to spring up since then. There is speculation that these chat networks may have pulled potential subscribers away from MSN Chat, ultimately bringing on the demise of MSN Subscription Chat Services. While the majority of MSN Clone Chat sites are free, most of them rely on adverts to provide a small income. In addition, some of the clones have begun to charge, or allow for donations. The legality of sites offering the MSN Chat Control has been in question for some time due to many "Clone Sites" hosting the Chat Control. The Chat Control download is publicly available by Microsoft to download at . Problems with MSN Chat There were many documented problems from users about the MSN chat function. Most were directed to the “chat host.” This was a person who would enter the chat room under the name “host”, and act accordingly regulating the room. This service was useful for controlling the room, making sure that everyone was behaving accordingly, answering users’ questions about the rooms, and other assorted tasks. While the idea of a supervisor would put a lot of users at ease, there were reported disagreements between the two with what was considered appropriate. A claim was that there were a multitude of rules which the host didn’t make clear to the users, so many people were booted out of the room for breaking a rule they weren’t aware of. Any content that was viewed as offensive or sexually explicit was immediately removed and the person who wrote it was expelled from the room. Asking other chatters to press certain keys, displaying any kind of URL, or displaying what location you were from were all offenses punishable by temporary banishment. The convenience of an automated system for MSN led to problems for its users, problems solvable by a person able to interpret positive and negative content. A significant reason for MSN Chat shutting down was that it provided another opportunity for pedophiles and other sex-offenders to have access to youth through the chat rooms. The MSNBC program, "To Catch a Predator", a show about catching child predators, showed children meeting up with online "friends" which they assumed were being truthful about their identity but, on the show, were revealed to be pedophiles. Closure In 2001, Microsoft closed access via IRC clients (including Comic Chat), asking users to exclusively use their browser client instead. In 2003, Microsoft announced that it would close "unregulated" MSN Chat rooms in 28 countries, including "most of Asia" due to problems with spam and concerns about child pornography, with plans to convert to a subscription model for "better accountability." Messenger chat services remained open. MSN Chat became a subscription service for $20/year. On August 31, 2006 Microsoft announced that MSN Chat would no longer be provided. On October 16, 2006 MSN Chat shut down their servers at about 11:30 a.m. EST. The service closed as allegedly MSN no longer deemed it profitable to run as a subscription service. See also Windows Live Messenger, another messaging service owned by Microsoft. Skype, a messaging service bought by Microsoft. References External links MSN Chat Administration Tools History of MSN Chat MSN Internet Relay Chat Online chat
4895415	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan%20Kennedy	Susan Kennedy	Susan Kennedy (also Smith and Kinski) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Jackie Woodburne. The character and her family were created by storyliners in an attempt to bring the show back to its roots. Susan made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 3 October 1994, along with her eldest son and daughter. The storyliners made Susan a teacher at Erinsborough High to give her immediate links with other characters. Since her introduction, Susan's personality and appearance have been through several changes. Her storylines have seen her begin a relationship with a priest, being married, divorced and widowed. Susan has become a stepmother and a grandmother and she has been central to three plots revolving around health issues – retrograde amnesia, multiple sclerosis and surrogacy. She has also been central to a cyber-bullying plot. In October 2007, Susan became the longest-running female character in the show's history, having been in Neighbours for thirteen years. Woodburne has garnered various award nominations for her portrayal of Susan and the character has been well received by viewers and television critics. Susan delivers a closing monologue in the serial's finale, which was lauded by critics for encompassing the ethos of Neighbours. Creation and casting In 1994, the Neighbours storyliners decided to introduce a new "solid" family called the Kennedys. The family, which consisted of five members – a mother, father, two sons and a daughter – moved into Number 28 Ramsay Street. The storyliners felt that they needed to take the show back to its roots, as it seemed that all the houses on the street were populated with misfits and distant relatives. Alan Fletcher was cast in the role of Karl Kennedy and Benjamin McNair, Kym Valentine and Jesse Spencer were cast as teenagers Malcolm, Libby and Billy respectively. Woodburne was cast in the role of Susan, the matriarch of the family. The actress revealed that she only intended to play the part of Susan for twelve months, but she fell in love with the show and stayed. Actress Ailsa Piper was also considered for the role of Susan. She would later portray Ruth Wilkinson. When asked if she remembered her first day of filming, Woodburne recalled "Yes - I remember it perfectly. We were unpacking stuff from the car and moving into No 28. I already knew Alan, but I didn't know the kids. It all just meshed, though, and we knew immediately what type of family we were going to be." Susan was given a teaching job at the local high school and Karl became the local GP, giving the family immediate links with other characters. In 1995, Rainey Mayo portrayed a teenage Susan in a daydream. In 2009, Woodburne celebrated fifteen years in the programme. Of her television milestone, Woodburne said, "It seems both bizarre and wonderful to me that I'm coming up to 15 years on the show, even though the world of Neighbours feels instinctive and familiar, I'm still challenged and rewarded by the work." Development Characterisation On her arrival, Susan was described as being "staid" and more open-minded than her husband, Karl. Woodburne told the Soap Show that Susan is a "good mum" who means well. Her children are her number one priority and she overcompensates for her husband's disciplinarian style. This has led to a Holy Soap writer describing Susan as "the mother hen of the street". Network Ten say that Susan is the "heart and soul of Erinsborough", with a good sense of humour and the skills of a ninja. Susan has been through a "rough ride". She has had to cope with Karl's infidelity, a divorce, her second husband dying hours after their wedding, being betrayed by her nephew and revealing that she killed her mother. TV Week said "But, through it all, Susan has often provided a home for people in trouble, including a number of the Timmins kids and the kids of her dead husband." This has made her one of the most "enigmatic and appealing characters" within the show. In 2004, Susan's appearance changed and she was seen having her long hair cut when she wanted a fresh start following a split from Karl. Woodburne has revealed that there is no chance of Susan growing her long hair back. She said "I could never grow it long again. I love the ease of having short hair. Back when it was long, I used to wash and dry my hair every morning at home before going into work. That added an extra half-hour to my day". She also added that the Neighbours' bosses at the time believed that women should have long hair. In April 2012, Susan debuted "a stylish new haircut" representing her single status. Woodburne has said she never gets bored of playing Susan as she changes all the time. She added "One of the upsides of this job is that in a week you might be doing absolute slapstick comedy, you might be doing high drama/tragedy and in between maybe some nice subtle interesting stuff as well, the character keeps changing and evolving depending on who she is interacting with". Woodburne has said that her favourite storyline has been the Susan, Karl and Izzy love triangle. As Susan is normally a good person, it gave her a chance to have a character (Izzy) that she could hate. Woodburne added "It was good to play those much meaner, darker, angrier, cruel moments than always to be the kind character. It was good to see those dents in her armour I think". Towards the end of 2009, a change occurred in Susan's personality. During the surrogacy storyline, viewers saw Susan become the "mother-in-law from hell". Woodburne said that it was challenging trying to change the character of Susan. During clashes with her son-in-law Daniel Fitzgerald (Brett Tucker), Susan was seen becoming controlling and bossy. Woodburne said "As the story progressed it became apparent that we were going to have to go to the extremes of the less attractive qualities of our characters. We talked about it and decided to go for it – he would be the overbearing husband and Susan the mother-in-law from hell". Woodburne added that Susan is acting out of love for her daughter and for Libby's desire to have a child. In July 2011, Woodburne told a writer for Channel 5 that she still found the role of Susan challenging. She explained that she likes Susan because she adapts well and takes all the things that happen to her in her stride. Woodburne said Karl and Susan are now less naive and exuberant due to the things they have gone through. When asked what the future holds for her character, Woodburne stated "You know, I'm kind of with Susan. I like the Kennedy house when it's full of noisy kids, being naughty and creating havoc. I like it loud and messy. So that would be my hope, that we get a bit of that happening again." Marriage to Karl Kennedy Susan and Karl were childhood sweethearts who married in 1978, before they both graduated from university. Karl has cheated on Susan with Sarah Beaumont (Nicola Charles), and left her for Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte). The couple have broken up and divorced, but have later reunited and remarried. Woodburne has named the Karl, Susan and Izzy love triangle as one of her favourite storylines. Woodburne believes that Karl and Susan have a strong connection that is "based upon such a good grounding". Karl and Susan are best friends who enjoy each other's company, share a deep connection and take joy in each other's quirks and ways. Woodburne described them as having a "really solid foundation for a marriage" and she has said that she does not want to see Susan and Karl's relationship break up again. Holy Soap have called Susan and Karl "contenders for the friskiest couple on Ramsay Street". Following their "passionate arguments", the couple enjoy making up together. They have a healthy attraction for each other. Fletcher says he and Woodburne find the scenes "funny". Fletcher said "Karl and Susan every now and again do go through a phase where they become slightly more amorous than in their tougher times and tougher storylines – suffice to say it's not bawdy, but I think the audience will enjoy the fun aspect". Karl and Susan have been caught in the nude together on three occasions; at the beach, in Lou Carpenter's (Tom Oliver) spa and when they went skinny-dipping in the bush. When asked what makes Karl and Susan popular with viewers, Woodburne said "Because I think they're so flawed. There's two things: they make horrendous mistakes, both of them, but they both are coming from a place of well meaning. They're both wanting to try and do the right thing and be helpful, but so often they get it so terribly wrong, and I think we can all relate to that." In May 2011, it was revealed that Susan and Karl's marriage would be run into trouble, when Susan becomes emotionally involved with another man. Susan strikes up a friendship with local builder, Jim Dolan (Scott Parmeter), as he fights cancer, causing problems between herself and Karl. When asked by Channel 5 about her reaction to the storyline, Woodburne said "I think it's a great story. Karl and Susan are both in their 50s; they've been married together; they've raised a bunch of kids; they’ve had careers and jobs. And to use the popular term 'empty nesters', that's what they’re looking at. For him he thinks, 'That's great, terrific! More time for us; we can travel.' But for her it's, 'Well, I don't know how to be that person. I know how to be this person, who's someone who's wrangling kids and busy doing things.' But her challenge I think is going to be to find out who she is as one half of a couple, as opposed to being the hub of a wheel." The actress revealed she and Fletcher were both worried about Susan and Karl breaking up and having to work with new people, but they believe any new development for the characters is good. Woodburne told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that she thought the new storyline was great and said any relationship which has been going for as long as the Kennedys' has, will have its "turbulent patches". Woodburne said Susan develops a very strong attachment to Jim because of her desire to help and be needed. When asked if she was worried about revisiting old ground with the storyline, Woodburne said the new conflict, which arises within Karl and Susan's relationship, is "very appropriate" for the time of their lives and where they are at. Susan meets Jim at the hospital and remembers him from the work he did on Lyn Scully's (Janet Andrewartha) house. They get talking and Jim reveals he just had a melanoma removed and he is a bit "bewildered" by the hospital process and Susan helps him out. Jim's condition grows worse and he is diagnosed with terminal cancer. Susan learns he has no family and Woodburne said she instinctively wants to look after him. The actress said Susan crosses boundaries as she starts to neglect certain areas of her life, like her marriage. She tells Karl not to be selfish and that the situation is not about him or her, it is about Jim. Woodburne explained to Channel 5 that Karl's reaction to Susan's friendship with Jim changes and he starts thinking he should not be selfish. However, when he notices his wife becoming more involved with Jim and neglecting her responsibilities, Karl gets angry as she is not thinking about anything else. Susan and Karl's eldest son, Malcolm, returns to Erinsborough to help his parents work through their issues. Woodburne thought Malcolm was initially on Susan's side because he can see she is helping someone who is ill, but as he looks more closely he understands why his father is so upset with Susan's behavior. Susan is upset when she misses Jim's last moments and blames Karl. They begin rowing, which becomes worse due to Susan's grief. Susan Hill of the Daily Star revealed Karl and Susan were to separate following a make-or-break holiday. Their decision leaves Malcolm devastated and he takes his anger out on his mother, but Karl then admits it was his decision to end the marriage. Woodburne said the Jim Dolan plot was "a tremendous story which highlighted problems with Susan and Karl's marriage." The actress said the storyline was challenging to play because it was emotional and she had to slap Fletcher. Of Susan's future, Woodburne said "2012 will be a huge year of adjustment for Susan. She is now single and moves into an apartment of her own – and she has to find her own way. She discovers things about herself that will surprise people." Other relationships Following Karl's affair with Sarah, Susan goes out to dinner with Martin Chester (Gil Tucker), a former boyfriend and member of Karl's university band. Woodburne told Annette Dasey of Inside Soap that Karl knows Martin is taking Susan to dinner and he does not think she would be capable of any "misconduct" with him. The actress explained "Susan is very attracted to Martin, but she wouldn't be aware of it if her marriage was more solid and she wasn't feeling so unloved." Woodburne stated that Susan is tempted to have a fling, but she ultimately decides that she wants to save her marriage. Despite Karl's affair, she still loves him and they need to work through their problems. Woodburne was good friends with Tucker as they previously worked together on Cop Shop. In 2004, Susan became involved with Tom Scully (Andrew Larkins), a Priest. Susan and Tom caused a scandal when they began a relationship. Television critic Andrew Mercado said that 2004 went down as "a watershed year for controversy" after Susan had sex with Tom. Woodburne told Jackie Brygel from TV Week that it was a "very hot affair". Tom left the priesthood for Susan and she confessed her love for him. However, the relationship soon ended. Woodburne commented "It becomes apparent to both of them that it is just not meant to be. They both reach a period in their life when they are feeling low and lonely and aren't feeling very good about themselves. They just realise that there is no future." Tom returned in 2007 and he became Principal of Erinsborough High. He told Susan that he never stopped loving her and wanted her back. However, by then she was back with Karl. Susan has a fling with Bobby Hoyland (Andrew McFarlane) in early 2005. Bobby turns out to be a womaniser after beginning relationships with both Janelle Timmins (Nell Feeney) and Lyn Scully. Fergus Shiel of The Age said Bobby provided an outlet for Janelle, Susan and Lyn's "extramarital desires." The women later get revenge on Bobby. That same year saw Susan meet widower Alex Kinski (Andrew Clarke) and his children. Alex and Susan soon begin a relationship. When Alex is diagnosed with terminal cancer, he and Susan marry, and he dies shortly after. Susan then takes custody of his children. In 2008, Susan joined the Erinsborough News and became a journalist. She began working for Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis). Susan and Paul are enemies, but they have a "grudging respect or interest in each other". Paul has a shady past and Karl does not trust Paul, so Susan uses her new job to wind Karl up. Susan works closely with Paul and his reputation with the ladies gives Woodburne the opportunity to bring Susan's sadistic side. Woodburne has said that she wishes for more of that storyline as she and Dennis found it "fun". She added that "There was a lot of conflict and comedy and it kind of ran its natural course over several weeks. She still works there so the potential for further stories is still there." Following her split from Karl in 2012, Susan meets yoga teacher Bernard Cabello (Bruce Alexander) at a gym class. Bernard asks her out for a drink, but Susan turns him down. Susan Hill of the Daily Star said Susan then realises that she needs to start living again and changes her mind. Susan and Bernard's date coincides with Karl's first gig with his new band and a show spokesperson explained "Susan has already agreed to be at the gig for moral support and doesn't think twice about taking Bernard along with her. But Karl is mortified. He's nervous about the gig so having Susan there on a date makes it even worse for him." Retrograde amnesia In 2002, Susan developed retrograde amnesia. The storyline saw Susan slip on some spilt milk and sustain a minor head injury. After she goes to sleep, she wakes up and has lost three decades of her life. Woodburne told Inside Soap's Jason Herbison that Susan believes the year is 1972 and the night before was her sixteenth birthday, where she drank too much champagne. She does not recognise her house and thinks she passed out and ended up somewhere else. Susan's family take her to the hospital, where she is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia. Karl becomes determined to tell her the truth about her condition, while her nephew, Darcy (Mark Raffety), insists they treat her "with kid gloves." Woodburne revealed "Susan keeps asking when she's going to be allowed home to see her parents, and eventually Karl breaks the news - her parents are long dead and she's actually 45, not 16 as she believes. And on top of that, Karl is her husband!" Susan turns to her daughter Libby – who she believes is her sister Carmel (Kirsty Child) – for comfort. But when Libby confirms what Karl has told her, Susan leaves the hospital. Susan spots some students in Seventies clothes and she follows them to a Seventies themed party at Erinsborough High. However, the students recognise Susan as their principal, which distresses her. Susan ends up in the bathroom and she sees herself in the mirror for the first time since the accident, and is shocked to see a middle-aged woman staring back at her. As she struggles with her condition, doctors suggest to Karl that going back to familiar surroundings may trigger the return of her memories. Susan is brought to Ramsay Street, but nothing happens. Woodburne stated that Susan hates her hair and her clothes and wants to change everything. Karl takes her to Lyn Scully's salon and manages to persuade her to have her hair styled rather than cut short. While she is at the salon, Susan remembers her high school sweetheart, Craig Benson (Tim Hughes), and decides to find him. Woodburne told Herbison "As far as she's concerned, Craig is her boyfriend and they're in love. So she looks him up in the phone book and sets off to find him." Woodburne added that there was a danger the storyline could cross a line and become silly, but the crew tried to portray the fear a person would feel when everything is suddenly unfamiliar. Susan falls in love with Karl and her memories return during their vow renewal service. During a 2012 interview, Woodburne told a What's on TV reporter that she and the writers initially joked about the storyline, but they found some truth in it. She explained "It was actually based on a story of a woman who lived in England. The same thing happened to her. She fell over in a supermarket. Between leaving the supermarket and getting home, she'd lost 30 years. I don't think she recovered. She had a husband and grown-up children and she had no idea who they were. Imagine the terror and the fear of being surrounded by these people who tell you that they are your family. But you feel nothing." Multiple sclerosis Susan was diagnosed with Multiple sclerosis in 2007. Two years prior, MS Australia pitched a storyline to the Neighbours team asking for a character to be diagnosed with MS and for them to then show the impact MS can have on a community. The society contacted a producer and discussed a possible storyline for a young character in her twenties who had a promising career and family ahead of her. In 2006, the society received a phone call from one of the writers who revealed that they had chosen to write an MS story into the show and they had selected Susan Kennedy to be the character that was going to be diagnosed. The society was initially disappointed, as Susan was older than the typical person diagnosed with the condition. However, they were pleased that a permanent character and not an extra was chosen. MS Australia attended a meeting with the Neighbours writers to help develop a realistic and true portrayal of the diagnosis, symptoms and treatments. On-screen Susan was seen displaying unusual symptoms, including black outs and loss of sight and sensation in her hands. She was then seen undergoing an MRI scan, before she was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. Woodburne was initially against Susan developing the condition, but when she started researching it, she realised how much of a challenge the storyline would be and she changed her mind. The actress and the shows writers worked closely with the MS Society to make the storyline as realistic as possible and it was praised by both the society and viewers who have the condition. Jenna Litchfield of the MS Society said soap opera storylines in which characters are diagnosed with MS helped to highlight the condition and its effects. She added that the storyline had "sparked interest." Of the storyline, Woodburne stated "It's a massive story and to take a character that has always been so strong and to challenge them physically and emotionally was terrific. I know that the writing department did an enormous amount of research." Woodburne also explained that as Susan is such a strong person mentally, she goes through an emotional struggle when her body lets her down. Woodburne commented that she found the scenes distressing to play as she is so attached to her character. She told a writer for Inside Soap that it was a difficult storyline, but "ultimately rewarding". On screen, Susan learnt how to keep her symptoms under control and Woodburne said she would occasionally have a relapse, as the condition does not go away. In 2011, Woodburne commented on the MS storyline, which she enjoyed, saying it was very challenging to tell a good story and make it authentic and real for people who have the condition. In April 2012, Susan starts to struggle with her MS again, following her split from Karl and her promotion to editor of the Erinsborough News. Jackie Brygel of TV Week said Susan has a lot to prove with Paul breathing down her neck, but her new role puts her health in jeopardy when she begins displaying signs of an MS relapse. Woodburne explained "She's working 24 hours a day to try to get the paper to take on a different form and is running herself into the ground. She's unable to stop the trembling in her hand, is quite dizzy and her vision becomes blurred - all indications of an MS relapse, which would be her worst nightmare." Susan Hill of the Daily Star reported Susan refuses to turn to Karl, who always helped her with an episode, and instead she relies on help from Rhys Lawson (Ben Barber). Woodburne revealed Karl asks Susan to slow down, but she ignores him. The actress said Karl is looking at the situation from the perspective of an ex-husband who has feelings for her, but also as a doctor. Susan finds herself unable to do the housework, but Rhys understands that she wants to keep her independence. A spokesperson told Hill "She always knew it was going to be hard living alone but Karl is the last person she wants to turn to. She doesn't want to admit she needs him but she does. In the end she confides in Dr Rhys." Surrogacy In 2009, Susan was seen offering to become a surrogate for her daughter Libby. Following a fight with the hospital board, Susan became pregnant. However, this causes friction with her son-in-law. Following a fall, Susan loses the baby. Woodburne called the scenes "difficult" to film. Alan Fletcher said the storyline "could have been dreadful in the wrong hands", but he was pleased at the way the scenes were handled. He added "The notion of a mother being a surrogate for their daughter is something you can't pretend is not controversial. The writers embraced that and showed how Susan's decision divided the community, and has potential to divide the family". Neighbours' timeslot presented difficulties for the storyline. The writers were forced to tone the plot down to comply with guidelines. Woodburne said "Because of the time of day that our show is on—it's on at 6.30 here and day time in the UK—obviously doing something as controversial as surrogacy at that time slot we would be so restricted by censorship". The storyline received mixed reactions from viewers. Woodburne said that people believe Susan is "such a good mother and it's awesome she's prepared to do this for Libby and Dan". Other viewers have said that Susan should not have got involved and that the storyline was ridiculous as Susan is too old. Neighbours executive producer Susan Bower also spoke out about the storyline and said "I've had quite a few letters from people in England who'd heard about it before it was even in the papers in Australia saying they disagree and think it's shocking". Cyber-bullying Following the failed surrogacy, Susan decides to enroll on a media course at Eden Hills University. In June 2010, she begins receiving threats via text messages and emails, telling her to stay away from the university. She is later followed by an unseen person in a car. Susan later spots the car outside her house and she is very frightened. The cyber bully brings up some of Susan's personal issues within their threats and this make her feel vulnerable. They also make places that Susan has previously felt safe in, feel unsafe. Of this Woodburne said "To feel so vulnerable in your own neighbourhood would be just awful. I think I would be equally frightened". As Susan has multiple sclerosis, the stress has a big impact upon her health. Woodburne said that Susan is usually a very strong person mentally, but she feels out of control because the situation is distressing her. She becomes a victim. Susan tries to stand up to the bully and refuses to stay away from the university. However, when she arrives for her lesson, she receives another threatening message. This terrifies her and she locks herself in the toilets. Eventually Susan learns her tutor, John Bradley (Laurence Brewer), is behind the threats. Susan had trusted John, so she is shocked to find that he is her bully. Of Susan's discovery, Woodburne said "It's so unexpected because it's somebody she believed to be of great integrity and someone who she thought was on her side". John, who is described as a "seriously unhinged individual", kidnaps Susan when she confronts him. He holds her captive and becomes very angry. He confesses to Susan that he is behind the threats. He tells her that in 1995, when Susan was a teacher at Erinsborough High, she gave him a bad report and he failed his teaching course. Susan is compassionate, but she does not let him get away with his crime and he is arrested. By standing up to him, Susan loses her anxiety. Storylines When Susan's husband, Karl, is suspected of causing the death of a patient, he decides to move their family to Erinsborough for a fresh start. As Susan settles into Ramsay Street, she hopes to get back into teaching. Susan gets involved in the drama society and works at the Coffee Shop for Annalise Hartman (Kimberley Davies). Karl wants to have another child, but Susan is opposed to the idea. She later decides that she wants to return to teaching and is given a job at Erinsborough High. Susan chaperones Brett Stark (Brett Blewitt) on a trip to South Africa and she confesses to him that she helped her mother to die. Susan invites Billy's best friend, Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) to move in and he becomes a surrogate son after Malcolm leaves. Susan is offered the position of principal at a school in Wangaratta and she accepts, knowing that she will have to leave her family. After a few months, Susan is offered the job of principal at Erinsborough High. While Susan is away, Karl kisses his receptionist, Sarah Beaumont (Nicola Charles). Susan learns the truth about the kiss several months later from Billy and she confronts Karl. He admits to the kiss and Susan slaps him; she then throws him out. It takes months before Susan forgives Karl, but they work on trying to save their marriage by attending counselling. Susan and Libby befriend new neighbours Lyn and Stephanie Scully (Carla Bonner). Libby is involved in a motorbike accident that leaves her with a small chance of carrying a baby to full term. Susan and Karl break the news to her. Libby later falls pregnant and gives birth to Susan and Karl's first grandchild, Ben (Noah Sutherland). Susan almost loses her job as principal when a student reports her for assault; however, the case is later dropped. Susan's nephew Darcy Tyler becomes partner in Karl's surgery and plots to sell the business to a clinic chain. Darcy tells Karl and Susan what he is doing, and Susan is furious with her nephew. Susan's sister, Liz (Christine Keogh), leaves her daughter Elly (Kendell Nunn) with the Kennedys for a brief time; Elly later joins her mother in Sweden. Susan slips on some spilt milk and wakes up with retrograde amnesia. She loses thirty years of her memory and believes she is sixteen and the year is 1972. Susan goes through months of counselling to try and regain her memory. During this time, she tells Karl that she does not like him and she goes missing when she tries to find an old boyfriend. Susan begins having flashbacks and starts to regain her memory. Libby's husband Drew Kirk (Dan Paris) dies and Susan finds it hard to comfort her daughter. Susan grows closer to Karl and he asks her to renew their vows. During the ceremony, Susan's memory returns. Karl tells Susan that he no longer loves her after his drinking puts their marriage under strain. They separate, and Karl begins a relationship with Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte). Susan begins dating again and she falls for Lyn's brother-in-law, Tom Scully, a Catholic priest. Lyn and Libby are unhappy about the relationship and it eventually ends. Karl and Susan divorce, but they remain friends. Susan begins a relationship with Alex Kinski (Andrew Clarke) after he enrolls his children Rachel (Caitlin Stasey) and Zeke (Matthew Werkmeister) at Erinsborough High. Alex is diagnosed with Lymphoma and he asks Susan to marry him; she accepts. Alex's condition deteriorates and they decide to marry right away. The marriage is witnessed by Karl, Rachel, Zeke, and Alex's older daughter, Katya (Dichen Lachman). Alex passes away shortly after. Susan begins to fall for Karl again and she declares her love for him. They get back together in secret, but Rachel and Zeke find out the truth and believe that Susan did not love their father. They later give Karl and Susan their blessings. While Susan and Karl are on holiday in London, Karl proposes for a third time. Susan immediately accepts and they remarry on a boat on the Thames. The ceremony is interrupted when Izzy goes into labour and Karl delivers her daughter, Holly (Chaya Broadmore). Susan discovers that Karl is Holly's father and she tells him when they get back home. During a period of ill health, Susan hits Bridget Parker (Eloise Mignon) with her car after passing out. Susan is unaware that she has struck Bridget and she leaves the scene. When she realises that she is responsible, Susan confesses and it causes a bitter feud between the Kennedys and the Parkers. However, during Susan's trial, Bridget remembers falling into the path of the car and that the collision was unavoidable. Soon afterwards, following a series of incorrect diagnoses, Susan is diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. Susan is shocked and scared, and Karl and Libby try to help her. Susan collapses at Toadie and Steph's wedding rehearsal and she goes to a multiple sclerosis retreat for professional help. Susan takes sick leave from the school and becomes a journalist for the Erinsborough News. After Libby is told she cannot have any more children, she and Dan decide to try surrogacy. Susan offers to be their surrogate, despite Karl's objections. Paul Robinson finds out about the surrogacy and writes a newspaper article about it, without knowing the identity of the family involved. When he finds out that Susan is the surrogate, he makes it public. The family face abuse and the hospital board decide to end the programme. Libby and Dan protest against the decision and Susan tries blackmailing a senior board member. The board change their minds and Susan becomes pregnant. Dan finds it hard to relate to Susan and begins to question her part in his and Libby's lives. Karl books a holiday for them all to get away and talk. Dan and Susan argue about where the baby will be brought up and Dan says that he regrets agreeing to the surrogacy. When Dan goes for a walk, Susan follows him and they continue to argue. Dan walks away and Susan tries running after him, but she trips and falls. She calls out, but Dan does not hear her and he walks off. Libby and Karl find Susan and rush her to the hospital, where Susan miscarries. Susan attends the memorial for Libby and Dan's baby and during Dan's speech, she lashes out at him. As everyone leaves the park, Susan collapses and reveals that she cannot feel her legs. Susan has an MS relapse, but she recovers. Susan and Karl take up golf, and Susan also enrols in a media course at Eden Hills University. She begins receiving threats, which tell her to leave the university. Susan is deeply upset by the threats and her family worry that the stress will lead to an MS relapse. Susan discovers her tutor, John Bradley, is behind the threats. When Susan asks John why he threatened her, he tells her she gave him a bad mark when he was a student teacher. Susan supports Libby when she learns that Steph had sex with Dan, and is carrying his child. Susan is angry with Toadie when she discovers he helped Steph cover up the lie. When Paul is pushed off the Lassiter's Hotel mezzanine, Susan begins investigating who is responsible, and makes Diana Marshall (Jane Badler) her prime suspect. Susan then receives text messages from an anonymous person, telling her that Diana was not the one who pushed Paul. Rebecca confesses to Susan that she pushed Paul and Kate Ramsay (Ashleigh Brewer) gave her a false alibi. Susan persuades Kate to go to the police. Susan is devastated when Ringo dies and she feels guilty because she was taking care of him for Prue (Penny Cook), Ringo's mother. When Lyn leaves town, Susan invites Summer Hoyland (Jordy Lucas) to stay. Karl tells Susan that he thinks they are heading in different directions and he worries that he is not enough for her. They make up and plan a holiday together. Susan meets Jim Dolan at the hospital and she asks him to talk about the Patient Advocacy Program for a news article. Jim reveals that he has cancer and Susan supports him during his treatments. Malcolm comes to visit his parents and detects all is not well between them. Susan becomes worried when Jim does not answer her calls and Karl confesses that he asked Jim to keep his distance, which angers Susan. She accuses Karl of being jealous. Karl invites Jim over for lunch and he notices the map and leaflets for Peru. Jim works out Susan is delaying the holiday for him. He then collapses and Susan begs Karl to save him. Susan comforts Jim when he realises he is going to die and she tries to take him out of the hospital, so they can visit his childhood home, as promised. Karl stops her and when they step outside to talk, Jim dies. Susan is devastated and blames Karl for keeping her from Jim. She then leaves to arrange Jim's funeral. On her return, Susan and Karl announce that they are separating. Malcolm initially blames Susan for the split, but Karl confesses it was his idea. Karl tells Susan that he cannot be just friends with her and he looks for somewhere else to live. Susan starts a book group with Kate and Sonya Mitchell (Eve Morey). Susan suspects Karl is having an affair with Jade Mitchell (Gemma Pranita), but is disappointed to learn that it was Malcolm. Karl and Susan get stuck in a storage shed and they reminisce about their past. They share a kiss goodbye and Susan goes to stay with Toadie and Sonya. Susan notices Audrey is not herself and she and Karl learn Audrey is dying. They care for her before she is put to sleep. When Karl goes to bury Audrey in the garden, Susan stops him and says she wants Audrey to be buried somewhere that she can visit often. They argue, but put aside their differences when Audrey's body, which was placed in an esky, is collected by a hard rubbish collector. Karl rescues the esky and he and Susan bury Audrey at Sonya's nursery. Susan soon finds an apartment to move into. Susan accompanies Karl to the funeral of an old friend and they share a drink together. Paul asks Susan to write a negative article about Ajay Kapoor (Sachin Joab) and the community centre plans, but she refuses. She later discovers Paul sabotaged Natasha Williams's (Valentina Novakovic) party by inviting gatecrashers to it, so he could continue his vendetta against Ajay and the police station merger. Susan tells Paul to publish a retraction or she will write an exposé. Paul blackmails Susan into keeping quiet by threatening to fire Summer. However, Summer finds out what Paul has done and Susan reveals the truth in front of council members and the press. Paul stands down as editor and gives the job to Susan. Susan fires an employee when she discovers they have been spying for Paul and she takes on extra work. Karl expresses his concern for her health, but Susan reassures him she is fine. However, she has a relapse and is treated by Rhys. Susan attends a yoga class and befriends the teacher, Bernard Cabello. Bernard asks Susan out for a drink, but she declines. However, she changes her mind and asks Bernard to dinner instead. Susan invites Bernard to go and see Karl's band play at Charlie's. At the end of the night, Bernard shocks Susan by suddenly kissing her. Susan then tries to avoid Bernard and Vanessa Villante (Alin Sumarwata) tells him that Susan is not interested in dating him. Susan befriends Rhys's mother, Elaine (Sancia Robinson), but Rhys angrily tells Susan to stay away from Elaine. He later apologises. Susan goes to Montreal for a course, but returns home early to discover that Paul was planning to take back his job as editor. Susan hires Bradley Fox (Aaron Jeffery) as deputy editor to take on some of her workload. She also begins attending a pole dancing class at the community centre. Susan becomes concerned when Bradley and Summer start dating, especially when they use the newspaper office for a late night hook-up. Susan checks Bradley's references and discovers that he has lied. She also learns that he was fired from his last job for dating his boss' daughter. Susan briefly falls out with Summer when she tries to warn her about Bradley. Susan's sister, Carmel, comes to visit and she develops feelings for Karl. Carmel makes sexual advances towards Karl, which he rejects. Susan is angry with Carmel, but eventually forgives her. Susan is shocked when she learns Paul has sold the Erinsborough News, without consulting her. Things become worse for Susan when she learns that Sarah Beaumont is overseeing the sale of the paper. Sarah apologises to Susan for everything that happened in the past, but Susan struggles to deal with her presence. When Karl tells her that he loves her, Susan rejects him. She later hands him divorce papers and confronts Sarah. Karl admits to Susan that he and Sarah had sex all those years ago and she tells him that she already knew in her heart, Karl then signs the divorce papers. Susan realises that she does not want to get divorced and hurries to find Karl, before he can lodge the papers. Susan tracks him down and they forgive each other for their past mistakes, before kissing in the street. Susan then moves back into Number 28. After Priya is suspended from her job as principal of Erinsborough High, Susan is offered the job. She initially decides not to tell Priya about the offer, which causes them to briefly fall out. Susan helps Priya to get her job back by blackmailing Brian O'Loughlin (Paul Denny) into withdrawing his false accusations of harassment against her. Following Priya's death, Susan is again offered her job as principal and she accepts. Karl's daughter, Holly (Lucinda Armstrong Hall) comes to stay, while Izzy goes on a cruise with her new partner. Holly is initially rude to Susan, who becomes exasperated when Karl refuses to see that she is running rings around them. However, they later realise that Holly's issues are due to Izzy's abandonment of her. Karl asks Holly to stay with him and Susan, but Susan senses that Holly misses her mother and Karl takes her back to England. When Susan suspects that Imogen Willis (Ariel Kaplan) might have an eating disorder, she raises the issue with Imogen's mother, Terese (Rebekah Elmaloglou), who dismisses her suspicions. Susan reopens the PirateNet radio station for the students, after Jack Lassiter (Alan Hopgood) donates money to the school. Susan has doubts about employing Gemma Reeves (Kathryn Beck), but Toadie persuades her to give his cousin a chance. Susan and Karl allow Rhiannon (Teressa Liane) and Jackson Bates (Finn Woodlock) to stay with them and Susan tries to help Rhiannon better herself. Susan has a relapse, but hides it from Karl as he is preoccupied by the local mayoral election. Susan confides in Kate instead. As the election heats up, Paul discovers Susan's MS relapse and reveals it to everyone, including Karl, during his campaign announcement, leaving Karl upset to why she did not confide in him. They soon make up, and Susan recovers from her relapse to support Karl through the election; however, Paul ultimately beats him to becoming mayor. When Georgia Brooks (Saskia Hampele) discovers she is pregnant, Susan supports her as she decides not to confide in her family and the baby's father Kyle Canning (Chris Milligan). Zeke returns for a visit and he reveals that he is getting married. After the wedding, Susan decides to become a marriage celebrant. Following Kate's death, Susan, at Imogen's suggestion, organises a celebration of Kate's life at Lassiter's Lake. A grieving Paul forbids this and the memorial is held at the high school instead. Susan comforts Paul when he breaks down. Susan performs the vow renewal of Matt (Josef Brown) and Lauren Turner (Kate Kendall). Susan brings Holly back to Erinsborough for a visit to surprise Karl. Libby and Ben (now Felix Mallard) also return. When Susan falls ill, she asks Libby to become acting principal. Libby later realises that Karl and Susan have been trying to trick her into staying in Erinsborough, and they apologise. Susan reads an erotic novel written by "E. M. Williams", who has obvious knowledge of Ramsay Street. She discovers that Karl penned the book. Alex's nephew, Nate (Meyne Wyatt), moves in with Susan and Karl. Susan gets Nate to open up to her about his time in the army. When a tornado hits Erinsborough, Susan waits it out in Harold's Store with Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver). When the roof collapses, Lou is trapped by a beam and he chokes on a piece of food. Guided by Karl over the phone, Susan performs an emergency tracheotomy on Lou. He makes a full recovery, but Susan is traumatised by the event and Nate helps counsel her through post-traumatic stress. Malcolm visits his parents and informs them that Catherine is pregnant. He asks Susan and Karl to relocate to England and help him and Catherine out with the baby. Susan and Karl reminisce about their time on Ramsay Street and they decide to stay. Susan counsels Nate through his PTS, but she is affected by Nate's stories and becomes depressed herself. She seeks professional counselling at the hospital and tries to find Nate a qualified counsellor. She notices that Nate's progress has suffered and follows him out to the bush when he acts strangely. She falls in a hole he is digging as therapy and he nearly buries her alive, but sees her in time and rescues her. Susan falls out with Brad Willis (Kip Gamblin) when Karl accidentally drinks a chemical catalyst Brad was using in the Men's Shed. She questions Brad's commitment to teaching. Susan and Sheila are named judges for the Erinsborough Festival Bake-Off, but decide to enter the competition instead. They compete against Janelle Timmins (Nell Feeney), but after their bakes fall to the floor, Karl is declared the winner. After Karl learns Susan has a secret bank account, which contains her mad money, she dares him to spend big and he buys into the Off Air bar. Susan is asked to act as a marriage celebrant for Coco Lee (Sophie Cheeseman), but she soon learns from Nate that Coco's fiancé, Alistair Hall (Nick Cain), kissed him. Susan refuses to perform the ceremony and Alistair makes a complaint against her, as he believes Susan told Coco about the kiss. He later drops the complaint. Karl and Susan take in Tyler Brennan (Travis Burns), while Ben comes to stay when Libby goes overseas for work. Susan supports Terese when she and Brad separate due to his affair with Lauren. They briefly fall out when Terese asks Susan to pick a side. Paul informs Susan that Erinsborough High and its grounds are being sold to Eden Hills Grammar. She later learns that she will not be kept on as principal and contemplates retirement. She and Brad then team up to save the school, organising a sleep-out in protest to the council's plans. A fire breaks out, trapping Susan with a heavily pregnant Amber Turner (Jenna Rosenow), who goes into labour. They are eventually rescued by the fire fighters. After seeing how upset Susan is about the school, Ben confesses to starting the fire. Susan later learns that the school has been saved. Susan hires Finn Kelly (Rob Mills), following Brad's departure. Susan learns that Elly and Finn used to date. Susan collapses and is taken to hospital, where it is discovered that she has a high level of opiates in her system. It emerges that her vitamins have been swapped and Elly suspects that Finn was responsible. Finn is appointed acting principal while Susan recovers. When Finn's crimes are exposed, including the vitamin swap, Susan ignores her MS symptoms to return to the school to undo everything Finn implemented. Susan has a relapse and falls in the school yard. Karl persuades her to take sick leave and go to a retreat in Thailand. When they return, Susan is angry with Karl and later reveals that he tried to bring seeds and a Durian into the country, but was stopped at customs because of the smell, which he blamed on her soiling herself. Susan and Dipi Rebecchi (Sharon Johal) become suspicious of their husbands' appointments with Courtney Grixti (Emma Lane), and suspect they are paying for sex, but Susan learns that Karl is getting a massage and emotional therapy. Susan has to expel Ben, after he takes the blame for a school prank, which Yashvi Rebecchi (Olivia Junkeer) carried out. Susan accidentally strikes Izzy with her car upon Izzy and Holly's return to Erinsborough. Izzy explains that she has been left a large amount of money by her late husband, and offers to fund a new hospital wing on Karl's behalf. She then asks Karl to father another child with her, which he briefly considers. Susan admits to Elly that Karl could be tempted by the chance of having another child, but she hopes he will put their marriage first. Karl turns down Izzy's request, so she steals his sperm from the hospital. After a negative pregnancy test, and a failed attempt at seducing Karl, Izzy leaves Holly with the Kennedys as she departs. Holly is later accepted on an exchange program to China, and Karl thinks Susan organised it to punish him. When Karl cuts himself, he tells Susan that he has to get to the hospital, as he is on blood thinners for DVT. While attending Erinsborough High's leadership camp, Susan and Kirsha Rebecchi (Vani Dhir) become lost in the bush after they lose their group during a walk. They spend the night in the bush and are eventually rescued, but Karl has a pulmonary embolism while looking for them and is rushed to hospital. Susan is told to prepare for the worst, but Karl recovers. Susan's niece Bea Nilsson (Bonnie Anderson) comes to Erinsborough. Susan is accepted onto an MS drug trial, which Karl is overseeing, but the trial is soon shut down when some of his results from other projects appear to have been amended. Elly is accused of hitting Xanthe Canning (Lilly Van der Meer) with her car, and Karl and Susan pay her police bail. When Yashvi reveals that Bea is eloping with her fiancé, Patrick, Susan and Elly set out to find her, and come face to face with Finn. They discover that he got the MS trial shut down and struck Xanthe with Elly's car. Finn locks the women in a shipping container and leaves them to die. Karl and Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor) eventually find and free them. Bea moves into Number 28 and Susan invites her sister Liz (now played by Debra Lawrance) down to assist with Bea and Elly's issues. Bea believes that Elly wanted her to leave when they were teenagers, forcing her to spend some years on the streets. Liz admits that it was her who wanted Bea gone, as she reminded her too much of Bea's father. Liz and Susan's relationship is also strained. After pretending that she was robbed by Finn, Liz decides to returns to Sydney and Susan goes with her to help out. Karl and Susan attempt to find Karl's half-sister Jemima Davies-Smythe (Magda Szubanski), but have no luck. Upon returning to Erinsborough for Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) and David Tanaka's (Takaya Honda) wedding, Susan learns that a miscommunication means she has been replaced as their celebrant. The replacement turns out to be Karl's sister Jemima, who he invites to stay with them. Susan believes Jemima is a gold digger, leading to conflict between them. When Jemima attempts to redecorate the house, Susan asks her to leave and Jemima admits that she is a millionaire. She offers to support Karl and Susan financially, but they turn down her offer and convince Jemima to reconcile with her children. After learning that Bea has gone to a cabin in the bush to find Finn, Susan, Elly and Xanthe set out to find her. They are all confronted by Finn, who is pushed off a cliff and left in a coma. The women agree to keep what happened a secret, but Susan begins seeing visions of Finn. After learning that he placed hydrogen cyanide canisters in the school with the intention of killing everything at the graduation ceremony, she comes close to smothering him with a pillow. Susan confesses to pushing Finn off the cliff, and is charged with attempted murder. The Department of Education removes Susan from her position at the school, and overturns her decision to appoint Elly as acting principal. Jane Harris (Annie Jones) is installed in her place. Susan is later cleared of her attempted murder charges. When Malcolm returns in 2022, Susan is stunned to see that he is now dating Izzy. Susan refuses to accept their relationship, so Malcolm chooses Izzy over her mother. However, when Izzy cheats on Malcolm, they break up and Izzy apologises to the Kennedys, explaining that she returned to get their acceptance, so she could be redeemed. Susan reluctantly accepts her apology. Susan is later stunned to learn that every other person on Ramsay Street is selling their houses. However, one by one, her neighbours decide to stay on the street and Susan afficiates at Toadie's wedding, then attends their reception on Ramsay Street. Susan reflects on her time on the street in the Ramsay Street History Book and watches her neighbours with Karl at her side. Reception Accolades Woodburne has earned various award nominations for her role as Susan. In 2005, she was nominated for Best Female Performance in a Soap from the Rose d'Or Awards. At the 2007 Inside Soap Awards, Woodburne was nominated for Best Actress, Best Couple (with Alan Fletcher) and Best Storyline for Susan and Karl's wedding. The following year, Woodburne was again nominated for Best Actress, Best Couple and Best Storyline for Susan's MS diagnosis. 2009 saw Woodburne again nominated for Best Actress, she was also nominated alongside Fletcher, Valentine, Stasey and Werkmeister for Best Family. In 2010, Woodburne received her first nomination for Best Daytime Star at the Inside Soap Awards. She was nominated in the same category in 2011 and 2012, before she won the award in 2015. Woodburne was nominated for Best Daytime Star again at the 2018 awards. At the first Digital Spy Soap Awards ceremony, Woodburne was nominated for Most Popular Actress. She and Fletcher were also nominated for Best On-Screen Partnership and their 2007 storyline in London was nominated for Storyline of the Year. In 2010, the surrogacy storyline was nominated for best Baby Drama at the All About Soap Awards. Woodburne has been nominated for the TV Tonight Award for Most Underrated Performer seven times, and won in 2007, 2011 and 2012. Critical response During a feature on fictional television teachers, Susan was praised by teaching website TES Connect. Along with Will Schuester from American television show Glee, TES said that there are some teachers on television who manage to portray "convincing representations of the highs and lows of the job". They also added "Susan Kennedy from Neighbours manages to be the comforting mother figure as well as coming down hard when necessary". The Times named Susan's amnesia storyline as one of their top 15 most memorable Neighbours moments. They said "She slipped on milk, bumped her head and thought she was 16 again. Her failure to understand why she was living with a family on Ramsay Street lasted nearly a year". Television channel Five's Holy Soap website also named the storyline as Susan's most memorable moment, calling it "classic viewing". In 2022, a reporter from The Scotsman included Susan amnesia story as one of the show's top five moments from its entire history. Kate Randall from Heat included Susan and Karl in the magazine's top ten Neighbours characters of all time feature. Susan and Karl were placed at joint second place on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described her as a "respected principal" who "exudes calm authority". He believed that Susan and Karl were a "dream team" and "the bedrock of Ramsay Street". He assessed that the Kennedy's were a "a solid, dependable family unit" until Karl's affairs. He was also certain that "whatever life throws at them, Karl and Susan will make it." Susan was placed third in a poll ran via soap fansite "Back To The Bay", which asked readers to determine the top ten most popular Neighbours characters. In a feature profiling the "top 12 iconic Neighbours characters", critic Sheena McGinley of the Irish Independent placed Susan at number four in the list. McGinley described her as "long-suffering, dutiful Susan. Soothing Susan." She added that Susan has the "steadfast, wise presence" that will eternally be a prerequisite in society. Lorna White from Yours profiled the magazine's "favourite Neighbours characters of all time". Susan was included in the list and White said it "no surprise she's seen her fair share of storylines" given her longevity. TV Scoop praised Woodburne's performance during the MS storyline. They said, "Susan's real life alter ego, Jackie Woodburne got to show off her excellent acting. As Susan's vision went, and later as she was put into the MRI scanner, Woodburne portrayed real fear and panic". TV Week named Susan as their third "Top Aussie TV Mum". They said "strong-spirited Susan has always doted on her kids, even while putting up with cheating hubby Karl (Alan Fletcher). The modern mum has seen it all, and still comes up smiling. In 2010, Susan was voted the third "Most Popular TV Mum" in a survey carried out by Yahoo!. Susan was placed seventh in a similar survey carried out by Vouchercodes.co.uk, to find "Britain's favourite television mother". They said "viewers identified with love for her family". In April 2010, Sky included Susan in their feature on the twenty-five most memorable Neighbours characters. They stated, "Kindly but strong matriarch Susan may not be the most medically robust woman (amnesia, multiple sclerosis, frequent questionable haircuts), but she gets by thanks to her family. She's so devoted, in fact, that after Malcolm, Billy and Libby (sort of) flew the nest, she went and inherited Zeke and Rachel from second husband Alex. Despite her big heart, she can be counted on to get fierce with anyone who tries to upset the Ramsay Street balance – her frequent fights with Izzy in the middle of the street over Karl cemented her reputation as everyone's favourite soap mum." Alan Fletcher has written a song dedicated to his screen wife titled "I've Got a Crush on Susie K". Bree Hoskin writing for LGBT website Gaydar said the one good thing to come of Izzy's scheming was Susan finally had her hair cut in an attempt to move on with her life. Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap said that Susan and Karl are Neighbours' version of Deirdre and Ken Barlow from Coronation Street. Ellis added that they are bound to get back together in the end. After the Neighbours finale was broadcast, Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy said that Woodburne "stole as the show as Susan Kennedy" and called her "arguably the most beloved of all the current Neighbours stars". Writing for Radio Times, Helen Daly referred to Susan's closing monologue as her "crowning moment". Referring to Susan as the "heart" of Neighbours, Daly described how "beloved Susan held all the values that Erinsborough put on a pedestal. She was kind, thoughtful... everything you'd want your own neighbour to be. If anyone could reflect on the history of the show, it's Susan." Daly further praised the monologue's references to the legacy of Neighbours''' past, the images of deceased characters it introduced, and its apparent homage to UK viewers. References External links Susan Kennedy on the Official AU Neighbours website Susan Kennedy on the Official UK Neighbours'' website Neighbours characters Fictional schoolteachers Fictional principals and headteachers Fictional reporters Television characters introduced in 1994 Fictional newspaper editors Fictional characters with immune system disorders Kennedy family (Neighbours) Female characters in television Fictional characters with amnesia
4895438	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan%20Smith	Milan Smith	Milan Dale Smith Jr. (born May 19, 1942) is an American attorney and jurist serving as a United States circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Smith's brother, Gordon H. Smith, was a Republican U.S. Senator from 1997 to 2009. Milan Smith is neither a Republican nor a Democrat. Early life and education Smith was born in Pendleton, Oregon. He is the son of Milan D. Smith Sr., who served on the staff of Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson. Smith received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Brigham Young University in 1966. Smith attended The University of Chicago Law School on a full-tuition scholarship, from which he graduated in 1969 with a Juris Doctor. Career After law school, Smith became an associate attorney at the Los Angeles firm of O'Melveny & Myers. In 1972, Smith left O'Melveny to co-found his own law firm, Smith & Hilbig, which eventually became Smith, Crane, Robinson & Parker. He was a President-General Counsel of the Los Angeles State Building Authority from 1983 to 2006. Smith was a Vice Chairman of the California Fair Employment and Housing Commission from 1987 to 1991. Federal judicial service Smith was nominated by President George W. Bush on February 14, 2006, to fill a seat vacated by Judge A. Wallace Tashima. He was rated well qualified by the American Bar Association. He was confirmed just over three months later by the United States Senate on May 16, 2006, by a 93–0 vote. He was the fifth judge appointed to the Ninth Circuit by Bush, and the first since Carlos Bea was confirmed in 2003. He received his commission on May 18, 2006. In 2022, Smith told the Deseret News that he has no plans to retire and wishes to "die with my boots on." Notable cases Smith has been one of the Ninth Circuit's most prolific writers. According to one periodical, he authored the most majority opinions of any judge on the Ninth Circuit in the three-year period ending on May 10, 2013. Constitutional law First Amendment Smith wrote the majority opinion, which struck down the Stolen Valor Act of 2005. The panel ruled 2 to 1 that the law violated the First Amendment. "The right to speak and write whatever one chooses—including, to some degree, worthless, offensive and demonstrable untruths—without cowering in fear of a powerful government is, in our view, an essential component of the protection afforded by the First Amendment," Smith wrote in the majority opinion. The U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the judgment in a 6–3 decision. Smith, writing for the majority of an 11-judge en banc panel, concluded that an ordinance of the City of Redondo Beach, California, that barred day laborers from soliciting work from occupants of motor vehicles violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment. Smith, writing for the majority, held that a photojournalist might have a First Amendment right to observe wild horse "gathers"—rounding up and removing excess horses—on federal government land. Quoting both James Madison and the theme song to Mister Ed, the opinion remanded the case back to the district court to analyze the photojournalist's claim under Press-Enterprise Co. v. Superior Court, 464 U.S. 501 (1984), to determine whether horse gathers had historically been open to the press and public, and whether such access plays a significant positive role in the process. Smith, writing for a divided panel, rejected an effort by contributors to California's anti-gay marriage ballot measure, Proposition 8, to shield their identities from disclosure. The opinion rejected a Free Speech Clause challenge to the California requirement that committees report donations made before the election but after the pre-election reporting deadline, and that certain other aspects of the donors' challenges were either moot or not ripe because the information the donors sought to keep confidential had already been published across the internet. Smith, writing for a unanimous panel, concluded that a tattoo artist had standing to bring a facial and an as-applied First Amendment challenge to a city zoning ordinance that restricted the artist's ability to open and operate a tattoo shop. Writing on behalf of a unanimous court, Smith held that a high school football coach spoke as a public employee when he would kneel and pray on the 50-yard line immediately after games, in full school apparel, while in view of students and parents. The coach had a professional responsibility, the court reasoned, to communicate demonstratively to students and spectators, which he used to press his particular views upon observers. Because the coach's demonstrative conduct was made in his capacity as a public employee, the school did not illegally retaliate against him when the school ordered the coach not to speak in the manner that he did. In a special concurrence, Smith noted that the school district's action also was justified in order to avoid violating the Establishment Clause. Certiorari was granted in the case on January 14, 2022. Calvary Chapel Dayton Valley v. Sisolak (9th Cir. 2020). Smith, writing for a unanimous panel, reversed the district court’s denial of Calvary Chapel’s motion to enjoin the enforcement of Nevada’s COVID-19 restrictions on religious worship services. Relying on the recent Supreme Court case, Roman Catholic Diocese v. Cuomo (2020), Smith concluded that Nevada’s disparate treatment of religious worship services triggered strict scrutiny review, and although slowing the spread of COVID-19 was a compelling interest, the restrictions were not narrowly tailored to serve that interest. Tandon v. Newsom (9th Cir. 2021). Smith was a member of a panel hearing a case regarding California's limitation on gatherings to three households due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The plaintiffs, who wished to hold in-person prayer meetings, argued that the California regulation violated their 1st amendment rights to free practice of religion. Smith was a member of the 2-1 majority ruling against the plaintiffs. The Supreme Court reversed 10 days later. Herring Networks v. Maddow (9th Cir. 2021). Smith dismissed a defamation lawsuit against Rachel Maddow. He ruled that Maddow's words that OAN “really literally is paid Russian propaganda" could not amount to defamation and that her speech is protected by the First Amendment. Second Amendment Smith, writing for a unanimous three-judge panel, upheld a conviction for the possession of a homemade machine gun. Rejecting the defendant's Second Amendment claim based on District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008), Smith wrote that machine guns are "dangerous and unusual weapons" that are not "typically possessed by law-abiding citizens for lawful purposes," and that their possession is not protected by the Second Amendment. Fourth Amendment and police excessive force cases Smith, writing for the majority of a three-judge panel, concluded that a California law requiring police officers to collect DNA samples from adults arrested for felonies did not violate the Fourth Amendment. After the Ninth Circuit elected to rehear the case en banc, the U.S. Supreme Court held in Maryland v. King, 569 U.S. 435 (2013), that a Maryland law requiring the collection of DNA samples from arrestees charged with "serious crimes" was constitutional. Thereafter, a majority of the 11-judge en banc panel refused to bar implementation of the California law without deciding whether the statute might be unconstitutional as applied to at least some arrestees. In a concurring opinion, Smith maintained that the California law is "materially indistinguishable from the Maryland law" and therefore concluded that "[t]his case is over, and the district court has no obligation to give the Plaintiffs an opportunity to amend their complaint." Judge Charles Breyer in the Northern District of California stayed the case "pending final resolution of state law" in light of the California Court of Appeal's decision in People v. Buza, 231 Cal. App. 4th 1446 (2014), which held the statute unconstitutional on state law grounds. In 2018, the California Supreme Court in People v. Buza, Cal. 5th 658 (2018), reversed the California Court of Appeal's decision, holding that the DNA collection was lawful as part of the normal booking procedure for individuals validly arrested for a serious offense. Smith authored the majority opinion affirming the denial of summary judgment based on qualified immunity, where a deputy sheriff fatally shot a 13-year-old boy. Viewing the facts in the light most favorable to the plaintiffs, the panel concluded that the deputy deployed deadly force within seconds after exiting his vehicle while the boy was walking in the opposite direction on an adjacent sidewalk, holding what appeared to be a gun pointed at the ground, without warning about the amount of force that would be used, and without observing any aggressive behavior by the boy. Because the boy did not pose an immediate threat to law enforcement officials or anyone else, the law clearly established that the deputy's conduct was unconstitutional and the deputy was not entitled to qualified immunity. On June 25, 2018, the U.S. Supreme Court denied cert. Separation of powers and federalism Smith, writing for a unanimous panel, largely upheld a district court's denial of the federal government's motion to enjoin California's sanctuary state laws, including SB 54, the California Values Act. The panel mostly rejected the government's intergovernmental immunity and preemption arguments, concluding instead that the Tenth Amendment's anticommandeering doctrine precluded the government's attempt to force state and local officials to assist with immigration enforcement efforts. The panel concluded, "SB 54 may well frustrate the federal government's immigration enforcement efforts. However, whatever the wisdom of the underlying policy adopted by California, that frustration is permissible, because California has the right, pursuant to the anticommandeering rule, to refrain from assisting with federal efforts." On June 15, 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court denied cert. In re U.S. Department of Education (9th Cir. 2022). In a 2–1 decision, Smith partially granted a petition for a writ of mandamus brought by former Secretary of Education Elisabeth DeVos after a federal district judge ordered former Secretary DeVos to sit for a deposition in a lawsuit about denying student-loan relief. Smith denied Devos's request for a transfer to the Southern District of Florida, but wrote that the district court clearly erred by requiring DeVos to sit for a deposition in light of her status as the former Secretary of Education and the lack of any showing that her testimony was necessary to resolving the case. Smith's opinion was joined by Judge Jacqueline Nguyen. Judge Richard Paez dissented, noting that DeVos was no longer in office, and arguing that for this reason, forcing her to sit for a short deposition would not significantly distract from any official duties. Death penalty McGill v. Shinn (9th Cir. 2021). Smith dissented when the 9th circuit permitted Arizona to execute someone despite the fact that Arizona's death penalty statute at the time was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Ring v. Arizona. Although Arizona updated its death penalty statute afterwards, Smith argued that the execution violates the ex post facto clause. Copyright law Smith wrote the majority opinion for a divided panel, which upheld a jury verdict finding that the 2013 song "Blurred Lines" infringed on Marvin Gaye's estate's copyright to the 1977 song "Got To Give It Up." The decision rested on narrow grounds based on the procedural posture of the case. Environmental law Smith wrote a concurrence described as "unusually blunt and wide-ranging," in which he criticized the court for "taking the law too far and causing much of 'the decimation of the logging industry in the Pacific Northwest' and the loss of legions of timber jobs." Smith's view prevailed when the case was reviewed en banc, with Smith writing the opinion for the unanimous 11-judge panel. Smith dissented from an en banc decision of the court holding that a federal agency's decision to refrain from acting triggered the Endangered Species Act's interagency consultation process. The dissent began with a reproduction of a woodcut and excerpt from Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, depicting and describing the eponymous traveler's capture by the Lilliputians—an unusual sight in the Federal Reporter. In addition to criticizing the majority opinion in the case, the dissent criticized other recent Ninth Circuit decisions as lacking a basis in the law, two of which—Decker v. Northwest Environmental Defense Center, 133 S. Ct. 1326 (2013), and U.S. Forest Service v. Pacific Rivers Council, 133 S. Ct. 2843 (2013)—were later overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court. Smith wrote an opinion for a unanimous panel concluding that pollution exceedances detected at monitoring stations of the County of Los Angeles and the Los Angeles County Flood Control District were sufficient to establish the County's liability under the Clean Water Act. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the opinion. Smith wrote for a unanimous panel that environmental organizations lacked standing to challenge regulators' failure to define greenhouse gas emissions limits because the nexus between the harm and the desired regulation was too attenuated, in part because there was no evidence that the desired limitations would curb a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions. Immigration Gonzales v. Barr (9th Cir. 2020). Smith ruled in a 2–1 decision that aliens who have been detained for six months or more must be granted bond hearings. The majority rejected the government's argument that it could deny bond hearings, explaining that the bond hearings must be granted under existing precedent. Dawson v. Garland (9th Cir. 2021). Smith dissented in a 2–1 decision where the majority denied relief to Karlena Dawson, a refugee from Jamaica. Smith would have granted relief because "Post issuance of the protection order, the physical abuse Dawson suffered may have diminished, but Hinds remained obsessively fixated on stalking her, hurting her, and even killing her, which by themselves constitute torture." Labor, employment, and antitrust Smith, writing for a divided panel, held that the Federal Arbitration Act did not preempt California's rule that barred waiver of representative claims under its Private Attorneys General Act (PAGA). Smith held that a California employee bringing an action under PAGA does so as a proxy for the state's labor law enforcement agencies; that, "[a]s the California Supreme Court has explained, a PAGA action is a form of qui tam action"; and that "[t]he FAA was not intended to preclude states from authorizing qui tam actions to enforce state law." Smith, on behalf of a unanimous panel, affirmed in part and reversed in part the district court's dismissal of an action challenging, on antitrust and labor law grounds, a Seattle ordinance authorizing a collective-bargaining process between ridesharing companies, such as Uber and Lyft, and independent contractors working as for-hire drivers. The panel concluded that the city was not entitled to state action immunity from the Sherman Antitrust Act because the ordinance permitted price-fixing of ride-referral service fees by the city. The panel also concluded that the National Labor Relations Act did not preempt the ordinance. Alston v. NCAA (9th Cir. 2020). Smith authored a concurring opinion in which he largely joined the majority's finding that rules implemented by the National Collegiate Athletic Association capping the amount of grant-in-aid that student-athletes are permitted to receive from their school as part of an athletic scholarship was in violation of antitrust law as an illegal restraint of trade. Smith wrote separately to argue that the majority's use of cross-market analysis to assign a procompetitive benefit to benefit of the NCAA's amateurism restrictions in developing a separate and distinct market for amateur college sports was against the legislative purpose of the Sherman Antitrust Act. Writing that the treatment of student-athletes "is the result of a cartel of buyers acting in concert to artificially depress the price that sellers could otherwise receive for their services"—exactly the "sort of distortion" that the antitrust laws were designed to prohibit—Smith argued that the majority's analysis "seems to erode the very protections a Sherman Act plaintiff has the right to enforce" by limiting the extent of the relief afforded to student-athletes despite their being "quite clearly deprived of the fair value of their services." Other notable cases On remand from the U.S. Supreme Court, Smith authored an opinion on behalf of a unanimous en banc panel that vacated the district court's judgment in favor of an employer and its benefits plan administrator on claims of breach of fiduciary duty in the selection and retention of certain mutual funds for a benefit plan governed by ERISA. Smith reasoned that federal law imposes on fiduciaries an ongoing duty to monitor investments, even absent a change in circumstances. Looking to the law of trusts, the duty of prudence requires fiduciaries to reevaluate investments periodically and to take into account their power to obtain favorable investment products, particularly when those products were substantially identical—other than their lower cost—to products they had already selected. Smith, writing for a unanimous three-judge panel and in a matter of first impression before the circuit courts, interpreted the Anti-Terrorism Act's proximate causation requirement for individuals seeking to bring civil actions. Plaintiffs, on behalf of family members who were killed by an ISIS attack while serving as government contractors in Jordan, argued that their injury was caused "by reason of" Twitter's material support of ISIS, because ISIS-affiliated individuals used Twitter. Applying the U.S. Supreme Court's analysis of statutes with similar language, Smith held that a plaintiff must show at least some direct relationship between the injuries that he or she suffered and the defendant's acts. Because plaintiffs failed to plead a connection between Twitter's provision of accounts to ISIS and the deaths of the government contractors, the panel dismissed their claims. Writing for a 2-1 majority, Smith vacated an arbitration award issued to Monster Energy after an arbitrator failed to disclose his ownership interest in JAMS, the alternative dispute resolution provider that had administered the arbitration. The panel explained that because the arbitrator's ownership interest in JAMS was sufficiently substantial, and because JAMS repeatedly arbitrated matters involving Monster Energy, the relationship should have been disclosed based on the U.S. Supreme Court's holding that vacatur of an arbitration award is supported where the arbitrator fails to "disclose to the parties any dealings that might create an impression of possible bias." On June 29, 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court denied cert. See also Udall family Lee-Hamblin family References External links U.S. Department of Justice Profile Fotouhi, David, "From Worst to First?: Judge Smith Describes Improving the Ninth Circuit," Harvard Law Record, April 24, 2008. "Senate approves Smith's brother for federal appeals court," The Associated Press, May 17, 2006 "White House Looks at Two Names for Ninth Circuit," The Recorder, November 9, 2005 1942 births 21st-century American judges American Latter Day Saints Brigham Young University alumni Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit Living people People from Pendleton, Oregon Udall family United States court of appeals judges appointed by George W. Bush University of Chicago Law School alumni
4895577	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold%20Weston	Harold Weston	Harold Weston (February 14, 1894 – April 10, 1972) was an American modernist painter, based for many years in the Adirondack Mountains, whose work moved from expressionism to realism to abstraction. He was collected by Duncan Phillips (now the Phillips Collection), widely exhibited in the 1920s and 1930s, and painted murals under the Treasury Relief Art Project for the General Services Administration. In later life he was known for his humanitarian food relief work during World War II and his arts advocacy that led to the passage of the National Endowment for the Arts and Humanities Act of 1965. Weston's most recent museum exhibition was at the Shelburne Museum in Vermont, and his most recent gallery exhibition was at Gerald Peters Gallery in New York City. Early life and education Harold Weston was born February 14, 1894, in Merion, Pennsylvania, to Mary Hartshorne Weston, a pianist, and S. Burns Weston, the founder of the Ethical Culture Society in Philadelphia, who gave Weston an "integrity of purpose." Summers were spent by the family in the Adirondack Mountains in the company of the intellectual descendants of the American transcendentalists, for whom nature, aesthetics, and spirituality were fundamentally linked. At the age of 15, Weston spent a year traveling in Europe and attending school in Switzerland and Germany, continuing to paint and draw in his sketchbooks while in Europe. After his return to the United States, Weston was stricken by polio in 1911, a chance occurrence that sealed his determination to be an artist. His left leg was paralyzed, and doctors said that he would never walk again. Through a regime of physical conditioning and the use of leg braces and a cane, Weston did learn how to walk and hike again, using his arms to hold onto trees as he went up and down mountains. Weston entered Harvard University in 1912 and graduated magna cum laude with a degree in fine arts in 1916. He served as editor of the Harvard Lampoon, contributing a large number of cartoons and artworks to the magazine. In 1914, he studied under the American painter Hamilton Easter Field at the Summer School of Graphic Arts in Ogunquit, Maine. Early career and World War I Many people believed that the global crisis of World War I would lead to a spiritual regeneration, and Weston wanted to be in the midst of that, "to literally see the heart of humanity laid bare." Unable to enlist due to his paralysis, and before the U.S. entered the war, he volunteered with the YMCA from 1916 to 1919, serving as a liaison with the British Army in Baghdad in the Ottoman Empire, attending to the mental wellbeing of 400,000 troops. In addition to arranging lectures, cinema, concerts, and tournaments, he encouraged soldiers to draw and paint, and organized the Baghdad Art Club to exhibit and promote the soldiers' art. He was appointed Official Painter for the British Army in 1918. Weston's years in the Middle East had a lasting impact on both his art and social activism. The colors and light of the desert, so unlike the rich greens and blues of the Adirondacks, deeply affected his palette. Weston also witnessed the horror of famine and disease while in the Middle East. He saw men, women, and children die of heat exhaustion and starvation. In the summer of 1917, he reported 400 people a day dying from heat that rose to 128 degrees F in the shade. Weston wrote about some of his experiences for the National Geographic Magazine in April 1921, which included his photographs that he color tinted. In late 1919 Weston returned to the United States via a caravan east to India, and then by ship with a layover in Japan. For five months he contributed social work while living in an immigrant settlement house in New York City, took classes at the Art Students League of New York, explored the city's art galleries, and became acquainted with the latest in modern art reaching American shores. Early Adirondack landscapes In May 1920 Weston left the city for the Adirondack Mountains to take nature as his teacher. Weston wrote: "Not yet sure just what paint can and cannot express. Do not want at present more of theory and feel must work it out with this great and ever changing source of inspiration about me." With the help of local carpenters, he built a one-room, uninsulated log cabin studio near St. Huberts, New York. For the next two years he lived largely in isolation, exploring the mountains and lakes, creating plein-air sketches in oil and pencil on small pieces of cardboard. In the studio he painted canvases based on those sketches. When he wasn't painting, he chopped wood, cooked on a small wood stove, wrote letters and journal entries prolifically, and listened to classical records on his Victrola phonograph. Weston's first solo exhibition was at the Montross Gallery in New York City in November 1922. He showed over one hundred oil sketches from Persia and the Adirondacks and 63 oil paintings, each of which rested in one of Weston's hand-carved and gilded frames. Critics heaped praise on his vibrant use of color and the unique American perspective he brought to his work. The Christian Science Monitor wrote that the show was the highlight of the season: "In his pictures [there is] something different, something stirring and magnificently bold, a proclamation of a bigger belief in beauty than is usually heard in the galleries." Landscape Nudes Weston met Faith Borton while giving a slide lecture about his experiences in Persia at Vassar College. He was impressed, and invited her along with his sister and friends to his cabin for a mid-winter party. Borton, raised Quaker in the suburbs of Philadelphia, was good-natured about the primitive experience in harsh winter weather. Hundreds of persuasive letters from Weston followed, until eight months later she relented. The couple was married on May 12, 1923. For the first two and a half years of their marriage the Westons lived in the cabin studio—which now boasted indoor plumbing, a living room, and a bedroom—in the Adirondack Mountains. The period produced a significant change in Weston's work, that turned away from the landscape of nature toward the landscape of the human body. The catalogue Wild Exuberance: Harold Weston’s Adirondack Art describes the paintings: "The nudes deviated from a long tradition of beauty that aspired to perfection. These were no Botticelli or Titian Venuses, but cropped body parts painted as if with earth and flesh, whose primitive honesty complicated beauty with uncomfortably raw emotion and sex. These were not tame, pastoral scenes through which one could take a bourgeois stroll, but the wild. Unlike pretty nudes displayed for the male gaze, these were something more about the woman herself." The series of paintings came to be known as "landscape nudes" after John Marin said, "I feel the woods and the mountains in these nudes." Alfred Stieglitz considered the nudes daring and new, but they were too radical for the Montross Gallery to exhibit. In August 1925, Harold Weston was hospitalized with a diseased kidney, which was removed, but he suffered a month of high fever before starting to pull out of it. Doctors advised him to paint less intensively and move away from the Adirondacks to a warmer, less stressful climate. Expatriates in France The Westons visited the French Riviera in 1926, but contrary to doctors' orders settled in the rugged mountains in the French Pyrenees. They found an 11th-century farmhouse with a working chapel and bell tower in a farming community near Céret. The Westons bought a small wood stove to warm the room enough for posing in the nude. The painting of the new stove was the first purchase by Duncan Phillips, who went on to acquire the largest public collection of Westons at the Phillips Collection. "Quiet, simple, intimate and hard. It is a region very sympathetic to the pioneer in Harold. Suited to the Quaker in me," wrote Faith. The open fields and sunlight influenced Weston's palette, and his subjects broadened to include all manner of landscapes, figure painting, and still lifes in oil, watercolor, gouache, and etching. At the Spanish sculptor Manolo's suggestion, the Westons went to Paris, France, to exhibit, and they became acquainted with painters working there. Captivated by etching, which was better suited to their small Parisian apartments, Weston experimented with the techniques of hard and soft ground, burin, dry point, and aquatint with and without brush. Weston exhibited his work in Paris, and also rolled-up canvases to ship back to New York City to be shown at the Montross Gallery. They could not afford to live in Europe after the dollar weakened, and so after four productive years, the Westons—now with two small children—returned to America in 1930. The Depression After living for a short period in Greenwich Village the Westons returned to their home and studio in the Adirondack mountains, again living simply. With a small family, he focused increasingly on the everyday: a quilt, plants in the garden, snowshoes. Weston turned out prodigious amounts of artwork in the 1930s. His work was shown frequently in solo and group shows at galleries and museums, including the Phillips Memorial Gallery, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the Museum of Modern Art. His painting Green Hat won third prize in painting at the Golden Gate International Exposition in San Francisco in 1939. Duncan Phillips invited Weston to speak at his gallery several times. "We need you in this course of Gallery discussions for there is no man now painting better able to discuss color as an instrument of emotional expression and of plastic design," Phillips wrote to Weston. In 1935 Weston competed for a Treasury Relief Art Project mural commission to paint murals depicting the government's efforts to speed the end of the Great Depression. For two-and-a-half years Weston worked 11 hours a day creating 840 square feet of 22 panels on canvas that were hung in the General Services Administration building in Washington, D.C., in 1938. At a time of intensive mural-painting in the country, Phillips said Weston's murals were "magnificent--the best by far of all the government murals." Relief work and World War II Humanitarian concerns at the advent of World War II compelled Weston to give up painting. "For the first time in my life, something seemed more important to me than painting," wrote Weston. First, in the Adirondacks, he organized a branch and 11 chapters of the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies. Then after Pearl Harbor, with memories of the starvation he had seen during the war in the Middle East, he moved to Washington, D.C., to advocate full-time for humanitarian food relief. He outlined a plan that he called the Reconstruction Service Committee, for which he obtained the support of Eleanor Roosevelt, and which eventually evolved into the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. "[Weston] more than anyone else -- as Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt has written me -- was responsible for the original conception and carrying through of UNRRA," wrote Lewis Mumford. UNRRA saved millions of lives after the war. To support UNRRA's governmental work, Weston founded Food for Freedom, a coalition of civic, religious, labor, and farm organizations representing more than 60 million Americans that advocated for food aid for refugees in Europe and Asia. He became an expert on food policy and the politics of farm policy in the U.S. Weston wrote a manuscript about his experiences, "Battle of Bread," that is now housed in the Library of Congress. After seven years and wishing to return to painting, Weston seized on the idea of painting the United Nations headquarters that were under construction in New York City. He worked on the painting series, "Building the United Nations," from 1949 to 1952, further refining his hyper-realistic style. The painting series now belongs to the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Post World War II life Arts advocacy In 1953, the Westons started renting a small railroad flat over an Italian bakery in Greenwich Village for a phase of their life that took them to the center of the art world in New York City. Weston was elected president of the Federation of Modern Painters and Sculptors, and launched the museum gift plan, a scheme by which donors paid artists for their work and then subsequently donated it to museums. He also joined the International Association of Plastic Arts (later the International Association of Art [IAA]) and, as a delegate, vice president, or president, attended all of the group's international meetings between 1954 in Venice and 1966 in Tokyo. Along with Lloyd Goodrich and Lillian Gish, in 1955 Weston founded the National Council on Arts and Government, an artists' group that lobbied for government support of the arts and that gathered the support of over 50 national organizations representing all of the arts. Weston served many years as its vice president and president. The group won passage of the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act of 1965 creating the National Endowment for the Arts. Weston, "more than any other private individual played a key role in the improvement of our government's relation to the arts in our time," wrote Lloyd Goodrich. Realism to abstraction In the years after the completion of "Building the United Nations," Weston gradually transitioned into abstraction while maintaining a precisionist style. A 1958 trip to the Isle of Rhodes in Greece was pivotal in introducing ocean motifs. Increasingly, he magnified nature's details, heightening its patterns and rhythms. He was excited by the new direction of his work, for which he had more time after the passage of the National Endowment for the Arts legislation in 1965. He painted his last significant body of work, the "Stone Series," from 1968 until his death in 1972, inspired by stones found on the Gaspé Peninsula in Canada. In 1971, Harold Weston published Freedom in the Wilds: A Saga of the Adirondacks, which is out of print, but a third, expanded edition was published in 2008 under the title Freedom in the Wilds: An Artist in the Adirondacks. Linking artistic creativity to wilderness conservation, Weston wrote: "The poet, composer, visual artist, and all those who are creative by instinct...can sense from a single fern frond, a leaf, a stone, or the song of a bird, the quintessence of the kind of freedom a wilderness tract can convey." Harold Weston died on April 10, 1972, in New York City. Major posthumous museum exhibitions of Weston's work have been held at the Philadelphia Art Alliance, the Adirondack Museum (now called the Adirondack Experience), and the Shelburne Museum. Galleries showing Weston work have included Gerald Peters Gallery, D. Wigmore Fine Art, and Salander-O'Reilly Galleries. Honors In appreciation of Weston's work on behalf of artists, he was elected an honorary member of the Society of American Graphic Artists (1964), the National Education Theater Association (1966), and the National Society of Mural Painters (1965). Weston received an award from the American Society of Contemporary Artists (1964), and in 1963 Weston was appointed a fellow of the World Academy of Art and Science for his humanitarian work during World War II. At the time there were 28 Nobel Prize winners and only two practicing artists: Yehudi Menuhin and Henry Moore. Believing there were not enough women in the academy, in 1970 Weston nominated Louise Nevelson to be a fellow. References Notes Further resources and reading Appelhof, Ruth A.; Haskell, Barbara; and Hayes, Jeffrey R., editors. The Expressionist Landscape: North American Modernist Painting 1920–1947. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988. A Wild Sort of Beauty: Public Places and Private Visions. Text by Robert L. McGrath. Blue Mountain Lake, N.Y.: The Adirondack Museum, 1992. Burdan, Amanda C. Rural Modern: American Art Beyond the City. New York: Skira Rizzoli, 2016. "Death of Harold Weston." Congressional Record, 21 June 1972, S9848-50. Fair Wilderness: American Paintings in the Collection of The Adirondack Museum. Text by Patricia C.F. Mandel. Blue Mountain Lake, N.Y.: The Adirondack Museum, 1990. Federation of Modern Painters and Sculptors, 1955-56. Introduction by Harold Weston. Foreword by Duncan Phillips. New York: Federation of Modern Painters and Sculptors, 1955. Food for Freedom, Inc., Records, 1942–1948, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Foster, Rebecca; Welsh, Caroline; and Stebbins Jr., Theodore E. Wild Exuberance: Harold Weston's Adirondack Art. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2005. From Hopper to Rothko: America's Road to Modern Art. Ortud Westheider and Michael Phillipp, eds. Museum Barberini, Potsdam, Munich: Prestel, 2017. Hall, W.S. "Interlude in the Adirondacks." In Paul Rosenfeld: Voyager in the Arts, ed. Jerome Mellquist and Lucie Wiese, 182–85. New York: Creative Age Press, 1948. Harold Weston. Text by Ben Wolf. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press; London: Associated University Press, 1978. Includes interview with Faith Weston. Harold Weston: A Bigger Belief in Beauty. Directed by Kevin Burget, narration by Jefferson Mays, Wide Iris Productions, 2005. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0775085/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1 Harold Weston Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Syracuse University Libraries, Syracuse, N.Y. Harold Weston Papers 1894–1972, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Mackinnon, Anne. "A Passionate Nature: The Consummate Art of Harold Weston." Adirondack Life 25, no. 1 (Jan.-Feb. 1994): 28–35, 65–66. Made in the U.S.A.: American Art from The Phillips Collection 1850–1970. Susan Behrends Frank, ed. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013. Marling, Karal Ann. Wall-to-Wall America: A Cultural History of Post-Office Murals in the Great Depression. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982. Mumford, Lewis. "The Art Galleries: Assorted Americana." New Yorker, 17 Dec. 1932, 62. Painters and Sculptors of Modern America, intro. Monroe Wheeler. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1942. Passantino, Erika D., ed. The Eye of Duncan Phillips: A Collection in the Making. Washington, D.C.: The Phillips Collection, in association with Yale University Press, 1999. Phillips, Duncan. Art and Understanding: A Phillips Publication. Vol. 1, No. 1 (Nov. 1929). Phillips, Duncan. Art and Understanding: A Phillips Publication. Vol. 1, No. 2 (Mar. 1930). Phillips, Duncan. The Artist Sees Differently: Essays Based upon the Philosophy of a Collection in the Making. 2 vols. New York: E. Weyhe; Washington, D.C.: Phillips Memorial Gallery, 1931. Phillips, Duncan. The Phillips Collection Catalogue: A Museum of Modern Art and Its Sources. New York: The Phillips Collection, 1952. Phillips, Marjorie. Duncan Phillips and His Collection. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1970. Rev. ed. New York: W.W. Norton, in association with the Phillips Collection, 1982. Phillips, Stephen B. Twentieth-Century Still-Life Painting from the Phillips Collection. Washington, D.C.: The Phillips Collection, 1997. Rosenfeld, Paul. "Harold Weston's Adventure." The New Republic, 31 Dec. 1930, 190–91. Smith, Jessica Todd. American Modernism: Highlights from the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 2018. Weston, Harold. "A Painter Speaks." Magazine of Art 32 (Jan. 1939): 16–21. Weston, Harold. Freedom in the Wilds: An Artist in the Adirondacks. Third edition, containing Weston's Letters and Diaries, edited by Rebecca Foster. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2008. Weston, Harold. "Persian Caravan Sketches." The National Geographic Magazine. Vol. 39, No. 4 (Apr. 1921). External links Harold Weston Foundation 1894 births 1972 deaths 20th-century American painters Modern painters American male painters American landscape painters American muralists Realist painters People from Keene, New York Harvard College alumni The Harvard Lampoon alumni Treasury Relief Art Project artists People of the New Deal arts projects 20th-century American male artists
4896496	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attalus%20I	Attalus I	Attalus I (), surnamed Soter (, "Savior"; 269–197 BC) was the ruler of the Ionian Greek polis of Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) and the larger Pergamene Kingdom from 241 BC to 197 BC. He was the adopted son of King Eumenes I, whom he succeeded, and was the first of the Attalid dynasty to assume the title of king, sometime around 240–235 BC. He was the son of Attalus and his wife Antiochis. Attalus won an important victory over the Galatians, a group of migratory Celtic tribes from Thrace, who had been plundering and exacting tribute throughout most of Asia Minor for more than a generation. The victory was celebrated with a triumphal monument at Pergamon (The Dying Gaul) and Attalus taking the name of "Soter" and the title of king. He participated in the first and second Macedonian Wars against Philip V of Macedon as a loyal ally of the Roman Republic, although Pergamene participation was ultimately rather minor in these wars. He conducted numerous naval operations throughout the Aegean and gained the island of Aegina for Pergamon during the first war, and Andros during the second, twice narrowly escaping capture at the hands of Philip V. During his reign, Pergamon also repeatedly struggled with the neighboring Seleucid Empire to the east, resulting in both successes and setbacks. Attalus styled himself as a protector of the freedoms of the Greek cities of Anatolia and portrayed himself as the champion of Greeks against barbarians. He funded art and monuments both within Pergamon as well as in Greek cities he sought to cultivate as allies. He died in 197 BC at the age of 72, shortly before the end of the second war, having suffered an apparent stroke while addressing a Boeotian war council some months before. He and his wife Apollonis were admired for their rearing of their four sons. He was succeeded as king by his son Eumenes II. Early life Little is known about Attalus' early life. He was Greek and the son of Attalus and Antiochis. His father Attalus was the son of a brother (also called Attalus) of both Philetaerus, the founder of the Attalid dynasty, and Eumenes, the father of Eumenes I, Philetaerus' successor. The elder Attalus is recorded, along with his uncles, as providing generous donations to Delphi. His father also won fame as a charioteer, winning at Olympia, and was honored with a monument at Pergamon. It is conjectured the elder Attalus might have been considered a potential successor to Philetaerus, but Eumenes I succeeded to the throne instead. Attalus' mother Antiochis was probably related to the Seleucid royal family (perhaps a granddaughter of Seleucus I Nicator) with her marriage to Attalus' father likely arranged by Philetaerus to solidify his power. At some point prior to 241 BC, Attalus' father died. If the elder Attalus had been heir designate at some point, he died before he could ever take the throne. The younger Attalus was adopted by Eumenes I, the incumbent dynast. After Eumenes' death in 241 BC, Attalus succeeded to the Pergamene throne. Defeat of the Galatians Little is known of the early reign of Attalus. The main recorded event of the era was a battle with the Galatians. According to the 2nd century AD Greek writer Pausanias, "the greatest of his achievements" was the defeat of the "Gauls" (). The Galatians were immigrant Celts from Thrace, who had recently settled in Galatia in central Asia Minor, and whom the Romans and Greeks called Gauls, associating them with the Celts of what is now France, Switzerland, and northern Italy. Since the time of Philetaerus, the first Attalid ruler, the Galatians had posed a problem for Pergamon, indeed for all of Asia Minor, by exacting tributes to avoid war or other repercussions. Eumenes I had (probably), along with other rulers, dealt with the Galatians by paying these tributes. Attalus however refused to pay them, being the first such ruler recorded to do so. As a consequence, the Galatians set out to attack Pergamon, sometime around 238–235 BC. Attalus met them near the sources of the river Caïcus and decisively won the resulting Battle of the Caecus River. The prestige gained by the victory caused Attalus to take the surname of Soter, "savior", following the example of Antiochus I. He also declared himself basileus, king. While this did not increase his practical authority as his adopted father had already ruled like a king, it formally severed any relationship with the Seleucid Empire's king as a superior suzerain. The victory would be the core element of Attalus's reputation and fame. Attalus presented himself as the victorious champion of Greeks against barbarians, and commissioned much artwork and sculptures commemorating himself and the Pergamene victory. Like other Attalid rulers, Pergamene royal coinage depicted a middle-aged version of Philetaerus, the dynasty's founder. Around the 230s BC, the depiction of Philetaerus changed from a plain band to a diadem entwined with a laurel wreath, the symbol of victory, perhaps to celebrate the defeat of the Galatians. Pausanias wrote of a surely invented oracle's prophecy which foretold the great victory, allegedly created a generation earlier: Pausanias writes that by "son of a bull", the oracle Phaennis "meant Attalus, king of Pergamon, who was styled bull-horned". On the acropolis of Pergamon was erected a triumphal monument, which included the famous sculpture The Dying Gaul, commemorating this battle. Conflicts with the Seleucid Empire in Asia Minor Several years after the first victory over the Gauls, Pergamon was again attacked by the Gauls together with their ally Antiochus Hierax, the younger brother of Seleucus II Callinicus, and ruler of Seleucid Asia Minor from his capital at Sardis. Attalus defeated the Gauls and Antiochus at the Battle of Aphrodisium and again at a second battle in the east. Three subsequent battles were fought and won against Antiochus Hierax's forces, which fought without support from the Gauls: in Hellespontine Phrygia, where Antiochus was perhaps seeking refuge with his father-in law, Ziaelas the king of Bithynia; near Sardis in the spring of 228 BC; and, in the final conflict of the campaign, in Caria at the Battle of the Harpasus, the Harpasus river being a tributary of the Maeander. As a result of these victories, Attalus gained putative control over all of Seleucid Asia Minor north of the Taurus Mountains. He was able to hold on to these gains in the face of repeated attempts by Seleucus III Ceraunus, eldest son and successor of Seleucus II, to recover the lost territory. That said, this influence was tenuous; later historians consider any attempt to translate military success into political hegemony in these areas fraught and unlikely to have been successful. Around 226–223 BC, Attalus erected a monument to his battlefield victories in the acropolis of Pergamon, dedicated to Zeus and Athena; a slight adjustment to the artwork on coinage also occurred. Seleucus III was assassinated in 223 BC after crossing the Taurus into Asia Minor. Achaeus assumed control of the Seleucid army afterward. He was offered and refused the kingship in favor of Seleucus III's younger brother Antiochus III the Great, who then made Achaeus governor of Seleucid Asia Minor north of the Taurus. Achaeus embarked upon a remarkably successful campaign, rapidly reclaiming Asia Minor for the Seleucids. Within two years Achaeus had recovered all the lost Seleucid territories and "shut up Attalus within the walls of Pergamon". In a stroke of good fortune for Attalus, Achaeus revolted against Antiochus III around 220 BC and declared himself the Seleucid king. After a period of peace, in 218 BC, while Achaeus was involved in an expedition to Selge south of the Taurus, Attalus, allied with some Thracian Gauls, recaptured his former territories in Western Asia Minor, establishing the Pergamese state as one of the powers of Asia Minor. However, Achaeus returned from victory in Selge in 217 BC and resumed hostilities with Attalus. Under a treaty of alliance with Attalus, Antiochus III crossed the Taurus in 216 BC, attacked Achaeus and besieged Sardis, and in 214 BC, the second year of the siege, was able to take the city. However the citadel remained under Achaeus' control. Under the pretense of a rescue, Achaeus was finally captured and put to death, and the citadel surrendered. By 213 BC, Antiochus III had regained control of all of his provinces in the east of Asia Minor. First Macedonian War While affairs in the east of his kingdom occupied much of his early reign, the west of Attalus's domain became more active later on. Attalus had sometime before 219 BC become allied with the Aetolian League, a union of Greek states in Aetolia in central Greece. He helped fund the fortification of Elaeus, an Aetolian stronghold in Calydonia, near the mouth of the river Acheloos. This would later bring Attalus into conflict with Philip V of Macedon, king of Antigonid Macedonia and the preeminent power in the Aegean Sea region, in what would eventually become the First Macedonian War. Attalus sought to burnish his regional reputation, more so than many of his contemporary rulers. In addition to fortifications, Attalus also funded art and monuments, such as a stoa at Delphi (then part of the Aetolian League). Philip's alliance with Hannibal of Carthage in 215 BC caused concern in Rome, then involved in the Second Punic War. In 211 BC, a treaty was signed between Rome and the Aetolian League, a provision of which allowed for the inclusion of certain allies of the League, Attalus being one of these. Attalus was elected one of the two strategoi (generals) of the Aetolian League for the year 210/209 BC, and in 210 BC his troops probably participated in capturing the island of Aegina, acquired by Attalus as his base of operations in Greece. In the following spring (209 BC), Philip marched south into Greece. Under command of Pyrrhias, Attalus' colleague as strategos, the allies lost two battles at Lamia. Attalus himself went to Greece in July 209 BC and was joined on Aegina by the Roman proconsul P. Sulpicius Galba who wintered there. Attalus only personally participated as a commander in the summer of 208 BC. That season, the combined fleet of thirty-five Pergamene and twenty-five Roman ships failed to take the Macedonian island of Lemnos, and occupied and plundered the countryside of the island of Peparethos (Skopelos) instead. Attalus and Sulpicius then attended a meeting in Heraclea Trachinia of the Council of the Aetolians, at which the Roman argued against making peace with Philip. The Romans sacked both Oreus, on the northern coast of Euboea, and Opus, the chief city of eastern Locris. The spoils from Oreus had been reserved for Sulpicius, who returned there, while Attalus stayed to occupy and collect the spoils from Opus. With their forces divided, Philip moved a force to relieve Opus from the occupying Pergamene army. Attalus and his troops, caught by surprise, were barely able to escape to his ships, unarmed and in disorder. After his inglorious retreat, Attalus learned that Prusias I, king of Bithynia and a relative of Philip V's by marriage, had crossed the border to attack Pergamene territory. Attalus now returned to Asia to meet them, although the details of this conflict are largely unrecorded. Soon after, the Romans also abandoned Greece to concentrate their forces against Hannibal, their objective of preventing Philip from aiding Hannibal having been achieved. In 206 BC the Aetolians sued for peace, accepting the conditions imposed by Philip. A treaty was drawn up at Phoenice in 205 BC, formally ending the war. Attalus was included as an adscriptus on the side of Rome. He retained Aegina, but had accomplished little else; Pergamene participation in the war was ultimately "rather ineffective". Since Prusias was also included in the treaty, the conflict between Pergamon and Bithynia also ended by that time. Introduction of the cult of the Magna Mater to Rome In 205 BC, following the Peace of Phoenice, Rome turned to Attalus, as its only friend in Asia, for help concerning a religious matter. The Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage was still continuing. A consultation of the Sibylline Books found verses saying that if a foreigner were to make war on Italy, he could be defeated if the Mater Deum Magna Idaea, the Great Mother Goddess, was brought to Rome. Additionally, an unusual number of meteor showers had been seen. The interpretation of the oracle of Delphi was that Rome needed to start a cult in Rome to this Mother Goddess to win the war. A Roman delegation, led by M. Valerius Laevinus, was dispatched to Pergamon to seek Attalus' aid in gaining an appropriate artifact to bring to Rome. According to Livy, Attalus received the delegation warmly, and "handed over to them the sacred stone which the natives declared to be 'the Mother of the Gods', and bade them carry it to Rome." The ancient Phyrgian goddess Cybele was thus introduced to Rome as the Magna Mater, and the Mother of Gods stone was said itself to be meteoric. One aspect of the account which varies in sources is where exactly the stone came from. While Ovid's version says the Mother of Gods was found on Mount Ida, close to Pergamon, most other accounts say it came from Pessinus, which was far inland: a place where Pergamene influence was weak at best and Gallic influence was strong. Whether this was an error in Roman sources unfamiliar with the geography of Asia Minor, or Attalus was on friendly terms with the local Gallic tribes in central Asia Minor in this time period, is unclear. Macedonian hostilities of 201 BC Prevented by the treaty of Phoenice from expansion in the west, Philip V of Macedon set out to extend his power in the Aegean and in Asia Minor. In the spring of 201 BC he took Samos and the Egyptian fleet stationed there. He then besieged Chios to the north. These events caused Attalus, allied with Rhodes, Byzantium and Cyzicus, to enter the war. A large naval battle occurred in the strait between Chios and the mainland, just southwest of Erythrae. According to Polybius, fifty-three decked warships and over one hundred and fifty smaller warships took part on the Macedonian side, with sixty-five decked warships and a number of smaller warships on the allied side. During the battle Attalus, having become isolated from his fleet and pursued by Philip, was forced to run his three ships ashore, narrowly escaping by spreading various royal treasures on the decks of the grounded ships, causing his pursuers to abandon the pursuit in favor of plunder. The same year, Philip invaded Pergamon; although unable to take the defended city, in part due to precautions taken by Attalus to provide for additional fortifications, he demolished the surrounding temples and altars. Meanwhile, Attalus and Rhodes sent envoys to Rome, to register their complaints against Philip. Second Macedonian War In 200 BC, Attalus became involved in the Second Macedonian War. Acarnanians with Macedonian support invaded Attica, causing Athens, which had previously maintained its neutrality, to seek help from the enemies of Philip. Attalus, with his fleet at Aegina, received an embassy from Athens inviting him to the city. A few days later, he learned that Roman ambassadors were also at Athens, and decided to visit. With the Athenians desperate for allies, his reception was extraordinary. Polybius writes: Two of the Athenian tribes named after Macedonians had recently been abolished, perhaps as recently as weeks before Attalus's visit, so the naming of these areas was open. A deme (suburb) was also named after Apollonis, Attalus's wife. Sulpicius Galba, now consul, convinced Rome to declare war on Philip and asked Attalus to meet up with the Roman fleet and again conduct a naval campaign, harassing Macedonian possessions in the Aegean. In the spring of 199 BC, the combined Pergamon and Roman fleets took Andros in the Cyclades, the spoils going to the Romans and the island to Attalus. From Andros, the Pergamene forces sailed on an expedition. They made a fruitless attack on another Cycladic island, Kithnos; turned back north; scavenged the fields of Skiathos off the coast of Magnesia, for food; and continued north to Mende. The Pergamenes mounted a land assault at the city of Cassandrea, but were defeated and suffered heavy losses. They continued northeast along the Macedonian coast to Acanthus, which they sacked. This ended the expedition, their ships returning to Euboea with the spoils of Acanthus. On their return, the two leaders went to Heraclea to meet with the Aetolians, who under the terms of their treaty, had asked Attalus for a thousand soldiers. He refused, citing the Aetolians' own refusal to honor Attalus' request to attack Macedonia during Philip's attack on Pergamon two years earlier. Resuming operations, Attalus and the Romans attacked but failed to take Oreus. They left a small force at Oreus to invest it, and sailed across the straight to raid elsewhere in Thessaly, with Attalus attacking Pteleum while the Romans attacked Larissa Cremaste. Upon their return to Oreus and with siege equipment now ready, the city fell. The Romans enslaved captives and took them elsewhere, while the Attalids looted and occupied the city. The campaigning season now over, Attalus attended the Eleusinian Mysteries and then returned to Pergamon having been away for over two years. In the spring of 198 BC, Attalus returned to Greece with twenty-three quinqueremes joining a fleet of twenty Rhodian decked warships at Andros, to complete the conquest of Euboea begun the previous year. Soon joined by the Romans, the combined fleets took Eretria and later Carystus. Thus, the allies controlled all of Euboea except for Chalcis. The allied fleet then sailed for Cenchreae in preparation for an attack on Macedonian Corinth. Meanwhile, the new Roman consul for that year, Titus Quinctius Flamininus, had learned that the Achaean League, allies of Macedon, had had a change in leadership which favored Rome. Attalus's relations with the rival Aetolian League had cooled after several broken promises on both sides, so mending relations with the Achaeans could potentially offer a new ally. With the hope of inducing the Achaeans to abandon Philip and join the allies, envoys were sent, including Attalus himself, to Sicyon, where they offered the incorporation of Corinth into the Achaean League. Attalus won the support of the Sicyonians after purchasing land sacred to Apollo for them, and they erected a colossal statue of him in their market place. Later gifts to Sicyon induced the city to institute annual animal sacrifices in Attalus' honor. A meeting of the Achaean League was convened. After a heated debate and the withdrawal of some of the delegates, the rest agreed to join the Roman alliance. Attalus led his army from Cenchreae (now controlled by the allies) through the Isthmus and besieged Corinth from the north, controlling the access to Lechaeum, the Corinthian port on the Gulf of Corinth. Meanwhile, the Romans moved their forces to the east of the city to control the approaches to Cenchreae, with the Achaeans held the west of Corinth. However, Corinth's garrison held out. Macedonian reinforcements arrived, the siege was abandoned, and the siege works were destroyed. Attalus and his army sailed for Piraeus. Also in 198 BC, a renewed struggle with the Seleucid Empire began. King Antiochus III, seemingly taking advantage of Pergamene distraction with the Macedonian War, attacked while Pergamon's ability to defend itself was weak, threatening holdings in Asia Minor. Back in Greece, early in 197 BC, Flamininus summoned Attalus to join him at Elateia (now in Roman hands) and from there they traveled together to attend a Boeotian council in Thebes to encourage Boeotia to join the Roman side in the war. At the council Attalus spoke first, reminding the Boeotians of the many things he and his ancestors had done for them, but during his address he stopped talking and collapsed, with one side of his body paralyzed. Attalus was taken back to Pergamon to live out the remaining months of his life. He died around the time of the Battle of Cynoscephalae, which brought about the end of the Second Macedonian War. At the end of his reign, Attalus's kingdom was "hardly any bigger than it had been at the beginning". Antiochus III had seized large amounts of Pergamene territory for his empire, with important putatively Attalid cities such as Phocaea and Thyatira in Seleucid possession. Attalus's successor, his son Eumenes II, would face a tough geopolitical situation. However, he had also made the city of Pergamon a great center of art and learning, and earned the respect of the Romans and others; historian Esther Hansen calls Attalus's reign not merely the longest of any Attalid monarch, but also "the most laudable". Family Attalus married Apollonis, from Cyzicus. They had four sons, Eumenes, Attalus, Philetaerus and Athenaeus (after Apollonis' father). Apollonis was thought to be a model of motherly love. Polybius describes Apollonis as "a woman who for many reasons deserves to be remembered, and with honor. Her claims upon a favourable recollection are that, though born of a private family, she became a queen, and retained that exalted rank to the end of her life, not by the use of meretricious fascinations, but by the virtue and integrity of her conduct in private and public life alike." The filial affection of the brothers as well as their upbringing is remarked on by several ancient sources. A decree of Antiochus IV praises "king Attalus and queen Apollonis ... because of their virtue and goodness, which they preserved for their sons, managing their education in this way wisely and well." An inscription at Pergamon represents Apollonis as saying that "she always considered herself blessed and gave thanks to the gods, not for wealth or empire, but because she saw her three sons guarding the eldest and him reigning without fear among those who were armed." When Attalus died in 197 BC at the age of 72, he was succeeded by his eldest son Eumenes II. Polybius writes "what is more remarkable than all, though he left four grown-up sons, he so well settled the question of succession, that the crown was handed down to his children's children without a single dispute." The dynasty avoiding infighting and scandal was a major element in giving them legitimacy and authority. Apollonis died in the mid-second-century BC. In her honor, Attalus' sons built a temple in Cyzicus decorated with bas-reliefs representing several scenes of sons displaying love for their mothers, with one scene also showing love for a father. References Bibliography Ancient sources Livy, History of Rome, Rev. Canon Roberts (translator), Ernest Rhys (Ed.); (1905) London: J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd. Pausanias, Description of Greece, Books I–II, (Loeb Classical Library) translated by W. H. S. Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918) . Polybius, Histories, Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (translator); London, New York. Macmillan (1889); Reprint Bloomington (1962). Strabo, Geography, Books 13–14, translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924) . Modern sources Paton, W. R. (ed.), Greek Anthology, Volume I: Book 1: Christian Epigrams, Book 2: Description of the Statues in the Gymnasium of Zeuxippus, Book 3: Epigrams in the Temple of Apollonis at Cyzicus, Book 4: Prefaces to the Various Anthologies, Book 5: Erotic Epigrams, translated by W. R. Paton. Revised by Michael A. Tueller, Loeb Classical Library No. 67, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2014. . Online version at Harvard University Press. . 3rd-century BC Greek people Kings of Pergamon People from Pergamon 3rd-century BC monarchs Cybele Ancient Olympic competitors Ancient Greek chariot racers First Macedonian War Second Macedonian War 269 BC births 197 BC deaths
4896831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Saint%20Pierre%20and%20Miquelon	History of Saint Pierre and Miquelon	The history of Saint Pierre and Miquelon is one of early settlement by Europeans taking advantage of the rich fishing grounds near Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, and is characterized by periods of conflict between the French and British. There is evidence of prehistoric native inhabitants on the islands, but there is no record of native inhabitants at the time of European exploration. Europeans began to regularly visit from the early 16th century and their settlements are some of the oldest in the Americas. At first, Basque fishermen only visited the islands seasonally during the fishing season, but by the mid-17th century, permanent French residences existed on the islands. From the end of the 17th century, English attacks led to the island's French settlers abandoning Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and the British took possession from 1713 to 1763. France eventually reclaimed them, and French settlers returned to live peacefully for 15 years. France joining the American Revolutionary War against Britain led to a British attack and the deportation of the French settlers. Possession of Saint Pierre and Miquelon passed back and forth between France and Great Britain for the next 38 years, as the islands experienced continued invasions from both countries, voluntary or forced removal of the island's residents, and upheaval associated with the French Revolution. France finally reclaimed the islands after Napoleon's second abdication in 1815, and there followed 70 years of prosperity for the French fishing industry and residents. However, political and economic changes led to a slow decline of the fishing industry after the late 19th century. There was a short 13-year economic boom on the island associated with the period of Prohibition in the United States, when Saint Pierre and Miquelon were prominent bases for alcohol smuggling. This boom ended with the end of Prohibition in 1933, and the economy sank into depression. The islands were an overseas territory of the Nazi-controlled regime of Vichy France after the fall of France in World War II, and were liberated a year and a half later by Free French forces in 1941. After the war, the fishing industry continued to languish, and now fish stocks have fallen so low that fishing is severely restricted. Saint Pierre and Miquelon are now trying to diversify their economy into tourism and other areas. Prehistory Beothuk and Paleoeskimo or Dorset culture artifacts have been uncovered on the island Saint-Pierre at Anse à Henry, north of the town of Saint-Pierre. The Beothuk painted themselves with red ochre, which was the origin of the term "Red Indian". The Beothuk did not survive long after their first encounters with Europeans. The Dorset culture preceded the Inuit or Thule people, and the last remaining Dorset tribes were destroyed by diseases when they encountered Europeans. Some of the native artifacts found on the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon date back to 6000 BC. There is no record of native habitation of Saint Pierre and Miquelon by the time that Europeans arrived. The Mi'kmaq, a group indigenous to Newfoundland and Canada's Maritime provinces, use the terms "Senpir" for the island of Saint-Pierre, "Mikliin" for the island of Miquelon, and "Wen'juikjikan" for the capital, Saint-Pierre. Exploration The first map that showed Saint Pierre and Miquelon was the Mappa mundi of 1500 created by Juan de la Cosa, where they were labelled 'Illa de la Trenidat'. There are some who argue that the 'Green Islands' encountered during the two pre-1472 Portuguese expeditions under João Vaz Corte-Real and the 1501 Portuguese expedition under his son Gaspar Corte-Real were St. Pierre and the islands near it. A map drawn by Johannes Ruysch published in 1507 depicts Miquelon, St. Pierre and the surrounding islands, and labelled as Barbatos. Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes, on 21 October 1520, visited the islands named the St. Pierre island group the 'Eleven Thousand Virgins', as the day marked the feast day of St. Ursula and her virgin companions. Jacques Cartier of France referred to Saint Pierre and Miquelon and the neighboring islands as the 'Islands of Saint-Pierre' in a written report after his visit in 1536. This was the earliest known written reference to the name 'Saint-Pierre'. Alonzo de Santa Cruz wrote that the islands of the 'Eleven Thousand Virgins' were the destination of many fishermen from Ireland and Brittany in 1541. The Islario of Jean Alphonse, a French geographer, which was published in 1544, described St. Pierre and the nearby islands. The first use of the name 'Miquelon' for the large western island in the St. Pierre island group appears in Les voyages aventureux du Capitaine Martin de Hoyarsal, habitant du çubiburu a reference book for sailors known as a "navigational pilot", written by Basque seaman Martin de Hoyarçabal in 1579. Early European settlement During the 16th century, the islands were used as a base for the seasonal cod fishery by the French of La Rochelle, Granville, Saint-Malo and the Basque Country. When French explorer Jacques Cartier was in Saint-Pierre in 1536 he made note of the French and Breton fishery, writing: Nous fumes ausdictes yles sainct Pierre, ou trouvasmes plusieurs navires, tant de France que de Bretaigne, depuis le jour sainct Bernabe, XIe de juing, jusques au XVIe jour dudict moys that is, We stayed to the so-called Saint-Pierre islands where we found several French and Breton ships, from St. Barnabe's day, 11 June, until 16th day of said month. By this time, Basque, Breton and Norman fishermen had been fishing in the waters off these islands for over 30 years. The name Miquelon is of Basque origin as this island was used by fishermen from Saint-Jean de Luz. The first written evidence of year-round residents on the islands was in a report in 1670 by the first intendant of New France, Jean Talon, who recorded the presence of thirteen fishermen and four settled residents. By 1687, there were three families living on the islands. Saint-Pierre supplied many of the neighboring French fishing communities, such as those in Fortune Bay and Hermitage Bay. During King William's War, from 1689 to 1697, and Queen Anne's War, from 1702 to 1712, there were at least five English attacks against French colonial settlements on the islands. This led to the abandonment of the islands by many of the French settlers by 1708. The Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 brought such wars to an end, and France ceded possession of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, as well as Newfoundland, to Great Britain. British possession After they took control of the islands in 1713, the British changed the name of Saint Pierre to Saint Peter. The British government commissioned two surveys of their new possessions between 1714 and 1716. A Newfoundland planter and merchant, William Taverner, surveyed the region west of Placentia Bay for the British Board of Trade. The British Admiralty asked Lieutenant John Gaudy to conduct a cartographic survey of the area in 1716. Some of the French settlers swore allegiance to Britain, and remained, and for a while ships from Saint-Malo continued to visit the islands. However, this trade was illegal and eventually ceased. Slowly British and Anglo-American merchants and settlers started to move to the islands. In 1722, the island of Miquelon was sold to Capt. Diamond Sarjeant, a Massachusetts resident, who sold 2/3 of Miquelon to Samuel Cutt of New Hampshire in 1756, and sold the remaining 1/3 of Miquelon to Robert Trail of Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1758. In the summer of 1763, after Britain had agreed to return the islands to French possession, James Cook mapped the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. Cook wrote that: The Island is as subject to Fogs as any part in Newfoundland yes if we may credit the late Planters it is very convenient for catching and curing of Codfish. Return to France By the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, France had lost a good fraction of its North American empire. However, two of the provisions of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht were that France would be granted fishing rights in the waters around Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and provided a refuge or "abri" for the fishermen. France asked that these provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht be honored, and Britain agreed to this during the Treaty of Paris negotiations. Britain therefore returned Saint Pierre and Miquelon to France in 1763, and allowed visiting French fishermen to come ashore in Newfoundland to dry their catch. Between 1763 and 1778, the islands became a place of refuge for Acadian deportees from Nova Scotia. Several of the Acadians who were given the status of refugees were rich shipowners. Although the Acadians tried to farm the islands, these efforts were mostly unsuccessful and they had to rely more on fishing, and on offering fish-drying and other services to visiting French fishing fleets (principally from Saint-Malo). The French government made the determination in 1767 that the islands were too small and too poor for the Acadians. France moved the Acadians back to France, settling them in the ports of Brest, Saint-Malo, Lorient and Dunkirk. In 1768, the French government changed its mind and sent the Acadians back to Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. Trade grew between New England and Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and then with the Newfoundland mainland in various goods. The Newfoundland community of Placentia Bay had a large fraction of Irish settlers, many of whom were Roman Catholic, which was illegal in Newfoundland until 1784. The Irish Catholics from Placentia Bay would travel to St. Pierre to have their weddings and baptisms performed by Catholic priests. Although the British tried to discourage the trade and contacts between Newfoundland and the islands, they were not successful. Attacks and deportations In 1778 the islands were attacked by a force led by Newfoundland's Governor John Montagu and the colonists deported by Montagu's men after France joined the American Revolutionary War on the side of the United States. The settlers were sent back to France and their colonial settlements were burnt. France regained the islands in 1783 after the Peace of Paris and some residents returned to the islands. The French Revolution erupted in 1789, and events on Saint Pierre and Miquelon were not immune to the twists and turns that ensued. In the early spring of 1793, news of the trial and execution of Louis XVI reached the islands. All royal symbols were subsequently removed from Saint Pierre and Miquelon. The Acadian population of Miquelon were loyal to French royalty, and decided to leave the colony for the Magdalen Islands, a small archipelago just north of Nova Scotia. In May 1793, after France had declared war on Great Britain as part of the War of the First Coalition, a British force attacked the islands under Captain William Affleck of Halifax. The seasonal fishermen and captured French military personnel were deported in 1793, followed by the 950 residents in 1794, who were shipped to Halifax and held for two years. British fishermen took possession of the islands. Only 2 years later, French forces under Rear-Admiral de Richery attacked the islands in 1796, sinking 80 British vessels. The British abandoned the islands, and the French destroyed the town. After this, the islands remained deserted until 1816. French restoration after Napoleon Although the Amiens Treaty of 1802 specified that Saint-Pierre and Miquelon would again be returned to France, this agreement did not produce the promised restoration. The islands were finally returned to France after the second abdication of Napoleon in 1815. French fishermen again took up residence on the island in 1816. The French fishing fleet again came to the islands for supplies and to dry and cure their catch. The residents of the islands did a good business, many working as armateurs, or outfitters, for the visiting fishing fleet. About 200 French vessels came to fish in the waters, and as many as 8000 French fishermen came to visit every year from St. Malo, Fécamp, St. Brieuc, and Dieppe. The catch was divided into dried "saltfish" for the Caribbean and much of Europe and "wet-cured" fish for the French market. This enterprise was supported by a vigorous trade with Newfoundland for bait and other goods. Although there were three large fires in St. Pierre, the islands prospered. A post office was created in 1854, a bank in 1889 ("Banque des Îles") and in 1866 the island administration began a newspaper, Feuille Officielle. The shore areas of Newfoundland were increasingly frequented by French fishermen for drying their catch. Although the British had intended that the French not erect any permanent structures or live on Newfoundland, the terms of the treaty were ambiguous. French settlements sprung up on the northern coast of Newfoundland, which came to be known as the French Shore, as well on the southern and western coasts. Changing times The increasing French presence on the French Shore led to tension between the French and British inhabitants, and extensive negotiations between France and Britain. These negotiations resulted in a convention in 1857 in which Britain agreed to allow French settlements on the French Shore and eventually their exclusive use of this territory. The Newfoundland legislature reacted very negatively to this agreement, and Britain reconsidered. France abandoned its rights as part of the Entente Cordiale agreement of 1904. One of the aggressive actions taken by Newfoundland was the passage of the Bait Act in 1887. This reduced the amount of bait available to fishermen on Saint Pierre and Miquelon. Also, the market for "saltfish" peaked in 1886 and went into decline. The introduction of steamships meant that fishing vessels were able to return to France with their catch without stopping at Saint Pierre and Miquelon for supplies. These all hurt the economy on Saint Pierre and Miquelon. Submarine trans-Atlantic telegraph cables from France in the 19th century typically were routed from the French mainland through stations on Miquelon or St. Pierre, and then on to Nova Scotia or the United States. The first was laid in 1869 from the lighthouse at Le Minou on the north side of the entrance to the narrows leading to the Brest harbor in France to St. Pierre, and then on to Duxbury, Massachusetts. Of the 12 French trans-Atlantic submarine telegraph cables laid between 1869 and 1897, 6 of them passed through Miquelon or St. Pierre. The islands were becoming more closely connected to the outside world. In 1903, American Senator Henry Cabot Lodge advocated that the United States should purchase the islands from France. Lodge was concerned about the French influence on Saint Pierre and Miquelon, possible political or cultural effects on Canada and the United States, and the effect of French fishing fleets on New England fisheries. The economy of the islands had been in decline due to poor cod fishing seasons, and many residents were angry at France for insisting on approving all teachers on the islands. For these reasons, many residents of the islands were in favor of becoming part of the United States, reasoning that they could then sell their fish to the rest of the United States without import taxes, and that the United States would not interfere with their local educational system. In response, some Canadians asked Great Britain to purchase the islands from France instead. In an election for the islands' representative to the French Chamber of Deputies, one candidate was in favor of annexation while the incumbent candidate was not. The incumbent candidate, who was against annexation, won reelection by a small margin in December 1903. The islands were not purchased by either country, and they remained part of France. Another severe blow to the economy of Saint Pierre and Miquelon was an agreement between Britain and France in 1904 over territorial issues, in which France traded their exclusive right to fishing in Newfoundland waters for considerations in Africa. The commercial advantages of language and tradition that Saint Pierre and Miquelon employed in their relationships with France and other countries was substantially weakened during this time. Companies merged, and many of the residents left for greener pastures, as the economy withered to one-third of its previous size by 1914. The First World War resulted in disruptions of supplies from France between 1914 and 1918, and the death of over 100 residents in the trenches of Europe. Windfall from Prohibition Starting in 1920, the US passed the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution which led to Prohibition. As a result, St. Pierre and Miquelon became the transshipment point for bringing illegal alcohol from Canada into the United States. Some Canadian provinces also experimented with prohibition as well, but alcohol manufacturers in Canada were still allowed to distil liquor for export. A French law forbidding the importation of foreign liquor was repealed in 1922, drastically increasing the alcohol smuggling operations. Canadian whisky, Caribbean rum and legally imported French wines and spirits were the main products smuggled into and then reshipped from the islands. Many gangsters including Al Capone and Bill McCoy set up operations in the islands, using them as a base to smuggle alcohol into the US. Fishermen and armateurs gave up their regular jobs to unload alcohol from Canada, Europe and Bermuda and store it in warehouses. A new fish processing plant was converted into a warehouse. Additionally, distilleries were set up on the islands. This economic boom lasted until the end of Prohibition in 1933, and was known locally as "Les Temps de la Fraude". As quickly as it began, the boom collapsed when Prohibition was repealed, leaving a depressed local economy. Local legend holds that Capone regularly visited Saint-Pierre, and a local bar displays a hat alleged to have been his. World War II France was defeated in 1940 by Nazi Germany, and Northern France was occupied. Southern France was governed by Vichy France, which collaborated with Germany. Vichy France was nevertheless recognized as the legitimate government of France by neutral countries, including the United States. Governor Gilbert de Bournat of St. Pierre adhered to Vichy France, but the islands were in a difficult situation. The islands were dependent on France for subsidies; it is estimated that in the first part of the 20th century, France spent 40 million francs supporting the economy of the islands. Also, a substantial fraction of the French fishing fleet decided not to return to Nazi-controlled France and remained in the harbor of St. Pierre. French General Charles de Gaulle created Free France, which was supported by Britain. Also, the UK and US worried that Saint Pierre and Miquelon under Vichy control could be used by the Axis to spy on Allied shipping, since there was a radio transmitter on St. Pierre that was thought to be sending messages to German submarines. During the early years of World War II, the United States maintained formal relations with Vichy France. Under the Monroe Doctrine, the US was strongly opposed to any change in control of the islands by force. However, Canada (perhaps due to pressure from Winston Churchill) expressed worries about Vichy forces near Canada. De Gaulle realized that Canada might want to capture Saint Pierre and Miquelon (thereby eliminating French territory so close to Quebec), so he secretly planned its seizure by Free France. On Christmas Eve 1941, Free French forces (three corvettes and the submarine Surcouf, led by Rear-Admiral Émile Muselier) "invaded" the islands. The Vichy officials immediately surrendered. It became a major international incident, because the use of military force by Free France was contrary to the Monroe Doctrine and because the United States had just reached an agreement with Vichy France not to disturb its possessions in the Western Hemisphere. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Churchill were incensed to learn that de Gaulle had ordered the landings without even consulting them. The United States and Canada both threatened armed intervention, despite Free France being an ally of both countries. However, US Secretary of State Cordell Hull then disclaimed any further US interest in the islands, and the islands were not critical to any Allied country. The Free French corvette Mimosa, crewed mainly from St. Pierre and Miquelon, escorted Allied convoys. On 9 June 1942, while escorting Convoy ONS 100, she was torpedoed and sunk by . Losses were heavy. The French Commander Roger Birot was killed, as were 58 French and 6 British sailors. Only four French sailors were saved by the Canadian destroyer . Since World War II At the end of the Second World War in 1945, Saint Pierre and Miquelon resumed its place as a center for codfishing. Other nations joined the French fleet to fish in the waters around the islands. The economy was not as prosperous as it had been, and by the 1960s French government subsidies constituted half the budget of the islands. This led to the reputation of the island residents as being "the world's most expensive Frenchmen". In the late 1950s De Gaulle offered all French colonies political and financial independence. Saint Pierre and Miquelon chose to remain part of France. A political leadership crisis in Saint Pierre and Miquelon erupted in 1965. France sent in an armed force of gardes mobiles. In response, the residents of Saint Pierre and Miquelon mounted a three-day general strike in protest of this interference in local affairs. The islands became a full département d'outre mer of France in 1976. This status was modified in 1985 and the islands became a territory with special status (collectivité territoriale à statut particulier) under pressure from the United States. After the constitutional reform of 2003, it became a collectivité d'outre-mer, while keeping its particular name of collectivité territoriale de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon. Canada tried to reduce the codfishing around Newfoundland in the 1970s and 1980s, out of fear of seriously damaging the fish population. The French responded with the "Codfish Crusade" and fished in areas that were forbidden. The Canadian government inspected French fishing trawlers and jailed some fishermen. In 1994, France and Canada mutually agreed to reduce the fishing industry in Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. To the consternation of law enforcement officials, there continues to be smuggling of alcohol and tobacco from Saint Pierre and Miquelon to Newfoundland. This illegal trade has a long history and tradition. It is partly driven by a depressed local economy. At this point, Saint Pierre and Miquelon represent the sole remaining vestige of France's once vast North American possessions. They have always been most important as a fishing centre, being in easy travelling distance of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, some of the world's richest fishing grounds. However, they are slowly diversifying their economy into tourism and other activities, with the assistance of the French government. As a result of an agreement between the European Union and France, the Euro became the legal currency of the French overseas territories of French Guiana, Réunion, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Mayotte in 2002. The COVID-19 disease outbreak has impacted Saint-Pierre and Miquelon in 2020-2023. References Further reading External links GrandColombier.com Project – Over 270 historical documents about Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Saint-Pierre and Miquelon – Article from the public domain 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia.
4897306	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Colorado	List of people from Colorado	This is a list of some notable people who have lived in the U.S. State of Colorado. It includes people who were born, raised, or have significant relations with the state. Coloradans have been prominent in many fields, including literature, entertainment, art, music, politics, and business. This list attempts to maintain biographical notability of significant Coloradans, and to organize historically important men and women hailing from Colorado. Actors Amy Adams (raised in Castle Rock, alumnus of Douglas County High School) – actress, nominated five times for an Oscar for performances in Junebug, Doubt, The Fighter, The Master and American Hustle Tim Allen (born in Denver) – film and television actor, comedian, winner of a Golden Globe Award (1993, nominated six times); star of The Santa Clause, Toy Story and the television series Home Improvement and Last Man Standing Baby Marie (real name Marie Osborne; born in Denver) – film actress and costumer, starred in numerous silent films as a child Roseanne Barr (lived in Denver) – film and television actress, comedian; Golden Globe Award winner, and a Primetime Emmy Award winner; starred in Roseanne and was host of The Roseanne Show Earl W. Bascom (cowboyed in Northwest Colorado) – film and television actor in Hollywood western The Lawless Rider and in television commercials with Roy Rogers Barbara Bates (born in Denver) – actress, featured in such films as All About Eve and The Caddy Melissa Benoist (born in Houston, Texas; raised in Littleton, Colorado – actress and singer, star of 2015 television series Supergirl Jessica Biel (born in MN and lived in Boulder) – film and television actress, starred in 7th Heaven and films including Easy Virtue, The Illusionist and Playing for Keeps Julie Bishop (born in Denver) – actress featured in many 1930s and 1940s films Kelly Bishop (born in Colorado Springs; raised in Denver) – film and television actress, played Emily Gilmore on Gilmore Girls Michael Boatman (born in Colorado Springs) – film and television actor, co-starred in such TV shows as Spin City, China Beach, Arliss Frank Bogert (born in Mesa, Colorado) - rodeo announcer, actor, author, Mayor of Palm Springs California, Walk of Stars honoree Sierra Boggess (born in Denver) – actress and singer; Laurence Olivier Award and Drama Desk Award-nominated Broadway and West End soprano; originated parts of Christine Daae in Love Never Dies and Ariel in The Little Mermaid Tom Bower (born in Denver) – film and television actor, played Dr. Curtis Willard on The Waltons Jason Brooks (born in Colorado Springs) – film and television actor, played Sean Monroe on Baywatch Hawaii and Peter Blake on Days of Our Lives Zachery Ty Bryan (born in Aurora) – film and television actor, starred in Home Improvement Molly Burnett (born in Denver) – television actress, starred on Days of Our Lives Spring Byington (born in Colorado Springs) – actress, star of many films and television series; December Bride Mary Jo Catlett (born in Denver) – film and television actress, played Pearl Gallagher, the housekeeper, on Diff'rent Strokes and does the voice of Mrs. Puff on SpongeBob SquarePants Kristin Cavallari (born in Denver) – reality television personality and actress best known for appearing in MTV's Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County and The Hills Lon Chaney (born in Colorado Springs) – actor in films of 1910s and 1920s, subject of biographical film Man of a Thousand Faces Beth Chapman (born in Denver) – bounty hunter and television personality Duane "Dog" Chapman (born 1953 in Denver) – bounty hunter and television personality "Baby" Lyssa Chapman (born 1987 Denver) – bounty hunter and television personality Don Cheadle (alumnus of East High School) – actor, Oscar nominee and two-time Golden Globe Award winner, four-time Emmy Award nominee and Grammy winner; known for films Boogie Nights, Hotel Rwanda, Ocean's Eleven, The Rat Pack and Iron Man 2 Ken Curtis (born in Las Animas; attended Colorado College in Colorado Springs) – actor, musician; starred in TV series Gunsmoke and in western films The Searchers and The Alamo Kristin Davis (born in Boulder) – actress, star of Sex and the City television series and films Brian Dietzen (lived in Boulder; attended University of Colorado Boulder) – actor, co-star of NCIS as the young Dr. Jimmy Palmer Thomas Doerr (lives in Boulder, Colorado) – architect, author, and educator at the University of Colorado Boulder Big Jack Earle (born in Denver) – silent film actor, sideshow performer and tall man Ralph Edwards (born in Merino) – television host and producer known for This Is Your Life and Truth or Consequences Chris Eigeman (born in Denver) – actor best known for Whit Stillman films Metropolitan, Barcelona, and The Last Days of Disco; starred in ABC's It's Like, You Know... and played Jason Stiles on Gilmore Girls Douglas Fairbanks (born in Denver, attended East High School and the Colorado School of Mines) – film actor, first president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (1927–1929), posthumous winner of an honorary Academy Award (1940) and star of numerous films during the 1910s and 1920s David Fincher (born in Denver) – director of such films as Zodiac, Fight Club, Seven and Gone Girl Joel Geist (born in Denver) – film and television actor Jacque Georgia (lives in Aurora) – actress, author, Mrs. Colorado United States 2019 Pam Grier (attended East High School in Denver) – actress, star of films including Foxy Brown and Jackie Brown Devon Gummersall (born in Durango) – film television actor, played Brian Kraków on ABC's teen drama My So-Called Life Jon Heder (born in Fort Collins) – actor, played title character in Napoleon Dynamite Michael "Ffish" Hemschoot (born in Parker) – director, animator and visual effects artist in films Kelo Henderson (born in Pueblo) – co-starred in 1957–1959 syndicated western television series 26 Men, based on case files of Arizona Rangers law-enforcement team Gregg Henry (born in Lakewood) – film and television actor, known for his roles in Guardians of the Galaxy, Payback, Body Double and Slither, as well as playing Hollis Doyle on Scandal Neil Hopkins (lived in Aurora; attended Regis Jesuit High School) – film and television actor Steve Howey (lived in Lakewood); attended Green Mountain High School – film and television actor, played Van on Reba television show and has been in various films, including Bride Wars Olin Howland (born in Denver) – film and television actor Matt Iseman (born in Denver) – comedian, actor, television host, and winner of The New Celebrity Apprentice Daniel Junge (lives in Denver) – Academy Award-winning documentary filmmaker Brandy Ledford (born in Denver) – actress, model, former Penthouse Pet of the Year; played Dawn Masterton on Baywatch and Doyle on Andromeda Sheryl Lee (grew up in Boulder, alumnus of Fairview High School) – film and television actress, played Laura Palmer and Maddy Ferguson on Twin Peaks and Dr. Sarah Church on L.A. Doctors Jake Lloyd (born in Fort Collins) – film actor, played young Anakin Skywalker on Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace Scott Lowell (born in Denver) – film and television actor, starred in Queer as Folk John Carroll Lynch (born in Boulder) – actor, starred in films including Zodiac and The Founder Hattie McDaniel (lived in Fort Collins and Denver, attended East High School) – film and television actress, winner of an Academy Award (1940) for Gone with the Wind T. J. Miller (born in Denver) – actor and stand-up comedian, voice of Tuffnut in How to Train Your Dragon and Ranger Jones in Yogi Bear, played Hud in Cloverfield Bill Murray (attended Regis University in Denver) – film and television actor, comedian, starred in Saturday Night Live, Ghostbusters, Caddyshack, Rushmore, and Lost in Translation Tracey Needham (grew up in Denver) – film and television actress, appeared as Paige Thatcher on Life Goes On, Lt. Meg Austin on JAG, and as Inspector Candace "C. D." DeLorenzo on The Division Cyrus Nowrasteh (born in Boulder) – screenwriter and director for theatrical films, television films and shows; notable works include the miniseries The Path to 9/11, the drama The Stoning of Soraya M., and the television film The Day Reagan Was Shot Peter O'Fallon (born in Denver) – film and television director, created NBC sci-fi/drama series Mysterious Ways, directed such films as Suicide Kings and A Rumor of Angels Debra Paget (born in Denver) – actress, star of films including The Ten Commandments and Love Me Tender Trey Parker (born in Conifer, alumnus of Evergreen High School, attended University of Colorado Boulder) – actor, animator, director, producer, musician, screenwriter; nominated for an Academy Award (2000) and winner of two Emmy Awards (2005 and 2007, nominated seven times); co-creator of South Park Antoinette Perry (born in Denver) – stage actress and director, co-founder of the American Theatre Wing, posthumous namesake of the Antoinette Perry Awards for Excellence in Theatre, better known as the Tony Awards Amanda Peterson (born in 1971 in Greeley) – film and television actress, starred in Can't Buy Me Love Cassandra Peterson (also known as Elvira; lived in Colorado Springs, alumnus of Palmer High School) – film and television actress, starred in Elvira, Mistress of the Dark Joseph C. Phillips (born in Denver) – actor, played Lt. Martin Kendall on The Cosby Show Denver Pyle (born in Bethune) – actor featured in films including Bonnie and Clyde and on television; played Uncle Jesse in The Dukes of Hazzard Brandon Quinn (born in Aurora) – actor, starred as Tommy Dawkins in Big Wolf on Campus Kelly Reno (born in Pueblo) – actor, starred in film The Black Stallion and its sequel Kristen Renton (born in Denver) – actress, played Morgan Hollingsworth on Days of Our Lives AnnaSophia Robb (born and lives in Denver) – film and television actress, starred in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and Bridge to Terabithia Mark Roberts (born in Denver) – actor who appeared in over 100 films Karly Rothenberg (born in Denver) – film and television actress Barbara Rush (born in Denver) – actress, star of films including The Young Philadelphians, The Young Lions, Bigger Than Life, Robin and the 7 Hoods and Hombre Kristen Schaal (born in Longmont) – actress and comedian, played Mel on Flight of the Conchords and Louise on Bob's Burgers Charity Shea (born in Denver) – actress, starred as Samantha Best on teen drama The Best Years Matt Stone (lived in Denver and Littleton, alumnus of Heritage High School and the University of Colorado Boulder) – actor, musician, producer, writer; winner of two Emmy Awards (2005 and 2007, nominated seven times); co-creator of South Park Sherry Stringfield (born in Colorado Springs) – actress, starred in TV series ER Tom Tully (born in Durango) – film and television actor, nominated for an Academy Award in 1955 for The Caine Mutiny, starred in CBS's police drama, The Lineup and co-starred in ABC's western TV series Shane in 1966 Jan-Michael Vincent (born in Denver) – film and television actor, played helicopter pilot Stringfellow Hawke on 1980s series Airwolf (1984–1986) Frank Welker (born in Denver) – voice actor, played Fred Jones in Scooby-Doo and Nibbler in Futurama David White (born in Denver) – film and television actor, featured in TV series Bewitched Sheree J. Wilson (lived in Boulder) – actress, played Alex Cahill in TV series Walker, Texas Ranger Stephen Thomas Ochsner – actor, director, musician, artist, translator and producer Ross Marquand-born in Fort Collins, Colorado; attended University of Colorado Boulder) – actor, recurring main character of TV series The Walking Dead' Artists, photographers Robert Adams (lived in Colorado) – photographer of the western landscape; received two Guggenheim Fellowships, a MacArthur Fellowship; works are in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York Earl W. Bascom (lived in Colorado) – artist, sculptor, cousin of western artist Frederic Remington, lived and worked in Northwest Colorado during the late 1920s John Fabian Carlson (lived in Colorado Springs) – painter, director and an instructor at the Broadmoor Academy, a precursor to the current Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center and founder of the John F. Carlson School of Landscape Painting Tomory Dodge (born in Denver; alumnus of South High School (Denver) – artist, paintings in public collections including the Whitney Museum of American Art and the Smithsonian American Art Museum Jess E. DuBois (born in Denver) – artist, advocate of Indian art John Fielder – landscape photographer and nature writer William Henry Jackson (lived in Denver) – photographer for the United States Geological Survey and Union Pacific Railroad, created one of the largest and most expansive western photographic collections in the world Frank Tenney Johnson - western artist related to artists Frederic Remington and Earl Bascom, lived and cowboyed near Hayden Barry Kooser (born in Wheat Ridge; alumnus of Arvada West High School) – Disney artist, fine art painter and CCO of Worker Studio David Burroughs Mattingly (born in Fort Collins) – illustrator and painter known for book covers of science fiction and fantasy literature Amanda Marie Ploegsma, known as Amanda Marie (born in the Netherlands, lives in Colorado) – artist, exhibits across the United States and Europe, alumna of Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design, stencilist of storybook imagery in contemporary murals and paintings Robert Reid (lived in Colorado Springs) – painter, instructor at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Cooper Union, and the Broadmoor Academy Wendi Schneider (lives in Denver) – Denver-based photographer of nature and wildlife; often prints on paper vellum with hand-applied layers of gold leaf Astronauts Loren Acton (born 1936) – mission specialist on STS-51-F Jeffrey Ashby (born 1954) – pilot of STS-93 and STS-100; commander of STS-112 Patrick Baudry (born 1946) – payload specialist on STS-51-G John E. Blaha (born 1942) – pilot of STS-29 and STS-33; commander of STS-43 and STS-58; Mission Specialist on STS-79, STS-81, and Mir space station Michael J. Bloomfield (born 1959) – pilot of STS-86 and STS-97; commander of STS-110 Karol J. Bobko (born 1935) – pilot of STS-6; commander of STS-51-D and STS-51-J Eric A. Boe (born 1964) – pilot of STS-126 Vance D. Brand (born 1931) – Mercury astronaut; Apollo docking module pilot on the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project; commander of STS-5, STS-41-B, and STS-35 Roy D. Bridges Jr. (born 1943) – pilot of STS-51-F; director of the Kennedy Space Center (1997–2003); director of Langley Research Center (2003–2005) Curtis Brown (born 1956) – pilot of STS-47, STS-66, and STS-77; commander of STS-85, STS-95, and STS-103 Scott Carpenter (1925–2013) – pilot of Mercury-Atlas 7 (Aurora 7); fourth human to orbit the Earth (1962) Gerald P. Carr (1932–2020) – commander of Skylab 4 (1973–1974) John Casper (born 1943) – pilot of STS-36; commander of STS-54, STS-62, and STS-77 Kalpana Chawla (1961–2003) – mission specialist on STS-87 and STS-107; killed on February 1, 2003, on the reentry of the Space Shuttle Columbia Kevin P. Chilton (born 1954) – pilot of STS-49 and STS-59; commander of STS-76 Mary L. Cleave (born 1947) – mission specialist on STS-61-B and STS-30 Gordon Cooper (1927–2004) – pilot of Mercury-Atlas 9 (Faith 7); command pilot of Gemini V Richard O. Covey (born 1946) – pilot of STS-51-I and STS-26; commander of STS-38 and STS-61 Takao Doi (born 1954) – mission specialist on STS-87 B. Alvin Drew (born 1962) – mission specialist on STS-118 Brian Duffy (born 1953) – pilot of STS-45 and STS-57; commander of STS-72 and STS-92 Samuel T. Durrance (born 1943) – payload specialist on STS-35 and STS-67 James Dutton (born 1968) – pilot of STS-131 Martin J. Fettman (born 1956) – payload specialist on STS-58 Dale Gardner (1948–2014) – mission specialist on STS-8 and STS-51-A Guy Gardner (born 1948) – pilot of STS-27 and STS-35 Ronald J. Grabe (born 1945) – pilot of STS-51-J and STS-30; commander of STS-42 and STS-57 Frederick D. Gregory (born 1941) – pilot of STS-51-B; commander of STS-33 and STS-44 William G. Gregory (born 1957) – pilot of STS-67 Sidney M. Gutierrez (born 1951) – pilot of STS-40; commander of STS-59 James D. Halsell (born 1956) – pilot of STS-65 and STS-74; commander of STS-83, STS-94, and STS-101 L. Blaine Hammond (born 1952) – pilot of STS-39 and STS-64 Susan J. Helms (born 1958) – mission specialist on STS-54, STS-64, STS-78, STS-101, STS-102, and STS-105; flight engineer of International Space Station Expedition 2 (2001) Terence T. Henricks (born 1952) – pilot of STS-44 and STS-55; commander of STS-70 and STS-78 John Herrington (born 1958) – mission specialist on STS-113 Richard Hieb (born 1955) – mission specialist on STS-39, STS-49, and STS-65 James Irwin (1930–1991) – lunar module pilot on Apollo 15; eighth human to walk on the Moon (1971) Marsha Ivins (born 1951) – mission specialist on STS-32, STS-46, STS-62, STS-81, and STS-98 Gregory H. Johnson (born 1962) – pilot of STS-123 and STS-134 Thomas D. Jones (born 1955) – mission specialist on STS-59, STS-80, and STS-98; payload commander on STS-68 James M. Kelly (born 1964) – pilot of STS-102 and STS-114 Kevin R. Kregel (born 1956) – pilot of STS-70 and STS-78; commander of STS-87 and STS-99 Mark C. Lee (born 1952) – mission specialist on STS-30, STS-64, and STS-82; payload commander of STS-47 Kjell N. Lindgren (born 1973) – flight engineer and mission specialist on International Space Station Expedition 44 and Expedition 45 Steven W. Lindsey (born 1960) – pilot of STS-87 and STS-95; commander of STS-104 and STS-121 John M. Lounge (1946–2011) – mission specialist on STS-51-I, STS-26, and STS-35 Bruce McCandless II (1937 - 2017) Donald R. McMonagle (born 1952) – mission specialist on STS-39; pilot of STS-54; commander of STS-66 Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger (born 1975) – mission specialist on STS-131 George Nelson (born 1950) – mission specialist on STS-41-C, STS-61-C, and STS-26 Ellison Onizuka (1946–1986) – mission specialist on STS-51-C and STS-51-L; killed on January 28, 1986, on the ascent of the Space Shuttle Challenger William A. Pailes (born 1952) – payload specialist on STS-51-J Scott E. Parazynski (born 1961) – payload specialist on STS-66; mission specialist on STS-86, STS-95, STS-100, and STS-120 Charles J. Precourt (born 1955) – mission specialist on STS-55; pilot of STS-71; commander of STS-84 and STS-91 Kent Rominger (born 1956) – pilot of STS-73, STS-80, and STS-85; commander of STS-96 and STS-100 Stuart Roosa (1933–1994) – command module pilot on Apollo 14; eleventh human to orbit the Moon (1971) Richard A. Searfoss (1956–2018) – pilot of STS-58 and STS-76; commander of STS-90 Ronald M. Sega (born 1952) – mission specialist on STS-60 and STS-76 Loren Shriver (born 1944) – pilot of STS-41-B; commander of STS-31 and STS-46 Robert L. Stewart (born 1942) – mission specialist on STS-41-C and STS-51-J Steven Swanson (born 1960) – mission specialist on STS-117 and STS-119, International Space Station expeditions 39 and 40 Jack Swigert (1931–1982) – command module pilot on Apollo 13 mission; orbited the Moon; elected to the United States Congress, but died before taking office Joseph R. Tanner (born 1950) – mission specialist on STS-66, STS-82, STS-97, and STS-115 James van Hoften (born 1944) – mission specialist on STS-41-C and STS-51-I Charles L. Veach (1944–1995) – mission specialist on STS-39 and STS-52 Terry W. Virts (born 1967) – pilot of STS-130 James Voss (born 1949) – mission specialist on STS-44, STS-53, STS-69, STS-101, STS-102, and STS-105; flight engineer of International Space Station Expedition 2 (2001) Athletes David Aardsma (lived in Greenwood Village; alumnus of Cherry Creek High School) – Major League Baseball pitcher Max Aaron (born in Arizona, lives in Colorado Springs) – 2013 U.S. national champion figure skater Louis Amundson (raised in Boulder, alumnus of Monarch High School) – pro basketball player Heather Armbrust (lives in Wheat Ridge) – IFBB professional bodybuilder Tom Ashworth (born in Denver, alumnus of Cherry Creek High School and University of Colorado Boulder) – NFL player, member of three NFL Super Bowl champion teams (Super Bowls XXXVI, XXXVIII and XXXIX) with New England Patriots Buddy Baer (born in Denver) – boxer and actor, brother of Max Baer Kalen Ballage (born in Peyton) – running back for the Miami Dolphins Josh Bard (born in Ithaca, New York, moved to Greenwood Village; alumnus of Cherry Creek High School) – MLB catcher and coach Earl W. Bascom (lived in Colorado) – rodeo champion and Hall of Famer, invented rodeo's first hornless bronc saddle and fone-hand bareback rigging, called "father of modern rodeo", lived on White Bear Ranch in Northwest Colorado, married cousin of Jack Dempsey Ben Bishop (born in Denver) – National Hockey League goaltender Chauncey Billups (born and raised in Denver, alumnus of George Washington High School and University of Colorado Boulder) – NBA player for Denver Nuggets, Los Angeles Clippers and champion Detroit Pistons team (2004); selected as MVP of NBA Finals (2004), three-time NBA All-Star Greg Bird (raised in Aurora; alumnus of Grandview High School) – first baseman for New York Yankees Jeremy Bloom (born in Loveland; alumnus of Loveland High School and University of Colorado Boulder) – Olympic and world champion freestyle moguls skier, played football for University of Colorado and in NFL Tony Boselli (raised in Boulder; alumnus of Fairview High School in Boulder) – offensive lineman for USC, second selection of 1995 NFL Draft; All Pro for Jacksonville Jaguars Ronnie Bradford (lived in Commerce City; alumnus of Adams City High School and University of Colorado at Boulder) – NFL player (1993–2002) for four teams; special teams coach of Denver Broncos William Glenn Brundige (from Holyoke) – former NFL defensive end Calais Campbell (born and raised in Denver, alumnus of South High School in Denver, Colorado) – NFL defensive end Joe Barry Carroll (raised in Denver, alumnus of East High School in Denver) – basketball player for Purdue, first selection of 1980 NBA draft, center and NBA All Star Tom Chambers (alumnus of Fairview High School in Boulder) – basketball player, 4-time NBA All Star Alysha Clark (born 1987) – American-Israeli basketball player for the Israeli team Elitzur Ramla and the Las Vegas Aces of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) E.H. "Dutch" Clark (born in Fowler); alumnus of Pueblo Central High School and Colorado College) – Colorado's first All-American football player; player and coach for Detroit Lions in 1930s; charter member of Pro Football Hall of Fame Jon Cooper (born in Fort Collins; alumnus of Fort Collins High School) – center for Minnesota Vikings John Coughlin (1985-2019), figure skater, committed suicide Jesse Crain (lived in Boulder; alumnus of Fairview High School) – MLB relief pitcher Mason Crosby (alumni of University of Colorado) – NFL kicker for Green Bay Packers Drew Davis (born in Denver) – wide receiver for Atlanta Falcons Hayden Dalton (born 1996) - basketball player for Hapoel Holon of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Pat Day (born in Brush) – Hall of Fame jockey, Kentucky Derby winner Joe DeCamillis (born in Arvada) – special teams coach for Denver Broncos previously with Dallas Cowboys, Chicago Bears Jack Dempsey (born in Manassa) – professional boxer, nicknamed "the Manassa Mauler", regarded as boxing's World Heavyweight Champion from 1919 to 1926 Inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame (1990); author of two books relating to hand-to-hand combat Reed Doughty (born in Greeley; alumnus of Theodore Roosevelt High School in Johnstown, Colorado) – safety for Washington Redskins Joel Dreessen (lived in Fort Morgan; alumnus of Fort Morgan High School) – NFL tight end Justin Drescher (born in Colorado Springs) – long snapper for New Orleans Saints John Elway (lives in Englewood) – NFL quarterback (1984–1999) for Denver Broncos, member of two Super Bowl champion teams (Super Bowls XXXII and XXXIII), selected as NFL MVP (1987), MVP of Super Bowl XXXIII, twice as UPI AFC Offensive Player of the Year (1987 and 1993), five times for AP NFL All-Pro team, nine-time Pro Bowl selection; Denver Broncos Ring of Fame (1999), College Football Hall of Fame (2000), and Pro Football Hall of Fame (2004), vice president and general manager of Broncos Alex English (lived in Denver) – NBA player (1976–1991) with Milwaukee Bucks, Indiana Pacers, Denver Nuggets and Dallas Mavericks, assistant coach with Toronto Raptors, seven-time NBA All-Star, inducted into Basketball Hall of Fame (1997) Brian Fisher (born in Denver, lives in Aurora) – Major League Baseball pitcher with New York Yankees and Pittsburgh Pirates Peter Foley (born 1965 or 1966) – former snowboarding coach; suspended for 10 years for sexual misconduct Missy Franklin (resides in Centennial) – five-time Olympic gold medalist in swimming, attended Regis Jesuit High School, and swam collegiality at UCLA Ben Garland (born in Grand Junction; alumnus of Central High School) – offensive guard for the Atlanta Falcons Kevin Gausman (born in Centennial; alumnus of Grandview High School in Aurora) – Major League Baseball pitcher for the Atlanta Braves Brian Ginsberg (born 1966, lived in Denver) - gymnast, two-time US junior national gymnastics champion Arielle Gold (born and lives in Steamboat Springs) – snowboarder; Olympic bronze medalist, Junior World Champion, and World Champion Taylor Gold (born and lives in Steamboat Springs) – Olympic snowboarder Richard "Goose" Gossage (born in Colorado Springs, lives in Highlands Ranch) – Major League Baseball pitcher (1972–1994) for nine teams; member of 1978 World Series champion New York Yankees, 12-time All-Star, inducted into National Baseball Hall of Fame (2008) Daniel Graham (raised in Denver; attended Thomas Jefferson High School) – NFL tight end Robert Griswold (born 1996) - swimmer Roy Halladay (born in Denver, raised in Arvada) – MLB starting pitcher, won AL Cy Young Award in 2003, NL Cy Young Award in 2010; eight-time All-Star Matt Hasselbeck (born in Boulder) – quarterback for four NFL teams, selected three times to Pro Bowl, commentator Chase Headley (born in Fountain; alumnus of Fountain-Fort Carson High School) – third baseman for the New York Yankees Phil Heath (lives in Arvada) – bodybuilder, twice Mr. Olympia Taryn Hemmings (born in Greeley) – professional soccer player for Chicago Red Stars and Boston Breakers, played in Japan for Tepco Mareeze and in Australia for Canberra United, all-time leading Division 1 scorer for University of Denver Jordan Hicks (born in Colorado Springs) – linebacker for Philadelphia Eagles Luke Hochevar (born in Denver) – relief pitcher for Kansas City Royals Noah Hoffman (born 1989) – Olympic skier Lamarr Houston (raised in Colorado Springs; attended Thomas B. Doherty High School) – defensive end for Oakland Raiders Danny Jackson (lived in Aurora; graduated from Aurora Central High School) – baseball player, pitcher for KC Royals, Cincinnati Reds, Chicago Cubs Reggie Jackson (lived in Colorado Springs; attended Palmer High School) – basketball player for NBA's Oklahoma City Thunder Vincent Jackson (born and raised in Colorado Springs; attended Widefield High School and University of Northern Colorado) – wide receiver for San Diego Chargers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers Ryan Jensen (born in Rangely and reared in Fort Morgan; attended Fort Morgan High School and Colorado State University Pueblo) – offensive lineman for Baltimore Ravens, sixth-round pick of 2013 NFL Draft Seth Jones (born in Arlington, Texas, but lived in Denver) – plays defense in NHL currently with Columbus Blue Jackets Dirk Johnson (raised in Montrose, graduate of Montrose High School and University of Northern Colorado) – NFL punter Jonathan Kaye (born in Denver) – professional golfer on PGA Tour Ronald Kiefel (lives in Wheat Ridge, born in Boulder) – bronze medal Olympic winner for road cycling' raced in Tour de France 7 times Mark Knudson (born in Denver, alumnus of Colorado State University) – Major League Baseball pitcher, first Colorado native to play for the Colorado Rockies Kevin Kouzmanoff (lived in Evergreen, alumnus of Evergreen High School) – Major League Baseball player for Colorado Rockies Oliver Larraz (born in Denver), soccer player Buddy Lazier (born in Vail) – auto racing driver, winner of Indy Racing League championship (2000) and Indianapolis 500 (1996), awarded Indianapolis Motor Speedway's Scott Brayton Trophy (2003) Brad Lidge (attended Cherry Creek High School in Greenwood Village and lives in Englewood) – relief pitcher for Philadelphia Phillies, Houston Astros Phillip Lindsay – (raised in Aurora, Colorado, Denver South High School alumnus, and former University of Colorado Boulder running back) current National Football League running back Jacob Lissek (born 1992), soccer player Phil Loadholt (lived in Fountain; alumnus of Fountain-Fort Carson High School) – offensive tackle for the Minnesota Vikings Dave Logan (attended Wheat Ridge High School and University of Colorado) – drafted to three professional sports (football, basketball and baseball); wide receiver for Cleveland Browns and Denver Broncos; radio personality on KOA; coached high school football teams for Arvada West High School, Chatfield Senior High School, Mullen High School, Cherry Creek High School to state championships Brian Matusz (born in Grand Junction) – relief pitcher for Baltimore Orioles Christian McCaffrey (born in Castle Rock, alumnus of Valor Christian High School in Highlands Ranch, Colorado) – NFL running back for the San Francisco 49ers Brandon McCarthy (lived in Colorado Springs, attended Cheyenne Mountain High School) – MLB pitcher for Atlanta Braves Scot McCloughan (raised in Loveland; attended Loveland High School) – general manager of the Washington Redskins Darnell McDonald (born in Fort Collins) – attended Cherry Creek High School) – outfielder for Boston Red Sox Mark Melancon (born in Wheat Ridge, attended Golden High School) – closer for Atlanta Braves Bill Musgrave (raised in Grand Junction) – graduate of Grand Junction High School, football player for Dallas Cowboys, San Francisco 49ers and Denver Broncos, offensive coordinator for Minnesota Vikings Jesse Nading (born in Highlands Ranch; alumnus of ThunderRidge High School) – defensive end for Houston Texans David Pauley (born in Longmont) – relief pitcher for Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox Erik Pears (alumnus of John F. Kennedy High School in Denver) – offensive tackle for San Francisco 49ers Jake Pemberton (born 1996) - American-Israeli basketball player in the Israeli National League Tyler Polumbus (born in Denver) – offensive tackle for Denver Broncos Alina Popa (lives in Lakewood) – IFBB professional bodybuilder Mike Purcell (born in Highlands Ranch; alumnus of Highlands Ranch High School) – defensive end for San Francisco 49ers Sam Raben – soccer player Micheal Ray Richardson (raised in Denver, alumnus of Manual High School in Denver) – NBA All Star point guard Ryan Max Riley (raised in Winter Park and Steamboat Springs, alumnus of Lowell Whiteman School in Steamboat Springs) – national champion mogul skier on US Ski Team Dalton Risner (born in Wiggins, Colorado) – current National Football League left guard for the Denver Broncos Taylor Rogers (born in Littleton) – closer for the Minnesota Twins Kevin Russo (born in West Babylon, New York, moved to Boulder; attended Fairview High School) – baseball player for New York Yankees Jeff Salzenstein (born 1973; lived in Englewood), tennis player Bob Sapp (born in Colorado Springs) – kickboxer, attended Mitchell High School Bo Scaife (born and raised in Denver, alumnus of J.K. Mullen High School) – NFL tight end Daniel Schlereth (born in Anchorage, Alaska, moved to Highlands Ranch; alumnus of Highlands Ranch High School) – relief pitcher for Detroit Tigers Brian Schottenheimer (born in Denver) – offensive coordinator for Indianapolis Colts Brian Shaw (born in Fort Lupton) – four-time World's Strongest Man champion; three-time Arnold Strongman Classic champion Nick Shore (born in Denver, attended University of Denver) – plays center in NHL currently with Los Angeles Kings Jaccob Slavin (born in Erie, attended Colorado College) – plays defense in NHL currently with Carolina Hurricanes Aaron Smith (born and raised in Colorado Springs; attended Sierra High School and University of Northern Colorado) – defensive end for Pittsburgh Steelers, won two Super Bowls (2005, 2008); selected to NFL Pro Bowl (2004); named to Sports Illustrated's All-Decade Team (2000s) Alex Smith (born in The Bahamas, moved to Denver; attended J. K. Mullen High School) – tight end for Cleveland Browns, New England Patriots and Tampa Bay Buccaneers Jason Smith (born in Kersey) – basketball player, first-round pick in 2007 NBA draft, power forward for Washington Wizards Nate Solder (born in Denver) – offensive tackle for New York Giants, first-round pick in 2011 NFL Draft Kory Sperry (born in Pueblo) – tight end for San Diego Chargers Eve Torres (born in Denver) – WWE Divas champion Bobby Unser (born in Colorado Springs) – auto racing driver; two-time winner of USAC/CART Indy Car championship (1968 and 1974), three-time winner of Indianapolis 500 (1968, 1975 and 1981); 13-time winner of Open-Wheel Class at Pikes Peak International Hill Climb; inducted in International Motorsports Hall of Fame (1990), Motorsports Hall of Fame of America (1994), and National Sprint Car Hall of Fame (1997) Jerry Unser (born in Colorado Springs) – auto racing driver, winner of USAC Stock Car championship (1957) Pat Valenzuela (born in Montrose – jockey, winner of Kentucky Derby, Preakness and Breeders' Cup Amy Van Dyken (born in Denver, alumnus of Cherry Creek High School) – swimmer, winner of six Olympic gold medals (four in 1996, two in 2000), three FINA World Championship gold medals (1998) and three Pan American Games gold medals (1995) Charles Washington (born in Colorado) – NFL player LenDale White (born and raised in Denver, alumnus of South High School and Chatfield Senior High School) – All-American running back for USC, running back for three NFL teams Joanna Zeiger – Olympic and world champion triathlete, and author Cat Zingano (born in Winona, Minnesota but attended high school in Boulder) – UFC mixed martial artist Business and community leaders William Bent (lived near present-day La Junta) – with his brothers, Bent established Bent's Fort trading post; became a peace negotiator between settlers and Native Americans Norman E. Brinker (born in Denver; died in Colorado Springs) – restaurateur responsible for new business concepts in the restaurant field, such as the salad bar Margaret Brown (lived in Colorado) – socialite, philanthropist, and activist who became famous in the 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic, The Unsinkable Molly Brown Margaret Isely (1921–1997) – American peace activist and co-founder of WCPA and Natural Grocers by Vitamin Cottage Philip Isely (1915–2012) – American peace activist, writer and co-founder of WCPA-GREN and Natural Grocers by Vitamin Cottage James C. Collins (born in Boulder) – business consultant, author, and lecturer on the subject of company sustainability and growth Adolph Coors (lived in Golden) – based in Golden, established what is now the nation's third largest brewing company; his family has been active in Colorado politics and philanthropy Charles Gates Jr. (born in Denver) – longtime president of the Gates Corporation, the world's largest maker of automotive belts and hoses Elliot Handler (raised in Denver) – co-founder of Mattel; helped develop some of the biggest-selling toys in American history, including Barbie dolls, Chatty Cathy, Creepy Crawlers and Hot Wheels Ruth Handler (born in Denver) – businesswoman and inventor; served as the president of the toy manufacturer Mattel and is remembered for her role in designing and marketing the Barbie doll Daniel M. Lewin (born in Denver) – mathematician and entrepreneur, known for co-founding the internet company, Akamai Technologies; one of the murdered passengers on American Airlines Flight 11 James Smith McDonnell (1899–1980) (born in Denver) – aviation pioneer and founder of McDonnell Aircraft Corporation Otto Mears (born in Russia, lived in Silverton) – entrepreneur, financier, and railroad builder; founder of the Rio Grande Southern and the Silverton railroads David Halliday Moffat (1839–1911) – banker, financier, industrialist, and inspiration for the Moffat Tunnel, the world's-longest railway tunnel upon its completion Texas Jack Omohundro (lived and died in Leadville) – frontier scout, actor, and cowboy General William Jackson Palmer (lived in Colorado Springs) – founder of Colorado Springs, developed the first narrow gauge railroad system, the Denver and Rio Grande, owned the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company in Pueblo Winfield Scott Stratton (lived in Victor and Colorado Springs) – prospector, businessman and philanthropist; became a millionaire after he discovered and developed the Independence Mine; when he died he left all of his wealth for the construction of the Myron Stratton Home, for homeless and poor people Horace Tabor (lived in Leadville) – prospector, businessman, and politician Gertrude Vaile (1878-1954), social worker Stanley M. Wagner (1932–2013) – academic and longtime congregational rabbi of Beth HaMedrosh Hagodol-Beth Joseph Literary figures Robert Baer (raised in Aspen) – author and a former CIA case officer assigned to the Middle East; wrote the books See No Evil and Sleeping with the Devil Matthew Berry (born in Denver) – creator of the Man's League inductee in the Fantasy Sports Trade Association Hall of Fame, and author (Fantasy Life) Eleanor Brown (lives in Highlands Ranch) – author of New York Times bestselling novel The Weird Sisters and The Light of Paris Neal Cassady (born in Salt Lake City, Utah, raised in Denver) – figure from the Beat Generation, known for being characterized as Dean Moriarty in Jack Kerouac's novel On the Road Clive Cussler (lived in Arvada and Golden) – novelist, Raise the Titanic, Deep Six Eugene Field (lived in Denver) – poet and journalist known for his work in children's literature, wrote such poems as Little Boy Blue and Wynken, Blynken, and Nod Allen Ginsberg (lived in Boulder) – beat poet, author of Howl and Kaddish, co-founder of the Naropa Institute's Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics in Boulder Shelby Holliday (grew up in Denver) – journalist for The Wall Street Journal Helen Hunt Jackson (lived in Colorado Springs) – wrote about the relationship between Coloradans and the Native Indian Tribes, and is often remembered for her brave stance in novels such as A Century of Dishonor and Ramona Ken Kesey (born in La Junta) – author of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest Benjamin Kunkel (born 1972) - novelist and political economist James A. Michener (attended college in Greeley) – worked as a professor at the University of Northern Colorado in Greeley where his archives are held; his novel Centennial is about Colorado history Jack Murphy (born in Denver) – sportswriter, football stadium in San Diego was named for him Sayyid Qutb – author, poet, educator, and Islamic political theorist who described his stay in Greeley in the censorious article The America that I Have Seen that aroused Anti-American Sentiment among many Muslims; executed by Egypt Marguerite Roberts (born in Greeley) – screenwriter, films include Ivanhoe, True Grit, 5 Card Stud Harold Ross (born in Aspen) – journalist, founder of The New Yorker magazine Lowell Thomas (born in Woodington, Ohio, but raised in Victor) – writer, journalist, broadcaster and traveler best known as the man who made Lawrence of Arabia famous Hunter S. Thompson (lived in Woody Creek) – author; creator of Gonzo journalism Dalton Trumbo (born in Montrose; lived in Grand Junction; attended the University of Colorado Boulder) – author of Johnny Got His Gun and Oscar-winning screenwriter for his work in The Brave One; wrote the scripts for Spartacus, Exodus, Hawaii, and Papillon; was blacklisted during the 1950s as one of the Hollywood 10 Connie Willis (lives in Greeley) – science fiction writer Military figures Erwin J. Boydston (enlisted in Colorado) – recipient of the United States Navy Medal of Honor for his service during the Boxer Rebellion Arleigh Burke (born in Boulder) – admiral of the United States Navy during World War II along with the Korean War; later the Chief of Naval Operations during the Eisenhower administration Louis H. Carpenter – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for meritorious service in Colorado during the Indian Wars Christopher Houston "Kit" Carson (1809–1868) – frontiersman, commander of Fort Garland (1866–1867), and negotiator of the 1867 peace treaty between the United States and the Ute tribe Francis S. Dodge – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service in Colorado during the Indian Wars Dwight David Eisenhower (married in Denver) – 34th President of the United States; organized the temporary location of Lowry Air Force Base, Denver, for a new service academy, the United States Air Force Academy; in 1954, Colorado Springs won the location for the new United States Air Force Academy site; as president, his official airplanes, Lockheed Constellation were The Columbine, Colorado's state flower; Several times President Eisenhower was treated for cardiac events at Fitzsimmons Army Hospital William R. Grove (enlisted in Colorado) – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service during the Philippine–American War William P. Hall – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service in Colorado during the Indian Wars Henry Johnson – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service as a "Buffalo Soldier" in Colorado during the Indian Wars Marc Alan Lee – first Navy SEAL to lose his life in Operation Iraqi Freedom; posthumously awarded the Silver Star, the Bronze Star Medal with Valor and the Purple Heart John Merrill – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for gallant service in Colorado during the Indian Wars Wilhelm O. Philipsen – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service in Colorado during the Indian Wars George W. Wallace (enlisted in Colorado) – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service during the Philippine–American War Musicians 3OH!3 (formed in Boulder) – electronica group; song "Don't Trust Me" from the album Want certified platinum by the RIAA Laurie Anderson (lived in Boulder) – avant garde performer and musician, communications expert, writer The Astronauts (formed in Boulder) – surf rock; first album along with the song "Baja" was number sixty-one in May 1963 on the Billboard 200 album chart Philip Bailey (attended East High School in Denver) – singer/musician, Earth, Wind and Fire Ginger Baker (lived in Parker during the 1990s – English drummer, member of Cream Jello Biafra (real name Eric Boucher; born in Boulder; lived in Denver) – singer, songwriter, owner of Alternative Tentacles record label, member of the punk band Dead Kennedys Big Head Todd and the Monsters (formed at the University of Colorado Boulder) – rock band; two of the band's albums have reached Billboard's Top 40 Album charts (1993, 1994), with one (Sister Sweetly) certified platinum by the RIAA Tommy Bolin (lived in Boulder) – guitarist of Zephyr, James Gang, and Deep Purple Breathe Carolina (born and raised in Denver) – electronica/screamo group; band consists of David Schmitt, Tommy Coops, Luis Bonet, Eric Armenta Antonia Brico (lived in Denver) – conductor and pianist; was conductor of the Brico Symphony Orchestra and the Denver Symphony Orchestra Chris Broderick (lived in Lakewood; attended University of Denver) – lead guitarist for thrash metal band Megadeth Jesse Carmichael (born in Boulder) – keyboardist for the rock group Maroon 5 John Denver (real name Henry Deutschendorf Jr.; lived in Aspen) – singer, guitarist, songwriter; winner of a Grammy Award (1997) and a posthumous Grammy Hall of Fame Award (1998); inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame (1996); named the official Poet Laureate of the State of Colorado (1977), with his song "Rocky Mountain High", which was named as one of the state's official songs DeVotchKa (formed in Denver) – rock band, nominated for a Grammy Award (2006), assisted in composing and performing the score for the film Little Miss Sunshine Larry Dunn (attended East High School in Denver) – musician/keyboards, Earth, Wind and Fire Bryan Erickson (lives in Westminster) – singer, producer; member of the bands Velvet Acid Christ and Toxic Coma R5 Flobots (formed in Denver) – Hip hop band known for the song "Handlebars" from their album Fight with Tools; board members on the non-profit organization Flobots.org, a community organization; Flobots.org was founded before the band attained any fame The Fluid (formed in Denver) – grunge band Dan Fogelberg – folk/soft rock/pop singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist. In the 1970s, moved to Nederland, recorded material for Nether Lands and some later albums at nearby Caribou Ranch. A decade or so later, after continued commercial success, Fogelberg bought a ranch in the Pagosa Springs area, where he built his own recording studio, Mountain Bird Studio. Josephine Foster (from Fort Collins) – singer-songwriter The Fray (formed in Denver) – rock band; nominated for two Grammy Awards (2007); album How to Save a Life has been certified double platinum by the RIAA; members Dave Welsh and Ben Wysocki attended Ralston Valley High School in Arvada Bill Frisell (attended East High School in Denver) – jazz musician/guitarist Don Grusin (born 1941 in Denver, lives in Boulder) – songwriter, producer and keyboardist India.Arie (born as India Arie Simpson in Denver) – singer, multi-instrumentalist, songwriter, producer; winner of two Grammy Awards (2003, nominated sixteen times); three released albums have all hit Billboard's Top 40 Albums chart and have been certified by the RIAA as either platinum or multi-platinum sellers Itchy-O (formed in Denver) – electronica experimental group; approximately 40 band members performing in the audience, with marching-band drums, taiko drums, electronics, dancers, and a Chinese lion; all while masked, covered in LED lights, often with fireworks and other props such as giant puppets and flame throwers Ronnie Lane (lived and died in Trinidad) – singer, songwriter, bass guitarist; member of the bands Small Faces and Faces, and founder of his own backing band Slim Chance Lecrae (lived in Denver) – Christian hip hop recording artist, songwriter, record producer, and actor; president, co-owner and co-founder of the independent record label Reach Records The Lumineers (based in Denver) – folk rock band C.W. McCall (lived in Ouray) – country singer known for the song "Convoy" in 1975; served six years as mayor of Ouray in 1986 Glenn Miller (full name Alton Glenn Miller; lived in Fort Morgan and Boulder; alumnus of Fort Morgan High School and the University of Colorado Boulder) – trombonist, band leader, leader of the Glenn Miller Orchestra and the United States Army Air Force Band; at the time of his death, one fifth of all music played on jukeboxes was a Glenn Miller creation Ron Miles (attended East High School in Denver) – musician/trumpet, Jazz Ronnie Montrose (born in Denver) – rock guitarist who led a number of his own bands as well as performing with a variety of musicians Jaye P. Morgan (born in Mancos) – singer and television personality OneRepublic (formed in Colorado Springs) – rock band; album Dreaming Out Loud has been certified platinum by the RIAA Günther Johannes Paetsch (born in Germany, lived in Colorado Springs) was a cellist and co-founder of the Paetsch Family Chamber Music Ensemble in Colorado Springs Pretty Lights (from Fort Collins) The Samples (formed in Boulder) – reggae-influenced rock/pop group Tickle Me Pink (formed in Fort Collins) – signed to Wind-Up Records; debut album Madeline Townes Van Zandt (lived in Boulder; briefly attended the University of Colorado) – country singer and songwriter Velvet Acid Christ (based in Denver) – electro-industrial band Chuck E. Weiss (grew up in Denver) – musician and subject of the 1979 Rickie Lee Jones song "Chuck E.'s in Love" Paul Whiteman (born in Denver) – considered by some the "King of Jazz"; after selling two million records with the song "The Japanese Sandman", Whiteman added to his fame by being one of the first nationally broadcast jazz musicians; remembered for his ability to fuse jazz and classical in hits like Rhapsody in Blue and "Whispering" Kip Winger (born in Denver) – singer and bassist for the 1980s hair metal band Winger, which had hit songs such as "Seventeen" and "Headed for a Heartbreak"; since band's breakup in 1994, Winger has continued as a solo artist Andrew Woolfolk (attended East High School in Denver) – musician/alto saxophone, Earth, Wind and Fire Yonder Mountain String Band (based in Nederland) – bluegrass jam band whose fan base has been fueled primarily through live performances since their inception in 1998; self-titled 2006 studio album was the band's first release with a major label Ace Young (born and raised in Denver) – American Idol finalist Politicians Madeleine Albright (spent her teen years in Denver; graduated from the Kent Denver School in Cherry Hills Village) – U.S. Secretary of State during the presidency of Bill Clinton Frank Bogert (born in Mesa, Colorado) - rodeo announcer, actor, author, Mayor of Palm Springs California, Walk of Stars honoree William B. Ebbert (lived in Rocky Ford, Pueblo and Cortez) – served in Colorado General Assembly, 1889–1890 (Republican); 1907–1908 (Democrat); 1911–1912 (Democrat); rancher, farmer, poet and American Civil War veteran Gerald Ford (lived in Vail) – 38th President of the United States Trent Franks (born in Uravan) – U.S. Representative for Arizona's 2nd congressional district John Kerry (born in Aurora) – U.S. Secretary of State since 2013; longtime U.S. Senator from Massachusetts, 1985–2013; ran as the Democratic nominee for U.S. President in 2004 Golda Meir (spent part of her adolescence in Denver) – fourth prime minister of Israel Chief Ouray (lived in Colorado) – Native American leader of the Uncompahgre band of the Ute tribe of southwestern Colorado Dana Perino (grew up in Denver, graduate of Colorado State University Pueblo) – White House Press Secretary during the presidency of George W. Bush from September 14, 2007, to January 20, 2009 Condoleezza Rice (attended St. Mary's Academy in Cherry Hills Village) – U.S. Secretary of State during the presidency of George W. Bush Karl Rove (born in Denver) – Deputy Chief of Staff during the presidency of George W. Bush Kenneth R. Rutherford – co-founder of the Landmine Survivors Network Scott Walker (born in Colorado Springs) – Governor of Wisconsin Byron R. White (born in Fort Collins; raised in Wellington); graduate of the University of Colorado Boulder) – appointed by U.S. President John F. Kennedy as a Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court; served from 1962 until retiring to senior status in 1993; also notable as a football player, both in college at the University of Colorado Boulder (with the Colorado Buffaloes) and professionally in the National Football League (with the Pittsburgh Pirates and Detroit Lions) Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics Maurice L. Albertson (1918–2009) – civil engineer and educator Sidney Altman (1939–2022) – molecular biologist; 1989 Nobel laureate in Chemistry for the discovery of catalytic properties of ribonucleic acid (RNA) Albert Allen Bartlett (1923–2013) – physicist; opponent of the concept of sustainable growth Arden L. Bement Jr. (born 1932) – metallurgical engineer, scientist; director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Lewis M. Branscomb (born 1926) – physicist; director of the National Bureau of Standards, founder of the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (now known as JILA) Mary Babnik Brown (1907–1991) – her hair was used for the Norden bombsight crosshairs Louis George Carpenter – founder of the first Bachelor of Science degree in Irrigation Engineering in the Americas Thomas Robert Čech (born 1947) – biochemist; 1989 Nobel laureate in Chemistry for the discovery of catalytic properties of ribonucleic acid (RNA) Edward Uhler Condon (1902–1974) – nuclear physicist; director of the National Bureau of Standards; president of the American Physical Society Eric Allin Cornell (born 1961) – physicist; 2001 Nobel laureate in Physics for creating the first Bose–Einstein condensate in 1995 T. Neil Davis (1932–2016) – professor emeritus of geophysics from the University of Alaska Fairbanks; author of several books George Gamow (born Georgiy Antonovich Gamov (Георгий Антонович Гамов)) (1904–1968) – theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author John Lewis "Jan" Hall (born 1934) – physicist; 2005 Nobel laureate in Physics for precision spectroscopy and the optical frequency comb technique Deborah S. Jin (born 1968) – physicist; created the first fermionic condensate in 2003 Herbert Kroemer (born 1928) – physicist and electrical engineer; 2000 Nobel laureate in Physics for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics Matthew Meselson (born 1930) – geneticist and molecular biologist Margaret Mary Murnane (born 1959) – physicist and creator of ultra-high-speed lasers Frank Friedman Oppenheimer (1912–1985) – nuclear physicist and educator Tim Samaras (1957–2013) – engineer and storm chaser; starred on the Discovery Channel's documentary reality television series Storm Chasers; he died in Oklahoma City's EF3 wedge tornado on May 31, 2013, with his twenty-four-year-old son, Paul, and forty-five-year-old TWISTEX colleague Carl Young of South Lake Tahoe, California Nikola Tesla (Никола Тесла) (1856–1943) – inventor and engineer; ran a laboratory in Colorado Springs between 1899 and 1900 to conduct high-voltage, high-frequency experiments Carl Edwin Wieman (born 1951) – physicist; 2001 Nobel laureate in Physics for creating the first Bose–Einstein condensate in 1995 Other notable people Gavin Arthur (1901–1972) – astrologer, sexologist, grandson of President Chester A. Arthur Emily Gibson Braerton (1884–1966) (lived in Denver) – historian; vice president general of the Daughters of the American Revolution (1950–1953) John Brown (1817-1889) - mountain man and trader in and around Pueblo from 1841 to 1849 Mary "Mamie" Geneva Doud Eisenhower (lived in Denver) – married West Point graduate and future U.S. President Dwight David Eisenhower in 1916 in her Lafayette Street home; was a military wife before becoming the First Lady of the United States (1953–1961) Neil Gorsuch (born 1967) – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Lars Grimsrud (born 1956) – aerospace engineer and performance automobile enthusiast Samuel Hartsel (1834–1918) – pioneer rancher in Park County; founder and namesake of Hartsel Marvin Heemeyer (1951–2004) – automobile muffler-repair shop owner killed in his rampage in Granby John J. Hoover (died 1880) – murderer lynched by a mob in Fairplay in Park County as he awaited transport to the state penitentiary Sheldon Jackson (1834–1909) – Presbyterian missionary in Denver and Fairplay and later Alaska Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) – sociologist who founded the concept of action theory Elizabeth Prann (born 1985) – reporter, anchor (Fox News) Renee Rabinowitz (1934–2020) – psychologist and lawyer Joy-Ann Reid (born 1970) – national correspondent (MSNBC) Rick Reilly (born 1958) – sportswriter, author, screenwriter (Leatherheads'') and commentator (ESPN) Teresita Sandoval (1811-1894) - One of the earliest residents of the settlement which became the city of Pueblo. Jon Scott (born 1958) – news anchor (Fox News) James Q. Wilson (1931–2012) – academic, political scientist, and an authority on public administration Jessie Young (1900–1987) – radio commentator, author, magazine publisher United States Penitentiary, Administrative Maximum Facility See Notable current inmates of ADX Florence and Notable former inmates of ADX Florence See also Bibliography of Colorado Geography of Colorado History of Colorado Index of Colorado-related articles List of Colorado-related lists Outline of Colorado References External links State of Colorado History Colorado Colorado history-related lists List of people from Colorado
4898071	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/44th%20Infantry%20Division%20%28Wehrmacht%29	44th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)	The 44th Infantry Division was formed on 1 April 1938 in Vienna, about two weeks after the Anschluss of Austria. It first saw combat at the start of the war in the Invasion of Poland, and also took part in the Battle of France in 1940. After a 9-month period of coastal defence the division was transferred East. On 22 June 1941, the division took part in the invasion of the Soviet Union, attached to Army Group South. It remained in the east after the failure of "Operation Barbarossa", taking part in defensive actions for the winter against the Soviet Army offensives near Izum and Kharkov. Refurbished, the division participated in the German summer offensive, and was subsequently destroyed with the 6th Army at Stalingrad in January 1943. The division was rebuilt as Reichsgrenadier-Division Hoch- und Deutschmeister in Belgium when Hitler ordered the Stalingrad divisions should be reconstructed. By the summer of 1943 it was back up to strength and sent to fight in Italy, where it was heavily engaged at Monte Cassino. It withdrew up the Italian peninsula during 1944 and briefly clashed with American forces attacking the Gothic line. Withdrawn to refit, it was instead sent to oppose the Soviet breakthrough in Hungary. The division joined the efforts to recapture Budapest with the 6th SS Panzer Army, and was subsequently nearly destroyed near Lake Balaton. The remnants of the division retreated into Austria, until the final days of the war, when it marched west and surrendered to the American forces near Linz. Organization The unit was established on 1 April 1938 shortly after the annexation of Austria from elements of the Austrian Army. The organisation followed the typical structure of a pre-war infantry division, with 3 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, an artillery regiment of 3 battalions, and antitank, reconnaissance, pioneer, signals battalions and division services. The usual establishment called for around 15.000 men. In January 1940 the Feldersatz Battalion was detached and became the 3rd battalion, 443rd infantry regiment, 164th infantry division, part of the 7th Wave of 14 divisions. The German Army continued to expand, in February 1940 the 10 divisions of the 8th wave were created. The 44th gave up 2nd battalion 143 Infantry Regiment which became 1st battalion 523rd Infantry Regiment, 297 Infantry Division. The battalion was replaced. In September 1940, one third of the division was detached to form the 137th Infantry Division. The German Army formed new divisions by detaching one-third of two existing divisions, then raising the remaining parts from new recruits. In this manner only one-third of the two old and one newly created divisions were new recruits. Like all the divisions lost in the Battle of Stalingrad, it was reformed using other formations and usually a cadre of specialists who had been evacuated by air before the 6th Army's surrender. On 17 February 1943, the division was reformed with the 887th and 888th Grenadier Regiments in Belgium. On 1 June 1943, the 134th Grenadier Regiment was added, and the division renamed Reichsgrenadier-Division Hoch- und Deutschmeister, along with the 80th Panzerjager, 46th Pioneer, 64th Signals, and 44th Divisional support units. From August to November 1943, schwere Panzer-Kompanie/Tigergruppe Meyer, equipped with eight Tiger I tanks, was attached to the division for the disarmament of Italian formations in northern Italy. After a brief rest it was transferred to Hungary and fought the Red Army while retreating into Austria. It managed to avoid capture by the Red Army and surrendered to US forces at Hohenfurth on 10 May 1945. Combat history Poland In late August 1939 the 44th Infantry Division was transferred to Moravia, previously part of Czechoslovakia, assembled opposite the Polish border and attached to XVII Corps, a component of 14th Army. Nine days later, in the early hours of 1 September 1939, after a short artillery preparation, infantry waded the Olsa River into Polish territory. Soon the first prisoners were taken and the first casualties suffered. The Second World War in Europe, which, for the 44th Infantry Division would last from its first day in September 1939, to its last in May 1945, had started. The ethnic Germans, Volksdeutsche, in the border regions greeted the invading troops with some enthusiasm, with gifts of milk and fruit which were picked up by the soldiers along the roadside. The 14th Army pushed its forces rapidly towards Kraków and Tarnow against light resistance from the Polish 'Army of Kraków' By 6 September the division entered Kraków and captured undamaged bridges across the Weichsel. The division continued its advance, crossing the San River and pushing into eastern Poland towards Lviv (Lemburg). The last Polish troops surrendered on 6 October 1939. The territory in eastern Poland, as had already been agreed between Hitler and Stalin, in a secret annex to the German Soviet Non Aggression Pact, would fall under the Soviet sphere of interest, so the 44th Division was withdrawn across the demarcation line and deployed along the River San. The 44th Infantry Division had lost 121 killed, 270 wounded and 44 missing; it took 300 officers and 25,000 men as prisoners and marched 540 km, in the campaign against Poland a daily average of 29 km. After the end of the Polish campaign, the division returned to its home station until it was moved to central Germany as OKH reserve, and finally shifted west for the start of the Campaign against France. France 1940 In May 1940, at the start of the German attack on France, the 44th Infantry Division was in OKH reserve near Hameln. Assigned to 6th Army on 15 May, it moved forward behind the main spearheads, and eventually on 29 May was inserted into a defensive sector on the Somme near Peronne, protecting the southern flank of the German breakthrough. Here it remained as the Allied armies fell back to Dunkirk and evacuated. Realigning their forces to the south, the German High Command instigated plan red (Fall Rot), the attack into France. As part of 6th Army, the 44th Infantry Division would attack south out of its bridgehead across the Somme and strike the French forces manning the Weygand line. Striking in the early morning hours of 5 June, the infantry attack swept forward, infiltrating between the French fortified villages, but faltered as the open ground offered little in the way of concealment from enemy observation. By the afternoon, their forces were suffering from accurate French artillery bombardments, mortar and machine gun fire, directed from the French positions. One battalion, the I/134, overextended itself trying to outflank the village of Foucaucourt and became cut off, and Captain Hartmann, the commanding officer surrendered along with 216 men. The robust defence of 5 June by the French 19th Division and the 7th North African division forced Generalleutnant Schubert, the 44th Division commander, to withdraw his attacking units in the evening. In Schubert's discussion with the XXXX Corps commander, General Stumme, additional artillery support was organised for the following day and it was agreed that the fortified villages would have to be stormed and taken before the division could continue its advance. On the second day of attack, the 132 Infantry Regiment managed to take the village of Chuignolles and the surrounding area, and for which the battalion commander of III / 132, Oberstleutnant Karl Eibl was awarded the Knights Cross. But French resistance remained fierce, beating back the division's further assaults. The situation was about to change in the attackers' favour. On its left flank, the French line had been penetrated by tanks of 3rd and 4th Panzer divisions. The French 7th Army was left with no alternative but to withdraw, which they did by the morning of 7 June. The division now pushed forwards, occasionally clashing with enemy forces, but noting increasing signs of French disintegration. Deciding that Paris could not be defended, the French government declared it an open city and withdrew their forces behind the Seine. By 14 June the 44th Division was already approaching the river. Once across the Seine the division's advance accelerated, pushing south until it arrived in the vicinity of Orléans by the declaration of the French surrender. The 44th Infantry Division suffered 1,730 casualties in battle of France. This was followed by coastal protection duties in La Rochelle area until the end of March 1941. Invasion of the Soviet Union Barbarossa The division was part of the initial attack forces in Operation Barbarossa as part of Army Group South. On 22 June 1941, the division crossed the river Bug in rubber boats and ferries and created a 5-mile bridgehead. Overcoming resistance at the border the division marched eastward behind the more rapid mobile units of 1st Panzer Group. The division took part in the Battle of Brody, engaging the Soviet 34th Tank division, part of the Soviet 8th Mechanized Corps, in the flank. Over the next 3 days the division helped hem in the Soviet armour, the 131st Regiment's heavy infantry gun company knocking out at least 1 52 ton KV II, until the remnants of the encircled Soviet forces fought their way out to the east. After the Soviet Army counter-attacks receded, and the mechanised Corps withdrew where they could to regroup, their tank forces seriously diminished. However, the action had delayed 1st Panzer Group units and the 44th, 111th and 299th divisions would be stalled for several days greatly hampering the follow-up of infantry behind III Panzer Corps advance. III Panzer Corps had meanwhile struck out towards Kiev driving a 40 km wide wedge between the Soviet 6th and 5th Armies. Mikhail Kirponos, commander of the Southwestern Front, ordered both armies to counterattack and close the gap. The 5th Army in the north had the protection of the Pripet marshes to its rear and still had 3 Mechanised Corps under command. Using these it moved southward cutting the supply road behind the panzer spearheads. The 44th Infantry was ordered to help clear the road and on 14 July it clashed with 9th Mechanized Corps on the Zhitomir road. The Soviet Army units, which had inflicted considerable damage on the Germans were forced gradually back towards the north-east. Kiev The Soviet forces had been working on the defences in front of Kiev since the German invasion began, and mobilised an additional 50,000 citizens to dig anti-tank ditches. Their fortified zone was well outside the city and stretched for 80 km, and consisted of a series of bunkers, obstacles and ditches, backed up by fortress machine gun battalions. German Armour reached the outer zone but, not wanting to get embroiled in fighting for fixed positions, waited for the arrival of the infantry of XXIX Corps. The infantry, well behind the Panzer divisions, and having to fend off Soviet counterattacks on the way, struggled to catch up but by the close of July XXIX Corps had assembled 5 infantry divisions and was ready for an attack on the city of Kiev. Launched on 1 August, the two central divisions of the Corps smashed through the fortified bunker zone and in 7 days of fighting against determined Soviet resistance, reached the suburbs of the city. The 44th Infantry Division providing flanking support on the right, only got as far as the outer bunkers before being hit by counterattacks from the 175th Rifle Division. The Soviet Army command threw in militia battalions and airborne troops and forced the German center back. By 11 August, XXIX Corps' attack had run out of steam with both sides suffering heavy losses. 44th Infantry was withdrawn and assigned a sector north of Kiev, where late in the month it conducted probing attacks against Soviet positions along the river Irpen, but without success. Von Reichenau, 6th Army commander, struggled to deal with the Soviet 5th Army on his northern flank for much of July and August and it was only with the assistance of the 9th Panzer Division, loaned from von Kleist's Panzer Group 1, that he finally managed to pick up momentum, and push through to the Dnieper north of Kiev, where he formed a bridgehead. The river, a considerable obstacle at this point at over 900m, was spanned by army engineers with a pontoon bridge and 6th Army began filtering infantry forces across to the eastern bank, where they could threaten Soviet forces east of Kyiv and eventually link up with 2nd Army units coming from the north. Meanwhile, far to the east, tanks of 1st and 2nd Panzer groups met, forming a huge cauldron and encircling elements of 5 Soviet Armies. The German command needed to break up the pocket as quickly as possible and trap and destroy the Soviet Armies inside it. The 44th Infantry Division was ordered to leave the siege lines outside of Kiev and cross the Dnieper by the pontoon bridge, from where it went forward to block Soviet forces fleeing eastward trying to escape the German trap. In the last days of September the fighting in the cauldron concluded, and the division resumed its advance eastwards, hindered more by the arrival of the autumn rains, which turned the roads to mud, than Soviet resistance. By November the division arrived in the area of Achtyrka, west of Kharkov where it went into the Army Group reserve. Winter During the winter of 1941/1942 the division was assigned a defensive sector south of Kharkov, still under command of the 6th Army, on the Army boundary with 17th Army to the south. By January, 1942 Stalin wanted to capitalise on the success of the counter offensives around Moscow, and expanded the scope of the Soviet winter operations to include northern and southern sectors of the front. As part of this effort Southwestern and Southern Fronts conducted the Barvinkove-Losowaja Operation with 6, 57 & 38 Armies. German defences in the sector along the Dornets river, west of Izyum, consisted of disconnected strong points rather than a continuous line. The attack commenced on 18 January, hit a weak section of the German line along the Dornets river, west of Izyum, and ripped away German defences along a 60-mile front. After a week the Soviets had driven 100 km into the German line, and now as well as its eastern front, the 44th division positioned on the northern edge of the breakthrough with its southern flank along the frozen Donets wide open, except for some hastily assembled reserves rushed to the area by 6th Army. The 44th bent its right flank back, basing its defence on a string of small communities readied for all round defence, most notably Balakleja. The Soviet command, eager to expand its success, ordered the 38th Soviet Army to attack, and it launched a series of furious frontal assaults attempting to dislodge the German defenders. Unable to dislodge the 44th Divisions defences, the Soviet 38th Army regrouped and tried again in March, but with much the same result. The stubborn defence of the 44 Division contributed greatly to the 6 Army's ability to stabilise the situation and a grateful German command awarded both 131 and 134 Regimental commanders the Knights Cross The division's exploits were reported back to Berlin when a newspaper article reported that between 16 January and 7 February the division had repulsed 142 separate Russian attacks, claiming 6600 dead in front of their positions, 1300 prisoners and the capture or destruction of 27 tanks, 14 guns and much other equipment. "Operation Blue", the summer offensive, began on 28 June with the attack of 4th Panzer Army but the start of 6th Army was delayed for several days by heavy rain which turned the roads into quagmires. Finally starting on the last day of June, the infantry, achieved success and penetrated 20 miles into Soviet defences on the first day. The armoured divisions, in spite of sporadic fuel shortages forged ahead leaving the infantry to follow. In 18 days the division covered over 300 miles. Dust hung in the summer heat as columns of infantry and their mostly horse drawn guns and supplies laboured eastward across the open Steppe and through vast fields of sunflowers. The 6th Army drive, lacking in armour, was slowing and Russian resistance increasing when 44th Division came up hard against Soviet 62nd Army defences in the great bend of the Don. Finally getting spearheads along the Don from the north and the south, parts of the 62nd Army were trapped near Kalash. 44th Division, holding what was now the western side of a pocket, pushed inwards and in four days helped round up the surrounded Soviets giving 6th Army a victory and netting 50.000 prisoners.(This number is incorrect since only about 28.000 Soviet soldiers were caught in the trap.) Stalingrad By September 1942 the division took up defensive positions on the high banks of the Don, protecting the long left flank of the 6th Army in Stalingrad. On 19 November the Soviet Army opened Operation Uranus against Romanian forces to the north. Manoilin, one of the supply bases for the division had already been attacked by Soviet armour units. An attack against this sector had not been totally unexpected by the German command, and the previous day the 6th Army authorised the 44 Infantry to release the 132 Infantry Regiment from its defensive positions along the bluffs overlooking the Don, for commitment elsewhere. The regiment was already short of men, so it dissolved one battalion (III/132) and distributed its men to the other two. The regiment was issued movement orders to secure Verkhne-Buzinovka, 25 miles behind the Division's front line, and arrived there to find Soviet Army forces threatening weak German Army units in the area. Outflanked by Soviet units which captured Kalash on the 4th day of Operation Uranus, the division abandoned its former defensive positions and began to retreat across the steppe to the 6th Army in and around Stalingrad. Its movements were hampered by a 'catastrophic' fuel situation and the decision by 6th Army to move many of the division's horses to the west out of the combat zone. On 26 November it crossed the Don at Luchinsky, where engineers blew up the army bridge behind it, and two days later the 44th Division reached its place in the new perimeter of around Stalingrad. The Soviet Red Army forces were quick to test the defences, mounting infantry attacks supported by armoured groups of up to 60 tanks. On 4 December the main line of resistance was over-run in an attack forcing 6th Army to commit its remaining reserves. A battle group from 384 Infantry Division, 12 tanks from 16 Panzer Division and some assault artillery managed to restore the old positions the following day. Probing attacks continued through the month and the failure of the air transports into the German pocket meant that shortages were now beginning to be really felt. The artillery was limited to 5 shots per day and the bread ration was cut to 200g per day, then to 100 and finally on 26 December to 50 grammes. The combat strength of the infantry battalions were rapidly sinking: combat, persistent harassing mortar and artillery fire, and also cold and illness were taking their toll. To keep up numbers, artillerymen and even construction workers, as well as soldiers from disbanded units and Romanians, were turned into infantrymen. As the fighting continued through December and into January an increasing number of support personnel were used in the front line. By 2 January all the horse meat had been eaten and the physical condition of the troops was rapidly deteriorating while replacements combed from the service units were found to be willing but lacking in basic infantry training. On 10 January 1943 the Red Army unleashed their attack on the pocket, the 65th and 21st armies overwhelmed the 44th divisional defenses on the first day. By 12 January the western protuberance of the pocket, the karpovka nose, was eliminated, and groups of German units had to retreat. The remnants of the division were pushed back into Stalingrad. Now only a single gun was left to the divisional artillery, and the infantry regiments formed battle groups with their few remaining men mixed with a variety of other combat and service troops, and equipped with only rifles and a few light machine guns. All the other heavy weapons had been abandoned in the retreat, or had no ammunition. On 27 January General Deboi, the divisional commander, joined the 131 Battle Group to 'be with the infantry' at the end. Finally, with no more food or ammunition, resistance ended, the surviving officers joined their last troops in surrender, and the 44 Infantry Division ceased to exist. Italy On 25 July 1943 Mussolini was removed from Office by King Victor Emmanuel and replaced as Prime Minister by Marshal Badoglio Although Badoglio publicly declared a continuation of the war and the pact with Germany Hitler immediately suspected that he would seek to make peace with the Allies. The German military forces in Italy remained weak, most combat capable combat units were fighting in Sicily, with very little on the mainland, capable of dealing with a swift Italian defection. Hitler recalled Rommel to Berlin and ordered him to take on the problem of securing German interests in Northern Italy and to use his newly set up Army Group B headquarters to control the new forces that would soon be moved into the area. Orders for these troop movements soon began to be issued, but to get the troops into the theatre, first the vital communications route through the mountains had to be secured. On 26 July, Field Marshal von Rundstedt, at OB West Headquarters was ordered to move 2 divisions immediately to secure the Alpine passes, the 305th went towards Nice and the 44th towards the Brenner pass. Divisional units of the 44th Infantry Division began arriving in Innsbruck, Austria on 27 July, and by the month's end it was on the border at the Brenner pass. Its admission into Italy proper, however, now became a matter of political debate between the higher political and military establishments of Italy and Germany. The new Italian leadership did not want more German units to enter the country as that would enable the Germans to take control. However, they were not ready to openly oppose the Germans at this time and they could not deny the logic of the German argument, that more military units would be needed to repel the Allied armies, so eventually permission was granted. The 44th quickly took control of the rail line as far as Bolzano, and by the next day infiltration of Army group B units was in full swing. On 8 September Badoglio announced an armistice between the Italian Forces and the Allies on Radio Rome. The Italian defection, had long been foreseen by Hitler who had instructed the OKW to develop contingency plans to deal with it. Operation Achse would see the disarming and disbanding of the military of the former German ally, and the take over of the Italian State by Germany, using force if necessary. But, in the event, little force would be required as the Italian Armed forces, lacking any clear leadership began to dissolve and capitulation ensued. The 44th Division, still in the South Tyrol, quickly seized the Italian XXXV Corps Headquarters in Bolzano, and a huge haul of prisoners, including 1783 officers, amongst which were 18 Generals, and 50,000 men. With the Italian military no longer policing its territory, Yugoslavian partisan activity flared up in Istria and Carniola. This area had mixed populations of Italians, Slovenians and Croatians, and Carniola, part of Yugoslavia in 1939, had only recently been annexed by Italy in 1941. OKW ordered Army Group B to safeguard vital interests and communications routes in the area, and Rommel complied. Tasking II SS Panzer Corps to lead, and utilising the considerable forces at the disposal of Army Group B, several sweeps were conducted from late September to mid November, claiming success and the killing or capturing of thousands of partisans and capturing of much materiel. The Bernhardt Line In November 1943 Kesselring went to Berlin to meet with Hitler. He told the German leader that he believed the Allies could be held south of Rome at the winter line for six months. Shortly after Kesselring was given overall command of the armies in Italy, and Rommel relinquished his command of Army Group B. Now with access to an extra eight and a half divisions, including the 44th Infantry Division, Kesselring had the additional forces he needed to attempt to fulfil his promise to Hitler. He wanted to relieve his mobile divisions to rebuild their strength and use them as a mobile reserve against likely landings behind the German line Meanwhile, the American-led 5th Army had broken out of the Salerno beachhead, joined with the British 8th Army, which had entered the boot of Italy from Sicily and were pushing the German forces back northward as they fought delaying actions through successive defensive lines. Kesselring wanted to delay their advance as long as possible to gain time to build up the defences of the Gustav line, also called the winter line. The 44th Infantry Division would bolster these efforts and was ordered to entrain and move south to the front. At the end of November 1943, 44th HuD units began to arrive and the most advanced battalions were sent forward to relieve units of the 26th Panzer Division, which were to be redeployed. The division took over its new positions including numerous protected shelters, pill boxes, and mortar positions built on reverse slopes, on a series of high mountain peaks dominating the road to St Elia and the Rapido Valley. Also in its sector was the village of Lagon, whose houses had been fortified. These positions were soon under attack by the US VI Corps, which pushed its units into the mountains, attempting to draw German reserves away from the main effort that would occur further to the south, in the Mignano Gap. In spite of the inherent defensive advantages of mountainous terrain and the harsh winter weather, the soldiers of the 44th division realised that they were not correctly equipped for either winter or mountain warfare. They had the wrong clothing and their horse drawn supply units were found to be useless in the mountain trails. The division quickly had to swap some of its wagons for mule trains, and some artillery for mountain guns. Moreover, it was now inserted into major combat, for the first time since it was rebuilt, against a well resourced enemy, including air power. Indeed, several units had already suffered attacks from Allied fighter bombers, known as 'jabo's', upon retraining north of Cassino and on the way to the Bernhardt line. The US 45th Division's objectives were to be the village of Lagon and several of the peaks that dominated the village and the road to St Elia. Key to these was peak 769, and several days of combat around peak 769 followed, between elements of the 179th US Infantry Regiment and 2 Kompanie 131 Regiment, with the summit changing hands. Finally the Americans secured the summit for good and the 2/131 withdrew from its last positions on the reverse slopes with only 12 men and one officer remaining in the company. On 9 December the US Division attacked the Germans in Lagon, capturing the village two weeks later. When the 5th Mountain division became available, the 10th Army replaced the 44th Division in the mountains and shifted it south to cover the more likely approach to the Liri valley, at the M gap. It would cover a wide sector with its units interspersed with those of the 29th Panzer Grenadier division. The defence was based on a series of low hills on either side of Highway 6, with the landscape rising dramatically on its left flank to the 1270 m high mount Majo. The US Fifth Army had used the short lull in operations since mid-December to freshen its forces, and plan for the renewed attack. The attack would use a task force from 1st Armoured Division, plus some British support on the left, two regiments of the 34th US Infantry Division, the 168th and the 135th, on the right and some special service troops on the high peaks of Mount Majo. The 1st Special Service Regiment had a battalion of specifically trained mountain troops, and these were used to cross the difficult terrain and seize the summit of Mt Majo on 4 January. The summit was in the sector of the 44th's 132 Infantry Regiment, who mounted repeated counterattacks but failed to regain the lost ground and suffered badly at the hands of American artillery of the US 93rd Armoured Field artillery Battalion fired in support of the special service troops. The Special Service troops went on to secure the neighbouring peaks. With the high peaks secured the US forces launched their drive along highway 6. The attack started well when forces from 168th lead battalion were ambushed by elements of III/132 under Lt Prandl who captured 2 officers and 68 men. The Americans, however, went on into the village of Venafro with the 135th US Regiment, and after two days of difficult fighting, captured it, taking 170 prisoners from the 44th Division. The US forces then pressed on to the ridge behind the village, La Chinia, one of their major objectives, which at that point was still held by the III/132. The German battalion was forced off the summit after 2 days of fighting. The 44th Division had suffered heavy casualties and had everywhere been driven from its defences. von Senger, the korps commander, then brought up fresh forces to slow the Allied advance and allowed the 44th to fall back into the Gustav positions in and around Cassino for a few days' rest and replenishment. Cassino British 10 Corps were the first to attack the Gustav line proper, in the coastal sector, and with some success, necessitating Kesselring to commit his mobile reserves down from Rome to stop them. This allowed the US VI Corps to land successfully and virtually unopposed at Anzio on 22 January 1944 and form a beach head. With the Anzio landings in full swing but the British drive now almost completely stopped, General Clark, commander of the US 5th Army needed to keep the pressure up on the Gustav line to prevent the Germans shifting reserves back to Anzio. A crack in the Gustav line, together with the threat of the Anzio beachhead would render the whole of the German defensive position south of Rome untenable. The attack by the 36 US infantry division across the Rapido in the Liri valley was a costly failure, so General Clark now launched Juin's French expeditionary force, and the US 34 US ID against the Cassino Massif itself. The French would attack from the village of St Elise at the head of the Rapido, across the Belmonte valley and up and onto Mt Belvedere and beyond that Colle Abate, which, at 919 m high, dominated the whole area. The US division would attack across the flooded Rapido, capture the hills beyond, wheel left and take the town and monastery hill. German dispositions The renewed Allied attack would crash straight into the 44th division defences around Cassino. The division had 3 battalions of 132nd Infantry Regiment positioned in prepared positions along the Rapido valley, and 2 further battalions of 131st Infantry Regiment in the village of Caira and on Mt Belvedere. Units of 71st Division 191st Infantry Regiment were under command in the Belmonte Valley, linking into 5th Mountain Division on the left flank. Most of the 143rd Infantry regiment was in reserve, rebuilding after heavy losses in the Bernhardt line fighting. The French attack The first to test the 44th defenses in the Gustav line were the French. The French Expeditionary Corps under the highly capable General Juin, had already been pushing forward against the defenses of the 5th Mountain Division on the left flank of the 44 Infantry. They had captured the village of St Elisa in the Rapido valley from which an assault against the Cassino massive, and a push up the Secco valley could be launched. On 25 January 1944 2 battalions of 4th regiment of Tunisian Tirailleurs (4RTT), part of the 3rd Algerian Infantry crossed the valley and scaled Mt Belvedere using a steep ravine as cover. This was a considerable feat in itself as the French units had not been allocated any mules and the soldiers had to carry huge loads up the precipitous ravine, but it gave the attack cover and allowed access to the summit without suffering any substantial losses. Upon arrival a fierce firefight developed with elements of 131 infantry regiment, but the end of the day the French prevailed and pushed the Germans from most of the summit of Mt Belvedere. During the night, the French managed to get some reinforcements onto the summit and the following day continued their advance and through great effort and bravery of their troops captured the high points on Mt Abate. This feature, 919 m high, was the dominant peak in the area and in good weather could give the allies a commanding view of the whole area, including many German rear areas. By dawn of 27 January the French had reached their objectives, but their position was precarious, some of the attacking companies had been reduced by casualties to individuals, or mere handfuls of men mainly from incessant German artillery and mortar fire. Moreover, resupply of the troops was almost impossible, and they were soon running out of ammunition, food and water. Von Senger, seeing the danger to the whole German position from the French success, reacted swiftly, throwing in the entire reserves of the 44th Infantry Division, a battalion of the 131st, the whole of the 134th Regiment, and a battalion from the 191st infantry regiment under command. To these he added a few companies from assorted units and some pioneers and concentrated them on the slopes of Mt Abate and in the Secco valley. For 3 days the Germans now mounted incessant counter-attacks on the exposed French positions The 34 US Division attack Attacking across the Rapido, infantry from the 133 Infantry Regiment, 34 US Division found the river in its upper reaches fordable, but the flooded banks, compounded by German minefields caused its armoured support to bog down. The infantry that managed to get across were met by accurate artillery and heavy weapons fire from German 132 Infantry Regiment units, shielded from the US artillery preparation in their deep bunkers, so that the Americans were forced back to their starting positions. The next night the 34 Division tried again but with the same result. For the first four days the American attack stalled at the river line, the infantry unable to capitalise on their gains until 29 January when the US 168 Infantry Regiment found a weak spot and managed to get tanks across in greater numbers. Working in tandem, the American tanks suppressed the German bunkers, allowing the infantry to overrun the German positions in the valley and push on to the low hills, taking the village of Caira and capturing the staff of 1 Battalion, 131 Infantry Regiment into the bargain. On 1 February, the Italian Barracks at the base of the hills, still in the hands of the 44 Division, was stormed by troops of US 133 Infantry Regiment and the area was finally cleared by the Americans on the following day after fierce fighting. At the beginning of February the positions of the 132 Infantry Regiment in the Rapido were mostly over run and its battalions decimated. It was clear to the corps commander von Senger that the 44 Division could not hold on its own. Its divisional reserves had already been committed against the French and fresh forces would be needed to bolster its sector around Cassino. These were soon to arrive; the 211 Infantry Regiment went into Cassino town and the first two battalions of 90 Panzer Grenadier Division arrived shortly after, followed by the first of the parachute units that would become synonymous with the Cassino defence. On 2 February General Baade, commander of the 90 Panzer Grenadiers took over the vital Cassino sector and the 44 Division's 132 Regiment was withdrawn to rebuild. Hungary In the autumn of 1944 the Soviet 2nd Ukrainian Front broke through the Transylvanian Alps and into the central Hungarian plain and by the end of October had already reached the Danube river below Budapest. The Danube, with high water levels from recent rains and swampy banks was potentially a major barrier, and could have acted as a formidable break to the Soviet advance, and a considerable defensive asset if the Axis powers had forces enough to man it. But the bulk of German major formations in the country were falling back into northern Hungary to protect the capital, and Army Group F, given responsibility for lower Hungary had little with which to stop the Soviet Red Army advance. The Soviet 57th Army reached the river and quickly threw 2 bridgeheads across at Mohács and Baja. Army Group F could only erect a fragile screen around the Soviet bridgeheads, and call for reinforcements. The 44th Infantry Division had just settled into its refreshment area around Udine, in Italy, when this latest crisis on the eastern front led to the OKW issuing orders on 7 November for its transfer to Hungary. The division hurriedly boarded 60 trains heading for Pecs in lower Hungary. The Soviet 57th Army continued a slow buildup on the west bank, until Tolbukhin, the 3rd Ukrainian Front commander, committed substantial additional forces. The 57th and 4th Guards Armies launched a drive in the last week of November that broke through the thin German defences heading for both ends of Lake Balaton. Pecs (Funfkirchen) fell on 30 November and German resistance started disintegrating, with the 44th Division's northern neighbour, 31 SS Division, retreating 'westwards'. 2nd Panzer Army, after receiving considerable reinforcements, managed to stabilise the front, anchored on Lake Balaton and forwards of Nagykanizsa, one of the last sources of oil available to Germany. By the first week in December the 44th was seen as having only limited defensive capabilities, and its fighting spirit was strongly diminished, but the now static front remained quiet for several weeks allowing the 44th division to rebuild its strength and absorb replacements. After the failed German relief attempt of Budapest, Soviet Army forces still controlled a sizeable area on the west bank of the Danube at the confluence of the Gran, just north west of Budapest. The German command viewed this bridgehead as a major threat. To eliminate the Gran bridgehead, Army Group South would mount Operation Southwind, with the combined forces of I SS Panzer Corps and Panzer Corps Feldherrnhalle attacking. The 44 HuD, already in transit to the area would attack on the right flank, with the heavy tanks of Feldherrnhalle armoured group attached, Tiger IIs from 503rd Heavy Panzer Battalion. On 17 February the attack began, and by the second day the 44 HuD had gone halfway to the Danube. In four days of fierce fighting the Soviet army bridgehead was cleared except for two villages on the west bank. The Germans reorganised their forces and the 44th Division helped the LSSAH clear the last resistance from the village of Kemet. Southwind was over and declared a success, the 44th reported the destruction of 6 tanks, the capture of 43 guns as well as much other equipment. Army Group South now turned to new offensive plans. Ordered by Hitler to regain control of areas of central Hungary up to the Danube river, operation Operation Spring Awakening (Frühlingserwachen) aimed to recapture ground that already had seen much fighting during the Budapest relief attempts. The main thrust would occur north of Lake Balaton, conducted by 6 SS Panzer Army, with secondary thrusts to the south. The lead up to the attack did not go smoothly, the inadequate road network, exacerbated by poor staff work, caused difficulties for the attack formations whilst forming up, 44th division units became entangled with the 9 SS Panzer Division and the II Panzer Corps started one day late. On 7 and 8 March the Panzer divisions of I SS Panzer Corps had gone 20 miles into the Soviet Defenses but progress in the 44th sector was slow. By 13 March it had almost 500 casualties, but still lagged well behind the mobile divisions, and 3rd Ukrainian Front commander Tolbukhin began to launch a series of counter-attacks backed up by tanks. With the German offensive all but halted, the Soviets resumed their general offensive on 16 March to the west of Budapest. Attacking across the Vertes Mountains, a sector held by relatively weak Hungarian forces, German reaction was sluggish. Hitler vetoed the transfer of 16 SS division from the 2nd Pz Army, or the 352nd Infantry Division from the 6th Pz Army to the threatened sector, Army Group South was ordered to defend 'every inch' with what it had. The Soviet forces, initially slowed as much from the difficult terrain as the opposition, emerged from the mountain passes, having pushed through the Hungarian defences and the few reserve German battalions. Their timings were good, the difficult road conditions of the earlier part of the month were improving daily as the ground started to dry out. By 20 March the German offensive gains of Operation Spring Awakening were moot as units of the 6 SS Panzer Army were finally shifted to oppose the Soviet breakthrough, and the bulge into the Soviet lines was closing fast. The position of the German offensive units still east of Lake Balaton was precarious. The Soviet 9th Guards Army had already covered half the distance between lakes Velence and Balaton, their only possible escape route. Another strong push by the Soviet forces and the 44 and panzer divisions of 6 Panzer Army would be trapped. The 6th Panzer Army was now struggling to keep an escape route open; the 3rd and 23rd Panzer divisions managed to retreat and were holding the Soviet forces off at Veszprem, but 1 Panzer division, 5th SS Viking and 44th were still in a box with Soviet Army forces attacking from in front and behind them. Late on 22 March the three German divisions assembled at Jeno, a town midway between lakes Velence and Balaton and 12 km from safety. A narrow gap still existed, through which the Germans intended to break out, but the Soviet units had brought up anti-tank guns into blocking positions and could sweep the entire corridor with artillery, mortar and machine gun fire. The German units created mixed columns, with the few remaining tanks in the lead, followed by armoured infantry, the divisional commands, artillery, supply units and rearguards, with more infantry on the flanks. In the darkness the columns set off and finally reached friendly lines by dawn. Disaster had been averted but for the 44th the cost had been heavy; the division commander, van Rost, was killed along with some of his staff, when the armoured half-track he was travelling in was hit by an anti-tank shell and destroyed. Overall 65 officers from the division, had in two days fighting been killed, captured or badly injured, and the infantry had suffered severe losses overcoming the Soviet units blocking positions. Intact but badly mauled, the division retreated rapidly back towards Radkersburg on the Austrian frontier. War crimes The division has been implicated in a number of war crimes in Italy between March and September 1944, with up to thirty-three civilians executed in each incident. Service and Area of Operations Strength and losses On 1 May 1942 the average infantry division in Army Group South was 2400 understrength and lacking about 50% of their infantry The 132 Infantry Regiment had been particularly hard hit in the defence of the Rapido valley, and the hills behind it. Its battalions had been 'bled white' and were sometimes down to platoon strength. For example, when relieved the I/132 had only a dozen men in each company left and no company officers, the only officers in the whole battalion were the battalion commander and his adjutant. The 8/132, when relieved by a paratrooper unit on the Cassino Massif was down to only 9 men. Von Senger noted that battalions in the front line were led by very young officers commanding around 100 men. General Clark, commander of the 5th Army claims the division was "practically eliminated", and the 5th Army records show that 1303 men were captured from the 44th Division between 16 January and the end of March, with 540 men from the 132 Infantry Regiment alone. Although the attrition of front line infantry ate away at a division's combat strength to a point where it would be no longer effective, the overall headcount could remain little changed with over ten thousand men. The low numbers reported of German battalions often excluded service and support elements, such as supply, medical, communications and even staff troops, who served as a base, together with the few surviving combat troops around which infantry battalions could be rebuilt. As a case in point, the decimated units of 132 Infantry Regiment were withdrawn from action at the beginning of February, refreshed and the regiment was able to go back into line in March with all three battalions deployed in the new divisional sector, around the village of Terrel. Commanding officers Generalleutnant Albrecht Schubert (1 April 1938 – 1 October 1939) Generalleutnant Friedrich Siebert (1 October 1939 – 2 May 1942) Generalleutnant Heinrich-Anton Deboi (2 May 1942 – 29 January 1943) After recreation: Generalleutnant Dr. Franz Beyer (1 March 1943 – 1 January 1944) Generalleutnant Dr. rer. pol. Friedrich Franek (1 January 1944 – 1 May 1944) Generalleutnant Bruno Ortner (1 May 1944 – 25 June 1944) Generalleutnant Hans-Günther von Rost (25 June 1944 – 23 March 1945) Oberst Hoffmann (23 March 1945 – 8 May 1945) Sub Units Infantry Regiment 131 Infantry Regiment 132 Infantry Regiment 134 Artillery Regiment 96 Reconnaissance Battalion 44 Field Replacement Battalion 44 Anti-Tank Battalion 44 (Motorised) Pioneer Battalion 80 Signals Battalion 64 Divisional Supply Troops 44 References Bibliography Sources Kesselring: An Analysis of the German Commander at Anzio – Bitner, Teddy D., CPT, USA Fifth Army at the Winter Line The Canadians in Italy, 1943–1945 0*044 Military units and formations established in 1938 German units at the Battle of Stalingrad Military units and formations disestablished in 1945 War crimes of the Wehrmacht
4898115	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristofferson%20%28album%29	Kristofferson (album)	Kristofferson is the debut album of singer-songwriter Kris Kristofferson, which was produced by Fred Foster and released in June 1970 by Monument Records. After working a series of temporary jobs, Kristofferson became a helicopter pilot for oil companies in the Gulf of Mexico. While he worked, he wrote songs and pitched them to singers around Music Row in Nashville, Tennessee during his free time. Kristofferson's songs were recorded by country singers Roy Drusky, Jerry Lee Lewis and Roger Miller and later he persuaded Johnny Cash to try his material. Cash invited Kristofferson to perform with him at the Newport Folk Festival, after which Fred Foster signed Kristofferson to Monument Records as a songwriter and recording artist. Foster included on the sessions Kristofferson's material that other artists had already recorded including "Sunday Mornin' Comin' Down", "Help Me Make It Through the Night" and "Me and Bobby McGee", as well as his new compositions. The arrangements of the songs featured string orchestration, while the themes of the writings included loneliness, love, sexual relations and freedom. Critics gave Kristofferson a positive reception but the album's original release was a commercial failure. In 1971, following the success of Janis Joplin's recording of "Me and Bobby McGee", the album was reissued as Me and Bobby McGee; it peaked at number 10 on Billboard's Top Country Albums chart and at 43 on Billboard's Top LPs and the release was certified gold. The album garnered mixed ratings in retrospective reviews, as some critics expressed their negative reception of Kristofferson's singing. Background In 1965, Kristofferson left his teaching position at the United States Military Academy and he moved to Nashville to start work in the music business as a songwriter. He contacted Marijohn Wilkin, the aunt of his former platoon commander, who signed Kristofferson to her publishing house Buckhorn Music. Wilkin pitched Kristofferson's song "Talkin' Vietnam Blues" to singer Dave Dudley. Concurrently, Kristofferson worked a series of odd jobs that included bartender, construction worker and railroad worker. He then worked as a janitor for Columbia Records, a job that afforded him the possibility of talking directly with the artists and a presence during recording sessions. After his second child was born with esophagus issues, Kristofferson took a job with Petroleum Helicopters International in Lafayette, Louisiana. He would fly workers to and from oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico, and he used the time during flights to compose new songs. At weekends, he returned to Nashville, and for the following week he would pitch the songs around town before returning to Louisiana. The trips exhausted Kristofferson; his children were living with their mother in California and he felt his career as a songwriter was failing. Petroleum Helicopters International reprimanded him for his increased alcohol consumption. Upon returning to Nashville the same week, Kristofferson learned three of his songs had been recorded: "Jody and the Kid" by Roy Drusky, "Help Me Make It Through the Night" by Jerry Lee Lewis and "Me and Bobby McGee" by Roger Miller. Through June Carter, Kristofferson made his first attempt to pitch material to her husband Johnny Cash. Carter took the demos, which were eventually lost in a pile of other material Cash had received. At the time, Kristofferson worked on the weekends for the Tennessee National Guard. To attract Cash's attention, Kristofferson landed a helicopter in Cash's property. Cash eventually invited Kristofferson to a "guitar pull" party in his house. Cash was impressed and invited Kristofferson to perform with him at the 1969 Newport Folk Festival. Unsatisfied by Buckhorn Music, Kristofferson decided to change labels. The director of Monument Records, Bob Beckham, invited Kristofferson to play songs for him and label owner Fred Foster. Kristofferson performed "To Beat the Devil", "Jody and the Kid", "The Best of All Possible Words" and "Duvalier's Dream"; Foster was impressed and offered Kristofferson two contracts; one as a recording artist for Monument Records and one as a songwriter for Combine Music. The ten-year contract required Kristofferson to submit ten records containing songs he had written. Kristofferson was surprised he had been signed as a singer; he told Foster at the time: "I can't sing, I sound like a frog!" Kristofferson later said Buckhorn Music had not allowed him to record demos of his own compositions. Recording and content In 1969, Kristofferson left Nashville to join the production of Dennis Hopper's The Last Movie in Peru. In his absence, Cash continued to promote Kristofferson's original songs with other singers. Upon his return to Nashville, Kristofferson learned of his new popularity and started to work on his debut album. As his manager and producer, Foster had decided to keep some of Kristofferson's original material from being passed to other artists. The new material, as well as his songs that had already been recorded by other artists, were included in the recording sessions, which were held at Monument Recording Studio. Kristofferson did not have a backing band so Foster gathered musicians known to him. Johnny Cash wrote the album's liner notes. Compositions The album opens with "Blame It On The Stones", which references the negative perception that the older generations had of The Rolling Stones. The song references the band's 1966 song "Mother's Little Helper". "To Beat the Devil" includes an introduction spoken by Kristofferson, who dedicates the song to Johnny Cash and June Carter. The song depicts a struggling songwriter who meets the Devil at a bar. The character ultimately rejects the Devil's negative message and continues to pursue success in music. "Me and Bobby McGee" tells the story of a road trip shared by two lovers, who first travel from Baton Rouge to New Orleans, and then until the woman leaves the man in Salinas, California. Foster, who shared an office building with Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, visited the couple to discuss arrangements for a song. Boudleaux Bryant then jokingly accused him of creating an excuse to see his secretary, Barbara "Bobby" McKee. Foster failed to recognize the name, but upon Bryant's insistence about "Bobby McKee" he said; "Oh, yea. Haven't you heard of me and Bobby McKee?" Foster then suggested Kristofferson, who was suffering a writer's block, to attempt a road song about "Me and Bobby McKee". Kristofferson misheard the surname as "McGee". Additionally inspired by Federico Fellini's La Strada, Kristofferson wrote the song while flying helicopters around the Gulf of Mexico. The story's setting was provided by Kristofferson's own trips between New Orleans and Baton Rouge, while the line about windshield wipers occurred to him while driving to the airport on his way back from New Orleans to Nashville. A month after his departure, Kristofferson returned with the finished song that he recorded on a demo accompanied only by Billy Swan on the organ. Foster was also given writing co-credit. "Me and Bobby McGee" was first recorded in 1969 by Roger Miller, whose version peaked at number 12 on Billboard's Hot Country Singles. "The Best of All Possible Worlds" was inspired by Kristofferson's experience of being arrested. In the song, he observes police officers' mistreatment of black people and the poor, and references Voltaire's novella Candide, in which Voltaire satirized Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's claim of the "best of all possible worlds". Kristofferson protested Monument Records' decision to modify the song's lyrics to omit the word "black"; the original lyrics state: "If that's against the law, tell me why I never saw a man locked in that jail of yours that wasn't either black or poor as me". The recorded version changed the line to "low-down poor as me". On the next track "Help Me Make It Through the Night", Kristofferson expresses his need to avoid loneliness by "needing a friend". Kristofferson wrote the song while spending time with Dottie West and her husband Bill. Kristofferson offered the song to West, who initially felt it was "inappropriate" and declined to record it but she later recorded her own version for her album Careless Hands. He took the title from an interview with Frank Sinatra in Esquire, in which Sinatra was asked what he believed in and replied; "booze, broads or a bible ... whatever helps me make it through the night". "The Law Is for Protection of the People" presents a character who is subjected to unfair treatment by police, a common theme in Kristofferson's writings of the time. In "Casey's Last Ride", Kristofferson tells the story of a lonely man who reminisces about a former lover. The song's arrangements were the most orchestrated on the album and include a melody that in verses shifts from the predominant use of guitar and bass to violins in slower parts. In "Darby's Castle", Kristofferson wrote about Cecil Darby, who neglects his wife in favor of building a large castle for her. Affected by her isolation, Darby sees his wife Helen with another man in her bedroom and then burns the castle in one night. "For the Good Times" describes a sexual encounter between two lovers. The song was first recorded by Ray Price and was released before Kristofferson in June 1970. It reached number one on Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart and crossed over to the Billboard Hot 100, where it peaked at number 12. The next song, "Duvalier's Dream", presents the story of a character who lives in isolation until he meets a woman who re-establishes his connection to society. The album closes with "Sunday Mornin' Comin' Down", which Kristofferson wrote after his divorce, when he lived alone in a small apartment. He had been fired from his job as a pilot after being found inebriated at work. The song describes a character's struggle with loneliness and isolation. It was first recorded by Ray Stevens in 1969 and in 1970 by Johnny Cash, who also performed it on his television show; Cash's version peaked at number one on Billboard's Hot Country Songs and at number 46 on the Billboard Hot 100. Themes In his biography of Kristofferson, Stephen Miller said the album's songs "focus on deeper aspects of the human condition — inner turmoil and emotional passions, freedom, failure and loss". Biographer Mary Hurd said the characters of "Casey's Last Ride", "Darby's Castle" and "Duvalier's Dream" are "outside society's mainstream". She further commented; "Kristofferson's blending of poetic storytelling with his narrative songs has made them favorites with much of his musical audience. All bearing upon loneliness and isolation." Author Michael Streissguth wrote; "Produced with session musicians outside A-class circles, it communicated eclecticism and spontaneity: talking blues appeared next to tender ballads next to unhinged jam". Mentioning "Me and Bobby McGee" and "Help Me Make it Through the Night" as examples, Bill C. Malone commented; "His compositions are distinguished by their simple, singable melodies and by their straight-forward but often self-consciously poetic lyrics", and said the album's themes of "freedom" and "the value of honest uninhibited personal relations" brought the "theme of sexuality openly discussed and endorsed without shame" to country music. On its book, The Encyclopedia of Country Music, the staff writers of the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum said; "the lyrics were tender, intimate, and poetic in a way that made the songs about love rather than sex", and that the compositions' "simple structure" belongs to "the country tradition". In 2016, Kristofferson told Uncut he felt the album is "quite produced" and said; "I probably wouldn't record it the same way now, but at the time I felt they were making the songs sound better than they were!" Kristofferson said he was "lucky" he was able to record his material at the time and that country music was not "as wide open as it is now". Release and reception Kristofferson was released in June 1970. Kristofferson then formed a band with Donnie Fritts (keyboards), Dennis Linde (guitar) and Billy Swan (bass), and embarked on a tour to promote the release. He played at The Troubadour in Los Angeles. On his first night, he opened for Linda Ronstadt and sang "Help Me Make it Through the Night". That year, the album failed commercially, selling 30,000 copies. Following the success of Johnny Cash's version, in November 1970 Kristofferson won Song of the Year at the Country Music Association Awards with "Sunday Mornin' Comin' Down". Billboard called Kristofferson a "dynamite package", and called its material "potent". Robert Hilburn wrote a favorable critic for the Los Angeles Times, saying; "[Kirstofferson] is able to combine lyric sophistication with country music's traditional interest in everyday problems". The review said the album's themes "deal with hypocrisy", talk about the "need for companionship", the "dangers of a too conventional life", and the time Kristofferson "was arrested for being too poor". For the Chicago Daily News, critic Kathy Orloff described Kristofferson's lyrics as "personal but not mawkish, emotional but not self-indulgent, tender but totally masculine". The reviewer of the Austin American-Statesman mentioned Kristofferson's fame as a songwriter and other artists recording his material, and said on Kristofferson, his voice is "rough" but that the release was "able to capture the spirit and maintain the honesty of the music his perceptions have produced". While The Baltimore Sun called Kristofferson's voice "lousy", the reviewer noted; "On this album, if you're going to list all the good songs, you'd list all the songs". The Associated Press considered Kristofferson's material "perception and poetry". Critic Robert Christgau gave Kristofferson a B−, commented on the "lack of raw charisma", and called the songs "perfunctory" and the album "disappointing". Rolling Stone called the album "superb" and praised Kristofferson's compositions as "simple songs that speak eloquently of his experiences". The reviewer said Kristofferson's performance is "remarkable strong and expressive". Reissues and retrospective reviews In the summer of 1970, Janis Joplin recorded "Me and Bobby McGee" with her newly formed Full Tilt Boogie Band. Her version was released after her death in October 1970; it reached number one on Billboard's Hot 100 and was included on the 1971 release Pearl. In January 1971, the Nashville Songwriters Association named Kristofferson Songwriter of the Year. By June 1971, Kristofferson was reported to be "almost always sold out". Following the momentum of Joplin's success, Monument Records reissued Kristofferson as Me and Bobby McGee in September 1971. The decision was taken after Columbia Records took over the distribution of the Monument Record releases. The reissue of the record improved the original sales figures. The reissued album peaked on Billboard's Top Country Albums at number 10 on November 20, 1971. On the pop charts, it peaked at number 43 on the Billboard's Top LPs by October 9, 1971, and was certified gold. The album was remastered and unreleased tracks were added to its 2001 edition on Monument-Legacy. On the 1979 edition of The Rolling Stone Record Guide, critic Stephen Holden gave the album a negative review. Holden said of Kristofferson: "as a performer, he is a questionable talent", while he added that "his rough singing style - which is minimal, to put it charitably" soon "wears thin". Meanwhile, Holden characterized the material of the songs as "strong". In his Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies critic Robert Christgau downgraded Kristofferson from his original review to a C−. Christgau said; "he's the worst singer I've ever heard. It's not that he's off key – he has no relation to key. He also has no phrasing, no dynamics, no energy, no authority, no dramatic ability, and no control of the top two-thirds of his six-note range". Closing the review, he recommended the album for "demo collectors". In a 2001 review, Rolling Stone gave Kristofferson four stars out of five; critic Adam Bresnick described it as "one of the great lost records of the hippie era" and called it "a country masterpiece packed with tales of drifters and dreamers recounted in rough-hewn poetry worthy of the best honky-tonk songwriters". AllMusic gave Kristofferson five stars out of five; the review credited Kristofferson with being different to his contemporary Nashville singer-songwriters because he noted the "natural affinity between the country archetype of a hard-drinking, romantically independent loner and the rock & roll archetype of a drug-taking, romantically free hippie". Track listing Charts Personnel Musicians Kris Kristofferson – guitar, vocals Chip Young, Jerry Kennedy, Jerry Shook - guitar Norbert Putnam - bass Kenny Buttrey - drums Charlie McCoy - harmonica The A Strings - strings Bergen White - string arrangements Recording studio Fred Foster – producer, liner notes Steve Mazur – assistant engineer Joseph M. Palmaccio – mastering Todd Parker, Tommy Strong – engineer John Christiana – packaging manager Howard Fritzson – art direction John Jackson – product manager Ken Kim – art direction, cover photography Randall Martin – design Al Quaglieri – reissue producer Nick Shaffran – series consultant Johnny Cash – liner notes Billy Swan – liner notes Footnotes References 1970 debut albums Kris Kristofferson albums Albums produced by Fred Foster Monument Records albums
4898920	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fistball	Fistball	Fistball is a sport of European origin, primarily played in the German-speaking nations of Austria, Germany and Switzerland, as well as in Brazil. The objective of the game is similar to volleyball, in that teams try to hit a ball over a net, but the rules vary from volleyball in several major ways. The current men's fistball World Champions are Germany, winners of both the 2023 Men's World Championships and the fistball category at the 2022 World Games, while the current women's fistball World Champions are also Germany, after winning the 2021 Women's World Championships. History When exactly the game of fistball was "invented", is not known. What is certain, however, is that the roots lie in the southern part of Europe, perhaps in Italy. The earliest known written mention of the game is by Roman Emperor Gordian III and dates to the year 240. Rules for an Italian version of fistball were recorded by Antonius Scaiono in 1555. In the 16th century the game experienced a renaissance. However, it was seen less as a game of competitive nature and more as a pastime for nobles and gentry. In 1786, Johann Wolfgang Goethe mentioned fistball games between 'four noblemen from Verona and four Venetians' in his diary An Italian Journey. It was only in 1870 that fistball was introduced to Germany, led by Georg Weber. The sport was mainly played by gymnasts and was soon seen as a gymnastic sport. Fistball was first presented in 1885 at the German Gymnastics Festival in Dresden. In 1894, Georg Weber, along with Dr. Heinrich Schnell, drafted the first German rules that outlined a sport with competitive elements. The play and scoring however differed significantly from fistball as it is known today. During this time the sport spread to the surrounding, mainly German-speaking, neighboring countries, and German emigrants also spread the sport in all continents, particularly in South America and West Africa. Fistball was first introduced to the United States in 1911 by high school teacher Christopher Carlton who had experienced it first hand on a summer vacation to Italy. At the 1913 German Gymnastics Festival in Leipzig, the first German men's championships were held, where LLB Frankfurt won against 1879 MTV Munich, winning 114:101. Due to the First World War, no German Championships were held between 1914 and 1920. In 1921, the first women's fistball championship was held, with Hamburger Turnerschaft emerging victorious against TV Krefeld, winning 91:90. Fistball, while still a game affiliated to the Gymnastics Association, began to grow independently. In 1927, almost 12,000 teams played organized fistball in Germany. Due to the rapid spread of the fistball game and improved game skills, further changes in the rules were necessary, with a greater focus on winning points through forcing errors. This style of play was more athletic and dynamic, and tactics began to change significantly. The development of fistball was halted by the Second World War. It was not until 1947 that regular German Championships were able to be carried out. In order to encourage development and improve performance, the International Fistball Association (IFA) was founded in 1960, and is now the umbrella organization of all national fistball organizations worldwide. The first IFA World Championships for men were held in Linz, Austria in 1968, with West Germany winning gold. The first IFA World Championships for women were held in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1994, with Germany winning gold. Both tournaments are currently held quadrennially. A relative latecomer to fistball, Australia established their own fistball federation in 2013, with South Africa following soon after in 2014. Gameplay Overview Fistball is a team sport in which two teams compete against each other on two half-fields, similar to volleyball. They are separated by a center line and a net stretched between two posts up to two meters in height. If the net or posts are touched by either a player or the ball during play, this is considered an error. Each team consists of five players, with players trying to play the ball across the net from one half of the field of play to the opponents' half – using only their arm or closed fist (unlike in volleyball where open hands are allowed) – in a way in which the opponents cannot return it. After clearing the net, the ball may be contacted up to three times by the five players on each team – with a bounce being permissible before each contact (also unlike in volleyball where no bounce is allowed), but no repeat hits by any individual player within the three attempts. Similar to volleyball, the three hits are ideally used to save, set and spike the ball back into the opponents half, in that order. Scoring The game is played for points and sets. If a team cannot return the ball or makes an error, the other team gets a point. The team that lost the last point or committed the last error makes the next service. A set ends when one team has scored 11 points and is at least 2 points in the lead (i.e. at least 11:9). If the score reaches 10:10, play will be extended automatically until one of the teams takes the lead by 2, or is the first to win 15 points (scores may therefore end 15–14). The number of winning sets varies depending on the game class, but is generally played to best of five or three. In some cases, set results are limited by time, and this can be common in large tournaments for organizational purposes. Errors The most important errors (i.e. points to the opposing team) are as follows: The ball or a player touches the net or post. The ball touches the ground outside the court. The ball touches the ground twice in a row without any contact by a player in between. The ball is played on the side of the post past or below the net into the opponent's box. More than three players on a team to touch the ball during a game turn. A player touches the ball a second time within a turn. The ball touches a part of the body other than the upper or lower arm or fist. For example, the ball cannot touch the head, foot, or open palm of the hand. A player's first grounding foot lands over the service line on a serve. Field Fistball is not a seasonal sport. In summer (field season), it is played outside on a grass or turf sports field (field size 50 x 20 m). In winter (indoor season) is played in an indoor sports hall, and generally an already existing handball court is used as a playing field (field size 40 x 20 m). In the hall, the ball has a more controlled bounce than on grass, which has an effect on the game tactics. In addition, in the hall, any wall contact by the ball is an error. In outdoor fistball, the field size is 50 m long x (25 x 20 m per half-field) by 20 m wide. In indoor fistball, the field size is 40 m long (20 x 20 m per half-field) by 20 m wide. Since the indoor field size corresponds with the regular size of a handball field, the existing external lines are usually used. The service line is 3 m away from the center line. The server's stationery foot (for standing serves) or first landing foot (for jumping serves) must be completely behind this line when serving. The boundary lines belong to the field, i.e. when the ball touches the line, this is not an error and play will continue. The playing field is divided in half by a 5 cm wide ribbon-like red and white net. It is held above the center line between two posts, its upper edge is located at 2 m height (men) and 1.90 m (women). For the D-Youth (under 12), the height is 1.60 m, the C-youth (under 14 years) 1.80 m. The field also includes a run-off area, which when playing outdoors is 8 m to the rear and 6 m on the sides. For indoor play, run-off areas are limited by the wall or stands, but are generally a minimum of 1 m to the rear and 0.5 m at the sides. The field dimensions given are for adult players, as youth fields are generally smaller. Ball A standard fistball is hollow, filled with air and is made of leather. It must be inflated evenly until it is round and taut. For indoor fistball games, and for different weather conditions in outdoor fistball games, players can use trade association-approved balls with different surfaces (for example, natural leather, plastic coating, rubberized surface). The weight of a ball can vary between 320 and 350 g (females) and 350-380 g (males). Its scope must be 65–68 cm, and its air pressure from 0.55 to 0.75 bar. It is thus as hard as a soccer ball (0.6-0.7 bar) and harder than a volleyball (0.29 to 0.32 bar). In physical size, it is similar to a soccer ball or a volleyball. The right to select the game ball is determined by lot before the game and replaced after each set. Increasingly, uniform balls are outlined and provided by the organizers to ensure equal opportunity for all teams participating at international championships. The ball can often be spiked at speeds of up to 100–120 km / h. In the field of youth other ball dimensions come (especially lower weights) are used, see the regulations. Strategy and tactics Formation In contrast to volleyball, where the players rotate and assume a different position after each change of service, in fistball each player has a fixed position. While players can rotate into different positions during a game, this is rather unusual, as each player is a specialist in his or her position. Another difference from volleyball is that a fistball playing field is much larger, and fistball teams have fewer players on the field at one time than volleyball teams, and therefore fistball players are required to cover much more space during play. The main reason for these differences is because the ball can bounce once between each player's hit, resulting in differing strategies to volleyball. Depending on playing conditions (hardwood or grass, wet ground etc.), formations can change. In the image, two different formations are shown: Team A shows the typical formation for outdoor play on grass ( W-shape ). The setter covers the front middle to be ready for short balls (e.g. drop shots) played by the opposition. However, the setter also need to be prepared for hard attacking shots played through the middle by the opposition, and quick reflexes are required to be able to defend these. Team B shows the typical formation for indoor play on hardwood ( U-shape ). As the bounce of the ball indoors is more predictable, short balls are not as effective. Therefore, the setter moves to the rear foul line to assist on defense. However, the setter constantly runs to the front after each defense in order to set the ball for the attackers. At international levels, outdoor fistball is also played in the U-shape, mainly due to the better defenses that it can provide against fast and powerful attacking shots. The players playing at this level are required to have significant speed and fitness in order to cover the ground for both defending and attacking hits. Another formation option, although rare, is the V-shape. This is generally used when playing on wet grass. In this case the setter stands behind the baseline and the two defensive players move diagonally inwards to form a V shape. As an attacking shot hit on wet grass tends to slip more and bounce less, this formation gives teams more chance to get underneath the bounce of the ball to hit it upward in return. Substitutions may be anywhere at any position field, but only before that team is about to serve, during a time out, between sets, or whenever the referee has stopped play. Serving Force, accuracy and fluid sequence of body movements are necessary to make full effect of the service. With a service, the server will attempt to achieve a direct point with it via an "ace", or will at least hope to force the opponent into a difficult first hit, thereby affecting the buildup of the opponent's return hit. The ball is hit mostly with the inner surface of the fist, due to control. However, if the server wishes to hit the ball with full force, they will use the edge of a clenched hand. This is called a "hammer hit", and carries greater risk of failure due to the smaller impact surface than the inner surface of the fist. The server will attempt to hit the ball into an area on the opposition's side of the field that will be difficult for the opposition to return. For example, this can be done by hitting the ball long to the back line, directly at the feet of an opposition player, diagonally across the court, or with a short ball just over the net. A difficult, yet highly effective variation to the serve is to add curve to the hit. This can be done by sweeping across the ball from left to right, or vice versa, when hitting with the inside surface of the fist. If done correctly, the ball should appear to curve away from or into the opposition, confusing their return. When preparing to serve, the server must stand behind the service line (3-meter line). Upon completion of the service hit, the server's first contact with the ground must be behind the service line. For example, if the server jumps while serving, the first foot to touch the ground upon landing must be behind the line. The second foot may then land in front of the line. This same rule applies for standing serves. If this is not correctly complete, the server will be charged with a fault, and the opposition will receive a point. In addition, the ball must visibly leave the hand prior to hitting (i.e. it must be thrown). It must not be pushed away out of the holding hand in an attempt to surprise the opponent, as this will also count as an error. Defense The defender must be skillful in order to ensure their team can launch an effective attack. If a defensive shot is returned ineffectively, there will be little chance for a strong attack. The ball from an opponent's strong attacking hit or serve can be very hard to return, and most successful defenses are the result of running hard for the return. Players will often be required to jump or dive in order to reach the ball even before it hits the ground for the second time. A good defense is performed using the inside of the forearm while positioned behind the ball, facing the net. If the inside of the forearm not exactly behind the ball, the ball will not go in the desired direction, and will instead go erratically sideways. This is especially the case when the ball is wet. In order to lower the physical impact of the hit, one can carefully retract the arm at the moment of impact, but this is an art that few can master. A good defender possesses great agility, speed, responsiveness, technical ability, positional sense and the courage to put in extra physical effort to make contact. This unconditional commitment of each player makes up the foundation of the fistball sport dynamic. Setting The setter substantially affects the nature of the following attack. The setter must be able to position the ball in the air and on the field in a place that an attack can effectively take place. This hit may need to take place from anywhere on the field, including the baseline, close to the net or even from outside the field of play. If the ball is set for the attack by hitting the ball in the air and allowing for a bounce, this is called an indirect set. The setter has to calculate the trajectory of the hit so that the bounce is at its highest point approximately 2.5 - 3.0 m in height, as this is the most effective height for an attacker to jump and strike the ball over the net. The field conditions, distance to the net and possibly the wind direction all have to be taken into account when performing the set. In addition, the ball should ideally have some forward spin so that the attacker can use this forward momentum in his or her attacking hit. The setter can also hit the ball so that it is hit directly by the attacker without the ball first touching the ground; this is called a direct set. The setter will often call "direct" or "indirect" prior to the set, to allow the attacker to adjust his or her approach. Most sets are performed by the setter, however in many situations one of the attackers will be required to set due either to positioning, or the setter having already been forced to hit in defense. A good attacker must also be competent in setting the ball. Attacking A good attacker will be able to hit the ball with high impact (good hits will reach speeds of over 100 km/h), be able to access weaknesses in the positional play of the opponent and have a great repertoire of strokes. The primary attacker is positioned next to the server, who acts as the secondary attacker. The attacker uses the forward spin of a well-placed ball from a set to jump and hit it with full force into the gaps of opposing defenses. Ideally, the attacker must be unpredictable to the opposition, ensuring the direction and speed of the attack can not be predicted by the defense until the hit takes place. As with the server, the attacker has a wide range of possible variations for attack, but the choice and effectiveness of each hit are particularly dependent on the success or failure of his team's ability to set up the attack from defense. For indoor fistball, the dimensions of the court change the approach of the attack, as the run-out section for indoor play is usually very limited due to the close proximity of walls. This fact is exploited by the setter, who will try to place the ball just about the net so that the attacker can hit the ball sharply across the court, restricting the opponents ability to get behind the ball before it hits the wall. In order to stop this occurring, the opponent must attempt to block the ball at the net, similar to volleyball. This has significant effect on the formation and strategy of defending teams. Referees A fistball game is controlled by a referee, who is assisted by two linesmen. The referee has sole decision-making power. He or she makes the final decision on all points or errors. Since the linesmen are relatively far away from the referee, he or she is also responsible for observing the sidelines on his side of the field. The linesmen are stationed in the opposite corners of the field from the referee, and use flags to signal their calls. Their task is to make judgements on line calls, similar to a soccer linesman. The observation area of the two linesmen is dependent on which of the two teams is currently attacking and which is defending. The linesman on the attacking side is responsible for the entire sideline to the end, and therefore he or she turns to face the side line. The linesman on the defending side is level with the base line and is therefore solely responsible for observing that line. The linesmen change their observation areas as the play changes between attack and defense. In addition to displaying off balls (flag held upwards) or good balls (flag held downwards) the referee is used to rule violations or other important game situations, such as substitutions, injuries, unsportsmanlike conduct etc. Competitions The biggest international competition in fistball is the Fistball World Championships, currently held every four years. All member countries of the IFA are invited to participate in each event, with 10-12 teams usually qualifying for the tournament. The competition location changes with each event, but is usually held in either Europe or South America. The Fistball World Championship for women is held one year prior to the Fistball World Championship for men, and generally in a different host country to the one chosen for the subsequent men's tournament. In the men's tournament, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Namibia and Italy have competed in every tournament since 1990, while Serbia, USA and Japan have also been frequent participants. The first Fistball World Championship was held for men in 1968, and for women in 1994. The top five teams from the Men's Fistball World Championships are also invited to compete in the fistball category of the World Games, also held every four years. If the host nation is a member of the IFA the sixth team is the fistball team of the host nation, otherwise the sixth placed team at the most recent World Championship is invited. While not directly facilitated by the IFA, this event has significant prestige. In addition to World Championships, international continental competitions are held for teams within Europe, South America and, most recently, Asia. For club competitions, the Fistball World Cup is held every year for both indoor and outdoor competitions, with the best clubs in the world competing. Individual European and South American championships are also held for clubs, which are used as qualification for the World Cup competition. Results Fistball World Championship - Men Medal table Fistball World Championship - Women Medal table World Games – Men European Championships Asia-Pacific Championships Notable players Dirk Schachtsiek References External links IFA Rules of the Game Ball games Team sports Articles containing video clips
4899097	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DAM%20%28band%29	DAM (band)	DAM () is a Palestinian hip-hop group founded in 1999 by brothers Tamer and Suhell Nafar and their friend Mahmoud Jreri from the mixed city of Lod. The group's songs are themed on protest, inequality, Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and self-criticism of Arab-Israeli society, including the violence and drug dealing within Israel's mixed cities. DAM is the best-known and most famous Palestinian hip hop group; it is also often called the "quintessential Palestinian resistance band". DAM raps primarily in Arabic, but also in English and Hebrew. DAM has released more than 100 singles and three albums—Dedication, Dabke on the Moon and Ben Haana Wa Maana—as well as an EP—Street Poetry. DAM's music is focused on Palestinian identity, culture, and resistance, and the group has frequently used their music and profile to raise awareness of the Palestinian cause, often performing their music in collaboration with activist groups. The name DAM is an acronym for "Da Arab MCs" that also means "enduring" or "everlasting" in Arabic or "blood" in Arabic and Hebrew. In January 2017, they signed with the London-based independent record label publishing and services, Cooking Vinyl. For their UK and EU touring schedule, the band is represented by X-Ray Touring. Name The name DAM is an acronym for "Da Arab MCs" that also means "enduring" or "everlasting" in Arabic (دام; dām) or "blood" in Arabic and Hebrew (دم; dam). History 1998–2000: Early development DAM founders Tamer Nafar, Suhell Nafar and Mahmoud Jreri were born and raised in high-density, impoverished neighborhoods in Lod, the living conditions of which they have subsequently called those of "second-class citizens" in their music. After listening to 1990s Algerian rap groups such as , the Nafar brothers became convinced to abandon English lyrics in favour of Arabic. Tupac Amaru Shakur's songs has also been noted as an emblematic figure in rap that helped inspire DAM. DAM leader Tamer Nafar began his career in 1998 in the Jewish–Israeli rap scene under the wing of the Tunisian–Iranian-origin Israeli rap artist Subliminal. In 1998, Tamer released his first EP, "Stop Selling Drugs," featuring his younger brother, Suhell Nafar. Nafar then formed DAM in 1999 with his brother Suheil and their friend Muhammad Jrere, but as late as 2000 the group continues to perform in concert with Subliminal and other Jewish–Israeli rappers. DAM was created in order to give a voice, and a platform to express widespread disillusionment and discontent felt by the Palestinian youth facing discrimination and oppression from Israel. The trio having experienced adolescence in this context, used hip hops as a means of communicating their sentiments towards their difficult situations as Palestinians. In their early days, the group had limited access to recording studios and necessary equipment, and experienced censorship, surveillance and persecution by Israeli authorities.h. They later went on to perform in the West Bank, where they sampled "famed protest poetry and traditional song material" and brough it into their rap. The film Slingshot Hip Hop features DAM's three founders as protagonists as it traces the rise of DAM and other Palestinian hip hop groups. Though DAM is sometimes mistakenly identified as the first Palestinian hip hop or rap group, they were preceded by a band named "MWR", a group from Acre that has since disbanded. DAM started recording songs on their home computer, and most of their songs back then were recorded over known Hip Hop instrumentals. At the time, the Hip-Hop scene in Palestine was developing largely, and DAM in particular, got their start performing in Jerusalem. As a result, most of their earlier music was performed in Arabic. At the beginning of the group's history, DAM's music and lyrics focused mostly around everyday life, performing, and emotions, not containing many political references. But this changed with time. On September 3, 2000, Tamer's friend Booba (Hussam Abu Gazazae) was shot down and killed during a drive-by, an incident that drove Tamer to record his first protest song with a political reference. A cover of Abd al Majeed Abdalla's song "Ya Tayeb al Galb", the song was called "Booba" and featured Ibraheem Sakallah in the hook. (2000-2005) Second Intifada period With the onset of the Second Intifada in October 2000, DAM and Subliminal stopped touring together due to their opposing political opinions. That same year, DAM wrote their first direct political song, "Posheem Hapim me Peshaa' – Innocent Criminals." It was recorded over an instrumental of "Hail Mary" by Tupac, and featured inciting lines such as "When Jews protest, the cops use clubs / When Arabs protest, the cops takes their souls" and "If it is a democracy, how come I'm not mentioned in your Anthem" followed by the chorus "Before you judge me, before you understand me, walk in my shoes, and you will hurt your feet, because we are criminal, innocent criminals." The song created controversy in the Israeli media, and it put DAM in conflict with some Israeli rappers, such as Subliminal, with much of the subsequent fall-out being recorded in the documentary Channels of Rage. Despite the controversy, the song was later remixed by the Israeli rock musician Aviv Geffen, with American-Israeli director Udi Aloni making a music video for the song in 2003. Around that time, and after listening to the Algerian French Hip Hop CD "MBS – Micro Brise le Silence," Tamer got convinced to give it a shot in Arabic; after a few experiences, he released his first official single "Min al Ta lal Alef lal M E R – From the T to the A to the M E R" over the R. Kelly's instrumental feat Nas "Have you ever thought" the song hit number one charts in all of the Arab radios bringing DAM to the Palestinian mainstream and making them the group with the largest following and to non-stop shows in the years 2000 till 2003, a lot of Rappers and Hip Hop bands started their career after that single, the whole Palestinian Hip Hop scene started to spread, studios were opened and workshops for self-expression through rhymes started around. "Min Erhabi? – Who's the terrorist?" (2001) In 2001, DAM released their breakthrough single "Min Erhabi? – Who is the terrorist?", which was soon downloaded more than a million times. It was released in the wake of a bombing in Tel Aviv, after which Israelis gathered around the Hassan Bek Mosque in Yafa, throwing stones at it and screaming "Death to the terrorist Arabs". The song features politically charged lyrics in which DAM critiques the "racist, essentialist notion" of "the Palestinian terrorist": The lyrics offended some Israelis, prompting demonstrations at concerts, including one attended by the then Israeli Culture Minister Miri Regev, a former military censor, who called the song "an act of violence". The song generated an international buzz around DAM, with Rolling Stone featuring the song and releasing a compilation alongside the magazine featured DAM's Min Erhabi and other International artists such as Manu Chao and Zebda. At that same time, Udi Aloni released his second documentary "Local Angel" that also featured DAM and they toured around Europe with the film, the tour included France, Germany, and Belgium and it was the beginning of DAM's international career. Min Erhabi remains both one of DAM's most popular and controversial songs, giving voice as it does to the perpetual circle of violence within the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The pro-peace song "Summit Meeting" was also released in 2001 by Sagol 59, DAM's Tamer Nafar, and Sha’anan Street, the front man for Israeli rappers Hadag Nahash. Recorded amid spiraling violence, it was the first example of a Jewish-Arab hip-hop collaboration performed in both Hebrew and Arabic. 2003–2004 In 2003 Anat Halachmi, an Israeli film director, released the documentary Channels of Rage. The film follows Tamer Nafar and DAM on one side and Subliminal on the other. Anat followed them for almost 3 years. The film shows their relations and beefs through Hip Hop; the film won the Volgin Award for the best documentary in the Jerusalem film festival 2003. In 2004 the group was invited by the Shateel organization to do a song that talks about discrimination in Israel, the Palestinian neighborhoods suffering from poverty, unemployment, and house demolitions by Israel, in Lyd the main entrance to the Palestinian neighborhoods is through 8 train tracks that you must cross by walking; as a result, more than 10 Palestinians were killed by trains. In the song "Kan Noladti – Born Here", the group featured the female Palestinian rapper Abir al Zinati , shown walking the streets of Lod. The song was created as a reference to a known Israeli song by "Dats and Datsa" that said, "I was born here, my children were born here, and this is where we built our houses with our hands", DAM changed it to "I was born here, my grandparents were born here, and this is where you destroyed our houses with your hands". The Born Here Campaign also featured a bus tour in the Palestinian neighborhoods for Israel's top celebrities. The campaign created a huge local media outrage. Many artists joined the ride, among which were: Moni Moshonov, Aviv Geffen, Ha Yehudim, Yoav Kutner, Gila Almagor, and many more. As a result of the campaign, Israel was finally forced to build bridges above the train tracks. "When we say Hip Hop is a bridge, we mean it metaphorically and Literary," said Tamer in his TEDEX speech at 2012, Nazareth. Tamer maintained to make political and historical tours after that, for schools, local and foreign groups, and for International artists such as Erykah Badu, Ezra Koenig from the American Rock band - Vampire's Weekend, Michael Franti, Gbenga Akinnagbe actor on the TV show The Wire. The Born Here Campaign with DAM also toured Israel to spread awareness for the campaign. 2006–2010 DAM released their first album, "Ihda'" or "Dedication", in 2006. DAM signed with the British Label "RCM – Red Circle Music" to market the album in Europe and gave the licensing to EMI Arabia to distribute the album in the Arab countries, they also signed with the French booking agency 3D Family to tour the Sundance Film Festival, Womad, Dubai International Film Festival, among others, as well as the local Taybeh Beer Festival in Taybeh, State of Palestine. In 2008, the American filmmaker Jackie Salloum released the documentary Slingshot Hip Hop about the story of Palestinian Hip Hop within Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories. The film was screened at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival and prominently features DAM, alongside other Palestinian artists, inclyuding Abeer Zinaty (aka Sabreena da Witch, also from Lod), the Gaza-based Palestinian Rapperz, Arapeyat and Mahmoud Shalabi, both from Acre. The soundtrack was mostly recorded at Sabreen Studio, East Jerusalem; the album had songs such "Who is the terrorist" by DAM, "Tzakar" by PR, "Blinded Freedom" by Shalabi, "The witch's Uprising" by Abeer and Suhell Nafar and “Sot el Samt” by WE7. Following the film's success, DAM started touring the US, holding around 60 shows a year. In 2009, when Israel started to advertise for Israel's Palestinian citizens to serve in the National Service instead of the Army, the campaign was opposed by Palestinian organizations and activists, including the Baladna organization, which asked DAM to write and record a theme song for the campaign. In 2010, DAM were asked by Adaleh to participate in the short film that describes the Israeli legal discrimination towards Palestinians, DAM was offered to meet with Adaleh's lawyers, ask questions and regarding the answer, they will go to the studio followed by the camera and record a song about it. DAM came out with the song "Muwaten Mustahdaf – Targeted Citizen", the directors liked the title of the song, so they ended up using it for the title of the whole film and the campaign. In 2010, Tamer Nafar fronted the international music event "Lyrical Alliance" in the UK, which drew together artists from North Africa, the Middle East in what was subsequently called "The dream team of Arabic hip hop". 2011–present After 5 years of performing and touring, and participating in other Artists' projects, DAM decided to release the first single from their future album "Nudbok Al Amar – Dabka on the Moon". The name of the first single is "Risale min Zinzane - A Letter from the Cell", they featured in the song Trio Joubran and Bachar Marcell Khalifa. During the writing process of the song, DAM met with the Addameer organization a few times to collect information, personal stories, and letters so they can create three fictional characters that will be based on true stories. The song was supposed to be released with the album, but after the Palestinian prisoners' hunger strike, DAM decided to release the unfinished version to support the prisoners. Musical Style and Impact DAM's musical style merges Western hip hop with traditional Palestinian musical influences, creating a distinct music genre that reflects their political message and identity. Rapping in both English and Arabic and even Hebrew, this fusion is further seen in their lyrics, which describe their experiences as Palestinians under occupation, their aspirations for social justice and human rights as well as their critiques of the society they live in. While DAM was characterized early on as "young, angry, hardcore Palestinian Israeli youth straight out of Lyd's ghetto", they later took a different direction, "speaking to issues of racism and reconciliation with Israel", voiced in song lyrics such as: By 2012, DAM is said to have grown tired of their identification as a "resistance band", with its members instead seeking identities as mainstream commercial artists wanting to "move beyond the political hype" and "be known for their beats and verses". There has been almost no analysis of DAM's Hebrew songs or its position in Israeli society and culture, but the simplistic outline of a resistance narrative does not adequately reflect DAM's nuanced political and cultural stances and the multiple audiences it addresses. Reception Because of the stance DAM has taken, the group has faced political pressure and censorship from Israeli authorities, who view their music as a threat to Israeli legitimacy. As a result, the rap group experienced difficulties in organising events and performances, Israeli authorities actively wanting to shut down these events over basis of inciting hate and unrest towards the Israeli state. They have also faced backlash for their song "Mama I fell in love with a Jew", with a parodic music video where the rap group is in an elevator with an IDF soldier. Their drawing on themes such as Arab violence and drug dealing have also drawn criticism from within the Arab community, which tends to avoid airing these problems in public. Discography Albums Ihda' (2006) Dabke on the Moon (2012) Ben Haana Wa Maana (2019) Together, these albums have earned DAM critical acclaim and helped make of this group a leading voice in Palestinian artistic resistance movements. Contributing artist The Rough Guide To Arabic Revolution (2013) DAM in TV and cinema (2002) Local angel (as DAM) (2003) Channels of Rage by Anat Halachmi (as DAM) (2007) Forgiveness (as DAM) (2007) DAM – UK London by Eliot Manches (as DAM) (2008) Slingshot Hip Hop by Jackie Salloum (as DAM and Suhell Nafar as the narrator) (2008) Salt of the sea by Annemarie Jacir (DAM's Song Shidu al Himme produced by K Salaam, and a Small part by Tamer Nafar as a waiter) (2008) Where in the world is Osama Ben Laden? By Morgan Spurlock (In the soundtrack – Mali Huriye – I have no freedom song) (2009) Checkpoint Rock – Songs for Palestine by Fermin Muguruza and Javier Corcuera (as DAM and Suhell Nafar as the narrator) (2010) Targeted citizen by Rahel Lea Jones (as DAM) (2011) Habibi Rasak Kharban by Susan Youssef (Tamer & Suhell Nafar in a small part as fishermen) (2012) I'lam Media Center: I have the right! By Firas Khoury (Tamer Nafar as himself) (2012) Yala on the Moon (Yala al Amar) by Jackie Salloum and Suhell Nafar (DAM in the soundtrack and Tamer Nafar in a small part as a driver) (2012) Art/Violence, a documentary by Udi Aloni, Cinema Fairbindet Prize awarded in the Berlinale film festival 2012, DAM were part of the characters in the movie and their music video "If I Could Go Back in TIme-Law Arjaa bil Zaman" was used in the movie, as well Tamer Nafar was part of the Producers of the movie. (2012) Insha'Allah a Canadian/French feature film directed by Anaïs Barbeau-Lavalette, the movie uses in one of the scenes 2 songs "Love us and Buy us - Hibuna Ishtruna ( from Ihdaa/Dedication) and the single "Targeted Citizen - Muwaten Mustahdaf" Live Performances and Collaborations Many of DAM's live performances in Palestine and around the world have been in collaboration with other activist groups and artists in support of Palestinian resistance and culture. They are furthermore associated to other activist groups, advocating for the safety of Palestinian refugees and political prisoners. Legacy and Influence DAM's music has been recognised as a powerful means to express Palestinian discontent and culture, spreading their message around the world. This group has inspired hope and change amongst the Palestinian resistance movement and general supporters of the Palestinian cause. References Citations Sources Further reading External links DAM - The Official Website DAM Official instagram Official Youtube Page DAM - Official Youtube Page DAM - The Official Facebook Page DAM - The Official Twitter Account DAM - SoundCloud DAM - MySpace page SlingShot HipHop - The official Website A link to" A letter from a cell" song (Translated to English) A teaser of the Street Poetry song edited by Suhell Nafar A link to a live performance of the Song "Mama, I'm In love with a Jew" (Over the Ghostface feat Neyo beat – Back like That")in the Southpaw club in NY, 2009 - featuring The Narcicyst. A link to the Targeted Citizen Film A Link to Born Here's clip – DAM ft Abir al Zinati (AKA Sabreena the Witch) Link to Who's the Terrorist Video by Jackie Salloum A link to the Innocent Criminals video clip featuring Aviv Geffen DAM:LONDON – official 15-minute documentary film, shot during DAM's brief visit to the UK in October 2006 Hip hop groups Musical groups established in 1999 People from Lod Political music groups Palestinian musical groups 1999 establishments in Israel Anti-racism in Israel Anti-racism in Palestine Musical trios Palestinian hip hop
4899255	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2/18th%20Battalion%20%28Australia%29	2/18th Battalion (Australia)	The 2/18th Battalion was an Australian Army infantry unit that served during World War II. Formed in June 1940, the battalion was assigned to the 22nd Brigade, which formed part of the Australian 8th Division. After completing basic training, the 2/18th was sent to Singapore and Malaya to strengthen the defences of the British colonies in February 1941 against a possible Japanese attack. The 2/18th Battalion subsequently undertook garrison duties throughout the year at various locations in Malaya, where it conducted jungle training and constructed defences along the eastern coast. Following the outbreak of war in the Pacific in December 1941, the 2/18th saw action against Japanese forces in the Malayan campaign, during which they took part in a large-scale ambush of a Japanese force on the Malay Peninsula before joining the withdrawal to Singapore in early 1942. Assigned to defend part of the north-west coast of the island, the battalion participated in the unsuccessful defence of Singapore in early February 1942. Following the fall of Singapore the majority of the battalion's personnel were taken as prisoners of war. Many of these men died in captivity; the survivors were liberated in 1945 and returned to Australia where the battalion was disbanded. History Formation The 2/18th Battalion was raised around Sydney, New South Wales, in June 1940, with its first subunits being formed on 13 July at Wallgrove Camp. Formed as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) from volunteers for overseas service, the battalion's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Varley, a grazier from Inverell, New South Wales, and a World War I veteran who had previously commanded the 35th Battalion while serving in the Militia during the interwar years. The battalion concentrated at Wallgrove on 15 July, and a cadre of commissioned and senior non-commissioned officers (NCOs) who were selected from the Militia—in many cases personally by Varley—was established, while the remainder of the battalion's NCOs were appointed from recruits following their arrival. The majority of the battalion's personnel arrived on 27 and 28 July. Coming from across the state of New South Wales, the men were drawn from places such as Tamworth, Newcastle, Wagga, Goulburn, and Liverpool, with roughly 60 percent coming from rural backgrounds. With an authorised strength of around 900 men, the battalion was organised around a battalion headquarters, with a regimental aid post, four rifle companies and a headquarters company consisting of various support platoons and sections including signals, mortars, transport (later carriers), pioneers, anti-aircraft and administration. Along with the 2/19th and 2/20th Battalions, it was assigned to the 22nd Brigade, which formed part of the 8th Division. The colours chosen for the battalion's unit colour patch (UCP) were the same as those of the 18th Battalion, a unit which had served during World War I before being raised as a Militia formation in 1921. These colours were purple over green, in a diamond shape, although a border of gray in an oval shape was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart; the oval shape designated the battalion as part of the 8th Division. Basic training began at Wallgrove on 1 August, and was provided by experienced regular soldiers and personnel who had previously served in the Militia. In mid-August the battalion moved to Ingleburn, and by the end of the month individual training had been completed. Collective training followed, and on 5 October the battalion took part in a divisional march through Sydney. A further move came in November when the 2/18th was transported to Bathurst, where more complex exercises were undertaken, including at brigade and divisional levels. Although the fighting had not yet spread to the Pacific, by late 1940 there were growing concerns amongst the Allies about the possibility of a war with Japan. After a review of the defences around Singapore and Malaya, the British government requested Australian troops be sent to garrison the region. In October, the Australian government committed the 22nd Brigade and supporting elements. As a result, the 2/18th—with a strength of 793 men—subsequently embarked upon the RMS Queen Mary and left Sydney on 4 February 1941, bound for Singapore. The Australian government wished to send the brigade to the Middle East to join the 6th, 7th and 9th Divisions, so the deployment was only intended to be short, as the British government pledged to release an Indian division to replace the Australians in May. Consequently, the Australian forces were deployed having only been partially trained and equipped and while they were still in the process of being brought up to full strength. Malayan campaign The men arrived in Singapore on 18 February 1941 and moved into barracks at Port Dickson, in the north of Malaya. While there, the battalion undertook further training to prepare it for jungle warfare, before moving to Seremban in March. Further drafts of reinforcements arrived during this time as the battalion was brought up to its wartime establishment. The rigours of jungle training and the tropical heat affected the men, and a number of personnel were hospitalised during this time with illnesses such as malaria, measles, mumps and serious tropical skin diseases. Some of these were repatriated back to Australia, and by the end of March, the 2/18th was still below its authorised establishment, with an actual strength of 898. Amidst growing concerns amongst Australian military commanders about Japanese intentions, the scheduled replacement of the 22nd Brigade was cancelled, and the 2/18th remained in Seremban until they were transported east to Jemaluang in August. The following month they were sent north to Mersing, which, situated on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, was considered a likely place for a Japanese landing as it offered a short route of advance towards Singapore. At Mersing, the battalion was set to work digging defensive positions and constructing wire obstacles, punctuated by familiarisation patrols and anti-aircraft, anti-gas and mortar training. The battalion was placed on a war footing on 6 December as tensions in the region escalated. Two days later, the Japanese invasion of Malaya commenced; while the fighting raged elsewhere, the 2/18th remained unengaged around Mersing. On 26 December, a small group of 2/18th men were detached to an ad hoc British raiding force known as "Roseforce" to take part in a raid behind Japanese lines, ambushing a Japanese convoy. It was not until 3 January however that the battalion came into contact with the Japanese for the first time, with a patrol from the 2/18th capturing two Japanese airmen who had been shot down near the mouth of the Sekakap River. A fortnight later, Japanese advances along the peninsula to the west led to concerns about the coastal defences being outflanked and cut off. As result, on 17 January, the 2/18th was ordered to withdraw south to Jemaluang without having met the Japanese in battle. Following a landing around Mersing, the Japanese began to advance south towards Jemaluang in large numbers. In response, on 26 January the 2/18th Battalion, supported by two batteries of artillery from the 2/10th Field Regiment, was tasked with establishing an ambush near the Nithsdale Estate and the rubber plantation at Joo Lye. Establishing themselves along the Mersing–Jemaluang road, 'D' Company was deployed to the north on the western side of the road as the lookout force, while 'B' Company was positioned further to the south on the opposite side of the road. South of them, 'A' Company formed the blocking force, with their position stretched across the road oriented to the north. Behind them, 'C' Company was positioned in reserve, further south. The plan had been for the ambush to be sprung during the day, but the Japanese advance had proceeded more slowly than thought, and it was not until after dark that they entered the ambush site. In order to inflict as many casualties as possible, the Japanese force, which was estimated to be battalion-sized, was allowed to pass through 'D' and 'B' Companies. By 3:00 am they came up against 'A' Company's blocking position and the ambush was finally initiated. Devastating indirect fire from artillery and mortars inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese; however, as the northernmost company—'D'—turned south to attack the Japanese from the rear, they came up against determined resistance from a force of Japanese that had managed to infiltrate the ambush site and dig in on a small feature to the east of the estate's pig farm, north of 'B' Company. This effectively cut them off from the rest of the battalion. Fighting raged throughout the early morning as 'B' Company vainly attempted to assist the cut-off 'D' Company. Varley decided to launch a counterattack with 'A' Company, but at 8:00 am the order to withdraw came from brigade headquarters, cancelling the attack. Covered by the reserve company, 'A' and some of 'B' Company were able to break contact and fall back. 'D' Company, along with those of 'B' Company that were still isolated and in contact, had to be left to fight their way back to the battalion's lines. By the time they arrived, there were only enough men left to form one platoon. The 2/18th's losses in this action amounted to about 90 men killed, wounded or missing. Japanese losses are unknown, but are thought to be significant and they were unable to take Jemaluang for two more days. Fighting in Singapore After the withdrawal from Nithsdale, the battalion fell back along the Jemaluang–Kota Tinggi Road, before helping to cover the Allied withdrawal over the Johor–Singapore Causeway to Singapore Island. No engagements were fought during this phase, but the 2/18th patrolled constantly and provided rearguard detachments. During this time, the battalion was briefly commanded by Major William Fraser, when Varley temporarily took over Eastforce, which consisted of the 22nd Brigade and a number of Indian and Malay formations, filling in for Brigadier Harold Burfield Taylor, who was temporarily detached to organise a force to cover the withdrawal. Following its arrival on the island, Varley returned to the battalion, which received a small number of reinforcements—about 90 men—and was allocated to the defence of the Western Area along with the rest of the 8th Division. Forming part of the 22nd Brigade's defensive line in the north-west sector, stretching from the Causeway to the Sungei Berih, the battalion was responsible for defending a frontage of . With a strength of 37 officers and 826 other ranks, the battalion occupied a position in the centre of the brigade that stretched from the 2/20th's position around Kranji to the 2/19th's around Sungei Sarimbun, north-east of the village of Ama Keng and Tengah Airfield. Consisting of "tidal mud flats and mangrove swamps intersected with streams and inlets", there had been no work done to prepare the area that the battalion was allocated to defend prior to its arrival due to political concerns about alarming the local population. The wide frontage stretched the 2/18th thin on the ground, with no depth and large gaps between positions that were separated in places by tidal waterways. Due to the thick vegetation along the shoreline, the battalion's positions had the added handicap of poor visibility of the water and limited fields of fire that, combined with their isolation, meant that they were unable to support each other. After occupying their positions on 1 February, the battalion worked to improve them as best they could, working under the cover of darkness so as to avoid Japanese artillery and air attacks. The Japanese attack on the north-west coast came on the night of 8/9 February, beginning with a heavy artillery and aerial bombardment of the 22nd Brigade's positions throughout the day, followed by a waterborne assault across the Johore Strait, which began around 10:30 pm. Confronted by 16 battalions from the Japanese 5th and 18th Divisions, which concentrated upon the 2/18th's and 2/20th's positions, the 2/18th's two forward companies—'A' and 'C'—strongly resisted two frontal assaults during the day. Heavy casualties were inflicted on the Japanese over the course of several hours, but the defenders were eventually forced back by heavy indirect fire and overwhelming numbers. Exploiting the holes in the battalion's perimeter to avoid resistance, by 1:30 am on 9 February the Japanese had penetrated towards battalion headquarters near the Lim Chau Kang road, threatening to roll up the battalion's rear. Varley then ordered the forward companies to make a fighting withdrawal and fall back on battalion headquarters. Heavy fighting followed, during which the Australians suffered grave losses as groups became lost in the darkness in the thick country, before the battalion was able to re-establish itself around Ama Keng. The 2/18th attempted to defend the Tengah Airfield, but by 1:00 pm on 9 February they had been reduced to only 330 men and were withdrawn back to the south-east of the airfield, occupying a position around Bulim along the Chu Kang Road, with the 2/29th Battalion on their left. Throughout the night of 9/10 February, minor clashes occurred as patrols were sent out to fend off Japanese probes. The battalion continued to hold the line until 6:00 am when, following receipt of orders to withdraw, it moved back to Keat Hong village to take up the role of brigade reserve. The carrier platoon covered the battalion's withdrawal, and amidst heavy artillery shelling, they ambushed two Japanese columns, each roughly company-sized, inflicting heavy casualties upon them with their Vickers machine-guns before breaking contact. As a result of a misinterpretation of orders, the 22nd Brigade fell back towards Reformatory Road where the 2/18th took up positions to the west between the junctions of the Ulu Pandan and Bukit Timah Roads. When the brigade launched a counterattack later that day, the majority of the battalion was held back in reserve, after suffering many casualties. A single company, though, was detached at this time to an ad hoc formation dubbed "X Battalion", tasked with launching a counterattack. Meanwhile, the rest of the battalion moved back into the reserve position along the Bukit Panjang Road. That evening the 2/18th occupied a position north of a feature dubbed "127", but early on the morning of 11 February they were moved back south of there to gain better fields of fire. Shortly after this, the 2/18th came under attack from front and rear after the Japanese managed to infiltrate behind their position, forcing the 2/18th to fall back further under the cover of the fire from the carriers once again. Later during 11 February, the 22nd Brigade headquarters, situated around Wai Soon Gardens, came under attack from a Japanese force moving south from Bukit Timah. In response, the 2/18th launched a counterattack across Reformatory Road with bayonets. At the same time, a section from the battalion's carrier platoon, under the command of Lieutenant Iven John Mackay, son of Lieutenant General Iven Giffard Mackay, conducted a daring attack that stopped the Japanese advance. Rolling up the axis of the road, firing machine-guns and hurling grenades, they advanced to the Bukit Timah Road before heading south to Holland Road and then returning to battalion headquarters. After this, the 22nd Brigade moved back towards the junction of Holland and Ulu Padan Roads. Moving while under heavy fire, the battalion established itself in its new position before 9:00 am, but in the confusion of the move, some men found themselves separated from the main body and cut off. In the afternoon, after the brigade position was reoriented to the west, the battalion was placed in reserve. The battalion's positions in the north, situated on the high ground, experienced heavy attack from Japanese aircraft and artillery, as the brigade—supported by Australian and British artillery—fought off two regiments from the Japanese 18th Division during the course of the night of 11/12 February. Early the following morning, Varley was promoted to brigadier and took over as commander of the 22nd Brigade from Taylor, who was taken ill. In Varley's place, Major Charles O'Brien, who had previously been the battalion second-in-command, took over command of the battalion. After a brief lull in the fighting in the 22nd Brigade's sector, the Japanese 18th Division attacked again, attempting to take the brigade on its left flank. In response, the 2/18th was sent to retake some of the high ground south-east of the Ulu Pandan and Reformatory Roads late in the afternoon. Attacking with about 60 men, supported by three British armoured cars and artillery fire, they were unable to retake the position after the light failed. The Japanese then pressed heavily against the 22nd Brigade's position, and they were forced to give ground, falling back to the junction of Buona Vista and Holland Roads, by which time the 2/18th was down to only 250 men. On 13 February, in an attempt to gain room for a possible counterattack, the Allied commander, Lieutenant General Arthur Percival, ordered a shortening of the Allied lines towards the south-east and the formation of a perimeter around Singapore city. As a part of this, the Australian forces were concentrated into a perimeter centred around Farrer and Holland Roads, about west of the city, tasked with defending the north-east sector of the defensive line. The 2/18th was positioned among the gravestones of Cemetery Hill, and apart from a few minor skirmishes and overflights by Japanese aircraft spotting for artillery, a period of respite followed in the Australian sector. The Japanese skirted the position, moving in an easterly direction towards the city, by way of gaps in the line which opened to the north and south of the Australians through positions held by British, Indian and Malay units. The Japanese continued to advance into the outskirts of Singapore throughout 14 February. Threatened with being isolated, the Australians made plans to make a last stand. With the Japanese closing in, the island's civilian population began to suffer heavily as they were subjected to heavy artillery bombardment and aerial attacks from Japanese aircraft that were increasingly unopposed as anti-aircraft guns ran out of ammunition. Supplies of water and food also dwindled, and the water shortage was made worse by the loss of the island's reservoirs. Finally, in the morning of 15 February, after the Japanese had succeeded in infiltrating towards Mount Pleasant Ridge, Percival determined that a counterattack was not viable and instead decided to surrender the garrison. The battalion's final involvement in the fighting came that afternoon when 'A' and 'D' Companies were heavily shelled. A short time later, at 8:30 pm, the surrender came into effect and the men of the 2/18th received orders not to escape. Prisoners of War While the majority of the 2/18th obeyed the order not to escape following the surrender, a small number of men attempted to evade capture. Along with other members of the battalion who had found themselves cut off from the rest of the battalion earlier in the fighting, they attempted to make their way back to Allied lines via Sumatra. There, some were eventually captured, while others managed to get away to Ceylon. Of these, 24 eventually managed to return to Australia, some of whom were transferred to other units and later took part in further fighting in New Guinea. When the Japanese arrived to effect the capture of the 2/18th, six men from the carrier platoon, which had earlier inflicted heavy casualties upon the Japanese during the fighting, were ordered to move the battalion's carriers, before being tied up and executed. Four other 2/18th soldiers were killed in the massacre at the Alexandra Hospital. The surviving members of the battalion were then marched to the prisoner of war camp at Changi. Shortly afterwards, the men were split up and sent to various locations to serve as forced labourers. The majority of the 2/18th's personnel were sent to Blakang Mati, but some remained in Changi, while others were sent to Japan or were sent to work on the Thai–Burma Railway. A total of 174 men were sent to Borneo where in 1945 they were subjected to the Sandakan Death Marches, which only about ten percent of the 2/18th men survived. Despite being separated, though, wherever possible the 2/18th men sought to stay together in their groups and the battalion structure was maintained even in captivity. The battalion's first commanding officer, Varley, was one of those sent to Burma where, as senior Allied officer, he worked to secure the welfare of over 9,000 men working on the railway, including many from the 2/18th. He was later sent to Thailand before being brought back to Singapore once work was completed. In late 1944 he was transferred to Formosa. On 12 September, while en route, SS Rakuyo Maru, the transport ship on which he and around 1,250 other prisoners were travelling was torpedoed by a US submarine, USS Sealion. Varley took charge of several lifeboats of prisoners during the evacuation, attempting to lead them to safety. They were never seen again and are believed to have been machine-gunned several days later by Japanese frigates that were in the area. During their time in captivity, men from the 2/18th undertook a number of subversive activities including building a radio transmitter, which they used to contact local resistance groups who provided them with assistance in the form of medicine and intelligence. They were also involved in numerous escape attempts, some of which were successful, alongside Australians from other units. One of these successful escapes involved a group of eight men who escaped from the camp on Berhala Island in two groups. One group escaped while out of camp on a work detail, while the other simply walked out the front gate to use the ablutions and never came back. After meeting up outside the camp, the men split up again. One group included Lieutenant Charles Wagner, who had previously been decorated with the Distinguished Conduct Medal for his actions around the Nithsdale Estate and who had been commissioned in the field. Having bribed one of the camp guards, Wagner's group had contacted the local guerillas and arranged to rendezvous with a fishing vessel. After hiding out for three weeks, the vessel eventually arrived offshore and took them on board. The group then met up with the other escapees on Tawi-Tawi where in mid-1943 they began working with the Filipino guerilla forces, fighting alongside them until the end of the war. Other escapes occurred later in the war, including one in which five men escaped from Ranau over the course of two days in early July 1945 during one of the death marches. After effecting their escape, these men were helped by locals who provided food and information, before the men were able to meet up with some Australians from Z Special Unit. Following the end of the war in August 1945, the men that survived as prisoners of war were repatriated to Australia. Returning by aircraft and ship, this was largely completed by October, and later that year the battalion was officially disbanded. A total of 1,323 men served in the battalion throughout its existence, including reinforcements and personnel that were transferred. The battalion's battle casualties amounted to 80 killed and 10 wounded in Malaya, as well as 175 killed and 238 wounded in Singapore. On top of this 225 men from the 2/18th died in captivity as prisoners of war. For their involvement in the war, members of the battalion received the following decorations: one Military Cross, two Distinguished Conduct Medals, one Military Medal, two Members of the Order of the British Empire, and 11 Mentions in Despatches. Battle honours The 2/18th Battalion received the following battle honours: Malaya 1941–1942, Johore, Jemaluang, and Singapore Island. Commanding officers The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2/18th: Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Varley; Major William Fraser; and Major Charles O'Brien. Notes References Citations Sources External links 2/18th Battalion Association home page The Australian War Memorial Research Centre – "Australian prisoners of war: Second World War Prisoners of the Japanese" 18 18 18 18 18 B
4899351	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetta%20Carlini	Benedetta Carlini	Benedetta Carlini (20 January 1590 – 7 August 1661) was an Italian Catholic nun who claimed to experience mystic visions. As abbess of the Convent of the Mother of God, at Pescia, she had a sexual relationship with one of her nuns, Sister Bartolomea. These came to the attention of the Counter-Reformation papacy, determined to subordinate potentially troublesome mystics if they showed any signs of heretical spirituality. Although they paid three to four visits to the nunnery, it was not until they interrogated Sister Bartolomea that they found that Benedetta and Bartolemea had engaged in sexual relations. Bartolomea gave testimony that Benedetta engaged in frottage with her while possessed by the spirit of a male demon known as Splenditello. Benedetta was stripped of her rank and imprisoned. Early life Benedetta Carlini was born on 20 January 1590 (St. Sebastian night), in the remote mountain village of , located in the Apennines, northwest of Florence. Her father was Giuliano, a rich and devout man who owned his house and several other properties in Vellano and a small farm nearby. Her mother was Midea Carlini (born Midea d'Antonio Pieri), a sister of the parish priest. Benedetta was an only child in her middle-class Italian family; Giuliano provided in his will that after his own and his wife's death, his house should be turned into an oratory dedicated to the Mother of God. Midea's labour was very difficult, painful and dangerous both for her and her daughter, both of whom survived. Giuliano had decided to name the girl Benedetta—meaning "blessed"—and dedicate her to God's service. Soon after her birth, her family retired to her father's farm in the mountains, where she was nursed by her mother and not a wet nurse. Benedetta's father educated her himself, an unusual choice in Renaissance Italian society, in which most girls took lessons from their mothers and were not very literate. Her education and upbringing were religious. At the age of five, she knew the litany of the saints and other prayers by heart. Under her father's tutelage, Benedetta would take the rosary and recite the litany several times a day. At the age of six, Benedetta learned to read and knew some Latin. Her mother instructed Benedetta to recite five Pater Nosters and eight Ave Marias every day, seemingly directing Benedetta toward female guides—the Virgin Mary, a statue of whom had been acquired especially for Benedetta, and St. Catherine of Siena, whose mystical marriage with Christ was celebrated as a feast day at their home. One day a black dog tried to drag Benedetta away, but her screams frightened it; by the time her mother came, the dog had disappeared. Benedetta and her parents interpreted this incident as the work of a devil disguised as an animal. In spring 1599, Giuliano decided to fulfill the vow made at the birth of his daughter and bring Benedetta to a group of religious women in Pescia. Convent In 1599, Benedetta joined a group of unmarried women who wanted to lead an ascetic life; the group did not live in a regularly enclosed convent, and were not recognised religious sisters. The group lived in a retreat in a private house, where women led a communal life engaged in prayer, spiritual exercises and the production of raw silk. This community had been formed nine years earlier (in 1590) by Piera Pagni, the widow of a prominent Pesciatine. One of her kinsmen, Antonio Pagni, founded an independent religious congregation for men in 1588. He had obtained a degree in canon law at the University of Pisa; he was joined by Father Paolo Ricordati and several other priests and laymen. Because of their reputation for saintliness, local people soon began to call them Theatine fathers. However, they called themselves Fathers of the Holy Annunciation, and they were not members of the Theatine Order of Clerics Regular founded in 1524 by St. Cajetan Thiene. Fathers of the Holy Annunciation agreed to back a female community founded by Piera Pagni and provide spiritual direction to the women in it. Paolo Ricordati was their father confessor. Thus, local people began to call Piera Pagni, and her subordinates "Theatines", although the Theatine Order of Clerics Regular was a male religious order. In 1599, there were three official monasteries in Pescia: San Michele (founded in the 12th century), Santa Chiara (founded in the 1490s) and the recently formed Santa Maria Nuova. However, due to the rapid growth of Pescia, the Valdinievole province and the religious revival, there was not enough space for all who wished to become nuns or monks. Many girls were refused entrance to these institutions and had no place to go. Convents required novices to pay an expensive subscription. "Brides of Christ", like brides of laymen, were accepted only with dowries. Dowries of wellborn Prescia brides amounted to 1500 scudi, and a place in a prestigious female convent like Santa Chiara cost around 400 scudi, when a skilled worker earned not more than 55 or 60 scudi a year. A semi-monastic community founded by Piera Pagni required only about 160 scudi, which Benedetta's parents were able to pay. In the last half of the 16th century, many religious communities like this appeared, offering an alternative to many women who could not or did not want to join already established convents. Some of the most devout and successful female religious orders, the Ursulines among others, started from such modest origins. Women with strong religious vocations often preferred such groups to well-established convents. These convents were often considered to be corrupt because many nuns had not joined them by choice; they had been sent there by relatives or had been driven there by a hopeless situation. The life of discarded daughters of aristocratic families in the convents was, in many ways, also indistinguishable from the life of the upper classes on the outside. A community that Benedetta joined had adopted the Rule of Saint Augustine. Originally a letter that Augustine of Hippo addressed to a group of nuns led by his sister, who were experiencing difficulties in the governance of their convent, the Rule does not regulate in detail all aspects of monastic life. It provides a set of spiritual counsels within which more specific rules could be accommodated by individual communities. It touched on such topics as the need to lead a communal life with no private property, the observance of prayers, the mortification of the flesh through fasts, the need for modest dress, and so on. This was accepted by many female convents and quasi-monastic communities. For the members of these groups, the Fathers of the Holy Annunciation created a hierarchy of authority. "They have among themselves a female superior under whom they govern themselves, a teacher of the novices, and other customary offices as if they were full-fledged nuns". As soon as her father left her in a community house, nine-year-old Benedetta kneeled in front of the statue of the Madonna and said, "My most sweet Mother, I have left my carnal mother for you, I beg you to take me as your daughter." Not long after this, Benedetta prayed there again, and the statue fell over. As a young novice, she was frightened, but thought this was a miracle, showing that the Mother of God wanted to kiss her. Whereas before Benedetta had accepted miracles as being in the nature of things, now she was astounded and awed by this action of the Virgin, which testified to the mighty power of God. Benedetta's first years in this Catholic retreat were unremarkable. Twenty years later, other community members remembered that she was always very obedient and exemplary in all her actions, took communion twice a week and never did anything worthy of rebuke. If anything supernatural was happening to her during that time, only Benedetta herself knew about it. In 1610, the community of Benedetta acquired a farm in the commune of Fucecchio for 1750 scudi and became quite economically successful and self-sufficient. The group's annual revenues came to 300 scudi, of which half came from the silk work done by its members and the rest from their dowries and from this farm and others. Thus, the following year, they received permission from Rome to organize a general chapter and accept new girls. After that, the community started constructing a new convent building, which was completed in October 1613. In April 1618, the nuns asked the secular authorities for permission to enlarge the convent enough to accommodate up to 30 sisters; though they had just 18 sisters, they were confident of the future growth of their numbers. The project they proposed would cost 4,000 scudi, part of which was for dismantling a section of the city wall to make way for the building. Despite the difficulties, the construction was approved and began soon after. Visions and spiritual experiences In 1614, just before the Pescia Theatines received permission to build their convent, Benedetta, now a young woman of 23, reported to her mother superior and father confessor about her supernatural visions. The first had occurred one morning while she was praying. Suddenly, she felt herself to be in a beautiful garden with many fruits and flowers. In the centre was a fountain with scented water, and next to it was an angel, holding a signboard with gold letters: "Whosoever wants to take water from this fountain, let him purge his cup or not come nearer." Because she did not understand the meaning of this inscription, she asked the angel. He explained, "If you want to know God, lift all earthly desires from your heart." On hearing these words, Benedetta felt a strong urge to take leave of the world, but, instead, the vision ceased, and with great inner wrenching, she returned to the normal world of the senses. Afterwards, she felt great happiness and a stronger desire than ever to be good. In the next visions, she saw a man dressed in great splendour who saved her from wild lions, scorpions and boars and said he was Jesus and the animals were demons. Another time, a young boy appeared and told her to climb the Mount of Perfection, which was very difficult and, the boy said, would be impossible without a true guide, her father confessor. Some of Benedetta's visions had occurred in the presence of witnesses, who had observed that during prayer she had gone into a trance-like state in which she gesticulated and made incomprehensible sounds. During these episodes, her altered state of consciousness had made it impossible for her companions to receive answers to their questions about what was happening to her. Particularly visual forms of mental prayer were widespread spiritual practice in pre-modern Europe. Visualization of people, places and events in the life of the Holy Family was recommended in prayers manuals by Luis de Granada, St. Charles Borromeo and others, which Benedetta occasionally read. Benedetta's own reactions to her visions were mixed. At the time, there was less concern as to whether a "vision" was a product of imagination or mental illness; more concerning were whether these messages were diabolical or divine in origin. Her father confessor, Paolo Ricordati, initially told her to disbelieve anything she saw as not to give the devil grounds on which to work his tricks, to try to repress the onset of visions and to "pray to God that He send her travails instead of ecstasies and revelations, since it seemed to her that this would be safer against the deceits of the devil." Benedetta did as he said. She could keep herself from having visions, but she had great difficulty in receiving some sort of travail. Only in 1615, her prayers were answered, and she began to experience such intense pains over her entire body that she was paralyzed by them. The physicians could neither diagnose it nor determine what to do. None of the remedies eased Benedetta's pain. She thought that this mysterious illness was the sign of divine favour that Paolo Ricordati had asked for. She expected recognition of others for being the recipient of extraordinary grace and was to be sadly disappointed. Nothing had changed, and for two years, Benedetta suffered in the quiet obscurity of a monastic communal life of prayer, fasts, and manual work. In 1617, her visions resumed. But instead of encounters with Jesus and angels, Benedetta now was pursued at night by handsome young men who wanted to kill her and who beat her all over with iron chains, swords, sticks, and other weapons. She also experienced excruciating physical pain. The men in her visions urged her to come with them and leave the Theatines, telling her by persevering in her monastic life she would only make herself ill without being certain of the salvation of her soul. One of them even asked Benedetta to be his bride, and when she refused, he tried to take her with brute force. The attacks took place several times a week and lasted for six to eight hours. One night, instead of enduring the visions, Benedetta called other nuns for help. After that, her superiors assigned her a young companion, Bartolomea Crivelli, to help her in her battles with the devil. Bartolomea was to share Benedetta's cell and to keep an eye on her at all times. If at this point the confessor and the mother superior had any further concerns about the validity of Benedetta's claims, they did not voice them. Instead, the convent was now seen as being graced by the presence of a mystic whose body was the battleground between supernatural forces. The confessor and mother superior became extremely solicitous of her welfare and, because of her weakened condition, excused her from participation in many of the daily routines of the community. In 1618, construction of a new monastery building was coming to a close. The resettlement to the new convent building was a solemn procession. Benedetta walked in an ecstatic trance, seeing the angels of Pescia paying homage to her and scattering flowers along her path as if she were the image of St. Dorothy, the patron saint of Pescia, which was being paraded in its annual procession through town. Once they arrived at the gates of the convent, the Madonna greeted her and gave her companion two guardian angels. No one other than Benedetta could see the flowers and angels, but many citizens saw her in that unusual state. Abbess with stigmata Three months after the resettlement, on the second Friday of Lent, Benedetta received the stigmata. By her own words, these appeared between two and three at night when she was in bed. She saw a crucifix and bright rays from wounds of Christ to her head, hands, feet and side of the chest. These rays caused tremendous pain, but then Benedetta felt such contentment in her heart that she had never experienced before. Bartolomea Crivelli was near, and she was the first to see the signs on Benedetta's body. Also, she saw that Benedetta arranged herself in the form of the Cross and became as red as a glowing ember and heard that Benedetta said, "My Lord, there are others who are better than me, I don't deserve this since I am a sinner." Then Benedetta asked Bartolomea to lift her by the arm because she could not do it by herself. And Bartolomea saw red marks like small rosettes on Benedetta's hands, feet, and side, and also a deep red band around her head, but it was bloodless. The stigmata were the first material evidence of supernatural phenomena that happened with Benedetta. Her heavenly grace had been quickly recognized, and sometime between February and May 1619, the nuns' community elected her to be their abbess. During the Lenten season of that year, Ricordati was regularly visiting the convent to hear Benedetta give sermons to the other nuns while they purified themselves with their whips as part of their penance. As she talked to them, she was always in a trance and spoke, not as herself, but as an angel who persuaded the nuns to lead a better life. This angel usually ended the sermons by praising Benedetta, chosen above all others to receive the signs of God's grace. Had Benedetta not been in an altered state of consciousness, Paolo Ricordati would not have allowed her to give sermons because "it is shameful for a woman" to speak in a Christian church, even for an abbess. But if a woman had been favoured with the gift of prophecy of other divine gifts, she could be an exception. Heart Exchange and Splenditello Angel On 21 March 1619, Paolo Ricordati summoned Benedetta and told her: "Today is the day of St. Benedict, your saint's day, go in ecstasy at your pleasure, I give you permission." It was an experiment to examine if her visions would come on command. That evening, during compline, Benedetta fell into a trance. Then at night, Benedetta experienced a new miracle that she had never had before. She saw Christ looking like a handsome young man with long hair and a long red robe. He was accompanied by St. Catherine of Siena and other figures. Benedetta turned to Bartolomea, saying: "I don't know if it is the devil's work; pray to God for me. If it is the devil's work, I will make the sign of the cross on my heart, and he will disappear." The young man explained that he was Jesus and had come to Benedetta to take her heart. She laughed, "What would you do, my Jesus! You have come to take my heart, but I don't want to do it without the permission of my Spiritual Father." The young man reminded her that the confessor had said she could do anything that was God's will without any reservations. Benedetta supported that Jesus had taken her heart and returned three days after to put another heart in her body. By his miraculous power, it was possible to live so long without a heart. Bartolomea later said that when she was helping Benedetta with her blankets, she came up to her and felt her chest around where her heart should be, and felt a void. To maintain Benedetta's physical purity, Jesus ordered her not to eat meat, eggs, and milk products and not to drink anything but water. To maintain her spiritual purity, he assigned her a guardian angel, Splenditello, to point out her falling when she did something wrong. This angel appeared as a beautiful boy dressed in a white robe crowned by a wreath of flowers. In his hand, he held a green wand, about two feet long, on one side of which were flowers, and on the other thorns. The flowers were for when she did things that were pleasing to Jesus, the thorns were to punish her when she did not. And she felt pain if she did something wrong, because Splenditello touched her with the thorny side of a wand. Receiving corporal punishment from an angel and such intensive purification of the body was very unusual for Catholic nuns and saints. Once settled in their new quarters, the Theatines began the final round of administrative procedures to become a regular convent. In 1619, they asked Pope Paul V to grant them complete enclosure. When the papal officials who handled such petitions received the request, they asked the provost of Pescia to send in a report about them. Marriage with Christ On 20 May 1619, Jesus appeared to Benedetta in vision and announced that he wanted to marry her in a solemn ceremony a week later. He issued detailed instructions on the decoration for the chapel. The upper part of the altar should be covered with light blue cloth, the right side with red cloth and the other two sides in green. The floor also should be covered: images of Christ and Madonna, flowers of all sorts and colours, three chairs and 12 pillows must be there. All nuns in the house would be at the ceremony with lighted candles and then this Jesus will say them through Benedetta's lips what to do and where to go. Benedetta doubted if this was genuine Jesus or some diabolic illusion and hesitated to tell Father Ricordati all the details of her vision, but three days later she revealed it. She wondered about the public nature of the event, and the work it required because Jesus didn't usually reveal himself in such a public fashion. But Ricordati unexpectedly let her proceed and other nuns had already started to decorate the convent because, in one of her recent ecstasies, Benedetta had spoken of the impending marriage and possibly couldn't remember this in the normal state of conscience. Because the community did not have a whole set of things needed for a solemn mystical marriage ceremony, they sent a servant off to borrow the altar cloth from several people outside the convent. They asked some of the religious institutions in the vicinity to contribute candles and solicited the pillows and flowers from various other quarters. The candles were sent by the Fathers of Holy Annunciation, by the convent of Santa Maria Nuova and by people of the mountain country. Baskets of flowers arrived from everywhere. The tree chairs came from the Prior of Pescia. Nuns had received so many gifts that they didn't know what to do with all of them. Word of what was happening spread and many people wanted to participate, but no one, not even Father Ricordati, was allowed by the provost to enter the convent during the preparation or the ceremony itself. On the morning of Holy Trinity (27 May 1619), Benedetta heard an inner voice telling her that she should dress the two novices as angels. She quickly wrote a note to Father Ricordati to obtain his permission. This done, she and the others went to Choir, where she picked up a basket of flowers, scattered its content throughout and then lit the candles, giving one to each. Benedetta instructed nuns to get on their knees and to do as she told. Taking up the crucifix, she began to intone Veni Creator Spiritus as she led a procession out of the choir, onto the garden, and then back around the choir where all of them sang various hymns and the litanies to the Virgin. After scattering incense and bowing several times in the direction of the altar, Benedetta knelt and resumed singing by herself. Her voice was scarcely audible and her words could not be made out. Then Benedetta had a new vision of Jesus, so bright and beautiful she could hardly look at him. And he said: "Rejoice, today I will marry you." Next came the Madonna with a retinue of angels and saints. Benedetta replied that she did not want to consent, as she was not sure whether he was Jesus or the devil. "I am not the devil, but your Jesus," he answered, "give me your hand because I want to put the ring on you." Benedetta said: "But Jesus, I am not worthy." The Madonna then took her right hand, and Jesus placed the ring on her finger. Benedetta kissed the ring. Jesus told her that no one else would see the ring but her. Then this supernatural man, invisible for all but Benedetta, made a whole sermon and represented her as his bride and servant, who is the greatest that he has in the world, and told all to obey her. Benedetta spoke in a tone that seemed to the other nuns more beautiful than her usual voice. After this sermon, Benedetta had returned to her normal senses and began to leave the choir, almost as if nothing had happened. Along the way, she stopped to chat with the wife of the Vicar who, in defiance of the provost's orders, had come to the convent to witness the wedding. Some other participants of the event were in doubt about this possible wonder. No one other than Benedetta had seen Jesus, the Madonna, the saints or the ring. They knew that St. Catherine's marriage with Christ had left no visible evidence too, but the desire for publicity was unusual for a true mystic and seemed suspicious, especially if other people there didn't see any supernatural person or objects. Benedetta's contemporaries were well aware that because women were denied a place in the social and public discourse of their age, they thought to make their voices heard in other ways. Having religious visions was one way women could have their voices heard. For example, Maria de la Visitación, the nun from Lisbon, also had the stigmata and became one of the most influential European women of the 1580s, consulted by rulers and high church officials, before she was discovered to be a fraud. It has been suggested that such could be the case with Benedetta. The First Investigation Not only the nuns of the Congregation of the Mother of God were concerned about Benedetta's religious experience, but also the leading ecclesiastical official in the town - provost of Pescia Stefano Cecchi, and Pescian secular authorities. Speaking through Benedetta, Jesus had said extravagant words of praise for her and the threat for damnation for those who did not believe in her. And he said that the fate of the townspeople was in Benedetta's hands. Such behaviour was not characteristic of holy people, whose messages from the divine contained praises of the Lord rather than themselves and who gained followers by their character and deportment rather than by threats. As the wedding preparations had already demonstrated, despite the provost's feeble efforts to curb any publicity about the affair, many people had become interested in Benedetta's mystical powers. Citizens not well-informed about religion were very inclined to believe in the unproven miracles. And the situation might get out of control of ecclesiastical and secular authorities. So provost Stefano Cecchi ordered all those who had witnessed the mystical marriage of Benedetta and Christ to talk no further about this with outsiders. On 28 May 1619, the day after this ceremony, he came to examine Benedetta himself. Benedetta was relieved of her duties as abbess until further notice, and Felice di Giovanni Guerrini came to this duties. Firstly Stefano Cecchi had examined the stigmata of Benedetta Carlini since they were the only visible signs of miraculous intervention. Christ had said during Benedetta's sermon of the previous day that the wounds on her body would be open and larger in appearance than before. The provost, therefore, looked at her hands, feet, and side, where he could see bits of dried blood about the size of a small coin. When they were washed with warm water, each revealed a small opening from which drops of fresh blood trickled out. When the blood was dried with a towel, more came out. On Benedetta's head were many bloody marks, which also bled into the towel when washed with warm water. The stigmata, which day ago had been nothing more than small red marks, had changed just as Christ predicted. Then the provost asked Benedetta to recount how wounds came to be on her body. She told about five rays from the crucifixion in her vision during Lent and about that she felt pain not all time: "On Sundays, they seem to be numb; on Mondays and Tuesdays I have almost no pain; and all the other days I have great pain, especially on Fridays." After the first visit of the provost, Benedetta went into the trance and wrote two letters: to Ricordati and Cecchi. But after the trance, she could remember only former, in which she asked her father confessor for permission to write directly to the provost or meet with him. Ricordati denied her request because if Christ wanted to communicate with the provost, he would find other means for doing so. But then Ricordati forwarded to Cecchi the letter that Benedetta had written to himself. Benedetta did not know about this, and when Cecchi came again on 7 June 1619 and asked her what she wanted to tell him, she seemed nonplussed and had nothing to say. The provost had examined Benedetta's stigmata again and saw a few changes. The wound on the right hand did not bleed when washed and dried with a towel. The puncture marks on the head were also dried and looked partly healed. The provost was perplexed, but there was nothing to be done, and the visit came to an end. Then he had been visited and examined Benedetta fourteen times between late May and early September. On 14 June, the observation of stigmata revealed that some of the wounds that had almost healed the week before were now bleeding again. The provost ordered Benedetta to cut her hair and wash her head to make the wounds more visible. Benedetta was allowed to leave the room briefly to rearrange and close her garments before returning for further questioning. Suddenly she ran back in, holding her hands to her head. "Jesus, what is this?" she exclaimed as blood gushed down her face and onto the floor. The visitors managed to staunch the blood with towels. But the examination had to be cut because Benedetta was in too much pain to continue. But this was not the end of the investigation, just a postponement. In June 1619, Benedetta revealed to Father Ricordati that she had again seen Jesus in a vision. This time he was an angry and vengeful Christ with an unsheathed sword ready to strike. And he threatened to punish the people of Pescia with the plague for their grievous sins while no one was willing to ask for mercy. Benedetta offered to pray for his mercy herself and to be the instrument of the town's salvation by spending her time in Purgatory until the day of judgment. Christ's anger seemed to be appeased by her words. He told her to continue to love him always and to arrange for processions to placate him. Ricordati gave her permission to organize a procession with an image of Christ at the head. On 23 July, Cecchi met with Felice di Giovanni Guerrini, Bartolomea Crivelli and with another nun, Margherita d'Iptolito Ricordati, a relative to Paolo Ricordati. Their testimonies did not result in any major new revelations. The main obstacle to officially sanctioned public recognition was the absence of a ring on Benedetta's finger. Other nuns were unable to see it because she always covered up that hand. But Margherita Ricordati said that she saw a yellow band with a cross that didn't look like a ring. When Benedetta was called to the examination room, she had an ordinary, inexpensive gold ring on the fourth finger of her right hand. On the top side of a ring, there were five points the size of ordinary pinheads. A point in the middle was dark red. The ecclesiastical examiners were eager to probe further, but Benedetta was feeling too ill to answer. Finally, the provost of Pescia Stefano Checchi and other investigators had concluded that Benedetta's visions were genuine visions and neither dreams nor fantasies, and their religious content conformed to church dogma and practice. So Benedetta had been recognized as a true visionary. The provost must have written favourably since in July 1620, he and the Vicar of Pescia made one last visit to the convent to conclude the enclosure. On 28 July, Pope issued the bull that made this female religious community a fully enclosed convent. According to the nuns' wishes, it was called the Congregation of the Mother of God and would be under the protection of St. Catherine of Siena. No longer would they have to go outside their convent to hear Mass, but more importantly, as nuns, their vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience would become solemn vows. Any nun wishing to leave the convent could be constrained to stay by her superiors and by the secular authorities. Similarly, any laypersons trying to enter the convent without permission could also be punished. After the convent was granted full enclosure, Benedetta was reinstated as abbess. Purported resurrection There is little information available about the next several years of Benedetta's life. It seems that she managed successfully her abbess' duties. When the nuns were cloistered and could not leave the convent area even for a short time, a board of outside administrators had been established in the fall of 1620 to aid Benedetta with some of her tasks. Members of the board helped to manage the convent's properties and to market its silk and agricultural products. Benedetta's father, Guiliano, died between November 1620 and March 1621. Soon after that, when Benedetta went into her trances, one of her guardian angels, Tesauriello Fiorito, began to prophesize her imminent death. He would urge the nuns to treat their abbess with greater tenderness than before because her days on earth were numbered. And only after her death would they realize her true value because there was no one else in the convent as fit to be their abbess as she. After this vision, Benedetta herself began to speak about her death and even had her grave opened and readied for the day when it would be needed. On the day of Annunciation (25 March 1621), the nuns witnessed Benedetta's death and called Paolo Ricordati. He arrived immediately and commanded Benedetta in a loud voice to return to the living, which, to everyone's astonishment, had the desired effect. When Benedetta revived, she told the assembled that she had seen angels and demons, Purgatory and Paradise, her father and several other deceased people. The Second Investigation Sometime between August 1622 and March 1623, Alfonso Giglioli, a newly appointed papal nuncio in Florence, decided to re-investigate Benedetta's case and sent several of his officials. These investigators were more sceptical than previous. Unlike the Theatine nuns, Paolo Ricordati, or Stefano Cecchi, they had nothing to gain from Benedetta's claims. The doubts of the investigators about the reported miracles and visions were strengthened by their interpretation of Benedetta's character. Her mystical experiences contained immodest and lascivious language. Her so-called angels bore peculiar names - Splenditello, Tesauriello Fiorito, Virtudioello, and Radicello. These sounded more like the names of evil spirits than of heavenly creatures. Investigators did not find in Carlini charity, humility, patience, obedience, modesty, and other virtues to the eminent and heroic degree which usually accompany the true spirit of God. She lacked the extraordinary personal virtues that would make her a role model for other good Christians. New investigators found contradictions in Benedetta's visions. For example, in one of them, the Virgin had asked her to obtain permission from Father Ricordati to have a guardian angel but, before this request, such an angel had already appeared in her early visions. It was obvious to all that God neither lied nor was ever contrary to himself. And even Benedetta's visible stigmata could be not the marks of Christ but of the devil because these appeared not during the fervor of prayer, in the harshness of the wilderness, or during a long period of solitude, but when she lying softly in bed where the enemy of God resides. Further doubts were cast on the divinity of Benedetta's mystical exchange of hearts with Christ and marriage with him, regarding Benedetta's need for help from Bartolomea to complete this wonder. And the solemn public ceremony of marriage with Christ seemed too suspicious. Investigators believed that Christ might need the publicity of it only for a demonstration of a miracle to the people. But none were seen until two months later, when a rather shabby looking ring, not nearly as beautiful and brilliant as one Benedetta had described, appeared on her right hand. Also, investigators discovered that Benedetta likely had a hereditary demonic obsession. Both her parents had allegedly been possessed for some time. Despite the seeming aversion to the meat and milk products, Benedetta was secretly fetching salami and Cremonese style mortadella to where she could eat them undisturbed. But one time, another nun saw it. This was like Benedetta's father's behavior when he "too was assailed by spirits". Testimonies of other nuns made it clear that some of Benedetta's supernatural phenomena were falsifications. Two nuns spied on Benedetta through the hole in her study door and more than twenty times saw her renewing her wounds with a large needle. Another nun had seen her put her blood on a statue of Christ, which Benedetta then claimed began to bleed in honour of her sanctity. Other witnesses saw that she had made the star herself with some gold foil and fixed it on her forehead with red wax. And Benedetta said that Christ kissed her forehead and left a gold star. When she spoke as an angel in one of her ecstasies, that the Theatines could learn from her how to flagellate themselves with true spiritual fervour. The nun, who had been standing nearby, noticed that Benedetta didn't strike herself even once, and that to make it seem as though she had she smeared the whip with blood from her wounds in her hand. Three nuns also reported that she sometimes ran barefoot through the convent as if her feet were healed, and one heard her exclaim as she jumped down from a small table, "Whoever saw me jump down would say that there's nothing wrong with my feet." Bartolomea gave more testimonies. She eventually found a small brass box containing diluted saffron in Benedetta's desk. This saffron and Benedetta's blood probably had been used to paint the ring. But the most shocking confession was about the lesbian relationships between Bartolomea and Benedetta. As investigators reported, "This sister Benedetta, then, for two continuous years, at least three times a week, in the evening after disrobing and going to bed would wait for her companion to disrobe, and pretending to need her, would call. When Bartolomea would come over, Benedetta would grab her by the arm and throw her by force on the bed. Embracing her, she would put her under herself and kissing her as if she was a man, she would speak words of love to her. And she would stir on top of her so much that both of them corrupted themselves. And thus by force she held her sometimes one, sometimes two, and sometimes three hours". And "Benedetta would tell her that neither she nor Benedetta were sinning because it was the Angel Splenditello and not she that did these things. And she spoke always with the voice which Splenditello always spoke through Benedetta. . . ." Benedetta refused to admit that she had engaged in sexual acts and claimed she could not remember what she did when Splenditello spoke and acted through her. The investigators were not prepared for such things because in Italy and Europe in the 17th century were very few documented cases of sexual relationships between women, and many more cases of heterosexual fornication between a nun and her male lover and cases of male homosexuality. Yet that two women should seek sexual gratification with each other was virtually inconceivable despite such cases had been described in the legal commentaries of Antonio Gómez, Gregorio López and Prospero Farinacci, which had been printed and widely circulated throughout Italy in the previous decades. The second investigation had been completed on 5 November 1623, when the clerics submitted their "Last Report" to the nuncio. Then they saw no traces of the stigmata and the ring on Benedetta's body. And when she was asked about angels, visions, apparitions, revelation and ecstasies, Benedetta answered that she no longer saw any of them. She was not an abbess anymore and lived the life of an obedient nun under the care of a new abbess. The investigators concluded that "all the things that were done in her or by her, not only those which are deemed sinful, but also the other deeds which were held to be supernatural and miraculous were done without her consent or her will, since they were done while she was out of her senses by the work of the devil." Also, they concluded that the ineptness of Paolo Ricordati was a crucial factor in allowing the situation to continue as long as it did. While the ecclesiastical investigators who wrote the last report on Benedetta seemed disposed toward leniency and emphasized her lack of consent and will, the final judgement need not necessarily absolve her from guilt. It would be up to the nuncio to determine in which direction the sentence and punishment would go. Later life and death Information pertaining to the Nuncio's decision and Benedetta's later life are limited, with the only written account being found on the fragment to a diary belonging to an unnamed nun. She wrote on 7 August 1661 claiming that "Benedetta Carlini died at age 71 of fever and colic pains after eighteen days of illness. She died in penitence, having spent thirty-five years in prison." The words in the diary suggest that Benedetta was not imprisoned until 1626, three years after the second investigation. The official decision about Benedetta's imprisonment has not survived. The conditions of Benedetta's imprisonment were most likely harsh. Ecclesiastical authorities had adopted Constitution by St. Teresa, who stated that sins of the flesh are the gravest of nuns' faults. And the punishment for these sins must be solitary confinement for life. The guilty sister "shall in no case, even though she repent and implore mercy and pardon, be received back into the community, save if some reasonable cause supervene and on the recommendation and advice of the visitor". Other nuns, except wardens, must not speak with the punished one or send her anything under pain of suffering the same penalty. A sister in prison should have her veil and scapular taken away. She should be let out only to hear mass and to follow the other nuns to the place where they disciplined themselves with their whips. On those days, she might be allowed to eat on the floor of the refectory, near the door so that the others might step over her as they left the room. Several times a week, she should receive only bread and water for sustenance. Word of the death of Benedetta Carlini spread quickly outside the convent walls. People of Pescia did not forget her even forty years after the events that brought her notoriety and thirty-five years of strong social isolation. Perhaps the reason was that her prophetic warnings to those who refused to believe in her had finally come to pass and in 1631 the plague did indeed strike Pescia. And many people had never really believed in the officials' efforts to discredit her miracles. A crowd gathered near the convent's gate. People wanted to see and touch Benedetta's body or even take some of it with them like the relics of a saint. But the nuns barred the doors of the church to avoid any uproar and tumult until the burial. They brought dead Carlini into the church as they do with the other nuns and dressed her with the black veil and habit worn by the others. Alternative interpretations of Carlini E. Ann Matter, a feminist religious scholar, has an alternative perspective on the case of Benedetta Carlini, and wrote about it in the Journal of Homosexuality in 1990. She compared and contrasted two autobiographical accounts from Benedetta Carlini and another 17th-century Italian Catholic mystic, Maria Domitilla Galluzzi of Pavia. Carlini and Galluzi were both self-designated visionaries and highly regarded by their religious and secular communities, but each was subject to suspicion and close scrutiny by church hierarchy. Benedetta Carlini's trial records related the aforementioned series of sexual contacts with Bartolomea, while Maria Domitilla Galluzzi seems to have had no sexual experiences within her own mystical framework. Matter's article questioned whether scholars might have succumbed to the temptation to simply transpose the sexual self-understanding of figures in their own historical context to past historical environments. "Lesbian nun" might be viewed as too simplistic a description, and alongside Maria Galluzzi, Benedetta Carlini's sexuality "might be viewed as organised around an elaborate organic connection between the spiritual and the sensual." Judith C. Brown chronicled Carlini's life in Immodest Acts (1986), which discussed the events that led to her significance for historians of women's spirituality and lesbianism. Matter has written extensively on Galluzzi in other contexts, and Brown's study of Carlini occurs in greater depth than that of her counterpart. More recently, Brian Levack has analysed the Carlini case and others in the context of his work on demonic possession and exorcism in the Baroque era of 17th and 18th century Europe. He notes that the case in question was anomalous, as according to Carlini's account, she was possessed by an angelic entity, Splenditello, when she made love to Sister Bartolomea. Levack departs from the above authors in placing the event in philosophical and historical context, noting the rise of nominalism within 17th and 18th century Catholic thought, which attributed greater scope for agency and supernatural activity from demonic entities than had previously been the case. Such signs were described as convulsions, pain, loss of bodily function (and other symptoms that one might describe as apparent epilepsy from this description), levitation, trance experiences, mystical visions, blasphemy, abuse of sacred objects and vomiting of particular objects as well as immoral actions and gestures and exhibitionism. Levack argues that this provided the female subjects of exorcist rituals with the chance to engage in relative social and sexual agency compared to gender role expectations of social passivity. Possession was a form of dramaturgy and religious theatre, Levack argues, as was demonology. According to Levack, then, Carlini and other recorded instances of Baroque possession were engaged as active participants within a social ritual and theatrical performance that reflected contemporary Baroque religious culture. In popular culture, Canadian playwright and director Rosemary Rowe has written a play about her affair with Sister Bartolomea, Benedetta Carlini: Lesbian Nun of Renaissance Italy. In film Paul Verhoeven has directed a film loosely based on Benedetta Carlini called Benedetta released in 2021. She is portrayed by Virginie Efira. See also Immodest Acts: The Life of a Lesbian Nun in Renaissance Italy Female sodomy Notes References Bibliography Brian Levack: The Devil Within: Exorcism and Possession in the Christian West: New Haven: Yale University Press: 2013: E. Ann Matter: "Discourses of Desire: Sexuality and Christian Women's Visionary Narratives" in Journal of Homosexuality: 18/89(1989–1990): 119 - 132 Rosemary Rowe: Benedetta Carlini: Lesbian Nun of Renaissance Italy. Independently published (English & Italian): 2019: Vanda (playwright): 'Vile Affections: Based on the True Story of Benedetta Carlini', 2006: (First produced at the New York International Fringe Festival, August, 2006. Recently translated into German.) see www.vandaplaywright.com 1590 births 1661 deaths 17th-century Christian mystics 17th-century Italian Roman Catholic religious sisters and nuns LGBT Roman Catholics Italian lesbians LGBT history in Italy People from Pescia Roman Catholic mystics 17th-century LGBT people Italian Christian mystics
4899540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Court%20of%20Korea	Supreme Court of Korea	The Supreme Court of Korea () is the highest ordinary court in the judicial branch of South Korea, seated in Seocho, Seoul. Established under Chapter 5 of the Constitution of South Korea, the Court has ultimate and comprehensive jurisdiction over all cases except those cases falling under the jurisdiction of the Constitutional Court of Korea. It consists of fourteen Justices, including the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Korea. The Supreme Court is at the top of the hierarchy of all ordinary courts in South Korea, and traditionally represented the conventional judiciary of South Korea. The Supreme Court has equivalent status as one of the two highest courts in South Korea. The other is the Constitutional Court of Korea. History The original constitution during the First Republic established 'Supreme Court' and 'Constitutional Committee' () in Chapter 5. The Supreme Court was established as the highest ordinary court but lacked the power of constitutional review, which was conferred upon the Constitutional Committee, a sort of constitutional court. This distribution of judicial power inside judiciary was never fully realized under rule of South Korea's first president Syngman Rhee, whose dictatorship hampered the committee's function and eventually left it unable to re-constitute itself. Though the Supreme Court had no power of judicial review, it enjoyed judicial independence under the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, 'Kim Byung-ro' (), from 1948 to 1957. Renowned for his ardent participation in Korean independence movement during the Japanese colonial rule, Chief Justice Kim Byung-ro famously defended the independence of the judiciary from Syngman Rhee. However, after Kim Byung-ro's retirement in 1957, the Supreme Court fell to autocratic influence. By giving the death sentence to Park's political contender Cho Bong-am in 1959 and also by sentencing death on the defendants of People's Revolutionary Party Incident in 1975 under Park Chung Hee's era, the Supreme Court gained notorious reputation for judicial murder () as obediently sentencing capital punishments over spy scandals fabricated by dictators. After the April Revolution, the Constitutional Court was established to replace the Constitutional Committee, but the Supreme Court remained largely unaffected by the changes. After Park Chung Hee's 1961 coup, the Second Republic was dissolved and, after a nominal transition to civilian rule from a military junta, the Third Republic was established in 1962. The Constitutional Court, itself never formed because of the coup, was abolished while the power of judicial review was conferred on the Supreme Court. Nevertheless, the Supreme Court retained its deference towards the ruling dictator. In 1971, the Supreme Court resisted the oppressive rule of President Park Chung Hee and declared Article 2 of the National Compensation Act () unconstitutional, a statute that limited state liability for injured soldiers during service. President Park retaliated by refusing reappointment of Supreme Court Justices, which had been a formality. The Fourth and Fifth Republics would endow a new, differently-formed Constitutional Committee with the power of constitutional review but on the condition that a court first formally submit a request before the committee could hear a case. This extra procedural hurdle was meant to nullify the committee, since the Supreme Court would never authorize such requests, while allowing the Park Chung Hee regime to maintain the pretense that it granted the Committee full constitutional-review power. It effectively allowed the military junta to act with impunity. Following 1987 democratization, the Constitutional Court was restored in the Sixth Republic, with the power of constitutional review. To prevent the president from undermining the judiciary again, the 1987 constitutional amendment, which established the Sixth Republic, allows citizens to file a constitutional complaint directly with the Constitutional Court, even if courts refuse to do so. In 2015, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ranked the South Korean ordinary judiciary to be one of the most efficient in terms of trial length and trial costs. Composition Justices The composition and appointment of Supreme Court justices () are governed by a combination of constitutional provisions and statutory regulations. While the current Constitution of South Korea does not specify the precise number of Supreme Court justices, this matter is addressed by the Court Organization Act, a statute that outlines the structure of ordinary courts in the country. As of 2022, Article 4(2) of the Court Organization Act establishes that the number of Supreme Court justices is set at 14. Notably, all Supreme Court justices are appointed by the President of South Korea, subject to the approval of the National Assembly, as stated in Article 104(2) of the Constitution. Additionally, Article 104(2) empowers the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court to recommend candidates for appointment to the position of Supreme Court justice. To be eligible for appointment as a Supreme Court justice, individuals must meet certain criteria outlined in Article 42(1) of the Court Organization Act. First, they must be at least 45 years old. Second, they must qualify as an attorney at law. Lastly, candidates must have accumulated over 20 years of experience in legal practice or academia. These provisions ensure that the Supreme Court of South Korea is composed of individuals with substantial expertise and experience in the field of law. The appointment process, involving the President and the National Assembly, as well as the Chief Justice's role in recommending candidates, aims to uphold the independence and integrity of the Supreme Court while maintaining the necessary checks and balances within the judicial system. Council of Supreme Court Justices According to Article 104(2) of the Constitution of South Korea, the appointment of lower ordinary court judges (), by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court requires the consent of the 'Council of Supreme Court Justices' (). This council consists of all Supreme Court justices, including the Chief Justice. The decision-making process of the council is governed by Article 16(1), (2), and (3) of the Court Organization Act. To reach a decision, a simple majority vote among a quorum of two-thirds of all Supreme Court justices is required. In the event of a tie, the Chief Justice, serving as the permanent presiding chair of the council, has the authority to cast a tie-breaking vote. Article 17 of the Court Organization Act further empowers the council with additional supervisory functions concerning the Chief Justice's power of court administration. These functions include the promulgation of interior procedural rules, the selection of judicial precedents for publication, and fiscal planning for all ordinary courts, including the Supreme Court itself. In essence, the Council of Supreme Court Justices serves as a mechanism for collective decision-making and oversight within the Supreme Court of South Korea, ensuring the fair and effective administration of justice while upholding the principles of transparency and accountability. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court According to Article 104(1) of the Constitution of South Korea, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President of South Korea, subject to the approval of the National Assembly. The requirements for experience and age for the Chief Justice are the same as those stipulated for associate Supreme Court justices under Article 42(1) of the Court Organization Act. The role of the Chief Justice extends beyond serving as the presiding member of en banc hearings (or Grand Bench, ), which are composed of more than two-thirds of all fourteen justices. In addition to this crucial responsibility, the Chief Justice has other significant functions. Under Article 111(3) of the Constitution, the Chief Justice nominates candidates for three out of the nine Constitutional Court justices. This role emphasizes the Chief Justice's involvement in the selection process for the Constitutional Court. Furthermore, the Chief Justice serves as the chairperson of the Council of Supreme Court Justices, playing a pivotal role in leading and overseeing the activities of this council. Moreover, the Chief Justice appoints one of the associate Supreme Court justices to the position of Minister of National Court Administration (). This appointment involves selecting a justice to fulfill the administrative duties associated with managing the national court system. Additionally, with the consent of the Council of Supreme Court Justices, the Chief Justice appoints all lower court judges in ordinary courts, further emphasizing their influential role in shaping the judiciary. These responsibilities collectively highlight the multifaceted nature of the Chief Justice's position within the South Korean judicial system, encompassing not only judicial leadership but also administrative and nominating functions that contribute to the overall functioning and integrity of the courts. Tenure Article 105(1), (2), and (4) of the Constitution, along with Article 45(4) of the Court Organization Act, outline the term of associate justices of the South Korean Supreme Court. Their term is initially set at six years and can be renewed until the mandatory retirement age of 70. However, in the current Sixth Republic, no justices have attempted to renew their term through reappointment. This is due to the potential risk to the judicial independence of the Court that may arise from such renewal attempts. During their term, as stated in Article 106(2) of the Constitution, justices cannot be removed from office except through impeachment or a sentence of imprisonment. Furthermore, engaging in any political party affiliations or activities is strictly prohibited under Article 43(1) and 49 of the Court Organization Act. A significant aspect of South Korean Supreme Court justices is that they can be compelled to retire against their will while serving their term if they are deemed to have severe mental or physical impairment. This retirement order (), is explicitly stipulated in Article 106(2) of the Constitution and Article 47 of the Court Organization Act. Similarly, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court has the authority to order the retirement of lower ordinary court judges if they are found to have impairments. This retirement order system represents a significant distinction between Supreme Court justices and Constitutional Court justices. The latter cannot be ordered to retire due to impairment, as there is no statutory provision establishing such a system in the Constitutional Court Act. Current justices Organization Research judges The Research division of the Supreme Court (), comprises officials who provide support to the Supreme Court Justices. These officials, referred to as Research Judges (formerly known as Judicial Researchers or Research Judges), are governed by Article 24(3) of the Act. There are two categories of Research Judges. The first category consists of lower ordinary court judges who are seconded to the Supreme Court by order of the Chief Justice. The second category, known as Judicial Researchers, comprises experts who are not lower ordinary court judges. Judicial Researchers are appointed for a maximum term of three years, while Research Judges are typically seconded to work in the Supreme Court for one to two years. This system of Research Judges and Judicial Researchers is influenced by the German concept of "Wissenschaftlichen Mitarbeiter" (Research Associates). In Germany, Research Associates are lower court judges who are seconded to federal courts for up to five years, serving as judicial assistants to judges in the highest courts. Although the working terms for these research staff members are relatively short, they play a crucial role as core staff members in managing the entire judicial process of the Court. This is particularly important considering the high volume of cases appealed to the Court. As of April 2022, there are approximately 100 Research Judges and around 30 Judicial Researchers contributing to the operations of the Supreme Court in South Korea. National Court Administration The 'National Court Administration' (NCA, ), was established as an administrative body of the Supreme Court in accordance with Article 67 of the Court Organization Act. The NCA is responsible for overseeing and managing all administrative matters pertaining to the ordinary courts in South Korea, including the Supreme Court itself. The head of the NCA, referred to as the 'Minister of NCA' (), is exclusively appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from among the associate Supreme Court justices. Similar to other Supreme Court justices, the Minister is regarded as holding the same level of authority as other ministers included in the State Council in the executive branch of the South Korean government. Additionally, the Chief Justice typically appoints the Vice Minister of NCA, usually selecting a senior lower court judge for the position. The Vice Minister of NCA is treated at the same level as other vice-ministers within the government structure. The NCA operates under the guidance and direction of the Chief Justice and implements decisions made by the Council of Supreme Court Justices. Its primary responsibilities include assisting the Chief Justice in matters related to human resources for lower ordinary court judges, planning fiscal budgets and managing expenditure issues for all ordinary courts, and conducting internal inspections to ensure anti-corruption and ethical standards are upheld. Judicial Research and Training Institute The 'Judicial Research and Training Institute' (JRTI, ), is an institution primarily responsible for training and re-educating lower ordinary court Judges, as outlined in Article 72 of the Court Organization Act. However, its role has evolved over time. Originally, the JRTI served as a nationwide two-year law school supported by the South Korean government. This was prior to South Korea adopting the American-style three-year law school system in 2008 (). Before the adoption of the American law school system, the JRTI played a vital role in training legal professionals in South Korea. Another pathway for legal professionals was recruitment by the South Korean Armed Forces as 'Judge Advocates' () within the military justice system. The JRTI was initially modeled after the 'Legal Research and Training Institute' () in Japan, which trained judges, prosecutors, and attorneys-at-law simultaneously. In South Korea, candidates for the JRTI were selected through a nationwide jurisprudence exam known as the 'Judicial exam' (). These trainees underwent a two-year training program at the JRTI, where they received education and competed with one another. The career options available to them after graduation were influenced by their performance and records at the JRTI. Graduates with outstanding records typically pursued careers as judges and prosecutors, while those with lower records often chose to work as lawyers in various fields. This system partially reflected the civil law tradition of considering prosecutors as a de facto part of the judiciary as the deputy director (or vice-president) of the JRTI is appointed among prosecutors according to Article 74(1) of the Court Organization Act. Similar arrangements can be observed in institutions like the French National School for the Judiciary. With the adoption of the American-style three-year law school system in South Korea, the JRTI's role as the exclusive professional school for law diminished. It transformed into an internal education institute for newly appointed judges and law clerks. Some senior judges also receive additional training at the JRTI for technical matters. Currently, all training functions for Prosecutors have been transferred to the 'Institute of Justice' () at the Ministry of Justice, signifying a change in the training structure for legal professionals in South Korea. Judicial Policy Research Institute The 'Judicial Policy Research Institute' (JPRI, ), was established in 2014 under Article 76-2 of the Court Organization Act. It serves as a specialized body within the Supreme Court of South Korea, focusing on research related to policy issues concerning the judicial system. Additionally, the JPRI plays a role in educating the public on fundamental aspects of the functioning of ordinary courts. The Institute primarily recruits research fellows and researchers from the pool of lower ordinary court judges, as outlined in the provisions of Article 76-4 of the Act. However, a significant number of researchers are also recruited externally from individuals who possess PhD degrees and have expertise relevant to the field of judicial policy research. This diverse recruitment strategy enhances the institute's ability to gather insights and perspectives from both within and outside the ordinary courts. Currently, the JPRI is located in Goyang, Gyeonggi Province, providing a dedicated space for its research activities and initiatives. Building The Supreme Court was located in Seosomun-dong of Jung-gu, Seoul until year 1995. Currently, it is located in Seocho, Seoul. The Supreme Court building in Seocho has 16 floors and two underground floors with total space around 66,500 square meters. This large size building was necessary to hold the Supreme Court, National Court Administration and law library all together. Main Center of the building is mainly used by the Supreme Court, while east Wing is maily used by National Court Administration. Other Wing is used by law library. At the center entrance of the building, three Korean words are engraved; meaning freedom, meaning equality, and meaning Justice. The Supreme Court usually does not hold open hearing session, though sessions for verdicts are regularly held on the second and last Thursday of a month. Jurisdiction Empowered by Article 101(2) and 110(2) of the Constitution, the Supreme Court of South Korea possesses comprehensive final appellate jurisdiction over all cases from ordinary courts and military courts. Additionally, it exercises the power of judicial review at the sub-statutory level, similar to other ordinary courts, as specified in Article 107(2) of the Constitution. Notably, the Supreme Court exclusively handles certain cases as single-tier trials, without the possibility of appeal. One category of cases subject to single-tier trials in the Supreme Court pertains to disputes related to the election of the President of South Korea, National Assembly members, provincial-level local governors, and local parliament members. These cases are governed by Article 222 and 223 of the Public Official Election Act (), which designates the Supreme Court as the sole authority responsible for their adjudication. Another example of single-tier trials at the Supreme Court involves cases concerning disciplinary actions against judges for misconduct. According to Article 27(2) of the Discipline of Judges Act (), such cases are exclusively heard by the Supreme Court. Procedure As outlined in Article 7(1) of the Court Organization Act, the Supreme Court of South Korea carries out its final appellate jurisdiction through two distinct phases. The first phase is known as the 'Petty Bench,' which consists of a smaller panel within the Court. The Petty Bench is presided over by the most senior justice serving within that particular panel. The second phase is referred to as the 'Grand Bench,' which operates as an en banc session of the Court. The Grand Bench is always presided over by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. During these sessions, all justices of the Supreme Court come together to deliberate on cases and make decisions. Four-Judge Panels and En Banc Hearings In the initial phase of the procedure, a four-judge panel (or "Petty Bench," ) examines how the appeal should be handled. If the four justices within the same panel reach a unanimous decision, the case is resolved within the panel. However, in cases where the panel fails to reach a unanimous decision or determines that the matter should be heard en banc (such as when changing a Supreme Court precedent or when addressing a significant constitutional issue at a sub-statutory level), the case is referred for an en banc hearing (or "Grand Bench," ). Given that the Court has three four-judge panels, only twelve out of the fourteen Supreme Court justices participate in the first phase of the procedure. The remaining two Supreme Court justices — the Chief Justice and the Minister of National Court Administration — hold administrative roles within the Court but are not assigned to any specific panel. In the second phase, an en banc hearing ( "Grand Bench," ), comprising more than two-thirds of all Supreme Court justices, examines cases forwarded by the four-judge panels. Decisions are made by a simple majority vote. However, if a majority opinion cannot be reached, the Court's decision is determined in accordance with Article 66 of the Act. In either phase, the Supreme Court does not adjudicate facts but rather deliberates based on the evidence introduced in lower-court trials. Unlike the fact-finding nature of the lower courts, the Supreme Court only examines whether there are errors in the application of law and logic in the decisions of the lower courts regarding the specific case. Therefore, the role of the Supreme Court is to review the decisions of the lower courts and not to issue new judgments. The Supreme Court primarily issues two types of rulings: affirming the lower court's decision () or remanding the case (). Remanding, in simple terms, refers to the act of overturning a lower court's decision and sending the case back for a retrial. In such cases, the lower court is bound by the legal principles highlighted by the Supreme Court. Unless new factual circumstances arise that challenge those legal principles, the lower court must render a decision as directed by the Supreme Court. Consequently, a "verdict of acquittal with a remand for retrial" is considered final, even though it necessitates a new trial at the lower court. Presiding Justice and Justice in charge In South Korea, judicial panels include a 'presiding member' () and a 'member in charge' (). The presiding member serves as the official representative of the panel, while the member in charge oversees the proceedings and trial and prepares the draft judgment for the specific case at hand. This role of the member in charge bears similarities to that of the Judge-Rapporteur in the European Court of Justice. Typically, the member in charge is selected randomly by a computer system to ensure impartiality and avoid any suspicion of bias. On the other hand, the presiding member is chosen based on seniority through a bureaucratic process. It is important to note that the term 'presiding judge' () in South Korean courts often refers to a judge who is bureaucratically considered the 'head of the panel' rather than the individual who actively takes on the role of the presiding member for a specific case. Case naming South Korea's Supreme Court follows a specific naming convention for current cases. The case name consists of a combination of numbers and alphabets that provide information about the case. The first two or four digits represent the year when the case was filed, indicating the timeframe in which the legal proceedings began. Following the year, a case code composed of alphabets is assigned, which corresponds to a particular jurisdiction within the Court. For instance, the letter 'Da' is used to denote cases related to private law, while the letter 'Du' is used for criminal law cases. This case code helps categorize and classify the types of cases being heard by the Court. Finally, the last serial number is assigned based on the order of case filing within a given year, ensuring a unique identification for each case. Statistics The Supreme Court received approximately 35,000 – 48,000 appeal cases per year from 2011 to 2020. However, the South Korean Supreme Court is legally not allowed to "reject" an appeal (; see certiorari). In South Korea, a certiorari system was established in March 1981 under the Special Act on Acceleration of Lawsuits (), which granted the Supreme Court the authority to decline hearing cases it considered trivial or unworthy of review. However, given that the South Korean legal system generally upholds the guiding principle of three trials, the prospect of the Supreme Court rejecting petitions was perceived as a potential infringement on the right to a fair trial. As a result, it was abolished in September 1990. Now, upon receiving a petition for review, the Supreme Court must form a panel consisting of four justices. The panel then either unanimously reaches a decision (e.g., uphold the lower court's ruling or remand the case) or refer the case for an en banc hearing. The unique institutional structure of the Supreme Court imposes a considerable workload on its justices. Each year, the Court handles a vast number of cases, typically ranging from 35,000 to 50,000. However, only a small fraction, approximately 10 to 20 cases, are selected for en banc hearings (). This selective process means that a substantial portion of cases that are not heard en banc receive relatively brief deliberation, often lasting only "3 to 4 minutes," as disclosed by former Supreme Court Justice Park Sihwan in a post-retirement paper. Consequently, the role of Research Judges within the Court becomes vital, ensuring thorough analysis and examination of the legal cases that do not undergo en banc hearings. The potential reforms to the South Korean judicial system remain a subject of controversy and debate. Several options have been put forth to address the existing challenges. These proposals encompass increasing the number of Supreme Court justices, reintroducing the certiorari system (), and establishing an additional tier of appellate courts () positioned between the current appellate courts and the Supreme Court. This intermediate level of appellate courts would be specifically responsible for handling cases that the Supreme Court opts not to review or address. Each of these reform options carries its own implications and considerations, and stakeholders continue to discuss and analyze their potential impact on the South Korean judicial system. Former Chief Justice Yang Sung-tae faced accusations of influence-peddling during Park Geun-hye's presidency. According to the allegations, Yang was involved in manipulating a particular case to benefit President Park Geun-hye in exchange for the creation of an additional tier of appellate courts (). He was arrested in 2019, and the trial is still ongoing as of May 2023. Criticism and Issues The Supreme Court's fame and trust is again gradually deteriorating again in contemporary South Korea, due to social concerns on unfairly lenient attitude toward establishments like Chaebol and embarrassing political struggle inside the hierarchy of ordinary courts such as case-rigging scandal of 15th Chief Justice Yang Sung-tae. Both Constitution and the Court Organization Act have no contingency plan for massive vacancy of the Supreme Court. Thus, when the National Assembly refuses to make consent on appointment of Supreme Court Justices by article 104(1) and (2) of the Constitution, there is no other option and the Supreme Court is paralyzed by vacancy of Justices. While this problem is also happening in the Constitutional Court of Korea, the problem of the Supreme Court is lighter than that of Constitutional Court, because the Supreme Court only requires simple majority for any decision by article 66(1) of the Act. Yet the Constitutional Court should have more at least six Justices to make upholding decision by article 113(1) of the Constitution. See also Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Korea Politics of South Korea Government of South Korea Judiciary of South Korea Constitutional Court of Korea References External links the Supreme Court of Korea Official Website The Constitution of the Republic of Korea (translated in English), Korea Legislation Research Institute Court Organization Act (translated in English), Korea Legislation Research Institute 2019 Introductory Book of the Supreme Court of Korea, published and downloadable by the Supreme Court of Korea Judiciary of South Korea Korea, South Courts in South Korea Law of South Korea 1948 establishments in South Korea Courts and tribunals established in 1948 Seocho District
4899605	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddy%20Driscoll	Paddy Driscoll	John Leo "Paddy" Driscoll (January 11, 1895 – June 29, 1968) was an American professional football and baseball player and football coach. A triple-threat man in football, he was regarded as the best drop kicker and one of the best overall players in the early years of the National Football League (NFL). He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 and the College Football Hall of Fame in 1974. Driscoll played college football as a quarterback and halfback for the Northwestern football team in 1915 and 1916. In 1917, he played Major League Baseball as an infielder for the Chicago Cubs. He joined the United States Navy during World War I and played for the undefeated 1918 Great Lakes Navy football team that won the 1919 Rose Bowl. Driscoll played professional football as a quarterback and halfback for the Hammond All-Stars (1917), Hammond Pros (1919), Racine/Chicago Cardinals (1920–1925), and Chicago Bears (1926–1929). He was the NFL's first All-Pro quarterback and its leading scorer in 1923 and 1926. He also led the 1925 Chicago Cardinals to an NFL championship and was selected in 1969 for the NFL 1920s All-Decade Team. Driscoll also worked for many years as a football coach. He was the head coach of Chicago Cardinals from 1920 to 1922 and at Marquette from 1937 to 1940. He spent the last 28 years of his life with the Chicago Bears as an assistant coach (1941–1955), head coach (1956–1957), and later as the director of the Bears' research and planning unit. Early years and Northwestern Driscoll was born in Evanston, Illinois, in 1895. His father, Timothy Driscoll, was an Irish immigrant who worked as a stone cutter. His mother, Elizabeth, was born in Wisconsin to Irish parents. He attended Evanston Township High School. Driscoll enrolled at Northwestern University in 1914. He played for the Northwestern football team in 1915 and 1916 and became a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. In 1916, Driscoll led the team to a 6–1 record and a second-place finish in the Western Conference. On October 21, 1916, Driscoll, who at the time weighed only 143 pounds, scored nine points on a touchdown and a field goal in a 10–0 victory over Chicago, Northwestern's first victory in 15 years over the Maroons. In 1916, he was selected as a first-team halfback on the 1916 All-Western Conference football team. He was also selected as a second-team All-American by the United Press and a third-team All-American by Walter Camp. Driscoll also played for Northwestern's basketball and baseball teams. In December 1916, he was reportedly declared ineligible by Northwestern faculty investigating his standing. Playing career Chicago Cubs During the summer of 1917, Driscoll played in Major League Baseball for the Chicago Cubs. He made his debut on June 12 and appeared in 13 games, 8 of them as a third baseman, for the Cubs. In 32 plate appearances, he compiled a .107 batting average with a double, three runs batted in, two bases on balls, and two stolen bases. Hammond Clabbys Driscoll made his professional football debut in 1917 with the Hammond Clabbys. He led the team to the professional championship of Indiana and quickly became a star. Driscoll's 1917 season highlights including the following: On October 28, 1917, Driscoll scored all 20 Hammond points (three touchdowns and two extra points) in a 20–0 victory over Wabash. Driscoll's three touchdowns included a kickoff return in the third quarter. On November 4, 1917, before a crowd of 5,000, Driscoll scored all 13 Hammond points (two field goals, a touchdown, and an extra point) in a 13–0 victory over Pine Village. The result was only the second loss for Pine Village in 12 years. On November 11, 1917, Driscoll was knocked unconscious in the third quarter of a 13–3 victory over the Cornell Hamburgs. He returned to the game later in the quarter and drop-kicked a 55-yard field goal from beyond midfield. On December 2, 1917, Driscoll led Hammond to a 25–0 victory over the Fort Wayne Friars. Driscoll scored three touchdowns and kicked an extra point in the game. At the end of the 1917 season, Driscoll was selected by Indiana sports writer Heze Clark as the quarterback on the 1917 All-Pro Team. Great Lakes Navy In March 1918, Driscoll enlisted in the United States Navy during World War I and was given the rank of petty officer. He was assigned to Naval Station Great Lakes and played for the Great Lakes Navy Bluejackets football team in the fall of 1918. Driscoll's teammates on the 1918 Great Lakes team included George Halas, with whom Driscoll formed a lifelong friendship, and Jimmy Conzelman, all three of whom were later inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Due to protests from some opponents over Driscoll's professional status, he was not allowed to play in a number of early games. On November 16, 1918, Driscoll scored six touchdowns, including an 80-yard run, and kicked five extra points in the Naval Station's 54–14 victory over a Rutgers team starring Paul Robeson. The 1918 Great Lakes football team compiled a 6–0–2 record and defeated the Mare Island Marines by a 17–0 score in the 1919 Rose Bowl. In the Rose Bowl, he drop-kicked a field goal and threw a touchdown pass to George Halas. After the game, the Los Angeles Times wrote: "Driscoll needs no praise. He is the greatest back-field star we have ever seen in Southern California and had at his command as fine a team of football players as any player could ask." Los Angeles Angels Driscoll returned to professional baseball in 1919. In February 1919, weeks after his starring performance in the Rose Bowl, he was traded by the Cubs to the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League. The Angels planned to play Driscoll at shortstop, and the Los Angeles Times opined: "If he can dash around the diamond like he does across the tanbark there won't be a whole lot for the remainder of the Angel infield to do." He appeared in 39 games for the Angels and compiled a .264 batting average and .380 slugging percentage with three doubles, four triples, and a home run. Hammond All-Stars In the fall of 1919, Driscoll and George Halas (along with Paul Des Jardien and Bert Baston) played for the Hammond All-Stars, which became one of the founding teams in the National Football League one year later. On November 23, 1919, Driscoll led Hammond to a 33–0 victory over Toledo at Wrigley Field. He drop-kicked a field goal from the 35-yard line, returned a punt 50 yards for a touchdown, and kicked three extra points. Four days later, Hammond lost to the Canton Bulldogs who won the professional championship; Driscoll's fumble of the opening kickoff set up a touchdown run by Jim Thorpe for the game's only scoring. Racine/Chicago Cardinals 1920 season In September 1920, Driscoll signed to play with and captain the Racine Cardinals (so named because the team's home field, Normal Park, was located on Racine Avenue in Chicago) in the newly formed American Professional Football Association (later renamed the National Football League). The 1920 season is recognized as the inaugural season of the NFL. Highlights of Driscoll's 1920 season include: On October 17, 1920, "long runs" by Driscoll led the Cardinals to a 33–3 victory over the Moline Universal Tractors. On October 31, 1920, the Cardinals defeated the Detroit Heralds, the club's first victory over an APFA opponent. The Detroit Free Press reported: "Driscoll kicked all three goals and had the Heralds in their own territory most of the time with his long kicks and passes." On November 7, 1920, Driscoll returned a punt for the winning touchdown in a 6–3 victory over the Chicago Tigers before a crowd of 7,000 spectators at Wrigley Field. On November 14, 1920, Driscoll scored a touchdown and kicked three extra points as the Cardinals defeated the Cincinnati Celts, 20–0. On November 21, 1920, Driscoll scored a touchdown and kicked two extra points in a 14–0 victory over the Lansing Oldsmobile team. The Lansing State Journal noted that Driscoll appeared "unimpressive" in his uniform but proved to be the "luminous" star of the game who was "always on the move and as elusive as the well known rabbit." On November 29, 1920, the Cardinals defeated the heavily favored Decatur Staleys, 7–6, giving the Staleys their first loss of the season. According to the Chicago Tribune, Driscoll kicked the extra point that was the margin of victory and was "the big star of the game." On December 19, 1920, the Cardinals played the semipro Chicago Stayms (who were reinforced for the occasion by four Decatur Staleys' players, including George Halas) to a 14–14 tie at Pyott Field. According to the Chicago Tribune, "McInerney and Driscoll were the whole show for the Cardinals, Driscoll giving his usual clever exhibition of open field running." The Cardinals finished the 1920 season with a 7–2–2, good for fourth place out of 14 teams in the NFL's inaugural season. Driscoll was selected as the first-team quarterback on the 1920 All-Pro Team, making the first All-Pro quarterback in NFL history. 1921 season In 1921, Driscoll returned to the Cardinals as the team's quarterback and captain, he also did "most of the coaching". Highlights of Driscoll's 1921 season include: On October 2, 1921, Driscoll led the Cardinals to a 20–0 victory over the Minneapolis Marines. He ran for a touchdown, threw a 33-yard touchdown pass to Marquardt, kicked two extra points, and had long runs of 30 and 45 yards. On October 23, 1921, Driscoll was carried off the field in the first quarter of a game with the Columbus Panhandles. Driscoll reportedly sustained "a couple smashed ribs." On November 6, 1921, Driscoll returned to the Cardinals in a 7–0 victory over the Hammond Pros. The Chicago Tribune praised Driscoll's accurate forward passing in a game in which he accounted for all points scored on a touchdown run and an extra point. On November 20, 1921, Driscoll drop-kicked a field goal from the 35-yard line with less than four minutes remaining to secure a 3–3 tie with the Green Bay Packers. On December 18, 1921, the Cardinals played the APFA champion Chicago Staleys to a scoreless tie. According to the Chicago Tribune, Driscoll's "brilliant playing" resulted in the Staleys' only loss of the season. The Cardinals finished their 1921 season with a 6–3–2 record (3–3–2 against APFA opponents). Driscoll was not selected as an All-Pro. 1922 season As quarterback and coach, Driscoll led the 1922 Chicago Cardinals to an 8–3 record, good for third place in the NFL. Highlights of Driscoll's 1922 season include: On October 15, 1922, Driscoll led the Cardinals to a 16–3 victory over the Green Bay Packers. After the game, the Green Bay Press-Gazette wrote: "Paddy Driscoll is just as brilliant a football player as ever. He never seems to get old and in Sunday's game, he stood out as the mainstay of the Cardinal machine. Driscoll ran back punts brilliantly, he skirted outside of right tackle frequently for long gains and, as usual, his trusty kicking toe was very much in evidence." On October 30, 1922, in a 37–6 victory over Columbus, Driscoll scored a rushing touchdown, kicked two extra points, and added "a pretty dropkick from a difficult angle on the 47-yard line." On Thanksgiving Day, the Cardinals defeated the Chicago Bears, 6–0, before a crowd of 14,000. Driscoll drop-kicked a field goal in the game. On December 10, 1922, Driscoll drop-kicked three field goals to account for all the scoring in a 9–0 victory, the second victory over the Bears in two weeks. The game drew 12,000 spectators. At the end of the 1922 season, Driscoll was picked as a first-team All-Pro at the halfback position. 1923 season During the 1923 season, Driscoll appeared in eight of the Cardinals' games and led the team to an 8–4 record and led the team with 78 points on seven touchdowns, 10 field goals, and six extra points. Despite appearing in only two-thirds of the Cardinals' games, Driscoll was the NFL's leading scorer during the 1923 NFL season. At the end of the season, he was selected as a consensus first-team halfback on the 1923 All-Pro Team. Highlights of Driscoll's 1923 season included the following: On September 30, 1923, Driscoll drop-kicked a 47-yard field goal in a 3–0 victory over the Buffalo All-Americans. On October 7, 1923, Driscoll scored four touchdowns and kicked three extra points to score 27 points in a 60–0 victory over the Rochester Jeffersons. On October 14, 1923, Driscoll scored all 19 points (two touchdowns, two drop-kicked field goals, and one extra point) in a 19–0 victory over the Akron Pros. On October 21, 1923, Driscoll again scored all of the Cardinals' points with three drop-kicked field goals in a 9–0 victory over the Minneapolis Marines. Through the first four games of the seasons, Driscoll had scored 58 points. On October 28, 1923, and for the third consecutive game, Driscoll scored all of the Cardinals' points (a touchdown, two drop-kicked field goals, and an extra point) in a 13–3 victory over the Dayton Triangles. Through the first five games, Driscoll totaled 71 points scored. On November 4, 1923, Driscoll scored the Cardinals' only points on a field goal in a 7–3 loss to the Canton Bulldogs. Driscoll was injured in the game against the Bulldogs and did not appear in the following week's game against the Hammond Pros. On November 18, 1923, Driscoll scored four points (a field goal and an extra point) in a 10–0 victory over the Duluth Kelleys. Through seven games in which Driscoll had appeared, he had tallied 78 points. 1924 season In the opening game of the 1924 season, Driscoll drop-kicked a 55-yard field goal that stood as an NFL field goal record until 1953. He also scored a touchdown and kicked an extra point in the game. The following week, he kicked a 40-yard field goal for the only points of the game in a 3–0 victory over Green Bay. He secured his reputation as "the greatest drop kicker in the National Football league." In October 1924, he gave advice on proper drop-kicking technique in a syndicated newspaper piece. 1925 season Driscoll led the 1925 Cardinals to a 12–2–1 record and the NFL championship. Driscoll was the team's leading scorer with 67 points on 11 field goals, four touchdowns, and 10 extra points. He was the NFL's second highest scorer in 1925, trailing only Charlie Berry. After the season, he was selected as a consensus first-team player on the 1925 All-Pro Team. Highlights of Driscoll's 1925 season included the following: On September 20, 1925, Driscoll returned an interception 50 yards and kicked an extra point in a 14–6 victory over Harvey. On September 27, 1925, Driscoll scored all of the Cardinals' points in a 10–6 loss to the Hammond Pros. He drop-kicked two field goals, including one from the 44-yard line. He also fumbled a punt at the Cardinals' 15-yard line to set up Hammond's winning touchdown. On October 4, 1925, Driscoll drop-kicked two field goals in a 34–0 victory over the Milwaukee Badgers. On October 11, 1925, Driscoll drop-kicked four field goals, including one from 50 yards, and an extra point in a 19–9 victory over the Columbus Tigers. On October 18, 1925, Driscoll did not play in the first half, but had an 80-yard touchdown run in the second half in a 20–7 victory over the Kansas City Cowboys. On November 8, 1925, Driscoll drop-kicked the game-winning field goal in the final minute of a 9–6 victory over the Green Bay Packers. On November 22, 1925, Driscoll caught a pass and ran the remaining 15 yards for a touchdown. He fell on his face on frozen ground late in the first quarter and sat on the bench for the remainder of the game "with his nose in a sling." The Cardinals beat Dayton. On Thanksgiving Day, November 26, 1925, Red Grange made his professional football debut for the Chicago Bears in a scoreless tie against the Cardinals. The game was played before a capacity crowd of 36,000 at Wrigley Field. Driscoll consistently punted the ball away from Grange, drawing boos from fans who wanted to see Grange "do his stuff." The Chicago Tribune credited Driscoll's strategy and "unerring punting", noting that the Cardinals "were out there to win; not to let Grange stage a Roman holiday at their expense." Chicago Bears 1926 season In September 1926, Driscoll was sold by the Cardinals to the Chicago Bears. The Cardinals' decision was prompted by an offer Driscoll received for a much higher salary to play in C. C. Pyle's American Football League; the Cardinals could not meet the higher salary and sold him to the Bears in hopes Driscoll would sign there and remain in the NFL. Driscoll signed a contract with the Bears at a reported salary of $10,000. Driscoll started all 16 games for the 1926 Bears, led the team to a 12–1–3 record, and scored a career-high 86 points on six touchdowns, 12 field goals, and 14 extra points. For the second time in four years, Driscoll was the NFL's leading scorer. He also broke his own NFL records with 12 field goals in a single season. At the end of the season, he was selected as a consensus first-team halfback on the 1926 All-Pro Team. Coaching and administrative career St. Mel and Chicago Cardinals From 1924 to 1936, Driscoll was the athletic director and basketball and football coach at St. Mel High School in Chicago. During Driscoll's tenure with St. Mel, the school won 24 championships in football, basketball, and swimming. The school won the national Catholic basketball championship in 1924 and was national runner-up in 1931. During the first half of the 1930s, he also served as a scout for the Chicago Bears. On November 3, 1936, Driscoll was hired as an assistant coach for the Chicago Cardinals. Before Driscoll joined the coaching staff, the 1936 Cardinals had lost seven consecutive games. After Driscoll joined the staff, the Cardinals compiled a 3–1–1 record. Marquette In March 1937, Driscoll was hired as the head football coach at Marquette University in Milwaukee. The Marquette football team performed poorly in four years under Driscoll, compiling records of 3–6 in 1937, 1–7 in 1938, 4–4 in 1939, and 2–6–1 in 1940. His overall coaching record at Marquette was 10–23–1. On October 19, 1940, after a 7–7 tie with Creighton, Driscoll tendered his resignation, effective at the end of the 1940 season. Chicago Bears In July 1941, Driscoll was hired as an assistant coach of the Chicago Bears. He remained as an assistant coach under George Halas for the next 15 years through the 1955 season. During Driscoll's tenure as an assistant coach with the Bears, club won four NFL championships in 1941, 1942, 1943, and 1946. In February 1956, Driscoll was hired by George Halas as his successor as head coach of the Chicago Bears. Driscoll led the 1956 Bears to the NFL Western Division championship with a 9–2–1 record. The Bears lost to the New York Giants in the 1956 NFL Championship Game. He remained head coach of the Bears in 1957, compiling a 5–7 record. In 1958, Halas returned as the Bears' head coach, with Driscoll becoming administrative vice president with responsibilities for "methods and organization in the competitive phases of the club's operations." Driscoll remained employed by the Bears in an administrative capacity, serving as team vice president. In June 1963, he was appointed director of the Bears' research and planning unit, including responsibility for game films and scouting charts. Awards and honors Driscoll received multiple honors and awards arising out of his accomplishments as a football player, including the following: In 1941, he was chosen by George Halas as the quarterback on the all-time Chicago Bears team. In 1965, Driscoll was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Only three quarterbacks were inducted before Driscoll: Sam Baugh &Dutch Clark in 1963, and Jimmy Conzelman in 1964. In 1969, he was selected for the NFL 1920s All-Decade Team. In 1974, Driscoll was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. Family and later years Driscoll married Mary Loretta McCarthy in June 1928 at St. Ita's Catholic Church in Chicago. They had a son, John, born in 1932. In 1960, his wife died after a long illness in Evanston at age 57. He lived in his later years in Park Ridge, Illinois, with his son John. Driscoll died in 1968 at Chicago's Illinois Masonic Hospital at the age of 73. He had entered the hospital for treatment of a leg ailment. He was buried at the All Saints Catholic Cemetery in Des Plaines, Illinois. George Halas called Driscoll "the greatest athlete I ever knew." Head coaching record College NFL References External links Paddy Driscoll Bio (Staley Museum) 1895 births 1968 deaths American people of Irish descent Sportspeople from Evanston, Illinois Players of American football from Chicago Baseball players from Chicago American football drop kickers American football quarterbacks Evanston Township High School alumni Northwestern Wildcats football players Great Lakes Navy Bluejackets football players Hammond Pros players Chicago Cardinals players Decatur Staleys players Chicago Bears players Coaches of American football from Illinois Chicago Cardinals head coaches Marquette Golden Avalanche football coaches Chicago Bears coaches Chicago Bears head coaches College Football Hall of Fame inductees Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Major League Baseball second basemen Northwestern Wildcats baseball players Chicago Cubs players Los Angeles Angels (minor league) players
4899666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20Overthrust	Lewis Overthrust	The Lewis Overthrust is a geologic thrust fault structure of the Rocky Mountains found within the bordering national parks of Glacier in Montana, United States and Waterton Lakes in Alberta, Canada. The structure was created due to the collision of tectonic plates about 59-75 million years ago that drove a several mile thick wedge of Precambrian rock eastwards, causing it to overlie softer Cretaceous age rock that is 1300 to 1400 million years younger. The décollement can be seen from Marias Pass as a thin tan line of rock roughly halfway up Summit Mountain and Little Dog Mountain. Geography The Canadian Rocky Mountain foreland thrust and fold belt is a northeastward tapering deformational belt consisting of Mesoproterozoic, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic strata. The Lewis thrust sheet is one of the major structures of the foreland thrust and fold belt extending over from Mount Kidd near Calgary, AB in the Southeast Canadian Cordillera to Steamboat Mountain, located west of Great Falls, Northwest Montana in the United States. The Lewis overthrust provides scientific insight into geologic processes happening in other parts of the world, like the Andes and the Himalaya Mountains. Geology and tectonics Tectonic initiation and the Canadian Cordillera The onset of Cordilleran orogenesis began in the Middle Jurassic time, as a result of the breakup of Pangea and North American plate motion toward subduction zones at the western margin. Most of the Canadian Cordillera today consists of numerous tectonostratigraphic terranes that were accreted to the stable margin of North America from the Jurassic to Early Tertiary as a result of eastward and northward drifting island arcs that collided with the continental lithosphere of North America. These terranes were accreted due to upper-crustal rocks being detached from the denser lower-crustal and proto-Pacific upper mantle lithosphere that was subducted under the North American craton. The allochthonous upper crustal terranes were juxtaposed over top of each other and over the western margin of the North American craton along a system of interconnected, northeast and southwest verging major thrust faults. Rise of the Rockies and formation of the Rocky Mountain Thrust and Fold Belt The onset of deformation of the Rocky Mountain fold and thrust belt was due to collisional tectonic forces that occurred on the west edge of the North American craton. This thrust and fold belt was uplifted east of the Canadian Cordillera and formed between the Middle Jurassic and Early Eocene within an easterly tapering wedge of Mesoproterozoic to early Cenozoic sedimentary rocks that were deposited in the Western Canada sedimentary basin. A profound unconformity separates the sedimentary cover from the Archean to Paleoproterozoic crystalline crust of North America. This thrust and fold belt has a thin skinned geometry as indicated by the array of thrust faults that interleave and overlap along strike and cut across strata at low to moderate angle that flatten with depth, repeat the same Cambrian to Triassic stratigraphy from thrust sheet to thrust sheet, and merge into a common basal décollement, the Rocky Mountain basal décollement. The Rocky Mountain thrust and fold belt propagated from west to east, accommodating up to of horizontal shortening near the Canada and US border, and about in northern parts of BC and Montana. The eastern boundary of the fold and thrust belt is marked by the easternmost deformed strata known in outcrop and or in the subsurface. Because strata underlying the Alberta plains is gently dipping, it is difficult to pinpoint the edge of deformation on this side of the belt. On the west side, the Rocky Mountains are bounded by the Rocky Mountain Trench, where the trench is interpreted to overlie the western, down-dropped blocks of major normal faults that separate the southern Rocky Mountains from the Purcell mountains. Horizontal shortening of the thin-skinned sediments lying above the detachment fault due to tectonic convergence must accommodate this horizontal shortening and has done so by the formation of major thrust faults with large displacement, the largest of which is the Lewis Thrust. The thrust sheets involved in the Canadian Rocky Mountain foreland thrust and fold belt consist of different aged strata indicative of significant deformation over time. The dominant structure of the deformational belt is a series of thrust faults, which are mostly listric and north-easterly or easterly verging. These thrust faults follow long bedding parallel detachments separated by ramps. As a result, a series of overlying thrust sheets is produced that follow their associated fault detachments. In addition, there is a westward dipping basal detachment that extends into the Cordilleran metamorphic core at mid-crustal levels. Strata from differing depositional environments is thought to have been scraped off of the under-riding North American craton and accreted to the over-riding Intermontane terrane during the Late Jurassic to Paleocene convergence of tectonic plates. Studies and modern dating have found that eastward propagation of thrusting took place in four distinct pulses that are separated by relative tectonic quiescence. 40Ar/39Ar dates indicate that these pulses occurred in the Late Jurassic (163-146 Ma), middle Cretaceous (103-99 Ma), Late Cretaceous (76-68 Ma), and late Paleocene- early Eocene (57-51 Ma), separated by quiescent periods of >40 Ma, >20 Ma, and >10 Ma respectively. The Rockies were uplifted during the Laramide Orogeny which occurred between 80 and 55 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous to the Early Paleocene as a result of subduction of the Kula and Farallon plates beneath the North American continent. Furthermore, the first radiometric ages obtained from direct dating of thrust-fault gouge from the front ranges of the southern Canadian Rockies identified two distinct deformation episodes named the "Rundle pulse" and the "McConnell pulse". These pulses were dated and are interpreted to have occurred at 72 Ma and 52 Ma respectively. Lewis Thrust System The Lewis thrust Is a low-angle thrust fault in which Precambrian sediments have been thrust over younger Cretaceous sediments. The thrust sheet is constrained by lateral ramps on either side. In the south this occurs near Marias Pass, Montana, where the ramp geometry is parallel to the direction of sheet movement. In the north, the thrust sheet is forced up and over an oblique ramp near the Kootenay Pass region in British Columbia. The overall shape of the thrust sheet as it moved north-eastward has a general convex shape towards the foreland. The Lewis sheet is carried by the Lewis thrust fault where the compression and thrusting (in the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains Foothills and Eastern Front ranges) was associated with oblique, right-hand convergence between the Intermontane terrane and the North American craton. This transpression in the Late Cretaceous led to the tectonic inversion of the Cordilleran miogeocline and the Belt-Purcell basin as the Lewis sheet began to buckle and fold, where strata was then overturned until a break or fault was formed. This involved thick successions of Paleozoic rocks that make up the Corilleran miogeocline and the underlying Neoproterozoic rocks to become detached from the crystalline basement; displaced up the passive-margin ramp along which they had accumulated; and juxtaposed over the flat surface of the North American craton to form the structural culmination that defines the Main Ranges of the Canadian Rockies. Similarly, the thick succession of Mesoproterozoic strata consisting of the Belt-Purcell supergroup followed the same sequence of events leading to the structural culmination seen in the southern end of the Purcell anticlinorium. The Lewis thrust is cut by two major extensional fault systems, the Flathead fault and the Rocky Mountain trench fault system. Both of which are late Eocene to Miocene in age. However, the amount of shortening that has taken place on the thrust is not connected to Eocene extension due to the Rocky Mountain trench fault system and the Flathead fault having no influence positionally on the footwall and hanging wall cutoffs of the Lewis thrust. Instead, this transpression was replaced with transtension in the early Eocene involving east–west crustal extension and tectonic exhumation, which brought up mid-crustal metamorphic rocks to the surface to be exposed. Additionally, this transition from transpression to transtension resulted in rapid cooling of the metamorphic core complexes as they were exhumed and brought to the surface. Dextral transtension on intracontinental strike-slip faults in northeastern and southwestern British Columbia culminated with the mid Eocene extensional exhumation of midcrustal metamorphic core complexes. This leads to the basal décollement being exposed and the association with north–south faulting, dyke emplacement, and voluminous magmatism, which in turn, marked cessation of crustal shortening. Paleotemperatures and geothermal gradients indicate that the Lewis thrust sheet was thick when thrusting commenced. Duplexes Thrust faults often associate three types of structures, imbricate fan structures, ramp-flat structures, and duplex structures, all of which are seen within the Lewis thrust and the Rocky Mountain thrust and fold belt. Duplex structures are common and have been located in numerous locations along the Lewis thrust. These structures are distinct due to their structurally overlapping, lenticular stacked thrust fault slices. A prime example is seen in an area that extends from the Kootenay Pass north of the border to Marias Pass found in Montana. This section shows the Lewis Thrust following a series of bedding-parallel detachment horizons with a fairly thin stratigraphic interval near the base of the Purcell Supergroup, which is also the base of the mid-Proterozoic belt. Two windows in this section showing exposures of Upper Cretaceous strata exposed beneath the Lewis Thrust occur adjacent to the Flathead Fault. Within these windows, the Lewis thrust is folded along with overlying and underlying strata in a series of northwest-trending anticlinal culminations that extend the length of the west side of the salient. Furthermore, two distinct structural levels can be seen in this section, an upper level comprising the majority of the mass of the Lewis thrust sheet which is characterized by broad open folds in relatively undeformed rocks, and a fairly thin lower level consisting of stacked imbricate, southwest-facing, sigmoidal thrust fault slices, bounded below by the Lewis thrust, and above by a separate bedding-parallel thrust called the Tombstone thrust. These culminations progressively stack up and accommodate significant lateral crustal shortening associated with the compression along the Lewis thrust fault. Another extremely similar section of this duplexing is seen at another outcrop in the Waterton Lakes area in Southwest Alberta. In addition to duplexes seen in windows, the Lewis thrust also shows isolated remnants of the eastern edge of the upper plate( klippes) located at Chief Mountain in Montana and Crowsnest Mountain in Alberta. Erosion over time has shaped the mountains into their characteristic shape, where they tower over the associated prairies. Geochronology The fault motion of the Lewis thrust is dated based on the oldest age for motion being defined by the youngest sediments on the footwall, which are said to be about 65 million years old. Fission track analysis of Uranium-bearing minerals such as Zircons and Apatite which involves dating the radioactive uranium found in sediments along the Lewis thrust using isotopic ratios of Uranium provides constraints of the late pre-deformational paleogeothermal gradient and thickness of the Lewis sheet. This data, after being calibrated into geologic ages, led to the conclusion that maximum burial and heating in the Lewis thrust occurred during the Campanian over a time interval of less than 15 million years prior to the start of movement of the thrust sheet. The Apatite fission track data showed abrupt change in paleotemperatures from high to low temperatures and associated changes in uranium concentrations as burial and heating came to a halt and movement and exhumation began, which showed that displacement of Mesoproterozoic strata of the Belt–Purcell Supergroup along the Lewis thrust fault was in motion by approximately 75 Ma. This is supported by locations further south along the thrust fault in Montana where faults on the leading edge cut through a 76 Ma volcanic marker proving that the onset of fault movement must be younger than 76 Ma. The Youngest movement along the fault or in other words, the end of movement for thrust movement is based on the stratigraphic and structural characteristics of early Eocene deposits and is limited by the age of normal faults that cut the thrust and the associated sediments found within these normal faults. Additionally, The cooling of the metamorphic core complexes that arose and were exhumed is said to mark the end of deformation of the thrust belt which was done by using radiometric Uranium in zircons to provide a cooling age that is consistent with tectonic transition from compression to extension. U-Pb dating of zircons from various deformed and crosscutting mid-crustal granitic rocks in south-central British Columbia provided cooling ages of 59 Ma. Furthermore, the transition from thrusting and folding to crustal stretching led to rapid cooling of the Priest River metamorphic core complexes where cooling ages found in biotite gave ages of >55 Ma through K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar dating methods. In addition, the same faults in Montana that cut a volcanic marker were also found to be cut by 59 Ma porphyry dikes. This limits the youngest age for movement to have occurred at 59 Ma. Together, dates revealed for oldest and youngest movement along the fault place the overall movement of the Lewis thrust fault to have occurred over a span of about 15 Ma in the Late Cretaceous to Early Paleocene periods between 75 and 59 Ma. Paleotemperatures have been derived from vitrinite reflectance by measure of the percentage of incident light reflected from the surface of vitrinite particles in a sedimentary rock from the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous formation along the Lewis thrust. Results yielded the pre-deformational paleogeothermal gradient to a range of <30 to 11 °C/km compared to 18–22 °C/km during peak coalification and maximum temperatures. These results are indicative that the Lewis thrust sheet succession was overlain by at least 3 km of additional Late Cretaceous strata, along with the 8 km thick succession indicating that the Lewis thrust sheet had an approximate thickness of 12–13.5 km prior to thrust movement. Geologic movement Geophysical methods in the form of seismic analysis has also been used to determine movement along the thrust sheet. In one study, seismic data recorded along the 49°N parallel (the border between Canada and the US) was recorded from the Rocky Mountain trench fault in the foreland belt to the east flank of the Moyie anticline of the Purcell anticlinorium, which is thought to be the location where the Lewis fault tapers off. Seismic data produced showed total displacement of 115 km of the Lewis thrust sheet. This was done by locating the position of the footwall cutoff of the Lewis sheet which is interpreted in the seismic section as truncated reflectors at 11–15 km depth underlying the Purcell anticlinorium and overlying the basement reflectors. 75 km East along the profile is the exposure of the Lewis fault in the Waterton area, which directly links to the most displaced portion of the hanging wall. Measuring the distance between the footwall cutoff and the fault exposure at the Earth's surface, total movement of the Lewis thrust sheet was determined. Results showed that there was 75 km of direct movement of the thrust sheet along the Lewis fault, and an additional 40 km of transport by the formation of footwall-domain duplexes. Although this study did not take into consideration that it could be possible that the Lewis thrust sheet moved further east along the prairies and was eroded away, the data proved to be of high quality as it allowed excellent ties to be made to previous drill holes, mapped structures, measured stratigraphy, and existing geologic and seismic data. This study acted as a reinforcement to previous work and was very consistent with previous data collected. Additionally, this seismic data presented is significant in extensional terms as a direct link between reflectors on the West and East sides of the Rocky Mountain trench correlate to the same stratigraphic unit, where extension can be restored and an extensional distance of about 10 km was calculated by the difference of the pre extension and post extension. There is controversy over how the overthrust movement occurred and the effect this movement had on the surrounding geology. More specifically, attempting to determine if the thrust movement was continuous or if movement was subject to a more stick-slip style of movement remains inconclusive. However, the anomalously high vitrinite reflectance values obtained from the Lewis thrust at Marias Pass, the McConnell thrust at Mt. Yamnuska, the Coleman fault at Wintering Creek and several others indicate temperatures of 350–650 °C were generated during thrusting. Furthermore, these high vitrinite reflectance values were restricted to extremely narrow sections adjacent to and within the fault zones. This is indicative that the high temperatures were fairly short-lived. Thus, the high temperatures are interpreted to be the result of frictional heating during stick slip faulting. Evidence for the local high temperatures within the fault zone indicate that local areas of frictional stress must have existed, with the possibility of this occurring due to ramps in the fault plane where drainage of high pore pressures may have occurred. Moreover, samples from the hanging wall collected in close proximity to the fault plane show no evidence for heating during progressive burial of sediments. This absence of evidence for heating during faulting is indicative of low frictional stress and therefore, low rates of slip. This shows solid agreement with the evolution of the Canadian Rocky mountain foreland thrust and fold belt, including the Lewis thrust sheet which has been interpreted to have developed and commenced movement in pulses. References Landforms of Glacier National Park (U.S.) Landforms of Montana Geography of Montana Geology of Montana
4899712	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater%20Metro%20Junior%20A%20Hockey%20League	Greater Metro Junior A Hockey League	The Greater Metro Junior A Hockey League (GMHL) is a Canadian developmental junior ice hockey league. The league has primarily had teams in the Greater Toronto Area, Central Ontario, Northeastern Ontario, and Quebec. As of December 2019, the league's alumni page lists 889 players from 2006 to 2019 who graduated from the GMHL to play for NCAA colleges, various professional leagues, major junior teams, or represented their country in various IIHF World Championships. The GMHL is an independent junior league and is not a member of the Canadian Junior Hockey League or sanctioned by Hockey Canada. History The league, founded by Bob Russell and Hockeyworks International Ltd., opened its doors in early 2006, with a unique concept and approach to improving the standard of developing young hockey players within a Junior 'A' league format setting. A draft showcase event took place from May 5 until May 7, 2006 with players from Canada, United States, and Europe taking up residence at the Hockeyworks' World Hockey Centre near Shelburne, Ontario to take part in the league's first tryout camp. As of September 2006, it became clear that the league would operate its first season with seven teams. The original seven were the Bradford Rattlers, Deseronto Thunder, King Wild, Nipissing Alouettes, Richmond Hill Rams, South Muskoka Shield, and Toronto Canada Moose. The league's first ever game took place on September 8, 2006 between the King Wild and the Richmond Hill Rams. The final result was a 6–0 victory for the Rams, despite being badly outshot by the Wild. The first goal in the league's history was scored by the Rams' Darren Archibald (future Vancouver Canucks prospect) on the power play during the first period. Rams' goaltender Daniel Jones picked up the historical first victory, as well as the league's first shutout in history. On November 15, 2006, the GMJHL announced its affiliation with the World Hockey Association and creation of the National Junior Hockey Alliance. The affiliation resulted in a national championship between the GMJHL playoff champion and the winner of the WHA Junior West Hockey League after the 2006–07 season. The first ever regular season of the GMJHL concluded on February 25, 2007 with the Bradford Rattlers leading the way as regular season champs with a record of 37 wins, 1 regulation loss, and 4 overtime losses. In the playoffs, the Rattlers beat the Deseronto Thunder in six games, and then the King Wild in five games to win the first ever Russell Cup as playoff champions. In September 2007, the GMJHL started its second season with six new teams, the Douro Dukes, Elliot Lake Bobcats, Espanola Kings, Innisfil Lakers, Tamworth Cyclones, and Temiscaming Royals. The Deseronto Thunder ran into financial trouble after their first season and ownership of the team was transferred to the town. The team is now known as the Deseronto Storm. On December 11, 2007, the GMJHL announced a seven-game challenge series versus a Russian team known as the Moscow Selects. In late December and early January, the top seven teams of the GMJHL will compete against the Moscow Selects—a mixture of top Top Junior talent from the City of Moscow. The Selects played seven games, against Bradford, Innisfil, Temiscaming, Elliot Lake, Richmond Hill, Deseronto, and South Muskoka, winning each game. In March 2008, the King Wild and Richmond Hill Rams played two games each against the Mexico national ice hockey team. The Wild won both their games, while the Rams lost both of theirs. For the 2008–09 season, the GMJHL adopted much of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's ice hockey rulebook. The GMJHL added the Minden Riverkings and the Oro-Medonte 77's to the mix, and the Dukes relocated to become the Brock Bucks. At the same time, the Quebec-based Temiscaming Royals walked away from the league to join the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League, but were replaced within weeks by the Ville-Marie Dragons. In December 2008 and January 2009, eight teams of the GMHL hosted Kazakhstan's Under-18 Torpedo UST-Kamenogorsk squad. Victorious were the Elliot Lake Bobcats (twice), South Muskoka Shield, King Wild, Bradford Rattlers, Innisfil Lakers, and a Nipissing/Ville-Marie combined squad. The only loss for a GMHL team happened to the Toronto Canada Moose. In the summer of 2010, the GMHL expanded in two fashions internationally. First, Canada's only All-Russian team in the Shelburne Red Wings and then late in the summer they expanded to the United States through the expansion of the Jamestown Jets. On September 17, 2010, the GMHL played its first international regulation game, in Jamestown, New York between the Jamestown Jets and Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks, both expansion teams to the league for the 2010–11 season. Jamestown won the game 4–3. In December 2010, the GMHL named Bob Bernstein commissioner. After serving as commissioner for seven days, Bernstein was relieved of his duties and Ken Girard later resumed as full-time commissioner. In mid-January 2011, it was announced that the town of Iron Bridge, Ontario and its 500-seat outdoor arena would host a regular season game, known as the North Shore Winter Classic, between the Elliot Lake Bobcats and Algoma Avalanche on January 29, 2011. This is the first known regulation outdoor game in Ontario in the modern era. Elliot Lake would win the game 8–2 in front of an estimated 400 fans. At the conclusion of the 2011–12 season, the league lost the Elliot Lake Bobcats to the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League. Relocation of teams and expansion was busier than ever in 2014. The Mattawa Voyageurs moved to Sundridge to make way for an NOJHL team. The Powassan Eagles moved to Parry Sound to make way for an NOJHL team. The league expanded rapidly with a total of 15 new teams in the off-season of 2014 and 2015. There was a total of 30 teams, with a total of six teams playing in the same market (two teams per town). The Shelburne Red Wings were sold after the 2013–14 season, and were renamed the Shelburne Stars. However, the Stars did not play in 2014–15 and changed their name to the Shelburne Sharks and began play in 2015–16. In May 2015, the Rama Aces took a leave of absence but never returned. In November 2015, the Brantford Steelfighters suspended their operations after 18 games. The Shelburne Sharks returned as the Shelburne Stars in June 2016, but the team folded soon afterwards. The Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks re-branded as the West Nipissing Lynx, but remained in Sturgeon Falls. Early into the 2016–17 season, the Toronto Blue Ice Jets were removed from the schedule in the first week, the Bracebridge Blues in the fifth week, the Komoka Dragons in the seventh week, the Lincoln Mavericks in the twelfth week, and Wiarton Rock in the fifteenth week of the season. The Orangeville Ice Crushers would also suspend operations in January 2017 and all remaining games against Orangeville were considered forfeits. For 2017–18, the league added the Fergus Force, Ville-Marie Pirates, Wiarton Schooners, and Windsor Aces while losing the Toronto Attack. In late August 2017, the Parry Sound Islanders announced they were taking a leave of absence and merged with the Seguin Huskies. The Force and Schooners both folded during the season without winning a game. After one season following the Islanders merge, the Seguin Huskies folded in 2018. The GMHL also added two teams originally in the Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League in the Niagara-on-the-Lake Nationals and Ottawa Sharpshooters for 2018–19. The Wiarton Schooners returned but folded midseason for the second consecutive season, and third consecutive midseason GMHL team folding in the town of Wiarton. In 2019, the league added the Western Provinces Hockey Association (WPHA) as a Western Division in the GMHL for the 2019–20 season, which then rebranded as the GMHL West. The WPHA had played the previous season in the Western States Hockey League as the Provinces Division. The 2020 playoffs were then curtailed by the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and no champion was named. The following 2020–21 season did not take place as scheduled due to pandemic restrictions in Ontario and Quebec, with six teams playing only two games each in December 2020. The four teams in the GMHL West were able to play a partial season and a playoff in May 2021. In 2023, all teams from the GMHL West were removed by the league, which then formed their own league called the National Junior Hockey League (NJHL). Teams 2023–24 teams 2023–24 changes The Le Bécard de Senneterre joined from the defunct Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League. South Muskoka Shield were suspended for at least the 2023–24 season. The GMHL West was removed from the league. Regular season champions Bolded are overall regular season champions. Russell Cup playoff champions Bolded are overall champions, Italics are finalist. College Showcase Tournament Since 2009, the GMHL has had a mid-season prospect tournament. Generally, the top seven teams of the league compete in the tournament with an eighth team, the GMHL Selects representing the other teams in the league. The 2012 tournament featured both the Bradford Rattlers and South Muskoka Shield being thrown out in the semifinal round. An incident, both on-ice and later off-ice, involving a player from each team and later two more players and a parent from one team entering the altercation, resulted in a police investigation and one team refusing to continue. The league disqualified both teams after the game failed to continue. Since the 2012 tournament, the league changed the format to a prospect weekend with no championship rounds. Season leaders Scoring champions Goals against average champions Min. 11 games, except 2020-21 due to COVID-19 (6 games). Team records Records reflect teams playing full 42-game schedule. Best record: 2012–13 Bradford Rattlers (42–0–0–0) Worst record: 2021–22 Gibbons Pioneers (1–41–0–0) Most goals for by team, one season: 2017–18 St. George Ravens (404) Fewest goals for by team, one season: 2021–22 Gibbons Pioneers (82) Fewest goals against by team, one season: 2015–16 Kingsville Kings (71) Most goals against by team, one season: 2015–16 Bobcaygeon Storm (491) Largest margin of victory: Elliot Lake Bobcats 29 - Ville-Marie Dragons 1 on December 6, 2008 Individual records Most goals, one season: Bryce Yetman (81) — 2018–19 Windsor Aces Most assists, one season: Marc-Antoine Turcotte (106) — 2019–20 Temiscaming Titans Most points, one season: Marc-Antoine Turcotte (155) — 2019–20 Temiscaming Titans Lowest goals against average, one season: Wes Werner (1.20) — 2015–16 Kingsville Kings Highest save percentage, one season: Jan Pechek (0.951) — 2015–16 Kingsville Kings Former teams Timeline of teams 2006–07 League is formed with seven teams: Bradford Rattlers, Deseronto Thunder, King Wild, Nipissing Alouettes, Richmond Hill Rams, South Muskoka Shield, Toronto Canada Moose 2007–08 Deseronto Thunder become Deseronto Storm League expands by six teams: Douro Dukes, Elliot Lake Bobcats, Espanola Kings, Innisfil Lakers, Tamworth Cyclones, Temiscaming Royals 2008–09 Douro Dukes move and become Brock Bucks Richmond Hill Rams become Ontario Lightning Rams Oro-Medonte 77's join league Ville-Marie Dragons join league Minden Riverkings join league Temiscaming Royals leave league for Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League 2009–10 Ville-Marie Dragons fold mid-season (January) Tamworth Cyclones fold mid-season (January) Ontario Lightning Rams leave league Espanola Kings leave league Nipissing Alouettes leave league Algoma Avalanche join league Ville-Marie Dragons move and become Powassan Dragons Minden Riverkings fold mid-season (November) 2010–11 Shelburne Red Wings join league Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks join league King Wild move and become Vaughan Wild Brock Bucks move and become Bobcaygeon Bucks Innisfil Lakers leave league Jamestown Jets join league from Northern Junior Hockey League (league's first American team) 2011–12 Mattawa Voyageurs join league Temiscaming Titans join league Halton Huskies join league Orangeville Americans join league Vaughan Stars join league Vaughan Wild move and become Lefroy Wave Powassan Dragons change name to Powassan Eagles Oro-Medonte 77's leave league Jamestown Jets leave league 2012–13 Rama Aces join league Powassan Eagles return Bradford Bulls join league Toronto Attack join league Bracebridge Phantoms join league Elliot Lake Bobcats leave league for Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League Deseronto Storm leave league for Empire B Junior C Hockey League Algoma Avalanche leave league 2013–14 Expansion granted to the Alliston Coyotes of Alliston, Ontario. Expansion granted to the Seguin Huskies of Seguin, Ontario. Expansion granted to the Toronto Predators of Toronto, Ontario. Expansion granted to Halton Ravens of Burlington, Ontario. Expansion granted to Knights of Meaford of Meaford, Ontario. Toronto Canada Moose renamed Toronto Blue Ice Jets. 2014–15 Expansion granted to the Cambridge Bears of Cambridge, Ontario. Lefroy Wave relocate to Markdale, Ontario and become Grey Highlands Bravehearts. Expansion granted to the Tottenham Steam of Tottenham, Ontario. Bobcaygeon Bucks leave league for CIHL. Mattawa Voyageurs relocate to South River, Ontario and become Almaguin Spartans. Expansion granted to the North York Renegades of Toronto, Ontario. Bracebridge Phantoms change name to Bracebridge Blues. Expansion granted to Niagara Whalers of Port Colborne, Ontario. Powassan Eagles relocate to Parry Sound, Ontario and become Parry Sound Islanders. Shelburne Red Wings are sold; change name to Shelburne Stars and take season off to restructure. 2015–16 Expansion granted to Bobcaygeon Storm of Bobcaygeon, Ontario. Expansion granted to Brantford Steelfighters of Brantford, Ontario. Expansion granted to Colborne Chiefs of Colborne, Ontario. Expansion granted to Coldwater Falcons of Coldwater, Ontario. Expansion granted to Grey County Grizzlies of Feversham, Ontario. Expansion granted to Haliburton Wolves of Haliburton, Ontario. Expansion granted to Kingsville Kings of Kingsville, Ontario. Expansion granted to Komoka Dragons of Komoka, Ontario. Expansion granted to London Lakers of London, Ontario. Expansion granted to Norfolk Vikings of Simcoe, Ontario. Expansion granted to Oshawa Riverkings of Oshawa, Ontario. Orangeville Americans were renamed the Orangeville Ice Crushers. Shelburne Stars were renamed the Shelburne Sharks. Brantford Steelfighters take leave of absence after 18 games played; league revokes membership. Grey County Grizzlies cease operations after 23 games played and only one win. Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks end season early due to lack of players. 2016–17 Grey Highlands Bravehearts relocate to Wiarton, Ontario. The newly named Wiarton Rock would then fold midway through their first season on 14 December. Expansion granted to Tillsonburg Hurricanes. Bobcaygeon Storm membership revoked Coldwater Falcons membership revoked Grey County Grizzlies membership revoked Haliburton Wolves membership revoked Brantford Steelfighters membership revoked. Expansion granted to Lincoln Mavericks of Lincoln, Ontario, but withdrew from the league on November 21 during their first season. Colbourne Chiefs rebranded as Northumberland Stars after ownership change. Alliston Coyotes rebranded as New Tecumseth Civics after ownership change. Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks return to league. Change of ownership and rebranded as the West Nipissing Lynx. Shelburne Sharks rebrand as Shelbourne Stars but fold prior to the beginning of the season. Norfolk Vikings take 2016–17 hiatus Toronto Blue Ice Jets fold just before start of season. Bracebridge Blues removed from schedule after playing five games and forfeiting a sixth. Komoka Dragons folded after 12 games. Orangeville Ice Crushers suspended operations in January. Three of the team's owners had been arrested for drug distribution in November 2016 and were suspended by the league. The league transferred control to another shareholder who ceased operations of the team after two months. 2017–18 Fergus Force granted membership as an expansion team. Folded after playing 16 games, all loses, with one credited win for a Wiarton forfeit. Ville-Marie Pirates granted membership as an expansion team. Wiarton Schooners granted membership as an expansion team. Folded after eight winless games and a 25–1 loss to the Knights of Meaford. Toronto Attack removed from GMHL's list of teams on website. Windsor Aces granted membership as an expansion franchise. Parry Sound Islanders cease operations and merged with Seguin Huskies. 2018–19 Niagara-on-the-Lake Nationals expansion team added from the Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League after the Nationals decided to not participate in the CPJHL. Ottawa Sharpshooters joined as expansion team for 2018–19 season from the Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League. The Seguin Huskies folded prior to the 2018–19 season. Wiarton Schooners returned to league after folding during the previous season. Folded again after 17 games played, and a 1–16 record, in 2018. 2019–20 Bancroft, Ontario, was granted an expansion franchise with the Bancroft Rockhounds. Oshawa Riverkings sold and rebranded as Durham RoadRunners. Niagara-on-the-Lake Nationals folded after one season. Tillsonburg Hurricanes ceased operations Cold Lake Wings of Cold Lake, Alberta coming from the Western States Hockey League granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Cold Lake Wings of Cold Lake, Alberta lost their lease in a dispute with the City of Cold Lake and became known as the Edmonton Academy Wings but were unable to obtain a satisfactory lease in Edmonton. Edmonton Academy Wings of Edmonton, Alberta, former Cold Lake Wings, played as Edmonton Academy Wings umtil November 10, 2019 when they switched names to High Prairie Red Wings and played in High Prairie, Alberta. High Prairie Red Wings of High Prairie, Alberta, former Edmonton Academy Wings moved to High Prairie part way through 2019-20 season. Hinton Wildcats of Hinton, Alberta coming from the Western States Hockey League granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Hinton Wildcats of Hinton, Alberta lost their lease in a dispute with the Town of Hinton and folded before the season started. Northern Alberta Tomahawks of Enoch, Alberta granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Rosetown Red Wings of Rosetown, Saskatchewan granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Rosetown Red Wings of Rosetown, Saskatchewan were announced to move to High Prairie, Alberta but the Alberta Academy Wings seems to have moved there instead but played with Rosetown Red Wing uniforms. Slave Lake Icedogs of Slave Lake, Alberta granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. The Ottawa Sharpshooters folded in December 2019. 2020–21 The London Lakers moved to Plattsville, Ontario, as the Plattsville Lakers. The Tottenham Steam rebranded as the Tottenham Thunder. Fox Creek Ice Kings of Fox Creek, Alberta granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. 2021–22 The Toronto Predators relocated to Niagara-on-the-Lake as the Niagara-on-the-Lake Predators. Edson Eagles of Edson, Alberta granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Gibbons Pioneers of Gibbons, Alberta granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Mackenzie Mountaineers of Mackenzie, British Columbia granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. 2022–23 Burns Lake Timbermen of Burns Lake, British Columbia granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Kitimat Saax of Kitimat, British Columbia granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Tumbler Ridge Steel Kings of Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia granted membership as an expansion team in the West Division. Tumbler Ridge Steel Kings of Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia folded after four games. 2023–24 The Le Bécard de Senneterre joined from the defunct Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League. South Muskoka Shield was forced to suspended operations and put in dormancy with the option to return if new owners are found by February 1, 2024. The entire GMHL West was removed from the league prior to the 2023–24 season. The Burns Lake Timbermen of Burns Lake, British Columbia; Edson Eagles of Edson, Alberta; Fox Creek Ice Kings of Fox Creek, Alberta; Gibbons Pioneers of Gibbons, Alberta; High Prairie Red Wings of High Prairie, Alberta; Kitimat Saax of Kitimat, British Columbia; Mackenzie Mountaineers of Mackenzie, British Columbia; and Northern Alberta Tomahawks of Enoch, Alberta; formed the National Junior Hockey League (NJHL). The Slave Lake Icedogs of Slave Lake, Alberta folded. The British Columbia teams plus the Northern Alberta Tomahawks folded prior to the NJHL season opening. Most, if not all, the West Division teams were owned by a closely related group. References External links Greater Metro Jr. "A" Hockey League official website O Greater
4899791	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrie%20%281976%20film%29	Carrie (1976 film)	Carrie is a 1976 American supernatural horror film directed by Brian De Palma from a screenplay written by Lawrence D. Cohen, adapted from Stephen King's 1974 epistolary novel of the same name. The film stars Sissy Spacek as Carrie White, a shy 16-year-old who is constantly mocked and bullied at school. The film also features Piper Laurie, Amy Irving, Nancy Allen, William Katt, P. J. Soles, Betty Buckley, and John Travolta in supporting roles. It is the first film in the Carrie franchise. The film was based on King's first published novel. De Palma was intrigued by the story and pushed for the studio to direct it while Spacek was encouraged by her husband to audition. It is the first of more than 100 film and television productions adapted from, or based on, the published works of King. Theatrically released on November 3, 1976, by United Artists, Carrie became critically and commercially successful, grossing over $33.8 million against its $1.8 million budget. It received two nominations at the 49th Academy Awards: Best Actress (for Spacek) and Best Supporting Actress (for Laurie). Critics and audience members alike widely cite it as the best adaptation of the novel amongst the numerous films and television shows based on the character, as well as one of the best films based on King's publications. The film has significantly influenced popular culture, with several publications regarding it as one of the greatest horror films ever made. In 2008, Carrie was ranked 86th on Empire's list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. It was ranked 15th on Entertainment Weekly'''s list of the 50 Best High School Movies, and 46th on the American Film Institute list AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills. The film's prom scene has had a major influence on popular culture and was ranked eighth on Bravos 2004 program The 100 Scariest Movie Moments. In 2022, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot Shy 16-year-old Carrie White, who lives with her fanatically religious and unstable mother Margaret, is a loner and bullied by her peers. When Carrie experiences her first period in school, she panics, having never been told about menstruation. Carrie's classmates laugh, throwing tampons and sanitary pads at her, until the gym teacher, Miss Collins, intervenes. Margaret tells Carrie that her menstruation was caused by sin, and locks Carrie in a "prayer closet" to pray for forgiveness. At school, Collins reprimands Carrie's tormentors, punishing them with exercise detention, threatening to stop them going to prom if they refuse. Carrie's longtime bully, Christine "Chris" Hargensen, eventually refuses and gets kicked out of the prom. Plotting vengeance against Carrie, Chris and her boyfriend Billy Nolan break into a farm and kill pigs to drain their blood into a bucket, which they place above the school's stage in the gym. Meanwhile, Sue Snell, a remorseful classmate, asks her handsome and popular boyfriend, Tommy Ross, to invite Carrie to prom. Carrie believes the proposition is a prank, but he insists that it is genuine. Carrie discovers she has telekinesis. Despite Margaret's protests, she prepares for prom. Margaret sees Carrie's telekinetic powers and denounces her as a witch. During prom, Chris and Billy hide under the stage while the other conspirators switch the ballots to ensure that Carrie wins the Prom Queen title. As Carrie stands onstage with Tommy, finally beginning to feel accepted by her peers, Sue realizes Chris and Billy's plan, and tries to intervene. Miss Collins spots Sue and, thinking that she is up to no good, throws her out of the prom. Chris and Billy douse Carrie in the pigs' blood before sneaking out of the school. The empty bucket hits Tommy in the head, and he is knocked unconscious. The crowd is left shocked, speechless, and sympathetic to the prank (with only Norma and a few others laughing), but Carrie hallucinates that everyone is mocking her, believing it was their plan all along. She telekinetically seals the exits and injures the students attempting to escape. Miss Collins is crushed by a falling basketball backboard and she electrocutes her principal and teacher, setting the gym on fire. She exits the gym and seals the doors behind her, trapping staff and classmates. As Carrie walks home, Chris attempts to run her over, but Carrie causes the car to explode, killing Chris and Billy. After Carrie bathes herself at home, Margaret reveals that Carrie was conceived when her drunk husband Ralph raped her, an act that Margaret shamefully admits she enjoyed. She stabs Carrie in the back with a kitchen knife. Carrie sends knives flying toward Margaret, killing her; then, she destroys the house and perishes. Some time later, Sue, the only survivor of the prom, has a nightmare in which she goes to lay flowers on the charred remains of Carrie's home. Upon the remains stands a "For Sale" sign vandalized in black paint with the words: "Carrie White burns in Hell!". Suddenly, Carrie's bloody arm reaches from beneath the rubble and grabs Sue. Sue wakes up screaming as her mother tries to comfort her. Cast Production DevelopmentCarrie was the first Stephen King novel to be published and the first to be adapted into a feature film. During an interview in 2010, King said he was 26 years old at the time and was paid just $2,500 for the film rights, but added that he was fortunate to have this happen to his first book. De Palma told Cinefantastique in an interview in 1977: Lawrence D. Cohen was hired as the screenwriter, and produced the first draft, which had closely followed the novel's intentions. United Artists accepted the second draft but only allocated De Palma a budget of $1.6 million, a small amount considering the popularity of horror films at the time. The budget eventually rose to $1.8 million. Certain scripted scenes were omitted from the final version, mainly due to financial limitations. Casting Many young actresses auditioned for the lead role, including Melanie Griffith. Sissy Spacek was persuaded by husband Jack Fisk to audition for the title role. Fisk then convinced De Palma to let her audition, and she read for all of the parts. De Palma's first choice for the role of Carrie was Betsy Slade, who received good notices for her role in the film Our Time (1974). Determined to land the leading role, Spacek backed out of a television commercial she was scheduled to film, rubbed Vaseline into her hair, left her face unwashed, and arrived for her screen test clad in a sailor dress which her mother had made her in the seventh grade, with the hem cut off, and was given the part. Nancy Allen was the last to audition, and her audition came just as she was on the verge of leaving Hollywood. She and De Palma later married in 1979, but they divorced in 1984. Filming De Palma began with director of photography Isidore Mankofsky, who was eventually replaced by Mario Tosi after conflict between Mankofsky and De Palma ensued. Gregory M. Auer, assisted by Ken Pepiot, served as the special effects supervisor for Carrie, with Jack Fisk, Spacek's husband, as art director. The White house was filmed in Santa Paula, California. To give the house a Gothic theme, the director and producers visited religious souvenir shops to find artifacts to decorate the set location. A wraparound segment at the beginning and end of the film was scripted and filmed, which featured the Whites' home being pummeled by stones that hailed from the sky. The opening scene was filmed as planned, though on celluloid, the tiny pebbles looked like rain water. A mechanical malfunction botched filming the night when the model of the Whites' home was set to be destroyed by stones, so the filmmakers burned it down instead and deleted the scenes with the stones altogether. The original opening scene is presumed lost. The final scene, in which Sue reaches toward Carrie's grave, was shot backwards to give it a dreamlike quality. This scene was inspired by the final scene in Deliverance (1972). Rather than let a stunt double perform the scene underground, Spacek insisted on using her own hand in the scene, so she was positioned under the rocks and gravel. De Palma explains that crew members "had to bury her. Bury her! We had to put her in a box and stick her underneath the ground. Well, I had her husband [Fisk] bury her because I certainly didn't want to bury her". Music The score for Carrie was composed by Pino Donaggio. In addition, Donaggio scored two pop songs ("Born to Have It All" and "I Never Dreamed Someone Like You Could Love Someone Like Me") with lyrics by Merrit Malloy for the early portion of the prom sequence. These songs were performed by Katie Irving (sister of Amy Irving and daughter of Priscilla Pointer). Donaggio would work again with De Palma on Home Movies, Dressed to Kill, Blow Out, Body Double, Raising Cain, Passion, and Domino. The soundtrack album was originally released on vinyl in 1976 from United Artists Records. A deluxe CD edition containing a few tracks of dialogue from the film was released by Rykodisc in 1997, and a 2005 CD re-release of the original soundtrack (minus dialogue) was available from Varèse Sarabande. In 2010, Kritzerland Records released all 35 cues of Donaggio's score for the film on a two-disc CD set which was presented as the complete score. Also included in this edition were the versions of "Born to Have It All" and "I Never Dreamed..." which were heard in the film, as well as instrumentals of both songs, and hidden at the end of the final track, a version of the "Calisthenics" cue with Betty Buckley's studio-recorded voice-over from the detention scene. The second disc was a remastered copy of the original 13-track album. The Kritzerland release was a limited edition of 1,200 copies. Kritzerland rereleased the first disc as "The Encore Edition" in February 2013; this release was limited to 1,000 copies. Release The film opened November 3, 1976 in 17 theaters in the Washington D.C.-Baltimore area. Two days later, it opened in 9 theaters in Chicago, then opened in 53 theaters in New York City on November 16 and in Los Angeles on November 17. Reception and legacyCarrie received widespread critical acclaim and was cited as one of the best films of the year. It is the highest rated Stephen King adaptation on the website. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating based on reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 14 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times stated that the film was an "absolutely spellbinding horror movie", as well as an "observant human portrait", giving three and a half stars out of four. Pauline Kael of The New Yorker wrote that Carrie was "the best scary-funny movie since Jaws—a teasing, terrifying, lyrical shocker". Take One Magazine critic Susan Schenker said she was "angry at the way Carrie manipulated me to the point where my heart was thudding, and embarrassed because the film really works". A 1998 edition of The Movie Guide stated that Carrie was a "landmark horror film", while Stephen Farber prophetically wrote in a 1978 issue of New West Magazine, "it's a horror classic, and years from now it will still be written and argued about, and it will still be scaring the daylights out of new generations of moviegoers". Quentin Tarantino placed Carrie at number eight in a list of his favorite films. In a 2010 interview, King replied that he thought, although dated now, Carrie was a "good movie". Nevertheless, the film was not without its detractors. Andrew Sarris of The Village Voice wrote: "There are so few incidents that two extended sequences are rendered in slow-motion as if to pad out the running time..." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and called it "a crude shocker with a little style", praising the "strong performances" but opining that the movie "falls apart" during the climax which he described as "crude and sloppy". Box officeCarrie was a box office success earning $14.5 million in theatrical rentals in the United States and Canada by January 1978Richard Nowell, Blood Money: A History of the First Teen Slasher Film Cycle Continuum, 2011 p 256 from a gross of $33.8 million. In its first 19 days from 60 markets, the film had grossed $3,882,827. Overseas, the film earned rentals of $7 million for a worldwide total of $22 million. AccoladesCarrie is one of the few horror films to be nominated for multiple Academy Awards. Spacek and Laurie received nominations for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress awards, respectively. The film also won the grand prize at the Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival, and Spacek was given the Best Actress award by the National Society of Film Critics. In 2008, Carrie was ranked number 86 on Empire's list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. The movie also ranked number 15 on the Entertainment Weekly list of the 50 Best High School Movies, and No. 46 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Greatest Cinema Thrills, and was ranked eighth for its ending sequence on Bravo's The 100 Scariest Movie Moments (2004). AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – #46 AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains – Carrie White – Nominated Villain Related productionsCarrie, along with the novel, has been reproduced and adapted several times. SequelThe Rage: Carrie 2 was released in 1999. It featured another teenager with telekinetic powers who is revealed to have shared a father with Carrie White. The film received universally negative reviews and was a box-office failure. Amy Irving reprises her role of Sue Snell from the previous film. 2002 television film In 2002, a television film based on King's novel and starring Angela Bettis in the titular role was released. The film updated the events of the story to modern-day settings and technology while simultaneously attempting to be more faithful to the book's original structure, story, and specific events. However, the ending was drastically changed: Instead of killing her mother and then herself, the film has Carrie killing her mother, being revived via CPR by Sue Snell and being driven to Florida to hide. This new ending marked a complete divergence from the novel and was a signal that the film served as a pilot for a Carrie television series, which never materialized. In the new ending, the rescued Carrie vows to help others with similar gifts to her own. Although Bettis' portrayal of Carrie was highly praised, the film was cited by most critics as inferior to the original. 2013 remake In 2011, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Screen Gems acquired the novel rights to adapt Carrie to film once more. Playwright Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa wrote the script as "a more faithful adaptation" of King's novel but shared a screenplay credit with the 1976 film's writer Lawrence D. Cohen. Aguirre-Sacasa had previously adapted King's epic novel The Stand into comic-book form in 2008. The role of Carrie was played by 16-year-old actress Chloë Grace Moretz. Julianne Moore starred as Carrie's mother Margaret White, and Gabriella Wilde as Sue Snell. Alex Russell and Ansel Elgort played Billy Nolan and Tommy Ross respectively. Portia Doubleday was given the role of Chris Hargensen, and Judy Greer was cast as Miss Desjardin. Kimberly Peirce, known for her work on Boys Don't Cry, directed the new adaptation. It was released on October 18, 2013, and received mixed reviews. Stage productions A 1988 Broadway musical of the same name, based on King's novel and starring Betty Buckley, Linzi Hateley, and Darlene Love, closed after only 16 previews and 5 performances. An English pop opera filtered through Greek tragedy, the show was so notorious that it provided the title to Ken Mandelbaum's survey of theatrical disasters Not Since Carrie: Forty Years of Broadway Musical Flops. Early in the 21st century, playwright Erik Jackson attempted to secure the rights to stage another production of Carrie the musical, but his request was rejected. Jackson eventually earned the consent of King to mount a new, officially sanctioned, non-musical production of Carrie, which debuted Off-Broadway in 2006 with drag queen Sherry Vine in the lead role. Similarly, many other unofficial spoofs have been staged over the years, usually with a gym teacher named "Miss Collins" (as opposed to the novel's "Miss Desjardin" and the musical's "Miss Gardner"), most notably the "parodage" Scarrie the Musical, which hit the Illinois stage in 1998 and was revived in 2005; Dad's Garage Theatre's 2002 production of Carrie White the Musical; and the 2007 New Orleans production of Carrie's Facts of Life, which was a hybrid of Carrie and the sitcom The Facts of Life. A high school production of the musical is the focus of "Chapter Thirty-One: A Night to Remember" episode of Riverdale. Home mediaCarrie was originally released on VHS and LaserDisc formats, for which it received numerous editions throughout the world. In the United States and Canada, Carrie has been made available several times on DVD format from MGM Home Entertainment, debuting on September 29, 1998, while a "Special Edition" set was released on August 28, 2001. On December 4, 2007, the film was released a part of MGM's "Decades Collection", which included a soundtrack CD. The film was additionally released within multiple sets via MGM; first, as part of the United Artists 90th Anniversary Prestige Collection on December 11, 2007. A set featuring Carrie, The Rage: Carrie 2, and Carrie (the 2002 television film) was released on September 14, 2010, and, as part of MGM's 90th anniversary, the film was included with Misery and The Silence of the Lambs on June 3, 2014. The film was released for the first time on Blu-ray in the U.S. and Canada from MGM on October 7, 2008, which contained an MPEG-2 codec, with new DTS-HD 5.1 Master Lossless Audio, while retaining the original English Mono, and included Spanish Audio and French 5.1 Dolby Surround. The only special feature on the set is a theatrical trailer. The film was again released on Blu-ray on July 18, 2013, when it was available exclusively through Comic-Con in San Diego from MGM and FoxConnect, containing a slipcover with exclusive artwork. Two further editions were made available from MGM in 2014; a "Carrie 2-Pack" set containing the original film and the 2013 adaptation, released September 9, and finally, a re-issue Blu-ray with a collectible Halloween faceplate, on October 21. Home distribution rights are currently held by Shout Factory, and the film was released via their subsidiary label, Scream Factory on October 11, 2016, in a two-disc "Collector's Edition", now available with MPEG-4 coding, and a new 4K scan. Special features on the set include the theatrical trailer, Carrie franchise trailer gallery, new interviews with writer Lawrence D. Cohen, editor Paul Hirsch, actors Piper Laurie, P.J. Soles, Nancy Allen, Betty Buckley, William Katt, and Edie McClurg, casting director Harriet B. Helberg, director of photography Mario Tosi, and composer Pino Donaggio, "Horror's Hallowed Grounds" – Revisiting the Film's Original Locations, "Acting Carrie" featurette, "Visualizing Carrie" featurette, a look at "Carrie the Musical", TV spots, radio spots, still gallery, "Stephen King and the Evolution of Carrie" text gallery. The set also includes reversible sleeve containing original artwork and newly commissioned artwork from Shout Factory, and a slipcover containing the new artwork. Shout Factory additionally released a "Deluxe Limited Edition" of 2000 copies, which includes the slipcover contained in the "Collector's Edition", with an additional poster matching the slipcover, and an alternative slipcover and poster consisting of different artwork. In the United Kingdom, the film received its initial DVD release on February 1, 2000, via MGM. A reissue "Special Edition" DVD was made available from MGM on October 22, 2001, while a two-disc standard set was released on September 7, 2006. A DVD set, "The Carrie Collection", consisting of both the original film, and The Rage: Carrie 2, was released from 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on October 7, 2013, while on the same day, a reissue DVD containing newly commissioned artwork, as well as the first-ever Blu-ray release in the UK was made available from 20th Century Fox. A second Blu-ray edition became available in the form of a steelbook, released on September 29, 2014, a set which reverted to the previous-style artwork.Carrie would later receive a "Limited Collector's Edition" Blu-ray of 5,000 copies from Arrow Films, providing the definitive release of the film. The set contained a new 4K restoration, with special features, including commentary by authors Lee Gambin and Alexandra Heller-Nicholas, recorded exclusively for the release; brand-new visual essay comparing the various versions and adaptations of Carrie; "Acting Carrie" featurette, "More Acting Carrie" featurette; "Writing Carrie", an interview with writer Lawrence D. Cohen/"Shooting Carrie", an interview with cinematographer Mario Tosi; "Cutting Carrie", an interview with editor Paul Hirsch/"Casting Carrie", an interview with casting director Harriet B. Helberg; "Bucket of Blood", an interview with composer Pino Donaggio; "Horror's Hallowed Grounds", a look back at the film's locations, gallery, trailer, TV spots, radio spots; Carrie trailer reel; and 60-page limited-edition booklet featuring new writing on the film by author Neil Mitchell, alongside reversible artwork, poster and art cards. The set was released on December 11, 2017.Squires, John Shout Factory! release (under license from MGM) Blu-ray 4k with original theatrical aspect ratio of 1.85:1 widescreen and format SteelBook in United States on December 13, 2022. and the UK by arrow January 22 2024 in References Further reading Ehlers, Leigh A. "Carrie: Book and film". Literature/Film Quarterly 9.1 (1981): 32–39. Shih, Paris Shun-Hsiang. "Fearing the Witch, Hating the Bitch: The Double Structure of Misogyny in Stephen King's Carrie" in Perceiving Evil: Evil Women and the Feminine (Brill, 2015) pp. 49–58. Tibbetts, John C., and James M. Welsh, eds. The Encyclopedia of Novels into Film (2nd ed. 2005) pp 49–50. External links Carrie at the TCM Movie Database Carrie'' at TV Guide Carrie (franchise) 1976 films 1976 horror films 1970s English-language films 1970s high school films 1970s horror thriller films 1970s supernatural horror films 1970s teen horror films American coming-of-age films American films about revenge American high school films American horror thriller films American supernatural horror films American supernatural thriller films American teen horror films Films about bullying Films about child abuse Films about mass murder Films about pranks Films about proms Films about school violence Films about sexual repression Films about telekinesis Films based on American horror novels Films based on works by Stephen King Films directed by Brian De Palma Films scored by Pino Donaggio Films set in 1976 Films set in Maine Films shot in Los Angeles Matricide in fiction Films about mother–daughter relationships Religious horror films Films about self-harm United Artists films 1970s American films United States National Film Registry films
4899952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1965 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1965 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 33rd Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 19 and 20 June 1965. It was also the twelfth round of the World Sportscar Championship. After the disappointing results of the previous year's race, Ford returned with an improved version of its GT. There were 11 Fords or Ford-engined cars in the field. To meet that challenge, Ferrari had no fewer than 12 of their cars. Porsche dominated the medium-engined category with seven cars and Alpine-Renault likewise dominated the small-engine categories with six entries. Despite a strong start, in the end the Fords’ unreliability let them down again and it was an easy victory for Ferrari for the sixth successive year. After the failure of the works team, the winners were Masten Gregory and Jochen Rindt in the North American Racing Team (NART) car – the first non-works team to win since Ecurie Ecosse in 1957. It was also the first international race victory for Goodyear tyres. Perhaps surprisingly given their domination of the race it would prove to be the last Ferrari victory at Le Mans until 2023. Regulations In the year since the last race, plans had got underway to develop a permanent track. Charles Deutsch, erstwhile French car manufacturer, was the design consultant for the project that eventually became the Bugatti Circuit. After the dangerous accident in the previous year's race when a car had crashed into the busy pits, protective barriers were put in front of each pit, although the pit-lane itself was still exposed. Otherwise the only significant change was that the fuel tank on cars with an engine bigger than 5.0 litres was increased to 160 litres (35 gallons). There were slight tweaks to the calculation of the two Indices and the minimum engine size was set at 1000cc. Entries The ACO received 89 entries but after the selection process, withdrawals and no-shows there were 51 cars at the start. The proposed entry list comprised: This year there was a renewed interest from the manufacturers and their works teams with 42 works-supported entries amongst the starters. After a slow start to the season, Ferrari introduced the new P2 design from Mauro Forghieri at the April test weekend, and the following 1000 km Monza race. A range of V12 engines were fitted: The works team had two 4.0-litre 410 bhp open-top cars for F1 world champion John Surtees and former winner Ludovico Scarfiotti, and sports-car specialists Mike Parkes and Jean Guichet. They also ran a 3.3-litre 350 bhp closed-top coupé for Bandini/Biscaldi. Ferrari's regular customer teams, the British Maranello Concessionaires ran a 4.4-litre variant for Jo Bonnier/David Piper. The North American Racing Team (NART) ran a 365 P2 built around a previous year's P chassis with updated aerodynamics and featured a 4.4 L SOHC V12. It was given to NART regular Pedro Rodriguez with Nino Vaccarella. Enzo Ferrari was furious when the CSAI, the Italian motor-racing body, would not assist to GT-homologate his 250 LM (the 1964 race-winning car) and vowed to pull his SEFAC Ferrari works team out of the GT Championship. Meanwhile, there were five of the car's successor, the 250 LM, entered by the customer teams. This included NART (Masten Gregory/Jochen Rindt), Maranello Concessionaires (Bianchi/Salmon), Ecurie Francorchamps, Scuderia Filipinetti and Pierre Dumay's private entry. Finally, Ferrari also entered a new Dino prototype, the 166 P, with a 1.6-litre V6 engine. After the departure of Eric Broadley and Lola Cars, Ford put its racing organisation under Shelby American, with car production and development handled by Kar Kraft in the US and Ford Advanced Vehicles in the UK (run by John Wyer with a number of ex-Aston Martin staff). After no wins in the 1964 season, the new year had started with a win for Ford at Daytona. The new Mk II (also known as the “X-car”) was sent from FAV across to Kar Kraft to get the new engine fitted – the massive 7-litre, 450 bhp, NASCAR racing engine based on a Ford Galaxie block. Ready just in time for Le Mans, two cars would be raced by Phil Hill/Chris Amon and Ken Miles/Bruce McLaren. Meanwhile, FAV was tasked with production of the requisite 50 GT40s for homologation. On Shelby's initiative, the GT40s were now fitted with the same 380 bhp 4.7-litre engine as the Cobras (except for the Filipinetti entry) and the Colotti gearbox that proved unreliable was replaced by the more robust German-made ZF gearbox. Four cars came to Le Mans: FAV used Alan Mann Racing with Innes Ireland / John Whitmore. Shelby American supported the Rob Walker Racing Team (Maglioli/Bondurant) and the Swiss Scuderia Filipinetti (Müller/Bucknum) who were both also entering Ferraris. Ford France ran an open-top spyder variant for Maurice Trintignant/Guy Ligier Once again Maserati France's John Simone commissioned the company to develop a new car for racing. The Tipo 65 was built in only 7 weeks, with a mid-mounted 5-litre engine in a ‘birdcage’ frame. Replacing the destroyed Tipo 59, it left no time to test before the race for its drivers Jo Siffert and Jochen Neerpasch The final big-engine entry was the returning Iso Grifo A3C. Originally there were to be three but two cars had been wrecked earlier in the year at Sebring. Porsche had got their desired 185 bhp flat-six engine fitted for their 904 GTS cars, alongside the flat-eight (225 bhp) with three works cars entered and a spare. Opposing them were two British cars – a privately entered Elva and the return of the Rover turbine, first seen in the 1963 race, now categorised as equivalent to 1992cc. It had a new coupé body and ceramic rotary generators as heat exchangers which halved its fuel consumption. It would be driven by F1 drivers Graham Hill and Jackie Stewart Curiously, in the small-engine categories, Alpine was the only French manufacturer present. A new model, the M65 had aerodynamic tailfins and a new 1.3-litre Gordini engine that developed 135 bhp pushing it to 250 kp/h (155 mph). It was given to Mauro Bianchi/Henri Grandsire. The other four works cars were a mix of engines and body styles. Their opposition were a pair of the latest Sebring Sprites from Austin Healey. Fitted with the 1293cc engine in the Mini-Cooper S they could reach 240 kp/h (148 mph) In the GT classes Ferrari were now the underdog after being beaten by the Shelby Cobras the previous year, and the races since. Five of the six Shelbys that had been made were at Le Mans, prepared by Alan Mann Racing: two for Shelby American, and one each for Ford France, Scuderia Filipinetti and AC Cars themselves. For his part, after his fit of pique, Ferrari homologated his new road-car the 275 GTB. The racing version had the 3.3-litre V12 engine extended to 300 bhp and lightened with magnesium castings. After protests from Carroll Shelby were upheld for being significantly lighter than the production car – 1100 kg - ballast had to be added. Cars were being prepared for Ecurie Francorchamps and Scuderia Sant Ambroeus. In the smaller GT classes were the 2-litre Porsche 904s with the homologated 4-cylinder engine. Autodelta, Alfa Romeo's racing division, brought the Giulia TZ2 rebodied by Zagato. Its 1.6-litre engine was tuned to 170 bhp it could 245 kp/h (150 mph). Finally there was the newly homologated Triumph Spitfire. The factory brought four cars to the race. Practice Fastest car at the April test-weekend was brand new 330 P2 – John Surtees putting in a lap of 3:35, fully five seconds quicker than the Fords and other Ferraris. However the weekend was overshadowed by the death of Lloyd Casner in the rain on the Saturday. Casner, with his Camoradi team, was a long-time Maserati campaigner. Braking at the end of the Mulsanne straight, his Tipo 151/3 speared off the track and rolled, possibly when braking on the slick white-paint road markings. Casner was thrown from the car and died later from head injuries in hospital. For the first time in the race's history the initial practice session on race week had to be cancelled. A severe storm felled trees and flooded parts of the circuit. The ACO rescheduled an extra session on the Saturday instead. Phil Hill, in the big 7-litre Ford, put in a blistering fastest lap of 3:33, fully 30 seconds faster than the best practice lap from only four years earlier. Surtees was second fastest, two seconds slower, in the rival Ferrari ahead of Bondurant's and Miles’ Fords. Dan Gurney had the quickest GT car – his Shelby Cobra was 12th with a 3:51.3, just ahead of the 3:55.0 of Willy Mairesse in the Belgian Ferrari GTB. In the next days, additional stabilising fins were added to the two GT40Xs. The fastest Porsche was the flat-8 of Gerhard Mitter who put in a 3:59.4 to qualify 18th ahead of the other Cobras and the Maserati. Mauro Bianchi, in the new Alpine, was quickest of the small cars coming in 35th with a 4:20.0. In the end only 51 cars took the start when the small 1-litre Abarth failed to qualify. Race Start After a wet week, race-day was sunny and hot with a huge crowd. It was also the first time the American audience had live coverage of the race. Although having set fastest time, Chris Amon took the start and Phil Hill was the TV guest. As it was, when the live-feed failed Hill took over commentating duties. Siffert got his Maserati away first, followed by the three Fords of Amon, Bondurant and McLaren. Last away was Colin Davis whose Porsche prototype refused to start for two minutes. The two New Zealanders, McLaren and Amon, led the first lap with Surtees up to third as the Maserati fell back. On the fourth lap Siffert planted the Maserati into the haybales at Tertre Rouge. When he finally got back to the pits the car was retired with damage to the oil tank and suspension. It was an underwhelming end to Maserati's presence at Le Mans. But his was not the first retirement: the Dino was gone. Baghetti had over-revved the engine terminally damaging it. Teodoro Zeccoli put his Alfa Romeo in the sandtrap at Mulsanne. He excited the spectators by stripping to his underwear in a long, unsuccessful attempt to dig it out. Back at the front, McLaren and then Amon set about building a lead on the Ferraris, setting new lap records. After two hours only the top four cars were now on the lead lap with Miles ahead of the Ferraris of Scarfiotti, Bonnier and Parkes. But going into the third hour it all started going wrong for Ford. Hill had already fallen away with clutch problems costing 40 minutes in the pits and the French Ford had broken its gearbox when Trintignant had missed a gearchange. The Filipinetti and Walker cars went out with blown head gaskets on the same lap, and when the McLaren/Miles car broke its gearbox the Ford challenge was beaten in only three hours. Small consolation was Phil Hill's new lap record of 3:37.5 as he vainly attempted to make up the 10 laps of lost time. This now left the race to Ferrari – the three works cars battled for the lead with the Maranello car of Bonnier/Piper. Fifth was the Gurney/Grant Cobra. Both the leading Porsche, of Mitter/Davis, and Alpine of Bianchi/Grandsire were out within three hours – with clutch and gearbox problems respectively. In the fourth hour, Gregory brought the NART Ferrari into the pits misfiring. However, after changing the distributor, losing 30 minutes, the car was ready again. Gregory found Rindt changed and ready to leave. With nothing to lose they agreed to push flat-out, rejoining in 18th. Night As the sun was setting came the only major accident of the race. Dutchman Rob Slotemaker went off at the fast Maison Blanche corner but was unhurt. His Triumph Spitfire was the same car that had careered towards the pits in the previous year's race when Mike Rothschild had been overcome by exhaust fumes. After seeing off the Fords, the Ferraris also started having problems. First to fall was the Maranello car. An exhaust broke and Bonnier, choking from the fumes, bought the car in from third to retire as night fell. The gearbox of Parkes/Guichet got jammed in fifth gear. During the night, all of the P2s got delayed by cracks in their brake discs, which in turn gave problems in suspension, each losing 30-60 minutes or more in getting the issues fixed. The Cobras had been running very well – at 2am the two Shelby-entered cars were running 4th and 5th, Johnson ahead of Gurney. But the head-gasket problem in the Fords also affected two of the Cobra engines including Johnson's. The French entry had been afflicted with clutch issues. Coming up to half-time, the Gurney/Grant car's motor mounts began to crack and the strain of the engine vibration eventually broke the crankshaft. As the leaders were having troubles, the 250 LMs kept running reliably. By halfway, the surprise leader was the French privateer Pierre Dumay chased hard by the NART car of Gregory/Rindt (catching them by at least 5 seconds a lap after the earlier delay) and the Ecurie Francorchamps GTB of “Beurlys”/Mairesse. Parkes and Guichet had charged back to fourth ahead of the Porsches of Klass/Glemser and Linge/Nöcker. There were only 27 cars left running. Morning Soon before 8am the Alpine of previous class-winner Roger Delageneste and veteran Jean Vinatier was retired with ignition problems when comfortably leading the class and running 16th overall. This had just followed the loss of the smallest car in the field, the fellow works Alpine M63B that had been leading the Thermal Index, when it was stopped by a broken conrod. At 8am, Gosselin had completed 232 laps, with Parkes and Rindt just a lap behind. Mairesse was fourth 3 laps further back with Nöcker in fifth (223 laps), Surtees (221) Vaccarella (220) then Koch, Spoerry and Pon all on 217 laps rounding out the top-10. Against the odds, the privateers held the lead for ten hours until just after midday. A tyre blowout at speed on the Mulsanne Straight did severe damage to the rear bodywork. Dumay got the car back to pits but crucial time was lost with the panelbeating. By the time they rejoined, Rindt and Gregory had a five-lap lead. With less than three hours to go the little Austin-Healey Sprite of Rauno Aaltonen and Clive Baker, which was looking good for the two Index prizes after the demise of the Alpines, broke its gearbox. Soon after the weakened transmission of the Parkes/Guichet P2 also finally gave out, with them having fallen to fifth. After their hard charging, the leaders were also nursing a failing transmission. Gregory, in his last stint, was letting the clutch out in corners to coast through them. Finish and post-race In the end, despite the fragile differential, the NART car cruised to victory. It packed up completely on the slow-down lap back to the paddock. They kept their five-lap lead over the Dumay/Gosselin car. Three laps further back, and first GT, was Mairesse and “Beurlys” in the Ecurie Francorchamps Ferrari GTB. Ed Hugus, the reserve driver, declared many years later that he actually drove a whole shift in the winning LM. Just before dawn, Gregory had pitted unexpectedly exhausted and his glasses-vision impaired by the pre-dawn mist. Hugus' story was that Rindt was sleeping somewhere and could not be found, so Hugus took over driving duties for a few hours. This was controversial because - according to the regulations - Gregory would not have been allowed to drive again once Hugus replaced him (which he actually did) and the car should have been disqualified. However, no one recorded it, and Hugus was never officially credited with co-driving duties. Hugus, either from discretion or that he could not get through the crowd to the podium, never made public claims on this story, which was only revealed in late 2000s. After his death, one of his fans made public a letter written to him by the driver giving all the details. However, neither the official timing figures nor eye-witness accounts match up with Hugus' claims. Fourth was the works Porsche of Herbert Linge and Peter Nöcker. Their trouble-free run also netted them the Index of Performance prize ahead of the winning Ferrari. In fifth was their GT stablemate of Gerd Koch / Toni Fischhaber, who in turn won the Index of Thermal Efficiency, despite having to be pushed over the line. After losing nearly two hours replacing their clutch in the middle of the night, the NART Ferrari of Rodriguez/Vaccarella was the only P2 to finish, coming in 7th, 28 laps behind the winner. The only Ford-engined car to finish was the Sears/Thompson works Cobra in 8th. After a collision with an Alfa Romeo around midnight while running 5th, they had nursed their battered car with oil-pressure issues to the end over 30 laps behind the GT-winning Ferrari. Tenth, and first British car home, was the Rover-BRM turbine. It covered a lesser distance than in 1963, as an early off by Hill had sucked sand into the engine causing constant overheating issues. It was a notable experiment, however the issues with fuel consumption and heat management meant the project was impractical for road application and was subsequently cancelled. In a race of attrition there were only fourteen finishers, with British cars filled the final five places including two class wins. These included rally specialists Simo Lampinen and Jean-Jacques Thuner for Triumph's final appearance. It was also the final appearance for MG for 40 years. Paddy Hopkirk and Andrew Hedges once again had a low-maintenance reliable race with a consecutive race finish. Surprisingly, for the first time ever, not a single French car finished the race. So another debacle for Ford, with only one of the eleven Ford-engined cars finishing. A silver lining was, with a class win the next month at Reims, the Cobra-Ford clinched the GT Championship. Later in the year Ferrari, indeed, sold a portion of his company, not to Ford, but to FIAT. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text. Did Not Finish Did Not Practice Class Winners Note: setting a new Distance Record. Index of Thermal Efficiency Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. Index of Performance Taken from Moity's book. Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance. Statistics Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Fastest Lap in practice – P.Hill, #2 Ford GT40X – 3:33.0secs; Fastest Lap – P.Hill, #2 Ford GT40X – 3:37.5secs; Distance – Winner's Average Speed – Attendance – 300 000+ Challenge Mondial de Vitesse et Endurance Standings As calculated after Le Mans, Round 8 of 9, with the best 6 results counting (full score in brackets) Citations References Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1966) Automobile Year #13 1965-66 Lausanne: Edita S.A. Clarke, R.M. - editor (2009) Le Mans 'The Ferrari Years 1958-1965' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Fox, Charles (1973) The Great Racing Cars & Drivers London: Octopus Books Ltd Henry, Alan (1988) Fifty Famous Motor Races Northamptonshire: Patrick Stephen Ltd Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960-69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1965 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 28 February 2018 Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 28 February 2018 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 28 February 2018 Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 28 February 2018 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 28 February 2018 Formula 2 – Le Mans 1965 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 28 February 2018 YouTube – Pt 1 of 3 colour film (20mins total). Retrieved 28 February 2018 YouTube – 30min colour film following the Triumph team. Retrieved 28 February 2018 YouTube – 6min b/w footage of the last lap. Retrieved 28 February 2018 YouTube – 3min modern film of the race-winning Ferrari. Retrieved 28 February 2018 Le Mans 1965 in Automobile Historique n°48, May 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1965 in French motorsport
4900090	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mystery%20of%20Edwin%20Drood%20%28musical%29	The Mystery of Edwin Drood (musical)	The Mystery of Edwin Drood is a musical written by Rupert Holmes based on the unfinished Charles Dickens novel of the same name. The show was the first Broadway musical with multiple endings (determined by audience vote). The musical won five Tony Awards, including Best Musical; from among eleven nominations. Holmes received Tony awards for Best Book of a Musical and Best Original Score. The musical debuted at the New York Shakespeare Festival in August 1985. After being revised, it transferred to Broadway and ran until May 1987, sometimes billed simply as Drood, followed by two national tours and a London West End production. The Roundabout Theatre Company revived the musical in 2012. History Sources The musical stages Charles Dickens' final and unfinished novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood in a style hearkening to British pantomime and music hall genres that had reached a height of popularity around the time of Dickens' death. As with most of his other novels, Dickens wrote The Mystery of Edwin Drood in episodic installments. It began publication in 1870, but Dickens died suddenly that year from a stroke. He left no notes about how he intended to finish the story. Almost immediately, various authors and playwrights, including Dickens's own son, wrote their own endings. A century later, there were several "collaborations" between the late Dickens and other novelists, numerous theatrical extrapolations, and three film adaptations of the story. At the time Dickens died, British pantomime styles, distinguished by the importance of audience participation and conventions like the principal boy, reached their height of popularity, and music hall performances with raucous, risque comedy and a distinct musical style rose to prominence. Rupert Holmes, the major creative contributor to the musical Drood, spent his early childhood in England. At age three, he was taken to the theater for the first time: a modern "panto" with a cross-dressing lead boy and audience sing-alongs. By age eleven, he was fascinated by mystery books and first discovered the unfinished Dickens novel. Holmes drew on these experiences when impresario Joseph Papp, the creator and head of the New York Shakespeare Festival, approached him to write a new musical. Concept Holmes, a singer-songwriter who recorded the Billboard No. 1 Hit, "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)" and wrote songs for the Platters, the Drifters, Wayne Newton, Dolly Parton, Barry Manilow, and Barbra Streisand, first became interested in writing a musical in 1983. After a nightclub appearance where he performed "story-songs" and shared humorous anecdotes, Holmes received a note from Gail Merrifield, director of play development at the New York Shakespeare Festival and Joseph Papp's wife. She had seen Holmes' performance and wrote suggesting he write a full-length musical. Holmes conceived the show’s central premises by drawing on his recollections of Dickens' novel and pantomime as a youth, and his later experiences with Victorian-style music hall performances. From the Dickens work, Holmes took the central plot and most of the featured characters. From pantomime, he retained the concept of the "Lead Boy,” always portrayed by a young female in male drag, which permitted him to write a love song sung by two sopranos. Pantomime also inspired the most ground-breaking aspect of Drood: audience participation. From music hall traditions, he created the lead character of "The Chairman,” a sort of Master of Ceremonies instigating stage action. Holmes wrote the book, the music, the lyrics, and the full orchestrations for Drood, an unusual accomplishment. While Holmes believed no Broadway creator had done this before, and the feat was frequently mentioned in reviews and press about the show, it was more common in the early days of musical theatre. Although songwriters, including Adolf Philipp, had been credited for the books to their musicals, none had also written their own orchestrations. In writing the book, Holmes deliberately chose not to imitate Dickens's writing style, as he felt it would be too bleak for the show he envisioned. Instead, he employed the device of a "show-within-a-show." The cast members of Drood do not specifically play Dickens's characters; rather, they are music hall players performing as Dickens's characters. This device allowed for the incorporation of light comedy, which was not present in the original novel, and several musical numbers unrelated to the original story. Holmes explained his decision, stating, "This is not Nicholas Nickleby set to music – it's not a Dickensian work. It's light and fun and entertaining. But I hope – I think – that Dickens would have enjoyed it." Holmes also noted that the show “has the same relationship to Dickens that Kiss Me Kate does to The Taming of the Shrew." Most inventively, Holmes used a novel method to determine the play’s outcome: audience voting. At a break in the show, the audience votes on: who killed Drood, if he was killed; the identity of the mysterious Dick Datchery; and which two characters will become romantically involved, creating a happy ending. Since every audience differs in temperament, the outcome is theoretically unpredictable, even to the actors, who must quickly tally the votes and perform the chosen ending (although some smaller companies will "fix" the results to limit the number of possible endings). This device required Holmes to write numerous short endings to cover every possible voting outcome. Deviations from the novel There are several differences between the musical and the Dickens novel. The most obvious is tone. The original episodes, consistent with Dickens’s style, was bleak. Holmes made the show more lighthearted and comedic. There are also differences in characters. The most notable is Jasper, who Dickens made undoubtedly repressed and troubled. Holmes made him a full-fledged split personality, omitting several of the novel's clues that Jasper is the killer, fabricating new clues implicating other suspects, and explaining that there would be no mystery if Jasper were the obvious killer. Holmes also omitted several minor characters and expanded the roles of others. For example, Bazzard was employed by Rosa's guardian, Mr. Grewgious, in the novel, but he is Crisparkle's assistant in the musical. Synopsis Act I Act One opens as the members of the Music Hall Royale circulate among the audience, introducing themselves to the patrons. More and more members of the company add to the growing noise, until the music begins, and the Chairman of the proceedings bursts forth with the show's opening number, "There You Are". They then introduce John Jasper, the 'Jekyll and Hyde' choirmaster who greets his young nephew Edwin Drood in the song "Two Kinsmen", where they express their strong friendship. Drood is engaged to the fair Miss Rosa Bud, who is Jasper's music pupil and the object of his mad obsession. Rosa's suspicion of his obsession is confirmed when at her next lesson, he asks her to sing a song he has written – "Moonfall" – an innuendo-heavy love song from Jasper to her. The kindly Reverend Crisparkle and two exotic emigrants from Ceylon, Helena and Neville Landless, arrive. Neville is immediately attracted to Rosa, which makes him a rival to both Edwin and the secretive Jasper. Next the chairman brings the audience to London and the sinister opium den of the Princess Puffer who talks with the audience, and explains her life in "Wages of Sin". A sinewy ballet dance follows. We discover that one of Puffer's regular clients is none other than Jasper himself, who cries out the name 'Rosa Bud' during a hallucination. Puffer shows great interest in this fact, and stores it away in her memory. Back in Cloisterham, Neville and Drood meet and come to odds with each other almost immediately. Next, The Chairman is called in to play another character as that actor is unable to come, but it turned out that the scenes of his character and the scenes of Mayor Sapsea coincide – and the characters have to disagree with each other. This results in major confusion for poor Mayor Sapsea/The Chairman, and laughs for the audience. He and Jasper sing of their conflicting minds – Jasper, of course, meaning it literally – in the patter song "Both Sides Of The Coin". We are then introduced to the drunken stonemason Durdles, and his assistant Deputy. In the graveyard, they tell us that Edwin and Rosa, who have been promised to each other since they were children and so cannot tell if they truly love each other, have called off their engagement ("Perfect Strangers"). As a parting gift, Rosa gives Drood her hair clasp, which once belonged to her mother. It is Christmas Eve and Jasper has arranged a ‘reconciliation’ dinner for the Landless twins, Crisparkle, Rosa and Drood. In the resulting song "No Good Can Come from Bad", Neville and Drood's antagonism is reinstated, Helena's and Crisparkle's worry about Neville's reputation is shown, and it is revealed that Crisparkle used to be in love with Rosa's mother, who died after Rosa's birth. Soon the party disbands, and the guests depart into a violent storm. There is a short halt here, where the actor playing Bazzard soliloquizes about how he never seems to be able to get a major part in a show, in the song "Never The Luck". The next day Drood has vanished. Crisparkle's assistant discovers Edwin's torn coat by the river. Drood was last seen walking there with Neville the night before. Nevile is almost lynched by the townsfolk before being rescued by Crisparkle. Jasper publicly swears to track down his nephew's killer; later he visits Rosa and confesses his love for her. She is horrified and angry, and they sing "The Name Of Love And Moonfall", ending with Jasper's pursuing Rosa off-stage as the act concludes. Act II Act Two begins six months later, and still there is no sign of Drood. There is much speculation as to his fate. Meanwhile, it is revealed that Puffer has been investigating Drood's disappearance, but has also noticed a rather seedy looking figure who seems to be doing the same. It turns out that this man (played by the same actor who plays Drood, normally), Dick Datchery, is a private investigator. They sing "Settling Up The Score". The cast appears and summarizes the situation, warning the audience, "don't fall back on your assumptions, hasty presumptions might do you in!", telling them to think carefully of whom they will vote for as the murderer, in the song "Don't Quit While You're Ahead". As the song climbs to a climax, the actors trail off, and the Chairman announces to the audience that it was at this place that Charles Dickens laid down his pen forever. However, they, with the audience's help, will resolve the story and the public voting begins as to who Datchery and The Murderer are; unfortunately, the actress playing Drood and, up to that point, Datchery is not chosen as Datchery and exits the theater in a huff. Once the votes have been tabulated, the cast come out and sing "Don't Quit While You're Ahead" to welcome the audience back into the story and to remind them that the mystery has not been solved. Puffer finds Rosa, reveals that years before she had been Rosa's nanny and tells her backstory in the song "Garden Path To Hell"; she tells of a man she loved who made her become a prostitute to please his friends and then left her. Once she lost her looks, she found a way to earn money – selling opium. She then continues with "Puffer's Revelation" and reveals the identity of Datchery (previously chosen by the audience.) The evening's Datchery (either Bazzard, Reverend Crisparkle, Helena, Neville, or Rosa) explains in their version of the revelation song "Out On A Limerick" why they donned the costume and tracked down the killer; the girls did it mainly to disguise their gender, Neville to prove his innocence, Crisparkle to help both Neville and Helena, and Bazzard to give himself both a dramatic reveal and an important character to play. The gist of each song is that the character followed Jasper to his house and found the clasp that Rosa gave Drood, which Jasper would have had only if he had taken it from Drood. Jasper's double nature reveals itself, and he admits that he strangled his nephew while under the influence of the laudanum that he reveals he poured into the wine the night of the dinner party ("Jasper's Confession"). Durdles the gravedigger, however, disagrees; he witnessed the crime and knows who truly killed Edwin Drood. Depending on the audience's vote, the finger is pointed at Bazzard, Crisparkle, Helena, Neville, Puffer, Rosa or Durdles. The murderer confesses, then sings a reprise of one of several numbers, beginning with "A Man Could Go Quite Mad", to admit his or her culpability; the gist of each of these songs is that the character who killed Drood was seeking to kill Jasper, not Drood, for his or her own purpose – Puffer to protect Rosa, Rosa to save herself, Helena to get revenge on Jasper for ruining her twin's chance at a new beginning, Bazzard to bring himself into the limelight, Neville because he wanted Rosa for himself, and Crisparkle because he killed Rosa's mother out of jealousy and religious mania and wanted to protect both Rosa and Neville from Jasper's evil. However, because of the storm, Jasper had walked with Drood for a while and then given him his coat to wear for the journey home, so the murderer, because of the laudanum in the wine and the foul night weather, mistook Drood for Jasper. (Durdles lacks this motivation, however, so his confession is simply that, in his drunkenness, he mistook Drood for a ghost.) If, although not likely, the audience chooses Jasper as the murderer, Durdles does not interrupt and a second confession is not performed (Some theaters will not count Jasper votes, to make sure that there is a twist). Still, a happy ending is needed, and the Chairman asks the audience to choose two lovers from among the remaining cast members. The two chosen members declare their love, and then reprise "Perfect Strangers". Just then, there comes a noise from the crypt, and a very-much-alive Edwin Drood appears, ready to tell all what really happened on the night of his disappearance ("The Writing On The Wall"). What happened was that when Drood was attacked, he was only stunned when he fell and not killed. Jasper dragged him to a crypt where he left him. When Drood woke, he escaped and fled from Cloisterham, only returning so that he could find out who wanted him dead. He sings to the audience, eventually joined by the rest of the cast, imploring them to hold on to life for as long as they possibly can and telling them that 'holding on to life is all.' The mystery is solved, and the show concludes as the cast sings to the audience to read the writing on the wall. Murderers John Jasper – Jasper was madly in love with Rosa Bud, and his violent split personality gladly killed Drood. His confession is a reprise of "A Man Could Go Quite Mad" and "Moonfall". Jasper's confession is performed no matter who is chosen as the murderer, and the audience is discouraged from voting for him since he is the obvious solution. Rosa Bud – Meant to kill Jasper in revenge for his lustful advances and also due to her own mental instability caused by Jasper's persecution, but killed Drood by accident as Drood was wearing Jasper's coat. Her confession is a reprise of "A Man Could Go Quite Mad" and "No Good Can Come From Bad" Neville Landless – Humiliated by Drood, Neville murdered him in order to regain his pride and also to have a chance with Rosa Bud. His confession is a reprise of "A Man Could Go Quite Mad" and "No Good Can Come From Bad" in the original Broadway production, later changed to "A British Subject" Helena Landless – Knowing her brother's hot temper, Helena murdered Drood so Neville would not be tempted to seek revenge. Her confession is a reprise of "A Man Could Go Quite Mad" and "No Good Can Come From Bad" in the original Broadway production, later changed to "A British Subject" Princess Puffer – Intended to kill Jasper in order to protect Rosa from his advances, but accidentally killed Drood because he was wearing Jasper's coat and because she was confused after having smoked opium for Dutch courage. Her confession is a reprise of "The Wages of Sin" The Rev. Mr. Crisparkle – Crisparkle was madly in love with Rosa's mother, and he saw Rosa as a reincarnation of her. He murdered Drood so that he could marry Rosa, thinking her to be the woman he loved. This version of Crisparkle's confession was introduced in the first national tour, and has been used in all productions since. His confession is a reprise of "A Man Could Go Quite Mad" and "No Good Can Come From Bad" in the original Broadway production, later changed to "A British Subject". Bazzard – In an effort to boost his role in the show, murders Drood. This is definitely the most metatheatrical of the endings. His confession is a reprise of "A Man Could Go Quite Mad" and "Never the Luck" Durdles – After Jasper laid Drood in the crypt, Durdles believed the still-alive Drood to be a ghost and so smashed his head in. (Even Durdles admits the silliness of this motive within his solo, but laments that because he has been chosen, he must have one.) This solo was not used in the original Broadway production and was added for the first national tour. His confession is a reprise of "Off to the Races" Characters As Drood is metatheatrical, the characters of the play The Mystery of Edwin Drood are played by actors of the "Music Hall Royale", within the production. The following are the dual roles each cast member plays. The actress portraying Miss Alice Nutting/Edwin Drood also performs the role of Dick Datchery up until the Voting portion of the evening. However, this is merely a "bit" within the context of The Music Hall Royale – that Miss Nutting only portrays Datchery due to a contractual obligation for her to appear in both acts of the play. Ultimately, the audience decides who Dick Datchery is within the confines of Dickens' story. The role of Crisparkle was originally portrayed both in the readings and Delacorte production by the actor/playwright, Larry Shue. When Shue died in a plane crash between the show's run at the Delacorte and its opening on Broadway, Rupert Holmes renamed the Music Hall Royale performer who portrayed Crisparkle from Wilfred Barking-Smythe to Cedric Moncrieffe, out of respect for Shue. Musical numbers Act I "There You Are" – Chairman with Angela, Deirdre, Alice, Victor, Clive and Company "A Man Could Go Quite Mad" – Jasper "Two Kinsmen" – Jasper and Drood "Moonfall" – Rosa "Moonfall Quartet" – Rosa, Helena, Wendy and Beatrice "The Wages of Sin" – Puffer "Jasper's Vision" – Dream Ballet* "Ceylon" – Neville, Helena and Company "A British Subject" – Neville, Helena, Drood, Rosa, Crisparkle and Company† "Both Sides of the Coin" – Sapsea and Jasper "Perfect Strangers" – Rosa and Drood "No Good Can Come from Bad" – Neville, Jasper, Rosa, Drood, Helena, Crisparkle and Waiter "Never the Luck" – Bax / Bazzard and Company "The Name of Love" / "Moonfall" – Jasper, Rosa and Company†† Act II "An English Music Hall" – Chairman and Company† "Settling Up the Score" – Puffer, Datchery and Company "Off to the Races" – Sapsea, Durdles, Deputy and Company§ "Don't Quit While You're Ahead" – Puffer, Datchery and Company "Don't Quit While You're Ahead" (Reprise) – Company* "Settling Up the Score" (Reprise) – Chairman, Suspects and Company* "The Garden Path to Hell" – Puffer "Puffer's Revelation" – Puffer* "Out on a Limerick" – Datcherys "Jasper's Confession" – Jasper "Murderer's Confession" "Perfect Strangers" (Reprise)* "The Writing on the Wall" – Drood and Company * Not included on the original cast recording † Reinstated for the 2012 Broadway revival § Moved at the end of Act I for the Tams-Witmark licensed version and the 2012 Broadway revival †† Moved after "Settling Up the Score" for the Tams-Witmark licensed version and the 2012 Broadway revival For the version of Drood that Tams-Witmark licenses to theater companies, Holmes made a variety of changes to the score and libretto, many of which reflect the versions seen in the 1987 London production and the 1988 North American touring production. The numbers "A Man Could Go Quite Mad," "Ceylon," "Settling Up the Score," and the quartet reprise of "Moonfall" are not standard but are provided as "additional material" that theaters can choose to perform at their options. A new song, "A Private Investigation", is offered to replace "Settling Up the Score". "Off to the Races" swaps places with "The Name of Love/Moonfall (Reprise)" and becomes the Act One finale. "Ceylon" is replaced by "A British Subject", while "England Reigns" became the new Act Two opening (both numbers had been in the show during the first staged reading in 1985). Durdles is added as a possible murderer, and a "Murderer's confession" was composed for him, to the tune of "Off to the Races". The confessions of Neville, Helena and Crisparkle were rewritten to be reprises of "A British Subject." Notes A This song is performed by a different actor each night, depending upon audience vote. B This song is performed by a different actor each night, depending upon audience vote, or alternately, not performed at all if the audience has voted for Jasper. C This song is performed by a different pair of actors every night, depending upon audience vote. Recordings In 1985, a recording was made of The Mystery of Edwin Drood featuring the original Broadway cast. This recording was released by Polydor with the additional subtitle, The Solve-It-Yourself Broadway Musical (Polydor 827969) and the CD included versions of "Out on a Limerick" by all five possible Datcherys (Rosa, Crisparkle, Bazzard, Neville, and Helena) and all six possible Murderer's Confessions (Puffer, Rosa, Bazzard, Crisparkle, Neville, and Helena), as well as an "instructional track" entitled "A Word From Your Chairman...." The LP and cassette included only the opening-night Confession and murderer, and omitted the "lovers." A 1990 re-issue of the cast album by Varèse Sarabande (Varèse 5597) included two tracks, "Ceylon" and "Moonfall Quartet", that are on the original LP and cassette, but not on the CD. It included only Bazzard's version of "Out on a Limerick" and two Murderer Confessions (Rosa's and Puffer's). The Polydor recording was briefly available on cassette and LP, and ultimately re-released by Varèse Sarabande. Both versions of the cast album are currently out of print, but can sometimes be found (often at a high price) through secondhand vendors or online auction sites. An Australian cast album (GEP Records 9401) was released in 1994. This recording did not include "Ceylon" or "Moonfall Quartet", but did include three previously unrecorded tracks: "A British Subject", "Puffer's Revelation", and "Durdles' Confession". The Australian cast album was performed by a largely non-professional cast and used (arguably crude) midi sequencing in lieu of a live orchestra. Two songs that were omitted from Drood before it reached Broadway, "An English Music Hall" and "Evensong," (a duet between Rosa and Crisparkle) were later recorded for the 1994 album, Lost In Boston. Other songs that never made into the Broadway or London/'88 Tour (Tams-Witmark) versions include: "When the Wicked Man Comes" (sung by a much younger Deputy), "Sapsea's Song" (a music hall ditty for Mayor Sapsea), "I Wouldn't Say No" (a song and dance routine for Durdles) as well as "When Shall These Three Meet Again" – a group number which can be heard as underscoring throughout the show and in the murderer's confession: "But the night was far from bright..." On January 29, 2013, a recording featuring the 2012 cast of the Broadway revival was released by DRG Records in a 2-disc set and as a digital download. DRG Records describes the recording as "the complete musical program on 2 compact discs" for the first time. Differences between this recording and the original recording include confessions from all eight possible murderers, two versions of "Out on a Limerick" (Bazzard and Helena), the lovers' reprise of "Perfect Strangers" (featuring a combination of Princess Puffer & Deputy, Helena & Neville, and Rosa & Durdles), a revised "Ceylon" (which now incorporates "A British Subject"), a previously cut song ("An English Music Hall") as the new opening for Act II, and the "Opium Den Ballet". Holmes penned the liner notes for the album that will reflect new material and revisions. Holmes also re-orchestrated the production for a 19-piece orchestra led by Paul Gemignani. Productions After Rupert Holmes wrote an initial draft that lasted three-and-a-half hours, and performed it, solo, for Joseph Papp, Gail Merrifield, and Wilford Leach, (the New York Shakespeare Festival's artistic director), Papp offered to produce the show as part of the Festival (also known as "Shakespeare in the Park"), and told Holmes that it would be immediately transferred to Broadway if it was deemed a success. The original production of The Mystery of Edwin Drood premiered in New York City's Central Park at the Delacorte Theatre on August 21, 1985 after only three weeks of rehearsals. Notably, Holmes conceived most of the orchestrations himself, a rarity for a Broadway composer. After the final Festival performance on September 1, preparations for the Broadway transfer (retaining the original cast) immediately got underway. Following a great deal of editing (the Delacorte version contained 32 original songs and was nearly three hours long) The Mystery of Edwin Drood opened on Broadway at the Imperial Theatre on December 2, 1985. The show ran for 608 performances (not including 24 previews), and closed on May 16, 1987. The Broadway production was produced by Papp and directed by Leach, with choreography by Graciela Daniele. The opening night cast of the Broadway production starred George Rose, Cleo Laine, John Herrera, Howard McGillin, Patti Cohenour, and Jana Schneider, who were all nominated for 1986 Tony Awards for their performances, as well as Betty Buckley in the title role. Donna Murphy, Judy Kuhn, and Rob Marshall were members of the ensemble. Marshall, who would later become best known as a theater/film director-choreographer, was the Dance Captain and Graciela Daniele's assistant choreographer. Kuhn (in her Broadway debut) served as the understudy to both Buckley and Cohenour, and then left in 1986 for her featured roles in Rags and, later, Les Mis. Before the show ended its run, Murphy, who was understudy to Cleo Laine and Jana Schneider, took over the title role. Other notable replacements during the show's run included Alison Fraser (taking over for Jana Schneider), Paige O'Hara (taking over for Donna Murphy as Drood after being her understudy), as well as Loretta Swit and later Karen Morrow, who stepped into Laine's roles. In 1988, several months after closing on Broadway, a slightly-revised version of Drood, directed by Rob Marshall (with his sister Kathleen as his assistant), began its first North America tour at the Kennedy Center Opera House in Washington, DC, with Rose, Schneider and O'Hara reprising their leads, and Jean Stapleton playing Laine's role. During a break in the tour George Rose returned to his home in the Dominican Republic, and was murdered during his stay. Rose was succeeded by Clive Revill. The show, also enjoyed a 1987 West End run at the Savoy Theatre in London, a second U.S. national tour, a production at the Shaw Festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada, and numerous regional and professional and amateur theatrical productions worldwide. In 2007–08, a London revival, presented as a chamber piece and directed by Ted Craig, ran at the Warehouse Theatre. In 2012, a London West End revival of the musical played at the Arts Theatre for a limited season from 18 May. The cast was headed by Wendi Peters as Princess Puffer, with Natalie Day as Edwin Drood, Daniel Robinson as John Jasper and Victoria Farley as Rosa Budd. The production was directed by Matthew Gould. The Roundabout Theatre Company presented a Broadway revival at Studio 54, which opened in November 2012 and ran for 136 performances through March 10, 2013. The production was directed by Scott Ellis, and starred Chita Rivera as Puffer, Stephanie J. Block as Drood, Will Chase as Jasper, Jim Norton as the Chairman and Gregg Edelmann as Crisparkle. Awards and nominations Original Broadway production 2012 Broadway revival References Further reading External links Licensing agency Concord/Tams-Witmark Tribute page for the original Broadway production 1985 musicals Broadway musicals Musicals based on works by Charles Dickens Musicals based on novels Edgar Award-winning works Tony Award for Best Musical Works by Rupert Holmes Fiction with multiple endings Tony Award-winning musicals Musicals set in London The Mystery of Edwin Drood
4900391	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen%20Parker	Kristen Parker	Kristen Parker is a character from the A Nightmare on Elm Street series. She is a co-protagonist and final girl of the third film of the series A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors and the false protagonist in the following film A Nightmare on Elm Street 4: The Dream Master, and has appeared in various merchandise as well. She is played by actress Patricia Arquette in Dream Warriors and Tuesday Knight in The Dream Master. She is the central member of the titular Dream Warriors, seven teens who have to learn to fight as a group in order to survive their spectral tormentor, enigmatic murderer Freddy Krueger, and has the ability to bring others into her dreams as well as being an Olympic-level acrobat in her dreams. Appearances Film Kristen Parker (Patricia Arquette) first appears in Dream Warriors in its opening scene in a nightmare, where a terrible, disfigured man is relentlessly stalking and tormenting her, ultimately making her appear to slit her wrists as a suicide attempt in real life, which forces her mother Elaine to commit her to Westin Hills Psychiatric Hospital. This leads to Kristen joining up with Phillip Anderson, Joey Crusel, Will Stanton, Jennifer Caulfield and Taryn White, who have all had the same experiences with a terrible "bogeyman" in their dreams. The conservative Dr. Elizabeth Simms refuses to acknowledge any supernatural elements in their afflictions, instead insisting that the common element of a bogeyman in their dreams is the result of mass hysteria and "the by-products of guilt". A new staff member is introduced to the teenagers – Nancy Thompson from the original Elm Street film. When her tormentor attempts to kill her in another nightmare in the form of a giant grotesque snake, a terrified Kristen desperately pulls Nancy, the only staff member she truly trusts, into the dream world, and Nancy's unexpected appearance and attack distracts the monster long enough for the two to escape. After Phil and Jennifer dies in their sleep, in what appears to be accidents or suicide, Nancy explains to the five remaining patients and Dr. Neil Gordon that the identity of the bogeyman is Freddy Krueger, a serial child killer whom their parents, including Nancy's, lynched and burned to death years ago, and his undead spirit is now after their children in their nightmares as revenge. Nancy concludes that Kristen has the ability to draw others into her dreams and that her gifts could be used to beat Krueger. After an unauthorized group hypnosis causes Joey to be captured by Krueger and rendered comatose, Nancy and Dr. Gordon are fired, which causes Kristen to go ballistic and consequently be sedated and sent to the quiet room for her outburst. While Neil and Nancy's father Donald go on a mission to give Krueger's remains a proper burial in reality, Nancy is granted one final meeting with the teenagers, and using group hypnosis they enter the dream world just as Kristen succumbs to the sedation. Taryn and Will are both killed by Krueger, while Nancy, Kristen and Roland succeeds in rescuing Joey and later seemingly defeats Krueger, but as Kristen watches in horror, he one-ups them by appearing to and fatally stabbing Nancy in the guise of her father, whom unknown to Nancy he had killed in real life while the 'dream warriors' were busy in the dream world. Neil succeeds in sprinkling Krueger's bones with holy water and he is seemingly vanquished in the dream world before he can murder Kristen as well. In tears, Kristen promises to send the dying Nancy into a "beautiful dream", and some time after, Kristen, Neil, Roland and Joey attends Nancy's funeral. By the time of The Dream Master, Kristen (Tuesday Knight) has returned to a seemingly normal life but experiences ominous, foreboding dreams that seem to constantly hint that Freddy Krueger is still around, although he does not directly show himself to her. In the sequel she has become a compulsive smoker in order to soothe herself. She is now romantically involved with classmate Rick Johnson and has also befriended his sister Alice, along with Sheila Kopecky and Debbie Stevens. Kristen's nocturnal anguish and paranoia causes her to repeatedly draw in fellow surviving dream warriors Roland Kincaid and Joey Crusel into her dreams on instinct whenever she feels threatened, a habit they both berate her for. However, Kristen's worst fears prove to be true as Krueger resurrects himself in Kincaid's dream and murders him during a night when Kristen keeps herself awake and thus incapable of coming to his aid; he then murders Joey as well, and the following morning Kristen talks about her fears to Alice, who recommend her to take control of her dreams and "think of someplace fun". Kristen panics when she notices that Joey and Kincaid are both missing from their seats in class and realizes what has happened – in the turmoil she is knocked unconscious and then dreams that the school nurse attending to her is Krueger, but is woken up by the real nurse before he can kill her. Now resigned to her inevitable doom, Kristen finally tells Alice, Rick and his friend Dan Jordan about Freddy Krueger at the former Thompson/Walsh house at 1428 Elm Street, now a decaying haunted house. They are interrupted by Kristen's mother Elaine, who calls her daughter home. There they have dinner together, but Kristen realizes that her mother had put sleeping pills into her milk in a misguided attempt to help her. Kristen desperately tries to call Alice, but falls asleep. Kristen manages to dream herself into her "beautiful dream", a placid tropical beach, but Krueger interrupts and corrupts the dream into another nightmare. Relentlessly taunted by Krueger in his labyrinthine 1428/factory amalgamation, Kristen calls for Alice in panic, drawing her into Kristen's dream. Tearfully, Kristen tries to wake her up and apologizes, but as Kristen defiantly tries to shield Alice from Krueger, Alice watches in horror as he throws Kristen into his boiler, burning her alive, but before she dies, she gives her powers to Alice, though it passes through Krueger first, who then takes Kristen's soul. At the Parker's house, Alice, Rick and Elaine watches helplessly as Kristen's body roasts away, seemingly a bed-smoking accident in real life. Alice realizes afterwards that she has absorbed much of Kristen's personal traits as well, feeling an unexpected urge to smoke as Kristen did. Freddy later shows taunting visions of Kristen to Alice and Rick in their dreams, but her soul and many others are set free from Freddy's oppression by Alice when she defeats him. Literature Likely due to the transitional nature of Kristen's character arc in regards to Nancy and Alice, Kristen has not appeared as an active part of expanded universe storylines like those two, but was mentioned and shown in flashbacks or cameos in the Nightmares on Elm Street and the non-canonical Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash: The Nightmare Warriors comic book miniseries, and is mentioned by Elaine in the unfinished A Nightmare on Elm Street: The Beginning miniseries. In Nightmares on Elm Street, Kristen wishing Nancy into a "beautiful dream" did send her into the good side of the dream world, independent of Freddy in his nightmare realm, which made Nancy strong enough to oppose him. In the short story Le Morte De Freddy in the anthology book The Nightmares on Elm Street: Freddy Krueger's Seven Sweetest Dreams, Alice sent a letter to Neil Gordon after the events of The Dream Master, revealing that Freddy had murdered Kristen, Joey and Kincaid, but is convinced that she took care of Freddy. Freddy himself refers to Nancy, Alice and Kristen when accusing them of hating their parents. The iconic scene of the Freddy-snake devouring Kristen appears in one issue of the MAD magazine; in one panel, he does swallow her whole but gets a heartburn from doing so. There is also a panel of Kristen expressing disgust over the undead pig she saw in her nightmare. A single frame depiction of the "snake scene" is also briefly shown in another issue. Other appearances Kristen Parker is a playable character in the Commodore 64 and MS-DOS game A Nightmare on Elm Street, not to be confused with the unrelated NES game by the same name. Independently of each other, both games are based upon the Dream Warriors film and concept. In the C64 game, Kristen character's unique ability is the 'power kick'. Patricia Arquette as Kristen appears as the "main character" in the music video for Dokken's song "Dream Warriors" (1987), in which a haunted Kristen must summon the band in order to enlist their help in fighting Freddy Krueger. Clips of Tuesday Knight as Kristen from The Dream Master was also shown in the music video for Vinnie Vincent Invasion's "Love Kills" (1988) from All Systems Go, which is also in the soundtrack for the film. The scene of Kristen being swallowed by the Freddy-snake in Dream Warriors was featured at the Freddy vs. Jason section at Halloween Horror Nights #25 in 2015. Kristen Parker has been featured in one action figure, in the series Cinema of Fear #1 from Mezco Toys, also depicting the aforementioned scene.<ref name="merch">{{cite web \|url=http://nightmareonelmstreetfilms.com/site/beyond-the-films/merchandise/figures \| title=Figures \| Nightmare on Elm Street Companion — Ultimate Online Resource to Horror Series A Nightmare on Elm Street \| website=NOES Companion \| publisher=Mezco Toys \| access-date=2019-05-18}}</ref> Roy H. Wagner, the cinematographer for A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors, re-created scenes featuring Kristen from his film in 2019 while using only an iPhone 11 Pro for the production; in this re-creation Kristen is played by actress Taylor Kalupa. iJustine also got a shot at playing Kristen as a stand-in in her own behind-the-scenes feature of Wagner's project. Reception Chuck Russell, director of Dream Warriors, said on Never Sleep Again: The Elm Street Legacy that "the cast member that stuck out with me was Patricia Arquette. That was her first film. There was something so interesting, so haunting about her. And I think that's always been a special gift for her in her other work as well." Producer Sara Risher claims that she was disappointed at the time that Arquette could not reprise her role, commending her as an "integral part to Nightmare 3" and as well-liked by the rest of the crew. Heather Langenkamp also praised Arquette, saying that "[Nancy's death scene is] one of my favourite scenes now out of all the scenes I've ever done, it had the most gripping reality to it with Kristen and me in that final scene. I just find it so touching and it was a very, very real scene to shoot and we were very fond of each other so it was an easy. I feel that scene really stands out", and that "it's just so rare to get somebody who has laid out their whole soul like that and they're distressed so realistically, she just did such a good job. It's just a testament to what a fine actress she is". Kristen has (for Dream Warriors) been called "one of the most beloved and well-remembered characters from the franchise" and "a role that was as important as Heather Langenkamp's Nancy Thompson". Though Ken Sagoes has mentioned on Never Sleep Again that he did not think his and Rodney Eastman's chemistry was as good with Tuesday Knight as it was with Patricia Arquette, he has also spoken highly of Knight in other interviews: "I don't think Tuesday Knight was given enough credit for what she had to do. I think that out of all of us, she had one of the difficult roles to play, because she had to embody a role that Patricia (Arquette) had beautifully played. But Tuesday, did not skip a beat, she stepped in and made Kristen with the highest respect." According to Tuesday Knight, Wes Craven had, when calling her about a cameo in New Nightmare, expressed that he was a big fan of Knight's portrayal of Kristen and had expressed criticism of the writing for the Kristen of the theatrical Dream Warriors, explaining that he had written her to be more of a fighter but the changes done by the other scriptwriters and director reduced her to too much of a victim, while Knight's take on Kristen was more in line with how Craven had originally envisioned the character. In another interview, Knight talks about the subject of Kristen as a victim: "Kristen encapsulates so much of what women should be today—not a victim, but someone who spoke up for what was right even when people thought she was crazy and, although she got it in the end, went down fighting. I see no victimization in that." Jake Dee of JoBlo.com admires the sheer boldness of killing Kristen off midway into The Dream Master, arguing that her death happened in spite of Tuesday Knight providing the theme song and doubles its impact by ending the life of a protagonist and handing over the lead role to a new lead. Kristen was at 18 on Buzzfeed's top 25 list of final girls and on the top 10 final girls in the digital SCREAM magazine (in no particular order), which states that "Patricia Arquette's depiction of the role injects an impressive amount of gumption into the part; as she brings with her a new twist to the tale- the power to pull other people into her dreams". Development Conception While the changes between drafts concerning Kristen in Dream Warriors are not quite as extensive as those for Nancy's character, some changes do occur. In the original script, Kristen's mother is named Alice and not Elaine, and she is still married to her husband and Kristen's father, Kirk Parker. Though ultimately omitted from the theatrical script and film, where Elaine is definitely single and apparently attempting to date various men, Kirk Parker would later appear in a flashback in the comic book A Nightmare on Elm Street: The Beginning, the script of which refers to the couple as "rich snobs" and Elaine as "Kristen's bitchy mother". In the original script, in addition to the ability of bringing others into her dreams, Kristen is shown to be capable of daydreaming that she tears up the clothing of Sally, a classmate who made fun of her, and this happens in real life without Kristen having been near her in reality. Kristen mentions having, or having had, a brother in the script and Freddy ends up killing her mother in a scene reminiscent of the pool party scene in Freddy's Revenge. Furthermore, Kristen would be the last surviving patient and Elm Street child, as both Joey and Kincaid would have perished by the end of the story, and the model of the 1428 Elm Street house that Kristen made in the film's opening would have been made by Joey instead, with the same outcome in regards to the end scene of the film. Both the original draft and the script for the theatrical film had an omitted end scene where Kristen and Dr. Neil Gordon talks about Nancy, implying that she now visits and protects them in their dreams, opposite of what Freddy had done and thus hinting that she is now undead in the dream world like him. This "beautiful dream" concept would later be revisited in the Nightmares on Elm Street comics. As with Alice, Kristen's portrayal in The Dream Master differed little between the later drafts and what eventually made it into the film, with the exception of one omitted scene where Kristen faces Freddy in a dream the same night he killed Kincaid and Joey, taunting her for now being "Elm Street's last brat", while in the film she only encounters Freddy after Elaine drugs her. Steven Fierberg, cinematographer of The Dream Master, claims that there was a scene where Kristen would walk out of her own house only to find it having turned into the nightmare 1428 house and consequently encounters Freddy in a tunnel. He called it the "best sequence in the movie" and a "terrifying, great sequence", but explains that it was cut out in the last minute because "people were feeling it takes too long to get rid of Tuesday Knight and then establish Lisa Wilcox as the new heroine". This scene does exist as described in the screenplay, and a snippet from this, of Kristen saying "I knew you'd be back" can be seen in one of the trailers that was released for The Dream Master. According to Tuesday Knight, the boiler room scene where Kristen desperately summons Alice and is killed by Freddy was longer than the theatrical version, but New Line Cinema ordered director Renny Harlin to kill Kristen off within a certain time frame to make way for Alice as the new protagonist. The screenplay also has a desperate Kristen making a gymnastic attack on Freddy in vain as he stalks her further throughout the 1428 Elm Street/factory labyrinth he tends to use as a setting in nightmares: Another deleted scene was of Freddy tormenting Kristen with severe sunburns as she sinks through the quicksand: Adding gravity to the suggestions of Fierberg, Harlin and Knight that New Line Cinema wanted Alice established as the new protagonist as quickly as possible, the official press kits from New Line Cinema for both The Dream Master and The Dream Child mysteriously references a plot element, of Kristen drawing Alice into a dream to face Freddy before the dream in which Kristen dies, resulting in Alice consequently helping Kristen to enlist the help of the others, that was entirely absent not only in the theatrical picture, but even from the two screenplay drafts available on the Internet: "When Joey and Kincaid are found dead, Kristen intimates to newcomer Alice that her friends were murdered by Freddy Krueger -- in their nightmares. Alice is convinced of Freddy's lethal power after Kristen draws her into a nightmare to experience the very real terror. Together they decide to do battle with the deathly Elm Street menace, Freddy Krueger. They share their fears with friends Sheila, a scholastic genius, Alice's brother Rick, a martial arts experts who is also Kristen's boyfriend, Debbie, an attractive bodybuilder, and Dan, the handsome object of Alice's schoolgirl crush. No one will believe them." "Kristen must persuade her friend Alice to help her. After drawing her into a dream, they attempt to rally the support of their friends, who are clearly not convinced of Freddy's existence. Undaunted, Alice tells Kristen of her "Dream Master" theory, whereby it is possibly to control nightmares by visualizing positive scenarios." Casting The role of Kristen Parker in Dream Warriors was the debut role for Patricia Arquette. Arquette was reportedly close to being recast early into the filming of Dream Warriors, though director Chuck Russell recognized her qualities and vouched for her to the other producers, resulting in her staying. Arquette was replaced by actress Tuesday Knight for the sequel, The Dream Master. Neither Robert Shaye, Renny Harlin nor Robert Englund has expressed any definite reason for why Arquette did not come back, though Harlin and Rodney Eastman theorized that her agent might have asked for too much in salary. Though others speculates that the reason was Arquette's real life pregnancy with her son Enzo Rossi (January 3, 1989), the book Assault of the Killer B's: Interviews with 20 Cult Film Actresses states that "Patricia Arquette reportedly fought the [horror genre] label, turning down a hefty offer to reprise her heroine role, instead favoring more dramatic roles and becoming a respected thespian in the Hollywood community". Arquette confirmed herself in 2017 that this was in fact the case, and has also stated that director Chuck Russell had been very controlling of his actors but had apologized afterwards, while also mentioning the DP (director of photography) as having been "really horribly mean". Returning actors Eastman and Ken Sagoes expressed disappointment that the character of Kristen had to be recast and of the defaulted reunion with former co-star Arquette, while Tuesday Knight on her part has admitted to having felt out of place due to the recasting. Tuesday Knight was told by the producers to rewatch Dream Warriors to emulate its Kristen as much as possible, but Knight thought that Arquette's Kristen had been written and portrayed as too much of a "screamer" and victim and hoped to bring a little more strength of will to the character than the previous version. Thus, she decided to try to make the role her own instead of strictly emulating Arquette. Tuesday Knight auditioned before Renny Harlin, Bob Shaye and Rachel Talalay and was "hired on the spot". She would end up contributing the song Nightmare to the film's soundtrack but did not know until she watched The Dream Master in the theater that it been chosen to be the actual title/intro song. The master record of this song, previously thought for many years to have been lost or destroyed, has since been "uncovered in a box deep within the bowels of Warner Brothers" according to Knight. Knight would also have a cameo in Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994). According to Knight, Wes Craven had been nervous about calling Johnny Depp due to how his career had exploded since his role in A Nightmare on Elm Street in 1984, fearing that Depp would consider his new film and a mere cameo to be beneath him. Instead, he called Knight and offered her a cameo, explaining that he was a fan of how she portrayed Kristen in The Dream Master. Characterization In Wes Craven's and Bruce Wagner's original script from Dream Warriors, Kristen is named Kirsten and is described as "young - no more than 16 - and is stunningly beautiful", while the script for The Dream Master describes her as a "beautiful, but pensive-looking blonde teenager". In the book Hearths of Darkness: The Family In the American Horror Film, Tony Williams argues that "Kristen's death results from Elaine's complicity", and that Kristen thus "becomes a sacrificial offering in a satanic eucharist unconsciously initiated by the parental world". He argues that Kristen's dream of Freddy killing her mother expresses Elaine's real feelings toward her daughter, where her severed head taunts her that Kristen spoils it when she brings a man home for dating and that she's just using her botched "suicide attempt" and apparent sleep disorder as a mean of drawing some attention from her mother. John Kenneth Muir describes Elaine as "a horrible woman who makes no attempt to understand her suffering child", and (on accusing Kristen of "just trying to get attention") that if "[Elaine] would give her any attention [after her suicide attempt], there would be no need for Kristen to do such things". The false protagonist plot device of starting The Dream Master from Kristen's point of view and later reveal Alice as the true protagonist narratively mirrors to some degree the events of the first film, where it quickly becomes evident that the heroine of the film is Nancy and not Tina Gray. Nat Brehmer on That's Not Current elaborates on the false protagonist dimension of Kristen in The Dream Master, arguing that "In the beginning, [Alice Johnson] plays almost second fiddle to Kristen. Even though she's played by a different actress, we're naturally expecting Kristen to be the heroine all over again, not just because she survived the last one but because she spends the first half hour of Dream Master really driving the plot. It's an incredibly similar dynamic, on some levels, to the one shared between Tina and Nancy in the original Nightmare." Kristen's fate has also been compared to the plot twist of Janet Leigh's character Marion Crane in the Hitchcock film Psycho'' (1960), the apparent protagonist of the film, being killed off unexpectedly. Notes References A Nightmare on Elm Street (franchise) characters Characters created by Wes Craven Fictional acrobats Fictional attempted suicides Fictional murdered people Fictional psychics Fictional characters from Ohio Fictional characters with dream manipulation abilities Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder Film characters introduced in 1987 Final girls Teenage characters in film
4900499	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Chalukya%20Empire	Western Chalukya Empire	The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in the modern Bidar District of Karnataka state, and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the 6th-century Chalukya dynasty of Badami. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty. Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas, the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries. In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa, Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani. For over a century, the two empires of Southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi. During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation. During the rule of Vikramaditya VI, in the late 11th and early 12th centuries, the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and reached a peak ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan, between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south. His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince, during the rule of Someshvara I, he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modern Bihar and Bengal. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris of Kalyani, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century. The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in their native language Kannada and Sanskrit. History Knowledge of Western Chalukya history has come through examination of the numerous Kannada language inscriptions left by the kings (scholars Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada), and from the study of important contemporary literary documents in Western Chalukya literature such as Gada Yuddha (982) in Kannada by Ranna and Vikramankadeva Charitam (1120) in Sanskrit by Bilhana. The earliest record is dated 957, during the rule of Tailapa II when the Western Chalukyas were still a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and Tailapa II governed from Tardavadi in present-day Bijapur district, Karnataka. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of the 6th century, while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas. The records suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King, Chattigadeva of Banavasi-12000 province (c. 967), in alliance with local Kadamba chieftains. This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II. A few years later, Tailapa II re-established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramaras of Central India in 973. After overpowering the Rashtrakutas, Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western Deccan by subjugating the Paramara and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River. However, some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Someshvara I in 1042. The intense competition between the kingdom of the western Deccan and those of the Tamil country came to the fore in the 11th century over the acutely contested fertile river valleys in the doab region of the Krishna and Godavari River called Vengi (modern coastal Andhra Pradesh). The Western Chalukyas and the Chola Dynasty fought many bitter wars over control of this strategic resource. The imperial Cholas gained power during the time of the famous king Rajaraja Chola I and the crown prince Rajendra Chola I.Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I conquered parts of Chalukya territory in present-day Southern Karnataka by subjugating the Western Ganga Dynasty of Gangavadi. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were cousins of the Western Chalukyas but became increasingly influenced by the Cholas through their marital ties with the Tamil kingdom. As this was against the interests of the Western Chalukyas, they wasted no time in involving themselves politically and militarily in Vengi. When King Satyashraya succeeded Tailapa II to the throne, he was able to protect his kingdom from Chola aggression as well as his northern territories in Konkan and Gujarat although his control over Vengi was shaky.In 1007 CE Chola crown-prince Rajendra Chola I invaded Western Chalukyas and had a battle with Western Chalukya Emperor Satyashraya at Donur in Bijapur district of Karnataka. According to an inscription of Satyasraya from Dharwad, Rajaraja Nittavinoda Rajendra Vidyadhara, ornament of the Chola race, Nurmudi-Chola (one-hundred-crown Chola) invaded the Western Chalukya Empire in 1007 AD with an army of 900,000 soldiers, carrying fire and sword throughout the region. The invading troops advanced as far as Donur in Bijapur district on their way to the Chalukya capital Manyakheta, where they were met by the Chalukya army under Satyashraya. The Tanjore big temple inscriptions and Hottur inscriptions state that Rajendra Chola I destroyed the Western Chalukya capital. The result of the battle was Cholas conquered Gangapadi and Nolambapadi. Satyashraya's successor, Jayasimha II, fought many battles with the Cholas in the south around c. 1020–21 when both these powerful kingdoms struggled to choose the Vengi king. Shortly thereafter in c. 1024, Jayasimha II subdued the Paramara of central India and the rebellious Yadava King Bhillama. It is known from records that Jayasimha's son Someshvara I, whose rule historian Sen considers a brilliant period in the Western Chalukya rule, moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in c. 1042. Hostilities with the Cholas continued while both sides won and lost battles, though neither lost significant territory during the ongoing struggle to install a puppet on the Vengi throne.In 1066, Vikramaditya VI, Son of Someshwara I had invaded the Chola Empire penetrating as far as the capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram and threatening the city before being repulsed by Cholas. In the Battle of Vijayawada which was fought in 1068 between Someshvara I and Chola Emperor Virarajendra Chola, Someshwara I and his son Vikramaditya VI suffered defeat and lost Vengi to the Cholas. After the battle, Someshwara I due to incurable illnes drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River (Paramayoga). Despite many conflicts with the Cholas in the south, Someshvara I had managed to maintain control over the northern territories in Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga during his rule. His successor, his eldest son Someshvara II, feuded with his younger brother, Vikramaditya VI, an ambitious warrior who had initially been governor of Gangavadi in the southern Deccan when Someshvara II was the king. Before 1068, even as a prince, Vikramaditya VI had invaded Bengal, weakening the ruling Pala Empire. These incursions led to the establishment of Karnata dynasties such as the Sena dynasty and Varman dynasty in Bengal, and the Nayanadeva dynasty in Bihar., At the death of Someshvara I, his son Someshvara II came to the Chalukyan throne in April 1068 CE. Soon after a dispute broke out between him and his younger brother Vikramaditya and a civil war ensued in the Western Chalukya country. Vikramaditya VI went to Chola court and sought the help of Virarajendra Chola. Vikramaditya VI was well received by the king and the king Virarajendra himself records that he recognised Vikramaditya VI as the king of Western Chalukya. Virarajendra married his daughter to Vikramaditya VI and forged an alliance with him, halting the long feud between the two empires. Vikramaditya VI won the loyalty of the Chalukya feudatories: the Hoysala, the Seuna and the Kadambas of Hangal. In 1075 CE Vikramaditya overthrew Someshawara II and became the Western Chalukya Emperor. In 1075-76 CE during the Chola reign of Kulottunga I , the war began with the incursion of the Vikaramaditya's forces into the Chola territories and the two armies met in the Kolar district. What followed was the Chola counter-attack popularly known as the Nangili episode. In the ensuing battle, the Chalukyan army was completely routed and chased by the Chola forces from the rocky roads of Nangili all the way to the Tungabhadra via Manalur. Vikramaditya is said to have retreated hastily and fled. The fifty-year reign of Vikramaditya VI, the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers, was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to by historians as the "Chalukya Vikrama era". Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north (Kadamba Jayakesi II of Goa, Silhara Bhoja and the Yadava King) and south (Hoysala Vishnuvardhana), he successfully dealt with the imperial Cholas whom he defeated in the battle of Vengi in 1093 and again in 1118. He retained this territory for many years despite ongoing hostilities with the Cholas. This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern Deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north, earning him the titles Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla (lord of three worlds). The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership, interest in fine arts and religious tolerance. Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court. Poet Bilhana, who immigrated from far away Kashmir, eulogised the king in his well-known work Vikramankadeva Charita. Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion. The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted both empires, giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel. In the decades after Vikramaditya VI's death in 1126, the empire steadily decreased in size as their powerful feudatories expanded in autonomy and territorial command. The time period between 1150 and 1200 saw many hard fought battles between the Chalukyas and their feudatories who were also at war with each other. By the time of Jagadhekamalla II, the Chalukyas had lost control of Vengi and his successor, Tailapa III, was defeated by the Kakatiya king Prola in 1149. Tailapa III was taken captive and later released bringing down the prestige of the Western Chalukyas. Seeing decadence and uncertainty seeping into Chalukya rule, the Hoysalas and Seunas also encroached upon the empire. Hoysala Narasimha I defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris who were vying for control of the same region. In 1157 the Kalachuris of Kalyanis under Bijjala II captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years, forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital to Annigeri in the present day Dharwad district. The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern Deccan from central India and called themselves Kalanjarapuravaradhisavaras. Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders (Mahamandaleshwar) over the Karhad-4000 and Tardavadi-1000 provinces (overlapping region in present-day Karnataka and Maharashtra) with Mangalavada or Annigeri as their capital. Bijjala II's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls him Mahabhujabala Chakravarti ("emperor with powerful shoulders and arms") indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas. However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion, Someshvara IV made a final bid to regain the empire by recapturing Kalyani. Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict. During this time, Hoysala Veera Ballala II was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire. He defeated Chalukya Someshvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains, but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris. The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani. Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189. The overall effort by Someshvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in Banavasi 1189. After the fall of the Chalukyas, the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191, each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time. This period saw the fall of two great empires, the Chalukyas of the western Deccan and the Cholas of Tamilakam. On the ruins of these two empires were built the Kingdoms of their feudatories whose mutual antagonisms filled the annals of Deccan history for over a hundred years, the Pandyas taking control over some regions of the erstwhile Chola empire. Administration The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary, passing to the king's brother if the king did not have a male heir. The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as the Alupas, the Hoysalas, the Kakatiya, the Seuna, the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces, paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor. Excavated inscriptions record titles such as Mahapradhana (Chief minister), Sandhivigrahika, and Dharmadhikari (chief justice). Some positions such as Tadeyadandanayaka (commander of reserve army) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role of Dandanayaka (commander), showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills. The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi-12000, Nolambavadi-32000, Gangavadi-96000, each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction. The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages, as in Belavola-300. The big provinces were called Mandala and under them were Nadu further divided into Kampanas (groups of villages) and finally a Bada (village). A Mandala was under a member of the royal family, a trusted feudatory or a senior official. Tailapa II himself was in charge of Tardavadi province during the Rashtrakuta rule. Chiefs of Mandalas were transferable based on political developments. For example, an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi-12000 under King Someshvara III but was later transferred to Halasige-12000. Women from the royal family also administered Nadus and Kampanas. Army commanders were titled Mahamandaleshwaras and those who headed a Nadu were entitled Nadugouvnda. The Western Chalukyas minted punch-marked gold pagodas with Kannada and Nagari legends which were large, thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side. They usually carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion, Sri in Kannada, a spearhead, the king's title, a lotus and others. Jayasimha II used the legend Sri Jaya, Someshvara I issued coins with Sri Tre lo ka malla, Someshvara II used Bhuvaneka malla, Lakshmideva's coin carried Sri Lasha, and Jagadhekamalla II coinage had the legend Sri Jagade. The Alupas, a feudatory, minted coins with the Kannada and Nagari legend Sri Pandya Dhanamjaya. Lakkundi in Gadag district and Sudi in Dharwad district were the main mints (Tankhashaley). Their heaviest gold coin was Gadyanaka weighing 96 grains, Dramma weighed 65 grains, Kalanju 48 grains, Kasu 15 grains, Manjadi 2.5 grains, Akkam 1.25 grains and Pana 9.6 grain. Economy Agriculture was the empire's main source of income through taxes on land and produce. The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of rice, pulses, and cotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with areca and betel being the chief cash crops. The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords. If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor. Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines. Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities (gold, textiles, perfumes) and agricultural produce (black pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar). Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce. Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates. Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or Goudas. The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, the Praja Gavunda (people's Gavunda) and the Prabhu Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias. They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and village council duties. The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century. Almost all arts and crafts were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis; records do not mention individual artists, sculptors and craftsman. Only in the regions ruled by the Hoysala did individual sculptors etched their names below their creations. Merchants organised themselves into powerful guilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and revolutions. Their only threat was the possibility of theft from brigands when their ships and caravans traveled to distant lands. Powerful South Indian merchant guilds included the Manigramam, the Nagarattar and the Anjuvannam. Local guilds were called nagaram, while the Nanadesis were traders from neighbouring kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure. The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of all South Indian merchant guilds was the self-styled Ainnurruvar, also known as the 500 Svamis of Ayyavolepura (Brahmins and Mahajanas of present-day Aihole), who conducted extensive land and sea trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire. It fiercely protected its trade obligations (Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants) and its members often recorded their achievements in inscriptions (prasasti). Five hundred such excavated Prasasti inscriptions, with their own flag and emblem, the bull, record their pride in their business. Rich traders contributed significantly to the king's treasury through paying import and export taxes. The edicts of the Aihole Svamis mention trade ties with foreign kingdoms such as Chera, Pandya, Maleya (Malaysia), Magadh, Kaushal, Saurashtra, Kurumba, Kambhoja (Cambodia), Lata (Gujarat), Parasa (Persia) and Nepal. Travelling both land and sea routes, these merchants traded mostly in precious stones, spices and perfumes, and other specialty items such as camphor. Business flourished in precious stones such as diamonds, lapis lazuli, onyx, topaz, carbuncles and emeralds. Commonly traded spices were cardamom, saffron, and cloves, while perfumes included the by-products of sandalwood, bdellium, musk, civet and rose. These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns. The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast and by the 10th century they had established extensive trade ties with the Tang Empire of China, the empires of Southeast Asia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Bhagdad, and by the 12th-century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports. Exports to Song Dynasty China included textiles, spices, medicinal plants, jewels, ivory, rhino horn, ebony and camphor. The same products also reached ports in the west such as Dhofar and Aden. The final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia, Arabia and Egypt. The thriving trade center of Siraf, a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf, served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits. An indicator of the Indian merchants' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them. In addition to this, Siraf received aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments. The most expensive import to South India were Arabian horse shipments, this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants. Traveller Marco Polo, in the 13th century, recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing climatic, soil and grassland conditions. Culture Religion The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century, coinciding with the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi, was a setback to Jainism. The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism, although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant. Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged, Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita philosophy. The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were at Dambal and Balligavi. There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth. Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated, the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the 12th century. Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a caste system. In his Vachanas (a form of poetry), Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote "work is worship" (Kayakave Kailasa). Also known as the Lingayats (worshipers of the Linga, the universal symbol of Shiva), these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women. This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood. Ramanujacharya, the head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam, traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga). He later wrote Sribhashya, a commentary on Badarayana Brahmasutra, a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara. Ramanujacharya's stay in Melkote resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana converting to Vaishnavism, a faith that his successors also followed. The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries. Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, and a host of Basavanna's followers, including Chenna Basava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva. The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court, Harihara and Raghavanka, were Virashaivas. This tradition continued into the Vijayanagar empire with such well-known scholars as Singiraja, Mallanarya, Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature. The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara. Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya. King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism. Society The rise of Veerashaivaism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing Hindu caste system which retained royal support. The social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of education in this relatively liberal period. Freedom was more available to women in the royal and affluent urban families. Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi's and Kalachuris of Kalyani queen Sovala Devi's skill in dance and music. The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th-century Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti movement is well known. Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals. Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati (a custom in which a dead man's widow used to immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre) though present was on a voluntary basis. Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among the Jains who preferred to fast to death (Sallekhana), while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes (Shoolabrahma) or walking into fire on an eclipse. In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present, Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice. These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs. They were patronised by kings, nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses. The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities. Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters (Panchayat). Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar. People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime. In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided. Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues. Choirs, whose main function was to sing devotional hymns, were maintained at temple expense. Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu Matha, Jain Palli and Buddhist Vihara. These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries (Saraswati Bhandara). Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri (or Ghatika or Agrahara). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause. Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen. The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics (Vartta), Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (trayi) and Philosophy (Anvikshiki), subjects that are mentioned as early as Kautilyas Arthashastra. Literature The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada, and Sanskrit. In a golden age of Kannada literature, Jain scholars wrote about the life of Tirthankaras and Virashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called Vachanas. Nearly three hundred contemporary Vachanakaras (Vachana poets) including thirty women poets have been recorded. Early works by Brahmin writers were on the epics, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Puranas and Vedas. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, mathematics, astrology, encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time. Most notable among Kannada scholars were Ranna, grammarian Nagavarma II, minister Durgasimha and the Virashaiva saint and social reformer Basavanna. Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the "three gems of Kannada literature". He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit. Of these, Saahasabheema Vijayam (or Gada yuddha) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana using clubs on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war. He wrote Ajitha purana in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha. Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects. His works in poetry, prosody, grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Kavyavalokana in poetics, Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a lexicon (with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words) are some of his comprehensive contributions. Several works on medicine were produced during this period. Notable among them were Jagaddala Somanatha's Karnataka Kalyana Karaka. A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas developed during this time. They were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Channabasavanna and Siddharama are the best known among them. In Sanskrit, a well-known poem (Mahakavya) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poet Bilhana recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI. The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II. The great Indian mathematician Bhāskara II (born ) flourished during this time. From his own account in his famous work Siddhanta Siromani (c. 1150, comprising the Lilavati, Bijaganita on algebra, Goladhaya on the celestial globe and Grahaganita on planets) Bijjada Bida (modern Bijapur) was his native place. Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Someshvara III (1129) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society. This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, amusements etc. While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance, it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time. Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called Vikraman-Kabhyudaya. The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the geography and people of Karnataka. A Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara became famous in the field of legal literature for his Mitakshara, in the court of Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field, Mitakshara is a treatise on law (commentary on Yajnavalkya) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India. An Englishman Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system. Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara. Architecture The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. The architecture designed during this time served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century. The art of the Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka. The dynasty's temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan, more than half of them in present-day central Karnataka. Apart from temples, the dynasty's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries. The Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi (Gadag district), the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal (Gadag district), the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti (Bellary district), the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali (Davangere district), the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri (Haveri district), the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district), the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi (Koppal district), the Kaitabheshvara Temple at Kubatur, and the Kedareshvara Temple at Balligavi are the finest examples produced by the later Chalukya architects. The 12th-century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail. The intricate, finely crafted carvings on walls, pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture. An inscription outside the temple calls it "Emperor of Temples" (devalaya chakravarti) and relates that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI. The Kedareswara Temple (1060) at Balligavi is an example of a transitional Chalukya-Hoysala architectural style. The Western Chalukyas built temples in Badami and Aihole during their early phase of temple building activity, such as Mallikarjuna Temple, the Yellamma Temple and the Bhutanatha group of Temples. The vimana of their temples (tower over the shrine) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas. To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the lathe turned (tuned) pillars and use of Soapstone (Chloritic Schist) as basic building and sculptural material, a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples. They popularised the use of decorative Kirtimukha (demon faces) in their sculptures. Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi. The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture. This style is sometimes called Karnata dravida, one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture. Language The local language Kannada was mostly used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs. Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are in Sanskrit. More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the 12th century, many of which have been deciphered and translated by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India. Inscriptions were generally either on stone (Shilashasana) or copper plates (Tamarashasana). This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry, impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas (called Lingayatism) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas. At an administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants. When bilingual inscriptions were written, the section stating the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit. Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses. This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity. In addition to inscriptions, chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties. Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. In Kannada, writings on secular subjects became popular. Some well-known works are Chandombudhi, a prosody, and Karnataka Kadambari, a romance, both written by Nagavarma I, a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna (993), a book on medicine called Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha, the earliest writing on astrology called Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya (1049), a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja, and an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II (1025). See also Balligavi Chola dynasty Kulothunga Chola I Rashtrakutas Vikramaditya VI Notes References Book Web States and territories established in the 970s States and territories disestablished in 1189 Chalukya Former countries in South Asia 10th century in India 11th century in India 12th century in India Dynasties of India Empires and kingdoms of India Medieval Karnataka 973 establishments 10th-century establishments in India 1189 disestablishments in Asia 12th-century disestablishments in India History of Marathwada
4900822	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania%20in%20World%20War%20I	Romania in World War I	The Kingdom of Romania was neutral for the first two years of World War I, entering on the side of the Allied powers from 27 August 1916 until Central Power occupation led to the Treaty of Bucharest in May 1918, before reentering the war on 10 November 1918. It had the most significant oil fields in Europe, and Germany eagerly bought its petroleum, as well as food exports. From the point of view of its belligerent status, Romania was a neutral country between 28 July 1914 and 27 August 1916, a belligerent country on the part of the Entente from 27 August 1916 to 9 December 1917, in a state of armistice with the Central Powers from 10 December 1917 to 7 May 1918, a non-combatant country between 7 May 1918 and 10 November 1918, and finally a belligerent country in the Entente between 10 and 11 November 1918. At the start of World War I, King Carol I of Romania favored Germany, while the nation's political elite favored the Entente. As such, the crown council took the decision to remain neutral. But after King Carol's death in 1914, his successor King Ferdinand I favored the Entente. For Romania, the highest priority was taking Transylvania from Hungary, with around 2,800,000 Romanians out of around 5,000,000 people. The Allies wanted Romania to join their side in order to cut rail communications between Germany and Turkey, and to cut off Germany's oil supplies. Britain made loans, France sent a military training mission, and Russia promised modern munitions. The Allies promised at least 200,000 soldiers to defend Romania against Bulgaria to the south, and help it invade Austria-Hungary. At the outbreak of hostilities, the Austro-Hungarian Empire invoked a casus foederis on Romania and Italy linked to the secret treaty of alliance since 1883. However, both Italy and Romania refused to honor the treaty on the grounds that it was not a case of casus foederis because the attacks on Austria were not "unprovoked", as stipulated in the treaty of alliance. In August 1916, Romania received an ultimatum to decide whether to join the Entente "now or never". Under the pressure of the ultimatum, the Romanian government agreed to enter the war on the side of the Entente, although the situation on the battle fronts was not favorable. The Romanian campaign was part of the Eastern Front of World War I, with Romania and Russia allied with Britain and France against the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. Fighting took place from August 1916 to December 1917 across most of present-day Romania, including Transylvania, which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the time, as well as in Southern Dobruja, which is currently part of Bulgaria. The Romanian campaign plan (Hypothesis Z) consisted in attacking Austria-Hungary in Transylvania, while defending Southern Dobruja and Giurgiu from Bulgaria in the south. Despite initial successes in Transylvania, after German divisions started aiding Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, the Romanian forces (aided by Russia) suffered massive setbacks, and by the end of 1916 out of the territory of the Romanian Old Kingdom only Western Moldavia remained under the control of the Romanian and Russian armies. After several defensive victories in 1917 at Mărăști, Mărășești, and Oituz, with Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania, almost completely surrounded by the Central Powers, was also forced to drop out of the war. It signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers in May 1918. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania would lose all of Dobruja to Bulgaria, all the Carpathian passes to Austria-Hungary and would lease all of its oil reserves to Germany for 99 years. However, the Central Powers recognized Romania's union with Bessarabia who had recently declared independence from the Russian Empire following the October Revolution and voted for union with Romania in April 1918. The parliament signed the treaty, but King Ferdinand refused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory on the western front. In October 1918, Romania renounced the Treaty of Bucharest and on 10 November 1918, one day before the German armistice, Romania re-entered the war after the successful Allied advances on the Macedonian front and advanced in Transylvania. The next day, the Treaty of Bucharest was nullified by the terms of the Armistice of Compiègne. Before the war The Kingdom of Romania was ruled by kings of the House of Hohenzollern from 1866. In 1883, the King of Romania, Carol I of Hohenzollern, signed a secret treaty with the Triple Alliance that stipulated Romania's obligation to go to war only if Austria-Hungary was attacked. While Carol wanted to enter World War I as an ally of the Central Powers, the Romanian public and the political parties were in favor of joining the Triple Entente. Despite many Romanian serving the Habsburg loyalty. Romania remained neutral when the war started, arguing that Austria-Hungary itself had started the war and, consequently, Romania was under no formal obligation to join it. At the same time, Germany started encouraging Austria-Hungary to make territorial concessions to Romania and Italy in order to keep both states neutral. In return for entering the war on Allied side, Romania demanded support for its territorial claims to parts of Hungarian Transylvania, and especially those parts with a Romanian-speaking majority. The Romanians' greatest concerns in negotiations were the avoidance of a conflict that would have to be fought on two fronts (one in Dobruja with Bulgaria and one in Transylvania) and written guarantees of Romanian territorial gains after the war. They demanded an agreement not to make a separate peace with the Central Powers, equal status at the future peace conference, Russian military assistance against Bulgaria, an Allied offensive in the direction of Bulgaria, and the regular shipment of Allied war supplies. The military convention they signed with the Allies stipulated that France and Britain should start an offensive against Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire no later than August 1916, that Russia would send troops into Dobruja, and that the Romanian army would not be subordinated to Russian command. The Allies were to send 300 tons of provisions on a daily basis. According to the Romanian account, most of these clauses, with the exception of those imposed on Romania, failed to be respected. The Allies accepted the terms late in the summer of 1916 (see Treaty of Bucharest, 1916); Cyril Falls attributes the late decision to Romania's historical hostility towards the Russian Empire and purports that an earlier entry into the war, perhaps before the Brusilov offensive the same year, would have provided better chance for victory. According to some American military historians, Russia delayed approval of Romanian demands out of worries about Romanian territorial designs on Bessarabia, claimed by nationalist circles as a Romanian land. According to British military historian John Keegan, before Romania entered the war, the Allies had secretly agreed not to honour the territorial expansion of Romania when the war ended. In 1915, Lieutenant-Colonel Christopher Thomson, a fluent speaker of French, was sent to Bucharest as British military attaché on the initiative of Lord Kitchener to bring Romania into the war. Once there, he quickly formed the view that an unprepared and ill-armed Romania facing a war on two fronts would be a liability, not an asset, to the Allies. This view was brushed aside by Whitehall, and Thomson signed a Military Convention with Romania on 13 August 1916. Within a few months, he had to alleviate the consequences of Romania's setbacks and supervise the destruction of the Romanian oil wells to deny them to Germany. The Romanian government signed a treaty with the Allies (France, Britain, Italy, and Russia) on 17 August 1916 that pledged to declare war on Austria-Hungary by 28 August. The Romanian ambassador in Vienna actually transmitted the declaration of war on 27 August. Germany, caught by surprise, responded with a declaration of war on Romania the next day (28 August). The dates of the Bulgarian and Ottoman declarations of war are disputed. Ian Beckett says that Bulgaria did not issue a declaration of war prior to its attack of 31 August. Other sources place the declaration on 30 August or 1 September. The Ottoman declaration took place either on 29 August, 30 August or 1 September. Within two days of her own declaration, according to one source, Romania found herself at war with all the Central Powers. The Romanian Army was quite large, with over 650,000 men in 23 divisions, but it suffered from poor training and equipment, particularly when compared to its German counterparts. Meanwhile, the German Chief of Staff, General Erich von Falkenhayn, had correctly reasoned that Romania would side with the Allies, and had made plans accordingly. Thanks to the earlier conquest of the Kingdom of Serbia and the ineffective Allied operations on the Greek border (the Salonica campaigns), and having a territorial interest in Dobruja, the Bulgarian Army and the Ottoman Army were willing to help fight the Romanians. The German high command was seriously worried about the prospect of Romania entering the war, Paul von Hindenburg writing: It is certain that so relatively small a state as Rumania had never before been given a role so important, and, indeed, so decisive for the history of the world at so favorable a moment. Never before had two great Powers like Germany and Austria found themselves so much at the mercy of the military resources of a country which had scarcely one twentieth of the population of the two great states. Judging by the military situation, it was to be expected that Rumania had only to advance where she wished to decide the world war in favor of those Powers which had been hurling themselves at us in vain for years. Thus everything seemed to depend on whether Rumania was ready to make any sort of use of her momentary advantage. Romanian armaments industry Between 1914 and 1916, 59 Romanian factories produced 400,000 artillery rounds, 70 million bullets, 1,500 caissons, and 332 gun carriages. Grenades were also manufactured, with three factories producing 1.5 tons of explosives daily. The 332 gun carriages were produced in order to convert Romania's 53 mm and 57 mm Fahrpanzer fortress guns into field artillery. Some of the 57 mm guns were converted into anti-aircraft guns using a carriage designed by the Romanian General Ștefan Burileanu. The Romanian army badly lacked arms and ammunitions during the war, due to the industrial underdevelopment of the country. Romanians in the Austro-Hungarian Army The ethnic Romanians in Austria-Hungary entered the war from the very beginning, with hundreds of thousands of Transylvanian and Bukovinian Romanians being mobilized throughout the war; between 1914 and 1918, an estimated 400,000 to 600,000 ethnic Romanians served with the Austro-Hungarian army, of whom up to 150,000 were killed in action. Approximately 16% of the pre-war Austro-Hungarian population consisted of ethnic Romanians. Although most Transylvanian Romanians were loyal to the Empire, over time, their loyalty faded as the war progressed, especially after Romania joined the war. Many of the previously loyal soldiers decided that it was much better to risk their lives through desertion, rather than shoot their ethnical co-nationals. By 1917, they made up more than 50% of the 300,000 deserters from the Imperial army. Prisoners of war held by the Russian Empire formed the Romanian Volunteer Corps who were repatriated to Romania in 1917. Many fought in the battles of Mărăști, Mărășești and Oituz, where with Russian support the Romanian army managed to defeat an offensive by the Central Powers and even take back some territory. Left isolated after the October Revolution forced Russia out of the war, Romania signed an armistice on 9 December 1917. Shortly afterwards, fighting broke out in the adjacent Russian territory of Bessarabia between Bolsheviks and Romanian nationalists, who requested military assistance from their compatriots. Following their intervention, the independent Moldavian Democratic Republic was formed in February 1918, which voted for union with Romania on 27 March. Many novels have been written on this subject, including Liviu Rebreanu's Forest of the Hanged. Romanian troops fought on all European fronts of the Dual Monarchy, some of them being distinguished, such as Feldmarschall-leutnant (Lieutenant field marshal) Ioan Boeriu, Oberst (Colonel) Dănilă Papp, Hauptmann (Căpitan) Gheorghe Flondor and Leutnant (Locotenent) Emil Rebreanu. Other notable Romanians who fought in the Austro-Hungarian Army included Oberleutnant (Locotenent-Major) and Imperial Adviser Constantin Isopescu-Grecul, as well as Octavian Codru Tăslăuanu, who also wrote valuable memoirs about his war experience. Samoilă Mârza, a private in the Austro-Hungarian Army, reached as far as Riga and became the first Romanian war photographer. In total, up to 150,000 Romanians were killed in action while fighting as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army. The Legion of Romanian Volunteers in Italy In Italy, in October 1918, Romanian prisoners of war from the Austro-Hungarian Army formed the Romanian Legion of Italy (Legione Romena d'Italia), which joined the fighting during the last battles on the Italian front (Battle of Vittorio Veneto) and later, after the end of the war, participated in the Hungarian–Romanian War. Diplomatic and political efforts to establish the Legion started in early July 1916. These efforts gained notable consistency in Italy after the "Congress of the Oppressed Nations in Austria-Hungary" was held in April 1918 in Rome, at a time when Italy became interested in further efforts to hasten the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian state. Following requests for enlistment to fight against Austria-Hungary, the Romanian volunteers were incorporated in July 1918 into the Italian Royal Army, to be enlisted in October of the same year in a large national unit. Between July and October 1918, three companies were formed, named "Horea", "Cloșca" and "Crișan". The equipment and endowment of the constituted units and subunits was made with Italian military equipment. Only the three companies formed prior to October 1918 actually fought until the armistice of November 3, 1918. Taking part in the battles of Vittorio Veneto, Montello, Sisemolet, Piave, Cimone and Monte Grappa. Transylvanian Romanians as Italian Prisoners of War The Austro-Hungarian soldiers of Romanian origin from Transylvania, Banat, Bukovina, and Crișana were not few: it is estimated that during 1914-1918, between 400,000 and 600,000 soldiers of Romanian origin fought on different fronts of Austria-Hungary, which represented a significant percentage of the Romanian ethnics who lived in those times in the Empire. According to studies made by the army of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the dedication of the Romanian military to the interest of Austria-Hungary was reduced, only ethnic Italians of the same empire can compete with them for the last place in a ranking according to devotion to the state, per 100 soldiers. Also, in the first 3 years of fighting, out of about 300,000 Austro-Hungarian deserters, 150,000 were ethnic Romanians. Desertion and the transition to the enemy increased significantly in frequency on the Western Front in the last 2 years of the war, significantly affecting Austro-Hungarian military units in their structure and firepower. This has sometimes resulted in failures of entire front sectors. It is worth mentioning that the Romanian ethnics were informed by the Allied aviation by launching leaflets on the Austro-Hungarian positions, on the creation and existence of the Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia and on the content of the Darnița Declaration. Although the first Romanian Transylvanian prisoners in Italy were documented as early as June 1915, it was not until 1916 that the percentage of Romanian prisoners of war from Austro-Hungarian troops became significant, and they were mainly concentrated in northern Italy. Along with prisoners of other nationalities of Austria-Hungary, scattered throughout Italy, they contributed to a better understanding of the ethnic situation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Particularly in the province of L'Aquila, where a strong earthquake destroyed the roads and civil structures on January 13 1915, the need for manpower led to the establishment in Avezzano of a camp with 15,000 prisoners. Over time, the component represented by prisoners of Romanian origin has increased significantly, who have developed a good reputation and a good image among the civilian Italian population. The ease with which Italian citizens were able to communicate with the Romanians in relation to Germans and Hungarians, as well as their spirit of sacrifice associated with the demonstration of being good workers, led to the respect of the Italian civilians towards Romanians. This went to the point where Italian civil solidarity and assistance committees were spontaneously created, reserved for Romanian citizens and their families left in the homeland. Out of a total of 60,000 prisoners of war of Romanian origin, 36,712 soldiers and 525 officers requested to join the Romanian Legion in Italy. Of the officers, one was a colonel, 5 were majors, 32 captains, 97 lieutenants, 294 sublieutenants, and 96 applicants. The education given to the volunteers enrolled in the new units, emphasized the development of the Romanian national consciousness and the love for their country, which was to be Romania, a country that many knew only through the hostile propaganda of Austria-Hungary. Also, this education aimed to eliminate the distrust in the new Italian ally, as well as the difficulties of communication with other soldiers from the other Romanian historical regions. The only language used in military service was Romanian. Officers of Romanian origin had a complex training program, which included, among other things, the study of the Italian language. The ranks of the Austro-Hungarian soldiers enlisted in the Romanian Legion were equivalated to those corresponding of the Italian Royal Army. The sedentary part of the Romanian Legion, under the command of Colonel Camillo Ferraioli, was established at Albano Laziale, and the base camp in the Avezzano camp. Course of the Romanian campaign On the night of 27 August 1916, three Romanian armies (First, Second and ), deployed according to the Romanian campaign plan (Hypothesis Z), launched the Battle of Transylvania through the Carpathians. On that same night, the torpedo boats , Bujorescu and Catinca attacked the Austro-Hungarian Danube Flotilla at the Bulgarian port of Ruse, sinking one barge loaded with fuel and damaging the port's quay. Initially, the only opposing force was the Austro-Hungarian First Army, which was steadily pushed back toward Hungary. In a short time, the towns of Brașov, Făgăraș, and Miercurea Ciuc were captured, and the outskirts of Sibiu were reached. In areas populated with Romanians, the Romanian troops were warmly welcomed, and the locals provided them considerable assistance in terms of provisions, billeting and guiding. However, the rapid Romanian advance alarmed the Central Powers, and within weeks sizable reinforcements began arriving at the scene. The Entente incorrectly assumed that Germany would be unable to respond to the invasion, as the Battle of the Somme and the Brusilov Offensive were at their height around this time and tied down significant German forces. Nevertheless, eight divisions and an Alpine Corps were deployed under the command of Erich von Falkenhayn. The Austro-Hungarians also sent four divisions to reinforce their lines, and by the middle of September, the Romanian offensive was halted. A separate Romanian offensive, carried out by the 1st Infantry Division, was much more limited in its aims and it succeeded: capturing the west bank of the Cerna River within the Banat region. The Romanian occupation of the area lasted for over two months, until mid-November. While the Romanian Army was advancing in Transylvania, the first counterattack came from Field Marshal August von Mackensen in command of a multi-national force composed of the Bulgarian Third Army, a German brigade and two divisions of the Ottoman VI Army Corps, whose units began arriving on the Dobrudja front after the initial battles. This army attacked north from Bulgaria, starting on 1 September. It stayed on the south side of the Danube river and headed towards Constanța. Bulgarian troops (aided by the German-Bulgarian Detachment) surrounded and stormed the fortress of Turtucaia. The Romanian garrison surrendered on 6 September at the conclusion of the Battle of Turtucaia. At the same time, the Bulgarian Third Army with the 75th Turkish regiment, arrived on the last day of the battle, defeated a Romanian-Russian force including the First Serbian Volunteer Division at the Battle of Bazargic, despite the almost double superiority of the Entente. The Romanian Third Army made further attempts to withstand the enemy offensive at Silistra, Dobrich, Amzacea, and Topraisar, but had to withdraw under the pressure of the enemy forces. Mackensen's success was favoured by the failure of the Allies to fulfill the obligation they had assumed through the military convention, by virtue of which they had to mount an offensive on the Macedonian front and the conditions in which the Russians deployed insufficient troops on the battlefront in the south-east of Romania. These factors meant that the Romanian forces became too strained to put up effective resistance against the enemy advance. Romania had to fight on two 1,600 km-long battlefronts, the longest front in Europe, with a varied configuration and diverse geographical elements (by comparison, the Russian front, stretching from the Baltic Sea to Bukovina, was only 1,000 km long). On 15 September the Romanian War Council decided to suspend the Transylvania offensive and concentrate on the Mackensen army group instead. The plan (the so-called Flămânda Offensive) was to attack the Central Powers forces from the rear by crossing the Danube at Flămânda, while the front-line Romanian and Russian forces were supposed to launch an offensive southwards towards Cobadin and Kurtbunar. Russian reinforcements under General Andrei Zaionchkovsky arrived to halt Mackensen's army before it cut the rail line that linked Constanța with Bucharest. Fighting was furious, with attacks and counterattacks until 23 September. The Central Powers suffered a tactical defeat in the First Battle of Cobadin on 19 September, forcing them to halt their advance until mid-October. On 30 September, near the Romanian port of Sulina, the German submarine UB-42 launched a torpedo at the Romanian torpedo boat , but missed. The Romanian warship counterattacked, damaging the submarine's periscope and conning tower and forcing her to retreat. On 1 October, two Romanian divisions crossed the Danube at Flămânda and created a bridgehead 14 kilometer-wide and 4 kilometer-deep. On the next day, this area was expanded, with 8 Bulgarian settlements ending up in Romanian hands. However, due to the deteriorating situation in Transylvania, the offensive was cancelled on 3 October. The Austro-Hungarian river monitors Bodrog, Körös and Szamos, together with the patrol boat Barsch and one coal barge were damaged by Romanian coastal batteries and one large barge loaded with explosives was sunk. Körös took 12 hits and was disabled for the rest of the Romanian Campaign. The counteroffensive of the Central Powers Overall command was now under Erich von Falkenhayn (recently replaced as German Chief of Staff), who started his own counterattack on 18 September. The first attack was on the Romanian First Army near the town of Hațeg; the attack halted the Romanian advance. Eight days later, German troops attacked Sibiu, and on 29 September, the outnumbered Romanians began retreating to the Vulcan and Turnu Roșu passes. The latter, however, had been occupied by Bavarian mountain troops in a flanking movement, and the Battle of Turnu Roșu Pass ended with the Romanians retaking the pass at a cost of 3,000 men. On 17 October the Romanian Second Army attacked the Austro-Hungarians at Brașov, but the attack was repulsed and the counterattack forced the Romanians to retreat from there also. The Romanian Fourth Army, in the north of the country, retreated without much pressure from the Austro-Hungarian troops, so that by 25 October the Romanian army was back to its initial positions. The Central Powers succeeded in taking the strategic initiative in Transylvania by concentrating significant military forces rapidly brought in from the other theatres of operations in Europe and exploiting a quick shift of Romanian units to the battlefront in Dobruja. In October 1916, the Romanian army mounted a wide-scale operation, the main target of which was the defense of the mountain passes in the Southern and Eastern Carpathians against the ever-stronger pressure of the German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Grim fights erupted in the Prahova Valley, where occupation of the locality of Predeal was one of the major aims pursued by the Central Powers. Given their dramatic character, the clashes for the Predeal town and railway station were frequently compared with the heaviest fights on the Western Front. Similar fights took place in the Bran-Câmpulung area, especially at Dragoslavele and Racoș. Particular heed was paid to the actions carried on for the defense of the Carpathians' alignment, the fights on the Jiu River. There, the Germans had massed large forces to beat their way south of the mountains. Faced with the enemy threat, the troops of the Romanian First Army, under command of General Ion Dragalina, offered strong resistance. The Romanian soldiers were supported everywhere by the civil population; during the Battle of Târgu Jiu, the town was defended by its inhabitants, men, women and children, young and old. There, a conspicuous figure was cut by Ecaterina Teodoroiu, who was to enter the consciousness of all Romanians as the "Heroine of the Jiu". The operation for the defense of the Carpathians holds a prominent place in Romanian military history not only because it was one of the most difficult operations waged by the Romanian army until then, but also because it was one of the most important as regards the complexity of the actions carried on and the highly valuable lessons derived from their evolution. After the Romanian troops were initially able to stop the German advance on the Jiu Valley, the German army regrouped on 29 October 1916. The German High Command created the Army Group Kühne, headquartered in Petroșani, under the command of General Viktor Kühne. This Army Group included the 11th and 301st Bavarian infantry divisions, which had previously fought the Romanians on the Jiu, the 41st Prussian and the 109th infantry divisions which were transferred from the Riga front, as well as the newly formed 58th Cavalry Corps (z.b.V) under the command of General Egon von Schmettow, which included the 6th and 7th cavalry divisions. The German reserves consisted of the 115th infantry division and two brigades of cyclists. The total manpower of the Army Group amounted to 80,000 troops with 30,000 horses. The Romanian forces could not withstand the new German attack which started on 1 November 1916. The Romanians retreated and on 21 November 1916 the German cavalry entered Craiova. The Romanian army continued its retreat towards the Olt River while the cavalry tried to slow the German advance in order to give it time to organize a defensive line along the Olt. Although the Romanian army made attempts to stop the advance of the German forces, such as in the Battle of Robănești, these were largely unsuccessful. Back on the coast, Field Marshal Mackensen and Bulgarian General Stefan Toshev launched a new offensive on 19 October, after a month of careful preparations, and achieved a decisive victory in the Second Battle of Cobadin. The Romanians and Russians were forced to withdraw out of Constanța (occupied by the Central Powers on 22 October). After the fall of Cernavodă, the defense of the unoccupied Dobruja was left only to the Russians, who were gradually pushed back towards the marshy Danube Delta. The Russian Army was now both demoralized and nearly out of supplies. Mackensen felt free to secretly pull a large number of troops back to the town of Svishtov in Bulgaria with an eye towards crossing the Danube river. In mid-November, after several tactical defeats in the Southern Carpathians (Bran-Câmpulung, Prahova Valley, Jiu Valley), Falkenhayn concentrated his best troops (the elite Alpenkorps) in the south for an attack on the Vulcan Pass. The Battle of Vulcan Pass was launched on 10 November. One of the young officers was the future Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. On 11 November, then-Lieutenant Rommel led the Württemberg Mountain Company in the capture of Mount Lescului. The offensive pushed the Romanian defenders back through the mountains and into the plains by 26 November. There was already snow covering the mountains and soon operations would have to halt for the winter. Advances by other parts of Falkenhayn's Ninth Army also pushed through the mountains; the Romanian army was being ground down by the constant battle and their supply situation was becoming critical. After conquering the main Romanian sea port of Constanța during the Second Battle of Cobadin, the Central Powers set up a naval base which was used by German seaplanes for raids against Sulina, the last Romanian-held sea port. On 7 November, Romanian anti-aircraft defenses at Sulina (including the old protected cruiser ) shot down into the sea one of the seaplanes, killing the commander of the German squadron. This reduced the German seaplane force at Constanța by a quarter, which only consisted of four aircraft in November 1916. The shot down seaplane was of the Friedrichshafen FF.33 type, as these were the only German naval bombers on the Romanian front. In total, from 1916 to 1918, German seaplanes serving on the Romanian front were of four types: Friedrichshafen FF.33, Hansa-Brandenburg W.12, Rumpler 6B and Albatros W.4. In November, the German submarine UC-15 was sent on a minelaying mission off Sulina and never returned, being sunk by her own mines. This was probably caused by an encounter with the Romanian torpedo boat , whose captain surprised a German submarine near Sulina in November 1916, the latter reportedly never returning to her base at Varna. This could only be UC-15, whose systems most likely malfunctioned after being forced to submerge in the shallow waters, upon encountering the Romanian torpedo boat. Her Flotilla briefly remained without a minelaying submarine, until UC-23 was commissioned in early December. Battles on the Wallachian Plain On 23 November, Mackensen's best troops crossed the Danube at two locations near Svishtov. This attack caught the Romanians by surprise and Mackensen's army was able to advance rapidly towards Bucharest against very weak resistance. Mackensen's attack threatened to cut off half the Romanian army. In response, the Romanian Command prepared a counter-offensive known under the name of the Battle of the Argeș (part of the Battle of Bucharest) and designated the recently promoted General Constantin Prezan to lead it. The plan envisaged the checking of the advance of the German Ninth Army from the north and north-west, as well as the encirclement and annihilation of the German-Bulgarian-Turkish units deployed south-east of Bucharest. It was a bold undertaking, using the entire reserves of the Romanian army, but it needed the cooperation of Russian divisions to contain Mackensen's offensive while the Romanian reserve struck the gap between Mackensen and Falkenhayn. However, the Russian army would not endorse the plan and did not support the attack. On 1 December, the Romanian army went ahead with the offensive along the Argeș and Neajlov rivers. Initially, the Romanians experienced success, taking a large number of prisoners, however Mackensen was able to shift forces to deal with the sudden assault and Falkenhayn's forces responded with attacks at every point. Faced with the overwhelming superiority of the invading forces, the Romanian army, its ranks thinned from the previous actions, inferior in equipment and lacking Russian support, failed to check the enemy advance. Although it recorded numerous daring actions (among these the Prunaru Charge, in which the 2nd Roșiori Cavalry Regiment was almost wiped out), the Battle of the Argeș ended unfavourably for the Romanian army. Within three days, the attack had been shattered and the Romanians were retreating everywhere. Bucharest was captured on 6 December by Falkenhayn's cavalry. General August von Mackensen was appointed as the "military governor" of the occupied territories of Romania. The Romanian Second Army made a fighting retreat to the Siret river, which had originally been fortified against the Russians and was facing the wrong direction, but nevertheless would end up proving invaluable, protected as it was by the impassable Danube Delta to the southeast and a flank in the Carpathians in the northwest. Fierce fighting took place in the Battle of Râmnicu Sărat between 22 and 26 December, with Mackensen's forces entering the town on 27 December. Around this time, the Russians began sending numerous reinforcements to Moldavia to prevent an invasion of southern Russia. Southern Romania, including Oltenia, Muntenia, Dobruja, and southern Moldavia, was now in the hands of the Central Powers. While retreating, the Romanians burnt stores of grain and destroyed oil wells to prevent them from being used by the Germans. On 3 December, the Romanian river torpedo boat Căpitan Valter Mărăcineanu was sunk on the Danube by a mine and one sailor was killed. The remaining Russo-Romanian forces in Dobruja abandoned Măcin on 4 January 1917 and Brăila on 5 January 1917. Toward the end of the month, extreme frost gave the Bulgarians an opportunity to enter the Danube Delta. On 23 January, they attempted to cross the marshes at Tulcea, but suffered heavy casualties to Romanian defenders on the northern bank and stopped. The Romanian Land Forces, supported by the Danube Division of the Romanian Navy and by the actions of the Romanian cruiser at the mouths of the Danube, managed to prevent the Central Powers from advancing into the Danube Delta, keeping it under Romanian control until the end of the war. Fighting also ceased in the Carpathian passes, also owing to unfavorable weather. Mackensen's troops were able to capture Focșani on 8 January, but an attempt to break the Siret River line on 19 January failed. Thus, the front stabilized and allowed for the Romanian army to be refitted and rebuilt. Romania entered the war at a time of strong crisis for the Entente, drawing upon itself numerous enemy forces, fighting on a very long battlefront and having to change its initial campaign plan permanently. But in spite of the human, material and military efforts made by the Central Powers throughout this period, they failed to achieve their fundamental political and strategic goal to defeat Romania and knock it out of the war. Despite heavy casualties, some 250,000 men (almost one third of the manpower mobilized in August 1916) compared to 105,000 Central Power casualties (including 60,000 Germans), and losses of combat material, the Romanian army was still a force taken into consideration by allies and enemies alike and capable of offering resistance to further attacks. Part of the population moved to the free territory, together with the Romanian government, royal court and public authorities, which relocated to Iași. Therefore, the Kingdom of Romania continued to exercise the attributes of an independent and sovereign state, allied to the Entente powers. Romanian recovery In 1917, when both belligerent sides were making huge efforts to win the final victory, for Romania it was vitally important for Romanians to expel the occupying forces, since the existence of the Romanian state depended on it. After the Romanian troops had managed to bring the enemy to a halt at Moldavia's Gates, on the Eastern Carpathians, the Siret River and the Danube Delta alignment in cooperation with Russian military forces, Romania embarked on the reconstruction and strengthening of its combat capability during the first half of 1917 through multiple national efforts under highly complex international circumstances. Considerable measures were taken in all economic branches to rebuild the evacuated factories and workshops, increase the production destined for the national defense and the productivity yielded by the exploitation of the few petroleum and coal resources in the free zones. Agriculture received special attention to help meet basic nutritional needs and ensure a minimal living standard to the population in the free part of the country, and also to assist the refugees who had left their houses in front of the enemy invasion, the Romanian army and the Russian troops (who numbered about one million by early 1917). With a view to achieving the unity of action of internal political forces that was indispensable to safeguarding the nation's interests, a government of national union was set up in Iași on 24 December 1916, led by Ion I. C. Brătianu. The political life in unoccupied territory adopted a fundamental goal to achieve national consensus to find the means to conclude a successful liberation war. Within this framework, debates on some laws envisaging structural transformations (primarily the agrarian reform to re-allocate land to peasants and the introduction of universal suffrage) responded to popular demands of the citizenry and contributed to the morale of the soldiers in the front lines. The Romanian army's reconstruction involved both re-organization and modernization. While the forces that had taken part in the big Battle of Bucharest (Army Group Prezan) were reshuffled inland, the Romanian Second Army, which had preserved its combat structures and force to a great extent, remained on the front in southern Moldavia, where, alongside Russian forces, it checked the enemy advance. The reorganization was initiated by King Ferdinand and the Romanian government. It was carried on under their leadership and control in the free national territory, in spite of Russian attempts to shift the Romanian army beyond the Dniester, inside Ukraine. The re-organization pursued the reduction of the effectives of the "Operations Army" to parameters that suited the country's resources for waging a long campaign. The infantry divisions were ensured identical structure to make replacements and maneuvers easier on the battlefront and to have a fire power comparable with that of the enemy. The army corps became only a command body for tactical coordination. The cavalry divisions received more machine guns. The artillery material underwent a homogenization process, with two regiments (one cannon, the other howitzer) for each division, while the heavy artillery was organized as a distinct group. The re-organization also involved the other troops (combat engineers, air force, navy) and services, which underwent notable improvements. The directions, organization and methodology of the training of the command staff and the troops were considerably improved and special training centers were set up. Priority was given to trench warfare, the assimilation of new military technology and night combat. Considerable progress was achieved with the technical-material equipment of the army by means of its provisioning with armament, ammunition and other combat resources from inside the country, but even more importantly from abroad. The Allies supported the maintenance of the Romanian front by continuing to deliver and supplement previously placed orders. 150,000 French 8 mm rifles, 1,760 Hotchkiss M1914 machine guns, 197 Vickers machine guns, 2,628 Chauchats, 108 Lewis guns, 1.3 million F1 grenades, 84 Puteaux 75mm guns, 72 long and 20 short de Bange 120 mm guns, 28 Coventry 127 mm howitzers, 14 St. Chamond 155 mm and seven Schneider-Putilov 152.4 mm howitzers and 130 French 58mm trench mortars arrived from Western Europe. In parallel, efforts were made to meet the food and health care needs and special heed was paid to strengthening the soldiers' morale. A notable contribution to the reconstruction of the Romanian army was made by the 1,600-strong French military mission led by General Henri Mathias Berthelot, which supervised the process and helped retrain Romanian troops. In early June 1917, the Romanian army's strength grew to about 700,000 men, organized in 207 infantry battalions plus 60 march battalions, 110 cavalry squadrons and 245 artillery batteries, divided among two armies and five corps. The results obtained in terms of re-organization and recovery impressed public opinion both at home and abroad and were to be confirmed in the great battles of the ensuing months. In January 1917, the Romanian river gunboat Smârdan was sunk by German shore artillery, three sailors were killed. On 16 April, Easter Monday, the Romanian torpedo boat capsized in rough seas off the mouth of the Danube with the loss of 18 of her crew, including 3 French naval officers present on board. This incident has been incorrectly attributed to Ottoman mines in several English language sources, possibly as a result of wartime propaganda by the Central Powers. 1917 campaign and armistice Aware of the complex strategic situation, the Romanian Command lent its military policy a clear, realistic orientation of committing the entire population to battle, trying to act efficiently in keeping with the national goals and in harmony with the large-scale operations worked out at the coalition level. Its final form ready in late May 1917, the operations plan for the Romanian front called for the mounting of a general offensive in the Focșani-Nămoloasa sector with a view to completely pin down all enemy forces there, annihilate the main enemy groups operating there (the German Ninth Army) and support the Kerensky Offensive. The decisive effort was to be made by the Romanian First Army. In order to increase the effect of the offensive and draw as many enemy troops as possible northwest of the town of Focșani, the actions of the Romanian Second and Russian Fourth Armies had to precede those of the Romanian First Army. The German High Command, which had moved the center of gravity of its military operations to the Eastern Front in hopes of winning a victory there through the defeat of Romania and the conclusion of a peace with Russia, decided in June 1917 to mount a wide-scope offensive in the north and south of Moldavia, to which end it brought over reinforcements from the other fronts. In early July 1917, on the Romanian front, one of the largest concentrations of combat forces and war material assembled during World War I: nine armies, 80 infantry divisions with 974 battalions, 19 cavalry divisions with 550 squadrons and 923 artillery batteries, whose effectives amounted to some 800,000 men, with about one million in their immediate reserve. The three great battles, decisive for the Romanian nation's destiny, delivered at Mărăști, Mărășești and Oituz, represented a turning point in the war on the Eastern front. These battles were fought approximately on the front alignment stabilized in early 1917, which the conflicting sides had thoroughly consolidated for half a year. The Battle of Mărăști began on 24 July 1917 at dawn, and took place in Vrancea County in the sector of the Romanian Second and Russian Fourth Armies. Initiated by surprise with three divisions, the offensive succeeded in disrupting the well-organized enemy defenses and compelling the Austro-Hungarians and Germans to retreat. By the evening, the Romanian divisions had conquered the first defenses, the strongest and deepest of the defensive system of the Gerok Group of the Austro-Hungarian First Army in the Mărăști area. The next day, pursuing the offensive, the Romanian troops forced the enemy into an ever more disorderly retreat. This created favorable conditions for a deep penetration into the defensive disposition and the annihilation of the enemy group. However, under the circumstances in which the Russian High Command decided unilaterally to stall any offensive as a result of the grave situation created on the front in Galicia and Bukovina following the failure of the Kerensky Offensive and the counter-attack of the Central Powers, the Romanian General Headquarters saw itself compelled to discontinue the offensive throughout the entire territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Black Sea. In the Mărăști zone, however, the Romanian units continued the offensive until 30 July upon the request of their commander, General Alexandru Averescu. This marked the end of the Battle of Mărăști. It inflicted important losses upon the Austro-Hungarians and Germans, who relinquished a 35 km-wide and 20 km-deep area and sustained heavy casualties and losses in combat resources. The offensive potential of the Romanian army was confirmed through this victory. The salient created by the Romanian troops in the enemy lines at the junction between the Austro-Hungarian First Army and the German Ninth Army made the High Command of the Central Powers bring forces from other sectors on the Moldavian front and change the main direction of the offensive initially planned for the Focșani-Nămoloasa region. After the Mărăști operation had been discontinued, the Central Powers tried to implement their offensive plan in the summer of 1917. They pursued to encircle and smash the Romanian and Russian forces through a blow dealt to the northwest in the direction of Focșani, Mărășești and Adjud, conjugated with another blow that had to start from the mountains through the Oituz and Trotuș valleys towards Târgu Ocna and Adjud (the Third Battle of Oituz). Pursuing the offensive, the German troops aimed at occupying the whole of Moldavia, thereby knocking Romania out of the war, and, together with an in-depth penetration of the Austro-Hungarian troops on the front in Bukovina, to push the Russian forces eastwards, beyond Odessa. The offensive of the German Ninth Army, from the Army Group Mackensen, started on 6 August 1917, when the units of the Russian Fourth Army on the Siret River were expected to leave their positions to reinforce the front in the north of Moldavia and be replaced by the divisions of the Romanian First Army (commanded by General Constantin Cristescu until 12 August, then by General Eremia Grigorescu). For 29 days, until 3 September, this sector was the scene of the most important battle fought by the Romanian army during the 1917 campaign. The Battle of Mărășești had three distinct stages. During the first stage (6-12 August), the troops of the Romanian First Army, together with Russian forces, managed to arrest the enemy advance and forced the Germans to change the direction of their attack toward the northwest gradually. In the second stage (13-19 August), the Romanian Command completely took over the command of the battle from the Russians. The confrontation reached its climax on 19 August, with the result that enemy's attempts to advance were completely thwarted. The third stage (20 August - 3 September) actually saw the last German attempt at least to improve their positions in view of a new offensive, this one also confounded by the Romanian response. Starting on 8 August 1917, the fighting on the Mărășești front combined with an Austro-Hungarian-German offensive at Oituz. Holding out against superior enemy forces, the Romanian troops by 30 August stemmed the advance of the Gerok Group. The definitive cessation of the general offensive on the Romanian front by the Central Powers on 3 September 1917 marked a strategic defeat and a considerable weakening of their forces on the South-Eastern front. The response of the Romanian army in fact created the strongest blow to the Central Powers that was dealt in Eastern Europe in 1917. As a result of these operations, the remaining Romanian territories remained unoccupied. Nearly 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were tied down, and The Times was prompted to describe the Romanian front as "The only point of light in the East". On 22 September, Romania achieved its greatest naval success of the war, when the Austro-Hungarian river monitor SMS Inn struck a Romanian mine and sank near Brăila, the explosion killing the chief of staff of the Austro-Hungarian Danube Flotilla and a telegraphist and wounding 8 more sailors. The situation, however, once again took a turn for the worse for the Entente in November 1917 with the October Revolution in Russia and the beginning of the Russian Civil War. These events effectively ended Russian involvement in the war and left Romania isolated and surrounded by the Central Powers. It had little choice but to negotiate the Focșani Armistice, signed by the combatants on 9 December 1917. Aftermath Treaty of Bucharest On 7 May 1918, in light of the existing politico-military situation, Romania was forced to conclude the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers. It imposed harsh conditions on the country, but recognized its union with Bessarabia. Alexandru Marghiloman became the new German-sponsored prime minister. King Ferdinand, however, refused to sign the treaty. The Germans were able to repair the oil fields around Ploiești and by the end of the war had pumped a million tons of oil. They also requisitioned two million tons of grain from Romanian farmers. These materials were vital in keeping Germany in the war to the end of 1918. Romania reenters the war, November 1918 After the successful Vardar Offensive on the Macedonian front that knocked Bulgaria out of World War I in the autumn of 1918, Romania re-entered the war, again on the side of the Allies, on 10 November 1918. This happened the day before the war ended in Western Europe, a day which marked the start of the Hungarian–Romanian War. On 28 November 1918, the Romanian representatives of Bukovina voted for union with the Kingdom of Romania, followed by the proclamation of a Union of Transylvania with Romania on 1 December 1918 by the National Assembly of Romanians of Transylvania and Hungary, gathered at Alba Iulia, while the representatives of the Transylvanian Saxons approved the act on 9 January 1919 at an assembly in Mediaș (Medgyes). A similar gathering was held by the minority Hungarians in Cluj (Kolozsvár), on 22 December 1918, where they reaffirmed their allegiance to Hungary. Germany agreed under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles (Article 259) to renounce the benefits provided by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1918. The Romanian occupation of Transylvania was widely resented by Hungarians. The Hungarian–Romanian War ended with the Romanian army entering Budapest and the fall of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. The Romanians departed back to the demarcation lines only in early 1920. Military analysis of the campaign The 1916 counteroffensive was mainly led by the German generals Falkenhayn and Mackensen. Despite this the Germans represented only 22% of the Central Power's forces that took part in the campaign compared to the Austro-Hungarian 46% and combined Bulgarian and Ottoman 32%. In his 1922 book, A History of the Great War: From the Battle of Verdun to the Third Battle of Ypres, John Buchan provides a comprehensive analysis of the Romanian 1916 Campaign: Contemporary history is rarely just to failure. Only when the mists have cleared and the main issues have been decided can the belligerents afford to weigh each section of a campaign in a just scale. Rumania's entry into the war had awakened baseless hopes among her Allies; her unsuccess - her inexplicable unsuccess, as it seemed to many - was followed by equally baseless criticism and complaint. The truth is, that when Brussilov and Sarrail had once failed to achieve their purpose, her chances of victory were gone. She had attempted a strategic problem which only a wild freak of fortune could have permitted her to solve. Her numbers from the start were too small, too indifferently trained, and too weakly supplied with guns. Nevertheless, once she stood with her back to the wall, this little people, inexpert in war, made a stalwart resistance. Let justice be done to the fortitude of the Rumanian retreat. Her generals were quick to grasp the elements of danger, and by their defence of the central passes prevented the swift and utter disaster of which her enemies dreamed. After months of fighting, during which his armies lost heavily, Falkenhayn gained Wallachia and the capital; but the plunder was not a tithe of what he had hoped for. The Rumanian expedition was, let it be remembered, a foraging expedition in part of its purpose, and the provender secured was small. The ten weeks of the retreat were marked by conspicuous instances of Rumanian quality in the field, and the battles of Hermannstadt and the Striu valley, the defence of the Predeal, Torzburg, and Rotherthurm Passes, the first battle of Targu Jiu, and Presan's counter-stroke on the Argesh were achievements of which any army might be proud. And the staunch valor of the Roman legionaries still lived in the heroic band who, under Anastasiu, cut their way from Orsova to the Aluta. Erich Ludendorff summarized the end of the 1916 Romanian campaign as follows: We had beaten the Rumanian Army; to annihilate it had proved impossible. We had done all that was possible, but found ourselves obliged to leave forces in the Dobrudja and Wallachia which we had been able to use on the Eastern and Western fronts and in Macedonia before Rumania came into the war. In spite of our victory over the Rumanian Army, we were definitely weaker as regards the conduct of the war as a whole. The failure of the Romanian front for the Entente was also the result of several factors beyond Romania's control. The failed Salonika Offensive did not meet the expectation of Romania's "guaranteed security" from Bulgaria. This proved to be a critical strain on Romania's ability to wage a successful offensive in Transylvania, as it needed to divert troops south to the defense of Dobruja. Furthermore, Russian reinforcements in Romania did not materialize to the number of 200,000 soldiers initially demanded. See also Diplomatic history of World War I Romanian Navy during World War I Romanian Air Corps Notes References Bibliography Multiple authors. România în anii primului război mondial (Romania during the years of World War I) (Bucharest, 1987), Editura Militară. Further reading Barrett, Michael B. Prelude to Blitzkrieg: The 1916 Austro-German Campaign in Romania (Indiana U.P., 2013) Esposito, Vincent (ed.) (1959). The West Point Atlas of American Wars - Vol. 2; maps 37–40. Frederick Praeger Press. Falls, Cyril. The Great War (1960), ppg 228-230. Hitchins, Keith. Rumania 1866–1947 (Oxford UP, (1994). Jelavich, Barbara. "Romania in the First World War: The Pre-War Crisis, 1912–1914", The International History Review 14, 3 (1992): 441–51. Keegan, John. The First World War (1998), pp. 306–308. Alfred A. Knopf Press. Torrey, Glenn E. "The Entente and the Rumanian Campaign of 1916", Rumanian Studies 4 (1976–79): 174–91. Torrey, Glenn E. "The Rumanian Campaign of 1916: Its Impact on the Belligerents", Slavic Review 39, 1 (1980): 27–43. Torrey, Glenn E. "Romania in the First World War: The Years of Engagement, 1916–1918", The International History Review 14, 3 (1992): 462–79. Torrey, Glenn E. Romania and World War I (1998) Torrey, Glenn E. The Romanian Battlefront in World War I (2012) excerpt and text search Vinogradov, V. N. "Romania in the First World War: The Years of Neutrality, 1914–1916", The International History Review 14, 3 (1992): 452–61. Great Britain. Admiralty. A Handbook of Roumania (1920) focus on prewar economy and society [online free] External links Heppner, Harald, Gräf, Rudolf: Romania , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Video with the redrawing of the borders after the First World War < Kingdom of Romania \| History of Romania \| Greater Romania > Romania Romania Romania Romania Romania Romania Romania Romania World War I
4900828	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismah	Ismah	‘Iṣmah or ‘Isma (; literally, "protection") is the concept of incorruptible innocence, immunity from sin, or moral infallibility in Islamic theology, and which is especially prominent in Shia Islam. In Shia theology, ismah is characteristic of prophets, imams, and angels. When attributed to human beings, ismah means "the ability of avoiding acts of disobedience, in spite of having the power to commit them". Along with a pure constitution, excellent qualities, firmness against opponents, and tranquility (as-Sakinah), ismah is a divine grace bestowed by God. An infallible () is someone who is free from error in leading people to belief, in perceiving divine knowledge, and in practical matters. Prophets must be immune from all errors and sins in order to perform their mission of upholding and promoting the divine religion, interpreting the Qur'an, and establishing a wholesome social system. According to Twelver Shia, The Fourteen Infallibles () "divinely bestowed free from error and sin" include Muhammad, his daughter Fatimah, and the Twelve Imams. Ismaili also attribute ismah to Ismaili imāms and Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, while Zaidis do not attribute the quality to the Zaidi imams. The doctrine of ismah has been rejected by some Muslims, such as the Kharijites who cited Quran 48:2 as evidence for the rejection. Sunnis interpret ismah to mean that prophets are immune from telling lies (intentionally or unintentionally), of being Kafir (infidel) before or after their assignment, and of being unable to commit other sins intentionally. In other aspects, opinions diverge. Most Sunnis believe that it is possible for the prophets to unintentionally commit sin, while the minority believe that it is not. The purity of Ahl al-Bayt, the family of Muhammad, is manifested by the verse of purification in the Qur'an. The development of Shi'ite theology in the period between the death of Muhammad and the disappearance of the Twelfth Imam extends this concept of purity and originates the concept of ismah. The concept of the immunity from sin (ma'sum) of the imams, the Imamiyyah, perhaps began in the first half of the second century AH. Shia scholars of the fourth and the fifth centuries AH extended the infallibility of Muḥammad and the Twelve Imams until the doctrine came to mean that they could not have committed any sin or inadvertent error either before or after they assumed office. Etymology According to Edward Lane, the root of Ismah is `asama (), which means protected or defended; and thus Ismah means prevention or protection. Ismah is translated by (de:) A. J. Wensinck as impeccability, by William M. Miller as immunity to sin, and by W. Ivanow as infallibility. Shia's fourth Imam, Zayn al-Abidin, regarded Ismah as "a quality which enables a man to seize firmly to the Qur'an". Al-Abidin said that the Qur'an and the Fourteen Infallibles will not be separated from each other until the Day of Judgment, and that each one of them guides the other. He cites the Qur'an 17:9 to support his claim. To Al-Raghib al-Isfahani and Murtada al-Zabidi, Ismah is God's preservation of the infallibles, accomplished in stages. The first stage is to bestow on infallibles a robust constitution, followed by excellent qualities, then a firm will against opponents and enemies, followed by the sending of tranquility (as-Sakina) down upon them, and by the preparation of their hearts and minds to accept truth. The final stage is endowing the infallibles with "the ability to avoid acts of disobedience in spite of having the power to disobey". Tabatabaei claims that Ismah is the presence of a quality in man which protects him from error. Ismah also involves perfection of intellect and the lack of deficiency in knowledge. Concept From a Shia theological perspective, ash-Shaykh al-Saduq argues that Ismah is a quality peculiar only to the Twelve Imams; it is a natural state of immunity from sin which is seen as a miraculous gift from God. An infallible is regarded as preserved from sin because of his or her supreme level of righteousness, consciousness, love of God, and thorough knowledge of the consequence of sin. An infallible is considered immune from error in practical affairs, in calling people to religion, and in perception of divine knowledge, so that their followers do not fall into error. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi has said that the infallibility of the Imam does not exclude the capacity to commit sins. Allamah Majlesi says that through reason and intellect, steadfastness in prayer and fasting, and by God's guidance, a person can reach a state where there is no desire except God's desire, and, because of an excessive love of God, shame in committing sin. According to Tabatabaei, there is a quality of man that protects him from committing sin or error. Tabatabaei equates this quality with knowledge. Virtues such as bravery, chastity, and generosity are forms of knowledge, deeply rooted in the human psyche, that enable a person to abstain from indulging in extremes of behavior: for example, cowardice and recklessness, austerity and dissipation, or miserliness and extravagance. An increase in knowledge means increased obedience to God. In ordinary people with imperfect knowledge, virtue can be overpowered and tainted by desires and vices. Prophets are bestowed with supreme knowledge and thus a that always remain unaffected by whims and vices. This supreme knowledge in Prophets is Ismah. Ismah does not nullify the Prophets' free will to choose whether to commit sin or not. Free will Ismah is regarded by Shi‘ites as being bestowed as a blessing from God upon infallibles, and that this blessing has both voluntary and involuntary aspects, the voluntary aspect being the efforts of infallibles to act according to God's orders, the involuntary aspect being inheritance and training, not acquired through effort, but as a special favor from God (allah). Al-Mofid said that Ismah is God's gift to someone He knows will act impeccably and not be disobedient. Therefore, in the perspective of Shi‘ites, infallibles abstained from committing sins because of their knowledge of the consequence of sin, that God had foreknowledge of their future, knowing that they will save themselves from sin and error, and that Verse 5: 67 confirms this notion by explaining the role of the prophet's will in deciding whether to perform or reject an action. Prophets Among the doctrines that arose from the mid-2nd century AH (8th century CE) onwards is that "Ismat al-anbiya" (the protection of the Prophets) means God's protection of the prophets from sin and error. This doctrine seems to have originated from among the Shia, but is embraced, in one way or another, by almost all Muslim sects and theological and legal schools. A major dispute deals with, whether prophets are sinless from the beginning, or if they are only sinnless after they started their prophetic mission. Among non-Shi‘ites, Ashari theologian Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi is one of the supporters of the idea of the ismah of the prophets. He stated his view is as follows: "According to us the best view is that, owing to their prophethood, there is neither a grave nor a small sin or error (dhanb)." Besides investigating the subject in his Commentary on the Qur'an, he wrote a separate book titled Ismatu'l-Anbiya (The Sinlessness of the Prophets), and championed the cause of this dogma being a part of Sunni theology. But Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī, a Sunni Philosopher, rejected this doctrine. Over the course of history, Sunni views varied to the extent of protection, distinguishing between major sins (al-kaba'ir), minor sins (al-sagha'ir), inadvertent error (sahw) forgetfulness (nisyān) and lapses (zallāt). F. Some of them argued, it is necessary to commit mistakes to teach people how to repent. The notion that prophets are generally sinless was first pushed by Asharites and Maturidites, but not accepted by Hanbalites. Annemarie Schimmel believed that "The absolute obedience owed to the Prophet is meaningful only if Muhammad is free from any faults and could thus constitute an immaculate model for even the most insignificant part of life." Shia and some Sunni scholars believe that the prophets were given ismah even before their assignment to the prophecy, and that it covered every aspect of their life including the emotional, behavioral, personal, social, intentional and unintentional. Representing Shi‘ites' point-of-view, Tabatabaei stated that Ismah took two forms with regard to revelation: firstly, that the prophets were necessarily free from sin in the reception of revelation, in its preservation, and in its propagation, due to the principle of ontological guidance, which stated that God, in His omniscience and omnipotence, did not err in guiding those whom He desired to guide; and, secondly, that Ismah implied protection from sin based on the prophets' will and knowledge. Tabatabaei also said that if the prophets' actions contradict their words, setting one example by their actions but preaching something else, this would obscure the truth, which would undermine the religious mission of the prophets, therefore, that the Ismah of the prophets in delivering the message of Allah depends upon their Ismah with regard to their inability to sin. Another argument from him was that all the prophets were guided by God, that everyone who is guided by God never sins, and that the prophets were therefore free from error. Imams Shi‘ites not only interpret Qur’an 2:124 as saying that the Imam is appointed by God, but that the Imam's Ismah is manifest. They also believe that Ismah is a hidden virtue, and that, in order to assure that God's message is clear, so that people will not have ignorance as an excuse on the Day of Resurrection, God must provide a succession of Imams, each with the appropriate attributes and Ismah, as messengers, to guide the people and to interpret the Qur'an for all time. Shi‘ites believe that the prophets are free from all sin—major or minor, intentional or unintentional, before or after their assignment, in matters relevant to their mission or not—and that the prophet's commands and prohibitions are those of Allah. Shia also believe that the prophets have complete knowledge of Allah's will given to them by the First Infallible, Muhammad, which at all times causes them to act perfectly in religious matters; and that "as a result of the presence of Muhammadan Light, the Imam possesses the quality of inerrancy (Ismah), in spiritual and religious matters...and this Light is the source of knowledge and revelation." According to Twelver Shia, The Fourteen Infallibles ( Ma‘ṣūmūn), who are "divinely bestowed free from error and sin", include Muhammad, his daughter Fatimah, and the Twelve Imams, with Fatimah's infallibility being derived from her being a link between Prophethood and Imamah, the two institutions characterized by infallibility, as well as her association with the Imams and their attributes in numerous ahadith. Angels The idea that angels are protected from sin, probably roots in the teachings of Hasan al-Basri and the early stages of the Mu'tazilites. Not only does he referred to Quranic verses emphasizing the nobility of angels, he also offered interpretations regarding verses proposing the opposite. Al-Basri taught that angels are, due to their lack of bodily desires, the most noble beings. Thus, he ranked them higher than humans and prophets. On the other hand, Shi‘ites believe that the Prophets, Apostles, and Imams are more excellent than angels, based on Quran 15:30 and Q2:33. According to Al-Shaykh al-Saduq, based on 16:50 and 21: 27 of the Qur’an, he agrees with al-Basri's view point that angels never disobey God, that they are free from sins and impurities, and that anyone who denies the infallibility of Messengers, Prophets, Imams, and Angels is a kafir (, unbeliever). Yet, this interpretation isn't shared universally. Based on Quran 2:30 and Quran 2:34, other scholars argue that angels can err, despite the majority always remains obedient, as stated by Bulak al-Djurdjani. According to Tabatabaei, the statement, "they do not disobey Allah in what He commands them, and only act as they are bidden", is an explanation of the phrase "stern and strong": The meaning of "stern and strong" is that the angels are committed to the assignment given to them by Allah. Besides Almighty Allah and His commandment, no any other factors out of pity and compassion affect their activities. They do not disobey Allah by rejecting or opposing His order and whatever He commands, they carry it out meticulously. It is clear from this explanation that the statement "they do not disobey Allah in what He commands them" means that the angels are committed to their assignment while the statement, "they act as they are bidden", means they accomplish their work according to instruction. Hence, the respected reader should not think the second statement is a repetition of the first statement if so claimed by commentators because it would not be correct. The first statement implies they do not abandon their assignment and the second statement means they carry out the instruction. Mulla Sadra, a Shi‘ite philosopher, uses both rational and theological arguments in defense of the infallibility of angels: "The sense of sin and fallibility is to contrast between lowly faculties and sublime faculties, where the soul wants superlative motives but motives and inner purposes contradict. These contradictions and contrasts are endemic to beings who are of a composite nature. In other words, beings are composed of contradictions and contrasting faculties, whereas angels are simple and not composed of anything." According to Sadra, the verse 16: 50 refers to infallibility of angels, in general. Sunni views on the ismah of angels varies, as it does with the prophets. Some assert, that only the messengers are infalliable. Ashari theologian Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi—in his book Tafseer ul Kabeer, on verse 66:6—said, "there is an indication in this verse that in the hereafter the angels are bound with obligations (like human beings in this world). They are under obligation, commands and prohibitions in the hereafter. The disobedience of angels lies in their opposition to Allah’s commandment and prohibition." Yet another Asharite, al-Taftazani (1322 AD –1390 AD), accepted that angels might slip into error and become disobedient, but rejected that angels would ever consciously turn against God's command and become unbelievers. Most scholars of Salafism usually reject accounts on erring angels entirely and do not investigate this matter further. History of the concept Ja'far Sobhani, a Shi‘ite scholar, claimed that the concept of Ismah originated from the Qur’an, regarding the prophet (Q53:3-4), angels (66: 6), and the Qur'an itself (41: 42) Dwight M. Donaldson regards the origin and importance of the concept of Ismah owes to the development of the theology of the Shi'ites in the period between the death of Muhammad and the disappearance of the Twelfth Imam.Ann Lambton claims that neither the term nor the concept of Ismah is found in either the Qur'an or in the canonical Sunni hadith. It was apparently first used by the Imamiyyah, perhaps around the beginning of the second century AH, to maintain that the Imam must be immune from sin (ma'sum). Hamid Algar states that the ascription of infallibility to the Imams is encountered as early as the first half of the 8th century, second century AH, and it was soon extended to the prophets. The doctrine came to exclude the commission of any sin or inadvertence on their part, either before or after their assumption of office. Regarding the concept of Ismah in the Shi‘i doctrine, Imams have a more central role compared to the caliph in Sunni political theory. Perhaps the evolution of this doctrine, as Donaldson suggests, caused Shi‘ite scholars to establish the claims of the Imamah against the claims of Sunni caliphs, so the doctrine was expanded and elaborated upon. According to Francis Robinson, though Shi'ism initially began as a movement of political opposition to the Caliphs, the belief that eventually developed was that the Imams possessed superhuman qualities of sinlessness and infallibility. Henry Corbin believed that historical criticism would be quiet, particularly about Ismah, and that what has been described altogether is hierohistory. He emphasized a phenomenogical approach, in that one must discover the aims of Shi‘ite awareness in order to share its vision; a vision which it has been acquiring ever since it began. Arguments about the concept of infallibility For Using the Qur’an and Ahadith In the perspective of Shi‘ites, Verse 4: 64 of the Qur’an expresses an absolute order to follow the messengers, so they must be infallible. Verse 4: 59 and other such verses express the virtues of obedience and the terrible results of disobedience. Allah orders the servants to obey Him and His messengers, who are equivalent, according to verse 4: 80. So, if the prophet be not infallible, it is a contradictory order. In other verses, He orders: Then do not obey the deniers (68: 8), And do not obey every worthless habitual swearer (68: 10), ...do not obey from among them a sinner or ungrateful [disbeliever] (76: 24). So, the messengers are to be obeyed, the sinners are not to be obeyed, the result is that the messengers are not sinful. The verse of purification implies that it is the will of Allah to purify none but the Ahl al-Bayt as free of any kind of sin, error, and defilement. Abundant traditions in Shia and Sunni hadith state that, by the term Ahl al-Bayt, the Five Pure People—or the Ahl al-Kisa, not including the prophets' wives—are meant. Shia interpretation of the verse of purification is based on the Hadith of Ahl al-Kisa’, which is an account of the Prophet gathering his four family members under his cloak. This is in accordance with scholars such as Wilferd Madelung, Momen, and Kardan, who claim that the verse of purification is proof of the purification of the Ahl al-Bayt. According to several Shi‘ite and Sunni ahadith, Muhammad clearly stated that ‘Ali was protected against sin and error, and that his sayings and deeds were consistent with teachings of Islam. The status of Imams as "proof of Allah to mankind" serves as an argument for their infallibility, and the words of the Household of the Prophet are complementary to the religious sciences, and authoritative and inerrant in the teachings of Islam, in the perspective of Shi‘ites. Provided that the obedience is compulsory, it may be concluded that the apostles and Ulil-Amr () are sinless. Many verses in the Qur’an order men not to obey the unjust. Instead in the Qur’an Allah orders the believers to follow the apostle and the Ulul-Amr, and joins that obedience to obedience to Him, with the condition that no difference of opinion exists between Ulul-Amr and the Messenger, in any matter: "O you who have believed, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is the best [way] and best in result." Philosophical and theological According to Shi‘ites, people know that they are possessed by Allah, but that acting while under that possession, without His permission, is evil. If they are to gain His favor, but can not be sure of the righteousness of their actions, there must be a prophet to give that permission, and to inform them of that which they do not know and of the rewards of obedience and punishments of disobedience. The prophets teach that which is needed to live a righteous life. In addition, according to philosophical and theological doctrines, to establish the rule of Grace and the clarity of the Divine message, Allah sent selected individuals as prophets to guide the people, to establish a social system, and to put an end to intellectual and social disputes. Thus, they believe that discharging of such a heavy responsibility is only possible if the prophet is immune from any error, and always reflects all aspects of truth and the Divine Will. Therefore, in their perspective, it is only in this way that people are guided and can form a wholesome social system, and that the philosophy behind the sending of the prophets necessitates their infallibility, and that their thoughts, actions, and sayings reflect Divine Will. Therefore, Allah does not guide via authoritative texts (i.e. the Qur'an and Hadith) alone, but also through specially endowed individuals known as Imams. Shi‘ites believe that status and authority attributed to Imams would have been senseless if they were prone to the same weaknesses found in ordinary people, therefore, that the prophets must be infallible (ma'sum) for the same reason that they were sent. In other words, they believe that the ismah or infallibility of the messengers establishes the authenticity of the message: To be required to follow a prophet who commits sin is a contradiction. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi regarded infallibility as fundamental for Imams in order to avoid contradiction ad infinitum, saying that it would be necessary to disclaim a prophet if he has committed any sin. Al-Hilli argued that man is naturally urban and cannot be satisfied out of society. Thus, conflict would unceasingly arise without an infallible to judge men. In Al-Alfayn, he emphasized the need for a ruler (ra'is) to preserve shari'a, to prevent men from committing aggression against each other, to restrain tyrants, and to help the oppressed. Without a leader, the Qur'an and Sunnah would not be observed. Inevitably there must be an Imam, immune from error and sin, appointed by Allah to specify the dimensions (ahkam) of shari'a. It is necessary for the prophet to be the best of his age, because Allah requires humankind to follow the one who guides them to the Truth. If the guide is imperfect, he cannot lead to the Truth. He said that a prophet is immune from sin from the first day of his life until the last day, because people do not like and trust someone who has perpetrated an immoral deed, even in the past; and it is clear that everyone likes to follow the sinless rather than the sinful, therefore, that a prophet must even be free from any kind of imperfection outside of himself, such as baseness of his father or debauchery of his mother, as well as imperfections relating to (1) his own character (akhlaq), such as harshness or crudeness; (2) his own condition (ahwal), such as association with corrupt people; and (3) his nature (tabi'a), such as insanity, dumbness, or being out of himself. Otherwise, the prophet will lose his position in the hearts of the people, his message will be as nonsense, and his mission will not be fulfilled. According to ‘Ali Tabatabaei, human beings should have a true vision of the real nature of man and the world, in order to identify and perform their true duties, and that there should be a religious government to execute the Islamic orders till the people can worship only Allah and enjoy personal and social justice, and that this goal is achieved only by an infallible person who is protected against faults by Allah. Motahhari regarded Ismah as necessary for the supreme authority in the religion. In other words, according to him, the Imam must be followed, and his words and actions are as an example and proof for others. Others believed that physical descent from the Prophet was never enough to make an Imam, but that Ismah or impeccability was a vital criterion for him. Against Zaydi Shi‘ites and non-Shi‘ites, such as the Kharijites, rejected the doctrine of Ismah, pointing to verse 48:2 of the Qur’an, in which God said to Muḥammad:"That God may forgive thee thy preceding and thy subsequent sin, and may complete his favour on thee, and direct thee in the right way ". Differing views of other sects Isma‘ilites also attribute Ismah to Imāms and Fatima Zahra, daughter of Muhammad. Sunnis have different opinions regarding Ismah: on lying and infidelity, Sunnis believe that prophets could not tell a lie, intentionally or unintentionally; they could not be Kafir before or after their assignment and also they do not commit other sins intentionally. Concerning major unintentional sins, the majority believes that the prophets could commit such sins; however, a minority says it is impossible. Regarding minor unintentional sins, most of them believe that the prophets could commit sin, though not such minor sins which would disgrace them in public. New interpretation among Shi‘ites A recent and very influential Shi‘ite interpretation of Ismah by Ruhollah Khomeini holds that truly faithful and pious Muslims—not just Prophets and Imams—could possess Ismah, because it could be created by "nothing other than perfect faith." He preached that "infallibility is borne by faith. If one has faith in Allah, and if one sees Allah with the eyes of his heart, like the sun, it would be impossible for him to commit a sin. In front of an armed powerful [master], infallibility is attained." Nasr Dabashi argues that Khomeini's theory of Ismah from faith was connected to his theory of Islamic government by guardianship of the jurist. If the truly faithful possessed Ismah, and if Khomeini and the most learned and pious Islamic jurists were truly faithful, than this would reassure Shi'ites hesitant about granting the same ruling authority to Khomeini and his successors that Shi'ites traditionally believed was reserved for the 12th Imam (Mahdi) on his return. According to Dabashi, Khomeini's theory helped "to secure the all-important attribute of infallibility for himself as a member of the awliyah'' (friends of God), by eliminating the theological problems of undermining the expectation of the Mahdi. " According to Mesbah-Yazdi, there is an intellectual argument that if getting to the ideal is impossible or difficult, then be satisfied with the less ideal concerning a matter. This argument is called "gradual degradation". See also Imamah Papal infallibility Impeccability Prophecy (Shia Islam) Notes Footnotes References Shia theology Islamic terminology Shia Islam
4901066	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coreen%20%26%20District%20Football%20League	Coreen & District Football League	The Coreen & District Football League was an Australian rules football competition in the Coreen district of the Riverina in New South Wales, initially formed in 1909. The netball competition commenced in 1972 in line with the football fixture. The league was disbanded at the end of the 2007 season after 99 years of competition. History: 1901 to 1931 It appears that the Coreen & District Football Association superseded the Federal Football Association and was formed after a meeting at Matt O'Brien's Burraja Hotel in April, 1909, from the following teams of - Burrajaa, Coreen, Redlands, Ringwood and Shannonvale. The Urana District Football Association was also formed in 1909 and catered for the Daysdale, Oaklands and Urana football clubs. Over the years the Coreen and District Football Association appears to have had a number of minor name changes to its title, swapping between "Shire" and "District" depending on the journalist's review of a meeting or what the newspaper editor chose as the association's name at that particular time or the title may of been abbreviated in the newspaper. It is difficult to accurately state what the official title of the association was without viewing the official minutes of meetings. What is of particular importance is the actual club's that competed in the association each year. In 1915, there was some opposition from locals expressing their opinion that young men playing football, would be better off serving their King and Country in the trenches to fight the enemies of the Empire, but the season was completed before going into recess from 1916 to 1918 due to WW1. In 1917, former Coreen Settler's FC captain, Ambrose Charles Filliponi was killed in action in France. The most radical change came in 1931, when the Coreen & DFA folded and three clubs joined the Corowa & District Football Association, then in 1936, the Corowa & DFA officially changed its title to the Coreen & DFA. More details below in the "History:1930 to 2007" section. Coreen FC played in nine consecutive grand finals between 1924 and 1931, winning three Coreen & DFA premierships in 1926, 1929 and 1930. There were a number of football associations formed in the early 1900s that local club's played in prior joining the Coreen & District Football Association in 1909. These associations played a vital role in providing football competitions in the Riverina and along the Murray River in local football's formative years prior to the Coreen & DFA being established in 1909. Riverina Football Association - 1901 Teams Bull Plain, Burryjaa, Clear Hills, Daysdale. Premiers: Burryjaa FC Clear Hills Football Association - 1902 - 1903 1902 Teams: Burryjaa, Clear Hills, Daysdale and Savernake. Premiers: Savenake FC 1903 Teams: Clear Hills, Daysdale and Savernake. Premiers: Daysdale FC. 1904 - The re-forming of Clear Hills Football Association fell through as Clear Hills FC refused to play against Daysdale, under their present captain. Savenake then joined the Berrigan Football Association. Federal Football Association - 1905 to 1908 There was a Riverina football competition established in 1905 around the Corowa and Mulwala area called the Federal Football Association. 1905 Teams: Burryjaa, Daysdale and Savenake, 1905 premiers: Daysdale FC 1906 Teams: Clear Hills, Coreen, Daysdale and Savenake, 1906 Premiers: Daysdale defeated Clear Hills in the grand final. 1907 Teams: Burryja, Clear Hills, Coreen, Daysdale and Savenake with Clear Hills and Daysdale tying on ladder points for the premiership. 1907 Premiers: Clear Hills defeated Daysdale in the play off to win the 1907 premiership. 1908 Teams: Burryja, Balldale, Coreen, Daysdale, Ringwood and Savernake. In 1908 there was very little football information available in the newspapers, but the Federal FA did advertise for Umpires in May, 1908. and in a May, 1908 article it states that Balldale FC joined a Coreen & District Football Association competition ? In the grand final, Balldale defeated Daysdale at Burrajaa to win the 1908 grand final. Corowa & District Football Association - 1906 & 1907. In 1906 the Corowa and District Football Association was formed and the following teams entered this competition – Balldale, Burryjaa, Corowa, Howlong and Wahgunyah. Corowa Football Club went onto win the premiership, finishing on top of the ladder, with seven wins from eight games. In 1907, Burrajaa joined the Federal FA, and the Corowa & DFA premiership was won by the Wahgunyah Football Club. In 1908, Corowa and Wahgunyah joined the Ovens & Murray Football Association, while Howlong FC won the Ovens & Murray Junior Football Association premiership in 1908. Note: The football club of Burrajaa, Burryjaa, Burryja, was spelt in a variety of ways in various newspapers between 1900 and 1950, with the most recent spelling of the club being settled as - "Buraja". Teams in the Coreen & DFL: 1909 to 1930 1909: Coreen & District Football Association Teams:5. Burrajaa, Coreen, Redlands, Ringwood and Shannonvale. 1910: Coreen District Football Association Teams:6. Burrajaa, Burrajaa Village, Coreen, Coreen Settlers, Daysdale and Ringwood. 1911: Coreen Shire Football Association Teams:6. Burrajaa, Burrajaa Village, Coreen, Coreen Settlers, Daysdale and Savenake. 1912: Coreen District Football Association Teams:4. Burrajaa Village, Coreen Settler's, Daysdale and Oaklands. 1913: Coreen & District Football Association Teams:4. Burryjaa, Coreen, Coreen Settlers and Daysdale. 1914: Coreen Shire Football Association. Teams:7. Balldale, Burrajaa, Burrajaa Village, Coreen, Coreen Settlers, Daysdale and Ringwood. 1915: Coreen Shire Football Association Teams:6. Balldale, Daysdale, Coreen Settlers, Lowesdale, Lowesdale Military and Redlands. 1916–1918: In recess – World War I 1919: Coreen District Football Association consisting of following five teams - Balldale, Buraja, Coreen, Daysdale and Oaklands. 1920: Coreen District Football Association. Teams:6. Balldale, Burraja, Coreen, Corowa, Daysdale and Oaklands. 1921: Coreen & District Football Association. Teams:6. Balldale, Burryjaa, Coreen, Daysdale, Hopefield and Ringwood. 1922: Coreen Football Association. Teams:7. Balldale, Burryjaa, Coreen, Daysdale, Hopefield, Ringwood and Wahgunyah. 1923: Coreen Football Association. Teams:4. Balldale, Burryjaa, Coreen and Daysdale. 1924: Coreen & District Football Association. Teams:5. Burrajaa, Coreen, Daysdale, Ringwood and Savernake. 1925: Coreen & District Football Association. Teams:6. Buraja, Coreen, Daysdale, Oaklands, Ringwood and Savernake. 1926: Coreen & District Football Association. Teams:6. Buraja, Coreen, Daysdale, Oaklands, Ringwood and Savernake. 1927: Coreen & District Football Association. Teams:6. Buraja, Coreen, Daysdale, Oaklands, Ringwood and Savernake. 1928: Coreen & District Football Association. Teams:6. Buraja, Coreen, Daysdale, Oaklands, Ringwood and Savernake. 1929: Coreen & District Football Association. Teams:6. Buraja, Coreen, Daysdale, Oaklands, Rand and Urana. 1930: Coreen & District Football Association. Teams:6. Coreen, Daysdale, Oaklands, Rand, Savernake and Urana. 1930: Corowa & District Football Association. Teams:6. Balldale, Brocklesby, Burraja, Corowa Stars, Howlong and Wahgunyah. The season of 1930 ended in dispute. Oaklands had played a man named Kennedy, with whom didn't meet the associations residency rules. A protest by the Coreen club led to the forfeiture of points and thus expulsion from the finals. Oaklands appealed the decision but the matter was not heard until long after the season and finals had been played. Eventually the appeal by Oaklands was upheld. Ill will between clubs led to Urana and Oaklands withdrawing from the association and joining another competition. The remaining clubs knowing that a three team competition wasn't ideal so they sort to play elsewhere. 1931: Coreen, Daysdale and Rand joined the Corowa & District FA in 1931, while Oaklands and Urana joined the Southern Riverina Football Association in 1931. In 1932, Oaklands and Urana both joined the Corowa & District Football Association, while Rand joined the Central Hume Football League in 1932. Premierships: 1909 to 1930 Coreen & District Football Association 1909 - Ringwood d Burryjaa (undefeated) 1910 - Daysdale d Ringwood 1911 - Daysdale (undefeated) 1912 - 1st: Daysdale 2nd: Coreen Settler's 1913 - Coreen Settler's d Daysdale 1914 - Coreen Settler's d Daysdale (undefeated) 1915 - Lowesdale Military d Daysdale 1916 - In recess: WWI 1917 - In recess: WWI 1918 - In recess: WWI 1919 - Coreen d Burryjaa who refused to play in the grand final at Daysdale. 1920 - Corowa d Daysdale 1921 - Balldale d Buraja 1922 - Balldale d Buraja 1923 - Balldale d Daysdale 1924 - Buraja d Coreen 1925 - Ringwood d Coreen 1926 - Coreen d Oaklands 1927 - Oaklands d Coreen 1928 - Oaklands d Coreen 1929 - Oaklands d Coreen (1st grand final) 1929 - Coreen d Oaklands (grand final replay due to protest & appeal) 1930 - Coreen d Rand Coreen & DFA Clubs: 1909 to 1930 Balldale: 1914 & 1915, 1919 - 1923. Joined the Riverina Main Line Football Association in 1924. Burrajaa: 1909 - 1911, 1913 & 1914. Merged with Burrajaa Village FC to form Lowesdale FC in 1915. 1919 - 1929. Joined the Corowa & DFA in 1930 Burrajaa Village: 1910 - 1912, 1914. Merged with Burrajaa FC to form Lowesdale FC in 1915. Coreen: 1909 - 11, (Coreen may of been in recess in 1912), 1913 & 1914, 1915 - merged with Coreen Settler's, (1916 - 1918 in recess - WW1), 1919 - 1930. Joined the Corowa & DFA in 1931. Coreen Settlers: 1910 - 1915. Most likely reverted to Coreen FC in 1919 after WW1. Corowa: 1920. Re-joined the Ovens & Murray Football League in 1921 and played there until 1940. Daysdale: 1910 - 1915, 1919 - 30. Joined the Corowa & DFA in 1931. Hopefield: 1922. Went into recess until 1946, when they re-joined the Coreen & DFA and played there until 1949. Merged with Burrajaa in 1950. Lowesdale: 1915. Club folded in 1916 due to WWI. Lowesdale Military: 1915. Club folded due to WWI. Oaklands (black & white): 1912, 1925 - 1930. Joined the Southern Riverina Football Association in 1931 Rand (blue & gold): 1929 & 1930. Joined the Corowa & DFA in 1931. Rand played in the Central Hume Football Association from 1932 to 1934. Rejoined the Coreen & DFL in 1935. Redlands: 1909 & 1915. Club folded. Ringwood: 1909 & 1910, 1914, 1921 & 1922, 1924 - 1928. Club folded. Savernake: 1911, 1924 - 1928, 1930. Club folded. Shannonvale: 1909. Club folded. Urana (pale blue & gold): 1929 & 1930. Joined the Southern Riverina Football Association in 1931. Wahgunyah: 1922. Joined the Chiltern & District Football Association in 1923 and played there until 1929, then joined the Corowa & DFA in 1930. History:1930 to 2007 The 1930 season of Coreen & District Football Association competition coincided with the first season of the Corowa and District Football Association, with Balldale winning the first of three consecutive Corowa & DFA premierships. As a result of a protest by the Oaklands FC and then an appeal to the Wagga Football Council and NSW National Football League as to the make up of the 1930 Coreen and District Football Association finals series and participating teams, due to a dispute over the eligibility of an Oaklands player, the Coreen & DFA folded after a delegates meeting in May, 1931, when it was moved 'that the forming of the association be temporarily suspended' with Coreen, Daysdale and Rand then joining the Corowa & DFA competition in 1931. Balldale then went on to defeat Coreen in the 1931 Corowa & District FA grand final. The Corowa and District competition ran from 1930 until 1935 when it took on the Coreen & District FA's name at its 1936 Annual General Meeting. In 1930, Mr. Jack Anderson - Balldale FC and W Hall - Howlong FC tied for the Pearce Medal for the best and fairest player award in the Corowa & District Football Association Corowa Stars played in the Corowa & District FA from 1930 to 1933. Corowa Stars decided to reform after their 1934 – AGM, but it appears they never got up and going and did not enter a team in any local competition and ultimately folded. Rand were undefeated during their 1937 premiership year. In 1944, there was a Coreen & District Junior Patriotic Football Association with Rennie defeating Coreen in the grand final at Coreen. There was a Coreen & District Junior Football League in 1945 with Oaklands defeating Rennie in the grand final which was played at Coreen. The Coreen & District Football Association reformed in April, 1946 after WW2 from the following six clubs - Coreen, Daysdale, Hopefield, Oaklands, Rennie and Urana. In 1953, Coreen FC President, Jack Kingston was re-elected for the 49th year. Daysdale played in six consecutive grand finals between 1961 and 1966, winning three premierships in 1961, 1962 and 1964. The junior (Under 16) competition commenced in 1975 and proved to be a very worth while breeding ground for future players, with several going onto to play VFL / AFL football, such as - John Longmire, Adam Houlihan, Damian Houlihan and Taylor Duryea. In 1994 the league comprised ten clubs: Coleambally, Coreen, Daysdale, Hopefield-Buraja, Jerilderie, Oaklands, Rand, Rennie, Urana and Victorian club Wahgunyah. It was also in that year that the Daysdale FC celebrated their 100th anniversary and they went onto win the senior football premiership. Jerilderie played in seven consecutive grand finals between 1995 and 2001, but only won two in 1999 and 2001. The Billabong Crows FC were formed when the Oaklands Football Club and Urana Football Club, both of which had been long standing rivals in the Coreen & District Football League, elected to merge in 2004. The six remaining Coreen & DFL clubs joined the following leagues during the 2007 post-season. Billabong Crows: Hume Football League Coreen-Daysdale-Hopefield-Buraja United: Hume Football League Coleambally: Hume Football League (Joined Farrer Football League in 2011) Jerilderie: Picola & District Football League Rennie: Hume Football League (Joined Picola & District Football League in 2009) Wahgunyah: Tallangatta & District Football League Former Clubs: 1930–2006 Balldale (1930–1934; 1974–1977) (blue & gold). Club folded. Blighty (1965–1968). Joined the Picola & District Football League in 1969. Boree Creek (1976–1978). Came from the Hume Football League in 1976. Club folded after 1978, then re-formed in 1982 to play in the Farrer Football League for one season, then folded for good. Brocklesby (1930) Joined the Albury & District Football League in 1931. Buraja (1930–1949). Became Hopfield Buraja FC in 1950. Coreen "Swans" (1931–1994). In 1995 merged with Daysdale to form the Coreen Daysdale United FC. Coreen-Daysdale "Saints" (1995–2005). in 2006 merged with Hopefield Buraja in 2006 to form the Coreen Daysdale Hopefield Buraja United FC "Saints". Corowa Stars "Stars"(1930–1933). Club folded after their 1934 AGM. Daysdale "Magpies" (1931–1994). In 1995 merged with Coreen to form the Coreen Daydale United FC. Hopefield (1946-1949). Merged with Buraja in 1950 to become Hopefield Buraja FC in 1950. Hopefield-Buraja "Bulldogs" (1950–2003). In recess in 2004 and 2005, then in 2006 merged with Coreen Daysdale to form Coreen Daysdale Hopefield Buraja United FC "Saints". Mulwala (1939–1940). Played in the Murray Valley North-East Football League in 1946 and 1947. Murray Magpies "Magpies" (1999–2006). Joined the Hume Football League in 2007. Oaklands "Hawks" (1932–2003). Merged with Urana FC to form the Billabong Crows FC in 2004 in the Coreen & DFA. Rand "Pigeons" (1930; 1935–2005). Merged with Walbundrie FC in 2006 and joined the Hume Football League. Rennie"Grasshoppers"(1932–2007). joined the Hume Football League in 2008, then joined the Picola & District Football League in 2009. Rutherglen Corowa "Cats" (1979–1991). Played in the Ovens & King Football League from 1992 to 2003. Rutherglen Reserves "Redlegs"(1950–1952). Joined the Ovens & Murray Football League Reserves competition in 1953. South Corowa (1947–1956). Withdrew from the Coreen & DFA in April, 1957 and subsequently folded. Urana "Bombers" (1932-1935;1946–1951;1973–2003). Merged with Oaklands FC to form the Billabong Crows in 2004 in the Coreen & DFA. Urana-Cullivel "Spiders"'' (1952–1972) Premierships: Football: 1930 to 2007 Senior Premierships: 1930–2007 Coreen & District Football Association - 1909 to 1930. Corowa & District Football Association - 1930 to 1935. Coreen & District Football League - 1936 to 2007. CDHBU: Coreen Daysdale Hopefield Buraja United Reserves: 1976–2007 1976: Oaklands 1977: Wahgunyah 1978: Wahgunyah 1979: Rutherglen-Corowa 1980: Rennie d Rutherglen-Corowa 1981: Hopefield-Buraja d Rutherglen-Corowa 1982: Rutherglen-Corowa d Hopefield Buraja 1983: Rennie d Wahgunyah 1984: Wahgunyah d Rutherglen-Corowa 1985: Rutherglen-Corowa d Wahgunyah 1986: Rutherglen-Corowa d Hopefield Buraja 1987: Rutherglen-Corowa d Coreen 1988: Rutherglen-Corowa d Wahgunyah 1989: Rennie d Rutherglen-Corowa 1990: Rennie d Rutherglen-Corowa 1991: Coreen d Rutherglen-Corowa 1992: Coreen d Wahgunyah 1993: Coreen d Wahgunyah 1994: Coreen d Rand 1995: Rennie d Coreen 1996: Rennie d Coleabally 1997: Wahgunyah 1998: Coleabally d Wahgunyah 1999: Wahgunyah 2000: Murray Magpies 2001: Murray Magpies d Coleabally 2002: Wahgunyah d CDHBU 2003: Coleabally d Murray Magpies 2004: Wahgunyah d Murray Magpies 2005: Coreen-Daysdale d Murray Magpies 2006: Coleabally d CDHBU 2007: Wahgunyah d Billabong Crows Thirds / Under 16s: 1980–2007 1975: Hopefield Buraaja c Oaklands 1976: Oaklands d Daysdale 1977: Hopefield Buraaja d Oaklands 1978: Wahgunyah d Oaklands 1979: Rutherglen-Corowa d Hopefield Buraaja 1980: Rutherglen-Corowa d Daysdale 1981: Rutherglen-Corowa d Wahgunyah 1982: Rutherglen-Corowa d Hopefield Buraja 1983: Rutherglen-Corowa d Rennie 1984: Rutherglen-Corowa d Rennie 1985: Rutherglen-Corowa d Rennie 1986: Rennie d Rutherglen-Corowa 1987: Wahgunyah d Rutherglen-Corowa 1988: Hopefield-Buraja d Rutherglen-Corowa 1989: Urana d Wahgunyah 1990: Rutherglen-Corowa d Oaklands 1991: Oaklands d Wahgunyah 1992: Oaklands d Hopefield Buraja 1993: Oaklands d Coleambally 1994: Jerilderie d Coleambally 1995: Coleambally d Rand 1996: Rand d Hopefield Buraja 1997: Jerilderie 1998: Wahgunyah d CDHBU 1999: Murray Magpies 2000: Murray Magpies 2001: Coleambally d Jerilderie 2002: Jerilderie d Wahgunyah 2003: Coreen-Daysdale d Jerilderie 2004: Jerilderie d CDHBU 2005: Jerilderie d CDHBU 2006: Jerilderie d Wahgunyah 2007: Wahgunyah d Jerilderie Fourths / Under 13s: 2006–2007 2006: Rennie d Coreen-Daysdale-Hopefield-Buraja United 2007: Coreen-Daysdale-Hopefield-Buraja United d Billabong Crows Senior Football Awards Coreen & District Football League Best & Fairest Award & Leading Goalkicker Awards Senior Football Mr. F A Pearce of Corowa donated a best and fairest medal in 1930. In 1932, Mr. Fred Mason donated a gold medal for the best and fairest player, to be decided on by votes from the match umpires. The Kingston Cup was first awarded in 1938 and donated by Mr. Jack Kingston. Charles A. Wilson Medal (Wilson was a former Secretary of the Coreen & DFA & the medal donor) Archie Dennis Memorial Trophy / Medal. Archie Crawford Dennis was a former Rennie farmer, 1938 Rennie premiership player, Coreen & DFA representative player, Corowa footballer and former President (1946) and Vice President of the Coreen & DFA, who died tragically in a motor car accident in 1948, aged 36. He was a WW2 veteran too. The award was changed from a trophy to a medal in 1983. Oldest winner: 1966: John Voss, Wahgunyah, 37 years old. Youngest winner: 1963: Mick Dowdle, Jerilderie, 16 years old. Four x Archie Denis Medal wins: John Voss, Wahgunyah; Peter Carroll, Coreen and Tyson Maloney, Oaklands & Billabong Crows. Ray Warford also won three Ovens & King Football League best and fairest awards in 1953, 1955 and 1956 with Moyhu FC. Warford also played in Granya's 1946 Tallangatta & District Football League's premiership and played with South Melbourne Football Club Reserves in 1949. He then played in Wangaratta's 1950 Ovens & Murray Football League premiership. Jim Sandral also won three Ovens & Murray Football League best and fairest awards in 1959, 1962 and 1964 with Corowa. Sandral was also runner up in Archie Denis Medal in 1966, 67, 68, 69 and 1970. 1956 - Melbourne Football Club VFL premiership player. 1995 - Won on a countback from Robbie Burgess - Urana & C Williams - Oaklands. Most goals in a senior C&DFL match 24 - Peter Lovell - 1985 - Coleambally v Rand 22 - Peter Tobias - 1985 - Wahgunyah v Hopefield Buraja 20 - Johnathan Creenaune - 2004 - Coreen Daysdale Hopefield Buraja United v Urana Most goals in a finals series Elimination Final: Qualifying Final: First Semi Final: 11 - B Hill v Rand, 1994 Second Semi Final: 10 - Phil Azzi, Brocklesby v Corowa Stars, 1930 & 10 - Rod Lavis, Hopefield Buraja v Oaklands, 1982 Preliminary Final: 11 - D Quirk, Coreen v Urana, 1952 Grand Final: 10 - George Tobias, Rennie v Coreen, 1983 Reserves Football Awards This Coreen & DFL Reserves competition commenced in 1980. Thirds Football Awards This Coreen & DFL Thirds (Under16's) football competition commenced in 1975. 1990 - Danny Shiers won on a countback from Bradley Roach. Between 1993 and 2007, the Thirds goalkicking totals were not published in the Coreen & DFA grand final record. 2005 Ladder FINALS 2006 Ladder FINALS 2007: 99th & Final Season Coreen & DFL - Office Bearers See also AFL NSW/ACT Australian rules football in New South Wales References External links Coreen & District Football League Finals History Book, 1894-1994. Compiled by Alan Norman, foreword by Dave Lewis Coreen & DFL Football Records Collection Official Coreen & District Football League website 1914 - Coreen & District FA Premiers: Coreen Settlers FC team photo 1938 - Coreen & District Football Association Officials 1939 - Coreen & District FA Premiers: Rennie FC team photo 1946 - Coreen FC & Rennie FC team photos 1947 - Hopefield FC team photo 1949 - Coreen & District FA Premiers: Wahgunyah FC team photo 1960 - Coreen & District FL Premiers: Hopefield Buraja FC team photo 2007 - Farewell Coreen League Local footy to honour old Coreen League Australian rules football in Australia Defunct Australian rules football competitions in New South Wales Sport in the Riverina Sports leagues established in 1909 1909 establishments in Australia 2007 disestablishments in Australia
4901124	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Class%20%28TV%20series%29	The Class (TV series)	The Class is an American sitcom that originally ran on CBS from September 18, 2006, to March 5, 2007. The series followed the lives of eight very different alumni of the fictional Woodman Elementary School. The show was created by David Crane and Jeffrey Klarik's production company CraneKlarik in association with Warner Bros. Television. On May 16, 2007, CBS cancelled the series after one season. Premise The Class revolves around a core group of eight 28-year-olds who were all in the same third-grade class 20 years ago. A former classmate brings them all together for a party to celebrate his engagement to a girl he met in the class. However, she ends up dumping him at the party as the reunited classmates get to know each other. "They have separate lives and there are few connections that exist beforehand," Klarik said. "But through the course of the series, connections are made between the characters. It's about following their individual lives – there's no one living room where they gather." Cast and characters Starring cast Jason Ritter as Ethan Haas Lizzy Caplan as Kat Warbler Heather Goldenhersh as Lina Warbler Jesse Tyler Ferguson as Richie Velch Jon Bernthal as Duncan Carmello Andrea Anders as Nicole Allen (née Campbell) Sean Maguire as Kyle Lendo Lucy Punch as Holly Ellenbogen Recurring cast Julie Halston as Tina Carmello David Keith as Yonk Allen Sam Harris as Perry Pearl Jaime King as Palmer Wyland Sara Gilbert as Fern Velch Cristián de la Fuente as Aaron Karley Scott Collins as Oprah Pearl Trent Ford as Benjamin Chow Characters Ethan L. Haas planned the ultimate surprise party for his beloved fiancée, Joanne Richman (Kasey Wilson): a reunion with their third-grade classmates to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the day they met. But Joanne felt he was smothering her and left. He is a pediatrician with a golden retriever, like his ex-fiancée. He met a woman named Sue who mistook him for a guy named Dan with whom she was supposed to have a blind date. When Ethan told Sue that he had lied about his identity at Oprah's birthday party (after many people, including Holly Ellenbogen, Perry Pearl, and Kyle Lendo, called him by his real name), she dumped him. He has developed a strong friendship with Kat and they have spent much time together. Ethan was the one who found out about Kat's boyfriend, Benjamin Chow, cheating on her with a girl named Susan, from Benjamin's son Jonah (who is one of Ethan's patients). By the end of the series, Ethan discovered he has romantic feelings for Kat and the storyline ended with him trying to pursue them. Kat Warbler is Lina's cynical fraternal twin sister whose sarcastic tongue hides her kind heart. She is a freelance photographer. She helps Ethan cope after he is dumped; behind her cynicism, she seems attracted to him. The two share a strong friendship. Her birthday is adjacent to Son of Sam's. She dated a world-famous violinist named Benjamin Chow, whom she had stalked for months, until she found that he had another girlfriend named Susan. She broke up with him when she asked him about it. Her storyline ended with her appearing to have a one-night stand with Duncan Carmello after she visits his house looking for her sister Lina, who was at the hospital. Lina Warbler, Kat's fraternal twin sister, wears her heart on her sleeve and remains optimistic about love. She received the telephone call about Ethan's party just as she found her boyfriend Adam, in her bed with another woman. She hit it off with Richie at the party, but their budding relationship has encountered significant obstacles – particularly, the revelation that Richie is married; although, it seems that she has forgiven him. After their first date, Richie accidentally ran over Lina's feet with his car, breaking 52 bones and causing her to wear casts until "The Class Has to Go to a Stupid Museum". She also got lost in a hurricane and was sent flying into a hybrid car holding her umbrella, which she said made her feel like Mary Poppins. Lina, a vegetarian, hosts a dinner party where she serves Moroccan chicken that Richie calls "The Hitler of Chickens". Lina and Richie became informally engaged at the end of the series. Duncan Carmello was a well-liked boy in school and is now a contractor who still lives with his mother, Tina Carmello. He had a relationship with Nicole Allen in high school but dumped her, a decision he now regrets. In "The Class Has a Snowday", it was revealed that he dumped her because she was "being a bitch" the night of Valentine's Day. After they spent the night of the party together, he got a job renovating her house while trying to win her back. In "The Class Springs a Leak", he had finished the renovations, prompting Nicole to decide whether she wants to stay with Yonk or leave him for Duncan. She chose Duncan, but she second-guessed it when Yonk landed in the hospital. Duncan refused to leave the relationship in limbo; his storyline ended with him appearing to have a one-night stand with Kat Warbler. Kyle Lendo was a popular boy in school; all the girls were in love with him. He took Holly Ellenbogen to their senior prom, but at the afterparty he was caught in bed with Michael from his Spanish class. He is now a first-grade teacher at Pembridge Academy, an elite private school, and lives with his boyfriend, Aaron. He goes to the reunion party hoping to make amends. He enjoys watching television, especially when Holly is reporting on the news. He has become good friends with Ethan since the party for Holly's daughter Oprah, where Ethan pretended to be someone named Dan Slutski. He also plays racquetball with Ethan. He appeared to lose contact with Holly after "The Class Runs into a Convenience Store". Richard (a.k.a. Richie) Brittany Velch was a quiet kid whose life had gone downhill since third grade; Ethan's party invitation interrupted nothing less than his suicide attempt. He and Lina hit it off at the party, but he accidentally ran over her feet with his car afterwards. At the hospital, an angry Kat told him to stay away and he went back to finish his suicide. He was just swallowing the pills when Kat called to tell him that Lina's first words were a request to see him again. Prior to the reunion, Richie had been a researcher at a pharmaceutical company; but after blowing the whistle on his employer, he lost that job and had to take another one trucking toxic waste to a landfill in New Jersey. He later reunited with Duncan Carmello, who was installing wheelchair ramps in Lina's apartment. Duncan invited him to help renovate Nicole and Yonk Allen's house and even offered him a permanent position upon completion of that job. Though (unhappily) married when he met Lina, he left his wife soon afterwards – something he'd been trying to work up the courage to do for years. At the series' end, he proposed to Lina and she accepted. In high school, he worked at the local RadioShack and had a crush on Melanie Deacon. Nicole Allen (formerly Nicole Campbell) is a pretty woman who was popular in high school. She was in love with Duncan, but he dumped her on Valentine's Day. She is now the unfulfilled, but loving, trophy wife of former pro-football player Yonk Allen. After the party, she spent the night with Duncan but went back to her husband. When Duncan visited her house, he realized he'd been on the construction crew for it. He pointed out how badly it had been built, and Nicole got Yonk to agree to hire Duncan to fix it up. Yonk knew so little about his wife's likes and dislikes that he gifted her a stripping pole for their anniversary. In "The Class Springs a Leak", Nicole decided to leave Yonk for Duncan – but in the final episode, she expresses doubt after Yonk suffers a heart attack. Her final decision is unknown. Holly Ellenbogen was Kyle Lendo's senior prom date, but she was heartbroken when she discovered him cheating on her with a guy at the afterparty. She is now a successful television news reporter. She is married to Perry Pearl, an interior decorator; they have a daughter, Oprah Pearl. Holly attended the reunion party mainly to rub her happiness in Kyle's face. Oprah is eventually admitted to Pembridge Academy and enrolled in Kyle's first-grade class. Holly seems oblivious to her husband's embodiment of a flamboyantly gay stereotype, a running joke among the other classmates. She apparently gets this trait from her mother, who is also married to an effeminate man. The character's final appearance was somewhat of a cliffhanger in "The Class Visits a Bad Neighborhood", in which Fern Velch vows over the phone to "get her" after Richie, at gunpoint, tells her he is dating "Holly Ellenbogen" – blurting out what he thought sounded like a made-up name – to protect Lina. Actress Lucy Punch left the show due to creative changes implemented by the executive producers. But Perry makes an appearance in both "The Class Has a Snow Day" and the finale, confirming that Holly is okay. Recurring characters Tina Carmello is Duncan's mother, who means well but can sometimes be a bit overbearing. She did show understanding when Nicole came by her house to be with Duncan, and she left them alone. She frequently appears at unexpected times – particularly when she is revealed to be eavesdropping on Duncan's telephone conversations. According to Duncan, she also steals. Yonk Allen is a legendary University of Tennessee and Philadelphia Eagles football player and spokesman for a line of barbecue grills (of which it turns out that one in every fifty blow up). He seems to put his personal achievements – including playing in the Super Bowl, earning money from his barbecue grill endorsements, and having dinner at the White House – ahead of Nicole and her feelings. He is aware of his wife's and Duncan's former relationship; while uncomfortable with it, he uses Duncan to get insight into his wife's psyche. Nicole is his third wife. His first wife's name is unknown. His second is named Eileen; he is still in contact with her. He's also mistaken Nicole for her at least once. He has at least two daughters from previous marriages: one who is attractive, and one who inherited his build and her mother's personality; an unrefined character named Penny. He is good friends with Jerry Rice. At the end of "The Class Rides a Bull", he has a heart attack. He undergoes a quintuple bypass surgery; his fate is unknown. Perry Pearl is Holly's husband, a highly effeminate man. Kyle and Aaron find him to be an amusing stereotype of a "gay" personality: he is very excitable, acts as the family gourmand, regularly instructs his wife on how to dress, and purposely failed to hire puppeteers for his daughter's birthday party so that he would have an excuse to put on his own sock-puppet musical revue. But despite all this, he is, according to himself, heterosexual. He appears to have a platonic boy-crush on Aaron. Perry is an interior decorator, and was hired by Nicole Allen to redecorate her home. Palmer Wyland is Ethan's ex-girlfriend. She went to art school with Kat, who strongly dislikes her. Palmer used to have a crush on Kat. She is also a photographer, and usually takes pictures of fruit in costumes, which annoys Kat. She is known not to be particularly bright. Her relationship with Ethan is more sexual than serious. They recently broke up. Fern Velch, Richie's ex-wife, works as a cleaning lady in Lina's office. She was his first (and only) girlfriend in college. Richie has recently left her after years of unhappiness. She responded with a death threat to Holly Ellenbogen (the woman whom she thought stole Richie away). It was revealed in the episode "The Class Hits It" that Richie had only ever slept with Fern, and that she'd literally booed him during intercourse. She also complained that it was like a damp, old man was dying on top of her. Aaron is Kyle's live-in boyfriend. Holly has difficulty understanding him, supposedly due to his heavy Hispanic accent, though in reality it is not very strong. He is not fond of Holly, but tolerates her for Kyle's sake. He is a software engineer for an internet security company. Sometime after "The Class Hits It", he travels to Chile and returns at the end of "The Class Goes Back to the Hospital". Oprah Liza Pearl is the name of Holly and Perry's daughter, whom Perry named after Oprah Winfrey and Liza Minnelli. Her babysitter's name is Samantha. She has a birthday in the episode "The Class Celebrates a Birthday". She attends Pembridge Academy, where Kyle Lendo is her teacher. Benjamin Chow is an internationally known English violinist, and Kat's ex-boyfriend. Kat used to stalk him before they dated (and he did forgive her after he found out). Kat was actually his mistress; he has a girlfriend named Susan. He has a son, Jonah, who is one of Ethan's patients. Penny Allen is Yonk's daughter, and Nicole's stepdaughter. Her biological mother is Yonk's first wife. She has been described as having Yonk's build and her mother's (presumably unpleasant) personality. Yonk nicknames her "Shrek" and Duncan nicknames her "The Creature". She doesn't appreciate waiting for food. Production history Conception The idea for The Class and the ...teacher came about when show creators David Crane and Jeffrey Klarik were cleaning their basement and they found a box of David Crane's school photographs of him with his third grade class. The pair wondered what the third graders were like now and if they were happy with their lives or not. Due to the overwhelming reputation of the creators, CBS, Fox, and NBC made bids for a full 13-episode season, the latter network was also reported to have offered a 22 episode commitment, prior to seeing a pilot. Ultimately, CBS won the bidding war with an undisclosed amount. Casting In December 2005, English actress Lucy Punch was the first lead to be cast for the show. Next to be cast, in January 2006, were Jason Ritter and Jesse Tyler Ferguson as Ethan Haas and Richie Velch, respectively. In February 2006 Jon Bernthal, Heather Goldenhersh, and Andrea Anders (who at the time was still part of the cast of Friends spin off Joey, which was on hiatus) were cast as Duncan Carmello, Lina Warbler, and Nicole Allen. Legendary sitcom director James Burrows was also announced to be directing the pilot. In March 2006 Eve star Sean Maguire was cast as Kyle Lendo. Last to be cast was Lizzy Caplan as the cynical Kat Warbler. Caplan was still part of The WB drama Related at the time. Related was cancelled due to the merger of UPN and The WB to create The CW. Also, during the middle of 2006, it was announced that Julie Halston, Sam Harris, and David Keith had been cast in co-starring roles. It was later announced that Roseanne's Sara Gilbert had been cast in the recurring role of Fern Velch, Richie Velch's wife. Broadcast history The Class premiered at 8:00 p.m. on September 18, 2006, on CBS, after being picked up by CBS before they had even seen the pilot episode, The Class Reunites, possibly due to the reputation of its creators, one of which created Friends, the other, a producer of Mad About You. Everybody Loves Raymond showrunner Phil Rosenthal stated that a proposed spin-off of his long-running series (focusing on Brad Garrett as Ray's brother) was passed over by CBS so that The Class could make it to series. As of October 9, 2006, CBS shifted the show to the 8:30 p.m. time slot, because its disappointing ratings were affecting the success of How I Met Your Mother in its second year. The ratings then began to steadily improve, and, on Monday October 23, 2006, CBS ordered six more episodes of The Class, bringing the episode order for the first season to 19. The pickup was conditional on the cost to CBS per episode being reduced compared to the initial episode order – this was the catalyst to Lucy Punch being fired from the show as there wasn't enough money to continue the show with eight main cast members, and also saw the total staff numbers halved. The Class was the first sitcom to show a live table read session and a live rehearsal. They were shown on Monday January 15, 2007 at 11am PST and Wednesday January 17, 2007 at 1pm PST, respectively. The webcasts were available after the live feed as well. The Class ended its first season on March 5, 2007. Cancellation On May 11, 2007, Zap2It reported that The Class had been canceled, with rumors it was to be replaced by The New Adventures of Old Christine. On May 15, 2007, Variety reported that The Class would not return for a second season. On May 16, 2007, The Class was officially canceled at the CBS Upfront presentation, and replaced with The Big Bang Theory. On May 17, 2007, Jesse Tyler Ferguson posted a message on his MySpace page relating to the cancellation, as did Sam Harris, explaining that the fate of The Class was undecided until the last minute. Shortly after the cancellation, fans of the show launched a campaign to try to save The Class. The campaign proved to be unsuccessful. The campaign consisted of sending erasers, because of their connection to a school and education, and sending in printed off Moroccan Chicken recipes because of a memorable episode of The Class which saw Lina cooking Moroccan Chicken for Kat, Ethan, Benjamin, Palmer, Richie, Kyle, Duncan, and Nicole. Episodes Every episode was directed by James Burrows. American television ratings Standard ratings Key: "Rating" is the estimated percentage of all TVs tuned to the show, "share" is the percentage of all TVs in use that are tuned in. "18–49" is the percentage of all 18- to 49-year olds watching the program. "Viewers" is the estimated number of actual people watching, in millions. "Rank" is the place in which the episode ranked up against all of the shows broadcast during the week that the episode was aired. Seasonal ratings Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of The Class on CBS: Note: Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May, or occasionally early June, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps. Ratings competition The Class aired against Prison Break on Fox, Deal or No Deal on NBC, Wife Swap on ABC, and All of Us on The CW. During the first few episodes The Class was up against 7th Heaven and then Everybody Hates Chris. The Class consistently surpassed Wife Swap, All of Us, 7th Heaven, and Everybody Hates Chris in the ratings. Reception Critical reaction The Class received mostly mixed reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, 44% of 9 critics gave it a positive review, with an average rating of 7.4/10. Metacritic gave it a rating of 59 out of 100 based on reviews from 27 critic, indicating mixed or average reviews. The most positive reviews came from The Philadelphia Inquirer and The Hollywood Reporter. Awards The Class won the Favorite New TV Comedy Award at the 33rd People's Choice Awards. It was up against 30 Rock and 'Til Death. 30 Rock and 'Til Death were both renewed for second seasons while The Class was not. The Class was also nominated by the Art Director's Guild for Excellence in Production Design for a Multi Camera Television Series, this was for the Pilot episode, The Class Reunites. Mad TV won the award. In July 2007, The Class was nominated for the 59th Primetime Emmy Award in the category of Outstanding Art Direction for a Multi-Camera Series, the show lost to How I Met Your Mother. Won People's Choice Award — Favorite New TV Comedy: Also Nominated: 30 Rock, 'Til Death Nominated Art Directors Guild — Excellence in Production Design for a Multi Camera Television Series: for the episode "The Class Reunites" Emmy Award — Outstanding Art Direction for a Multi-Camera Series: for the episode "The Class Reunites" References External links TV Series Finale – An article on show's future as of March 3, 2007 CBS original programming 2000s American sitcoms 2006 American television series debuts 2007 American television series endings Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios Television shows set in Philadelphia Class reunions in popular culture English-language television shows Television series created by David Crane (producer) Television episodes directed by James Burrows
4901138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle%20Australian%20Football%20League	Newcastle Australian Football League	The Newcastle Australian Football League was an Australian rules football competition in the Hunter region around the city of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia. The first clubs (Northumberland, Lambton, Newcastle City, Singleton and Wallsend & Plattsburg) began playing against each other in 1883. Originally known as the Northern District Football Association, the first premiers, Newcastle City, were declared in 1886. However the competition proper began in 1888 with teams contesting for the Black Diamond Cup, now Australia's oldest sporting trophy and was contested in the Black Diamond Australian Football League and continues to be contested in the AFL Hunter Central Coast competition. In 1894, popularity of Australian rules waned. In 1948, after World War II, a 4 team competition was reborn - the first properly constituted competition in the region. The competing clubs were Waratah, Mayfield, Newcastle City and Broadmeadow. After the 1999 season, the NAFL merged with the Central Coast AFL to form the Black Diamond Australian Football League. History 1890s The history of Australian rules football in the Hunter Region dates back to 1881 when a club named Northumberland was founded. Rugby union was the only other football code played in the region at that same era, which had been introduced since 1876. During the 1880s over 14,000 people were enticed to the Newcastle district due to the coal mining industry that was rapidly expanding. Three brothers, George, Jim and John Duguid introduced the sport in 1883 and had previously played football on the goldfields of Ballarat. That same year was when the game was being played formally with the first clubs being formed. The foundation clubs were Newcastle City, Northumberland (Maitland), Singleton, Lambton and Wallsend & Plattsburg. Games in 1883 were played in the form of scratch matches and were hastily organised by the five clubs, each of these games seeing a large crowd attendance. The same year of 1883 saw the South Melbourne Football Club visit Maitland on July 17, 1883, to play against a team combined of clubs from Newcastle and Maitland, with South winning the game 6.9.47 to 5.10.40 at the Albion Ground in front of a crowd of approximately 500. The game was part of an onslaught by Victorian administrators to grow the game Australia wide, with the Victorian Football Association believing that the long-term future of the game was for it to be accepted in all six states. The first recorded schoolboys game took place in 1885 between the Wickham and Wallsend Superior schools, Wickham winning 2.10.22 to 0.5.5. Sydney schools took well to the game but it didn't receive the same amount of support within Newcastle schools, the publicity being rare and only four schools in Newcastle playing competitively. The Northern District Football Association was established the following year in 1886 on August 30 when the momentum grew to start a competition for the sport in the district. Representatives from Wallsend, Newcastle City and Northumberland, as well as representatives from the Mount Zion, Carlton, Stockton, Summer Hill clubs. The month before in late July 1886, the Northern District side played host to a Queensland side at the Newcastle Cricket Ground in front of 1,500 people. The game was played while the Northern District side was on the way to an inter-colonial match in Sydney. The Fitzroy Football Club visited Newcastle in 1888, followed by Port Melbourne the following year in 1889. Fitzroy were set to play a set of four matches during their Newcastle tour: May 26th vs Maitland District at the Albion Ground, May 29th vs Maitland Juniors at the Albion Ground, May 31 vs Newcastle District and June 2nd vs Combined North, both in Newcastle. These tours provoked latent celebrations and festivities, and created an unrivalled interest in Australian rules. Both Fitzroy and Port Melbourne were defeated by the Northern District side during their visits, with the Northern District side emerging victorious over Queensland in 1886, again in 1888 over Lillywhite's Rugby Union team and finally a New Zealand Māori side in 1889. By this time, Summer Hill had joined the NDFA and junior teams in Centennials, Carltons and Warwicks. An exhibition game was played in Easter of 1889 in the town of Dungog, north of Maitland, with Merewether joining the NDFA that same year. Exhilaration in Australian rules intensified around the same time as the Black Diamond Challenge Cup was introduced by the Northern District FA. The Black Diamond Challenge Cup created a strong feeling of elation and interest, with association games and representative games being played in front of many numbers of spectators, making Australian rules football the premier sport in the district. A game between Wallsend and Northumberland drew a crowd of almost 4,000 people. Fitzroy returned to Newcastle in 1889 and faced Wallsend, with the game attracting over 5,000 spectators. Special trains, buses and ferries were undertaken for followers to attend the games. Later in 1889 a combined Northern District side travelled to Victoria to play a series of matches against the VFA, Ballarat, Carlton, St Kilda and Fitzroy. The Wallsend club saw a big advantage with the town's two large mines attracting a large number of migrants, many of which were from goldfields in Victoria, and making Wallsend the largest settlement outside of Newcastle. The club had been the dominant club in the competition since 1884 and played Sydney for the premiership of the Colony the following year in 1885. At least 2,000 people watched Wallsend emerge victorious over Sydney at the Wallsend Cricket Ground. However, Wallsend lost the following year, and were not able to win the championship again until 1889. Wallsend played a Tasmanian side in 1890 and recorded a draw. The Northern District Football Association introduced a junior competition in 1888 and was looking at protecting clubs with less experience from heavy losses by the Wallsenders, in conjunction with the senior association to counter the wider standards in standards of playing. However the association had to use a handicapping system for Duncanson Cup matches as there wasn't enough teams to form two grades. This turned out to be unsuccessful, with Wallsend again emerging victorious and the extra men reported to be more of an impediment. Depression In the 1890s the sport began to diminish by the combined effects of the depression at the time, as well as the decline of mines in Newcastle and unsound administration, just as it has established itself as the premier sport in the region and had prospered from the spike in population during the mining boom of the 1880s. Over 7,000 people left the Hunter region, many of those being followers of Australian football. Interest in the game plummeted as cubs were struggling to field teams. By 1895, there was not more Australian rules in Newcastle. Many former players converted to rugby union. Clubs in the Northern District Football Association from 1881–94 A number of clubs had competed in the NDFA from 1881 to 1894 due to the popularity of football, but many had folded within a year, often due to lack of experience 1881: Northumberland 1883: Lambton, Singleton, Newcastle City, Wallsend & Plattsburg 1885: West Maitland Half Holiday Club 1886: Stockton 2nds, Carlton 2nds, Summer Hill, Mount Zion, Rix's Creek, Morpeth 1887: Our Boys 2nds, Hamilton, Northumberland 2nds, Oakhampton 2nds, Lochinvar 1888: Wallsend Juniors, Merewether, Burwood United 1890: Tighes Hill, Broadmeadow Juniors, Charlestown, Vulcans, Rovers, Hamilton Juniors 1900s Some unsuccessful attempts were made to restore Australian rules in Newcastle in 1903, 1919 and 1935. An earlier attempt was made in 1898 which saw the reformation of clubs in Maitland and Wallsend before falling away again in 1903. By 1903, the economy had recovered from the depression of the 1890s. The New South Wales Australian National Football League (NSWANFL) encouraged the now-named Northern District Football League to expand the number of clubs to 18 and number of grades of 3 in 1904. Further support for football was expected to go back up when the Melbourne Football Club visited Newcastle later in 1904. However, only three clubs were skilful enough to play in the senior competition, in which the league asked clubs to develop juniors in an ill-fated attempt to create more senior teams in 1906. By this time many mines in Newcastle were shut down with miners forced to seek employment elsewhere. That same year saw the number of teams reduced to 11 with only one club, Hamilton, remaining in 1907 and the NDFL disbanding before the season had started. It wasn't until 1919 when the game was played again in Newcastle when miners from Broken Hill, along with 17,000 other people drawn to Newcastle looking for work in heavy industries, set in motion the formation of the Newcastle Australian Rules Football League (NARFL). Most of the players were miners from Broken Hill, Sydney, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia. The league saw the entry of industry-based clubs BHP, Nailworks and Rylands, as well as the code's confinement to people working in the industry. The sporting public of Newcastle didn't accept Australian rules football, with rugby league being the most popular code in the region by this time, and crowds were small at games with only three to four teams making up the competition. St Kilda, who were now in the Victorian Football League, visited Newcastle again in 1922, making the NARFL confident that the game would gain ground again. During the early 1920s unemployment and legacies from World War I that had ended just four years prior, brought Newcastle to a halt, prompted a number of its population to move away and saw the recession of the league in 1922 and 1923, which destroyed the minuscule possibility of the sport's revival. Nailworks had folded and both BHP and Rylands had been heavily weakened. The economy had recovered again in 1924 but Australian rules football didn't, and went into recess in 1925 before returning again in 1935. The game returned with the help from players from Sydney, Broken Hill and various other places across Australia trying to find jobs in the post-depression industry. the Collingwood and South Melbourne football clubs were sent to Newcastle by the VFL, which didn't do very much in promoting the game. The league that had been reformed relied on clubs in Sydney to play the three clubs in Newcastle at the time to try and grow the game within the city. Again, Newcastle's sporting community weren't supportive of Australian rules, with the league being abandoned again in 1939 at the start of World War II. Post-World War II The Second World War saw the start of a large industrial development in Newcastle, enticing a large number of workers to the city. From 1943 until 1945, Newcastle industrial worker Alan Gilpin organised social matches of Australian rules between army camps in Maitland and Singleton. A formal platform was adopted which saw a Newcastle team play challenge games against clubs in Sydney, which Gilpin used to create the Newcastle Australian National Football League (NANFL) in 1948 with the founding clubs of the new league being Broadmeadow, Waratah, Mayfield and Newcastle City. Many of the players of the four clubs were soldiers stationed in Newcastle after the end of WWII or industrial workers from Victoria or South Australia. By 1952, the NANFL had expanded to a number of 14 clubs and 3 grades. Wickham Oval was granted access for the NANFL to use for Finals the following year in 1953. Crowds at NANFL Finals games were good and the league saw further prestige when player Neil Dunn became the first player in the Newcastle league to represent New South Wales. A third junior grade side was introduced in 1957 and at this point, the clubs in Newcastle had been stronger than they had been in their existence. The league also noted that spectator interest was 'more intense' and more players were attracted to the sport. However, the sport couldn't bear the recession in the early 1960s sufficiently, which saw the loss of many players, crowd numbers dropping and poor administration which was damaging to the NANFL. The standard of play within the league plummeted, along with publicity and promotion. The league hit its worst point in 1969 with only three known club to field a senior team, no liaison with schools and junior football to be scrapped altogether. It was believed that after the elected executives left the office, Australian rules football would never be played again in Newcastle. Bill Elliott, a former Australian wrestling champion from Victoria, undertook the role of President of the NANFL to salvage the struggling competition. However the disregarding of the game by the Newcastle public and the uncertainty of the sport's future within the region caused the fortunes of football within schools to fluctuate. By 1970, three new clubs had joined the senior league with the sport gaining momentum when a representative team from Newcastle won the New South Wales Country Championships in 1971. Public awareness of the code had increased, game attendances were starting to be recorded with record crowds witnessing the Finals series of 1974. It seemed Australian rules was finally accepted in Newcastle. VFL clubs North Melbourne and Geelong were invited to play a promotional game in Newcastle in 1975, organised by the NAFL to '. . . promulgate Australia's National game in Newcastle', the league ensuring as much success as possible by distributing free entry to schoolchildren and having the media publicise the game and also proposing to pay for the expense of both teams, a rather costly mistake. The league was advised to offer the clubs 80% of the gate takings and if they didn't accept, to forget the game. The league relied on sponsorship generated by raffles which failed, resulting in the league losing $7,000 and $5,000 being owed to Ansett for transporting the Victorian clubs. However the NAFL was unable to pay the company, which resulted in rumours spreading that the league could fold. The NAFL, after requesting more time to pay Ansett, imposed a series of levies on its clubs, which were to be paid in five instalments over the course of twelve months. Many clubs were disconcerted with the match's organisation, some even disagreeing with the levies system the league imposed. Waratah-Mayfield and RAAF refused to pay the levies. The matter capitulated although RAAF persisted and didn't compete in the 1976 NAFL season. Gosford, who had joined in 1971, left and became one of the inaugural clubs of the CCAFL. Later 1900s By 1976 the league's future however, looked promising. There was an extend of support for Australian rules football in Newcastle, which saw the inauguration of the Lions' Cup, a school competition for Newcastle schools. At first there were sixteen schools in Newcastle competing for the Lions' Cup before expanding into Sydney, the Central Coast and the South Coast. 45 schools competed in 1980 and by 1983, a total of 69 schools competed in the Lions' Cup; 15 from Newcastle, 6 from the Central Coast, 6 from the South Coast and 42 from Sydney. Many clubs in the league such as Warners Bay have benefited from the Lions' Cup. At the end of the 1999 season, it was decided to merge the Newcastle league with the Central Coast league to create a more stable competition, as only 7 clubs and 6 clubs had competed in the Newcastle and Central Coast competitions respectively. This league was known as the Black Diamond Australian Football League from 2000 to 2018. From 2019 onward, it has been known as AFL Hunter Central Coast. Clubs The clubs that have played in the Newcastle AFL since it was reformed in 1948 and merged with the CCAFL after the 1999 season. Cardiff Waratah Mayfield Newcastle City Broadmeadow RAAF (later Williamtown Jets) Hamilton Newcastle University Western Suburbs (later West Newcastle) Lakeside Macquarie Wallsend Warners Bay Singleton (previously Army) Raymond Terrace Muswellbrook Nelson Bay Maitland Coalfields United Gosford Forster Newcastle Australian Football League Premiers The competition from 1886 to 1894 was known as the Northern Districts Football Association. The premiers from 1948 to 1999 when the Newcastle Australian National Football League was re-established. From 2000 onward the Premiers are listed under the Black Diamond Australian Football League References See also AFL NSW/ACT Australian rules football in New South Wales Black Diamond Australian Football League Sport in Newcastle, New South Wales Australian rules football competitions in New South Wales
4901146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium%20production%20in%20Afghanistan	Opium production in Afghanistan	Afghanistan has long had a history of opium poppy cultivation and harvest. As of 2021, Afghanistan's harvest produces more than 90% of illicit heroin globally, and more than 95% of the European supply. More land is used for opium in Afghanistan than is used for coca cultivation in Latin America. The country has been the world's leading illicit drug producer since 2001. In 2007, 93% of the non-pharmaceutical-grade opiates on the world market originated in Afghanistan. By 2019 Afghanistan still produced about 84% of the world market. This amounts to an export value of about US $4 billion, with a quarter being earned by opium farmers and the rest going to district officials, insurgents, warlords, and drug traffickers. In the seven years (1994–2000) prior to a Taliban opium ban, the Afghan farmers' share of gross income from opium was divided among 200,000 families. As of 2017, opium production provides about 400,000 jobs in Afghanistan, more than the Afghan National Security Forces. In addition to opium, Afghanistan is also the world's leading producer of hashish. The Taliban have taken mixed stances on opium over the years. Poorly enforced restrictions in the 1990s were a prelude to a full and very effective ban on religious grounds in 2000. The Afghan war in 2001 meant that the ban was only briefly effective. The opium trade spiked in 2006 after the Taliban lost control of local warlords. Despite having previously banned opium, the Taliban used opium money to fuel their two-decade campaign to retake Afghanistan, with Taliban earning up to 60% of their annual revenue from the trade. The then Afghan government also outlawed production, but despite help from coalition military forces to tamp down on drug trafficking, the ban did little to stop production. After the Fall of Kabul in 2021, the opium trade boomed, and most farmers planted at least some opium for harvest in spring 2022. The Taliban outlawed production again in April 2022, during the poppy harvest. History The dry climate and difficulty of transporting fresh produce makes export agriculture hard in Afghanistan. The opium poppy however is drought tolerant, doesn't spoil on long voyages, is easy to transport and store, and sells for a premium. With a farm gate price of approximately $125 per kilogram for dry opium (2007 prices), an Afghan farmer can make 17 times more profit growing opium poppy ($4,622 per hectare), than by growing wheat ($266 per hectare). Afghanistan first began producing opium in significant quantities in the mid-1950s, to supply its neighbor Iran after poppy cultivation was banned there. Afghanistan and Pakistan increased production and became major suppliers of opiates to Western Europe and North America in the mid-1970s, when political instability combined with a prolonged drought disrupted supplies from the Golden Triangle. Soviet period (1979–1989) After a Soviet-backed left-wing government in Afghanistan failed to gain popular support, the Soviets decided to invade. A number of resistance leaders concentrated on increasing opium production in their regions to finance their operations, regardless of its haram Islamic status, in particular Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Mullah Nasim Akhundzada, and Ismat Muslim. The production was doubled to 575 metric tons between 1982 and 1983. (At this time the United States was pursuing an "arms-length" supporting strategy of the Mujahideen, the main purpose of which was to cripple the Soviet Union slowly into withdrawal through attrition rather than effect a quick and decisive overthrow.) Hekmatyar, the leading recipient of aid from the CIA and Pakistan, developed at least six heroin refineries in Koh-i-Sultan in southwestern Pakistan, while other warlords were content to sell raw opium. Nasim Akhundzada, who controlled the traditional poppy growing region of northern Helmand, issued quotas for opium production, which he was even rumoured to enforce with torture and extreme violence. To maximise control of trafficking, Nasim maintained an office in Zahidan, Iran. It was alleged by the Soviets that US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agents were helping smuggle opium out of Afghanistan, either into the West, in order to raise money for the Afghan resistance, or into the Soviet Union, in order to weaken it through drug addiction. According to Alfred McCoy, the CIA supported various Afghan drug lords, for instance Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and others such as Haji Ayub Afridi. Another factor was the eradication effort inside Pakistan (whose Inter-Services Intelligence were coincidentally supporters of the Mujahideen). The Pakistani government, US Agency for International Development (USAID) and other groups were involved in attempting to eliminate poppy cultivation from certain areas of the North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) bordering Afghanistan. The opium industry shifted from Pakistan into Afghanistan during the 1980s. Warlord period (1989–1994) When the Soviet Army was forced to withdraw in 1989, a power vacuum was created. Various Mujahideen factions started fighting against each other for power. With the discontinuation of Western support, they resorted ever more to poppy cultivation to finance their military existence. Rise of the Taliban (1994–2001) During the Taliban rule, Afghanistan saw a bumper opium crop of in 1999. In July 2000, Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Omar, collaborating with the UN to eradicate heroin production in Afghanistan, declared that growing poppies was un-Islamic, resulting in one of the world's most successful anti-drug campaigns. The Taliban enforced a ban on poppy farming via threats, forced eradication, and public punishment of transgressors. The result was a 99% reduction in the area of opium poppy farming in Taliban-controlled areas, roughly three quarters of the world's supply of heroin at the time. The ban was effective only briefly due to the deposition of the Taliban in 2001. However, some people (Martin, An Intimate War, 2014), suggest that certain parties benefited from the price increase during the ban. Some, even believe it was a form of market manipulation on the part of certain drug lords. Dried opium, unlike most agricultural products, can easily be stored for long periods without refrigeration or other expensive equipment. With huge stashes of opium stored in secret hideaways, the Taliban and other groups that were involved in the drug trade were in theory able to make huge personal profits during the price spikes after the 2000 ban and the chaos following the September 11 attacks. Afghan War (2001–2021) By November 2001, and with the start of the Afghan War, the collapse of the economy and the scarcity of other sources of revenue forced many of the country's farmers to resort to growing opium for export ( in 2004 according to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime). In December 2001, a number of prominent Afghans met in Bonn, Germany, under UN auspices to develop a plan to reestablish the State of Afghanistan, including provisions for a new constitution and national elections. As part of that agreement, the United Kingdom (UK) was designated the lead country in addressing counter-narcotics issues in Afghanistan. Afghanistan subsequently implemented its new constitution and held national elections. On December 7, 2004, Hamid Karzai was formally sworn in as president of a democratic Afghanistan." Two of the following three growing seasons saw record levels of opium poppy cultivation. Corrupt officials may have undermined the government's enforcement efforts. Afghan farmers claimed that "government officials take bribes for turning a blind eye to the drug trade while punishing poor opium growers." Another obstacle to getting rid of poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is the reluctant collaboration between US forces and Afghan warlords in hunting drug traffickers. In the absence of the Taliban, the warlords largely control the opium trade but are also highly useful to US forces in scouting, providing local intelligence, keeping their own territories clean from Al-Qaeda and Taliban insurgents, and even taking part in military operations. While US and allied efforts to combat the drug trade have been stepped up, the effort is hampered by the fact that many suspected drug traffickers then became top officials in the Karzai government. Estimates made in 2006 by the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) estimate that 52% of the nation's GDP, amounting to US$2.7 billion annually, is generated by the drug trade. The rise in production has been linked to the deteriorating security situation, as production is markedly lower in areas with stable security. By some, the extermination of the poppy crops is not seen as a viable option because the sale of poppies constitutes the livelihood of Afghanistan's rural farmers. Some 3.3 million Afghans are involved in producing opium. Opium is more profitable than wheat and destroying opium fields could possibly lead to discontent or unrest among the indigent population. Some poppy eradication programs have, however, proven effective, especially in the north of Afghanistan. The opium poppy eradication program of Balkh Governor Ustad Atta Mohammad Noor between 2005 and 2007 successfully reduced poppy cultivation in Balkh Province from in 2005 to zero by 2007. The Afghanistan Opium Risk Assessment 2013, issued by UNODC, suggests that the Taliban has, since 2008, been supporting farmers growing poppy, as a source of income for the insurgency. Former US State Department Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs Thomas Schweich, in a New York Times article dated July 27, 2007, asserts that opium production is protected by the government of Hamid Karzai as well as by the Taliban, as all parties to political conflict in Afghanistan, as well as criminals, benefit from opium production, and, in Schweich's opinion, the US military turns a blind eye to opium production as not being central to its anti-terrorism mission. In March 2010, NATO rejected Russian proposals for Afghan poppy spraying, citing concerns over income of Afghan people. There have also been allegations of US and European involvement in Afghanistan's drug trafficking with links to Taliban. On October 28, 2010, agents of Russia's Federal Service for the Control of Narcotics joined Afghan and US anti-drug forces in an operation to destroy a major drug production site near Jalalabad. In the operation, of high quality heroin and of opium, with a street value of US$250 million, and a large amount of technical equipment was destroyed. This was the first anti-drug operation to include Russian agents. According to Viktor Ivanov, Director of Russia's Federal Service for the Control of Narcotics, this marks an advance in relations between Moscow and Washington. Hamid Karzai called the operation a violation of Afghan sovereignty and international law. As had been the case in Indochina during the Vietnam War, the US invasion has in fact caused a massive increase in opium production, the aforementioned eradication efforts being largely window dressing. A 2014 SIGAR report claimed “levels of cultivation have risen by more than 200,000 hectares... since 2001” and that “opium-poppy cultivation levels are at another all-time high, despite $7.8 billion obligated for counternarcotics efforts,” concluding that:counternarcotics appears to have fallen off the agenda of both the U.S. government and the international community, despite the fact that it is impossible to develop a coherent and effective strategy for a post-2014 Afghanistan without taking full account of the opium economy. As long as insurgent commanders are able to fund themselves through the opium trade, and as long as corrupt officials profit from the illicit economy, there may be few incentives for making peace in some areas of the country. A December 2014 UNAIDS study showed an increase of 7% in one year alone. The facts of an apparently non-significant resultant change to opium production is corroborated in a report by BBC, dated to 20 July 2015: Foreign involvement Approximately 40,000 foreign troops attempted to manage "security" in Afghanistan, principally of 32,000 regular soldiers from 37 NATO forces: the International Security Assistance Force. 8,000 US and other special operations forces, mainly privately contracted soldiers of fortune, make up the balance. There is significant resistance, both from the ideological and theocratic Taliban, especially in southern Afghanistan, and independent local warlords and drug organizations. Antonio Maria Costa, Executive Director of UNODC, described the situation: "There is no rule of law in most of the southern parts of Afghanistan—the bullets rule." Post-war After the Fall of Kabul in 2021, the opium trade boomed. The Taliban outlawed production again on 3 April 2022. The ban came in the middle of the springtime poppy harvest in what would have been a bumper year for the crop. After the end of the war, most farmers had dedicated at least some portion of their crop to poppy. The ban also came in the middle of a major economic crisis; opium has long been used to supplement local incomes since it sells for a premium over traditional crops. According to a report published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in November 2022, the expanse of opium cultivation in Afghanistan has extended to 233,000 hectares. Opium farmers experienced a threefold increase in income, from USD 425 million in 2021 to USD 1.4 billion in 2022, constituting approximately 29% of the 2021 agricultural sector's value. Subsequent to the enforcement of the cultivation ban in April 2022, the price of opium underwent a sharp escalation. In a 2023 report, poppy cultivation in southern Afghanistan was reduced by over 80% as a result of Taliban campaigns to stop its use toward Opium. This included a 99% reduction of Opium growth in the Helmand Province. Worldwide impact According to European Union (EU) agencies, Afghanistan has been Europe's main heroin supplier for more than 10 years (through 2008). Heroin enters Europe primarily by two major land routes: the long-standing 'Balkan route' through Turkey; and, since the mid-1990s, the 'northern route', which leaves northern Afghanistan through Central Asia and on to Russia (and is sometimes colloquially referred to as the 'smack track'). There is an estimated 1.5 million (1.3–1.7 million) opioid users in the EU, with an average prevalence of 4 to 5 per 1,000. In 2005, there were around 7,000 acute drug deaths, with opioids being present in the blood of 70% of the deceased. There was a minimum of 49,000 seizures resulting in the interception of an estimated of heroin. Countries reporting the largest number of seizures (in descending order): UK (2005), Spain, Germany, Greece, and France. Countries reporting the largest quantities of heroin seized in 2005 (in descending order): Turkey, UK, Italy, France, the Netherlands. Presently with the resurgence of high output production of opium and heroin in post-Taliban Afghanistan, there is an ongoing heroin addiction epidemic in Russia which is claiming 30,000 lives each year, mostly among young people. There were two and half million heroin addicts in Russia by 2009. Medical production The International Council on Security and Development (ICOS) has proposed legalizing opium production for medical purposes. Opium can be manufactured into codeine and morphine, which are both legal pain-killers. The Governor of Afghanistan's Helmand Province, Hayatullah Hayat is a proponent of eventually legalizing opium production to create morphine. Others have argued that legalizing opium production would neither solve the problem nor would it be workable in practice. They argue that illegal diversion of the crop could only be minimized if the Afghans had the necessary resources, institutional capacity and control mechanisms in place to ensure that they were the sole purchaser of opiate raw materials. For them, there is currently no infrastructure in place to set up and administer such a scheme. They reason that in the absence of an effective control system, traffickers would be free to continue to exploit the market and there would be a high risk that licit cultivation would be used for illegal purposes and that the Afghan government would be in direct competition with the traffickers, thereby driving up the price of opium, and attracting more farmers to cultivate. The Afghan government has ruled out licit cultivation as a means of tackling the illegal drug trade: however in Turkey in the 1970s, legalizing opium production, with US support brought illicit trafficking under control within four years. Afghan villages have strong local control systems based around the village shura, which with the support of the Afghan government and its international allies, could provide the basis for an effective control system. This idea is developed in the recent Senlis Council report "Poppy for Medicine" which proposes a technical model for the implementation of poppy licensing and the legal control of cultivation and production of Afghan morphine. Some believe that there is also little evidence to show that Afghan opium would be economically competitive in a global market place. Australia, France, India, Spain, and Turkey currently dominate the export market for licit opiates. Due to the high cost of production in countries where cultivation is undertaken on small landholdings, such as India and Turkey, licit production requires market support (the production costs for the equivalent of 1 kg of morphine in 1999 was US$56 in Australia, US$159.77 in India and US$250 in Turkey). The current cost of production of one kilogram of morphine equivalent in Afghanistan is approximately US$450. Therefore, opium could potentially be considered an alternative for those who find morphine prices to be too high. The price of illicit opium far exceeds that of licit, (in India, in 2000, the price for licit opium was US$13–29 per kilogram, but for illicit US$155–206). Although there are many complex reasons behind the decision to grow poppy, one of them is the current economic dependence of poppy farmers on the illicit trade. Whilst traffickers continue to be free to exploit the illicit market, legalization would not change this. Demand for illicit opiates would not disappear even if Afghan opium were used for licit purposes and a vacuum would open that traffickers could exploit. However, currently 100% of Afghan opium is diverted to the illegal opium trade and funds in some cases terrorist activities. Despite eradication efforts since the international intervention in 2001, poppy cultivation and illicit opium production has increased, as UNODC figures show. A licensing system would bring farmers and villages into a supportive relationship with the Afghan government, instead of alienating the population by destroying their livelihood, and provide the economic diversification that could help cultivators break ties with the illicit opium trade. The International Narcotics Control Board states that an over production in licit opiates since 2000 has led to stockpiles in producing countries 'that could cover demand for two years'. Thus, some say Afghan opium would contribute to an already oversupplied market and would potentially cause the supply and demand imbalance that the UN control system was designed to prevent. However, the World Health Organization points out that there is an acute global shortage of poppy-based medicines such as morphine and codeine. This is largely due to chronic underprescription (especially in countries where morphine is extremely highly priced). The International Narcotics Control Board which regulates opium supply throughout the world enforces the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs: this law provides that countries can only demand the raw poppy materials corresponding to the use of opium-based medicines over the last two years and thus limits countries who have low levels of prescription in terms of the amounts they can demand. As such, 77% of the world's opium supplies are being used by only six countries, leaving the rest of the world lacking in essential medicines such as morphine and codeine. A second-tier supply system, that complements the current UN control system by supplying opium-based medicines to countries currently not receiving the poppy-based pain relief medicines needed, would maintain the balance established by the UN system and provide a market to Afghan-made poppy-based medicines. Opium addiction within Afghan society Afghanistan has seen a high rate of opium addiction among refugees returning from Iran and Pakistan. Zalmai Afzali, spokesman for the Ministry of Counter-Narcotics in Afghanistan reports an increase in the total number of drug users by over half a million, to 1.5 million, between 2005 and 2010. According to the UNODC, there are 2 - 2.5 million people using drugs in Afghanistan. This has significant consequences for health and governance within the country. Drug use in Afghanistan has become rife, not just among the unemployed, but also among government staff, farmers, and those working in private businesses. It is estimated that almost half of these users take drugs most days, with many taking heroin multiple times a day. Drug users in Afghanistan have reported consequent problems emotionally, with family and relationships, with gaining employment, physical health effects, and problems with the law. Relatives of drug users have reported facing physical abuse from the user, with some relatives reporting depression and self-harm as a result of the family drug use and violence. There are also a significant number of Afghan children who use drugs, particularly in provinces such as Kandahar and Helmand where the children have participated in poppy lancing. The Afghan economy and opium The 2004 United Nations Development Programme ranked Afghanistan number 173 of 177 countries, using a human development index, with Afghanistan near or at the bottom of virtually every development indicator including nutrition, infant mortality, life expectancy, and literacy. Several factors encourage opium production, the greatest being economic: the high rate of return on investment from opium poppy cultivation has driven an agricultural shift in Afghanistan from growing traditional crops to growing opium poppy. Opium cultivation on this scale is not traditional, and in the area controlled by the Helmand Valley Authority in the 1950s the crop was largely suppressed. "Despite the fact that only 12 percent of its land is arable, agriculture is a way of life for 70 percent of Afghans and is the country's primary source of income. During good years, Afghanistan produced enough food to feed its people as well as supply a surplus for export. Its traditional agricultural products include wheat, corn, barley, rice, cotton, fruit, nuts, and grapes. However, its agricultural economy has suffered considerably [...] Afghanistan's largest and fastest cash crop is opium." Poppy Cultivation and the Opium Trade have been said to have had a more significant impact on the civilians in Afghanistan than the impact of wheat farming and livestock trading. As farmers in Afghanistan were once heavily reliant on wheat farming to make sufficient income, the development of poppy cultivation has given many of these farmers a boost in capital, even though opium may be a more dangerous product to distribute. In addition, as the demand for Opium has elevated, women have more opportunity to work in the same setting as their male counterpart. Afghanistan's rugged terrain encourages local autonomy, which, in some cases, means local leadership committed to an opium economy. The terrain makes surveillance and enforcement difficult. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2007 Afghanistan Opium Survey, Afghanistan produced approximately 8,200 metric tonnes of opium – nearly double the estimate of global annual consumption. In an April 25, 2007 op-ed in the Washington Post, Antonio Maria Costa, Executive Director of UNODC, asked "Does opium defy the laws of economics? Historically, no. In 2001, prices surged tenfold from 2000, to a record high, after the Taliban all but eliminated opium poppy cultivation across the Afghan territory under its control. So why, with last year's bumper crop, is the opposite not occurring? Early estimates suggest that opium cultivation is likely to increase again this year. That should be an added incentive to sell. He speculated, "So where is it? I fear there may be a more sinister explanation for why the bottom has not fallen out of the opium market: major traffickers are withholding significant amounts. "Drug traffickers have a symbiotic relationship with insurgents and terrorist groups such as the Taliban and al-Qaeda. Instability makes opium cultivation possible; opium buys protection and pays for weapons and foot soldiers, and these in turn create an environment in which drug lords, insurgents and terrorists can operate with impunity. "Opium is the glue that holds this murky relationship together. If profits fall, these sinister forces have the most to lose. I suspect that the big traffickers are hoarding surplus opium as a hedge against future price shocks and as a source of funding for future terrorist attacks, in Afghanistan or elsewhere." Effect on job opportunities Due to globalization and the development of trade, traditional ways of sustaining life for villagers has been forced to change. Before, people relied on wheat farming and livestock, whereas today, poppy cultivation is the most prominent economic activity. This can be attributed to higher profits from poppy cultivation and lack of opportunity for other farming practices due to land scarcity and more accessible loans from money providers for this activity. War, economic instability, and poverty caused changes in the way villagers maintained their villages. Competition for scarce land and resources resulted in unsustainable practices, causing soil erosion and therefore making the land less productive. The cultivation of poppy, however, generated greater profits than wheat farming for the farming villagers due to the higher yielding possibilities with less land (poppies require less irrigation than wheat), and greater demand for the profitable drug trade of the highly valued opium, prepared from poppies. Many emigrants to places such as Pakistan and Iran witnessed the profitability of poppy cultivation in land development, through association with local landowners and businessmen, and were inspired to bring about the same economic improvement in their own lives and villages. Also, opium trade proved to be more cost-efficient than livestock trade, since large amounts of opium are easier to transport than livestock. Local shopkeepers used capital, which was acquired from buying opium resins from farmers and selling them to dealers at the Tajikistan-Afghanistan border, to invest in their own small shops, generating more income. Poor villagers saw this as a good investment opportunity, as it meant more efficient farming of one product with the possibility of creating economic stability in their villages. Impacts of opium production within Afghan villages Aside from the obvious threat of addiction, opium production is changing the dynamic of many Afghan villages. Wealth distribution, for example, has changed significantly as the opium economy has created a "new rich" in which young men have control. This newfound wealth for the young men of Afghanistan is troubling to many of the village leaders as before they were revered for their wisdom, and now are given little if any respect. It has also been noted that relationships among fathers and sons, neighbours, and family in general, are drastically changing as leadership roles in the economy continue to shift. As the young men have increased contact with the outer world, they have become aware of different methods of performing traditional tasks, which have created tensions between the young men and the white beards. Also, there has been a shift from the level of co-operation, trust, and reciprocity within villages to a move of self-interest, all of which have been adversely affected by the war. Impact on water table Between 2013 and 2020 many producers in the Helmand Valley installed solar powered water pumps. The irrigation, from artesian wells, has allowed the amount of land under irrigation to increase several fold. However the water table had lowered 3 metres by mid 2020, and there is concern that large numbers of people will be displaced if this continues. Production and Afghan governance While the Taliban were considered a threat both to the human rights of Afghans, and to other areas of the world by providing a sanctuary for transnational terrorists, they also demonstrated an ability to strictly enforce a moratorium on opium production. Since their overthrow in 2001, stopping their enforcement with methods including beheading, opium poppy cultivation has been steadily increasing over the past two decades. There is evidence that the Taliban ban carried the seeds of its own lack of sustainability, due to a many-fold increase in the burden of opium-related debt (locking many households into dependence on future opium poppy cultivation), forcing asset sales to make ends meet, etc. It also appears that the opium ban weakened the Taliban politically. Thus the sustainability of the ban beyond the first year was highly doubtful, even if the Taliban had not been overthrown in late 2001. "Even though the Karzai government made opium poppy cultivation and trafficking illegal in 2002, many farmers, driven by poverty, continue to cultivate opium poppy to provide for their families. Indeed, poverty is the primary reason given by Afghan farmers for choosing to cultivate opium poppy." With Afghanistan's limited irrigation, in which qanats (karez) still play a big role, transportation and other agricultural infrastructure, growing alternative crops is not only less profitable, but more difficult. In 2006, opium production in the province increased over 162 percent and now accounts for 42 percent of Afghan's total opium output. According to the UNODC, the opium situation in the southern provinces is "out of control." Nexus between the drug industry and hawala There is an important nexus between drugs and hawala (informal money transfer system) in Afghanistan. The UN analysis is based on interviews with a sample of 54 hawala dealers in the main centers of hawala activity of Afghanistan as well as during a visit to Peshawar, Pakistan. In addition, interviews were conducted with users of the hawala system (drug dealers, businessmen, traders, international aid workers), regulators (government officials, central bank personnel), and formal service providers (bankers, accountants). In addition to hawala, they found protection payments and connections, by which the drug industry has major linkages with local administration as well as high levels of the national government. See informal money transfer systems to support clandestine activity, including terrorism, drug trade, and intelligence collection. Different localities studied by the UNODC give different views of the laundering of drug funds. It is difficult to get a solid sense of the overall economy. In Faizabad, for example, it has been indicated that during certain times of the year close to 100% of the liquidity of the hawala system in the province is derived from drugs, whereas in Herat, the Northern Alliance stronghold, it was estimated that only 30% of the hawala market's overall transaction volume is directly linked to drugs. Analysis of data gathered in places like Herat was complicated by confirmed links between drug money and legitimate imports. The southern region (Helmand and Kandahar provinces) is also a key centre for money laundering in Afghanistan (about 60% of the funds are drug related and 80–90% of the hawala dealers in Kandahar [the former Taliban stronghold] and Helmand are involved in money transfers related to narcotics). Helmand has emerged as a key facilitator of the opium trade, both between provinces and exports, while overall estimates of the local hawala markets' drug-related component are of a similar order of magnitude to those in Kandahar. This finding adds weight to the notion that the major trading centers in these two neighboring provinces should be treated as essentially one market. Bearing this in mind, the study calculated that Helmand could account for roughly US$800 million of Afghanistan's drug-related hawala business and that Herat is the second largest contributor, with in the range of US$ 300–500 million of drug money laundered annually. Furthermore, Dubai appears to be a central clearing house for international hawala activities. In addition, various cities in Pakistan, notably Peshawar, Quetta, and Karachi, are major transaction centers. It appears that even in the case of drug shipments to Iran, payments for them come into Afghanistan from Pakistan ... the hawala system has been key to the deepening and widening of the "informal economy" in Afghanistan, where there is anonymity and the opportunity to launder money. Hawala, however, also contributes positively to the regional economy. It has been central to the survival of Afghanistan's financial system through war. According to Maimbo (2003), "integral to processes of early development and vital for the continued delivery of funds to the provinces." "The hawala system also plays an important role in currency exchange. It participates in the Central Bank's regular foreign currency auctions, and was instrumental in the successful introduction of a new currency for Afghanistan in 2002–2003." Opium smuggling into Iran While Herat is not the highest-volume area of opium trade, Herat, and the other Iranian border areas of Farah, and Nimroz, have some of the highest prices, presumably due to demand from the Iranian market. "Opium prices are especially high in Iran, where law enforcement is strict and where a large share of the opiate consumption market is still for opium rather than heroin. Not surprisingly, it appears that very significant profits can be made by crossing the Iranian border or by entering Central Asian countries like Tajikistan." According to UNODC estimates bulk of Afghanistan's opium production goes to Iran either for consumption or for on-ward export to other countries in the region and Europe. Iran currently has the largest prevalence of opiate consumption in its population globally. Iran also accounts for 84% of total opiate seizures by law enforcement agencies in the world, interdicting tens of thousands of tons of opiates annually. The Iranian government has gone through several phases in dealing with its drug problem. First, during the 1980s, its approach was supply-sided: "Law-and-order policies with zero tolerance led to the arrest of tens of thousands of addicts and the execution of thousands of narcotics traffickers." "There are an estimated 68,000 Iranians imprisoned for drug trafficking and another 32,000 for drug addiction (out of a total prison population of 170,000, based on 2001 statistics)" Beehner said "Tehran also has spent millions of dollars and deployed thousands of troops to secure its porous border with Afghanistan and Pakistan... a few hundred Iranian drug police die each year in battles with smugglers. Referring to the head of the UNODC office in Iran, Roberto Arbitrio, Beehner quoted Arbitrio in an interview with The Times. "You have drug groups like guerrilla forces, [who] ... shoot with rocket launchers, heavy machine guns, and Kalashnikovs." A second-phase strategy came under then-President Mohammad Khatami, focused more on prevention and treatment. Drug traffic is considered a security problem, and much of it is associated with Baluchi tribesmen, who recognize traditional tribal rather than national borders. Current (2007) reports cite Iranian concern with ethnic guerillas on the borders, possibly supported by the CIA. Iranian drug strategy changed again under President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who took office in 2005. Iran's drug policy has been reconsidered and shifted back toward supply interdiction and boosting border security. It is unclear if this is connected to more wide-ranging concerns with border security, perhaps in relation to Baluchi guerillas in Iran. Samii's 2003 paper described Iran's "primary approach to the narcotics threat [as] interdiction. Iran shares a 936-kilometer border with Afghanistan and a 909-kilometer border with Pakistan, and the terrain in the two eastern provinces—Sistan va Baluchistan and Khorasan—is very rough. The Iranian government has set up static defenses along this border. This includes concrete dams, berms, trenches, and minefields". As per UN drug report of 2011, Iran accounts for highest rate of opium and heroin seizure rates in the world, intercepting 89% of all seized opium in the world. Within a span of thirty years, 3700 Iranian police officers have been killed and tens of thousands more injured in counter narcotics operations mostly on Afghan and Pakistan borders. Counter-narcotics policy Given the fact that a third of the combined legal and illegal Afghan economy is based on the illegal opium industry, counter-narcotics policy is currently one of the most important elements of domestic politics. Despite law enforcement measures with a dominant focus on crop eradication programs, Afghan opium production has doubled in just two years. This has shown that currently there is no correlation between poppy crop eradication and the level of poppy cultivation or opium production. The reason for this is the underlying economic nature of the opium problem. Poverty and structural unemployment are the main reason for 3.3 million Afghans' full dependence on poppies. Poppy crop eradication could even have damaging side-effects for Afghanistan's process of stabilization and reconstruction. Director of policy research for the Senlis Council, Jorrit Kamminga, says: He is referring to US-inspired aerial fumigation campaigns, planned for spring 2008 but never initiated. So far, crop eradication is done manually or mechanically from the ground. Chemical spraying could further destabilize rural areas and risk losing support for NATO's stabilization mission. In 2005, the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), along with its Afghan partners, shut down the operations of Hajj Bazz Mohammad, a Taliban-linked narco-terrorist. Alternative crops Since the Taliban allegedly made Afghanistan's opium business easy, offering credit, seeds and fertilizer to farmers to grow the drugs that fuel the Taliban insurgency, the US authorities were determined to change that momentum by offering similar incentives to steer farmers away from the drug trade and toward alternative, legitimate crops, like grapes, wheat and saffron. Domestic production of ephedrine from ephedra bushes growing wild in the mountains and its subsequent chemical conversion to methamphetamine has also emerged in recent years, and has grown to rival opium production in some areas. See also Afghan morphine Crime in Afghanistan Economy of Afghanistan Golden Crescent Haji Bagcho Haji Bashar Illegal drug trade Jundallah Opium in Iran The Senlis Council Opium Season, the true story of a young American in Afghanistan running an aid program to counter the opium trade References Further reading James Tharin Bradford. 2019. Poppies, Politics, and Power: Afghanistan and the Global History of Drugs and Diplomacy. Cornell University Press. See excerpt at Amazon; also see online review External links UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Afghan Opium Survey 2009 The Independent – Afghans battle to combat threats of drugs and Aids – November 30, 2006 Drug Library on Afghan Opium Opium Airlift Losing Ground: Drug control and War in Afghanistan – 12/06 Drug: Afghanistan's Silent Enemy Graveyard of Empires: Fixing Afghanistan's Drug Problem Afghanistan, Opium and the Taliban Learning Lessons from the Taliban Opium Ban by Martin Jelsma in International Journal on Drug Policy, Volume 16, Issue 2, March 2005 Illegal drug trade in Afghanistan Agriculture in Afghanistan Corruption in Afghanistan Drugs in Afghanistan Economy of Afghanistan History of Afghanistan (1992–present) 1970s in Afghanistan 1980s in Afghanistan 1990s in Afghanistan 2000s in Afghanistan 2010s in Afghanistan
4901166	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydford%20Castle	Lydford Castle	Lydford Castle is a medieval castle in the town of Lydford, Devon, England. The first castle in Lydford, sometimes termed the Norman fort, was a small ringwork built in a corner of the Anglo-Saxon fortified burh in the years after the Norman conquest of England. It was intended to help control Devon following the widespread revolt against Norman rule in 1068. The Norman fort had been abandoned by the middle of the 12th century. The second castle in Lydford was constructed in 1195 following a wave of law and order problems across England. It included a stone tower with a surrounding bailey, and rapidly became used as a prison and court to administer the laws in the Forest of Dartmoor and the Devon stannaries. The tower was rebuilt in the middle of the 13th century, probably in the 1260s by Richard, the Earl of Cornwall. It was redesigned to resemble a motte and bailey castle, an antiquated design for the period but one that was heavily symbolic of authority and power. In 1342 the castle, still being used as a prison and courtroom, passed to the Duchy of Cornwall, who owned it until the 20th century. The castle was repeatedly renovated and then left to deteriorate, so its condition varied considerably over time. Nonetheless, other than a period during the English Civil War and the Restoration in the 17th century, Lydford Castle played an important part in stannary and forest administration until the 19th century. The castle acquired a bad reputation for injustice in the 14th century, and complaints about "Lydford Law" persisted for centuries. In the early 19th century, however, Dartmoor Prison was constructed, and Lydford ceased to be the centre for legal administration. The castle had fallen into ruin by the middle of the century. In 1932, Lydford Castle passed into the hands of the state, and in the 21st century is run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction. Historian Andrew Saunders has described the castle as architecturally significant, being "the earliest example of a purpose-built gaol" in England. The earthworks of the Norman fort are owned by the National Trust and are open to the public. History 1066–1150 The first castle at Lydford was built in the aftermath of the Norman conquest of England in 1066. In 1068 William the Conqueror intervened in South-West England to put down widespread Anglo-Saxon revolts against Norman rule and set about pacifying the region. William had been responsible for building urban castles across England in the former centres of Anglo-Saxon power and in Devon he constructed new urban castles at Exeter, Totnes, possibly Barnstaple and in the town of Lydford. Lydford, then called Hlidan, was a type of fortified Anglo-Saxon town called a burh. The castle, in the 21st century called the "Norman fort", was built on the isolated south-west corner of the burh, soon after 1068. It had a ringwork design and was only by in size, protected in part by the existing defences of the burh. A similar pattern of castle building within existing Anglo-Saxon burhs can be seen at Wallingford and Bedford castles. Most of the interior of the castle was used to store grain in large timber and earth buildings. It is uncertain whether these storage facilities were intended for supplying Norman troops or storing grain for wider economic purposes. This first castle was used only briefly and seems to have been abandoned by the middle of the 12th century. The grain stores were destroyed by fire, but the reason for this is uncertain. By this period, the town of Lydford as a whole was also in serious economic decline. 1150–1239 Construction In the late 12th century Richard I's government attempted to promote the growth of Lydford, including revitalising trade in the town. Then, in 1195, there were widespread problems with law and order across England, including the South-West, and on the basis of this Richard's government decided to build a fortification for holding royal prisoners in Lydford, further along the west side of the town from the old castle, in a prestigious location next to the town's church. This fortification is referred to in contemporary documents variously as a firme domus and castelli de Lideford, a "strong house" and "Lydford Castle" respectively. It is unclear why the decision was taken to build the new castle in a different location within the town. Lydford's case is not unique, as a similar shift occurred at Canterbury and Gloucester; generally, such changes in castle location are associated with the destruction of the older defence or changes in political leadership. Archaeologist Andrew Saunders suggests that the new site was chosen because the earlier castle at Lydford was not owned by the Crown in 1195 and was, in any case, in disrepair. £74 was spent on the construction of the castle, paid for by Crown revenues from both Devon and Cornwall. The castle took the form of a stone tower with a surrounding bailey. The bailey was rectangular and in the 21st century measures by . The bailey was protected by ramparts and deep ditches on the south-west and north-east sides, with the north-west side protected by the ramparts and valley of the original burh fortifications. The south-east side of the bailey probably formed a small courtyard in front of the tower, in a space now occupied by part of the 13th century earthworks, and was probably the entrance to the original castle. The tower was a square, free-standing building, by and at least two storeys tall; in the 12th century the tower sat on flat ground with no mound around it. The walls were roughly built from slate and granite, up to thick, and pierced by arrow slits. The tower had a spine wall along the middle of the building, dividing each floor into two rooms. The entrance was probably on the first floor of the building. An internal water supply was installed, of which a decorated spout still survives. Role in stannary and forest law Lydford Castle does not seem to be primarily designed to have a military function, although in 1199 when King John succeeded to the throne he had the castle garrisoned and expensively equipped to prevent any potential unrest breaking out in the region. The castle lacked the usual military features of the time, such as external gatehouses, and its design seems to have been intended to evoke the authority of a traditional defensive fortification rather than to resist an actual attack. Instead, as well as helping to deal with the wider problems in 1195, the castle appears to have been built with the intention of enforcing the stannary and forest law in Devon. It is possible that the Crown originally intended that the castle took over the stannary law across the whole of Cornwall and Devon, although in practice its role extended only to governing the Devon stannaries. Stannary law was a medieval English legal system for governing the tin industry. South-West England, and in particular Devon, was a major producer of tin in the 12th century, produced by independent miners who worked the alluvial deposits across the region. The industry was regulated by the Crown, who taxed mining output and raised revenue from any fines imposed on those who broke the stannary laws. The laws also helped to manage the relationship between the miners and other local people, whose economic interests were often at odds. The output of tin increased from the end of the 12th century onwards, encouraging the Crown to extend its regulation and generate more revenue. In 1198, William of Wrotham, who controlled Lydford Castle at the start of John's reign, was appointed as the Warden of the Stannaries, a new office intended to provide additional rigour to the administration of the mining industry. Stannary courts were established in Devon, backed by a team of officials, and, with the creation of the Duchy of Cornwall in the 14th century, the administration of stannary law was delegated to the duchy. From 1198 onwards, Lydford Castle was designated as the prison for supporting the court and its processes. Forests were special areas of land in medieval England, owned by the Crown and subject to forest law. They were often selected because of their natural resources, and were expected to provide the Crown with a flow of money or raw materials. In 1195, the Forest of Dartmoor extended across all of Devon, but in 1204 John curtailed the extent of the royal forest, removing much of Devon from Forest Law and leaving the area known in the modern period as Dartmoor. This reduced forest was still subject to the Forest Laws, involving a specialised group of legal officials who met at Lydford Castle to impose fines and other punishments. Probably both Lydford Castle and the forest was given to the Sheriff of Devon, William Brewer, in 1216. The arrangement changed under Henry III, when the estates were given to Richard, the Earl of Cornwall in 1239. Legally, this meant that the Forest of Dartmoor was converted to a chase, although the Earls of Cornwall continued to hold law courts at Lydford Castle, enforcing chase laws that closely resembled the former Forest Laws. 1239–1278 Richard, Edward II's second son, took possession of Lydford Castle in 1239 as the Earl of Cornwall. Richard took a close interest in developing the town of Lydford, creating an additional market and introducing a new fair in the 1260s. Around this time, the main tower at Lydford Castle was demolished and rebuilt, probably by Richard, possibly following a serious fire in the building. Richard was a wealthy politician and rebuilding the castle in this way would have provided him with an important status symbol in the region. The previous tower was stripped back, the existing walls levelled off around from the ground and the ground floor arrow slits filled in. Two more storeys were then built on top of the older walls, better executed with a higher proportion of granite stone and thinner, typically around thick. Although the structure remained essentially the same, the new tower was slightly smaller, measuring around by . The first floor was only basically designed, with a sequence of rooms of different levels of comfort, and intended to function as the prison, and the second floor was better finished, with a hall and a chamber, and probably operated as the courtroom and provided accommodation for the keeper of the castle. As part of the work, an earth mound, or motte, high, was piled up around the base of the tower. The original ground floor of the castle was now an underground cellar, probably used as a puteus, or pit, for detaining low status prisoners and reached by ladder from the first floor. Some infilling of the ground floor occurred in order to equalise the pressure on the walls from the mound. It is uncertain how many other towers or keeps have similar mounds, as excavation is usually required before the foundations can be examined, but Totnes and Farnham castles are known to have mottes build against the walls of the keep. The reason for building the mound is uncertain, but it was almost certainly not designed as a serious defensive feature. It was instead probably intended as to superficially imitate older motte and bailey designs, with the completed castle echoing these former symbols of power and reinforcing the current political status of its owner. 1278–1642 Richard's son, Edmund took over the earldom in 1278 but had little interest in Lydford, preferring Restormel and Lostwithiel; by his death in 1299 the castle had been left to decay and was in ruins. It reverted to the Crown, and when Edward II made his royal favourite, Piers Gaveston, the Earl of Cornwall in 1307, Lydford Castle was passed to him. The castle was repaired at the start of the century and was in use once again as a prison. Edward II and Gaveston fell from power in 1327 and Thomas le Ercedekne was temporarily entrusted with the castle and Dartmoor by the new regime. In 1329 the castle was valued at a little over £11. Piers Gaveston's widow, Margaret de Clare, leased the property to Tavistock Abbey, and it continued to operate as a prison. Edward, the Black Prince became Duke of Cornwall in 1337 and he acquired Lydford Castle on Margaret's death in 1342. Extensive repairs took place over the next three years, and the castle was considered to be well roofed and decorated inside. Over the next two centuries the condition of the castle fluctuated. Around 1390 the castle roof was stripped for its lead, to be used on castles in Cornwall. The castle well was possibly dug during the 15th century. After 1425, the Crown let it to a range of individuals, including Sir Walter Hungerford and Sir Philip Courteney. Lydford remained the centre of the forest administration through the 14th and 15th centuries. Despite complaints from non-miners at the start of the 14th century that the prison regime at Lydford Castle was overly lax, by the end of the century the prison had a reputation for poor, grim conditions. The first known rhymes complaining about "Lydford Law" date from 1399, and continued to be popular for several centuries. In 1510, Richard Strode, a Member of Parliament campaigning for reform of the Stannary laws, was infamously arrested by Stannary officials and imprisoned in Lydford Castle. He later described how he was kept in an underground room in the keep, fed only bread and water, and encumbered with legcuffs until he paid the keeper to release him from the irons. After 1485, the Duchy took the castle back into direct control, and by 1546 it was in poor repair. Renovation work was carried out under Elizabeth I, but a report of 1618 suggested that the castle was unable to function as a prison because of its poor condition, and fresh repair work was carried out in the 1620s and 1630s under Charles I. 1642–1900 Lydford Castle was involved in the English Civil War that broke out in 1642 between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and Parliament. The castle was used by the Royalist commander Sir Richard Grenville as his main military prison in the region. It had a terrible reputation amongst Parliamentarians, who complained that it was used to summarily execute military prisoners and to extort money from innocent civilians, on fear of imprisonment. At the end of the civil war, the Lydford estate appears to have been sold off by Parliament The castle was assessed by their surveyors to be "almost totally ruined" in 1650: the roof of the tower was still mostly intact, but the floors and their beams were collapsing, and the whole site, including the bailey, was only worth around £80. With the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 the castle and the forest were taken back to the ownership of the Duchy. Sir John Granville was made the Rider and Master Forester of Dartmoor and the Lydford Castle courts continued to be held to regulate the Forest. Repairs to the dilapidated building do not appear to have been carried out, however, and in 1704 a report was drawn up for the government, noting that the Stannary laws could not be enforced without a working prison. Work was carried out between 1616 and 1733, bringing the castle back into good order. As part of this, the spine wall was rebuilt properly, and the second floor windows enlarged. The courtroom featured a chair for the Stannary court judge, additional seating for the court officials and a railed, public section around the outside of the room. The courtroom also doubled as a hall for village dances and feasts. At the start of the 19th century, however, Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt, the Lord Warden of the Stannaries, began the construction of Dartmoor Prison at Princetown. Dartmoor Prison and Princetown grew increasingly important and courts began to be held there instead of Lydford Castle. The castle declined once again, the courtroom became unsafe to use and by 1833, the remaining judicial fittings had been stripped out. In the middle of the 19th century the Duchy of Cornwall rejected proposals to repair the castle in order to bring it back into service as being too expensive, but the castle site was enclosed to prevent injuries to children who might be tempted to play on the stonework. By the 1870s, the town of Lydford was vastly reduced in importance from the medieval period and the castle's roofs and floors had either collapsed or been removed. 20th-21st centuries The Duchy of Cornwall continued to own Lydford Castle into the 20th century. Albert Richardson, the architect to the Duchy estate, proposed converting the property into a private house in 1912, but the duchy turned down the project. In 1932 the Duchy gave the castle to the Office of Works. Repairs were carried out in the 1930s and the 1950s, and archaeological investigations were undertaken in the 1960s. In the 21st century, the castle is controlled by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction. Historian Andrew Saunders has described the castle as architecturally significant, being "the earliest example of a purpose-built gaol" in England. The earthworks of the Norman fort are owned by the National Trust and are also open to the public. Both castle sites are protected under law as ancient monuments. See also Castles in Great Britain and Ireland List of castles in England Hexham Old Gaol, a 14th-century prison Dalton Castle, a 14th-century prison References Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links English Heritage page for Lydford Castle Castles in Devon Prisons in Devon English Heritage sites in Devon Ruins in Devon Defunct prisons in England
4901275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Riverina%20Football%20League	Northern Riverina Football League	The Northern Riverina Football Netball League (NRFNL) is an Australian rules football and netball competition containing five clubs based in the northern Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. The league features four grades in the Australian rules football competition, with these being Seniors, Under 17s, Under 14s and Under 11s. In the netball competition, there are five grades, with these being A-Grade, B-Grade, C-Grade, Under 16s and Under 13s. History The Northern Riverina Football League was formed in May 1924 when the Ungarie Football Association amalgamated with the Lake Cargelligo Football Association to form the Northern Riverina Australian Rules Football Association. The five foundation club's in 1924 were - Burgooney, Girral, Lake Callgelligo Rovers, Tullibigeal and Ungarie, with Girral defeating Ungarie in the grand final. Blow Clear entered the competition in 1925, with Tullibigeal losing only one game for the year, but were defeated by Lake Callgelligo in the grand final. Girral and Blow Clear merged in 1926 and went on to be the premier team. Following a split in the Tullibigeal club, Four Corners was formed in 1927 and went onto be a very competitive club right up until 1994, when they folded. Calleen joined in 1928 and Four Corners won the premiership in only their second year in the NRFA. while in 1929 Weja joined the competition, which was divided into two divisions of four teams. Four Corners and Girral finishing on top of their divisions, with Four Corners coming out on top in the grand final. Lake Callgelligo Rovers withdrew in 1930 and the competition went back to one division, with Four Corners defeating minor premiers, Ungarie in the grand final. Calleen and Girral both withdrew in 1932 and Yelkin entered the competition, with minor premiers, Ungarie losing to Four Corners in the grand final. Naradhan entered the NRFA in 1933 and Tullibigeal broke through for their first premiership with an eight point victory over Four Corners in the grand final. Burgooney won the 1934 flag when they defeated Tullibigeal by points, then Burgooney lost the 1935 grand final when Ungarie's Les Woolsterncroft snapped a goal late in the last quarter, to defeat Burgooney by one point! West Milby who joined in 1935 and Erigolia who joined in 1936, played off the 1936 grand final, with West Milby winning their one and only premiership. Girral withdrew form the NEFA half way through the 1936 season. In 1937, Lake Cargelligo re-join with a blue uniform and West Milby make the grand final from fourth position, but are defeated by Four Corners in the grand final. Kikoria entered the NRFA in 1938 and Tullibigeal won the flag, after drawing the first semi final against West Milby. Burgooney, minor premiers in 1938, only lost one match throughout the year, then kicked 7.19 - 61 in the grand final to lose by 30 points. Ungarie dropped out in 1939, there only season they did not field a team, with Burgooney defeating West Milby by three points in the grand final. Kikoria won the premiership in 1940, and also won it again in 1941, after Four Corner went into recess and some of their players moved across to play with Kikoria's premiership team of 1941. The NRFA went into recess from 1942 to 1945 due to World War Two. Tullibigeal then won three consecutive premierships immediately after the war from 1946 to 1948, under the leadership of George Imrie. In 1947, Ungarie wore a white jumper with a red sash. In 1949, the NRFA, best and fairest player was awarded the Griffith P. Evans Cup, Griff Evans was a former West Wyalong player and official and also a local solicitor and NSW State Member for Lachlan, whose family donated the cup. Rankins Springs and West Wyalong boosted the competition to seven teams when they joined in 1949, but Forrest Vale withdrew. In 1950, Lake Cargelligo returned to the NRFA and Ungarie won their first premiership since 1935, led by former Forrest Vale captain, Jim Dale. Tullibigeal had a golden era in the 1950's winning senior football premierships in 1951, 1953, 1955, 1957 and 1958 and well as three of their players winning best and fairest award, the Evans Cup in - David Imrie, Kelth Imrie and Vince Dwyer. Footballers from the NRFL who have played in the VFL/AFL include the Daniher brothers (Terry, Neale, Anthony and Chris) and Ben Fixter. Pre 1924 Football Australian Rules Football was introduced to the Northern Riverina region around in the early 1890's when farm land was being settled and with the discovery of gold at West Wyalong in 1893. West Wyalong formed a club in 1913, consisting of two teams, the Rovers (maroon & gold) and the Globes (blue), then in 1914, a competition was held between Blow Clear, Hiawatha and West Wyalong. Ungarie was formed in 1916 and played three friendly matches against Blow Clear in their first season. After World War One, the Bolygamy District Football Association was formed and Australian Rules Football was really starting to get established in the Northern Riverina area. Lake Cargelligo Rovers Football Club was formed in June 1922. Premiers / Runners Up Nottle Cup 1913: West Wyalong Globes: 1.4 – 10 d West Wyalong Rovers: 1.1 – 7 Evans Cup 1914: Hiawatha: 3.13 – 31 d Blow Clear: 0.4 – 4 Football in recess due to World War One 1915 to 1917 Bolygamy District Football Association: Hodges Cup 1918: Blow Clear: 5.9 – 39 d West Wyalong: 2.11 – 23 (Hodges Cup) 1919: Blow Clear: 5.6 – 36 d Bolygamy: 3.7 – 25 (Hodges Cup) 1920: Blow Clear: d Girral 1921: Girral v Tullibigeal: F J Rath's Ungarie Hotel Cup 1922: Girral Rovers: 6.3 – 39 d Tullibigeal: 4.10 – 34 (Mesdame Wallder - Farrar Cup) Ungarie Football Association 1923: Ungarie: 35 d Blow Clear: 0.5 – 5 (J Heffernan - Girral Hotel Gold Medals) Lake Cargelligo District Football Association (Tom Crawford's Royal Mail Hotel Cup) 1923: Lake Cargelligo Rovers: 5.4 – 34 d Tullibigeal Ramblers: 4.3 – 27 Current clubs Notes Previous clubs List of football premiers Football Senior Football Grand Final Results Under 16's 1959: Tullibigeal d Ungarie 1960: 1961: 1962: 1963: Tullibigeal d Murrin Bridge 1964: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1965: Lake Burgooney 1966: Lake Burgooney d Tullibigeal 1967: Condo - Milby d Tullibigeal 1968: Tullibigeal d Ungarie 1969: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1970: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1971: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1972: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1973: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1974: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1975: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1976: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1977: Ungarie d Tullibigeal Under 17's 1978: Ungarie d Condo Milby 1979: Condobolin-Milby d Ungarie 1980: Lake Cargelligo d Condo - Milby 1981: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1982: Ungarie - Tallimba 1983: Condobolin-Milby d Ungarie 1984: Condobolin-Milby d Ungarie 1985: Tullibigeal d Ungarie 1986: Ungarie d Lake Tigers 1987: Ungarie d Condo Milby 1988: Lake Cargelligo Tigers d Girral West Wyalong 1989: Lake Cargelligo Tigers d Girral West Wyalong 1990: Ungarie d Girral West Wyalong 1991: Ungarie d Red Bend 1992: Ungarie d Tullibigeal 1993: Lake Cargelligo d Tullibigeal 1994: Lake Cargelligo d Ungarie 1995: Ungarie d Lake Cargelligo 1996: Ungarie d Lake Cargelligo 1997: Lake Cargelligo d Girral West Wyalong 1998: Lake Cargelligo d Girral West Wyalong 1999: Lake Cargelligo d Tullibigeal 2000: Tullibigeal d Girral West Wyalong 2001: Tullibigeal d Lake Cargelligo 2002: Tullibigeal d Girral West Wyalong 2003: Tullibigeal d Girral West Wyalong 2004: West Wyalong-Girral d Lake Cargelligo 2005: Parkes d West Wyalong-Girral 2006: West Wyalong-Girral d Hillston 2007: West Wyalong-Girral d Lake Cargelligo 2008: West Wyalong-Girral d Ungarie 2009: Ungarie d West Wyalong-Girral 2010: Lake Cargelligo d West Wyalong-Girral 2011: Lake Cargelligo d Ungarie 2012: West Wyalong-Girral d Lake Cargelligo 2013: Lake Cargelligo: 16.14 - 110 d West Wyalong-Girral: 7.8 - 50 2014: Lake Cargelligo: 11.8 - 74 d West Wyalong-Girral: 7.6 - 48 2015: West Wyalong-Girral: 18.10 - 118 d Lake Cargelligo: 6.5 - 41 2016: Lake Cargelligo: 13.6 - 84 d West Wyalong-Girral: 4.5 - 29 2017: Lake Cargelligo: 16.10 - 106 d West Wyalong-Girral: 6.4 - 40 2018: West Wyalong-Girral: 13.13 - 91 d Ungarie: 3.3 - 21 2019: West Wyalong-Girral: 18.15 - 123 d Ungarie: 4.7 - 31 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: Tullibigeal v Hillston (no grand final played > COVID-19) 2022: West Wyalong-Girral: 14.21 - 105 d Ungarie: 4.6 - 30 2023: Ungarie: 11.9 - 75 d West Wyalong-Girral: 5.4 - 34 Under 12's 1981: Ungarie d Lake Tigers The Under 12's competition became an U/13's competition in 1982. Under 14's 1982: Ungarie 1983: Ungarie 1984: Condobolin-Milby 1985: Lake Cargelligo 1986: Lake Cargelligo 1987: Ungarie 1988: Ungarie 1989: Condobolin-Milby 1990: Lake Cargelligo 1991: Lake Cargelligo 1992: Ungarie 1993: Lake Cargelligo 1994: Ungarie 1995: Tullibigeal 1996: Tullibigeal 1997: Tullibigeal 1998: Tullibigeal 1999: Tullibigeal 2000: West Wyalong-Girral 2001: Ungarie 2002: West Wyalong-Girral 2003: West Wyalong-Girral 2004: Lake Cargelligo 2005: West Wyalong-Girral 2006: Ungarie 2007: Barellan United 2008: Barellan United 2009: Lake Cargelligo 2010: Tullibigeal 2011: Ungarie 2012: Lake Cargelligo: 2013: Tullibigeal: 9.12 - 66 d Lake Cargelligo: 6.7 - 43 2014: Barellan United: 3.4 - 22 d Hillston: 1.3 - 9 2015: West Wyalong-Girral: 7.11 - 53 d Ungarie: 2.4 - 16 2016: Ungarie: 4.7 - 31 d Lake Cargelligo: 4.6 - 30 2017: West Wyalong-Girral: 8.14 - 62 d Ungarie: 1.3 - 9 2018: Tullibigeal: 7.5 - 47 d Lake Cargelligo: 4.7 - 31 2019: West Wyalong-Girral: 10.13 - 73 d Hillston: 1.0 - 6 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: Ungarie v Lake Cargelligo (No grand final played > COVID-19) 2022: West Wyalong-Girral: 14.7 - 91 d Ungarie: 3.5 - 23 2023: Lake Cargelligo: 5.5 - 35 d Ungarie: 4.4 - 28 Under 11's 2002: Ungarie d Girral West Wyalong 2003: West Wyalong-Girral 2004: Barellan United 2005: Barellan United 2006: Barellan United 2007: Lake Cargelligo 2008: Barellan United 2009: Ungarie 2010: Lake Cargelligo 2011: Lake Cargelligo 2012: West Wyalong-Girral 2013: Hillston: 9.6 - 60 d West Wyalong-Girral: 2.5 - 17 2014: West Wyalong-Girral: 6.2 - 38 d Hillston: 3.7 - 25 2015: Hillston: 3.8 - 26 d West Wyalong-Girral: 3.4 - 22 2016: Ungarie: 3.4 - 22 d West Wyalong-Girral: 3.3 - 21 2017: Ungarie: 6.3 - 39 d West Wyalong-Girral: 2.9 - 21 2018: Lake Cargelligo: 7.7 - 49 d Ungarie: 4.2 - 26 2019: West Wyalong-Girral: 9.4 - 58 d Lake Cargelligo: 2.2 - 14 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: Lake Cargelligo v West Wyalong-Girral (no grand final played > COVID-19) 2022: Lake Cargelligo: 5.3 - 33 d Hillston: 2.3 - 15 2023: Hillston: 7.10 - 52 d Lake Cargelligo: 2.1 - 13 Netball Premiers The NRNL - A. Grade competition commenced in 1981, with the Under 16's commencing in 1982, which was then dissolved in 1985. In 1984/85 the Under 13's started playing socially, then competitively. B. Grade commenced in 1988 and the Under 10's commenced in 1993. C Grade commenced in 2008, while in 2012 the Under 16's and Under 13's replaced the Under 14's and Under 12's competitions. A-Grade 1981 to present day 1981: Lake Tigers 1982: Tullibigeal 1983: Lake Tigers 1984: Lake Swans 1985: Tullibigeal 1986: West Wyalong-Girral 1987: Lake Cargelligo 1988: Lake Tigers 1989: Lake Tigers 1990: Lake Tigers 1991: Condo - Milby 1992: Condo - Milby 1993: Ungarie 1994: Barellan United 1995: Barellan United 1996: Barellan United 1997: Ungarie 1998: Ungarie 1999: Ungarie 2000: Ungarie 2001: Ungarie 2002: Lake Cargelligo 2003: Barellan United 2004: Tullibigeal 2005: Ungarie 2006: Ungarie 2007: Ungarie 2008: Ungarie 2009: Ungarie 2010: West Wyalong-Girral 2011: Barellan United 2012: West Wyalong-Girral 2013: Ungarie 2014: Ungarie 2015: West Wyalong-Girral 2016: Tullibigeal: 65 d West Wyalong Girral: 63 2017: Tullibigeal d West Wyalong Girral 2018: West Wyalong-Girral 2019: Tullibigeal: 51 d Hillston: 48 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: Tullibigeal v West Wyalong Girral (no G Final played > COVID-19) 2022: Hillston: 58 d West Wyalong-Girral: 38 2023: B-Grade 1987 to present day 1987: Condo-Milby/Ungarie 1988: Lake Tigers 1989: Lake Tigers 1990: Lake Tigers 1991: Lake Tigers 1992: Four Corners 1993: Lake Cargelligo 1994: Tullibigeal 1995: Ungarie 1996: Barellan United 1997: Tullibigeal 1998: Barellan United 1999: Lake Cargelligo 2000: Ungarie 2001: Lake Cargelligo 2002: Barellan United 2003: Lake Cargelligo 2004: Barellan United 2005: Lake Cargelligo 2006: Barellan United 2007: Barellan United 2008: Lake Cargelligo 2009: Cobar 2010: West Wyalong-Girral 2011: Barellan United 2012: West Wyalong-Girral 2013: Barellan United 2014: West Wyalong-Girral 2015: Lake Cargelligo 2016: Tullibigeal: 47 d West Wyalong Girral: 41 2017: Ungarie d Hillston 2018: Lake Cargelligo 2019: West Wyalong Girral: 41 d Lake Cargelligo: 27 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: Ungarie v Lake Cargelligo (no G Final played > COVID-19) 2022: Lake Cargelligo: 59 d Hillston: 34 2023: C-Grade 2008 to present day 2008: Lake Cargelligo 2009: West Wyalong-Girral 2010: Lake Cargelligo 2011: Hillston 2012: Lake Cargelligo 2013: Tullibigeal 2014: West Wyalong-Girral 2015: Hillston 2016: Lake Cargelligo: 52 d Condo Milby: 39 2017: West Wyalong Girral d Tullibigeal 2018: Tullibigeal 2019: West Wyalong Girral: 58 d Hillston: 35 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: Lake Cargelligo v West Wyalong Girral (no G Final played > COVID-19) 2022: Ungarie: 49 d Hillston: 33 2023: C-Reserve Grade 2018 to present day 2018: West Wyalong Girral 2019: West Wyalong Girral: 40 d Tullibigeal: 31 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: West Wyalong Girral v Ungarie (no G Final played > COVID-19) 2022: West Wyalong Girral: 61 d Ungarie: 49 2023: Under 16s Under 16 - 2012 to present day 2012: Lake Cargelligo 2013: Tullibigeal 2014: 2015: 2016: Lake Cargelligo: 43 d Condo Milby: 37 2017: Condo-Milby V Tullibigeal 2018: 2019: Ungarie: 54 d Lake Cargelligo: 41 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: West Wyalong Girral v Hillston (no G Final played > COVID-19) 2022: West Wyalong Girral: 47 d Lake Cargelligo: 33 2023: Under 14s U/14's - ? to 2011 1998: Ungarie 1999: Barellan United 2000: Barellan United 2001: West Wyalong-Girral 2002: Lake Cargelligo 2003: West Wyalong-Girral 2004: Barellan United 2005: Lake Cargelligo 2006: Lake Cargelligo 2007: Lake Cargelligo 2008: West Wyalong-Girral 2009: West Wyalong-Girral 2010: Lake Cargelligo 2011: Lake Cargelligo Under 13s U/13's - 1985 to ? then, 2012 to present day 2012: Tullibigeal 2013: Lake Cargelligo 2014: 2015: 2016: Lake Cargelligo 32 def Unagire 30 2017: Ungarie V West Wyalong Girral 2018: 2019: Hillston: 41 d Lake Cargelligo: 40 2020: NRFNL in recess > COVID-19 2021: Ungarie v Tullibigeal (no G Final played > COVID-19) 2022: Ungarie: 50 d Tullibigeal: 30 2023: Under 12s U/12's - ? to 2011 2004: Lake Cargelligo 2005: Lake Cargelligo 2006: West Wyalong-Girral 2007: West Wyalong-Girral 2008: West Wyalong-Girral 2009: Lake Cargelligo\ 2010: West Wyalong-Girral 2011: Tullibigeal Under 10's 1993 to ? 1993: 1994: League Best & Fairest Winners Senior Football Griffith P. Evans Cup First awarded in 1949. Now awarded the Evans Medal. 1977: Terry Ireland lost on a countback Junior Football - Best & Fairest Winners Netball Best & Fairest Winners List A. Grade: 1981 to present day B. Grade: 1987 to present day C. Grade: 2008 to present day C. Reserve: 2018 to present day Leading Goalkicker Senior Football Sanson Trophy VFL / AFL Players The following footballers played senior VFL / AFL football, with the year indicating their VFL / AFL debut. 1976 - Terry Daniher - Ungarie to South Melbourne 1979 - Neale Daniher - Ungarie to Essendon 1981 - Anthony Daniher - Ungarie to South Melbourne 1987 - Chris Daniher - Ungarie to Essendon 2000 - Ben Fixter - Ungarie to Sydney Swans 2003 - Kyle Archibald - Ungarie to Richmond (No.81 in 2003 draft, but no senior games). Office Bearers See also AFL NSW/ACT List of Australian rules football clubs in Australia Australian rules football in New South Wales Albury & District Football League Central Hume Football Association Central Riverina Football League Coreen & District Football League Farrer Football League Faithful & District Football Association Hume Football Netball League Riverina Football Association Riverina Football Netball League South West Football League (New South Wales) Central West Australian Football League Group 20 Rugby League Group 17 Rugby League References External links Australian rules football competitions in New South Wales Sport in the Riverina Netball leagues in New South Wales
4901756	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland%20rugby%20league%20team	Queensland rugby league team	The Queensland rugby league team represents the Australian state of Queensland in rugby league football. Nicknamed the "Maroons" after the colour of their jersey, they play three times a year against arch-rivals New South Wales in the State of Origin series. The team is currently coached by Billy Slater and captained by Daly Cherry-Evans, and is administered by the Queensland Rugby League. They play all of their home matches at Brisbane's Lang Park (known due to naming rights as Suncorp Stadium). Since 1908, a rugby league team representing Queensland has been assembled from players based in the state to compete annually against New South Wales. The team used to play matches against other high-profile foreign and domestic touring teams, but has not played anyone other than New South Wales in several decades. From 1980 onwards, when Queensland was first allowed to select players of local origin even if they were currently at clubs outside its borders, the team's success rate against New South Wales improved dramatically. From 1980-87, clubs from both the Brisbane Rugby League and the NSWRL provided players for the side. Since the creation of the Brisbane Broncos in 1988, Maroons players have only been selected from the NSWRL (until 1995) and its successor competition, the National Rugby League, with the sole exception of Game III 2001 when Allan Langer was selected from the Super League. As of 2023, the Maroons have won fourteen out of the past eighteen series, including the most recent series and a record-breaking eight successive State of Origin victories between 2006 and 2013. History Residential era (1908–1979) Queensland had already been playing in their maroon jerseys each year against New South Wales in their sky blue before the split in rugby football between union and league took place. Queensland's captain, Mike Dore, left the rugby union establishment to play the new Northern Union brand of football in 1907 and his decision to switch codes influenced many other Queensland union players including his brother, to join the rugby league ranks. The first Queensland rugby league team ever formed, like the first New South Wales and Australian teams ever formed, was for playing the ground-breaking 1907–08 New Zealand rugby tourists, and was as follows: 1. Roy Allingham, 2. Doug McLean, 3. George Watson, 4. Arthur O'Brien, 5. William Evans, 6. William Abrahams, 7. Mick Dore8. Jack Horan, 9. Robert Tubman, 10. William Hardcastle, 11. Vic Anderson, 12. Ernest Cartmill, 13. Jack Fihelly Still some months away from having its own competition, when Queensland first played rugby league against New South Wales in the opening match of the 1908 interstate series they lost 43–0. This set the precedent for much of interstate rugby league's early history in Australia. During the 1912 New Zealand rugby league tour of Australia, Queensland lost both its matches against the Kiwis in Brisbane. Again, Queensland played two matches against the Kiwis during the 1913 New Zealand rugby league tour of Australia and again the Maroons lost both. New South Wales had won every match between the two states until 1922, when the Maroons, with Cyril Connell playing at , achieved their maiden victory. This commenced Queensland's only golden period before the introduction of State of Origin. In 1925 Queensland toured New Zealand and played against the full New Zealand side. The Queensland side was invited to tour ahead of the New South Wales side because Queensland was the more dominant of the two during this period. During the 1951 French rugby league tour of Australia and New Zealand Queensland played one match against the successful France national rugby league team, a 19-all draw. During the 1953 American All Stars tour of Australia and New Zealand Queensland hosted a match at the Brisbane Cricket Ground, winning 39–39 before a crowd of 24,397. As the twentieth century progressed, New South Wales proved to be the dominant team. Queensland did not win an interstate series against New South Wales until 1958. The powerful New South Wales Rugby Football League premiership attracted many Queenslanders south of the border, and the "residential" selection policy meant that the Maroons would often be disadvantaged against New South Wales teams containing many Queenslanders playing in the New South Wales club competition. In the 1970s Queensland only won four matches, and it was decided that if New South Wales won the first two games of the 1980 series that there would be a "State of Origin" selection policy for the last game. This meant that selection would be based on the state a player made his senior debut in, not the state that he currently played in. Queensland's first truly representative team won the first State of Origin match 20–10 on 8 July 1980. After Queensland lost the first two games in 1981 the third match was again a State of Origin match. Queensland also won this game, and all subsequent series have been played under State of Origin selection criteria. Queensland's overall record in interstate clashes between 1908 and 1981 (non-State of Origin matches) was 54 wins, 8 draws and 159 losses in 221 games. Between 1908 and 1979 Queensland also played matches against a number of touring Test teams. State of Origin era (1980–present) In the inaugural State of Origin match in 1980, Queensland surprised all in a commanding 20–10 win over New South Wales. Arthur Beetson and Chris Close were the stars for Queensland, but Kerry Boustead scored Queensland's first ever try. This saw the new State of Origin rules applied a fairer game, saw it again in 1981. In 1981, legendary captain Arthur Beetson was ready to play before injury ruled him out, so he became coach of the team, and would remain so for the next three years. It seemed that State of Origin might still be dominated by New South Wales with the Blues ahead 15–0, but a remarkable comeback by Queensland saw them defeat New South Wales 22–15 with young captain Wally Lewis and Chris Close the stars of the comeback win. This match gave rugby league officials the impetus to decide that 1982 should have 2 State of Origin matches and a decider if required. In 1982, for the first time all three matches of the interstate series were played using 'origin' selection rules. New South Wales won their first State of Origin match in Game One, but this was not enough to stop Queensland winning the second and third games with Mal Meninga, Rod Morris and captain Wally Lewis the heroes for Queensland of the series. The next year New South Wales won the second game, but Queensland dominated the first and the decider winning the series with Wally Lewis being the saviour for Queensland. At the end of the 1983 seasons in Qld and NSW, the Queensland team also toured Papua New Guinea and England. Their tour of Great Britain saw them play three matches. The first against Hull Kingston Rovers resulted in an 8–6 loss, though the Wally Lewis led Maroons then easily won their remaining matches against Wigan (40–2) and Leeds (58–2). In 1984, Queensland won the first two games for the series, dominating the series, with Kerry Boustead and Wally Lewis the stars of the series, New South Wales won the final match. In 1985, Queensland saw their first ever series loss to New South Wales. New South Wales were dominant through the series. Queensland's poor performance could be seen as Arthur Beetson retiring as coach or New South Wales halfback Steve Mortimer in good form. Queensland lost the first two matches but won the third match. Under new coach, Wayne Bennett, the 1986 series saw Queensland play a lot better but the scoreboard did not show it. Queensland lost all 3 games, only by small margins for each game, but the fact was New South Wales had whitewashed Queensland. In 1987, looking for redemption, Queensland lost the first game to New South Wales, but managed to win the last two games giving Wayne Bennett his first series win. Allan Langer's debut in the 1987 series saw Queensland win their first series since 1984, Langer went on to play 34 games for Queensland. In the exhibition match fourth game of 1987 in the US, Queensland could not manage to win. The Maroons also toured New Zealand in 1987. In 1988, the introduction of Queensland-based clubs for the first grade competition Brisbane Broncos and Gold Coast, saw more wealth of talent for Queensland. In 1988 and 1989 it was Allan Langer and Wally Lewis's formidable halves partnership that had them dominate both series winning all 6 matches and not letting New South Wales win. Wayne Bennett won the 1988 series while returning coach Arthur Beetson won the 1989 series. As a result, in 1989 a record-breaking twelve Queenslanders were selected to tour with the Australian national team. In 1990, the New South Wales team managed to win their first game since 1987, and going on to defeat the Queensland team 2–1 in the series, giving Queensland coach Arthur Beetson his first ever series loss with the team. In 1991, it was Queensland legend Wally Lewis, now known as the King, last series. With a new coach, Graham Lowe, Queensland won the first game, before New South Wales won the second. With Lewis's last game, the decider, the Queensland team managed to win the game by two points and give Lewis the perfect sendoff. For the series 1992 to 1994 it seemed that Wally Lewis was sorely missed, losing a record three series in a row. With veteran Mal Meninga taking over as captain, Lowe continuing as coach, the Queensland team were unable to show any spark against New South Wales. They were able to win a game in each of the series in 1992, 1993, and 1994. The King Wally Lewis took over coaching for the Queensland team in 1993 and 1994, the QRL hoping he would revive some spark to the team. In 1995, the Queensland team was noticeably hampered being unable to select players from the Super League teams, most notably the Brisbane Broncos. With new coach and former Queensland captain Paul Vautin, the Queensland team were apparently going to be belted by the New South Wales team. It was not to be. In one of the biggest upsets in Origin history, the baby Queensland team defied all betting odds and whitewashed the New South Wales team 3–0. In 1996, New South Wales got their revenge and whitewashed the Queensland team. In 1997, during the Super League War and the rival Super League Tri-series with another Queensland, New South Wales and New Zealand representative teams. Queensland were unable to win the series ending Vautin's reign as coach. In 1998, Queensland re-employed Wayne Bennett as coach of the team who only wanted a one-year stint at the team. With the Super League War over, Queensland was able to pick a great side again. Allan Langer returned in style in a man of the match appearance guiding the Queensland team to a close 24–23 win in the first game. New South Wales won the second, but Queensland dominated the third and won. With new coach and former Queensland player Mark Murray at the helm the Queensland team won the first before losing the second. In controversial circumstances, Queensland were locked up at 6 all at half-time, scored with 8 minutes to go making it 10–6 seemingly wrapping up the game, but New South Wales scored and missed the conversion to finish the game 10-all, making it the first drawn game and series in State of Origin history. Queensland won the series by retaining the drawn shield. 2000 was a forgettable series, captain Gorden Tallis was sent from the field for dissent to referee Bill Harrigan in a 20–16 loss in Game One. Queensland lost Game Two 28–10 before suffering their worst ever State of Origin defeat 56–16 in Game Three to cap a 3–0 wipewish of the series. In 2001, Wayne Bennett again took over after their humiliating 3–0 loss in 2000. Queensland won the first game decisively however injuries saw them lose the second game and those injuries were still there for Game Three. This saw coach Bennett take a huge risk, bringing out of retirement Allan Langer to make a miraculous comeback. Although some thought Langer couldn't rise to the challenge, the great halfback inspired Queensland to a win in the final game 40–14. In 2002, Langer again returned however Queensland were thumped in Game One 32–4. Queensland won Game Two 26–18 in spite of a horror debut by winger Justin Hodges who gifted New South Wales two tries via ingoal mistakes. The third game proved to be Langers final game, but a miraculous last minute try by back rower Dane Carlaw saw Queensland draw level with New South Wales 18-all. The game could have been won by Queensland if Lote Tuquri had converted the Carlaw try, but the conversion was wide thus resulting in the second drawn series in Origin history with Queensland retaining the shield. The 2003 series, marked a period of New South Wales dominance at Origin. New South Wales won a hard-fought first game 25–12 before disposing of Queensland 27–4 in Game Two. The Queensland team took their anger out by flogging New South Wales in the dead rubber third game 36–6. Queensland however could not stop New South Wales taking the 2004 series 2–1 even with new coach Michael Hagan, when Brad Fittler came out of representative retirement for New South Wales to help them defeat Queensland. Game One was notable for being the first State of Origin game to go into Golden Point extra time, with Shaun Timmins kicking the winning field goal for New South Wales to win 9–8. Queensland won Game Two 22–18 on the back of an incredible try to winger Billy Slater the game in which Fitter returned. New South Wales wouldn't be denied in Game Three, winning 36–14 on the back of an inspirational performance by Fittler. The 2005 series again was not much better for Queensland in spite of a Game One win in Golden Point extra time due to an intercept try to Matthew Bowen off a wayward Brett Kimmorley pass. Queensland however failed to dominate the series losing the final two matches to lose again to New South Wales after halfback Andrew Johns made a memorable return for the final two games. Queensland's 2005 series loss marked their third straight series defeat to New South Wales. As part of the 25 year celebrations in 2005, Queensland named 25 legends for each year before that. The players below are the people who have change the game forever and will continue to change it even if they are not playing. In 2006, former Queensland great Mal Meninga took the helm of coach and he took a big risk in Game One to have 7 debutantes against a formidable New South Wales side. This showed in the opening 30 minutes where mistakes were made and New South Wales dominated on the scoreboard. A comeback in the second half wasn't enough to win, New South Wales getting home 17–16 on the back of a field goal in the final moments by halfback and last minute Blues replacement Brett Finch. This put coach Meninga and captain Darren Lockyer under intense criticism by New South Wales media. The second game however saw the fired up Queensland team defeat New South Wales easily 30–6. In the third and deciding game, Queensland found themselves down 14–4 with 9 minutes to go after some controversial refereeing decisions. However a miraculous comeback started by Johnathan Thurston and Brent Tate and an intercept try by Lockyer saw them steal the win and the series. In 2007, Queensland were the bookies' favourites for the first time in a long time. Queensland were down 18–6 at half time but came back with 19 unanswered points to win the first game by a score of 25–18. Queensland went on to win the second game 10–6 and win the series. This was Queensland's first win in 12 attempts at Telstra Stadium. In 2008, Queensland played without Darren Lockyer for the whole series and it showed in the first game in Sydney with Queensland losing 18–10. However, the return match in Brisbane saw Queensland return to form winning 30–0, equalling Queensland's biggest ever victory. The final game was again played at Telstra Stadium, with Queensland being down 10–8 at half time before coming back to win the game 16–10 leaving New South Wales pointless for the second half and on the wrong end of 3 successive series defeats. The mid-season test against the Kiwis in 2009 saw a record-equalling ten Queensland representatives, including an all maroon backline and front row. In 2009, the Maroons became the first side to win four consecutive Origin series and were named sporting team of the year at the Queensland Sports Awards in December.In 2010, the Maroons had their 5th consecutive series win becoming the first team to ever do so, whilst also winning the games in a 3–0 clean sweep, the first time Queensland had accomplished this since 1995. Billy Slater was named Man of the Series. In 2011, the Maroons had their 6th consecutive series win becoming the only team to ever do so. Also winning game III 34–24 and the series 2–1 in front of a record home crowd at Suncorp Stadium. This was also their captain Darren Lockyer's final State of Origin game. Cameron Smith was named both Man of the Match and Series. In 2012, Queensland won game III 21–20 by a field goal in front of a mostly Maroon crowd at Suncorp stadium, making 7 series wins in a row. The final score was attributed partly to the retirement of Petero Civoniceva. Johnathon Thurston was named Man of the Match and Nate Myles was awarded Man of the Series. In 2013, Queensland took the series again, for the 8th time in succession, after winning the 3rd game at ANZ Stadium in Sydney 12–10. Brent Tate was awarded Man of the Match. In 2014, Queensland were defeated in an upset at their home stadium in game 1 of the series, and subsequently lost the 2nd game in Sydney, ending their 8-year winning streak. In 2015, Queensland reclaimed the State of Origin series, with victories in Game I and Game III, at ANZ Stadium and Suncorp Stadium respectively. Game III of the series set a number of State of Origin records, including most goals in a game by a team (9 goals), biggest winning margin (46 points) and highest ever attendance at Suncorp (52,500), with Cameron Smith making his 36th appearance for Queensland in the same match, drawing level with Darren Lockyer for the record of most appearances for Queensland. On 2 December 2015, Meninga resigned as Queensland head coach and was appointed head coach of the Australian national rugby league team, succeeding Tim Sheens. Meninga ended his 10-year reign as State of Origin's most successful coach. On 28 December 2015, Kevin Walters was appointed head coach until the end of 2018. Walters, a 20-time Queensland representative and five-time premiership winner with the Brisbane Broncos, served as assistant coach to Meninga during four Origin series wins and coached the Queensland Under 20s side in 2012 and 2014. In 2016, Cameron Smith broke Queensland's record for most appearances, and captained the Maroons to win Games I and II. Queensland's hopes of their first series whitewash since 2010 were dashed when they lost to NSW in Game III. Corey Parker retired following the match. 2017 would be Johnathan Thurston's last series playing for the Maroons. However, he was injured in a game for the North Queensland Cowboys and was unable to play Game I. Queensland suffered their largest defeat in over 10 years when they lost to NSW 28–4. Thurston returned for Game II and kicked the winning conversion to level the series. However, he was injured again and ruled out for Game III. In his farewell match, which he watched from the coach's box, Queensland defeated NSW 22–6 to win their third straight series and their eleventh from twelve. Following the end of the 2017 series, coach Kevin Walters had his coaching contract extended for two years. For the 2018 series, coach Kevin Walters selected Greg Inglis, at the time the top try-scorer in the State of Origin series, as the captain. Significant changes were made to the Queensland team for 2018 following the retirement of key players Cameron Smith, Johnathan Thurston and Cooper Cronk and the absence of Matthew Scott and Darius Boyd. Queensland then lost to NSW in both 2018 and 2019. Colours and badge The primary colour of the QLD Maroons is Maroon, which represents the state colour of Queensland. The secondary colour is Gold, with an additional contrasting colour of white. The Maroons badge was created and used since the club's founding in 1908. It features a football set centrally in a stylised Q representing Queensland. Other badges have been used such as a stylised Q with a Kangaroo next to it. Shirt sponsors and manufacturers No manufacturer logo is present on the QLD jersey between 1981 and 1984. Alpha Micro Computers sponsored the QLD Origin team for the one-off exhibition game in Los Angeles in 1987. The XXXX 26 year Sponsorship of Queensland Maroons State of Origin Team will come to an end at the conclusion of State of Origin 3 at Suncorp Stadium on Wednesday, 12 July 2017. Players While the Queensland rugby league team's players mostly come from Queensland, up until 1980 when residential selection criteria were still used, some of New South Wales' most prominent footballers, such as Dally Messenger and Clive Churchill, also played for the Maroons. Queensland's players are some of the most famous athletes Australia produces, with goal-kicking centre Mal Meninga being named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in 1990, the first rugby league player to ever do so. Since the turn of the century Maroons players have become big name footballers not only in rugby league but in other codes as well. Rugby union's 2003 World Cup Final alone featured four former Queensland players: Brad Thorn playing for the All Blacks, and Mat Rogers, Lote Tuqiri and Wendell Sailor playing for the Wallabies. Former Maroons Karmichael Hunt and Israel Folau were both recruited by the AFL to play Australian rules football (and both also currently play professional rugby union). Current squad The Official Queensland Maroons Playing Squad. Team of the Century (1908–2007) In 2008, the centenary year of rugby league in Australia, the Queensland Rugby League named their best ever 17, selected from all players from 1908 to 2007. (c) All-Time Team (1980–2020) Following Queensland's victory in the 2020 series as State of Origin celebrated its 40th anniversary, Origin legends including Wally Lewis, Paul Vautin, Darren Lockyer and Johnathan Thurston along with New South Wales' Peter Sterling and Andrew Johns selected Queensland's best 17 over the 40 years of State of Origin. (Player-coach) (c) Captains A list of captains for the Maroons since the beginning of the State of Origin era. Emerging Origin squad Each January, from 2001 to 2019, a squad of 14–15 players on the cusp of Queensland selection, took part in the Emerging Origin program held at the Queensland Academy of Sport in Brisbane. The program, run by Wayne Bennett and the current Queensland coaching staff, indoctrinated players on Queensland's Origin culture and values and included player training and meetings with dietitians and sports psychologists. From the inaugural Emerging Origin squad in 2001, 12 of the players went on to play for Queensland in State of Origin. Since 2001, 66 players who have participated in the Emerging Origin program have represented Queensland in State of Origin. In 2000, after Queensland's embarrassing series defeat to New South Wales, Bennett returned to coach the Maroons and established the Emerging Origin program in conjunction with the QAS. Before re-taking the job, Bennett phoned then-Queensland Minister for Sport Terry Mackenroth, requesting that if he retake the job, the program receive the support of the government, which Mackenroth agreed to. On 20 December 2019, the Queensland Rugby League announced a 33-man Maroons squad, which included current representatives and uncapped players, to take part in a two-day camp, moving away from the traditional Emerging Origin concept. Coaches Queensland has had a total of eight different coaches at State of Origin level, all of whom have played for the Maroons previously except for New Zealand's Graham Lowe, the only non-Australian to coach in State of Origin. The list also includes the known coaches from the pre-Origin era and only counts games against NSW. Games against touring teams from New Zealand and Great Britain or Queensland's three game tour of England in 1983 are not counted. Win percentages are listed to the nearest two decimal places. Wally Lewis / Ron McAuliffe Medal From 1992 to 2003, this award was the "Wally Lewis Medal", however after 2003 this medal was dedicated to the player of the series from both Queensland and New South Wales, and thus the award for the Queensland Player of the Series was awarded with the Ron McAuliffe Medal. Records The most-capped Queensland State of Origin player is Cameron Smith, with 42 caps. The player with the most tries for Queensland in State of Origin history is Greg Inglis, with 18 tries. The player with the most points is Johnathan Thurston, with 220 points. See also Queensland Residents rugby league team Queensland under-20 rugby league team Queensland under-18 rugby league team Queensland under-16 rugby league team Queensland Women's rugby league team References External links Rugby League State of Origin Rugby league representative teams in Queensland 1907 establishments in Australia Rugby clubs established in 1908 1908 establishments in Australia
4901771	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jolina%20Magdangal	Jolina Magdangal	Maria Jolina Perez Magdangal-Escueta (; born November 6, 1978) is a Filipino singer, actress, television presenter, endorser, commercial model, philanthropist and entrepreneur. Referred to as the Queen of Philippine Pop Culture, she is known for her pop music and camp style. A prominent cultural figure in the modern era, she is cited as one of the most successful multimedia artists in Philippine entertainment, having achieved immense success across multiple mediums and art forms. She was appointed as the Official Spokesperson for the Youth and National Youth Advocate by the Office of the President of the Philippines for being an outstanding role model to the youth. At age 11, Magdangal started out as a member of the singing group 14-K under the supervision of Ryan Cayabyab. She made her screen debut in children's sketch comedy Ang TV (1992) and transitioned to teen romance program Gimik (1996). She took more roles in films and became more notable for her leading roles in several blockbuster films such as Labs Kita... Okey Ka Lang? (1998), Hey Babe! (1999), Tunay na Tunay: Gets Mo? Gets Ko! (2000), Kung Ikaw Ay Isang Panaginip (2002) and Ouija (2007). She also starred as the main host in several major talent search shows including StarStruck (2003) and Pinoy Idol (2008). She has been one of the main host of the long-running morning talk show Magandang Buhay since 2016 and appears in Tawag ng Tanghalan as judge and the variety show ASAP as an occasional performer. Having sold nearly two million records domestically, Magdangal is one of the best-selling Filipino music artists in history and was the best-selling Filipino solo recording artist of 1999 in the Philippines. She is one of the three Filipino female recording artist with at least two or more albums that sold 200,000 copies. Her self-titled album Jolina (1999) and all-revival-songs On Memory Lane (2000) are among the best-selling albums of all time in the Philippines and is one of the four Filipino recording artist with multiple entries within the Top 20. Her accolades include two FAMAS Awards, five PMPC Star Awards for Television, seven Box Office Entertainment Awards and a commendation from Asian Television Awards. Early life Maria Jolina Perez Magdangal was born on November 6, 1978 in Quezon City to Jun Magdangal and Paulette Perez. Her father worked in the marketing and public relations departments of San Miguel Corporation for 21 years before resigning in 1993 to manage Magdangal's career. Her mother worked at the credit section of the Land Bank of the Philippines before handling the finance department of Magdangal's enterprises. Magdangal has two siblings, elder sister Melanie and younger brother Jonathan. After high school at Colegio de San Lorenzo in Quezon City, Magdangal attended a theater-arts course at the University of the Philippines which was cut short when AMA Computer University offered her a scholarship in Computer Science. Personal life In November 2011, Magdangal married Rivermaya's drummer Mark Escueta on a double-wedding ceremony, first on November 19 in a church wedding and the second is on November 21 in a garden wedding. They have two children, Pele Iñigo, born February 18, 2014, and Vika Anaya, born May 28, 2018. Career Career beginnings In 1989, Magdangal had her early beginning at the age of eleven as an entertainer through the singing group 14-K under the supervision and training of Master Composer, Ryan Cayabyab. During those years, she took lessons in singing from Cayabyab, dance from Douglas Nieras, and acting from Gina Alajar and Beverly Vergel. 1990s In 1992, Magdangal had her breakthrough when she was discovered by talent manager and film and television director Johnny Manahan while performing with 14K in the weekly late night musical show Ryan Ryan Musikahan. She was then invited by Manahan to guest in the ABS-CBN sitcom Mana which turned out to be her screen test. After her brief stint in Mana (1992), she made her professional television debut in the youth-oriented program Ang TV where she was featured in musical, sitcom, and newscasting segments before she was given her own segment "Payong Kaibigan". Her inclusion as part of the Ang TV was also her launching as one of the pioneer contract artists of ABS-CBN's Talent Center (now Star Magic). Magdangal's casting in Ang TV led to more television opportunities. Her early shows included the political satire-sitcom Abangan Ang Susunod Na Kabanata, daily noon-time program ‘Sang Linggo nAPO Sila (1995), and as one of the pioneer host-performer of Asia's longest-running musical variety show ASAP (1995). In ASAP, her most notable segments were "Tricykat" and "LSS (Love Songs & Stories)". In 1994, Magdangal was chosen by Walt Disney Records to be its first Filipino recording artist to sing the theme songs of Disney classics Pocahontas (1995) and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1996) for Philippine promotion. Before that, she appeared in the accompanying soundtrack album for the show Ang TV, where she recorded "Magkaibigang Tunay", the theme song of her segment "Payong Kaibigan". In 1995, Magdangal appeared in a small role in the film Hataw Na, with Gary Valenciano and Dayanara Torres. The following year, she had her first big role in the Ang TV-spin-off movie Ang TV: The Adarna Adventures, where she played the role of Princess Adarna, the human form of the Filipino mythical singing bird Ibong Adarna. After recording theme songs that were non-album released and appearing in a couple of compilation albums, Magdangal released her debut album A Wish Comes True in 1996 under Walt Disney Records. The album was praised by critics for containing adventurous repertoire; with David Gonzales of allmusic.com saying "The music can be classified as middle-of-the-road, but it is still more adventurous than most albums made by Philippine female and male solo artists... A Wish Comes True, however, has commendable diversity... [and] Magdangal, who is also an actress and television personality, has a fine voice that is full of depth and warmth. The arrangements on the album are excellent and imaginative, showing a lot of pep and creativity. Magdangal has a promising future." In 1997, Magdangal became known to a wider audience through the film adaptation of the television series F.L.A.M.E.S., and its accompanying soundtrack album where she recorded two original songs, "Sana’y Kapiling Ka" and "Tameme". The album was commercially successful earning her a double platinum from the record label. In the movie, she played Leslie, a rich high school student who has a cynical perception of love; who takes it badly when she learns of her classmate Butch's (played by Marvin Agustin) feelings for her. The Marvin-Jolina team later produced successful film and television projects that made them the "most admired, most followed and most loved team ups of their generation". While in Film Development Council of the Philippines's Sine Sandaan, a celebration of the 100th year of Philippine cinema, the tandem was recognized as one of the luminaries under the Love Team Ng Sentenaryo category for their unparalleled contribution and years of hard work for the Philippine cinema. Magdangal's first major role was in Adarna: The Mythical Bird, the Philippines' first full-length theatrical animated film, released on December 25, 1997 as an entry to the 23rd Metro Manila Film Festival. Magdangal's next major role was in Kung Ayaw Mo, Huwag Mo! (1998) in which she played the role of Ditas who feels smothered by her loving yet strict sister Doris (played by Maricel Soriano). On working with the Philippine's Diamond Star Maricel Soriano, Magdangal revealed that to be cast alongside her idol is a dream come true for her especially that Soriano is a major influence in her acting career especially in the dramedy genre. Magdangal's first critical and commercial success in film was the multi-million box office hit and Filipino classic Labs Kita... Okey Ka Lang? (1998), alongside Agustin, where she played Bujoy who fell in love with her best friend, Ned (Agustin's character). The movie produced the immortal line from Magdangal "Oh yes! Kaibigan mo lang ako... and I'm so stupid to make the biggest mistake of falling in love with my best friend." When the film was revived through digital restoration and remastering by the ABS-CBN Film Restoration Project in 2017, its revival premiere filled two cinemas at U.P. Town Center. The soundtrack album was also commercially successful, producing the Magdangal signature song "Kapag Ako Ay Nagmahal". The album was certified with a double platinum by the Philippine Association of the Record Industry (PARI) for selling more than 80,000 units. In 1998, Magdangal was cast in Star Cinema's 1998 Metro Manila Film Festival official entry Puso ng Pasko. In this Christmas-themed film, Magdangal played Merry, the human form of a magical Christmas ornament, who grants wishes to those who believe in the true essence of Christmas. The film was the Festival's third best picture and Magdangal's performance earned her a Best Supporting Actress nomination. By the end of the 1990s, Magdangal achieved further success in releasing her sophomore self-titled album Jolina (1999); top billing the blockbuster film Hey Babe! (1999) and headlining the romantic-comedy-drama series Labs Ko Si Babe (1999). The album Jolina, which contains original and cover cuts, along with previously recorded songs from movie soundtracks, received a quadruple platinum certification at the end of the year, and was declared by PARI as the biggest selling album of 1999. Eventually, the album received a 7× platinum certification for selling more than 280,000 units. The album produced the Magdangal original song "Laging Tapat", which remained on the lists of top radio charts throughout the Philippines for weeks and her version of "Paper Roses", a revival that became a favorite nationwide. David Gonzales of the Philippine Daily Inquirer stated in a review: "[Magdangal] may not sing the most adventurous music around, as her repertoire consists mostly of the passionate, easy-listening love song that appeals to many Filipinos, but she has a voice and style that promises to withstand the test of time. [She] has a voice and delivery that deserves the attention it gets." The film Hey Babe! was another project starring the Marvin-Jolina team. Directed by Joyce E. Bernal, Magdangal plays the role of a girl who's fond of consulting a fortune-teller on who her dream-boy should be. Agustin's character, her ardent suitor, conspires with the fortune-teller. The film is the last project of the pair in a full-length film. In television, the pair starred in the primetime series Labs Ko Si Babe, which enjoyed top ratings during its run and achieved top spot during its peak. The series is one of the longest-running ABS-CBN soap operas, airing for one year and three months; and is also the first Filipino romantic-comedy-drama series, making Magdangal the pioneer in romcom genre in Philippine television. 2000s In 2000, Magdangal released her third studio album On Memory Lane (2000) which consists entirely of remakes of originals coming from periods considered as the golden age of popular music. The album's packaging and its booklet also delivered a take on the nostalgia craze, with Magdangal costumed and photographed as a World War II beauty. On Memory Lane received a gold record certification from PARI three days after its release, making it the fastest-selling record since PARI took charge in awarding certifications. The album peaked with a 6× platinum certification for selling more than 240,000 units. The album is also considered by the Performers Rights Society of the Philippines as one of the finest albums ever released in the Philippine recording industry. Writing for allmusic.com, David Gonzales stated in a review: "The young Magdangal does an excellent job [in On Memory Lane], and her voice has matured impressively since 1998's (sic) Jolina; her delivery is polished and self-assured. Perhaps if she had sung these tunes first, she would be an international star. Despite consisting entirely of remakes, this is an enjoyable album, showcasing Magdangal's impressive development.". In the same year, Magdangal portrayed a Chinese girl trying to escape an arranged marriage in the action romantic-comedy film Tunay na Tunay: Gets Mo? Gets Ko! (2000), alongside Robin Padilla. The film was critically and commercially successful earning Magdangal the citation "Princess of RP Movies" in the 31st Box Office Entertainment Awards. In television, she led the comedy sitcom Arriba, Arriba! (2000). The show was consistently ranked within the top 10 highest-rating television programs during its run. Magdangal's next film was the fantasy romantic comedy Kung Ikaw Ay Isang Panaginip (2002), directed by Wenn V. Deramas. Magdangal played Rosallie, a maker and distributor of processed food who falls in love with a guy whose face is blown up in a toothpaste brand billboard. It was released in 2002, with Magdangal earning her second Princess of Philippine Movies citation from the Box Office Entertainment Awards. The film "showcased [Director Wenn] Deramas' penchant for the downright absurd ... which [featured] the typical [Magdangal]-character falling for a billboard model, [and was] framed like a typical romantic comedy, complete with a predictable love triangle and other stereotypical issues, but is differentiated by its extremely playful take on fantasy-based love." In 2002, Magdangal released her fourth studio album, Jolina Sings the Masters to moderate success, earning a gold record certification. A critical success for its repertoire and packaging, the album was considered a first in the local industry for putting up, together, master composers in a single album. Among the contributors on the album is David Pomeranz, who wrote two original songs for her. Magdangal's next television engagement was The Working President (2002), a public affairs news magazine program produced by the Office of the Press Secretary of the Office of the President of the Philippines. The show features projects of the administration of then President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, and the activities of the President herself. The selection of the personality to host the program was done by the Office of the President through a commissioned survey on the most preferred personality in the country, along with background investigations on family, endeavours, and achievements. The program aired on National Broadcasting Network, the public television network owned by the Philippine Government. In mid 2002, after a series of television guest appearances in GMA Network's programs, Magdangal had her first GMA Network series in Book 2 of Kahit Kailan (2002). The show became the most popular Philippine import show after ABS-CBN's Pangako Sa 'Yo has ended its run. Kahit Kailan was shown in TV3, Malaysia's most popular channel which also has direct broadcast in Singapore as a regular channel. In December 2002, comedian Dolphy teamed with Magdangal in Home Alone Da Riber, an official entry in the 2002 Metro Manila Film Festival. Magdangal's first daily series following Labs Ko Si Babe was Narito Ang Puso Ko (2003), also her first primetime series in GMA Network. The series featured an ensemble cast including Rosa Rosal, Eddie Garcia, Amy Austria, Dina Bonnevie, Raymond Bagatsing, Ariel Rivera, and Carmina Villarroel. Directed by Eric Quizon and Gina Alajar, Magdangal played the role of a long-lost granddaughter of a wealthy Doña and was torn between the love interests of the characters of Raymart Santiago and James Blanco. The program was a breakthrough for GMA Network when the show, along with the talent search Starstruck, was able to out-rate its rival network in primetime soaps for the first time. December 2003, Magdangal represented the Philippines in the ASEAN-Japan Pop Festival, organized by Japan Foundation, held at Yokohama, Japan. The concept and aim of the Festival is "to find synergy among the diverse cultures of Japan and the ASEAN countries and to bring about a sense of togetherness and community among a wide range of people who support it, through exchanges in popular music". In 2004, Magdangal was chosen by the newly set up GMA Records to be its banner artist through its initial album offering, Forever Jolina. The record, which was a moderate success, receiving a gold record certification, produced the hit song "Bahala Na" and the music video, directed by Louie Ignacio, won Magdangal the Favorite Female Artist award in the MTV Pilipinas Awards 2004. In the same year, Magdangal top billed the film Annie B., a critical and commercial failure. Despite the film in general being panned by critics, Magdangal's performance earned her a nomination in the 2005 Entertainment Press’ Golden Screen Awards (ENPRESS) for Best Actress in Musical or Comedy. The film's soundtrack received mixed reviews. Rito P. Asilo of the Inquirer News Service noted that "[Magdangal's] repertoire may have tenuous lyrical content, but her rich and naturally soulful voice, the album's best asset, makes utterly familiar tunes seem fresh and personal. When [Magdangal] sings, she bends, breaks and expertly sections her musical notes and vocal shifts with precision." Magdangal's next television appearances were her hosting stints in the reality talent search Starstruck (Kids Edition (2004), Season 2 (2004), Season 3's StarStruck: The Nationwide Invasion (2005), and Season 4's StarStruck: The Next Level (2006)); and the longest-running morning public affairs/newscast show Unang Hirit (2005). The shows earned Magdangal hosting nominations in the PMPC Star Awards for Television, winning three. In 2006, Magdangal reunited with Marvin Agustin in the series I Luv NY, co-starring Starstruck winners Jennylyn Mercado and Mark Herras. Directed by Louie Ignacio, the series was publicized as "the first Philippine primetime TV soap to use a world-class location as its backdrop" with the majority of its episodes filmed in New York City. I Luv NY registered one of the most impressive pilot week ratings in the history of Philippine primetime television. In July of the same year, she released a special edition of her sixth studio album Tuloy Pa Rin Ang Awit, launched earlier that year, to include the theme song of I Luv NY, "Makulay Na Buhay". The album, under GMA Records, also produced the hits "Maybe It's You", "Gusto", and "Let Me Be The One", a collaboration with Janno Gibbs. In Magdangal's next film, the horror flick Ouija, she shared top billing with Judy Ann Santos and was also joined by Iza Calzado and Rhian Ramos. Directed by Topel Lee, the film was based on a National Geographic Channel documentary about a British family that inappropriately used a Ouija board inadvertently trapping a spirit. The film was a commercial success; according to Box Office Mojo, it grossed over $2,094,108, the third highest grossing Filipino film of 2007. In 2008, Magdangal was selected to judge in the music competition Pinoy Idol, an international TV franchise distributed by Fremantle Media, alongside singer-composer Ogie Alcasid and retired talent manager Wyngard Tracy. Her selection as one of the judges was marred with controversy when her competence was questioned by some viewers. That same year, she released her seventh studio album Destiny with two of the songs, her cover of "Will of the Wind" and the original "Umibig Ka", used as soundtrack in her next film I.T.A.L.Y (I Trust and Love You) (2008). The film, where she starred along with Dennis Trillo, Eugene Domingo, Rufa Mae Quinto, Mark Herras, and Rhian Ramos, featured five countries, and 13 cities as background of the story of intertwining lives and destinies of six people on a seven-day cruise aboard Costa Magica. Box Office Mojo puts the film's gross to only Php 40,614,236, a commercial failure. In 2009, Magdangal reunited with Marvin Agustin to appear in the romantic comedy series Adik Sa'Yo. Directed by Joel Lamangan, the series marked the pair's first mature role in television after portraying teenybopper roles in their past projects. The series, also released on DVD the following year, had a modest debut before claiming top spot ratings in its timeslot. 2010s In the first half of 2010s, besides performing in Sunday musical variety show Party Pilipinas, and its replacement Sunday All Stars (2013); co-hosting the tabloid talkshow Personalan: Ang Unang Hakbang with Jean Garcia, and; mentoring aspirants in Protégé: The Battle For The Big Artista Break (2012), Magdangal took supporting roles in different series. In 2011, she co-starred with Claudine Barretto, Marvin Agustin, Luis Alandy, and Milkcah Wynne Nacion in Iglot, a drama-fantasy and spin-off to the 2004 series Mulawin. In My Daddy Dearest (2012), she played a special role as mother to Milkcah Wynne Nacion's character. While she portrayed as one of the antagonist, her first, in Mundo Mo'y Akin (2013). In film, Magdangal took hiatus throughout the 2010s during which she made no films other than the limited-release independent film Agawan Base (2011). November 2014, Magdangal started taping episodes for her next television series FlordeLiza (2015), premiered January 2015, indicating her return to ABS-CBN after 12 years with GMA Network. Reuniting with Marvin Agustin and Director Wenn Deramas, Magdangal played a mistress role, a first in her acting career. The series was a moderate success in viewing figures, coming from a single digit ratings in its pilot week to a stable double digits during its run and out-rating its competition in its final airings.; a critical success, it was extended to a month and was nominated Best Daytime Drama Series in the 29th PMPC Star Awards for Television with Magdangal nominated in the Best Drama Actress category. In 2015, Magdangal appeared in the first season of Your Face Sounds Familiar (2015) as a performer-impersonator. Of the 12 week competition, she won two performances; her impersonations of Cher and Manny Pacquiao. A music icon herself, she was also impersonated by co-performer Melai Cantiveros in the same season, Onyok Pineda in the Kids Edition and by Vivoree Esclito in the third season. Despite failing to enter the final four stage of the competition, Magdangal was acknowledged by critics as a deserving finalist with entertainment writer Nestor U. Torre of the Philippine Daily Inquirer saying "[Magdangal] is, aside from being gifted and versatile in her own right, a star. Of all of the tilt's eight 'celebrity' impersonators, only [Magdangal] has ever made it to certifiable major and consistent star status. [She] has 'carried' many a TV and film production, so she has the stellar 'K' and 'cred' [others] have yet to attain." Late 2015, after a seven year hiatus in the recording industry, Magdangal released her eighth studio album Back to Love through digital downloading and streaming, containing seven original songs. In 2016, Magdangal returned to the ASAP stage as one of the program's second decade main hosts and to host her segment "Love Songs & Stories (LSS)". However, on the second quarter of 2018, she left the show to give birth to her second child and never returned in time of the show's reformatting to ASAP Natin 'To. In February 2016, she released the expanded version of her album Back to Love to include latest versions of her original hits "Kapag Ako Ay Nagmahal" and "Chuva Choo Choo", the latter was a collaboration with Vice Ganda. The expanded album was also released on physical copies; after two weeks in the market, she was awarded by PARI with a gold record certification. In the 8th PMPC Star Awards for Music, Magdangal was named Female Recording Artist of the Year and the album was nominated for the Album of the Year category. Her next hosting stint is in the morning show Magandang Buhay (2016), with Karla Estrada, Melai Cantiveros and Jodi Sta. Maria. The show is currently active airing weekdays in the morning slot. Magdangal's next role as judge following Pinoy Idol was in the amateur singing competition Tawag ng Tanghalan Kids (2017) and its regular edition's second (2017) and third (2019) editions, both aired as a segment in the noontime show It's Showtime. In 2019, Magdangal started guesting in the reformatted ASAP show ASAP Natin 'To and has since continued to appear occasionally as a performer until today. 2020s After a decade of hiatus in doing films, Magdangal made a comeback in the 2021 film Momshies! Ang Soul Mo'y Akin!, a collaboration with her Magandang Buhay co-hosts Karla Estrada and Melai Cantiveros. In addition to her weekdays hosting stint at Magandang Buhay, in 2022, she returned as a recurring judge in the noontime show Tawag ng Tanghalan, while in 2013, Magdangal joined the 'Sang Daang Pienalo airing weekend nights at Pie Channel. Other activities Concerts Magdangal has staged concerts and tours in the islands of the Philippines and in major cities around the world, either solo or with other artists. Among her notable concert activities include the following: In 2000, she did a solo concert at Queen's College Hall in New York City. In 2001, Magdangal staged the two-day "Arriba Arriba Concert" at Neal S. Blaisdell Center in Hawaii. The concert was supposed to be a one day event, but due to the unprecedented number of spectators, the concert was extended for another day. March 2001, she headline a concert in Sydney, Australia; and in March she performed in concert with international singer-composer David Pomeranz in Chicago. In September 2001, she performed in concerts at Reno, Nevada, Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. October 2001, she had a solo concert at Saipan; November of the same year, she performed in concert at China. In 2002, she was the first and only Filipino artist to be invited to do a pre-game performance at Hula Bowl, a much-celebrated annual college football game in Hawaii, and was attended by more than 30,000 spectators coming from Hawaii and mainland US. Said event was covered by cable-TV ESPN and shown all throughout the United States. In the same year, Magdangal did a solo concert "Jolina Live in Glendale" at the historic Alex Theatre in Glendale, California. She was the second Filipino artist to perform in said historic and prestigious theater next to Nora Aunor. Also in 2002, she had a four-city tour in California at the United States. She performed at San Francisco, Sacramento, San Diego, and Los Angeles. In 2003, Magdangal did a headlining concert in Cebu, Philippines. Produced by Thoughts and Notions, she filled the Cebu Sports Center with more than 35 thousand spectators. The said concert signalled the opening of the 2003 Sinulog Festival. On March 1, 2003, she staged her first major solo concert in Metro Manila billed as "Jolina Mania", produced by MaxiMedia and was held at the Smart Araneta Coliseum. Magdangal was the first young artist to perform and fill the then proverbial last frontier of concert artists in the Philippines. In 2004, she staged solo concerts at Toronto and Vancouver in Canada. At Europe, she did a four-city concert tour called as "Kumustahan 2006", produced by Star Events. In this tour, she performed for the Overseas Filipinos in Amsterdam, Vienna, London, and Milan. Products and endorsements Note: The list of endorsements in this section is not chronologically arranged. At the height of her career, Magdangal was one of the high-profile endorsers in the Philippines along with Sharon Cuneta, Aga Muhlach, Michael V., and Regine Velasquez. She was elevated among the country's handful of credible product endorsers in the print, television, and radio platforms which led to Preview Modelling Agency naming her an image model for inspiring would-be models to elevate product endorsing to a higher level. She was also called commercial princess next to Sharon Cuneta, with the Philippine Star in 2003 saying "The [megastar ...] is said to be a very effective endorser. In fact, she is top of mind among the advertising industry's choices of endorsers, followed by Jolina Magdangal [and] Aga Muhlach...". Magdangal's most notable endorsements varies from hair care product, fast-food restaurant, canned food products, juice drink, baked food product biscuit, clothing line, and stationery products, to name a few. Magdangal was also previously chosen to be the image model of a line of cosmetics for teens by a direct selling company; an institution of higher education; a government-owned universal bank and a government-controlled corporation providing funds for health programs and charities of national character; and phone cards of a telecommunications company. In 2000, she was chosen to be the spokesperson of the Philippine's first pre-need company; while in 2008 she was tapped by an on-line marketplace to be its Style Ambassador. Mid 2000s, Magdangal was selected to be the image model of an entire direct selling company appearing in the covers of its catalogs. Most recently, following her giving birth to two children, she was then seen endorsing children-friendly products including medicines, disposable baby diaper, and powdered formula milk drink. Writing and vlogging In 1999, Magdangal had her weekly column "Sincerely Yours, Jolina" in the Super Teen Magazine. In 2007, she entered in the blogosphere through Philippine Entertainment Portal, billed as "Chuva Chika". In 2008, Magdangal had her weekly column in Inquirer Bandera "Fashionista". In 2010, Magdangal launched her own magazine Jolie, a style and entertainment magazine published by OctoberEighty Publications. In 2018, she started uploading vlog entries in her YouTube channel, "Jolina Network". In June 2019, she was awarded by YouTube with a Silver Play Button for surpassing 100,000 subscribers. Philanthropy and activism In 1999 and 2002, Magdangal was the Ambassadress of Goodwill of The Children's Hour, representing the youth and the entertainment industry. The campaign was a series of global fundraising events calling out individuals and corporations across 20 countries to donate an hour's worth of their earnings to support the less fortunate children. In 2006, Magdangal had her long locks trimmed by 14 inches, a first in 17 years, to start and organize a project that will gather hair for donation to an appropriate organization that makes wigs for cancer patients. Legacy Public image FHM Philippines described Magdangal as the “most charming Pinay cutie pie... [who has remained as] the perennial apple of our eyes and the showbiz industry’s unanimous peg for wholesomeness and baby face-dome”, even after getting married and giving birth to her first child. Her colorful persona is always associated to the vibrant decade of the 1990s as “reflected on her girl, quirky style setting the trend in teens and teens at heart” and of which the Malaya newspaper claimed that “[m]uch of the nineties belonged to [Magdangal]”. For effectively establishing a “solid name and one that is unblemished with nary a scandal or controversy”, she was acknowledged to be a “true-blue epitome of a role model of the youth [and] pride of the industry”". These public images, together with her career achievements, was seen by entertainment critics as a set of standards of a teen idol to which made her the Teen Queen of the 1990s in the Philippines. As testaments to these claims, she was a recipient of German Moreno Youth Achievement Award, Gintong Kabataan Awards, Youth Role Model Awards, and was even named the first ever National Youth Advocate by the National Youth Commission. In 2005, she received a Serviam Award, a special citation given by the Catholic Mass Media Awards, “[elevating her] as a Paragon of a Socially-Conscious Performing Artist for consistently making herself a model of responsible behavior”. Cultural impact Magdangal is regarded in the Philippines as a popular culture icon (Pop Icon) for bringing popular culture into a wider audience since the 1990s. As witnesses to this cultural landscape, entertainment writers Shinji Manlangit and Don Jaucian of The Philippine Star introduced Magdangal as a "[g]reat Pinoy pop culture philosopher" in their write-up in attempting to filter the best and the worst of celebrity culture. While in a collaboration effort of entertainment writers Ian Urrutia, Katrina Santiago, and selected panelists of the lifestyle magazine FHM Philippines, Magdangal was credited to have built a legacy that goes beyond film, television, and music. According to the panel: In the 33 Things You'll Know If You're A Filipino list by the American internet media and news company, BuzzFeed, Magdangal's "cultural impact" landed in the second spot, while her early program Ang TV occupied the top of the list. In 2009, she was awarded her own star in the Eastwood City Walk of Fame; while she was also inducted into the Paradise of Stars in the Mowelfund compound earlier in 2007. Famed for her colorful and distinct fashion style, Magdangal has also been referred to as a fashion icon of her time. Writing for the Entertainment section of abs-cbn.com, Mary Ann Bardinas stated: "...she also became an icon when it comes to fashion. Her quirky and bubbly persona and flamboyant and psychedelic style became her trademark... One of her major influences were the glittery and colorful butterfly hair clips in different shapes and sizes. Besides, her full bangs with long hair, striking highlights, and crazy braids also became a trend among young girls and teenagers. Apparently, she wasn't afraid to experiment and to veer away from the norms, and established her own rules when it comes to styling herself. She'd been the trendsetter for unique, flashy, and girly styles." Magdangal's style is often defined as "walking Christmas tree", with entertainment writer Bianca Geli of pep.ph saying: "The 1990s fashion may have come and go, but [Magdangal's] offbeat fashion, like a 'walking Christmas tree,' is an indelible trademark of the era." Her fashion statements led to the creation of Jolina Dolls, the first line of dolls that were made in the image of a Filipino personality, and the Teen Scents by Jolina of a direct selling company, known to be the first fragrance formulated for Filipina teens. Her influences were also used as subject in different studies including undergraduate thesis and books. In 1999, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration organized a contest to allow Filipinos name storms that would enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility and the name "Jolina" came up. It is believed that the winning name, Typhoon Jolina, is from Magdangal herself who was during that time the most familiar celebrity appearing everywhere in films, TV, and magazines. Stars of today have cited Magdangal's influence on them, directly or indirectly; among them are: Toni Gonzaga, who shared in an interview on how Magdangal influenced her back when she was starting in the industry; Heart Evangelista, saying "...I was definitely a fan of my dear friend Jolina Magdangal. I thought she was very unique and remind me of people that really celebrated their individuality... I remember when I saw Jolina Magdangal, she had all these clips and she would dress up and didn’t mind if she mixed patterns and whatever. I really loved that about her because it made her unique.”; Bea Alonzo, who thanked Magdangal for being an inspiration through the latter's soap operas and sitcoms; Angel Locsin, who revealed that she was once a backup dancer in one of Magdangal's music video; Dimples Romana, who shared how Magdangal had influenced her in being kind to younger actors and instilled to her how kindness pays forward; Yeng Constantino, who thanked Magdangal for being an idol of her generation; Jodi Santamaria, who recalled making professional television debut in one episode of Magdangal's drama series; Filipino internet sensation Jake Zyrus, who said in an interview on how Magdangal influenced him when he was a kid; Kiray Celis, revealing Magdangal as her peg as an aspiring comedian; child actress Milkcah Wynne Nacion, who aspire to be like Magdangal; Daniel Padilla; and Rita Daniela. In 2017, a parody account Jolegend Slaydangal became an instant hit in the Philippines and produced a number of memes glorifying Magdangal's successes in the showbiz industry and why she is worthy of the title as the country's Queen of Pop. Filmography Selected films Hataw Na (1995) Ang TV Movie: The Adarna Adventures (1996) Ama, Ina, Anak (1996) Radio Romance (1996) F.L.A.M.E.S The Movie (1997) Adarna: The Mythical Bird (1997) Kung Ayaw Mo, Huwag Mo! (1998) Labs Kita... Okey Ka Lang? (1998) Puso ng Pasko (1998) Hey Babe! (1999) Tunay na Tunay: Gets Mo? Gets Ko! (2000) Kung Ikaw Ay Isang Panaginip (2002) Home Alone Da Riber (2002) Annie B. (2004) Ouija (2007) I.T.A.L.Y. (2008) Momshies: Ang Soul Mo'y Akin (2021) Selected television programs Ang TV (1992) ASAP (1995–2002, 2014–present) Gimik (1996) Esperanza (1997–1999) Star Drama Theater Presents: Jolina (1997-1998) Wansapanataym: Daga (1997) Richard Loves Lucy (1998) Labs Ko Si Babe (1999) Arriba, Arriba! (2000) Wansapanataym: Ming-Ja (2002) The Working President (2002) Mundo Mo'y Akin (2013) FlordeLiza (2015) Magandang Buhay (2016–present) Tawag Ng Tanghalan (Kids) (Seasons 2-3) (2017), (2019) Discography A Wish Comes True (1996) Jolina (1999) On Memory Lane (2000) Jolina Sings the Masters (2002) Forever Jolina (2004) Tuloy Pa Rin Ang Awit (2006) Destiny (2008) Back to Love (2015) Accolades Notes References External links 1978 births Living people 21st-century Filipino women singers Jolina Filipino women pop singers GMA Music artists GMA Network personalities Filipino child actresses Filipino film actresses Filipino people of Spanish descent Filipino television actresses Filipino women comedians Comedians from Quezon City People from Tagaytay Radio Philippines Network personalities Star Magic Star Music artists Tagalog people Viva Artists Agency Viva Records (Philippines) artists Actresses from Quezon City Actresses from Cavite Singers from Quezon City Singers from Cavite
4901934	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLC%20School	MLC School	MLC School (previously Methodist Ladies' College) is an independent Uniting Church single-sex early learning, primary, and secondary day school for girls, located in the inner western Sydney suburb of Burwood, New South Wales, Australia. The school enrols students from early learning, through kindergarten to year 12. History MLC School was founded in 1886 to prepare students for entrance to the University of Sydney, which had only admitted women to degrees four years before. With the view that much more could be expected of girls’ skills and talents during their school education, MLC School was one of the first schools in Australia to offer girls the same level of education as boys. In 1889, a kindergarten was introduced, placing MLC School in the forefront of educational practice. Founding principal Charles John Prescott believed in the education of very young children and persuaded the college council to establish a co-educational kindergarten. It is believed that MLC School was one of the first to establish a purpose-built kindergarten building. In 1890, Miss Scheer became the MLC School kindergarten teacher. Scheer had received her training in Germany in the methods developed by Friedrich Fröbel. Miss Scheer, and her training under in the principles of Friedrich Fröbel are mentioned in the school history Walk In The Light but unfortunately her Christian name is not recorded. MLC School has a long tradition in science education. The school's first science laboratory was built in 1924 and chemistry and physics were promptly added to the curriculum. MLC School became the first school in the state to present girls for the Leaving Certificate in physics. MLC School was also a boarding school until 1977, when a fire destroyed the sleeping dormitories, dining room, offices and some classrooms. When assessed, it was decided that a significant portion of the affected buildings would have to be demolished. Due to falling demand for boarding accommodation, the school council decided not to rebuild the boarding quarters and to phase out the boarding school, which closed at the end of 1979. In June 1977, when the Methodist Church was incorporated into the new union of the Methodist, Presbyterian and Congregational Churches, the Methodist Ladies College Burwood became known officially as MLC School. Today, MLC School is a day school that forms part of the Uniting Church of Australia. Name changes 1886 – Wesleyan Ladies' College (opens on 27 January 1886) 1899 – Burwood Ladies' College 1914 – Methodist Ladies' College 1977 – MLC School School crest, colours and motto In 1886, founding principal Prescott and MLC School's drawing and painting teacher Miss Douglas designed the MLC School crest. The crest depicts the book of learning and the star of knowledge on the cross of Saint George. The MLC School motto, chosen by Prescott, is from the Vulgate: Ut filiae lucis ambulate ('walk as daughters of the light'). Prescott also chose the MLC School colours to honour his alma mater Oxford and its rival institution Cambridge: two bands of dark blue (for love of Oxford) with light blue inserted (for love of Cambridge). School song The MLC School song is Here In This House with music written by Australian composer Lindley Evans who was a visiting music teacher at MLC School from 1930 until 1946 and lyrics written by English poet laureate John Masefield. Recent developments A number of recent facilities at the school have been designed and constructed by architects Ed Lippmann and Associates, starting with the MLC School Aquatic Centre, which was opened by Dawn Fraser in 2003. The Junior School was completed and opened in 2009 by the Governor-General of Australia Quentin Bryce. The facilities available in the junior school include flexible learning spaces, learning studios, small group areas, wet areas, a literature and resource hub, outdoor learning and play spaces, the piazza, the kiss and drop, and the welcome wall. MLC Burwood, particularly the main school site bounded by Rowley and Grantham Street and Park Road, is listed on the local government heritage register. Principals From 1886 to 1972, MLC School operated under a dual control system with the principal connecting the school to the church and performing religious instruction, and the headmistress administering the day-to-day running, general education and discipline. In 1972 the system changed to single control with the Principal overseeing all the leadership duties. MLC School's principal is Lisa Moloney. Curriculum Higher School Certificate (HSC) MLC School is registered and accredited with the New South Wales Board of Studies, and therefore follows the mandated curriculum for all years. In Year 12, the Higher School Certificate (HSC) or the International Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum are followed. International Baccalaureate (IB) MLC became an IB World School in August 1999 and offers the International Baccalaureate (IB) to all students in Years 11 and 12 as an alternative to the HSC. Students undertaking the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in their final two years at school select one subject from each of six core study areas, ensuring a breadth of subject choice through humanities, experimental sciences, mathematics, arts and compulsory language study. The IB Diploma also requires a CAS component (hours dedicated to creativity, action and service), Theory of Knowledge classes and an Extended (5,000 word) Essay in a subject area of the student's choice. The International Baccalaureate is offered as an international / global alternative to the NSW Higher School Certificate. It has been offered at MLC School since 2001 and is chosen by 30% of MLC School's graduates. MLC School's 2010 IB Diploma results included four perfect scores, converting to the maximum Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR) of 99.95. The School's IB Diploma median rank was 98.80. The combined 2010 HSC and IB Diploma scores also resulted in 55% of candidates receiving an ATAR of 90.00 or above, with 14 candidates scoring 99.00 or above. Co-curriculum Sport Primary school students may partake in competitive sport through MLC School's membership of the Junior School Heads Association of Australia (JSHAA). These competitions are usually held on Saturday mornings and include sports such as: tee-ball/softball, tennis, netball, cricket, minkey/hockey and soccer. Secondary school students compete against 28 other similar type schools in the Independent Girls' Schools Sporting Association (IGSSA) competition. These competitions occur on Saturday mornings or in the form of carnivals and include sports such as: netball, softball, swimming, diving, cricket, tennis, athletics, fencing, cross country, rowing, hockey, soccer, water polo, basketball, touch football and gymnastics. Students who perform well at JSHAA or IGSSA level may be invited to compete in NSW Combined Independent Schools' (CIS) competitions. From its inception, MLC School has valued academic and co-curricular achievements equally. MLC School was the first school to give girls equal access to sports when on 3 November 1906 the first Athletics Sports Carnival for girls in Australia was held at MLC School. “At first other schools seemed to wonder if it was quite the correct thing, but next year some of them followed suit, and eventually all who had held up hands of horror, put them down and joined in too.” Music MLC School offers instrumental music lessons in over twenty instruments to both current MLC students and external students. Lessons are conducted by professional musicians. Students interested in music are offered the opportunity to perform on a number of levels, including at studio concerts and smaller groups. Performance opportunities are available every year in the Sydney Town Hall and biennially at the Sydney Opera House. From the beginning, music has held a special status at MLC School. The school's founding principal Prescott wanted his students to achieve tangible recognition for their achievements through examinations in music theory. MLC School was integral in the establishment of the Trinity College (London) musical theory examinations in Australia – the first board to examine candidates in music in Australia. The first MLC School Trinity College results are noted in the School's Examination Results in 1887, just one year after the School was established. Dance In 2008, MLC School won the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge NSW Open Division with a performance titled 'The Shades of Grief'; a story about the Beaumont children who went missing from a beach in Adelaide and have never been found. They won eight awards at the heats and another eight awards at the finals plus the overall 1st place. In 2009, MLC School was a grand finalist in the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge NSW Premier Division; their performance titled 'The Private Life of a Masterpiece' depicted the story of Edgar Degas' sculpture 'Little Dancer of Fourteen Years'. In 2011, MLC School won the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge NSW Premier Division with an entry entitled 'Granville'; a highly sophisticated and emotional piece that recalls the circumstances of how the Granville Train Disaster occurred and then explores how the accident impacted on Sydney's Western Suburbs. They also had previously won the NSW Regional Championships with the piece, winning nine awards to take 1st place at the Wollongong event. In 2019, MLC School competed in the Wakakirri Secondary School Story Dance Challenge with the piece 'The Price of Low Cost', following the story of a catastrophic sweatshop fire in Bangladesh. The performance was nominated for the National Story of the Year Award and placed 2nd. House system MLC School's senior school has ten houses. Four were created in 1942, and the other six were added in 1992. MLC School's primary school still utilises the original four houses. Each House has a staff Head of House and House Tutors. Spirited inter-House competition takes place every year as Houses vie for honours in debating, chess, literature, athletics, cross-country racing and swimming to take out the Spirit and Points Trophies on Speech Night at the end of the year. Original house names (1942) The first four houses were established by Headmistress Dr Gladys Wade in 1942. The House names were chosen from Aboriginal words commencing with the letters MLCB to fit the first letters of Methodist Ladies’ College Burwood, and their emblems were drawn from the MLC School Crest. Mooramoora means "good spirit", its emblem is the book and its colour is light green (emerald) representing initiative. Churunga means "sacred place or thing", its emblem is the cross and its colour is yellow (gold) representing worship. Leawarra means "uprising", its emblem is the shield and its colour is purple (violet) representing conviction. Booralee means "an ideal to which we must aspire", its emblem is the star and its colour is red (scarlet) representing chivalry. These house colours, when combined with the indigo and light blue of the school colours, create white light, which echoes the school motto: "Walk as daughters of the light". Six additional houses (1992) In MLC School's 1986 centenary history Walk in the Light, G. Wade (in 1942) described the aims of the original house system as: “giving students interests wider than those of their own class or age group and creating a greater feeling of belonging to the school as a whole. It also allowed more students to become involved in organising and decision making... The system would permeate almost every aspect of school life, providing a basis for friendly, but nevertheless intense competition”. As the school population grew, Wade's vision began to erode as each of the four Houses grew to over 200 students. At this level, the house system had little meaning other than as a convenient way of dividing the school for sporting and debating competitions. In 1992, the addition of six new houses was an attempt to restore the system to its original intent. Expanding the house system strengthened the pastoral care program, and provided students with more leadership opportunities and greater encouragement for participation in the wider life of the school. With ten houses, each student was able to operate within a unit of about eighty students and participation becomes a necessity rather than an option. The impact of this was immediately evident with greater involvement in swimming, sports and gymnastics competitions held during Term 4 1992. New house names (1992) The six new houses introduced in 1992 were named after people and places of significance in the history of MLC School. Abbeythorpe was a two-storey Italianate building located across Park Road from the school, between the sports field and Burwood Park (where the 2003 Aquatic Centre now sits), where classes were held and early boarders were housed for almost 50 years from 1923 when it was purchased by the College Council. Abbeythorpe was demolished in 1972, and in 1978 the Gymnasium (still located within the Aquatic Centre) was built on the site. The colour for Abbeythorpe is dark green. Lester is named after Sarah Eliza Lester, who ran one of the earliest private colleges for girls. In 1879, she established a ladies college (her fifth) in the 1855-built "Kent House" on the corner of Park Road and Rowley Street, Burwood. This became the Wesleyan Ladies' College in 1886 and would later become Burwood Ladies' College in 1899, Methodist Ladies’ College in 1914, and MLC School in 1977. The colour of Lester House is orange. Prescott is named after the founder and first principal-headmaster of the Wesleyan Ladies’ College, Charles Prescott. In the seven weeks from the time, he was offered the position of Headmaster, Prescott had almost single-handedly organised the school into existence, and he stayed for 14 years, during which the school gained a reputation for sound academic teaching and fine examination records in both academia and music. He left to become the headmaster of Newington College at the end of 1899. The colour of Prescott is royal blue. Sutton is named after Mabel Sutton, an MLC School Old Girl (cohort approx. 1896) joined the staff of Burwood Ladies' College as first assistant in 1910 and was appointed headmistress in 1912. In 28 years, she left her mark on education both at the school and in the community. She retired in 1940. In the 1920s, she was instrumental in introducing Physics to the MLC School curriculum, thus making MLC School the first school in NSW to have girls sit the Leaving Certificate Physics exams. The colour for Sutton is pink. Wade is named after Gladys Irene Wade, headmistress of MLC School from 1941 until 1959. Earlier in her academic and teaching career, she had been a form mistress at MLC School (1918–24). Wade instigated many of the traditions of the school, such as the house system and the school community service. The colour for Wade is turquoise (blue-green). Whitley is named after Alice Whitley, MLC School's last headmistress from 1960 to 1972. A former student of MLC School (Dux in 1930), Whitley made a lasting contribution to science education across NSW. Altogether, she devoted over 50 years of her life to the school. The colour for Whitley is maroon. Early MLC School architecture Miss Lester’s Kent House Sarah Eliza Lester moved her ladies’ college (for the fifth and last time prior to her retirement in 1885 when she moved across the road to 47 Park Road) to a large two-storey house on the Park Road / Rowley Street corner called ‘Kent House’ which stood on part of the ‘Burwood’ estate of 750 acres granted to Thomas Rowley by Governor John Hunter in 1799. (Until 1886, Park Road was known as River View Terrace and Rowley Street was known as Rowley Place.) The Kent House estate consisted of 2.5 acres, about 1 acre being grassland on the opposite side of Park Road from the school. (Separating this field from Burwood Park was ‘Abbeythorpe’ which was built by the Starling family in the mid 1800s and acquired by the school in 1923 to be used as the Junior School.) On 22 May 1885, the Wesleyan Conference Committee considered Lester's school at the Park/Rowley corner as a possible site for the Wesleyan Ladies College that they wished to establish to complement Newington College. The main building consisted of four ground floor rooms and several bedrooms upstairs. A cottage (where Schofield Hall / the Chapel now stands), a stable, a coach house, a fowl house and a paddock on the other side of Park Road were included, bringing the area of purchase to one hectare. The Sydney Morning Herald advertisement on the 23 January 1886 stated that “the premises (Kent House) have been occupied as a school by Miss Lester for many years past and are consequently well-known.” Schofield Hall (now MLC School Chapel) As student numbers rose, plans were made for a significant extension to the buildings. The Kent House cottage, which had been used mainly for sleeping accommodation, was to be demolished and replaced with a two-storey building with dining hall and suite of bedrooms above. The early days of MLC School were plagued by financial problems. Unlike other schools at the time, it had not started with a personal endowment. Prescott appealed for donations, stating that the school “started in faith, perhaps in the hope that some generous friend might come forward and do something to lighten the debt incurred by the buying of the College.” The first ‘generous friend’ was Ellen Schofield, the wealthy widow of W. Schofield, a Wesleyan minister. Schofield provided the sum of £2,000 (approx $1 million in today's money) to the new Wesleyan Ladies College (as MLC School was then known), to build the Boarder's dormitory hall and dining room. The new Boarder's dormitory hall and dining room (foundation stone laid in 1891) was named Schofield Hall. It was designed by Harry C. Kent (a leading Sydney architect who was President of the NSW Institute of Architects for two terms) who also made provision for two towers. Years later Schofield donated another £800 towards the construction of the northern Tower Wing. In 1977 a fire destroyed the upstairs sleeping dormitory of Schofield Hall. The ground floor survived and is now the MLC School Chapel. Tower Wing The Tower Wing (foundation stone laid 1918) was designed by Alfred Newman in a Tudor Gothic style to harmonise with the existing architecture of the Schofield Hall which it adjoins. A prominent feature in the new building was the large tower, 24 feet square, and four stories in height. This tower, which was fitted as the residence of the Principal, was covered with a flat roof that was utilised as a promenade. The Tower Wing provided four additional large classrooms and eight music rooms, as well as bedrooms and sleeping-out balconies for the staff and boarders. Provision was also made for servants’ quarters, and ample shower and other facilities. The Tower Wing once extended the length of what is now the Cornwell Building. Most of it was demolished in 1989 to make way for the Cornwell Building. Remaining from the original structure are the Tower, Sutherland Rooms and Deputy Principal's office. Abbeythorpe In late 1923 Abbeythorpe, a residence that stood between the school's playing fields and Burwood Park, was purchased from Mrs Starling. Abbeythorpe was used from 1924 for the kindergarten and primary classes with accommodation for Boarders on the upper floor. The property not only had a large two storey Victorian Italianate house, but also contained a small tennis court. It had four classes, two on the ground floor and two on the second floor. It had not been renovated to look like a school though, the original rooms just had desks placed in them and a blackboard installed at the front. Abbeythorpe was demolished in 1972, and in 1978 the Gymnasium (still located within the Aquatic Centre) was built on the site. Potts Hall By 1925 the growth in student numbers made it clear that a new hall was desperately needed. It was resolved to go ahead and build a new hall on the site of the original kindergarten building on the corner of Rowley and Grantham Streets. The new block was to have a tower to balance the Tower Wing and was to incorporate a gymnasium and art room as well as new classrooms. The building was opened in June 1926 complete with hall which seated 1,000 people. The gym on the ground floor was fitted out with money raised at a fete in the previous year. Funds raised by the Old Girls’ Union provided furnishings for the new Hall. Initially called the Assembly Hall, the building was renamed Potts Hall in 1933 on Potts’ death. First Swimming Pool On 29 April 1929 the Parents’ and Friends’ Association was established with the objective of assisting in “any way possible the promotion of the interests of the College, and to supplement school equipment”. The original members chose as their first objective “the provision of a swimming pool in the College grounds”. The Great Depression and WWII meant that fund raising was a challenge, but on 9 March 1957 the P&F had their “fulfilment of a dream” and the first MLC School pool was officially opened. Kent House (Art and Design Centre) In August 1949 a two-storey house, Youngarra, located on the corner of Rowley and Gordon Streets was purchased by the school. Youngarra contained fourteen rooms on a quarter of a hectare of much needed land. The building was renamed Kent House, in memory of the original school building. It was occupied by the kindergarten and lower primary school. Youngarra was demolished in 1966 and replaced by a new and larger building which brought all the kindergarten and primary school under the one roof. This was to become the third building on MLC School premises to be named Kent House. In 2009 when the junior school relocated to its new premises on Park Road and Kent House became the MLC School Art and Design Centre. Sutton House In 1936 Cartreff, a two-story house at 36 Grantham Street was purchased and rename Sutton House in honour of the former student and long standing Headmistress, Mabel Sutton. It was to provide additional classrooms and was purchased with a view to future development. In 1949 the grand Sutton House was completed. Its first floor housed the contents of the former Fiction and Reference Libraries. The new combined library retained the name Wearne Library (in memory of the former MLC School headmistress, Minnie Wearne), and for the first time a full-time trained Librarian was employed. It occupied most of the first floor of Sutton House and contained shelving for 8,000 books. The construction of the new Sutton House also provide new science laboratories, a geography room and two senior rooms. The new ‘Wearne Library’ was noted for its simple and light finishes and spaces and was for use of the entire school. The Old Girls’ Union had donated the furniture. In 1962 extensions to Sutton House were made at a right angle to Sutton House along the then northern boundary of the school. Wade House The tennis court on Grantham Street between Potts Hall and Sutton Hall was replaced by Wade House in 1961, a modern two storey brick building which featured façade panels highlighting the architectural fashion of the day. The building was noted for its contemporary internal finishes and provided a bright and roomy art room, five large classrooms on the first floor as well as several smaller rooms, domestic science and well appointed staff room on the ground floor. Music education Charles Prescott Since the very early days, music has held a special status at MLC School – music's importance was such that, even when the school was conspicuously successful in academic examinations, the results of music exams always took precedence in the annual Speech Day reports. From the beginning, music has held a special status at MLC School; music's importance was such that, even when the school was conspicuously successful in academic examinations, the results of music exams always took precedence in the annual Speech Day reports. The School's Founding Principal, Rev. Prescott wanted his students to achieve tangible recognition for their achievements through examinations in music theory. MLC School was integral in the establishment of the Trinity College (London) musical theory examinations in Australia – the first board to examine candidates in music in Australia. The first MLC School Trinity College results are noted in the School's Examination Results in 1887, just one year after the School was established. With Prescott's encouragement, MLC School students entered various music grades in the Trinity College Theory Examinations. Practical examinations were administered by the Trinity, Sydney and Australian Colleges of Music. In addition, examiners were sent to the School from the Associated Board of the Royal Academy and the Royal College of Music in London. Frederick Morley One of Prescott's first staff appointments was Frederick Morley who remained as music and singing master at MLC School for forty years. Development of MLC School orchestras The first MLC School String Ensemble was formed in 1904 and was immediately popular. To meet the growing demand for music lessons, a wooden building was erected in 1905 to house three music rooms. Further facilities were provided with the 1919 opening of the Tower Wing where eight rooms were designated exclusively for music. By 1912 music became a qualifying subject in the MLC School curriculum. Music standards grew, along with student numbers, elevating the general status of music in the School even more. In 1932 the first MLC School Orchestra performed folk dances on senior play day. The Orchestra consisted of one first violin, four second violins, a cello, piano, two drums, four triangles, two cymbals and one tambourine. The first MLC School concert was held in 1933 and featured items by the Senior and Junior Choirs as well as instrumental and recitation solos. The School magazine ‘Excelsior’ published a School music column from 1930 which featured competition results and reported on musical functions including lunchtime recitals, visitors’ recitals and gramophone lecture recitals. By 1939 all girls were learning music in one form or another and the School Orchestra had grown to 16 musicians. Of the 90 girls who sat for various music grades within the Conservatorium of Music Examinations, 50 passed at either Credit or Honour standard, a highly commendable result for any school. In 1942 the Senior Choir and Orchestra participated in the All Schools’ Music Festival held at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music and percussion band training was introduced in the Primary School. Lindley Evans Lindley Evans, a visiting member of the MLC School music staff from 1930 to 1946 (also Dame Nellie Melba's accompanist for several years) became a driving force in the development of music at the school. He helped MLC School win the fabled Demster Shield in his first year on staff in 1930, a feat repeated on other occasions in the 1930s before interest in the competition waned in the early 1940s. The spirit of Lindley Evans remained an integral part of MLC School's musical tradition. This was demonstrated at the 1969 Speech Night when the orchestra played a piece specially written by Frank Hutchens, who was a close associate of Lindley Evans' for 40 years. Another lasting contribution that Lindley Evans made to MLC School was the composition of the music for the School song to lyrics by the UK Poet Laureate John Masefield. Sylvia Lew In 1948 Sylvia Lew came to MLC School when her husband, Robert Lew, took over as principal after Deane's retirement. Having received musical training at the Sydney Conservatorium, she put her skills to good use by forming a 90-strong Boarders’ Choir within a year of coming to the School. In May 1952, the Boarders’ Choir received wide exposure when they were was broadcast by the Australian Broadcasting Commission. In recognition of Silvia Lew's contribution to MLC School's music tradition, the auditorium in the 1987 Centenary Music Centre was named in her honour. Other facilities in the Music Centre include a keyboard laboratory along with staff areas, music tuition and practice rooms. Ken Cornwell In the 1970s, the new principal of MLC School, Ken Cornwell, the son of musical parents, and who was himself an accomplished violinist, brought to the school a love of and commitment to music that has been strongly reflected in its subsequent curriculum development. Between 1974 and 1985 the School's Music Department increased from 10 to 16 staff to become the largest single department in the school. An orchestra was formed in the Primary School in 1983, and the formation of recorder and Junior choir groups was followed in 1984 by Junior and Senior string ensembles. A highlight of the School calendar was the Annual Musical Evening held in July where performances included sixteenth century compositions as well as modern original items. First Opera House concert in 1986 During its centenary year, MLC School performed a ‘Grand Concert’ at the Sydney Opera House initiated by Helen Watson who was the Head of Music at the time. This was billed as an ‘evening of serious music featuring soloists, choirs and orchestra’ and the performance was a magnificent feast of music, both orchestral and choral, and included performances from Old Girls who returned to join current students. Music for all students The development of music now incorporates an integrated development program to include girls from Kindergarten to Year 12. At the MLC Junior School, all primary girls participate in class music which develops performance, listening, aural and creative skills. Each girl has the opportunity to learn an orchestral instrument in a class situation as well as through individual tuition. In the Senior School the music program focuses on learning generated by creative expression. The composition process taught from Year 7 progresses in elective classes where the girls develop skills to compose music for a variety of ensembles. Students are required to perform individually as well as being involved in ensemble performances. Music events on the MLC School calendar The musical highlight of each year is the MLC School Music Awards night held at the Sydney Town Hall. The school's musical calendar also includes the biennial concert held in the Sydney Opera House initiated by Helen Watson in 1986 and continued by her successor, Karen Carey. These concerts display the School's musical standard. Orchestral, choral and ensemble performances by the entire School, its bands, choirs and ensembles are supplemented by excellent individual performances. The concerts routinely featured works by traditional composers such as Bach, Handel, Liszt, Saint-Saens, Schubert and Shostakovich. In addition, composition diversity is provided by performances of original works by the School's composer in residence, teachers and MLC School students. Notable alumnae Entertainment, media and the arts Angela Catterns – media personality and broadcaster Olive Cotton – modernist photographer Grace Crowley – modernist painter Hazel de Berg – oral history pioneer Helen Joyce Haenke – poet and playwright Emma Jones – award-winning poet Vimala Raman – Indian actress Lulu Shorter – Australian designer Nikki Webster – singer Medicine and science Phyllis Margery Anderson – pathologist Freida Ruth Heighway – gynaecologist Emeritus Professor Jane Latimer Susie O'Reilly – pioneering female Australian doctor Joyce Winifred Vickery – forensic botanist Politics and the law Natalie Bennett – Leader of the Green Party of England and Wales Megan Latham – Judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales, Commissioner of ICAC (2014–2016) Marise Payne – Liberal Senator for New South Wales and former Minister for Foreign Affairs Mahla Pearlman – Chief Judge of the NSW Land and Environment Court from 1992 to 2003, and was the first woman chief judge in any State jurisdiction in Australia Sport Jessica Ashwood – Olympic Games representative in swimming Vanessa Baker – Commonwealth and Olympic Games diver Elisa Barnard – Olympic Games representative in archery Lorraine Crapp – Olympic diver and swimmer Felicity Galvez – Olympic swimmer Taniele Gofers – Member of Olympics and National Women's waterpolo team Elizabeth Kell – Olympic rower and 2006 Rowing World Champion Alyssa Healy – cricketer See also List of non-government schools in New South Wales References External links for MLC School MLC School Annual Report 2006 (accessed:17 July 2007) APRA Award winners Girls' schools in New South Wales Educational institutions established in 1886 Uniting Church schools in Australia Former boarding schools in New South Wales Former Methodist schools in Australia Round Square schools Rock Eisteddfod Challenge participants Association of Heads of Independent Girls' Schools Junior School Heads Association of Australia Member Schools Private secondary schools in Sydney Private primary schools in Sydney International Baccalaureate schools in Australia 1886 establishments in Australia Burwood, New South Wales Alliance of Girls' Schools Australasia
4902101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete%20choice	Discrete choice	In economics, discrete choice models, or qualitative choice models, describe, explain, and predict choices between two or more discrete alternatives, such as entering or not entering the labor market, or choosing between modes of transport. Such choices contrast with standard consumption models in which the quantity of each good consumed is assumed to be a continuous variable. In the continuous case, calculus methods (e.g. first-order conditions) can be used to determine the optimum amount chosen, and demand can be modeled empirically using regression analysis. On the other hand, discrete choice analysis examines situations in which the potential outcomes are discrete, such that the optimum is not characterized by standard first-order conditions. Thus, instead of examining "how much" as in problems with continuous choice variables, discrete choice analysis examines "which one". However, discrete choice analysis can also be used to examine the chosen quantity when only a few distinct quantities must be chosen from, such as the number of vehicles a household chooses to own and the number of minutes of telecommunications service a customer decides to purchase. Techniques such as logistic regression and probit regression can be used for empirical analysis of discrete choice. Discrete choice models theoretically or empirically model choices made by people among a finite set of alternatives. The models have been used to examine, e.g., the choice of which car to buy, where to go to college, which mode of transport (car, bus, rail) to take to work among numerous other applications. Discrete choice models are also used to examine choices by organizations, such as firms or government agencies. In the discussion below, the decision-making unit is assumed to be a person, though the concepts are applicable more generally. Daniel McFadden won the Nobel prize in 2000 for his pioneering work in developing the theoretical basis for discrete choice. Discrete choice models statistically relate the choice made by each person to the attributes of the person and the attributes of the alternatives available to the person. For example, the choice of which car a person buys is statistically related to the person's income and age as well as to price, fuel efficiency, size, and other attributes of each available car. The models estimate the probability that a person chooses a particular alternative. The models are often used to forecast how people's choices will change under changes in demographics and/or attributes of the alternatives. Discrete choice models specify the probability that an individual chooses an option among a set of alternatives. The probabilistic description of discrete choice behavior is used not to reflect individual behavior that is viewed as intrinsically probabilistic. Rather, it is the lack of information that leads us to describe choice in a probabilistic fashion. In practice, we cannot know all factors affecting individual choice decisions as their determinants are partially observed or imperfectly measured. Therefore, discrete choice models rely on stochastic assumptions and specifications to account for unobserved factors related to a) choice alternatives, b) taste variation over people (interpersonal heterogeneity) and over time (intra-individual choice dynamics), and c) heterogeneous choice sets. The different formulations have been summarized and classified into groups of models. Applications Marketing researchers use discrete choice models to study consumer demand and to predict competitive business responses, enabling choice modelers to solve a range of business problems, such as pricing, product development, and demand estimation problems. In market research, this is commonly called conjoint analysis. Transportation planners use discrete choice models to predict demand for planned transportation systems, such as which route a driver will take and whether someone will take rapid transit systems. The first applications of discrete choice models were in transportation planning, and much of the most advanced research in discrete choice models is conducted by transportation researchers. Energy forecasters and policymakers use discrete choice models for households' and firms' choice of heating system, appliance efficiency levels, and fuel efficiency level of vehicles. Environmental studies utilize discrete choice models to examine the recreators' choice of, e.g., fishing or skiing site and to infer the value of amenities, such as campgrounds, fish stock, and warming huts, and to estimate the value of water quality improvements. Labor economists use discrete choice models to examine participation in the work force, occupation choice, and choice of college and training programs. Ecological studies employ discrete choice models to investigate parameters that drive habitat selection in animals. Common features of discrete choice models Discrete choice models take many forms, including: Binary Logit, Binary Probit, Multinomial Logit, Conditional Logit, Multinomial Probit, Nested Logit, Generalized Extreme Value Models, Mixed Logit, and Exploded Logit. All of these models have the features described below in common. Choice set The choice set is the set of alternatives that are available to the person. For a discrete choice model, the choice set must meet three requirements: The set of alternatives must be collectively exhaustive, meaning that the set includes all possible alternatives. This requirement implies that the person necessarily does choose an alternative from the set. The alternatives must be mutually exclusive, meaning that choosing one alternative means not choosing any other alternatives. This requirement implies that the person chooses only one alternative from the set. The set must contain a finite number of alternatives. This third requirement distinguishes discrete choice analysis from forms of regression analysis in which the dependent variable can (theoretically) take an infinite number of values. As an example, the choice set for a person deciding which mode of transport to take to work includes driving alone, carpooling, taking bus, etc. The choice set is complicated by the fact that a person can use multiple modes for a given trip, such as driving a car to a train station and then taking train to work. In this case, the choice set can include each possible combination of modes. Alternatively, the choice can be defined as the choice of "primary" mode, with the set consisting of car, bus, rail, and other (e.g. walking, bicycles, etc.). Note that the alternative "other" is included in order to make the choice set exhaustive. Different people may have different choice sets, depending on their circumstances. For instance, the Scion automobile was not sold in Canada as of 2009, so new car buyers in Canada faced different choice sets from those of American consumers. Such considerations are taken into account in the formulation of discrete choice models. Defining choice probabilities A discrete choice model specifies the probability that a person chooses a particular alternative, with the probability expressed as a function of observed variables that relate to the alternatives and the person. In its general form, the probability that person n chooses alternative i is expressed as: where is a vector of attributes of alternative i faced by person n, is a vector of attributes of the other alternatives (other than i) faced by person n, is a vector of characteristics of person n, and is a set of parameters giving the effects of variables on probabilities, which are estimated statistically. In the mode of transport example above, the attributes of modes (xni), such as travel time and cost, and the characteristics of consumer (sn), such as annual income, age, and gender, can be used to calculate choice probabilities. The attributes of the alternatives can differ over people; e.g., cost and time for travel to work by car, bus, and rail are different for each person depending on the location of home and work of that person. Properties: Pni is between 0 and 1 where J is the total number of alternatives. (Expected fraction of people choosing i ) where N is the number of people making the choice. Different models (i.e., models using a different function G) have different properties. Prominent models are introduced below. Consumer utility Discrete choice models can be derived from utility theory. This derivation is useful for three reasons: It gives a precise meaning to the probabilities Pni It motivates and distinguishes alternative model specifications, e.g., the choice of a functional form for G. It provides the theoretical basis for calculation of changes in consumer surplus (compensating variation) from changes in the attributes of the alternatives. Uni is the utility (or net benefit or well-being) that person n obtains from choosing alternative i. The behavior of the person is utility-maximizing: person n chooses the alternative that provides the highest utility. The choice of the person is designated by dummy variables, yni, for each alternative: Consider now the researcher who is examining the choice. The person's choice depends on many factors, some of which the researcher observes and some of which the researcher does not. The utility that the person obtains from choosing an alternative is decomposed into a part that depends on variables that the researcher observes and a part that depends on variables that the researcher does not observe. In a linear form, this decomposition is expressed as where is a vector of observed variables relating to alternative i for person n that depends on attributes of the alternative, xni, interacted perhaps with attributes of the person, sn, such that it can be expressed as for some numerical function z, is a corresponding vector of coefficients of the observed variables, and captures the impact of all unobserved factors that affect the person's choice. The choice probability is then Given β, the choice probability is the probability that the random terms, (which are random from the researcher's perspective, since the researcher does not observe them) are below the respective quantities Different choice models (i.e. different specifications of G) arise from different distributions of εni for all i and different treatments of β. Properties of discrete choice models implied by utility theory Only differences matter The probability that a person chooses a particular alternative is determined by comparing the utility of choosing that alternative to the utility of choosing other alternatives: As the last term indicates, the choice probability depends only on the difference in utilities between alternatives, not on the absolute level of utilities. Equivalently, adding a constant to the utilities of all the alternatives does not change the choice probabilities. Scale must be normalized Since utility has no units, it is necessary to normalize the scale of utilities. The scale of utility is often defined by the variance of the error term in discrete choice models. This variance may differ depending on the characteristics of the dataset, such as when or where the data are collected. Normalization of the variance therefore affects the interpretation of parameters estimated across diverse datasets. Prominent types of discrete choice models Discrete choice models can first be classified according to the number of available alternatives. * Binomial choice models (dichotomous): 2 available alternatives * Multinomial choice models (polytomous): 3 or more available alternatives Multinomial choice models can further be classified according to the model specification: * Models, such as standard logit, that assume no correlation in unobserved factors over alternatives * Models that allow correlation in unobserved factors among alternatives In addition, specific forms of the models are available for examining rankings of alternatives (i.e., first choice, second choice, third choice, etc.) and for ratings data. Details for each model are provided in the following sections. Binary choice A. Logit with attributes of the person but no attributes of the alternatives Un is the utility (or net benefit) that person n obtains from taking an action (as opposed to not taking the action). The utility the person obtains from taking the action depends on the characteristics of the person, some of which are observed by the researcher and some are not. The person takes the action, , if Un > 0. The unobserved term, εn, is assumed to have a logistic distribution. The specification is written succinctly as: B. Probit with attributes of the person but no attributes of the alternatives The description of the model is the same as model A, except the unobserved terms are distributed standard normal instead of logistic. where is cumulative distribution function of standard normal. C. Logit with variables that vary over alternatives Uni is the utility person n obtains from choosing alternative i. The utility of each alternative depends on the attributes of the alternatives interacted perhaps with the attributes of the person. The unobserved terms are assumed to have an extreme value distribution. We can relate this specification to model A above, which is also binary logit. In particular, Pn1 can also be expressed as Note that if two error terms are iid extreme value, their difference is distributed logistic, which is the basis for the equivalence of the two specifications. D. Probit with variables that vary over alternatives The description of the model is the same as model C, except the difference of the two unobserved terms are distributed standard normal instead of logistic. Then the probability of taking the action is where Φ is the cumulative distribution function of standard normal. Multinomial choice without correlation among alternatives E. Logit with attributes of the person but no attributes of the alternatives The utility for all alternatives depends on the same variables, sn, but the coefficients are different for different alternatives: Since only differences in utility matter, it is necessary to normalize for one alternative. Assuming , are iid extreme value The choice probability takes the form where J is the total number of alternatives. F. Logit with variables that vary over alternatives (also called conditional logit) The utility for each alternative depends on attributes of that alternative, interacted perhaps with attributes of the person: where J is the total number of alternatives. Note that model E can be expressed in the same form as model F by appropriate respecification of variables. Define where is the Kronecker delta and sn are from model E. Then, model F is obtained by using where J is the total number of alternatives. Multinomial choice with correlation among alternatives A standard logit model is not always suitable, since it assumes that there is no correlation in unobserved factors over alternatives. This lack of correlation translates into a particular pattern of substitution among alternatives that might not always be realistic in a given situation. This pattern of substitution is often called the Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA) property of standard logit models. See the Red Bus/Blue Bus example in which this pattern does not hold, or the path choice example. A number of models have been proposed to allow correlation over alternatives and more general substitution patterns: Nested Logit Model - Captures correlations between alternatives by partitioning the choice set into 'nests' Cross-nested Logit model (CNL) - Alternatives may belong to more than one nest C-logit Model - Captures correlations between alternatives using 'commonality factor' Paired Combinatorial Logit Model - Suitable for route choice problems. Generalized Extreme Value Model - General class of model, derived from the random utility model to which multinomial logit and nested logit belong Conditional probit - Allows full covariance among alternatives using a joint normal distribution. Mixed logit- Allows any form of correlation and substitution patterns. When a mixed logit is with jointly normal random terms, the models is sometimes called "multinomial probit model with logit kernel". Can be applied to route choice. The following sections describe Nested Logit, GEV, Probit, and Mixed Logit models in detail. G. Nested Logit and Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) models The model is the same as model F except that the unobserved component of utility is correlated over alternatives rather than being independent over alternatives. The marginal distribution of each εni is extreme value, but their joint distribution allows correlation among them. The probability takes many forms depending on the pattern of correlation that is specified. See Generalized Extreme Value. H. Multinomial probit The model is the same as model G except that the unobserved terms are distributed jointly normal, which allows any pattern of correlation and heteroscedasticity: where is the joint normal density with mean zero and covariance . The integral for this choice probability does not have a closed form, and so the probability is approximated by quadrature or simulation. When is the identity matrix (such that there is no correlation or heteroscedasticity), the model is called independent probit. I. Mixed logit Mixed Logit models have become increasingly popular in recent years for several reasons. First, the model allows to be random in addition to . The randomness in accommodates random taste variation over people and correlation across alternatives that generates flexible substitution patterns. Second, advances in simulation have made approximation of the model fairly easy. In addition, McFadden and Train have shown that any true choice model can be approximated, to any degree of accuracy by a mixed logit with appropriate specification of explanatory variables and distribution of coefficients. for any distribution , where is the set of distribution parameters (e.g. mean and variance) to be estimated, iid extreme value, The choice probability is where is logit probability evaluated at with the total number of alternatives. The integral for this choice probability does not have a closed form, so the probability is approximated by simulation. Estimation from choices Discrete choice models are often estimated using maximum likelihood estimation. Logit models can be estimated by logistic regression, and probit models can be estimated by probit regression. Nonparametric methods, such as the maximum score estimator, have been proposed. Estimation of such models is usually done via parametric, semi-parametric and non-parametric maximum likelihood methods, but can also be done with the Partial least squares path modeling approach. Estimation from rankings In many situations, a person's ranking of alternatives is observed, rather than just their chosen alternative. For example, a person who has bought a new car might be asked what he/she would have bought if that car was not offered, which provides information on the person's second choice in addition to their first choice. Or, in a survey, a respondent might be asked: Example: Rank the following cell phone calling plans from your most preferred to your least preferred. * $60 per month for unlimited anytime minutes, two-year contract with $100 early termination fee * $30 per month for 400 anytime minutes, 3 cents per minute after 400 minutes, one-year contract with $125 early termination fee * $35 per month for 500 anytime minutes, 3 cents per minute after 500 minutes, no contract or early termination fee * $50 per month for 1000 anytime minutes, 5 cents per minute after 1000 minutes, two-year contract with $75 early termination fee The models described above can be adapted to account for rankings beyond the first choice. The most prominent model for rankings data is the exploded logit and its mixed version. J. Exploded logit Under the same assumptions as for a standard logit (model F), the probability for a ranking of the alternatives is a product of standard logits. The model is called "exploded logit" because the choice situation that is usually represented as one logit formula for the chosen alternative is expanded ("exploded") to have a separate logit formula for each ranked alternative. The exploded logit model is the product of standard logit models with the choice set decreasing as each alternative is ranked and leaves the set of available choices in the subsequent choice. Without loss of generality, the alternatives can be relabeled to represent the person's ranking, such that alternative 1 is the first choice, 2 the second choice, etc. The choice probability of ranking J alternatives as 1, 2, ..., J is then As with standard logit, the exploded logit model assumes no correlation in unobserved factors over alternatives. The exploded logit can be generalized, in the same way as the standard logit is generalized, to accommodate correlations among alternatives and random taste variation. The "mixed exploded logit" model is obtained by probability of the ranking, given above, for Lni in the mixed logit model (model I). This model is also known in econometrics as the rank ordered logit model and it was introduced in that field by Beggs, Cardell and Hausman in 1981. One application is the Combes et al. paper explaining the ranking of candidates to become professor. It is also known as Plackett–Luce model in biomedical literature. Ordered models In surveys, respondents are often asked to give ratings, such as: Example: Please give your rating of how well the President is doing. 1: Very badly 2: Badly 3: Okay 4: Well 5: Very well Or, Example: On a 1-5 scale where 1 means disagree completely and 5 means agree completely, how much do you agree with the following statement. "The Federal government should do more to help people facing foreclosure on their homes." A multinomial discrete-choice model can examine the responses to these questions (model G, model H, model I). However, these models are derived under the concept that the respondent obtains some utility for each possible answer and gives the answer that provides the greatest utility. It might be more natural to think that the respondent has some latent measure or index associated with the question and answers in response to how high this measure is. Ordered logit and ordered probit models are derived under this concept. K. Ordered logit Let Un represent the strength of survey respondent ns feelings or opinion on the survey subject. Assume that there are cutoffs of the level of the opinion in choosing particular response. For instance, in the example of the helping people facing foreclosure, the person chooses 1, if Un < a 2, if a < Un < b 3, if b < Un < c 4, if c < Un < d 5, if Un > d, for some real numbers a, b, c, d. Defining Logistic, then the probability of each possible response is: The parameters of the model are the coefficients β and the cut-off points , one of which must be normalized for identification. When there are only two possible responses, the ordered logit is the same a binary logit (model A), with one cut-off point normalized to zero. L. Ordered probit The description of the model is the same as model K, except the unobserved terms have normal distribution instead of logistic. The choice probabilities are ( is the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution): See also Notes References Further reading Anderson, S., A. de Palma and J.-F. Thisse (1992), Discrete Choice Theory of Product Differentiation, MIT Press, Choice modelling Economics models Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)
4902239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atonement%20%282007%20film%29	Atonement (2007 film)	Atonement is a 2007 romantic war drama film directed by Joe Wright and starring James McAvoy, Keira Knightley, Saoirse Ronan, Romola Garai, and Vanessa Redgrave. It is based on the 2001 novel of the same name by Ian McEwan. The film chronicles a crime and its consequences over the course of six decades, beginning in the 1930s. It was produced for StudioCanal and filmed in England. Distributed in most of the world by Universal Studios, it was released theatrically in the United Kingdom on 7 September 2007 and in North America on 7 December 2007. Atonement opened both the 2007 Vancouver International Film Festival and the 64th Venice International Film Festival, making Wright, at age 35, the youngest director ever to open the Venice event. The film was a commercial success and earned a worldwide gross of approximately $129 million against a budget of $30 million. It received rave reviews, with critics praising its acting, emotional depth, Wright's direction, Dario Marianelli's score, the cinematography, editing, visuals and the film's incorporation of real life events. Atonement won an Oscar for Best Original Score at the 80th Academy Awards and was nominated for six others, including Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Supporting Actress for Ronan. It also garnered fourteen nominations at the 61st British Academy Film Awards, winning both Best Film and Production Design, and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama. Plot In 1935 England, 13-year-old Briony Tallis, the youngest daughter of the wealthy Tallis family, is set to perform a play she wrote for an upcoming family gathering. She spies on her older sister, Cecilia, and the housekeeper's son, Robbie Turner (with whom Briony is infatuated), from her bedroom window. During their (Cecilia's and Robbie's) argument by the garden fountain, Robbie accidentally breaks a vase and yells at Cecilia to stay where she is – so as to avoid cutting her feet on the broken pieces on the ground. Still angered, Cecilia then strips off her outer clothing, stares at him and climbs into the fountain to retrieve one of the pieces. Briony observes all this from the window, and misinterprets the relationship between Cecilia and Robbie. Robbie drafts a note to Cecilia to apologise for the incident. In one draft of the note, he pens his true, unfiltered feelings of attraction for Cecilia in very explicit language. Although he never intends for Cecilia (or anyone else) to see this version of the note, he mistakenly places it (instead of the second more formal note he drafts) in an envelope which he asks Briony to deliver to Cecilia. Only after Briony departs does he realise the wrong version of the note is in the envelope destined for Cecilia's hands. Making matters worse, Briony reads the letter before giving it to Cecilia. Later, she describes the note to her 15-year-old visiting cousin, Lola, who calls Robbie a "sex maniac". Paul Marshall, a visiting friend of Briony's older brother Leon, introduces himself to the visiting cousins and appears to be attracted to Lola. Before dinner, Robbie and Cecilia are alone in the library, at which time he apologises to Cecilia for the obscene letter but, to his surprise, she confesses her secret love for him. They proceed to make passionate love against the wall in the library as Briony walks in unseen and sees them together; Briony mistakenly thinks her sister is being raped. During dinner, Lola's twin brothers go missing and the household organises into search parties. While participating in the search, Briony comes across Lola being raped by a man who flees upon being discovered. The two girls talk and Briony becomes convinced that it was Robbie; a confused Lola does not dissent, and the two return home. Later, Robbie — who finds the twins unharmed — returns to the house to see everyone waiting for him suspiciously. He ushers the twins inside and is promptly arrested despite Cecilia's pleas of his innocence. Lola and Briony's testimony, along with her turning over the explicit letter, convinces everyone but Cecilia of his guilt. Four years later, during the Second World War, Robbie is released from prison on the condition that he joins the army and fights in the Battle of France. Separated from his unit, he makes his way on foot to Dunkirk. He thinks back to six months earlier when he met Cecilia, now a nurse. Briony, now 18, joined Cecilia's old nursing unit at St Thomas' Hospital in London rather than go to the University of Cambridge. She writes to her sister, but Cecilia cannot forgive her for her part in Robbie's arrest and conviction years earlier. Robbie, who is gravely ill from an infected wound and hallucinating, finally arrives at the beaches of Dunkirk, where he awaits evacuation. Later, Briony, who regrets implicating Robbie, learns from a newsreel that Paul Marshall, who now owns a factory supplying rations to the British army, is about to marry Lola. As Briony attends the wedding, it finally sinks in that it was Paul who assaulted Lola during the search for the twins years ago. Briony visits Cecilia to apologise directly, and suggests correcting her testimony to which Cecilia says she would be an "unreliable witness". Briony is surprised to find Robbie there living with her sister, while in London on leave. Briony apologises for her deceit, but Robbie is enraged that she has still not accepted responsibility for her actions. Cecilia calms him down and then Robbie instructs Briony how to set the record straight and get Robbie's conviction overturned. Briony agrees. Cecilia adds that Briony include what she remembers of Danny Hardman, but Briony points out that Paul Marshall was the rapist and Cecilia adds he has just married Lola and now Lola will not be able to testify against her husband. Decades later, when Briony is an elderly and successful novelist, she gives an interview about her latest and last book, an autobiographical novel titled Atonement, and explains she is dying from vascular dementia. During the interview, the audience learns that the portion of the book where Robbie and Cecilia are living together and she (Briony) attempts to apologize to them is completely fictitious. The reality is that she could never atone for her mistake, and Cecilia and Robbie were never reunited; Robbie died of septicaemia from his infected wound on the morning of the evacuation at Dunkirk, and Cecilia died months later after drowning during an underground flood due to the Balham tube station bombing during the Blitz. Briony admits that she wrote her novel with its fictitious ending to give the two, in fiction and in death, the happiness they never had because she was responsible for mistakenly identifying Robbie as Lola's rapist. The last scene shows an imagined and happily reunited Cecilia and Robbie staying in the house by the sea which they had intended to visit once they were reunited. Cast James McAvoy as Robbie Turner, the son of the Tallis family housekeeper with a Cambridge education courtesy of his mother's employer. Keira Knightley as Cecilia Tallis, the elder of the two Tallis sisters. Saoirse Ronan as Briony, aged 13, an aspiring novelist. Romola Garai as Briony Tallis, aged 18, the younger Tallis sister and a nurse-in-training. Vanessa Redgrave as older Briony, now a successful novelist. Brenda Blethyn as Grace Turner, Robbie's mother and the Tallis family housekeeper. Juno Temple as Lola Quincey, the visiting 15-year-old cousin of the Tallis siblings. Benedict Cumberbatch as Paul Marshall, Leon Tallis's visiting friend. Patrick Kennedy as Leon Tallis, the eldest of the Tallis siblings. Harriet Walter as Emily Tallis, the matriarch of the family. Peter Wight as Police Inspector. Daniel Mays as Tommy Nettle, one of Robbie's brothers-in-arms. Nonso Anozie as Frank Mace, another fellow soldier. Gina McKee as Sister Drummond. Jérémie Renier as Luc Cornet, a fatally wounded and brain-damaged French soldier whom the 18-year-old Briony comforts on his deathbed. Michelle Duncan as Fiona Maguire, Briony's nursing friend at St Thomas' Hospital. Alfie Allen as Danny Hardman, a worker on the Tallis estate. In addition, film director and playwright Anthony Minghella briefly appears as the television interviewer in the final scene. Minghella died six months after the film was released, aged 54, following cancer surgery. Production Pre-production Director Joe Wright asked executive producers, Debra Hayward, Liza Chasin, and co-producer Jane Frazer to collaborate a second time, after working on Pride and Prejudice in 2005. He also sought out production designer Sarah Greenwood, editor Paul Tothill, costume designer Jacqueline Durran, and composer Dario Marianelli, for the film—all of whom previously worked together with Wright. In an interview, Wright states, "It's important for me to work with the same people. It makes me feel safe, and we kind of understand each other." The screenplay was adapted from Ian McEwan's 2001 novel by Christopher Hampton. After reading McEwan's book, screenwriter Christopher Hampton, who had previously undertaken many adaptations, was inspired to adapt it into a script for a feature film. When Wright took over the project as director, he decided he wanted a different approach, and Hampton re-wrote much of his original script to Wright's suggestion. The first draft – written with director Richard Eyre in mind – took what Hampton called a more "conventional, literary approach," with a linear structure, and a voiceover and the epilogue of the older Briony being woven in throughout the entire film instead of only at the end. Wright felt that the original approach owed more to contemporary filmmaking than historical filmmaking, while the second script was closer to the book. To re-create the World War II setting, producers hired a historian to work with the department heads. Background research for the film included the examination of paintings, photographs and films, and the study of archives. The war scenes, as well as many others scenes, were filmed on-location. Set decorator Katie Spencer and production designer Sarah Greenwood both examined archives from Country Life to find suitable locations for the interior and exterior scenes. Seamus McGarvey, the cinematographer, worked closely with Wright on the aesthetics of the visualisation, using a range of techniques and camera movements to achieve the final result. Casting Casting the film was a lengthy process for Wright, particularly choosing the right actors for his protagonists. Having previously worked with Keira Knightley on Pride & Prejudice (2005), he expressed his admiration for her, stating, "I think she's a really extraordinary actress". Referencing her character's unlikeability, Wright commended on Knightley's bravery in tackling this type of role without any fear of how the audience will receive this characterisation, stating "It's a character that's not always likeable and I think so many young actors these days are terrified of being disliked at any given moment in case the audience doesn't come and pay their box-office money to see them again. Keira is not afraid of that. She puts her craft first." As opposed to casting McAvoy, "Knightley was in almost the opposite position—that of a sexy, beautiful movie star who, despite having worked steadily since she was seven, was widely underestimated as an actress." In preparation for her role, Knightley watched films from the 1930s and 1940s, such as Brief Encounter and In Which We Serve, to study the "naturalism" of the performance that Wright wanted in Atonement. James McAvoy, despite turning down previous offers to work with Wright, nonetheless remained the director's first choice. Producers met several actors for the role of Robbie, but McAvoy was the only one who was offered the part. He fit Wright's bid for someone who "had the acting ability to take the audience with him on his personal and physical journey." McAvoy describes Robbie as one of the most difficult characters he has ever played, "because he's very straight-ahead." Further describing his casting process, Wright commented how "there is something undeniably charming about McAvoy". One of the most important qualities that particularly resonated with Wright was "McAvoy's own working-class roots," which McAvoy noted was something that Wright was very much interested in. Once Wright put both Knightley and McAvoy together, their "palpable sexual chemistry" immediately became apparent. The biggest risk Wright took in casting McAvoy was that "The real question was whether the five-foot-seven, slightly built, ghostly pale Scotsman had what it takes to be a true screen idol." Casting the role of Briony Tallis also proved challenging, yet once Wright discovered Saoirse Ronan her involvement enabled Wright to finally commence filming. On the casting process for the role of Briony, Wright commented how "We met many, many kids for that role. Then we were sent this tape of this little girl speaking in this perfect 1920s English accent. Immediately, she had this kind of intensity, dynamism, and willfulness." After inviting Ronan to come to London to read for the part, Wright was not only surprised by her Irish accent, but immediately recognised her unique acting ability. Upon casting Ronan, Wright revealed how completing this final casting decision enabled "the film to be what it became" and considered her participation in the film "lucky." Abbie Cornish was pegged for the role of 18-year-old Briony, but had to back out due to scheduling conflicts with Elizabeth: The Golden Age. Romola Garai was cast instead, and was obliged to adapt her performance's physicality to fit the appearance that had already been decided upon for Ronan and Redgrave. Garai spent much time with Ronan, and watched footage of her to approximate the way the younger actress moved. Vanessa Redgrave became everyone's ideal to play the elderly Briony and was the first approached (although she was not cast until Ronan had been found), and committed herself to the role after just one meeting with Wright. Redgrave, Ronan and Garai worked together with a voice coach to keep the character's timbre in a familiar range throughout the film. Filming Produced by StudioCanal, Atonement was filmed in Great Britain during the summer of 2006. Due to restrictions in the filming schedule, the production only had two full days to film all the war scenes set on Dunkirk beach, and lacked the budget to fund the 1000+ extras needed to shoot these scenes. Joe Wright and cinematographer Seamus McGarvey were forced to reduce the shooting to a -minute long take following James McAvoy's character as he moved a quarter of a mile along the beach. The first of the two days, and part of the second day, were dedicated to blocking and rehearsing the sequence until the sun was in the correct position in the afternoon ready to shoot. The shot took three complete takes, the fourth being abandoned mid-flow due to the lighting becoming too bad for shooting. They ended up using the third take. The sequence was accomplished by Steadicam operator Peter Robertson moving between using a tracking vehicle, to being on foot, to using a rickshaw via a ramp and then back to on foot. Locations Shooting locations for Atonement were primarily: Stokesay Court, Onibury, Shropshire. The seafront in Redcar. This work included an acclaimed five-minute tracking shot of the seafront as a war-torn Dunkirk and a scene in the local cinema on the promenade. The Grimsby ice factory on Grimsby Docks, both the interior and exterior of the building, were locations used for the Dunkirk street scenes. Streatham Hill, London, which stood in for neighbouring Balham, Cecilia's new home after breaking with her family. Additional locations used in London were Great Scotland Yard and Bethnal Green Town Hall, the latter being used for a 1939 tea-house scene, as well as the church of St John's, Smith Square, Westminster for Lola's wedding. Re-enactment of the 1940 Balham station disaster took place in the former Piccadilly line station of Aldwych, which has been closed since the 1990s. The war scenes in the French countryside were filmed in Coates and Gedney Drove End, Lincolnshire; Walpole St Andrew and Denver, Norfolk; and in Manea and Pymoor, Cambridgeshire. Much of the St Thomas's hospital ward interior scenes were filmed at Park Place, Berkshire and the exterior scenes were filmed at University College London. All the exteriors and interiors of the Tallis family home were filmed at Stokesay Court, which was selected from an old Country Life edition to tie in with the period and pool fountain of the novel. This mansion was built in 1889, commissioned by the glove manufacturer John Derby Allcroft. It remains an undivided private home. The third portion of Atonement was entirely filmed at the BBC Television Centre in London. The beach with cliffs first shown on the postcard and later seen towards the end of the film was Cuckmere Haven Seven Sisters, Sussex, which is 14 miles (22km) from Roedean School, which Cecilia was said to have attended. Release Theatrical Atonement opened at the 2007 Venice International Film Festival, making Wright—at the age of 35—the youngest director ever to be so honoured. The film also opened at the 2007 Vancouver International Film Festival. Atonement was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 7 September 2007, and in North America on 7 December 2007, along with a worldwide theatrical distribution which was managed by Universal Pictures, with minor releases through other divisions on 7 September 2007. Home media Atonement was released on DVD in the United States on 3 January 2008 in region 2, which was followed by a release in Blu-ray edition on 13 March 2012. In the UK, the film was released on DVD on 4 February 2008, on Amazon (in the UK), and on Blu-ray on 27 May 2008. Reception Box office Atonement grossed a cumulative $131,016,624 worldwide and $784,145 in the US on its opening weekend—9 December 2007. The estimated budget for the film was $30,000,000. The film's total gross revenue is $23,934,714 (worldwide) and $50,927,067 in the US. Critical response Atonement received widespread critical acclaim. The review site Rotten Tomatoes records that 83% of 219 critics gave the film positive reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The consensus reads, "Atonement features strong performances, brilliant cinematography and a unique score. Featuring deft performances from James McAvoy and Keira Knightley, it's a successful adaptation of Ian McEwan's novel." On Metacritic the film holds an average score of 85 out of 100 based on 36 reviews, indicating “universal acclaim”. In Britain, the film was listed as number three on Empires Top 25 Films of 2007. The American critic Roger Ebert gave it a four-star review, dubbing it "one of the year's best films, a certain best picture nominee". In the film review television program, At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper, Richard Roeper gave the film a "thumbs up," adding that Knightley gave "one of her best performances." As for the film, he commented that "Atonement has hints of greatness but it falls just short of Oscar contention." The film received near-unanimous praise on its release, with its casting solidifying Knightley as a leading star in British period dramas while igniting McAvoy's career in leading roles. It also catapulted the trajectory of a young Saoirse Ronan. Upon its release, The Daily Telegraph David Gritten describes how "Critics who have seen Atonement have reacted with breathless superlatives, and its showing at Venice and [its] subsequent release will almost certainly catapult Wright into the ranks of world-class film directors." The film received many positive reviews for its adherence to McEwan's novel, with Variety reporting that the film "preserves much of the tome's metaphysical depth and all of its emotional power," and commenting that "Atonement is immensely faithful to McEwan's novel." Author Ian McEwan also worked as an executive producer on the film. Not all reviews were as favourable. Although The Atlantics Christopher Orr praises Knightley's performance as "strong" and McAvoy as "likeable and magnetic," he concludes by saying "Atonement is a film out of balance, nimble enough in its first-half but oddly scattered and ungainly once it leaves the grounds of the Tallis estate," and remains "a workmanlike yet vaguely disappointing adaptation of a masterful novel." The New York Times''' A. O. Scott comes to a similar conclusion, saying "Mr. McAvoy and Ms. Knightley sigh and swoon credibly enough, but they are stymied by the inertia of the filmmaking, and by the film's failure to find a strong connection between the fates of the characters and the ideas and historical events that swirl around them." On a more positive note, The New York Observers Rex Reed considers Atonement his "favorite film of the year," deeming it "everything a true lover of literature and movies could possibly hope for," and particularly singling out McAvoy stating "the film's star in an honest, heart-rending performance of strength and integrity that overcomes the romantic slush it might have been," and praising Ronan as a "staggeringly assured youngster", while being underwhelmed by a "serenely bland Keira Knightley." Adding to the film's authentic adaptation, David Gritten once again notes how "If Atonement feels like a triumph, it's a totally British one." McAvoy is singled out: "His performance as Robbie Turner, the son of a housekeeper at a country estate, raised with ambitions but appallingly wronged, holds the movie together." Top ten lists The film appeared on many critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2007. AccoladesAtonement received numerous awards and nominations, including seven Golden Globe nominations—more than any other film nominated at the 65th Golden Globe Awards—and winning two Golden Globes, including Best Motion Picture – Drama. The film also received 14 BAFTA nominations for the 61st British Academy Film Awards including Best Film, Best British Film and Best Director, seven Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, and the Evening Standard British Film Award for technical achievement in cinematography, and awards for production design and costume design, earned by Seamus McGarvey, Sarah Greenwood and Jacqueline Durran, respectively. Atonement ranks 442nd on Empire magazine's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.Atonement has been named among the Top 10 Films of 2007 by the Austin Film Critics Association, the Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association, New York Film Critics Online and the Southeastern Film Critics Association. Cultural impact The green dress Cecilia wears during the love scene in the library garnered considerable interest. At the ten-year anniversary of the film's American premiere, the film's costume designer Jacqueline Durran called it "unforgettable." Historical inaccuracies The film shows an Avro Lancaster bomber flying overhead in 1935, an aircraft whose first flight was not until 1941. During the scene in 1935 in which Robbie writes and discards letters for Cecilia, he keeps playing a record of the love duet from Act 1 of La bohème, with Victoria de los Ángeles and Jussi Björling singing, which was not recorded until 1956. In the scene on the Dunkirk beach, Robbie is told that the Lancastria'' has been sunk, an event that actually happened two weeks after the Dunkirk evacuations. A detail reported as a historical inaccuracy is the date of the Balham tube station disaster. It happened before midnight 14 October 1940. Old Briony mentions 15 October as the date, which would have been the day the news of the deadly flooding broke. The song "White Cliffs of Dover" was not penned until 1941. See also Atonement (soundtrack) Green dress of Keira Knightley References External links (UK) Close-Up Film Interview – Atonement 2007 films 2007 romantic drama films 2000s war drama films BAFTA winners (films) Best Drama Picture Golden Globe winners Best Film BAFTA Award winners British romantic drama films British war drama films Dunkirk evacuation films Fiction with unreliable narrators Films scored by Dario Marianelli Films about atonement Films about interclass romance Films about miscarriage of justice Films about writers Films based on British novels Films directed by Joe Wright Films produced by Tim Bevan Films produced by Eric Fellner Films about the upper class Films set in the 1930s Films set in the 1940s Films set in country houses Films set in England Films set in France Films shot in Berkshire Films shot in Cambridgeshire Films shot in East Sussex Films shot in Lincolnshire Films shot in London Films shot in Norfolk Films shot in North Yorkshire Films shot in Shropshire Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award British historical romance films British nonlinear narrative films French nonlinear narrative films War romance films Focus Features films StudioCanal films Universal Pictures films Working Title Films films British World War II films French World War II films Films about sisters Relativity Media films 2000s English-language films 2000s British films 2000s French films
4902297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycho%20%28franchise%29	Psycho (franchise)	Psycho is an American horror franchise consisting of six films loosely based on the Psycho novels by Robert Bloch: Psycho, Psycho II, Psycho III, Bates Motel, Psycho IV: The Beginning, the 1998 remake of the original film, and additional merchandise spanning various media. The first film, Psycho, was directed by filmmaker Alfred Hitchcock. Subsequently, another film related to the series was made: an Alfred Hitchcock biopic, and two new novels, by Takekuni Kitayama and Chet Williamson, were released. Also, an independent documentary called The Psycho Legacy was released on October 19, 2010, mostly focusing on Psycho II, Psycho III and Psycho IV: The Beginning, while covering the impact and legacy of the original film. The franchise focuses on Norman Bates, a deeply disturbed individual who operates the Bates Motel. He is mentally unstable due to his domineering relationship with his mother, which results in him having a psychotic twisted split personality, and, as a result, he occasionally kills people. A five-season television series, Bates Motel, aired on A&E between 2013 and 2017. In a modern-day setting, it is a re-imagining of the Norman and Norma Bates characters, and their unusual relationship. It stars Freddie Highmore as a teenaged Norman and Vera Farmiga as his mother Norma. Novels Psycho (1959) In 1959, the novel Psycho was published. It was marketed as being loosely based on the Wisconsin serial killer and cannibal Ed Gein, after author Robert Bloch, who lived 40 miles away from Gein's farmhouse, learned of the killings shortly before finishing the novel, having independently liked the idea of somebody being able to kill people in a small community and get away with it for years without being caught. Bloch was further surprised years later when news of Gein's living in isolation with a religiously fanatical mother came to his attention, in "how closely the imaginary character I'd created resembled the real Ed Gein both in overt act and apparent motivation". The character of Norman Bates was very different in the novel from in the film version. In the novel, Bates is overweight, in his early 40s and drinks heavily. When Joseph Stefano adapted the novel into the screenplay, he made the character of Norman young, attractive and vulnerable. Psycho II (1982) In 1982, Bloch wrote a sequel novel called Psycho II which satirized the slasher genre and mocked the production of the 1983 film version, which was created independently and without Bloch's input. In the novel, Norman Bates escapes the mental institution and goes to Hollywood to stop the production of a film based on his life. Criticisms of the novel stated that Bloch's writing was immature, incoherent and unsuitable for adaptation into a motion picture. Psycho House (1990) In 1990, due to the pressure from his publishing company, Bloch wrote a third novel called Psycho House. However, according to horror writer David J. Schow, when writing it Bloch originally called it Psycho 13. In the novel, set ten years after Norman Bates' death, the Bates mansion and motel are both bought as tourist attractions, before a series of mysterious murders begin to take place. Psycho: Sanitarium (2016) A fourth installment, titled Robert Bloch's Psycho: Sanitarium and written by Chet Williamson, was released in 2016. The book is set between the events of the original novel and Psycho II, recounting the events which took place in a state hospital for the criminally insane where Bates is a patient. Films Psycho (1960) In need of money to get her boyfriend, Sam Loomis, out of debt (John Gavin), Marion Crane (Janet Leigh) steals $40,000 from her employer and flees Phoenix, Arizona by car. While en route to Sam's California home, she parks along the road to sleep. A highway patrol officer awakens her and, suspicious of her agitation, follows her. When she trades her car for another at a dealership, he notes the new vehicle's details. Marion returns to the road but, rather than drive in a heavy storm, decides to spend the night at the Bates Motel. The proprietor, Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins), tells Marion he rarely has customers because of the motel's disconnection from a new Interstate and mentions he lives with his mother in the house overlooking the motel. He invites Marion to supper. She overhears Norman arguing with his mother about letting Marion in the house, and during the meal, she angers him by suggesting he institutionalize his mother. He admits he would like this, but does not want to abandon her. Marion resolves to return to Phoenix to return the money. After calculating how she can repay the money she has spent, Marion dumps her notes down the toilet and begins to shower. An anonymous female figure enters the bathroom and stabs her to death. Finding the corpse, Norman is horrified. He places Marion's body, wrapped in the shower curtain, and all her possessions - including the money - in the trunk of her car and sinks it in a nearby swamp. Shortly afterward, Sam is contacted by both Marion's sister Lila Crane (Vera Miles) and private detective Milton Arbogast (Martin Balsam), who has been hired by Marion's employer to recover the money. Arbogast traces Marion to the motel and questions Norman, who unconvincingly lies that Marion stayed for one night and left the following morning. He refuses to let Arbogast talk to his mother, claiming she is ill. Arbogast calls Lila to update her and tells her he will call again after he questions Norman's mother. Arbogast enters Norman's house and at the top of the stairs is attacked by a figure who slashes his face with a knife, pushes him down the stairs, then stabs him to death. When Arbogast does not call Lila, she and Sam contact the local police. Deputy Sheriff Al Chambers (John McIntire) is perplexed to learn Arbogast saw a woman in a window since Norman's mother died ten years ago. Norman confronts his mother and urges her to hide in the cellar. She rejects the idea and orders him out of her room, but against her will, Norman carries her to the cellar. Posing as a married couple, Sam and Lila check into the motel and search Marion's room, where they find a scrap of paper in the toilet with "$40,000" written on it. While Sam distracts Norman, Lila sneaks into the house. Sam suggests to Norman that he killed Marion for the money so he could buy a new hotel. Realizing Lila is not around, Norman knocks Sam unconscious and rushes to the house. Lila sees him and hides in the cellar where she discovers the semi-preserved and mummified body of Norman's mother. Wearing his mother's clothes and a wig and carrying a knife, Norman enters and tries to attack Lila, but she is rescued by Sam. After Norman's arrest, forensic psychiatrist Dr. Richmond (Simon Oakland) tells Sam and Lila that Norman's dead mother is living in Norman's psyche as an alternate personality. After the death of Norman's father, the pair lived as if they were the only people in the world. When his mother found a lover, Norman went mad with jealousy and murdered them both. Consumed with guilt, Norman "erased the crime" by bringing his mother back to life in his mind. He stole her corpse and preserved the body. When he was "Mother", he acted, talked, and dressed as she would. The psychiatrist concludes that the "Mother" personality now has complete control of Norman's mind. In the final scene, Norman sits in a cell, thinking in "Mother's" voice. In a voiceover, "Mother" explains that she plans to prove that she is incapable of violence by refusing to swat a fly that has landed on her hand. The final shot shows Marion's car being recovered from the swamp. Psycho II (1983) Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins) is released from a mental institution after 22 years. Lila Loomis (Vera Miles), the sister of Bates' victim Marion Crane and widow of the now-deceased Sam Loomis, vehemently protests with a petition that she has been circulating with signatures of 743 people, including the relatives of the six people Norman killed prior to his incarceration, but her plea is dismissed. Norman is taken to his old home, the Bates Motel, with the house behind it on the hill, by Dr. Bill Raymond (Robert Loggia), who assures him everything will be fine. He is introduced to the motel's new manager, Warren Toomey (Dennis Franz). The following day, Norman reports to a pre-arranged job at a nearby diner, run by a kindly old lady named Emma Spool (Claudia Bryar). One of his co-workers there is Mary Loomis (Meg Tilly), a young waitress. Mary claims she has been thrown out of her boyfriend's place and needs a place to stay. Norman offers to let her stay at the motel, then extends the offer to his home when he discovers that Toomey has turned his beloved establishment into a sleazy adult motel. Norman's adjustment back into society appears to be going along well until "Mother" begins to make her presence known. Norman gets mysterious notes from "Mother" at the house and diner. Phone calls come from someone claiming to be Norman's mother. Toomey picks a fight at the diner after Norman fires him. Later, a figure in a black dress stabs Toomey to death with a kitchen knife as he is packing to leave the motel. Norman begins to doubt his sanity when he begins hearing voices in the house. He enters his mother's bedroom to find it looks exactly as it did 22 years ago. A sound lures him to the attic, where he is locked in. Believing the house to be abandoned, a teenage couple sneaks in through the cellar window. They notice a female figure pacing in the next room. As they try to climb out, the boy is stabbed to death. The girl escapes and alerts the police. Mary eventually finds Norman in the attic. Sheriff Hunt (Hugh Gillin) questions them about the boy's murder. He finds the cellar neat and orderly. Norman is about to admit that something suspicious is going on, but Mary claims that she has cleaned up the basement herself. After the sheriff leaves, Norman asks Mary why she lied. She explains that she had to save him from being arrested. Norman collapses into the chair with his head in his hands and moans, "It's starting again!" Mary is startled later when she discovers someone looking at her through a peephole in the bathroom wall. She calls out to Norman, who is downstairs and out of reach. The two are horrified to find a bloody cloth that has been stuffed down the toilet. Norman appears confused and believes he may have committed another murder. Mary goes down to check the motel. In the parlor she is surprised by Lila, who reveals herself to be Mary's mother. She has been calling Norman claiming to be his mother, even going so far as to dress up as her and allowing him to see her in the window. Mary has been helping her. She was responsible for restoring Mother's room at the house and locking Norman in the attic. All of this was an attempt to drive Norman insane again and have him recommitted. Mary's growing feelings for Norman, however, have been preying on her conscience leaving her to reconsider her actions. Meanwhile, Dr. Raymond discovers Mary's identity as Lila's daughter and informs Norman. He also orders the corpse of Norma Bates (which was buried in a proper grave after the events of the original film) to be exhumed, to prove that Norman isn't being haunted by his mother. Mary admits to Norman that she has been part of Lila's ruse, and that while she now refuses to continue, Lila won't stop. Mary goes to Lila's hotel and their argument is overheard by a bartender. Later, Lila drives over to Norman's house, unaware that Dr. Raymond is watching her from the Bates Motel as she sneaks into the cellar. While removing her "Mother" costume from a loose stone in the floor, another figure dressed as "Mother" steps out of the shadows and murders her. Dr. Raymond runs up to the house. Lila's body is not in the cellar. Meanwhile, Mary discovers that a car has been retrieved from the swamp, with Toomey's body in the trunk. Realizing the police will shortly arrive to arrest Norman, Mary returns to warn him. The phone rings in the house, Norman answers, and starts speaking to his "mother". Mary listens in and discovers that nobody is on the line with Norman. Terrified, Mary runs downstairs into the cellar, and quickly dresses up as Mother to confront Norman. Someone grabs her from behind, and she plunges the butcher knife into… Dr. Raymond, who has sneaked back into the house. A stunned Mary runs downstairs and is confronted by a deranged Norman, who promises to cover up for "Mother". Mary tries to keep him away, repeatedly stabbing him in the hands and chest. He backs Mary into the fruit cellar to hide and slips on a pile of coal, which avalanches away from the wall, revealing Lila's body hidden behind it. Mary is now convinced that Norman had been committing the murders. She raises her knife to stab him and is shot to death by the incoming police. The sheriff inaccurately believes Lila and Mary committed all the murders. That evening, a woman walks up the steps to the Bates' mansion. Bandaged from his injuries, Norman has set a place for dinner when he hears a knock at the door. It is Emma Spool, the kindly woman from the diner. Norman gives her a cup of tea. Mrs. Spool tells him that she is his real mother, that Mrs. Bates was her sister, who adopted Norman as an infant while Mrs. Spool was institutionalized. She further reveals that she was the murderer, having killed anybody who tried to harm her son. As she sips the tea, Norman kills her with a sudden blow to the head with a shovel. Norman is now completely insane again. He carries Mrs. Spool's body upstairs to Mother's room and we hear Mother's voice warn Norman not to play with "filthy girls". Norman reopens the Bates Motel and stands in front of the house, waiting for new customers as Mother watches from the window upstairs. Psycho III (1986) Maureen Coyle (Diana Scarwid), a mentally unstable young nun, is on top of a bell tower about to commit suicide. When another nun tries to get her to come down, Maureen accidentally pushes her over the railing to her death. Another nun tells Maureen that she will burn in hell. She is forced to leave the convent after this ordeal. Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins) is still manning the desk at the Bates Motel and living with the preserved corpse of his real mother, Emma Spool (Claudia Bryar), whom Norman killed at the end of Psycho II. Local law enforcement and Norman's ex-boss Ralph Statler (Robert Alan Browne) are concerned since Mrs. Spool has been missing for over a month. Duane Duke (Jeff Fahey), a sleazy musician desperate for money, is offered the job of assistant manager at the Bates Motel. Maureen, now the new long-term tenant, has some issues to resolve in her life. She gave up her vows as a nun only days before, and she isn't sure just how she feels about either spiritual or earthly matters. Sheriff John Hunt (Hugh Gillin) and Statler have a conversation at the diner, when Tracy Venable (Roberta Maxwell), a pushy journalist from Los Angeles, interrupts them. She is working on an article about serial killers being put back on the streets. Venable is trying to back up her theory that Norman is back to his old ways again. Norman appears and Venable jumps at the chance to talk with him. Unaware of her ulterior motives Norman opens up to her, but is distracted when an exhausted Maureen enters and sits at the lunch counter. He is startled by Maureen's presence, because he feels she strongly resembles Marion Crane. Seeing the initials "M.C." on her suitcase, Norman freaks out and leaves the diner. After a conversation with "Mother", Norman spies on Maureen as she undresses and heads into the bathroom to take a shower. Keeping "her" word, "Mother" enters Maureen's motel room with plans to kill her. Upon pulling back the shower curtain, it is revealed Maureen has attempted suicide by cutting her wrists, a sight which snaps Norman back to his "normal" side. Maureen looks up at "Mother" who is so weakened by what "she" sees, "she" lowers the knife. Due to blood loss, Maureen hallucinates and she mistakes Norman, dressed up as "Mother", for the Virgin Mary holding a silver crucifix. Meanwhile, Tracy has met with Duane at a bar where they discuss Norman, and it seems Tracy blames Norman for Mrs. Spool's disappearance. When she leaves, Duane picks up another girl at the bar, Red (Juliette Cummins). Norman gets Maureen to the local hospital to save her life. After she is released, he invites her to stay back at the motel and they begin a romantic relationship. The same night, Duane and Red arrive at the motel and hear an argument between "Mother" and Norman, but think it's just a TV turned up too loud. Red and Duane, head to cabin 12 where they make love. Later that night, Red, makes it clear she wants more than just a fling. Calling him a pig, they argue. Duane, infuriated, throws her out of the cabin. Red heads down to the payphone to call a cab, where she realizes she is wearing her blouse backwards. As she takes it off to put it on the right way, "Mother" shatters the phone booth door and stabs a trapped Red to death. The next morning, Duane finds Norman scrubbing down the phone booth. A group from out of town arrive at the motel where they plan to watch the local football game. Tracy comes to find Norman and ask questions about his past and "Mother". Norman becomes defensive with the reporter and tells her to leave, never to return. Later that night, he and Maureen go to a restaurant, where they dance and talk romantically, while Tracy searches Mrs. Spool's apartment. She discovers the Bates Motel's telephone number written on a magazine cover. Norman and Maureen return to the motel to find most of the other guests engaged in drunken stupor. Norman goes with Maureen to her room and they fall asleep in each other's arms having refused to make love. Some time afterwards, Patsy Boyle (Katt Shea Ruben), the only sober guest, wakes up Maureen to ensure her safety as Norman had left the door open, a bad idea with all the drunken guests around. Patsy, needing to use the bathroom, finds the one in Norman's parlor unoccupied, but "Mother" again emerges and slashes her throat. Norman (an homage to the reaction of finding Marion dead in the shower in the original Psycho) gasps when he discovers Patsy's body. He buries her in the motel's ice chest outside the office. The next morning, Sheriff Hunt and Deputy Leo appear at Norman's house to investigate Patsy's disappearance. Norman tries to prevent Hunt from entering his mother's bedroom, when he discovers that "Mother"/Mrs. Spool has disappeared completely. Outside, Tracy tells Maureen about Norman, and she, rather upset, leaves the motel and goes to stay with Father Brian (Gary Bayer), who took care of her at the hospital. Meanwhile, Tracy is convinced Norman is behind the latest disappearances. Norman searches for his mother all over the house and finds a note from her stating that she is in cabin 12. When Norman arrives at the cabin, he learns it was Duane who took "Mother". Duane confronts him then attempts to blackmail Norman into paying him off, or he'll turn Norman in to the police. He tells Duane he doesn't have that kind of money, but Duane reminds him that Norman has made a lot of cash from his business, and if Norman doesn't give money for his silence, he will go to the police. He agrees to Duane's blackmail demands, but he then unexpectedly throws an ashtray at Duane's head. They fight and Norman seemingly kills Duane by hitting him several times with his own guitar. Terrified of what he has done, he blames "Mother" for this. Tracy talks to Statler and Myrna (Lee Garlington) about Mrs. Spool and discovers she was working at the diner before Statler bought it from Harvey Leach. Tracy meets with Leach, a resident at an assisted living facility, and is informed that Mrs. Spool had also once been institutionalized for murder. Meanwhile, Norman drives Duane's car to the swamp with Duane and Patsy's bodies in it. Duane turns out to be alive and attacks Norman, who accidentally drives the car into the swamp. He struggles out of the car while Duane drowns. Tracy reads some old newspapers at her study and discovers about the "Bates kidnapping". Maureen convinces herself that Norman is her true love. She returns to the motel and takes a shower before visiting Norman at his house. They share a tender moment at the top of the staircase when "Mother" shouts furiously at Norman, which startles him and causes him to lose grip on Maureen's hands. She falls down the stairs into the Cupid statue at the base of the stairs. She goes limp and sinks to the floor revealing the arrow had punctured her skull. Distraught, Norman screams and confronts his mother, saying that he will get her for this. "You don't have the guts, boy!" declares "Mother". At that moment, Tracy arrives at the motel and tries to find Maureen. She enters the house only to find her lying dead on the couch of the living room which is filled with lit candles. Then she sees Norman dressed as "Mother", holding a knife, and tries to flee. She tries to reason with Norman by explaining his family history: Emma Spool, who was in fact his aunt, was in love with Norman's father, but he married her sister, Norma, instead. Mrs. Spool, having serious psychological problems, kidnapped Norman when he was a baby after she killed Mr. Bates, believing Norman was the child "she should have had with him". She discovers Mrs. Spool's corpse in the bedroom, and Norman takes off his mother's dress. "Mother" orders him to kill Tracy, and when Norman raises the knife, he instead brutally attacks "Mother", dismembering her preserved remains. The last scene shows Sheriff Hunt taking Norman to his squad car, with Father Brian and Tracy following behind. Hunt informs Norman that they may never let him out of the institution again, Norman replies, "But I'll be free… I'll finally be free". Norman, sitting silently in the back of the squad car on the way to the institution, enjoys his victory over his mother by caressing a trophy: the severed hand of Mrs. Spool. He smiles sardonically as the screen fades to black and the credits roll. Bates Motel (1987) Bates Motel ignores the existence of Psycho II and III (and would in turn be ignored by Psycho IV), with Norman Bates never being released from the mental institution to allow the events of those films. Alex West (Bud Cort) is a mentally disturbed youth who was admitted to the asylum for killing his abusive stepfather. At the asylum, he roomed with Norman Bates (Kurt Paul) and they eventually became close friends. Years later, Norman dies and Alex learns that he has inherited the Bates Motel. He travels to Norman's California hometown (renamed Fairville for this film; in the original film it was Fairvale) and with a little help from teenage runaway Willie (Lori Petty) and local handyman Henry Watson (Moses Gunn), Alex struggles to re-open the motel for business. Alex gets a loan to renovate the motel, but the project is plagued with rumors about the place being haunted by the ghost of Norman's mother, Mrs. Bates, and the discovery of her remains, as well as those of her late husband, buried on the grounds of the motel. When recovering the remains of Mrs. Bates, the sheriff said that the body "was never found", which seems to conflict with the original Psycho, with Mrs. Bates in the basement where Norman is finally captured by Sam Loomis. While renovating the motel, Alex sees Mrs. Bates in her bedroom window, and sees the corpse of her late husband from the same window, supporting the idea that the property is haunted. Willie becomes suspicious and eventually they find that the haunting was a prank by the bank manager, Tom Fuller (Gregg Henry), who had approved a loan with predatory terms with Alex and was trying to sabotage the motel by trying to scare him away. Tom is then forced to help Alex and the others by negotiating friendlier payment terms for the loan or face prison for fraud. Meanwhile, not all ghost stories turn out to be hoaxes as Barbara Peters (Kerrie Keane) books a room in Alex's motel for the night, contemplating suicide for getting older, going through three divorces without children. Barbara meets a teenage girl (Khrystyne Haje), who invites Barbara to dance at an after prom party in the motel with her and her teenage friends, including Tony Scotti (Jason Bateman), though Barbara felt uncomfortable hanging with young kids. It is then revealed that Barbara's real name is Sally, and that the teenage girl took her own life 25 years ago and is now trapped in "the other side", along with Tony, and other teens who also committed suicide. She tells Barbara that she has a life worth living for, before leaving with the rest of the group. Barbara leaves the motel the next day, planning to live her life to the fullest. Alex looks at the screen telling viewers, "If you ever need a room, come by. I can't say for sure what you'll find, but it is what makes the world go around". Psycho IV: The Beginning (1990) Fran Ambrose (CCH Pounder) is a radio talk show host who is talking on the topic of "matricide" (when children kill their mothers) with guest Dr. Richmond (Warren Frost), who was Norman Bates' former psychologist. The radio receives a call from Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins), who has re-entered society and married his former psychiatrist, Connie (Donna Mitchell). Under the alias of "Ed" (possibly a reference to Ed Gein, the killer after whom the character of Norman was modeled), Norman tells his story, which the audience sees as a series of flashbacks set in the 1940s and 1950s. Some flashbacks are slightly out of order. The chronological story is: In 1950, Norman's mother, Norma Bates (Olivia Hussey) had schizophrenia (see Psycho II); she was smothering Norman and would have violent mood swings. Due to Norman's sexual repression at her hands, when she was frolicking with him he had an incestuous erection, causing her to dress him in women's clothing and taunt him by calling him "Norma". She then got engaged to a man named Chet Rudolph (Thomas Schuster), who would beat up Norman. Eventually Norman got fed up with her allowing Chet to be in their lives and poisoned them both, albeit reluctantly. He then developed his infamous Dissociative identity disorder and stole her corpse to create the illusion that she was alive - whenever her corpse spoke to him, the "Norma" personality would take over. This caused Norman as "Norma" to kill two women who wanted to have sex with him. Throughout the spaces in the flashbacks, Dr. Richmond realizes "Ed" is Norman and tries to convince Fran to trace the calls. Richmond's worries are dismissed because they cannot trace the call and they believe they can talk Norman out of the reason he called: he fears he will kill again. He tells Fran that Connie got pregnant against his wishes and that he does not want another "monster". He then tells Fran he does believe his mother is dead, but he will kill Connie "with my own hands, just like the first time". He then takes Connie to his mother's house and attempts to kill her, but after Connie reassures Norman that their child will not be a monster, he drops his knife in shame and Connie forgives him. He then burns the house where all his unhappiness began. As he tries to escape the flames, he hallucinates that he sees his victims, Chet, his mother and eventually himself preserving her corpse. He and Connie leave the scene with Norman stating, "I'm free". However, as the credits roll, the sound of his newborn baby crying can be heard. Psycho (1998) In need of money to get her boyfriend Sam Loomis (Viggo Mortensen) out of debt, Marion Crane (Anne Heche) steals $400,000 from her employer and flees Phoenix, Arizona by car. While en route to Sam's California home, she parks along the road to sleep. A highway patrol officer awakens her and, suspicious of her agitated state, begins to follow her. When she trades her car for another one at a dealership, he notes the new vehicle's details. Marion returns to the road but, rather than drive in a heavy storm, decides to spend the night at the Bates Motel. The proprietor, Norman Bates (Vince Vaughn), tells Marion he rarely has customers because of a new interstate nearby and mentions he lives with his mother in the house overlooking the motel. He invites Marion to have supper with him. She overhears Norman arguing with his mother about letting Marion in the house, and during the meal she angers him by suggesting he institutionalize his mother. He admits he would like to do so, but does not want to abandon her. Marion resolves to return to Phoenix to return the money. After calculating how she can repay the money she has spent, Marion dumps her notes down the toilet and begins to shower. An anonymous female figure enters the bathroom and stabs her to death. Finding the corpse, Norman is horrified. He cleans the bathroom and places Marion's body, wrapped in the shower curtain, and all her possessions - including the money - in the trunk of her car and sinks it in a nearby swamp. Shortly afterward, Sam is contacted by both Marion's sister Lila Crane (Julianne Moore) and private detective Milton Arbogast (William H. Macy), who has been hired by Marion's employer to find her and recover the money. Arbogast traces Marion to the motel and questions Norman, who unconvincingly lies that Marion stayed for one night and left the following morning. He refuses to let Arbogast talk to his mother, claiming she is ill. Arbogast calls Lila to update her and tells her he will contact her again within an hour after he questions Norman's mother. Arbogast enters Norman's house and at the top of the stairs is attacked by a figure who slashes his face three times with a knife, pushes him down the stairs, then stabs him to death. When Arbogast does not call Lila, she and Sam contact the local police. Deputy Sheriff Al Chambers (Philip Baker Hall) is perplexed to learn Arbogast saw a woman in a window, since Norman's mother died ten years ago. Norman confronts his mother and urges her to hide in the cellar. She rejects the idea and orders him out of her room, but against her will Norman carries her to the cellar. Posing as a married couple, Sam and Lila check into the motel and search Marion's room, where they find a scrap of paper in the toilet with "$400,000" written on it. While Sam distracts Norman, Lila sneaks into the house to search for his mother. Sam suggests to Norman that he killed Marion for the money so he could buy a new motel. Realizing Lila is not around, Norman knocks Sam unconscious with a golf club and rushes to the house. Lila sees him and hides in the cellar where she discovers the semi-preserved and mummified body of Norman's mother. Wearing his mother's clothes and a wig and carrying a knife, Norman enters and tries to attack Lila, but she is rescued by Sam. After Norman's arrest, forensic psychiatrist Dr. Fred Richmond (Robert Forster) tells Sam and Lila that Norman's dead mother is living in Norman's psyche as an alternate personality. After the death of Norman's father, the pair lived as if they were the only people in the world. When his mother found a lover, Norman went over the edge with jealousy and murdered both of them. Consumed with guilt, he tried to "erase the crime" by bringing his mother back to life in his mind. He stole her corpse and preserved the body. When he is "Mother", he acts, talks, and dresses as she would. Norman imagined his mother would be as jealous of a woman to whom he might be attracted just as he was of his mother's lover, and so "Mother" kills any woman he has feelings for; when Norman regains consciousness, he believes that his mother has committed the crime, and covers up for her. It is implied that Norman is responsible for the unsolved disappearances of two young girls. Richmond concludes that the "Mother" personality has now taken complete control of Norman's mind. In the final scene, Norman sits in a cell, thinking in "Mother's" voice. In a voiceover, "Mother" explains that she plans to prove to the authorities she is incapable of violence by refusing to swat a fly that has landed on her hand. The final shot shows Marion's car being recovered from the swamp, and then goes to end credits. Television Bates Motel (2013–2017) A TV series by A&E network named Bates Motel is loosely based on the Psycho movies and novels. The series is a television reboot set in the 2010s and chronicle Norman Bates' early childhood with his mother and how she drove him to become a killer. Bates Motel takes place in the modern day and stars Freddie Highmore as young Norman Bates and Vera Farmiga as Mrs. Bates. It premiered on March 18, 2013, and produced five seasons for a total of 50 episodes. The series was shot in Vancouver with a replica of the Psycho house from Universal Studios Hollywood and a recreation of the original Bates Motel from the first film. The original interior sets have also been recreated. Storyline continuity Cast and crew Principal cast A indicates the performer portrayed a younger version of the character. A indicates voice-over role. A indicates the performer was not credited for their role. An indicates an appearance through previously recorded material. A dark grey cell indicates the character did not appear in that installment. Crew Production History (1959–1997) Psycho is based on the 1959 novel of the same name by Robert Bloch which in turn is based loosely on the case of convicted Wisconsin murderer Ed Gein. Both Gein and Psychos protagonist, Norman Bates, were solitary murderers in isolated rural locations. Both had deceased, domineering mothers, and had sealed off one room of their house as a shrine to their mother, and both dressed in women's clothing. However, there are many differences between Bates and Ed Gein. Among others, Gein would not be strictly considered a serial killer, having officially killed "only" two people. Peggy Robertson, Hitchcock's production assistant, read Anthony Boucher's positive review of the Bloch novel and decided to show the book to Hitchcock, even though readers at Hitchcock's home studio Paramount Pictures rejected its premise for a film. Hitchcock acquired rights to the novel for $9,500. He reportedly ordered Robertson to buy up copies to keep the novel's surprises for the film. Hitchcock chose to film Psycho to recover from two aborted projects with Paramount: Flamingo Feather and No Bail for the Judge. Hitchcock also faced genre competitors whose works were critically compared to his own and so wanted to film new material. The director also disliked stars' salary demands and trusted only a few people to choose prospective material, including Robertson. Paramount executives did not want to produce the film and refused to provide the budget that Hitchcock received from them for previous films with the studio. Hitchcock decided to plan for Psycho to be filmed quickly and inexpensively, similar to an episode of his ongoing television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents, and hired the television series crew as Shamley Productions. He proposed this cost-conscious approach to Paramount but executives again refused to finance the film, telling him their sound stages were occupied or booked even though production was known to be in a slump. Hitchcock countered with the offer to finance the film personally and to film it at Universal-International if Paramount would distribute. He also deferred his director's fee of $250,000 for a 60% ownership of the film negative. This offer was finally accepted. Hitchcock also experienced resistance from producer Herbert Coleman and Shamley Productions executive Joan Harrison, who did not think the film would be a success. Hitchcock hired writer James Cavanaugh to write a draft of the screenplay. Unsatisfied with Cavanaugh's screenplay, Hitchcock then hired up-and-coming writer Joseph Stefano to adapt the novel. The film began shooting in December 1959 and would go on to last about a month. It was filmed mostly on the backlot of Universal and in various sound stages. During shooting, Hitchcock was forced to uncharacteristically do retakes for some scenes. The final shot in the shower scene, which starts with an extreme close-up on Marion's eye and pulls up and out, proved very difficult for Leigh, since the water splashing in her face made her want to blink, and the cameraman had trouble as well since he had to manually focus while moving the camera. Retakes were also required for the opening scene, since Hitchcock felt that Leigh and Gavin were not passionate enough. Leigh had trouble saying "Not inordinately" for the real estate office scene, requiring additional retakes. Lastly, the scene in which the mother is discovered required complicated coordination of the chair turning around, Miles hitting the light bulb, and a lens flare, which proved to be the sticking point. Hitchcock forced retakes until all three elements were to his satisfaction. The famous shower scene took a week to complete and took up a third of Janet Leigh's shooting time. Psycho was released on June 16, 1960, to mixed critical reception and financial success, making thirty-two million dollars in its theatrical run. The film received four Academy Award nominations. In 1982, author Robert Bloch published his novel Psycho II, which satirized Hollywood slasher films. Upset by this, Universal decided to make their own version that differed from Bloch's work. Originally, the film was intended as a made-for-cable production. Anthony Perkins originally turned down the offer to reprise the role of Norman Bates, but when the studio became interested in others (including Christopher Walken), Perkins quickly accepted. The studio also wanted Jamie Lee Curtis (daughter of Psycho star Janet Leigh) to play the role of Mary Loomis. Director Richard Franklin was hired to direct Psycho II because he was a Hitchcock student and even visited him on the set of Topaz, and because a year earlier, Franklin made a film called Roadgames starring Jamie Lee Curtis which was influenced by Hitchcock's 1954 film Rear Window. Franklin hired writer Tom Holland to write the screenplay after Franklin had seen The Beast Within, which Holland had written. Holland stated: "I approached it with more trepidation because I was doing a sequel to Psycho and I had an overwhelming respect for Hitchcock. You didn't want to mess it up, you really had almost a moral obligation to make something that stayed true to the original and yet updated it the same time. It really was the next step, what happens when Norman gets out". The assistant director of the original Psycho, Hilton A. Green, was contacted and asked if he wanted to produce the film. Green, fearing that Hitchcock may not have approved of sequels to his films, called Hitchcock's daughter Patricia Hitchcock and asked what she thought of the film. Patricia Hitchcock gave her blessing to the film, saying that her father would have loved it. Psycho II was filmed at Universal Studios in Universal City, California on Stage 24 from June 30 to August 1982. The Bates house set was still standing from 1960, but the motel had to be reconstructed. According to Richard Franklin, filming lasted 32 days. The film was made much like the first film; it was mostly shot on the backlot of Universal and on a number of sound stages. Several props and set pieces from the original film were found by set designers John W. Corso and Julie Fletcher. The town of Fairvale (seen when Lila Loomis is tailed by Dr. Raymond) is actually Courthouse Square, which is located on the Universal Studios backlot in California. Both Franklin and Holland wanted the film to be a tribute to Hitchcock and the original film: to accomplish this, they added in various in jokes such as the scene when Mary and Norman first go into Norman's mother's room, before they turn the lights on; one can see Alfred Hitchcock's silhouette on the wall to the far right. Franklin also repeated various shots from the original film such as the shot where Norman walks into the kitchen and sets his jacket down on the chair. Perkins had difficulty working with actress Meg Tilly due to Tilly never seeing the original film and not being aware of the significance of Perkins' comeback role. Midway through production, Perkins suggested that Tilly be replaced even though half of her scenes had been shot. The ending of the film was kept secret during production. The final pages of the shooting script with the ending on it weren't distributed to cast and crew until the last day of filming. The iconic last shot of the movie with Norman standing in front of the house was used as a Christmas card for various crew members. When Universal presented concept art for the one-sheet film poster, director Franklin wasn't pleased with it. It was editor Andrew London who came up with the idea of using the Christmas card photo as the film poster and also came up with the tagline: "It's 22 years later and Norman Bates is coming home". When the film opened on June 3, 1983, it earned $8,310,244 in its opening weekend and went on to gross about $34,725,000, making it one of the top hits of the year, just behind Return of the Jedi. Psycho II was generally received well by the public and critics and was a surprise box office success. However, film critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert both gave the film thumbs down on At the Movies, specifically for its failure to live up to the original. In Siskel's words: "I think the ghost of the original, obviously hangs over this movie, and it's too bad because it's a nicely made picture". Ebert wrote of the film: "If you've seen Psycho a dozen times and can recite the shots in the shower scene by heart, Psycho II is just not going to do it for you. But if you can accept this 1983 movie on its own terms, as a fresh start, and put your memories of Hitchcock on hold, then Psycho II begins to work. It's too heavy on plot and too willing to cheat about its plot to be really successful, but it does have its moments, and it's better than your average, run-of-the-mill slasher movie". In the British magazine Empire, film critic Kim Newman gave the film three out of five stars, calling Psycho II "a smart, darkly-comic thriller with some imaginative twists. The wittiest dark joke is that the entire world wants Norman to be mad, and 'normality' can only be restored if he's got a mummified mother in the window and is ready to kill again". With the surprise financial and critical success of Psycho II, Universal began development on a second sequel. Writer Charles Edward Pogue was hired to write the screenplay. In Pogue's first draft of the film, it was Duane who was the killer and had intentionally come to the Bates Motel because he was obsessed with Norman. Maureen was a neurotic psychologist who had come to the motel to replace Dr. Raymond from the previous film. Pogue had intended to cast original victim Janet Leigh in the role. Universal rejected these ideas, arguing that Bates had to be the killer and Leigh was wrong for the film. However, Maureen's actions remained virtually unchanged; her character was merely changed to a young nun. After the second draft of the screenplay was completed, it was sent to Perkins as an acting job. After Perkins read the script, he wanted to direct the film, saying he would do it for nothing. Universal agreed to this. When the film went into pre-production, Anthony Perkins asked Psycho II director Richard Franklin to co-direct the film with him, but Franklin declined. Filming for Psycho III began in June 1985. Perkins' main inspiration for the style of this film came from the movie Blood Simple directed by the Coen brothers. Before production began, he even took the entire cast and crew to a screening of the film. Like the two previous films, it was mostly shot on the backlot of Universal and in a number of sound stages. Despite Psycho III being Perkins' film directorial debut, the cast and crew have said in interviews that he was enjoyable to work with. Lee Garlington, who played the waitress Myrna, commented: "I have never to this date met a director who worked equally well with both the cast and crew. He was excited to be doing it, I adored him". During filming, actor Jeff Fahey suffered an on-set injury. When filming the scene where Norman is hitting Duke with the guitar, Anthony Perkins actually hit Jeff Fahey so hard that it cut his head open and he had to get six stitches. A shot of Fahey's actual injury was used in the final film. Universal originally wanted to release the film in February 1986 but the release was moved to July 2 due to various re-shoots that included the ending. Psycho III was released on July 2, 1986, to a mixed response from critics and financial failure. It earned $3,238,400 in its opening weekend and went on to gross about $14,481,606 at the domestic box office, becoming the lowest-grossing theatrical film of the Psycho movie franchise. Roger Ebert gave the film three out of five stars, saying: "Any movie named Psycho III is going to be compared to the Hitchcock original, but Perkins isn't an imitator. He has his own agenda. He has lived with Norman Bates all these years, and he has some ideas about him, and although the movie doesn't apologize for Norman, it does pity him. For the first time, I was able to see that the true horror in the "Psycho" movies isn't what Norman does - but the fact that he is compelled to do it". Vincent Canby of The New York Times said: "It has a cast of talented, self-effacing actors, who don't upstage the material, and an efficient screenplay by Charles Edward Pogue, who doesn't beat you over the head to prove that he has a sense of humor". Ken Hanke of Mountain Xpress called the film a "superior horror sequel stylishly made by star Anthony Perkins". Dave Kehr of The Chicago Reader said: "Perkins tries to imitate Hitchcock's visual style, but most of the film is made without concern for style of any kind, unless it's the bludgeoning nonstyle of Friday the 13th". Variety called the film "dependent almost entirely upon self-referential incidents and attitudes for its effect, and it eventually becomes wearying". With the financial failure of Psycho III, Universal decided to continue the Psycho franchise as a television series, Bates Motel, taking inspiration from the Friday the 13th and A Nightmare on Elm Street TV series. In this televised spin-off of Psycho, Norman Bates is portrayed by Kurt Paul, who previously stood in as a stunt double for Anthony Perkins in Psycho II and III. Perkins declined involvement in the project and even heavily boycotted it. The film was made as a pilot for a weekly anthology television series, but the series was never picked up. Thus, Universal decided to air the pilot as a made-for-TV film over the 4th of July weekend. The film received mostly negative reviews and low Nielson ratings. A year after Bates Motel aired, production on Psycho IV: The Beginning began. Perkins wanted to direct the film and even came up with a pitch for the film along with Psycho III screenwriter Charles Edward Pogue; however, Psycho III was a critical and financial failure, so Universal rejected that idea and Mick Garris was brought in. Joseph Stefano was the screenwriter of the original film and was brought back to write the fourth film. He had disliked the two films between I and IV, feeling that they were too commercial and catered to the conventions of slasher movies. In an interview, Stefano said: "Gearing up for Psycho IV, I decided to ignore the two sequels – like the business in II about Norman's mother". Actress Olivia Hussey was directly offered the role of Mrs. Bates. It was the intention of writer Joseph Stefano to make her at a young age as attractive as Norman had been in the first film. When Henry Thomas was cast as young Norman Bates, Perkins wanted to meet with him and discuss the role. In the documentary The Psycho Legacy, Thomas stated: "Looking back on it now, he knew he had to have this conversation with me but I don't think that he was really into it. He just gave me a few broad strokes and told me to play the character real, that was it". During filming, Perkins had been diagnosed with HIV and had to receive treatment during production. Director Mick Garris has stated in numerous interviews that he had some creative control issues with Perkins. According to Garris: "He would get into long, drawn-out discussions in front of the crew, testing his director, making sure choices were not made "because it looks good", and seeing how deep the understanding of the story and process were. He could be very forceful, just shy of bullying, but also really appreciated helpful direction. I would have to say he was the most difficult and challenging actor I've ever worked with, but he ended up going on and on about how happy he was with the film. That was gratifying". Psycho IV: The Beginning was filmed at Universal Studios Florida in Orlando, Florida from June 4 to July 13, 1990. The facade of the Bates Motel and the Bates mansion were re-created at the theme park. The production was originally to be filmed before the opening of the park but due to delays and the studio's desire to have a high-profile production on the lot, the film was shot while the park was open. This led to tourists being able to watch the filming of several scenes at the motel and house on the back lot. The film received mixed reviews when first broadcast on Showtime. Henry Stewart of L Magazine said: "Garris evinces high-grade professionalism, but his comic-book approximations of real emotions—like desire, madness and murderlust—feel empty. Hitchcock this most certainly ain't". Ninja Dixon.com wrote: "This is a good TV movie, way better than reputation, and continues the tradition of great acting in the series". Cult Reviews.com said: "The film is shot well, the fire sequence, by Rodney Charters, is particularly stunning. The only real trouble with this film is the bad writing, which, considering that it was the baby of the scriptwriter of the original, Joseph Stefano, is very disappointing indeed". Matt Poirier of Direct to Video Connoisseur.com wrote: "This was a pretty unmemorable movie. It tried to make references to the original, like one where Perkins cuts his thumb, and the blood going into the drain mimics the blood in the famous shower scene. Way too obvious and pretty obnoxious". Despite some negative reviews, the film received high Nielson ratings with around 10 million viewers watching the premiere. In 1998, Universal made a remake of Psycho, with Gus Van Sant as a director. The audio commentary track that accompanies the DVD release of the film, and the "making-of" documentary (Psycho Path) that the DVD includes, provide numerous details about where the film strived to remain faithful to the original, and where it diverged. Some changes are pervasive: as the film opens, it is made clear that it is set in the late 1990s, so minor changes are made throughout the dialogue to reflect the new timeframe. For example, all the references to money are updated (how much Marion Crane steals, how much a car costs, how much a hotel room costs), as are references to terms from the original script like "aspic" that would seem anachronistic in the new setting. According to Van Sant, in the original the only fully fleshed-out character was Norman Bates; the other major characters were more iconic, purposely written and portrayed to advance the plot. Van Sant relied upon his main cast more to flesh out and make consistent their character's motivations and worked with them to determine to what degree their characters were similar to the originals. William H. Macy chose to stay true to the original, while others, such as Vaughn and Julianne Moore, interpreted the dialogue and scenes from the original film differently. Moore's version of Lila Crane was much more aggressive than the one portrayed by Vera Miles, and there are differences in Marion Crane's evolving attitudes about the money she stole. The cinematography and cinematic techniques were consistent between the two films in many memorable scenes, including the shower scene, scenes of the mother, scenes of the swamp, and the scene of Arbogast on the staircase, but other scenes changed significantly, particularly the climax, and the Dr. Simon monologue at the end, which was much shorter. Van Sant's comments from the commentary track attributes many of the updates to the need to make the film more accessible to a new audience. The film earned $37,141,130 at the box office, $21,456,130 of which came from North America. Estimates of the production budget range from $20 million to $60 million; while promoting his 2002 film Gerry, Van Sant said he thought the producers "broke even" financially. This version of Psycho received mostly negative reviews; it was awarded two Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Remake or Sequel and Worst Director for Gus Van Sant, while Anne Heche was nominated as Worst Actress. Camille Paglia commented that the only reason to watch it was "to see Anne Heche being assassinated", but that "it should have been a much more important work and event than it was". A number of critics and writers viewed Van Sant's version more as an experiment in shot-for-shot remakes. Many people refer to this film as a duplicate of the 1960 film rather than a remake. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that the film "demonstrates that a shot-by-shot remake is pointless; genius apparently resides between or beneath the shots, or in chemistry that cannot be timed or counted". Screenwriter Joseph Stefano, who worked on the 1960 version, thought that although she spoke the same lines, Anne Heche portrays Marion Crane as an entirely different character. Even Van Sant admitted that it was an experiment that proved that no one can really copy a film exactly the same way as the original. Janet Maslin gave the film a positive review, calling it an "artful, good-looking remake (a modest term, but it beats plagiarism) that shrewdly revitalizes the aspects of the real Psycho (1960) that it follows most faithfully but seldom diverges seriously or successfully from one of the cinema's most brilliant blueprints"; she noted that the "absence of anything like Anthony Perkins's sensational performance with that vitally birdlike presence and sneaky way with a double-entendre ("A boy's best friend is his mother") is the new film's greatest weakness". Critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a rating of one out of four stars, or "BOMB" compared to the four stars he gave the original. He describes it as a "slow, stilted, completely pointless scene-for-scene remake of the Hitchcock classic (with a few awkward new touches to taint its claim as an exact replica)". He ultimately calls it "an insult, rather than a tribute to a landmark film". Continuity While Bates Motel (1987) was a partial continuation of the series as it continued from where Psycho left off, it ignored the continuity of Psycho II, Psycho III, and Psycho IV: The Beginning due to the death of Norman Bates in the film and the fact that Bates is deemed sane and returns to the Bates Motel in Psycho II. Psycho (1998), a shot-for-shot remake of the first film is not a sequel since it retells the same events as the original film, but set in 1998. There are also some continuity problems in Psycho IV: The Beginning that have to do with some of the past events explored in Psycho, Psycho II, and Psycho III. Reflecting on the continuity issues, Robert Price writes: "It seems that all the different Psychos drift into and out of one another. There is no real sequence. All are variant versions of the same myth. The deep conflict being rehearsed and resolved in these movies is that of the Oedipal complex". Home media Psycho, Psycho II, Psycho III, Psycho IV: The Beginning, the Psycho remake and Bates Motel have been released on VHS. A DVD box set containing Psycho, Psycho II, Psycho III and Psycho IV: The Beginning was released in November 2003 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment in the UK. In America, Psycho was released on DVD on May 26, 1998, and a 2-Disc Special Edition with digitally remastered picture and new extras was released on October 7, 2008. As for the sequels, Good Times Home Video released Psycho II on DVD in full screen on March 2, 1999, and released Psycho III on September 28, 1999. Universal re-released Psycho II and Psycho III on September 13, 2005. A "Triple Feature" collection containing Psycho II, Psycho III and Psycho IV: The Beginning (for the first time on DVD) was released on August 14, 2007. The Psycho remake was released on DVD on August 29, 2000. On October 13, 2013, Universal released the made-for-TV movie Bates Motel on DVD. In 2010, The Psycho Legacy documentary was released as a 2-disc set with the 87 minute documentary and 3 hours of special features. Hitchcock was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 12, 2013. List of releases Reception Box office performance Critical and public response Accolades In 1960, Psycho received four Academy Award nominations: Best Director for Alfred Hitchcock, Best Supporting Actress for Janet Leigh, Best Cinematography for John L. Russell and Best Art Direction for Joseph Hurley, Robert Clatworthy and George Milo. All three sequels have been nominated for Saturn Awards: Psycho II for Best Supporting Actress (Meg Tilly); Psycho III for Best Horror Film and Best Actor (Anthony Perkins); and Psycho IV: The Beginning for Best Genre Television Series. Legacy Psycho has become one of the most recognizable films ever made. The shower scene alone has become one of the most iconic cut scenes in cinematic history. In 2000, The Guardian ranked the shower scene at No. 2 on their list of "The top 10 film moments". Psycho is frequently referenced, given homage to or spoofed in television shows such as The Simpsons (see Treehouse of Horror XX), South Park, American Dad!, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Maude, The Golden Girls and more. Films such as Scream 2, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Throw Momma from the Train, Scary Movie and more have referenced the film. Many critics and filmmakers have cited Psycho as the film that modernized the horror genre. Horror writer David. J. Schow stated in The Psycho Legacy: "It brought the idea that the killer in a horror film was not a mutant, didn't have dents in his head; he could look like that nice young boy from next door". The film also brought in a new level of acceptable violence and sexuality in movies. Psycho is considered by some to be the first film in the slasher film genre. In 2010, The Guardian newspaper ranked it as "the best horror film of all time". In 2021, Psycho was ranked at No. 5 by Time Out on their list of "The 100 best horror movies". Both Anthony Perkins and Janet Leigh spent the rest of their careers being typecasted by the film. Even Alfred Hitchcock's films began to decline in critical and financial popularity after the release of Psycho. Hitchcock film scholars argue that for the rest of his career, Hitchcock's films were constantly being compared to Psycho. The "Psycho" films still maintain a very large fanbase. Various websites dedicated to the franchise such as The Psycho Movies.com have appeared on the internet. Books detailing the making and impact of the film such as Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho, The Moment of Psycho, Janet Leigh's Psycho: Behind The Scenes of the Classic Thriller have been published over the years. Two retrospective documentaries have been released detailing the making of all four films including The Making of Psycho (1997) and The Psycho Legacy (2010). The film also spawned the show Alfred Hitchcock: The Art of Making Movies at Universal Studios Florida, with part of the show detailing how the shower scene was filmed. In 1992, Psycho was added to the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress. A musical stage adaptation from Neil Diamond, Psycho: The Musical, was performed from January 25 to February 9, 2019, at PULP Black Box Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia. Other media and merchandise Various Psycho related merchandise has been sold ever since the release of the original film. Merchandise includes T-shirts, posters, DVDs, books, stationery, shot glasses, shower curtains, action figures, model house kits, pens and more. Much of the merchandise is related to the fictional Bates Motel where items commonly found in an actual motel have the Bates Motel logo on them. A Bates Motel light up sign was released in 2009. To coincide with the 50th anniversary of the release of the original film, a Psycho house model kit was released in the U.S. Props from all the films are also sold occasionally on eBay. The original one sheet poster for Psycho is worth around $3000 in mint condition. The original one sheets for Psycho II, Psycho III and Psycho IV: The Beginning are worth around $50 each. Graphic novels In 1992, a series of graphic novels based on the original Psycho was published by the Innovation Comics group. Today, the novels are out of print and are very rare to find. Video game A horror adventure game with a key-driven verb interface vaguely based on the same-named film by Alfred Hitchcock for Commodore 64, DOS, Amiga, and Atari ST was released in 1988. The Psycho house and Bates Motel sets The Bates House and Motel were constructed on the backlot at Universal City Studios in 1959 for the production of Psycho. It has been said that the house, designed by art directors Joseph Hurley and Robert Clathworthy, was loosely based on an Edward Hopper painting called "House by the Railroad". The house and motel sets were actually empty shells, also known as facades. When the house was originally built, there was no right side of the house, since the right side is never seen on camera in the original Psycho film. Interiors of the Bates house and motel were constructed on Sound stage 18-A at Universal, just a short walk from the actual exterior locations making production convenient for all involved. After production had wrapped on Psycho, the house was featured in several television productions including The Virginian, Wagon Train and Boris Karloff's Thriller. In 1964, Universal Studios opened its patented Studio Tram Tour. The right side of the house was then added and the set was unceremoniously dubbed "The Psycho House". The house and even the motel went on to appear in several shows such as Night Gallery, The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries and even in films such as Invitation to a Gunfighter and Modern Problems. The motel was torn down in 1979 and the house was moved to an alternate location on the backlot to accommodate the new tour. In 1982, Richard Franklin and Hilton A. Green announced plans to film Psycho II. The house was then moved to a location that best matched the original hill and only about 40 feet of the motel was actually re-built. The rest of the motel in the film was a matte painting. TV shows during the '80s promoted the Universal Tour and prominently featured the Psycho House including Amazing Stories, Knight Rider and Diff'rent Strokes. In 1985, the Bates Motel was fully re-built for the filming of Psycho III. In 1987, the NBC-TV network announced plans for the TV pilot Bates Motel. The motel in the film was re-modeled to look very Spanish like. This version of the set remained until 1994 when the new renovations were taken away and the motel was put back to look the way it did in the original Psycho. A 1992 episode of Murder, She Wrote called "Incident in Lot 7" featured the Psycho House and Bates Motel as key locations in the popular Angela Lansbury series. In 1988, plans for Psycho IV: The Beginning were underway at Universal. Plans to shoot the film in Orlando, Florida were set into motion and the film crew constructed a full-scale replica of the Bates Motel and Psycho House at the soon-to-be built Universal Studios Florida. The final dressing and painting was done by the art department crew in 1990, but the house and motel was fully built in 1988 long before the production team was assembled for the project. After production wrapped, the sets were left as attractions at the park until 1999 when it was torn down to make room for another attraction. In 1998, the Psycho House in California was renovated to preserve the set. All of the rotting wood was replaced and the set had a new paint job. That same year, plans to remake Psycho were announced. It was originally announced that Gus Van Sant was going to be using the original house and motel sets, but the production team built a new house directly in front of the old one, and the motel was updated to look like it was from the 1960s. The new house was moved next to the original house and remained there for about three years after production. In 2003, due to popular demand, the remake's house was torn down and the motel was restored to the original way once again. To this day, the house and motel are still standing on the backlot of Universal and continue to be major tourist attractions. The tram tour features an actor playing Norman Bates coming out of cabin 1 with a body, putting it in the trunk of a car and then wielding a large knife at the tourists as the tram drives away. 24 Hour Psycho An art installation, 24 Hour Psycho, created by artist Douglas Gordon in 1993, and later installed in the Museum of Modern Art in New York, consists of a silent screening of Psycho, slowed down to two frames per second (from the usual 24), so that it lasts 24 hours rather than 109 minutes. 24 Hour Psycho is featured prominently in Don DeLillo's 2010 novel Point Omega. The Psycho Legacy (2010) In 2010, a direct-to-DVD documentary was released called The Psycho Legacy. It included interviews with cast and crew from all four Psycho films. It also featured interviews with current horror filmmakers who are fans of the series. The documentary was written, produced and directed by horror journalist Robert Galluzzo. Galluzo made the documentary because of the lack of information on the sequels and also to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the release of the original film. The documentary discussed the impact and legacy of the original Psycho and the production stories of Psycho II, Psycho III and Psycho IV: The Beginning. To the surprise of some critics and fans, the failed TV pilot Bates Motel and the Gus Van Sant remake were not discussed in the documentary; originally in the deleted scenes section on the DVD two short segments on the two films were supposed to be on there, but for unknown reasons they were left off of the DVD when it was released. The documentary sold well, received mostly positive reviews and garnered new interest in the series from horror fans. Hitchcock (2012) A film adaptation of Stephen Rebello's non-fiction book Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho, which follows the complex relationship between Alfred Hitchcock and wife Alma Reville during the filming of Psycho in 1959 was made. The film is directed by Sacha Gervasi and stars Anthony Hopkins as director Alfred Hitchcock, Helen Mirren as his wife Alma Reville, Scarlett Johansson as Janet Leigh, Jessica Biel as Vera Miles, and James D'Arcy as Anthony Perkins. Produced by The Montecito Picture Company and distributed by Fox Searchlight Pictures, the film was released on November 23, 2012, in selected cities with a worldwide release on December 14. The film has received mixed reviews from critics and moderate box office returns, with a worldwide gross of $5,337,378 as of January 2013. 78/52 documentary (2017) A documentary examination of the Psycho shower scene was released on October 13, 2017, by director Alexandre O. Philippe running 91 minutes. The cast of participants included Guillermo del Toro, Peter Bogdanovich, Bret Easton Ellis, Jamie Lee Curtis, Karyn Kusama, Eli Roth, Oz Perkins, Leigh Whannell, Walter Murch, Danny Elfman, Elijah Wood, Richard Stanley and Neil Marshall. Notes References Leigh, Janet; Nickens, Christopher (1995). Psycho: Behind the Scenes of the Classic Thriller. Harmony Press. External links The Psycho Movies – a comprehensive site for the film series Film series introduced in 1960 Horror film franchises Horror mass media franchises Mass media franchises introduced in 1959 American film series Universal Pictures franchises
4902447	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Air%20Force%20in%20Thailand	United States Air Force in Thailand	The United States Air Force (USAF) deployed combat aircraft to Thailand from 1960 to 1975 during the Vietnam War. Today, US military units train with other Asian militaries in Thailand. Royal Thai Air Force Bases are an important element in the Pentagon's "forward positioning" strategy. Vietnam War During the Vietnam War, about 80% of all USAF air strikes over North Vietnam originated from air bases in Thailand. At its peak in 1969 more airmen were serving in Thailand than were serving in South Vietnam. Under Thailand's "gentleman's agreement" with the U.S., the bases were considered Royal Thai Air Force bases and were commanded by Thai officers. Thai air police controlled access to the bases; U.S. air police who helped them did carry weapons. Command of the American units, however, remained with U.S. wing commanders and their Seventh Air Force/Thirteenth Air Force headquarters. At Udorn, just from Hanoi supersonic, unarmed RF-101 and RF-4C photo-reconnaissance jets launched and flew missions over target areas immediately before and after a raid to photograph the damage so assessments of attacks could be made. Udorn also hosted three squadrons of F-4C/D & E Phantoms which flew escort, sweep, and Air Combat Patrol missions to protect other U.S. strike aircraft. From Korat, Takhli and Ubon came the Republic F-105 Thunderchiefs and F-4C and F-4D Phantoms that actually delivered the bombs and also General Dynamics F-111s with terrain-following radar from Takhli. (During the deployment of the F-111s three crashed soon after arriving at Takhli and the F-111 fleet was grounded to investigate the problem). From U-Tapao airfield on the Gulf of Siam, the largest airfield in Southeast Asia, came the Boeing B-52s and the four-engine Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker refuellers that took to the air and refueled the aircraft just before and after they hit North Vietnam. From Takhli flew EB-66 electronic-warfare jets with special equipment that can detect the "fingerprints" of enemy radar in the sky and then send out a signal that fouls up the screen below. Flying out of Takhli, F-105s armed with radar-guided Shrike missiles had the job of knocking out SAM sites. Finally, from Nakhon Phanom came every pilot's best friend: the air-rescue-and-recovery team. Flying ungainly looking, green and brown HH43 and CH-3 helicopters, or "Jolly Green Giants," and protected by propeller-driven A-1 “Sandy” ground attack planes, R. &. R. pilots had even gone into Hanoi's outskirts to rescue downed fliers. These are the major bases the USAF operated from in Thailand: Don Muang Royal Thai Air Force Base, 1961–1970 Major USAF Unit: 631st Combat Support Group, 1962–1970 Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, 1962–1975 Major USAF Unit: 388th Tactical Fighter Wing, 1965–1975 Major USAF Unit: 553rd Reconnaissance Wing, 1967-1971 Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Navy Base, 1962–1976 Major USAF Unit: 56th Special Operations Wing, 1967–1975 Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base, 1961–1971; 1972–1974 Major USAF Unit: 355th Tactical Fighter Wing, 1965–1971; Rotational units, 1972–1974 U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield, 1965–1976 Major USAF Units: 4258th Strategic Wing, 1966–1970; 307th Strategic Wing, 1970–1975 Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, 1965–1974 Major USAF Unit: 8th Tactical Fighter Wing, 1965–1974 Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base, 1964–1976 Major USAF Unit: 432d Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, 1966–1975 In addition Marine Aircraft Group 15 operated from Royal Thai Air Base Nam Phong from June 1972 to September 1973. The circumstances surrounding the creation of these bases and the American deployment is a long and complex tale. Its origins lie in the French withdrawal from Indochina as a result of the 1954 Geneva Agreement, nationalism and the Cold War. Lao Civil War Throughout the 1950s, Laos had been embroiled in civil war, and by the early 1960s, the conflict was threatening to spread to Thailand. Major fighting broke out in December 1960 and spread far enough to cause casualties among Thai civilians living along the Mekong River. The United States Embassy in Vientiane was burned to the ground and fighting raged in and around the city. Western governments recognized different leaders, with military aid being provided to the communist Pathet Lao forces by the Soviet Union. In December, the U.S. air attaché photographed a Soviet Il-14 cargo plane transporting supplies to communist forces near Van Vieng. On 23 December, communist forces fired on an American VC-47 passenger transport. The plane, which was carrying the air attaché, was struck by .50 caliber rounds but was able to land safely. It was the first American aircraft in Southeast Asia to be fired upon. Thailand was a constitutional monarchy and traditionally maintained a pro-western stance in foreign affairs. The fighting in Laos was of great concern to the Thai government. The government feared that should Laos fall to the communists, the "Domino Theory" would place the entire region, including Thailand, in jeopardy. Northeast Thailand housed a community of Vietnamese mixed with Chinese. Some of the Vietnamese wanted to move to communist North Vietnam, but they were not necessarily communist sympathizers. Indeed, attempts by North Vietnamese communists to organize the Vietnamese in Thailand were dealt with strongly by the Thai government. The Royal Thai Government began flying reconnaissance missions over Laos on 19 December 1960 with some RT-33 photo jets. United States Pacific Command (CINCPAC) ordered American technicians to assist the Royal Thai Air Force in processing and analyzing the film. On 19 January 1961, PACAF had identified 25 airfields, 49 communications routes, and 19 urban targets. A few weeks later, HQ USAF authorized the release of these photographs to the governments of Laos and Thailand. On 23 March 1961 Pathet Lao anti-aircraft artillery opened fire on an American C-47 as it flew over the eastern portion of the Plaines des Jarres, shooting the plane down. It was one of the first USAF aircraft shot down over Indochina, and marked the beginning of combat action by the USAF from bases in Thailand. Origins of U.S. military presence in Thailand The official American military presence in Thailand started in April 1961 when an advance party of the USAF 6010th Tactical (TAC) Group arrived at Don Muang at the request of the Royal Thai government to establish an aircraft warning system. On April 20, 1961 a detachment of six F100 Super Sabres from the 510TFS/405TFW based at Clark AB, Philippines deployed to Don Muang Airport as part of Operation Bell Tone. Immediately upon arrival, two of these planes were loaded with a full load (800 rnds) of 20mm ammunition and 4 x GAR-8s (AIM-9Bs) and placed on 5 minute alert. Also in March 1962, a small detachment of F-102 "Delta Daggers" from the 509th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, based at Clark AB, Philippines were sent to Don Muang under "Operation Bell Tone". Their mission was to bolster the defense capabilities of the Royal Thai Air Force. For the next several years, a minimum of four F-102 interceptors were kept on alert at Don Muang. Then in November 1961, four RF-101C reconnaissance aircraft of the 45th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron stationed at Misawa AB, Japan and their photo lab arrived at Don Muang. The RF-101s were sent to assist Royal Thai AF RT-33 aircraft in performing aerial recon flights over Laos. The RF-101s stayed until May 1962, then returned for a second deployment during November and December 1962. These small detachments received logistical support from their home bases outside of Southeast Asia. Circumstances in the region, however, were leading to drastic changes in the US position. On 29 April 1961, the Joint Chiefs of Staff instructed CINCPAC to move 5,000 troops and air elements to both Udon Air Base and Da Nang Air Base. It was believed these forces were going to take action in Laos. Also, in South Vietnam, the numbers of Communist insurgents continued to increase. More American military advisers were being dispatched to the country, but their reports indicted a need for stronger measures to be taken. In addition, one of U.S. President John F. Kennedy's advisers indicated the need for deterring guerrilla action in northeast Thailand was more pressing than affairs in Vietnam, and Thailand should take precedence. Vice-President Lyndon B. Johnson recommended that Thailand be given US$50 million in military aid. Two milestones occurred early in 1962. The "Military Assistance Group in South Vietnam" was renamed U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) on 6 February. The other being a joint communication from Secretary of State Dean Rusk and Thai Foreign Minister Thanat Koman on 6 March in which the United States "firm intention... to aid Thailand, its ally and historic friend in resisting communist aggression and subversion". As a result, the "Military Assistance Command, Thailand (MACT)" was set up on 15 May 1962 at Don Muang. On 23 July 1962 fourteen nations signed the Geneva Accords of 1962 which contained the following provisions: Laos was to become politically neutral and not enter into any military alliance. Laos would not allow foreign military forces to use or occupy its territory. Laos would not recognize any military alliance or coalition, such as SEATO. Laos would not allow any foreign interference in its internal affairs. All foreign troops, paramilitary forces and foreign military personnel would be removed from Laos in the "shortest possible time". The treaty was signed the Soviet Union, South Vietnam, China, North Vietnam and the United States, among others. But North Vietnam continued moving heavy weapons into Laos to support the communist rebel Pathet Lao. Of the 10,000 North Vietnamese troops in Laos at the time of the agreement, 6,000 remained in the country in violation of the accords. In spite of the agreement, fighting continued in Laos, with North Vietnamese troops hidden in Pathet Lao-held areas. Near the end of August a USAF RF-101 reconnaissance aircraft was fired on by radar-guided Anti-aircraft warfare (AAA) batteries while flying above the cloud cover. Both sides violated the Geneva Accords. Gulf of Tonkin Incident On 2 August 1964, the Gulf of Tonkin Incident occurred. An alleged attack by North Vietnamese torpedo boats on American destroyer, USS Maddox DD-731]. The misinterpreted incident took place in the Gulf of Tonkin off the coast of North Vietnam. President Johnson used the flawed information about the incident to order additional forces to the area to support the government of South Vietnam.(https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2008/february/truth-about-tonkin) USAF forces were dispatched to Thailand. This marked the beginning of large scale United States military operations in Southeast Asia. The "Secret War" in Laos Thailand was a member of SEATO. While supposedly maintaining an air of neutrality, it was deeply concerned about the fighting in neighboring Indochina. Over the centuries, Thai governments had managed to avoid foreign domination with a policy of accommodation with the predominant power in Asia at the time. By 1965, the increasing number of American aircraft deployments to Thailand was jeopardizing policy. The Royal Thai government's desire to avoid publicity led to the formation of a policy to downplay the United States' presence and not draw attention to its tactical air units in Thailand. This is why so little information about the USAF in Thailand was made public during the Vietnam War. Much of that information remains unavailable, being considered sensitive to the Thai government. The Thai government prohibited photographing of American personnel and military aircraft, with the exception of official archive photography taken for documentation and official release. American news agencies, such as United Press International and Associated Press, were prohibited from filing stories about American military activities. Attacks on US bases and personnel were suppressed and any personnel wounded during military action in Thailand did not receive recognition of or awards for their wounds. Military information officers were instructed that no mention was to be made of operations from Thai facilities, no names of bases were to be mentioned and no mention of operational activities were to be released. The report "Snakes in the Eagles Nest" gives a partial account of combat operations in Thailand during the Vietnam War. USAF combat sorties from Thailand flown into both North Vietnam and South Vietnam grew as the Vietnam War expanded in the 1960s. In addition, combat missions were flown aiding friendly forces in Laos and, starting in 1970, Cambodia were also flown. The missions flown over Laos are today referred to as the Secret War. Although the existence of the so-called "Secret War" was sometimes reported in the U.S., details were largely unavailable due to official government denials that the war even existed. The denials were seen as necessary considering that the US had signed agreements specifying the neutrality of Laos. US involvement in Laos was considered necessary because North Vietnam had effectively conquered a large part of the country and was equally lying in public about its role in Laos. Despite these denials, however, the Secret War was actually the largest U.S. covert operation prior to the Afghan-Soviet War, with areas of Laos controlled by North Vietnam subjected to three million tons of bombing, representing the heaviest U.S.-led bombing campaign since World War II. USAF withdrawal from Thailand The United States ended its involvement in Southeast Asia by treaty and disengagement rather than by military victory. After the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975, relations between Washington and Bangkok turned sour. In May 1975, the Royal Thai Government asked the United States to remove all of its combat forces (27,000 troops, 300 aircraft) by 1976. The USAF bases were closed and the last USAF personnel left Thailand in June 1976. The removal of U.S. military forces was accomplished by United States Marine Detachment BLT 1/9 out of Okinawa, Japan. After the Cold War Beginning in 1982, Cobra Gold began as a multinational training event. Starting in 1994, the USAF returned to Korat RTAFB for "Cope Tiger", an annual, multinational exercise conducted in two phases in the Asia-pacific region. Cope Tiger involves air forces from the United States, Thailand, and Singapore, as well as U.S. Marines deployed from Japan. The flying portion of the exercise promotes closer relations and enables air force units in the region to sharpen air combat skills and practice interoperability with U.S. forces. Pilots fly both air-to-air and air-to-ground combat training missions. American pilots fly F-15C/D Eagles, F/A-18C Hornets, F-16C Fighting Falcons, E-3B Sentry Sentry Airborne Warning and Control Systems (AWACS), and KC-135 Stratotankers. Royal Thai Forces fly F-16 Fighting Falcons, F-5E Tigers, and ground attack L-39s Singapore forces fly Northrop F-5s and F-16 Fighting Falcons. Other Republic of Singapore Air Force aircraft types used on Cope Tiger include AS-532 Cougar and CH-47 Chinook helicopters Grumman E-2 Hawkeye AEW aircraft, and Lockheed C-130 Hercules tanker aircraft. More than 1,100 people participate, including approximately 500 U.S. service members and 600 service members from Thailand and Singapore. War in Iraq Despite Thailand's neutrality on the war in Iraq, the Thai government allowed U-Tapao RTNAF to be used by American warplanes flying into combat in Iraq, as it had earlier done during the war in Afghanistan. In addition, U-Tapao may be where Al Qaeda operatives have been interrogated, according to some retired American intelligence officials. See also United States Pacific Air Forces Seventh Air Force Thirteenth Air Force Notes References Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM. Glasser, Jeffrey D. (1998). The Secret Vietnam War: The United States Air Force in Thailand, 1961–1975. McFarland & Company. . Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. . Schlight, John (1988), The Years of the Offensive, 1965–1968, Office Of Air Force History, United States Air Force Schlight, John (1996), A War Too Long: The History of the USAF in Southeast Asia, 1961–1975, Office Of Air Force History, United States Air Force, Futrell, Robert F. with the assistance of Blumenson, Martin (1991), The United States Air Force In Southeast Asia: The Advisory Years to 1965, Office Of Air Force History, United States Air Force Van Staaveren, Jacob (2002), Gradual Failure: The Air War over North Vietnam, 1965–1966, Office Of Air Force History, United States Air Force External links Vietnam War Anti-communism in the United States Cold War military history of the United States United States military presence in other countries Military history of Thailand
4902493	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune%20%28board%20game%29	Dune (board game)	Dune is a strategy board game set in Frank Herbert's Dune universe, published by Avalon Hill in 1979. The game was designed by Bill Eberle, Jack Kittredge and Peter Olotka. After many years out of print, the game was reissued by Gale Force Nine in 2019 in advance of the 2021 Dune film adaptation. History The game was originally designed with a Roman Empire theme, with the name Tribute. Avalon Hill had acquired the license to produce a Dune game, but when their design proved unusable, the company contacted Eberle, Kittredge and Olotka. Elements suitable for the Dune universe were added to the game, particularly from their earlier game, Cosmic Encounter. In 1984, to tie in with the Dune film, Avalon Hill published a second edition of the game as well as two expansions, Spice Harvest and The Duel. The Spice Harvest expansion changes the initial setup of the standard game by adding a pre-game in which the factions lobby for control of the inter-world Spice market in order to purchase a more advantageous initial position for the start of the main game (control for the planet of Arrakis). The Duel adds "leader tokens" representing the primary leaders of each faction and a secondary board representing a circular arena for one-on-one combat. Leaders may fight individual combat using a special deck of cards for movement and attacks. Both supplements included additional Treachery Cards. Both supplements are also incorporated into the French edition published by Jeux Descartes. In addition, Avalon Hill's strategy magazines, The General and Heroes, published counters and rules for three additional factions: the Bene Tleilax, the Ixians, and the Landsraad, factions and organizations that appeared in Frank Herbert's original novels. The game received good reviews and due to the popularity of the Dune setting, coupled with the lack of new edition since 1984, became a sought-after item among board game collectors, with prices on secondary market reaching hundreds of dollars. A fan-made print-and-play version was also made available online around 2010. In the 1990s, Jeux Descartes published a French edition of the game. The game was reprinted by Fantasy Flight Games in 2012 as Rex: Final Days of an Empire. Fantasy Flight was able to acquire the rights to the system used in Dune (known as the “Simultaneous Dial Based Order System”), but were not able to get the license for the Dune setting. As a result, the game's setting was switched to Fantasy Flight's Twilight Imperium universe. With the demise of Avalon Hill, Dune remained out of print for many years despite being a highly regarded board game. With newfound interest in the Dune series due to the upcoming 2021 Dune film, board game publisher Gale Force 9 reached out to the Herbert estate, which owns the general rights to the game, and received permission to remake it. The art was new for this edition, drawn by Russian illustrator "Ilya77", who was commissioned for the reuse of their art, in addition to the game's original designers, Bill Eberle, Jack Kittredge, and Peter Olotka. Gale Force 9 made very few changes of the game's original rules, tweaking about 3 to 5 percent of the rules. The game was released on October 30, 2019 in advance of the Dune cinematic reboot in late 2021. Along with the reprint, Gale Force Nine also released two expansion sets that allows players to control four additional factions, Ixians, the Tleilaxu, CHOAM, and House Richese, co-designed by Greg Okotka and Jack Reda. Gameplay Players take on the role of one of the factions in the politics of the planet Arrakis. Victory in the game is achieved by controlling a specified number of strongholds, either alone or in an alliance with other players. The game board, which is based on the book's original map, represents the planet's northern hemisphere. It is divided into radial sections and territories, some of which overlap multiple radial sections. Five territories contain strongholds. The radial divisions are used exclusively for storm movement. The planet's permanent coriolis storm moves along the radial sections, destroying any troops in its way. It is possible for a multi-radial territory to be partly in storm and partly clear. Players move their units from territory to territory. If two or more players enter the same territory, a battle ensues and the contest is resolved using a hidden bidding system based on troop numbers, leaders, and possible treachery cards. Spice serves as money. Each turn, one territory (determined by a card draw) produces a "spice blow", which places an amount of spice in that territory. This is one of the two ways in which all factions can earn spice for auctions, transportation, revival, and negotiating deals. The other is by winning a battle in which a leader is killed, which earns the faction the leader's value in spice. An auction is held each turn in which players can purchase "treachery cards". These cards contain a variety of uses such as weapons and defenses, which can be used as advantages in resolving battles. Each player has five leader tokens of varying strengths. Leaders are used in combat to supplement the strength of their units. However, each player may have one or more traitors among the other players' leaders, so using leaders can be a risk. Leaders can be killed in combat, but players may use spice to buy dead leaders back from the Bene Tleilaxu tanks. Combat Battle results when a territory is contested. Combat is resolved using a battle wheel, which consists of three parts: the number of troops, the leader, and any treachery cards which will be used during the battle. Each player in the contest chooses in secret to sacrifice a number of their troops in that territory. Each unit sacrificed gives them a base score of one. Leader tokens add to the strength of their side, provided it survives the attack by the opposing leader. Attacks and defenses affecting leaders are chosen in secret by the players from their available treachery cards. Once both players have chosen their strategies, they reveal the number of units, leaders and items used. If the player has chosen their opponent's traitor, they are defeated. Otherwise, if a player has used a weapon against which the other player has not used a defense, their opponent's leader is killed. If a laser is used against a shield, all units and leaders are killed from both sides. Otherwise, the scores are then added together, and the player with the lower score is defeated. The player with the higher score, while victorious, still must lose the number of units they planned in their strategy. In the event of a tie, the attacking player wins the battle. Factions Each faction has unique powers which modify the rules. Both the default abilities and the optional "Additional Character Advantages" are included below. House AtreidesDuring auctions, the Atreides player may use "prescience" to view the treachery card being bid on, while other players must bid blind. The Atreides player may also use prescience to look at the next spice blow card, and force their opponents to reveal one element of their battle plan. In advanced rules, the Atreides player may bring the Kwizatz Haderach into play, which adds a bonus to the battle wheel. The Bene GesseritThe Bene Gesserit player may temporarily "coexist" with other players' units without causing a confrontation, which allows transportation of one unit to the polar sink free of charge for every other player's transport. The player may command other players to use or not to use certain cards during combat (representing their use of "the Voice"). At the beginning of the game the Bene Gesserit player secretly records the name of another player and the turn at which they think that other player will win the game. If the Bene Gesserit correctly guesses who will win and when, they win the game instead. In advanced rules, Bene Gesserit units are capable of extended coexistence and arrive in the same territory as the other player's transport. The Padishah EmperorWhen the other players buy treachery cards, they pay the Emperor. The player may revive up to three additional units as gholas. In advanced play, the Emperor has five elite units (Sardaukar) that are twice as effective as ordinary units, although they lose this bonus against the Fremen. The FremenThe Fremen armies are already on Arrakis, so they need not pay shipping costs to the Guild. They are also able to use "desert power" to move two territories per turn instead of one. Their troops are not killed if a worm appears; instead, they can ride the worm to a location of their choice. If no-one has won after ten turns and certain strongholds are either unoccupied or occupied by the Fremen, they win. In advanced play, they have three elite units (Fedaykin), and only suffer half losses from the storm. The Spacing GuildThe Guild player receives the payment when other players transport units onto the board, while paying only half for transporting themselves. They can ship units around the planet, or even send them back to their reserves. If no-one has won after ten turns, and the Fremen don't win, the Guild does. In advanced play, they can choose to take their turn at any point during a turn. House HarkonnenWhen the Harkonnen player buys a treachery card, they receive a second one free, without having to show it to the Atreides player. They can hold twice as many treachery cards as other players, to a maximum of eight. Where the other players must choose one traitor out of four, the Harkonnen player can keep all four. In advanced rules, whenever they win a battle, they may kill or temporarily capture a random leader from the loser. Each faction also grants some aspect of their powers to their allies. Winning A faction wins by controlling three of the five strongholds at the end of a turn. An alliance of factions wins by controlling four of the five strongholds at the end of a turn. In a game with only two factions, the winning faction must control four strongholds. In a recommended "longer game" variant a faction or alliance of factions must control four strongholds, or all five in a game with only two factions. Three other winning conditions exist: The Fremen win at the end of turn 10 (the final round of game play) if no faction has won the game by the normal criteria and the occupancy of certain strongholds meets certain constraints. This win condition represents a situation where the Fremen have prevented interference with their own plans for Dune. The Guild wins if, at the end of turn 10, no faction has won via the conventional win, and the Fremen win conditions are not met. This win condition represents the situation where the Guild has preserved the status quo on Dune and may continue to provide shipping services. The Bene Gesserit win if, after a faction or alliance has succeeded in a conventional win, they reveal that they predicted (prior to the game's start) that that faction would win in that turn. The Bene Gesserit need only predict one of the winning players in the event of an alliance win. If the Bene Gesserit cause their own alliance to win in the turn that they predicted one of their allies would win, then the Bene Gesserit alone win. This win condition represents the situation where the Bene Gesserit have manipulated the situation so that their hidden agenda is fulfilled. The Bene Gesserit cannot predict the Fremen or Guild turn 10 default wins. However they may predict that the Fremen or the Guild will win in turn 10 by the normal majority stronghold occupancy criteria. Reception In the January–February 1980 edition of The Space Gamer (Issue No. 26), Tony Watson commented that "Not only is Dune a good game, it does an amazingly accurate job of conveying the feel and air of Dune the novel." In the inaugural edition of Ares Magazine (March 1980), Eric Goldberg gave it a below average rating of 6 out of 9, saying, "Battles are won and lost dependent on the number of spice tokens present in an area. Treachery, storms and the fearsome shai-hulud (gigantic sandworms) enliven affairs. Dune is a nice little game, but nothing special." In Issue 77 of the UK magazine Games & Puzzles, Nick Palmer was impressed, writing, "The ability of the game to bring out the delicate power balance in the planetary power struggle depicted by the book is nothing short of extraordinary — and yet the rules occupy a mere three pages!" However, Palmer had issues with the alliance rule, which states that players in an alliance can jointly win the game. But Palmer pointed out "A strong alliance can generally win at once, and if one wants to avoid an abrupt ending it seems best to limit wins to single players. One can then employ Diplomacy-like cunning in lining up some unsuspecting allies before making a dash for victory, since allies cannot interfere with each other's plans until alliances are reviewed when the next sandworm appears." Nonetheless, Palmer game the game an Excitement rating of 5 out of 5, saying, "Dune is in my view the best game that appeared in 1979, simple, fast-moving, yet packed with strategic and tactical ingenuity." In the December 1993 edition of Dragon (Issue 200), Allen Varney considered Dune a classic, saying "Unique flavor comes with the movement rules, combat strategies, and chances that your leaders will turn traitor." However, Varney advised "Don’t bother with the unbalanced advanced rules that Avalon Hill foisted on the clean basic design." In a retrospective review in There Will Be Games, Jonathan Volk gave high praise to the game's unusual, asymmetrical design. In Dune, he noted, there is no artificial balance, no "Arthurian circularity" to the game table: the various player positions have wildly differing strengths and weaknesses, and the unfairness of the world setup makes "a seductive point of entry". More importantly, that unfairness presses players into complex social relations and moral quandaries rarely found in games. It's "impossibly good, better than any board game I’ve played, and I’ve played a lot of them," wrote Volk, summing up: "No game lingers with me more than Dune. Tom Mendelsohn, in a retrospective review from Ars Technica, stated that the game was "moderately popular" during its release, but commented that the 1984 re-release was commercially unsuccessful. Mendelsohn, however, stated that the game was "ahead of its time", shown by the variable number of rounds each game. The reviewer additionally complimented the tenseness, the combat as a "state-of-the-art" mechanic that is a "battle of wits and bluffing", and praised the hidden information and "bursts of chaos". Nevertheless, the asymmetry was criticised as unappealing to some players, Mehdelsohn also stated that the rules are "full of holes and ambiguities" and that the expansions are dubiously necessary. The review also described that Rex: Final Days of an Empire was received less favourably. Similar to Mendelsohn, who commented that Dune "features more than a few rough edges courtesy of how ahead of its time it was", Luke Plunkett from Kotaku observed that the game had "rough edges", criticising that "If a major publisher was pitched Dune in 2020 they’d likely tear it to pieces, aghast at how so many of this game’s features are seemingly worthless, overpowered or both at the same time." Nonetheless, he praised that the "elastic nature" of victory conditions and "treachery lurking", and complimented the engagement in consequence of "unpredictability and unfairness". Reviews Casus Belli #24 (Feb 1985) 1982 Games 100 in Games Expansions The Duel is a 1984 expansion for Dune published by The Avalon Hill Game Company. It provides optional rules for duels between character groups. Steve Crow reviewed The Duel in The Space Gamer No. 76. Crow commented that "In all, The Duel makes an interesting supplement to the original Dune rules, but overuse of the challenge rules just bogs down the game." The 2019 Gale Force Nine edition has released two expansions to date, Ixians & Tleilaxu, which adds both of those factions, along with Tech Tokens and additional Treachery Cards, and other new cards, and CHOAM & Richese, which adds two more factions, Leader Skill Cards, and Advanced Stronghold Cards. Both expansions were designed by Eberle, Kittridge, and Olotka, along with Greg Olotka and Jack Reda. References Further reading External links The Dune Emulator Free computer game version of the board game for Windows Video Guide to Dune 2020 board game review Avalon Hill games Board games introduced in 1979 Games based on Dune (franchise) Licensed board games Science fiction board games Space opera board games
4903990	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcelo%20%C3%81lvarez	Marcelo Álvarez	Marcelo Raúl Álvarez (born February 27, 1962) is an Argentine lyric tenor who achieved international success starting in the mid-1990s. Álvarez travels widely, performing with top singers in major opera houses and concert halls around the world. Since the beginning of his career in 1994, he has maintained an active touring schedule and debuted in 34 roles. In addition to his opera and solo recordings, he has made an album honoring the popular songs of Argentine tango legend Carlos Gardel, as well as an album of classical duets with Salvatore Licitra. He has won notable awards for vocal performance and is considered one of the top tenors of his generation, receiving high acclaim for his passionate yet refined delivery in bel canto roles, French opera, and as of 2006, more dramatic lirico pieno (full lyric) and spinto roles. He lives with his wife and son near Milan, Italy. Early years Álvarez was born in Córdoba, Argentina. As a boy of five, he was enrolled in La Escuela de Niños Cantores de Córdoba where he studied music until age 17 and received his diploma in music education. In spite of this musical background, he went on to study economics at university, and for 12 years the study of music was completely out of his life. After his university studies, he became a manager of his family's furniture factory in Córdoba. Repertoire Early career Álvarez always liked singing and often imitated popular singers’ voices for the enjoyment of his friends, even winning them free drinks in pubs. He was 30 years old when his wife suggested that he sing opera. At the time, he did not know much about opera at all, but in 1992 he started commuting to Buenos Aires for voice lessons with Norma Risso. It was a 12-hour trip by bus, but he was determined. Ms. Risso was so impressed with her student that she told him that within five years he would be singing all over the world, a prediction that proved accurate. He had several unsuccessful auditions at the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires. By fortunate coincidence, the legendary tenor Giuseppe di Stefano heard him at one of those auditions and urged him to go to Italy. "You have good instincts; you remind me of myself when I was a young man", di Stefano told him. Turning to the other people present, di Stefano commented, "this young man sings with his heart, he will have a great career!" During this time, Álvarez had some performances in small houses in Argentina. His first stage role was as a late-replacement Count Almaviva in Rossini's Il barbiere di Siviglia in Córdoba in June 1994. He then performed in Federico Moreno Torroba's zarzuela Luisa Fernanda with Ismael Pons at the Teatro Avenida in Buenos Aires, a venue that features mostly that uniquely Spanish form of musical theater. Ismael Pons invited him to perform another zarzuela, Marina (zarzuela), in Menorca, Spain the next year and recommended him to Spanish baritone Juan Pons In the 1980s and ‘90s, world-famous Italian tenor Luciano Pavarotti held worldwide talent auditions in his Pavarotti International Voice Competition. When he came to Buenos Aires and heard Álvarez audition in 1994, he immediately invited him to Philadelphia for the finals of the competition the following year. While still in Argentina, Álvarez starred in Donizetti's L'elisir d'amore at the Teatro Roma in Buenos Aires (December 1994). These early performances enabled him to cultivate his voice and acting skills, and with the confidence he gained from those beginning experiences and the enthusiastic encouragement from di Stefano and Pavarotti, he and his wife decided to sell everything they owned and move to Europe to expand his opportunities for a career as an opera singer. Álvarez came to Europe in 1995 and was quickly involved in a whirlwind of activity. He went to Spain and performed the zarzuela Marina and then moved to Milan in July. A mere seven days after his arrival in Italy, Álvarez won a voice competition in Pavia, and within a month he had landed contracts with the Teatro La Fenice in Venice and the Teatro Carlo Felice in Genoa. His La Fenice debut was in September of that year. The management gave him his choice of what he would like to perform for his role and house debut and he selected the challenging role of Elvino in Bellini's La sonnambula. Following this highly praised debut, he received offers from opera houses throughout Europe to perform six new roles, all of which he debuted in 1997. In addition, Italian mezzo-soprano Franca Mattiucci was his artistic advisor during this time. Professional Career, 1995–1999 As a result of his rising popularity and enthusiastic critical praise, Álvarez was engaged to appear at high-visibility venues throughout the world from the very start of his career. He debuted in a demanding number of new roles in Italian bel canto and French operas, completing ten role debuts during the first five years of his career and marking his rapid ascent onto the international scene. Alfredo in La traviata and The Duke in Rigoletto became his signature roles for this time period, with 150 performances of each of them. In 1996 he was understudy for the role of Alfredo in Verdi's La traviata in Genoa. On opening night Álvarez was in the auditorium to watch the performance when he was told the tenor was ill and he had to go on immediately to replace him. This role debut paired him with the much-admired Italian soprano Mariella Devia. Within the next three years he sang his Alfredo in houses all around the world, from Hamburg to London, Tokyo, and Vienna. At the end of 1998, his house debut at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York was in a new Franco Zeffirelli production of La traviata, alongside American soprano Patricia Racette. He also performed La traviata with Ruth Ann Swenson at the Théâtre antique d'Orange in Orange, France and with Christina Gallardo-Domas at the Deutsche Oper Berlin in 1999. He was a last minute replacement for Alfredo Kraus in the role of Arturo in Bellini's I puritani in Bologna, Italy, in February 1997. His big break came in the spring of 1997 in Genoa when he stepped in for Kraus again, this time in the lead role in Massenet's Werther. The entire Italian press covered this premiere and raved about the new tenor. He got the attention of Sony Classical and they signed him to an exclusive recording contract, producing six CDs in six years. He sang his first performance as the Duke of Mantua in Verdi's Rigoletto in Trieste, Italy (role and house debut) in 1997. Multiple productions of Rigoletto followed over the next three years in Toulouse, Verona, Buenos Aires, Brussels (a June 1999 performance at the Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie that was televised live throughout Europe), New York, and Paris. In 1997, London's Royal Opera House (sometimes referred to as Covent Garden, due to its location) was refurbished and performances were held at the Royal Albert Hall during construction. As a result, Álvarez made his London debut in a concert of Donizetti's Linda di Chamounix at the Royal Albert Hall in November of that year. His "debut proper" at the Royal Opera House of London was in September, 2000 in Offenbach's Les contes d'Hoffmann. Álvarez performs in London often and has remarked that the city holds a special place in his heart because, "that is the first place that audiences shouted out my name." Álvarez traveled to Buenos Aires in the spring of 1999 for production of the award-winning documentary film, Marcelo Álvarez In Search of Gardel. The film chronicles the making of Álvarez's CD, Marcelo Álvarez Sings Gardel, which offers a modern audience the most famous tangos, while honoring the spirit and style of legendary tanguero Carlos Gardel. The songs on this album, originally recorded by Gardel before his early death in 1935, are among the oldest tangos and have a classical foundation, having been inspired by the music of Chopin, Brahms and Schumann. 2000–2015 The second decade of Álvarez's career saw continued upward momentum, both in the number of new roles added and in the types of projects in which he engaged. The majority of his professional recordings were made during this time and he continued in his demanding live performance schedule. He debuted as Werther in Massenet's Werther in 1997, and then performed that role in a total of eight opera houses, including London, Vienna, and Munich, over the next nine years. Another role that he performed widely was Edgardo in Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor, appearing in ten opera houses in just six years. Major houses for this role included the Met, the Lyric Opera of Chicago, the Zurich Opera House, and the National Theatre Munich. In January 2001, Álvarez sang his first American recital at the Folly Theater in Kansas City presented by the Harriman-Jewell Series which is noteworthy for introducing new singing talent to North America. Italian tenor Luciano Pavarotti made his professional recital debut on the Series in 1973, followed by other notable singers making their U.S. recital debuts over the years, including Mexican Francisco Araiza (1982), Canadian Ben Heppner (1997), Peruvian Juan Diego Flórez (2002), and Italian Salvatore Licitra(2005). In the autumn of 2001, Álvarez portrayed the Duke in Scottish director David McVicar's new production of Rigoletto at the Royal Opera House in London with Italian baritone Paolo Gavanelli and German soprano Christine Schäfer. He performed in another McVicar production in 2009, this time in Verdi's Il trovatore at the Met with Sondra Radvanovsky, Dmitri Hvorostovsky and Dolora Zajick. Álvarez made his house debut at Milan's Teatro alla Scala in a 1998 production of Linda di Chamounix with American soprano Laura Claycomb, who was also making her La Scala debut. In January 2002, he sang Alfredo in La traviata with Inva Mula in the inaugural performance of the new Teatro degli Arcimboldi in Milan, which was the temporary home for La Scala until 2004. He had additional performances at the Arcimboldi in 2002 and 2003 in role debuts of Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia and Puccini's La bohème. That production of La bohème with Cristina Gallardo-Domas was by Franco Zeffirelli and had originally been created for Luciano Pavarotti. In June 2003, Álvarez and Italian tenor Salvatore Licitra released Duetto, a collection of romantic ballads based on opera arias and other classical melodies, some of which were composed specifically for them to sing. They gave a concert of selections from Duetto at the Roman Colosseum, which was broadcast in the U.S. on PBS public television. Later that summer, Álvarez and Licitra went to New York and gave a concert-in-the-park of Duetto selections in New York's Central Park, to an audience of over 50,000 people. Álvarez has performed with some of the world's most celebrated sopranos. In addition to those already mentioned, he performed opposite American soprano Renée Fleming in 2001 in Massenet's Manon at the L’Opéra de la Bastille in Paris and at the Met in 2005. In 2002, he sang in Lucie de Lammermoor with Italian soprano Patrizia Ciofi at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, a French version that Donizetti created especially for Paris audiences. And in 2003, he performed with highly regarded Slovak soprano Edita Gruberova in Munich in Lucia di Lammermoor. 2006 marked the beginning of Álvarez's transition into a more dramatic lirico spinto repertoire and he has had some of his best success with it. He debuted in the role of Manrico in Verdi's Il trovatore in Parma, Italy, a venue that is notoriously critical of tenors. Álvarez happily reports that the audience took home their tomatoes intact, choosing not to throw them at him when he gave a performance that met their high standards. The following month he made his role debut as Cavaradossi in Puccini's Tosca at the Royal Opera House in London, performing with Romanian soprano Angela Gheorghiu and Welsh bass-baritone Bryn Terfel. He continued in the role of Cavaradossi at the Arena di Verona with Fiorenza Cedolins and bass-baritone Ruggero Raimondi in a new large-scale production by Argentine director Hugo de Ana. 2008 saw multiple productions of Bizet's Carmen as Álvarez brought his Don José to the Met with Russian mezzo-soprano Olga Borodina as Carmen; the Royal Opera House in London with Nancy Fabiola Herrera of Spain; with Russia's Julia Gertseva in Florence at the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, and with France's Béatrice Uria-Monzon in Orange, France. His original debut as Rodolfo in Verdi's Luisa Miller was in London in 2003, with further performances over the next five years in Madrid, Parma and Valencia, Spain in 2008 with Greek soprano Alexia Voulgaridou. Álvarez opened the 2009-2010 season of the Met as Cavaradossi in Puccini's Tosca, co-starring with soprano Karita Mattila and baritone George Gagnidze. It was a controversial new production by Swiss director Luc Bondy, replacing Franco Zeffirelli's lavish production that the Met had used for 24 years. The premiere performance was broadcast at no charge to over 3,000 people on a giant outdoor screen in Lincoln Center's Josie Robertson Plaza and on multiple screens in New York's Times Square for over 2,000 people. A later performance was broadcast in October as part of the Met's HD series, with distribution throughout the United States and 39 other countries. In 2011, Álvarez appeared at the Met as Manrico in Il trovatore (also transmitted in HD). He debuted as Don Alvaro in La forza del destino in Paris in November of that year. Then in 2012 Álvarez performed his 10th role at the Met, Radames in Verdi's Aida, with Violeta Urmana. October 11, 2015 marked Álvarez's first appearance on the West coast of the United States, between performances in Turandot at New York City's Metropolitan Opera House. He performed a solo concert near Los Angeles on the Broad Stage at the Santa Monica College Performing Arts Center. This performance was part of the Celebrity Opera Recitals program funded by the Lloyd E. Rigler – Lawrence E. Deutsch Foundation, known for generous gifts and support of classical music and opera, notably the creation of the Classic Art Showcase, which is available 24 hours a day on more than 500 channels in the United States, as well as online at ClassicArtsShowcase.org . Metropolitan Opera Live in HD Performances In August 2006, the Metropolitan Opera in New York City brought in its new general manager, Peter Gelb. He had a vision for expanding audiences for the opera via multiple platforms, including the bold concept of broadcasting live performances in high-definition video to theaters and venues throughout the world. The first transmission of these live Saturday matinée performances was a condensed English-language version of Mozart's The Magic Flute on December 30, 2006. These broadcasts are part of the Met's outreach to new audiences and have become increasingly successful each year, with almost 2,000 screens in over 60 countries broadcasting as of 2013. Marcelo Álvarez has appeared in several HD Live performances, listed below: Complete Repertoire Despite a relatively late start singing opera professionally at age 32, Álvarez has been committed to cultivating his career carefully, both in the types of roles he takes on and the progression of styles in which he engages. He puts a high priority on maintaining the principles of bel canto – a smooth vocal line, volume modulations, and vocal expression of emotions - all while preserving the tonal quality of the voice. Discography (CD) Bel Canto, 1998, Sony Classical. Italian arias from the works of Verdi, Donizetti and Bellini Berlin Gala, 1999, Polygram Records. Berlin Gala concert of December 1998 with Mirella Freni, Simon Keenlyside, Christine Schäfer Marcelo Álvarez Sings Gardel, 2000, Sony Classical. Selections of Carlos Gardel's tangos, including a digitally-mastered duet of Álvarez singing with a 1934 recording of Carlos Gardel French Arias, 2001, Sony Classical. French arias from the works of Massenet, Offenbach, Donizetti, Gounod, Verdi, Meyerbeer, and Rossini Duetto performed with Salvatore Licitra, 2003, Sony Classical. Original works composed for Álvarez and Licitra as well as variations on classical compositions and arias Manon – Massenet, 2003, Sony Classical. Performance of July 2001 by the Opéra National de Paris at Théâtre de la Bastille with Renée Fleming The Tenor's Passion, 2004, Sony Classical. Italian and French masterpieces Lucia di Lammermoor – Donizetti, 2005, La Voce, Inc. Performance of August 2004 in Tokyo, with Mariella Devia and Renato Bruson Festliche Operngala, 2005, RCA. Deutschen Oper concert benefit for AIDS research, Berlin, with Lucia Aliberti, Maria Bayo Marcelo Álvarez: The Verdi Tenor, 2009, Decca. Eighteen arias, including "Celeste Aida", "Di quella pira" from Il trovatore, and Otello's "Niun mi tema" Marcelo Álvarez: Tenorissimo!, 2010, Sony Classical. Seventeen arias collected from previous recordings of works including Puccini's "La bohème" and "Tosca", and Umberto Giordano's "Andrea Chénier" Adriana Lecouvreur - Cilea, 2011, Dynamic. Performance of July 2009 in Turino, Italy with Micaela Carosi and Marianne Cornetti Marcelo Álvarez: 20 Years on the Opera Stage, 2014, Delos. St. Petersburg State Symphony Orchestra, Constantine Orbellian, conductor. Fifteen selections, including previously unrecorded arias Vesti la giubba from Leoncavallo's "Pagliacci" as well as Puccini's "Turandot" and "La fanciulla del west" Filmography (DVD and/or Blu-ray) Marcelo Álvarez In Search of Gardel, 2000, Bullfrog Films. Documentary film about the life of Carlos Gardel and the making of the album, Marcelo Álvarez Sings Gardel Songs of Love & Desire, 2002, TDK. Berlin Gala concert of December 1998 with Mirella Freni, Christine Schäfer, Simon Keenlyside Verdi Gala, 2002, TDK. Concert of March 2001 at the Teatro Padiglione Palacassa in Parma, Italy with Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, and José Cura Rigoletto – Verdi, 2002, BBC Opus Arte. Performance of September 2001 at the Royal Opera House, London with Paolo Gavanelli, Christine Schäfer Manon – Massenet, 2003, TDK. Performance of July 2001 by the Opéra National de Paris at Théâtre de la Bastille with Renée Fleming Duetto, 2003, Sony Classical. Performance with Salvatore Licitra plus behind-the-scenes extras from a concert at the Colosseum in Rome, June 2003 Lucia di Lammermoor – Donizetti, 2004, TDK. Performance of June 2003 in Genoa with Stefania Bonfadelli and Roberto Frontali La Bohème – Puccini, 2004, TDK. Performance of February 2003 at the Teatro degli Arcimboldi (La Scala ensemble), Milan with Cristina Gallardo-Domas, Hei-Kyung Hong, Roberto Servile Lucia di Lammermoor – Donizetti, 2005, La Voce, Inc. Performance of August 2004 in Tokyo with Mariella Devia and Renato Bruson, includes interviews in Italian Giuseppe Verdi's Rigoletto Story, 2005, Roadhouse Movie. Performance of August 2002 in Siena, Italy with Roberto Servile and Inva Mula Mariella Devia & Marcelo Álvarez, 2005, La Voce, Inc. Concert of August 2004 in Tokyo Werther – Massenet, 2005, TDK. Performance of February 2005 at the Vienna State Opera with Elīna Garanča, includes interview and Opernball excerpts Festliche Operngala, 2005, United Motion. Deutschen Oper concert benefit for AIDS research, November 2005, Berlin with Lucia Aliberti and Maria Bayo DVD Sampler Opera ‘06, 2006, TDK. Selections featuring Álvarez, Renée Fleming, Karita Mattila, and Plácido Domingo Rigoletto – Verdi, 2006, TDK. Performance of December 2004 at the Liceu in Barcelona, Spain with Carlos Alvarez and Inva Mula Tosca – Puccini, 2007, TDK. Performance of July 2006 at Arena di Verona with Fiorenza Cedolins and Ruggero Raimondi Un ballo in maschera - Verdi, 2010, Opus Arte. Performance of September 2008 at the Teatro Real in Madrid, Spain with Violeta Urmana, Marco Vratogna, and Elena Zaremba. Available in DVD and Blu-ray disc. Adriana Lecouvreur – Cilea, 2010, Arthaus Musik. Performance of June 2009 at the Teatro Regio in Turin with Micaela Carosi and Marianne Cornetti Tosca - Puccini, 2010, Virgin Classics. Live performance from the Met in New York City with Karita Mattila and George Gagnidze; Joseph Colaneri - conductor Il trovatore - Verdi, 2012, Deutsche Grammophon. Live performance from the Met with Sondra Radvanovsky, Dolora Zajick, and Dmitri Hvorostovsky; Marco Armiliato - conductor Un Ballo in Maschera - Verdi, 2013, Deutsche Grammophon. Live performance from the Met with Dmitri Hvorostovsky, Sondra Radvanovsky and Stephanie Blythe; Fabio Luisi - Conductor Verdi Box Set: Falstaff, Rigoletto, Il trovatore, 2012, BBC Opus Arte. Director David McVicar at the Royal Opera House with Dmitri Hvorostovsky, Sondra Radvanovsky, Paolo Gavanelli and Christine Schäfer Luisa Miller - Verdi, 2012, Unitel Classica. Teatro Regio di Parma with Fiorenza Cedolins and Leo Nucci Awards 1995 – Winner, regional voice competition in Pavia, Italy 1995 - Second prize, inaugural Leyla Gencer Voice Competition in Istanbul, Turkey 2000 – Gold Camera Award, 33rd Annual International Film and Video Festival 2000 – Honorable mention, Columbus International Film and Video Festival 2000 – Singer of The Year, Echo Klassik (German Audioworks Cultural Institute) 2002 – Singer of The Year, Echo Klassik 2003 – Best Tenor of The Year, 2002, as voted by readers of Italian L’Opera magazine 2007 – La Martesana Opera Award, presented by OperaClick and Associazione Musicale Harmonia References External links Playlist of Marcelo Álvarez videos of concerts and opera on YouTube.com Leyla Gencer Voice Competition Marcelo Álvarez official site 1962 births Living people 20th-century Argentine male opera singers Argentine operatic tenors Musicians from Córdoba, Argentina 21st-century Argentine male opera singers
4904012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takhli%20Royal%20Thai%20Air%20Force%20Base	Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base	Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base is a Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) facility in central Thailand, approximately 144 miles (240 km) northwest of Bangkok in Takhli District, Nakhon Sawan Province. Units Takhli is the home of the Royal Thai Air Force Wing 4, 3d Air Division. Squadrons assigned are: 401 Light Attack Squadron, flying T-50 TH Golden Eagle 402 Reconnaissance Squadron, flying DA 42 MPP and Aerostar UAV Dominator UAV 403 Fighter Squadron, flying F-16A/B MLU Fighting Falcon History Takhli RTAFB was established in the 1950s. In the late 1950s, the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) used Takhli as operating base for CIA resupply of Tibetan freedom fighters. CIA-operated C-130A Hercules transports flew men and supplies over Indian airspace, with the consent of Prime Minister Nehru, for parachute drops into Communist Chinese-occupied Tibet. Political considerations with regards to Communist forces engaging in a civil war inside Laos and fears of the civil war spreading into Thailand led the Thai government to allow the United States to covertly use five Thai bases beginning in 1961 for the air defense of Thailand and to fly reconnaissance flights over Laos. Under Thailand's "gentleman's agreement" with the United States, RTAF bases used by the USAF were commanded by Thai officers. Thai air police controlled access to the bases, along with USAF Security Police, who assisted them in base defense using sentry dogs, observation towers, and machine gun bunkers. All USAF personnel were fully armed after 1965. The USAF airmen at Takhli were under the command of the United States Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). Takhli was the location for TACAN station Channel 43 and was referenced by that identifier in voice communications during air missions. The APO for Takhli was APO San Francisco, 96273 United States Advisory Forces The initial squadrons and units deployed to Takhli were placed under the command and control of the Thirteenth Air Force, headquartered at Clark Air Base in the Philippines. Thailand-based aircraft flew missions mostly into Laos until the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which expanded the air war into North Vietnam. In 1962, the U.S. Military Assistance Group in South Vietnam was upgraded to Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), a promotion which gave it authority to command combat troops. Shortly thereafter, the Military Assistance Command, Thailand (MACT) was set up with a similar level of authority in order to aid Thailand in resisting communist aggression and subversion. The USAF component of the U.S. Pacific Command was PACAF. Seventh Air Force, another Numbered Air Force of PACAF was headquartered at Tan Son Nhut Air Base, South Vietnam, although the Seventh controlled many units based in Thailand. Thai sensitivities about units based in Thailand reporting to a headquarters in South Vietnam caused a shift whereby the Seventh Air Force was ostensibly subordinate to Thirteenth Air Force for administrative matters (and therefore referred to as Seventh/Thirteenth Air Force). The commander, Seventh Air Force, played a dual role as MACV's deputy for air operations. In July 1962, the 6011th Air Base Squadron was organized, the first "host" unit at Takhli RTAFB. F-100 Super Sabre deployments The first USAF personnel began arriving at Takhli RTAFB on 10 February 1961 when the 27th Tactical Fighter Wing (TFW) from Cannon AFB, New Mexico began deploying F-100D Super Sabres to the base to attack the Pathet Lao who were overrunning most of northwestern Laos. At Takhli, base support for the rotating Tactical Air Command (TAC) F-100 squadrons was provided by the 6011th ABS. In an organizational change, the 331st Air Base Squadron replaced the 6011th ABS at Takhli in July 1963 as the host unit at Takhli. The 331st ABS came under the command and control of 35th Tactical Group at Don Muang Royal Thai Air Force Base, near Bangkok. The 27th TFW kept a rotational Temporary duty assignment (TDY) of three squadrons of F-100s in Takhli until November 1965 when F-105 Thunderchiefs began to arrive on a permanent basis. During February 1963, the rotational squadrons of F-100s from Cannon was reduced to six aircraft, with the deployments from Cannon ending in March 1964 and the squadrons deploying instead to Da Nang Air Base in South Vietnam. In response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident 10 F-100s from the 510th Tactical Fighter Squadron of the 405th Fighter Wing at Clark Air Base were deployed to Takhli. The first recorded combat loss was an F-100D (56–3085), shot down on 18 August 1964 over Laos. The Clark F-100s remained at Takhli until 20 August 1965 on a rotating basis. F-100 Super Sabre squadrons deployed to Takhli were: 522d Tactical Fighter Squadron (27th TFW) Deployed: 13 February-c. 7 March 1961; 5 February-15 June 1962; 12 December 1962-c. 15 February 1963; 16 March-6 May 1964; 8 August-15 November 1964; 15 August-25 November 1965 523d Tactical Fighter Squadron (27th TFW) Deployed: 5 September-20 November 1961; 12 October 1962-c. 15 January 1963; 17 September-20 November 1963; 12 June-4 September 1964; 22 March-30 June 1965 524th Tactical Fighter Squadron (27th TFW) Deployed: 10 February-16 June 1961; 30 October-14 November 1961; 9 June-c. 27 June 1963; 21 January-19 March 1964; 1 December 1964 – 28 March 1965 510th Tactical Fighter Squadron (405th TFW) Deployed: 11 May – 8 June 1962 In November 1965 the last rotating F-100 squadron departed Takhli, to be replaced by the F-105D Thunderchief. F-105 Thunderchief deployments In May 1964 Takhli became a forward deployment base for rotational F-105 Thunderchief squadrons. The 35th Tactical Fighter Squadron was deployed to Takhli from Yokota AB, between May 1964 – June 1964 and between 26 August–28 October 1965. The 80th Tactical Fighter Squadron, deployed to Takhli between 26 June–26 August 1965 from the 6441st TFW, at Yokota AB, Japan. Tactical Air Command began deploying F-105 squadrons in March 1965 as follows: 563d Tactical Fighter Squadron 7 April 1965 – August 1965 562d Tactical Fighter Squadron August 1965 – Dec 1965 334th Tactical Fighter Squadron August 1965 – February 1966 335th Tactical Fighter Squadron November 1965 – December 1966 On 2 March 1965 Takhli-based F-105s participated in the first airstrike of Operation Rolling Thunder. In May 1965 the 6441st TFW (Provisional) became the host unit at Takhli. On 8 May the 6235th Combat Support Group was organized at Takhli. On 8 July 1965 the 6235th Tactical Fighter Wing was activated to join the 6441st TFW at Takhli. The F-105 was destined to become a major participant in the war in Vietnam, and the primary aircraft flown from Takhli during the Vietnam War. The permanent assignment of the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing to Takhli in December 1965 ended the temporary squadron rotations from continental US bases. On 31 October 1965 Takhli-based F-105s conducted a joint operation with the US Navy to attack North Vietnamese surface-to-air missile (SAM) sites. A specially equipped Navy A-4E Skyhawk accompanied a group of F-105s on an airstrike near Kép. The A-4 detected the Fan Song radar and then observed the launch of SA-2 SAMs nearby. The F-105s attacked the launch site, while the A-4 attacked the radar site, being shot down in the process. More Navy jets attacked both sites and a third launch site. Air refueling mission In order to support the buildup of US airpower in Southeast Asia as a result of the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, in early August 1964, 8 KB-50Js of Detachment 1, 421st Air Refueling Squadron, was deployed at Takhli from Yokota AB, Japan. The 421st stayed at Takhli until 15 January 1965 when it was inactivated. The aerial refueling mission was taken over by a detachment of the 4252d Strategic Wing from Misawa Air Base with KC-135s replacing the KB-50s. In September 1965, increasing demands for aerial refueling in Southeast Asia led to the deployment of Strategic Air Command (SAC) KC-135 tankers to Takhli under the designation of King Cobra to supplement those at Don Muang RTAFB in refuelling the Thai-based fighters. In January 1967, the SAC 4258th Strategic Wing assumed full responsibility for the Takhli KC-135 tankers formerly belonging to the 4252d SW at Kadena AB, Okinawa. At years end, the tanker force numbered 5 at Takhli. In February 1968, the KC-135s were transferred to Ching Chuan Kang Air Base Taiwan. Air rescue In early August Detachment 4, 36th Air Rescue Squadron equipped with HH-43Bs deployed to Korat on TDY from Osan Air Base, South Korea to provide base search and rescue. In November the Detachment returned to Osan AB and was replaced with HH-43Bs transferred from Bien Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam. In mid-1965 the rescue detachment was redesignated Detachment 2, 38th Air Rescue Squadron. Airlift In June 1965 a TDY unit of 2 C-130s from E Flight, 21st Troop Carrier Squadron began airlift operations from Takhli into Long Tieng, Laos in support of the CIA and the army of Major General Vang Pao. The demand for flights increased with daily flights into various locations in Laos by 1967. 355th Tactical Fighter Wing On 8 November 1965 the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing made a permanent change of station from McConnell AFB to Takhli without personnel or equipment as the host unit at the base. The provisional 6235th TFW was inactivated and the equipment and personnel at Takhli were absorbed into the new wing structure. Previously, all of the 355th's squadrons at McConnell had been deployed to various bases in Southeast Asia, two of which were reassigned to Takhli (357th, 354th TFS) and brought back under its control. Squadrons of the 355th were: 333d Tactical Fighter Squadron: 8 December 1965 – 15 October 1970 F-105D/F (RK; reassigned from 4485th Composite Wing, Eglin AFB, Florida) 354th Tactical Fighter Squadron: 28 November 1965 – 10 December 1970 F-105D/F (RM; reassigned from 8th TFW, Kadena AB, Okinawa) 357th Tactical Fighter Squadron: 29 January 1966 – 10 December 1970 F-105D/F/G (RU; reassigned from 6234th TFW, Korat RTAFB) The rotational TDY 334th TFS and 335th TFS squadrons transferred their aircraft to the newly assigned permanent squadrons at Takhli. Operation Rolling Thunder Under Operation Rolling Thunder the 355th TFW participated in major strikes against North Vietnamese logistics. During this time, the wing flew 11,892 sorties, downed 2 MiGs, and damaged 8 more. Although the F-105 was not designed to be primarily a dogfighter, the aircraft was successful in downing at least 27.5 confirmed North Vietnamese MiGs in aerial combat. On 10 March 1967 Air Force Captain Max C. Brestel, flying from Takhli, became the only F-105 pilot to shoot down two MiGs during the Vietnam War. On 10 March 1967 355th TFW F-105s took part in the first attacks on the Thái Nguyên ironworks, Captain Merlyn H. Dethlefsen won the Medal of Honor for actions including destroying two SAM sites during a mission from Takhli. His back-seater, Captain Kevin A. Gilroy was awarded the Air Force Cross for this mission. 4 355th TFW F-105s were shot down in attacks on the ironworks on 10 and 11 March. On 19 April 1967, Major Leo K. Thorsness earned the Congressional Medal of Honor on another F-105 mission from Takhli. Thorsness destroyed one SAM site with a missile, bombed another, shot down a MiG, damaged another, and repeatedly chased or lured other MiGs away from an ongoing rescue mission for his wingman, who had been shot down by AAA fire. Thorsness' back-seater, Captain Harold E. Johnson, was awarded the Air Force Cross for the mission. Less than two weeks after this mission, the two were shot down and became prisoners of war. In May 1967, the 355th TFW received its first Presidential Unit Citation for actions from 1 January 1966 to 10 October 1966. On 2 June 1967 355th TFW F-105s attacked a AAA site on the coast near Haiphong, during this attack the Soviet ship Turkestan was damaged and the Soviets protested the attack. The deputy commander of the 355th TFW Colonel Jacksel M. Broughton destroyed the F-105 gun-camera film and was court-martialed but ultimately acquitted. On 11 August 1967, the 355th and 388th Tactical Fighter Wing conducted a raid on the Paul Doumer railroad and highway bridge in Hanoi. Thirty-six strike aircraft led by the 355th dropped 94 tons of bombs and destroyed one span of the bridge and part of the highway. On 8 October 1967, F-105s from the 355th TFW attacked and destroyed, on the ground, 2 Mil Mi-6 and 4 Mil Mi-4 Soviet-built helicopters. On 24 October, the 355th led the first strike against the Phúc Yên Air Base north of Hanoi leaving it unserviceable. On 14 & 15 December the wing again attacked the Paul Doumer Bridge destroying 7 spans of the bridge. In November 1967, Gerald Gustafson received the Air Force Cross after he refused to leave his comrade until other escort aircraft could be vectored in to give the wounded pilot assistance in reaching his home base safely. In January 1970, the 355th TFW received its 2nd Presidential Unit Citation for actions from 11–12 August 1967 and 24–28 October 1967. In July, the 355th TFW received its record 3rd Presidential Unit Citation for actions from 12 April 1968 through 30 April 1969. During this time frame, the wing dropped 32,000 tons of ordnance on 2,100 targets while flying 17,000 combat sorties. Wild Weasels The first "Wild Weasel" aircraft came to Takhli in 1966. The Wild Weasel concept was originally proposed in 1965 as a method of countering the increasing North Vietnamese SAM threat, using volunteer crews. The mission of the Wild Weasels was to eliminate surface-to-air missile sites in North Vietnam. This nickname refers to a mission which was carried out by a number of different aircraft types over the years. The first at Takhli were F-100 Super Sabres, which like all Wild Weasels had the job of baiting SAM sites to fire at them. Then all they had to do was evade the missile and lead an attack on the radar facility that guided the SAMs. Sometimes they, or the strike aircraft with them, would fire a radar-seeking AGM-45 Shrike missile which followed the SAM site's radar beam right back down to the transmitting antenna. When these relatively early-technology missiles missed, as often happened, or when the aircraft ran out of missiles, Wild Weasels would attack SAM sites with bombs or their M61 Vulcan 20mm cannon. The F-105G was the designation given to Wild Weasel F-105Fs which were fitted with greatly improved avionics. The designation EF-105F was temporarily applied to these aircraft, but their designation was eventually changed to F-105G. The first F-105Gs went to the 357th TFS at Tahkli RTAFB during the second half of 1967. The electronic warfare officer (EWO) in an F-105G ran all the new electronic equipment for locating SAM or anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) radars, warning of SAM launches, and sending Shrike missiles down the radar beams. The 12th Tactical Fighter Squadron of the 18th Tactical Fighter Wing, which had been detached to Korat RTAFB from Okinawa, was also equipped with the F-105G and was temporarily reassigned to Takhli in June 1967. A third Wild Weasel squadron, the 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron was assigned to Takhli from 10 October 1969 to 15 March 1971. The detachment from the 12th TFS returned to its main unit at Korat and the 44th TFS moved to Korat when the decision was made to consolidate the units of the Wild Weasel mission. B-66 Destroyer Operations As part of the electronic countermeasure (ECM) weaponry that the USAF employed against North Vietnamese air defenses, variants of the Douglas B-66 were adapted to serve in the electronic countermeasures role as radar jamming aircraft. All of the bombing equipment was removed and replaced by electronic jamming equipment and chaff dispensing pods were carried. They would join strike aircraft during their missions over North Vietnam to jam enemy radar installations. By June 1965 4 RB-66Bs and 4 EB-66Cs were based at Takhli as part of the 9th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron. On 8 September 1965 3 more EB-66Cs were deployed to Takhli from Shaw Air Force Base South Carolina. On 21 October 5 EB-66Cs of the 25th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron formerly at Chambley-Bussieres Air Base, France arrived at Takhli. In late November 1965, the 41st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron moved to Takhli taking over from the 9th TRS which was discontinued. During January 1966 the 42d Electronic Countermeasures Squadron arrived from flying RB-66C and WB-66s variants of the B-66 on photo reconnaissance and electronic warfare missions. Operation Ranch Hand The herbicide spraying missions began in Vietnam in 1961, and it has recently been revealed that some took place from Thai bases, including Takhli, as early as 1966. This pre-dates the USAF receiving permission to use herbicides for clearing areas on and around Thai bases for area and perimeter defense, which was given in 1969. The missions in 1966 defoliated areas surrounding parts of the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos, near the Vietnam border and north of the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone and had the approval of both the Thai and Laotian governments. C-123 aircraft were used on the missions. The missions were extensive enough to have required pre-positioning or maintaining stocks of the herbicides. F-111A Combat Lancer In early 1968, the USAF decided to rush a small detachment of F-111As to Southeast Asia for combat test and evaluation under a program known as Combat Lancer. Six F-111As of the 428th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 474th Tactical Fighter Wing were allocated to the Combat Lancer program, and departed Nellis AFB for Takhli on 15 March 1968. By the end of that month, 55 night missions had been flown against targets in North Vietnam, but two aircraft had been lost. 66–0022 had been lost on 28 March, and 66-0017 on 30 March. Replacement aircraft had left Nellis, but the loss of a third F-111A (66-0024) on 22 April halted F-111A combat operations. However, the aircraft remained poised for combat, but they saw little action before their return to the United States in November. The cause of the first two losses continues to be unknown as the wreckages have never been recovered. It turned out that the third loss on 22 April was not due to enemy action, but was traced to a failure of a hydraulic control-valve rod for the horizontal stabilizer which caused the aircraft to pitch up uncontrollably. Further inspection of the remaining fleet of F-111As revealed 42 aircraft with the same potential failures. It is speculated that this failure could also have contributed to the two earlier losses had the failure caused a pitch down while at low altitude. Son Tay Raid From 10 November 1970, Special Forces and Air Force Special Operations personnel of the Joint Contingency Task Group and two MC-130 Combat Talon aircraft staged at Takhli in preparation for Operation Ivory Coast, the attempt to rescue US prisoners of war (POWs) from the Son Tay prison camp in North Vietnam. The raiders arrived at Takhli on 18 November and on 20 November, they took off in a C-130 bound for Udorn RTAFB. There they boarded helicopters for the mission. Everything about this daring, complex and innovative mission worked, except that when they hit the prison camp the prisoners had already been moved elsewhere. 1971 closure Takhli began closing down in late 1969, as a part of a general withdrawal of American forces from Southeast Asia. The 41st TRS was inactivated 31 October 1969. The 42d ECS squadron was transferred to Korat in August 1970. On 6 October 1970 the wing's last F-105 combat mission of the war, an airstrike in Laos, was flown. The 357th and 333d TFSs (F-105) were reassigned to the 23d Tactical Fighter Wing at McConnell Air Force Base, Kansas. The 44th TFS was reassigned to the 18th Tactical Fighter Wing at Kadena AB, Okinawa. The 354th TFS was inactivated in place, then reactivated without equipment or personnel at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. The 355 TFW ceased combat operations at Takhli on 7 October 1970, and on the 12th, the wing retired its colors with a 12-aircraft flyover of F-105s. With the ending of F-105 operations, Detachment 2, 38th Air Rescue Squadron inactivated on 15 November 1970. The last USAF personnel left Takhli RTAFB by April 1971. 1972 Reopening On 30 March 1972, the North Vietnamese launched their Easter Offensive, a conventional invasion of South Vietnam. In response, the USAF launched Operation Freedom Train, later redesignated Operation Linebacker, the first sustained bombing of North Vietnam by the US since November 1968. On 6 May the U.S. began reopening the base to support operations. Upon re-opening the base for Linebacker, most of the barracks had been stripped of all plumbing and electrical fixtures after the 1970 closing. Most SAC enlisted personnel were housed in the recovered dorms with one shower and one toilet set up by the "Red Horse" civil engineer teams and a few operating light bulbs in the large open-bay dorms. TAC enlisted personnel lived in a large "tent city" made up of line after line of General Purpose medium and large canvas tents. 49th Tactical Fighter Wing The USAF reacted to the invasion quickly and with many resources. One of these was Operation Constant Guard III, the largest movement that TAC had ever performed. In nine days, they deployed 72 F-4D Phantom IIs of the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing from Holloman AFB, New Mexico, to Takhli. The move included more than 4,000 personnel and 1,600 tons of cargo. On 5 May about 35 members of an PACAF advance party returned to Takhli to prepare the facility for re-opening and activation. The advance party found that it was a 4-day national holiday in Thailand and that the RTAF base commander was unaware of the US redeployment, nevertheless they were able to ready the base facilities for the arrival of the first fighter units on 10 May. On 10 May the first personnel from Holloman began to arrive and conducted their first strikes the following day. Squadrons deployed to Takhli were: 7th Tactical Fighter Squadron 8th Tactical Fighter Squadron 9th Tactical Fighter Squadron 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron Along with the F-4s, other units that were deployed to Takhli were: 11th Air Refueling Squadron (KC-135) from Altus AFB, Oklahoma 4th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E) from Da Nang AB, South Vietnam. 8th Tactical Fighter Wing’s AC-130 Spectre gunships from Ubon RTAFB, which became the Det 1, 16th Special Operations Squadron. 92d Air Refueling Squadron (KC-135) from Fairchild AFB, Washington. During this deployment the 49th flew more than 21,000 combat hours over just about every battle zone from An Loc to Hanoi. During five months of combat, the wing did not lose any aircraft or personnel. The unit received an Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat "V" Device for its participation. 366th Tactical Fighter Wing On 30 June the 366th Tactical Fighter Wing was reassigned to Takhli from Da Nang AB, South Vietnam, taking over host unit responsibilities from the 49th TFW. Its operational squadrons were: 4th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E) 421st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E) From Takhli 366th TFW aircrews flew air superiority missions over Vietnam. In late October the squadrons of the Holloman-based 49th TFW returned home. The Da Nang-based 4th and 421st TFSs were transferred to the 432 Tactical Reconnaissance Wing at Udon RTAFB on 31 October 1972. The 366th TFW was inactivated in place on 31 October 1972, being reactivated the same day without personnel or equipment at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho. 474th Tactical Fighter Wing With the departure of the 366th, the 474th Tactical Fighter Wing (Deployed) equipped with F-111s arrived at Takhli on TDY from Nellis AFB on 27 September 1972. The 474th TFW flew F-111As. Operational fighter squadrons of the 474th were: 428th Tactical Fighter Squadron 429th Tactical Fighter Squadron 430th Tactical Fighter Squadron Their first combat mission, started only hours after their arrival at Takhli, resulted in the disappearance of one of the aircraft and a week-long cancellation of F-111 missions. The F-111s returned to action losing a further 3 aircraft in the next 6 weeks of airstrikes. The 474th's F-111s also participated in Operation Linebacker II in December 1972 flying 154 night/single-ship sorties into the high-threat area of North Vietnam with the loss of 2 aircraft. In early 1973, with the suspension of bombing in North Vietnam and the resumption of peace negotiations, inflight refueling requirements decreased markedly. As a result, in late January 1973 many of the augmented tankers of the 11th Air Refueling Squadron and the 92nd Air Refueling Squadron returned to the US. The 430th TFS returned with the 474th TFW to Nellis AFB on 22 March 1973. 347th Tactical Fighter Wing On 30 July 1973 the TDY of the 474th TFW ended. The 428th and 429th TFS were assigned to the newly transferred 347th Tactical Fighter Wing from Mountain Home AFB which arrived on 30 July 1973. For a brief two-week period the 347th flew combat operations into Cambodia until 15 August, when the final mission of Constant Guard IV was flown. After the cease-fire, the wing was maintained in a combat-ready status for possible contingency actions. The F-111s engaged in more than 4,000 sorties with a loss of only six aircraft. During January 1974 the Secretary of Defense announced a realignment of Thailand resources, with the final pullout of air resources by the end of 1976. On 12 July the 347 TFW's F-111's and the AC-130 gunships from the 16th SOS were transferred to Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base. Detachment 10, 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group which had deployed to Takhli on reopening of the base was inactivated in July. On 31 July 1974 phase down of operations at Takhli RTAFB was completed ahead of schedule, and the base was officially returned to the Thai Government on 12 September. All remaining US personnel departed on 14 September. Thai Air Force use after 1975 After the US withdrawal from Thailand in 1976, the RTAF consolidated the equipment left by the departing USAF units in accordance with government-to-government agreements, and the RTAF assumed use of the base at Takhli. The American withdrawal had quickly revealed to the Thai government the inadequacy of its air force in the event of a conventional war in Southeast Asia. Accordingly, in the 1980s the government allotted large amounts of money for the purchase of modern aircraft and spare parts. Thirty-eight F-5E and F-5F Tiger II fighter-bombers formed the nucleus of the RTAF's defense and tactical firepower. The F-5Es were accompanied by training teams of American civilian and military technicians, who worked with members of the RTAF. From 13–17 December 1982 Commando West V was held. This marked the first visit of a PACAF tactical unit to Thailand since the early 1970s. See also United States Air Force in Thailand United States Pacific Air Forces Seventh Air Force Thirteenth Air Force References Bibliography Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM. Glasser, Jeffrey D. (1998). The Secret Vietnam War: The United States Air Force in Thailand, 1961–1975. McFarland & Company. . Martin, Patrick (1994). Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History. . USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present The Royal Thai Air Force (English Pages) Royal Thai Air Force – Overview External links Takhli Photos 72–74 www.Takhli RTAFB.org Combined Takhli RTAFB Website Takhli RTAFB Hootchs Takhli Message Board Takhli Air Base – APO 96273 Royal Thai Air Force bases Buildings and structures in Nakhon Sawan province Closed facilities of the United States Air Force in Thailand 1955 establishments in Thailand
4904102	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubon%20Royal%20Thai%20Air%20Force%20Base	Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base	Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base is a Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) facility located near the city of Ubon Ratchathani, in Ubon Ratchathani Province. It is approximately 488 km (303 miles) northeast of Bangkok. The Laos border is about directly east. The facility is also used as a civil airport. Ubon RTAFB is the home of Wing 21 of the RTAF 2nd Air Division. The RTAF 211 Squadron Eagles fly the Northrop F-5E/F Tiger II fighter aircraft from Ubon. History Ubon RTAFB was established in the 1950s. Political considerations with regards to communist forces engaging in a civil war inside Laos and fears of the civil war spreading into Thailand led the Thai government to allow the United States to covertly use five Thai bases beginning in 1961 for the air defense of Thailand and to fly reconnaissance flights over Laos. Under Thailand's "gentleman's agreement" with the United States, RTAF base used by the USAF were commanded by Thai officers. Thai air police controlled access to the bases, along with USAF Security Police, who assisted them in base defense using sentry dogs, observation towers, and machine gun bunkers. The USAF forces at Ubon were under the command of the United States Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). Ubon was the location of TACAN station Channel 51 and was referenced by that identifier in voice communications during air missions. The Army Post Office (APO) code for Ubon was "APO San Francisco 96304". Royal Australian Air Force use On 31 May 1962 the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) sent a detachment of eight CAC-27 Sabre fighters to Ubon RTAFB. This detachment was designated No. 79 Squadron. The Australian facilities were known as RAAF Ubon, and were designed and constructed by No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron. The mission of No. 79 Squadron was to assist the Thai and Laotian governments in actions against communist insurgents during the early years of the Vietnam War. With the deployment of USAF fighters to Ubon, the unit also performed joint exercises and provided air defense for the USAF attack aircraft and bombers based at Ubon. No. 79 Squadron did not, however, fly any operations over nearby Cambodia, South Vietnam, or Laos. The unit's strength during the entire period was about 150–200 men. Sir Edmund Hillary visited the base on 25 January 1967. With its CAC Sabres now obsolete and restricted from operating outside Thai airspace, the squadron was disbanded at the end of July 1968. United States Air Force use From 1965 to 1974, the base was a front-line facility of the USAF during the Vietnam War. In June 1965, the 15th Tactical Fighter Wing deployed its 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron the first F-4C Phantom II unit in Southeast Asia to Ubon where they flew combat missions to North Vietnam. On 10 July 1965, pilots of the 45th TFS were credited with the first air victory of the Vietnam War, downing two North Vietnamese MiG-17s. The 45th TFS was on Temporary duty assignment (TDY) from its permanent home at MacDill AFB, Florida. The 45th flew 1,000+ hours with 24 aircraft over North Vietnam in August 1965. It was replaced by the 47th Tactical Fighter Squadron, also equipped with F-4Cs which arrived in July and returned to the US on 27 November 1965. 8th Tactical Fighter Wing The 8th Tactical Fighter Wing The Wolfpack arrived at Ubon on 8 December 1965 from George AFB, California as part of the US deployment of forces for Operation Rolling Thunder and became the host unit. At Ubon, the 8th TFW's mission included bombardment, ground support, air defense, interdiction, and armed reconnaissance. The operational squadrons of the 8th TFW were: 433rd Tactical Fighter Squadron 8 December 1965 – 23 July 1974 (F-4C/D) 497th Tactical Fighter Squadron 8 December 1965 – 16 September 1974 (F-4C/D) 555th Tactical Fighter Squadron 25 February 1966 – 1 June 1968 (F-4C/D) 435th Tactical Fighter Squadron June 1967 – May 1968 (F-4D) deployed from 33d TFW Eglin AFB Florida. Transferred to 432d TFW at Udorn RTAFB. 25th Tactical Fighter Squadron 25 May 1968 – 5 July 1974 (F-4D) also from the 33d TFW replaced the 435th TFS No. 79 Squadron RAAF which provided top-cover for USAF aircraft whilst in Thai airspace with its CAC Sabres. Operation Rolling Thunder On 23 April 1966, the 8th TFW scored its first MiG kills of the Vietnam War, shooting down two MiG-17 fighters. By the end of June 1966, after only six months in the theater, the wing had flown more than 10,000 combat sorties, achieving a 99% sortie rate, for which they received commendations. In late December 1966 the 8th TFW commander Colonel Robin Olds developed a plan to lure North Vietnamese MiGs into combat and destroy them. Operation Bolo took place on 2 January 1967 and resulted in the loss of 7 MiG-21s for no US losses. On 10 March 1967 8th TFW F-4s took part in the first attacks on the Thái Nguyên ironworks, losing 2 F-4s to antiaircraft fire. Beginning in late May 1967, new F-4D aircraft were delivered to Ubon, re-equipping the 555th TFS. The F-4D had improved radar-bombing capabilities and could deploy the AGM-62 Walleye television-guided bomb, but replaced the AIM-9 Sidewinder with the infra-red AIM-4 Falcon which proved to be inferior. On 11 August 1967, the 8th, 355th and 388th Tactical Fighter Wings conducted a raid on the Paul Doumer railroad and highway bridge in Hanoi. Thirty-six strike aircraft dropped 94 tons of bombs and destroyed one span of the bridge and part of the highway. On 8 February 1968 8th TFW F-4s attacked Phúc Yên Air Base to attempt to destroy Il-28 bombers based there, losing 2 F-4s to antiaircraft fire in the low-level attack. Further attacks took place on 10 and 14 February with no losses and negligible results on the ground. 2 MiG-17s were shot down during the 14 February attack in the last USAF aerial victories of Operation Rolling Thunder. In May 1968, the wing was the first to use laser-guided bombs (LGBs) in combat and its Mig-Killers nickname was gradually replaced by Bridge-busters. After North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam in March 1972 during the Easter Offensive, the 8th TFW was augmented by additional F-4 units. Special operations missions From March 1966 C-130A Project Blind Bat flareships of the 315th Air Division began operations over Laos from Ubon, increasing to 6 aircraft and 12 crews before their mission was superseded by newer systems in June 1970. In April 1966 4 AC-47 Spooky gunships were deployed to Ubon for interdiction operations over Laos. LORAN-equipped 8th TFW F-4Ds began the Operation Igloo White sensor-dropping mission over the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos from February 1968 taking over this role from the more vulnerable CH-3s and OP-2E Neptunes. On 27 February 1968 the first prototype AC-130A Gunship II began operations from Ubon, destroying 9 trucks and 2 services areas in Laos on its first sortie. It remained at Ubon until 14 June when it was transferred to Tan Son Nhut Air Base. With the arrival of the 16th Special Operations Squadron (SOS) in October 1968 flying 4 AC-130 Spectre gunships and with the end of Operation Rolling Thunder in November 1968, the 8th TFW's mission turned to interdiction of supplies down the Ho Chi Minh trail. By April 1969 the 16th SOS accounted for 44 percent of all trucks destroyed in Laos while flying only 3.7 percent of the sorties. On 5 December 1969 the first AC-130 Surprise Package aircraft equipped with improved night-vision equipment and a Bofors 40 mm gun joined the 16th SOS at Ubon and began operation on 12 December. In May 1970 5 AC-130As left Ubon for conversion to Surprise Package configuration, returning in October and commencing operations in November. The 16th SOS also tested 2 Project Black Spot AC/NC-123s beginning in December 1969. The aircraft had a very long nose fairing that housed a forward-looking radar and two internal aluminum weapons dispensers for CBU bomblets but no side-firing guns. This weapon system proved less effective than the AC-130, and operations with it were discontinued in June 1970. On 22 July 1974, the 16th SOS was transferred to Korat RTAFB. Tactical bombardment missions The 13th Bombardment Squadron was deployed to Thailand and attached the 8th TFW from MacDill AFB, Florida on 1 October 1970 with a modified version of the Canberra medium bomber designated as the B-57G. Initially manufactured as B-57Bs in the early 1950s, the B-57G was fitted with a moving target radar as well as a low light level television system and a forward-looking infrared camera carried in a pod underneath the nose for use as night intruders over South Vietnam under a project known as Tropic Moon III. Operations with the B-57G continued until April 1972, when they were moved to Clark Air Base in the Philippines to make room for the deployment of F-4E squadrons arriving from the United States. The 13th BS remained but was no longer manned or equipped and was kept in a non-operational status with the 8th TFW until finally being inactivated on 24 December 1972. Operation Linebacker/Linebacker II In response to the Easter Offensive, from April 1972 F-4E squadrons temporarily deployed from the US to Ubon during the Constant Guard buildup as follows: 4th Tactical Fighter Wing, Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina 334th Tactical Fighter Squadron 11 April 1972 – 8 July 1972; 25 September 1972 – 12 March 1973 336th Tactical Fighter Squadron 12 April 1972 – 15 September 1972; 9 March 1973 – 7 September 1973 335th Tactical Fighter Squadron 8 August 1972 – 31 December 1972 31st Tactical Fighter Wing, Homestead AFB, Florida 308th Tactical Fighter Squadron 11 December 1972 – 11 January 1973 33d Tactical Fighter Wing, Eglin AFB, Florida 58th Tactical Fighter Squadron 8 June 1973 – 14 September 1973 The 334th TFS flew its first missions of Operation Freedom Train on 14 April, followed by the 366th the following day. On 13 May 1972 8th TFW F-4s equipped with laser-guided bombs succeeded in dropping a span of the Thanh Hóa Bridge which had been unscathed despite hundreds of previous attacks. On 10 June 1972 8th TFW F-4s successfully destroyed the 3 generators of the Lang Chi hydropower plant northwest of Hanoi, without damaging the dam itself. The squadrons also participated in Operation Linebacker II in December 1972, flying primarily as chaff bombers and strike escorts. In a 21 December attack an 8th TFW laser-guided bomb aimed at the Hanoi thermal power plant lost guidance and instead destroyed a Communist Party of Vietnam office building. 8th TFW decorations Presidential Unit Citation: 16 December 1966 – 2 January 1967; 1 March 1967 – 31 March 1968; 1 January–1 April 1971. Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat "V" Device: 16 December 1965 – 15 December 1966; 1 April–30 September 1968; 1 January–31 December 1970; 1 October 1971 – 31 March 1972; 1 April–22 October 1972; 18 December 1972 – 15 August 1973. Air Force Outstanding Unit Award: 12 May 1963 – 21 March 1964; 1 April 1977 – 31 March 1978; 1 June 1986 – 31 May 1988. Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm: 1 April 1966 – 28 January 1973. Attacks Ubon was attacked by sappers on 3 separate occasions during the Vietnam War period: 28 July 1969: at 1:30 a USAF Security Police dog team were wounded by 3 sappers leaving the base. At 02:00 5 explosions damaged 2 C-47s and a further 5 unexploded charges were found. 12 January 1970: at 22:30 on 11 January a Thai villager reported seeing 16 armed Vietnamese 3 km and the base was put on alert. At 02:01 a Security Policeman fired on a sapper inside the base perimeter and further sappers and Security Police joined the engagement with 5 sappers being killed. 35 satchel charges were found on the bodies. 4 June 1972: just after midnight Thai police fired on a sapper approaching the AC-130 parking area, killing him. Eight satchel charges were found on his body. The USAF Office of Special Investigations had earlier received a report that 12 Vietnamese expatriates had recently returned from North Vietnam where they had received sapper training. On 2 October 1972 36 mortar rounds were fired at the base causing no losses. Other tenant units 1982 Comm. Sq (AFCS) providing Air Traffic Control services for the Ubon tower, terminal radar approach area and enroute services for Bangkok Center. 1982 Comm, Sq. also maintained the AB Telcom and VOR/TACAN (VORTAC channel 51) equipment. In 1973 until 1974 the 1982nd Radio Maintenance section maintained the electronic sensor intrusion detection system on the perimeters of both the base and the bomb dump. It was also the only USAF base that ran opposite direction, single runway, air traffic; landing runway 23, departing runway 05. Detachment 17, 10th Weather Squadron (MAC) In mid-1965 Detachment 3, 38th Air Rescue Squadron equipped with 2 HH-43Bs deployed to Ubon to provide base search and rescue. On 1 July 1971 with the inactivation of the 38th Rescue Squadron, Detachment 3 became a detachment of the 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group. Detachment 3 was inactivated in August 1974 with the winding down of base operations. Two A-1 Skyraiders of the 1st Special Operations Squadron were usually based at Ubon to escort combat search and rescue missions over southern Laos and Cambodia. From December 1971 a detachment of 2 HH-53s from Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Navy Base were based at Ubon for combat search and rescue missions. From February to October 1967 EC-121 Warning Star aircraft of the College Eye Task Force were based at Ubon. The 222nd Tactical Fighter Squadron, RTAF, performed their mission with T-28s, C-47s and UH-34 helicopters. 1973-5 USAF withdrawal The Paris Peace Accords were signed on 27 January 1973 by the governments of North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the United States with the intent to establish peace in Vietnam. The accords effectively ended United States military operations in North and South Vietnam. Laos and Cambodia, however, were not signatories to the Paris agreement and remained in states of war. The US was helping the Royal Lao Government achieve whatever advantage possible before working out a settlement with the Pathet Lao and their allies. The USAF flew 386 combat sorties over Laos during January and 1,449 in February 1973. On 17 April, the USAF flew its last mission over Laos, attacking a handful of targets requested by the Laotian government. In Cambodia the USAF carried out a massive bombing campaign to prevent the Khmer Rouge from taking over the country. Congressional pressure in Washington grew against these bombings, and on 30 June 1973, the United States Congress passed Public law PL 93-50 and 93-52, which cut off all funds for combat in Cambodia and all of Indochina effective 15 August 1973. Air strikes by the USAF peaked just before the deadline, as the Khmer National Armed Forces engaged a force of about 10,000 Khmer Rouge encircling Phnom Penh. At 11:00 15 August 1973, the Congressionally-mandated cutoff went into effect, bringing combat activities over the skies of Cambodia to an end. The last of the Constant Guard F–4 augmentation forces were released in September 1973. In mid-1974 the wing began to lose personnel, aircraft, and units. The last scheduled F–4 training flight occurred on 16 July 1974 and on 16 September the wing and most of its components moved without personnel or equipment to Kunsan Air Base, South Korea, where the wing absorbed resources of the 3d TFW that had moved without personnel or equipment to the Philippines. On 16 September 1974 the USAF forces at Ubon were inactivated and the facility turned over to the Thai Government. On 11/12 April Ubon served as a staging base for 8 HH-53s of the 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron as they took part in Operation Eagle Pull, the evacuation of US civilians from Phnom Penh. Accidents and incidents 3 January 1968: CAC Sabre A94-986 crashed into farms on approach outside the town due to engine failure. The pilot, Pilot Officer Mark McGrath was killed in the crash and a three-year-old Thai girl named Prataisre Sangdang later died from burns sustained in the accident. Four Thai homes were destroyed. 24 May 1969: USAF AC-130A damaged by AAA fire over Laos crashed on landing with one crewman killed 7 June 1969: USAF EC-47 #43-49547 crashed into the Mun River shortly after take-off following loss of power from at least one engine. All on board survived. 9 August 1983: RTAF VC-47B L2-30/07/641 crashed on take-off. All five people on board were killed, along with four on the ground. See also United States Air Force in Thailand United States Pacific Air Forces Seventh Air Force Thirteenth Air Force References Bibliography Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM. Glasser, Jeffrey D. (1998). The Secret Vietnam War: The United States Air Force in Thailand, 1961–1975. McFarland & Company. . Martin, Patrick (1994). Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History. . USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present External links Royal Thai Air Force – Overview 8th TFW at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base 16th SOS AC-130A #54-1629 8th Tactical Fighter Wing Website Phantoms Starfighter in Vietnam Royal Thai Air Force bases Buildings and structures in Ubon Ratchathani province Closed facilities of the United States Air Force in Thailand Ubon 1955 establishments in Thailand Airports established in 1955
4904144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-Tapao%20Royal%20Thai%20Navy%20Airfield	U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield	U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield is a military airfield of the Royal Thai Navy (RTN) approximately southeast of Bangkok in the Ban Chang District of Rayong Province near Sattahip on the Gulf of Thailand. It is serves as the home of the RTN First Air Wing. Name U-Tapao () is a compound of cradle or drydock and trade winds, and derives from the site having once been a shipyard for construction of ruea-tapao (), a type of argosy resembling a Qing Dynasty junk. History In 1965 the RTN was permitted by the Council of Ministers to build a 1,200 meter long airfield near U-Tapao village, Ban Chang District, in Rayong Province. The US, seeking a Southeast Asian B-52 base, reached an agreement with the Thai government to build and operate the base in conjunction with the Royal Thai Navy. The US began construction of the runway and all facilities on 15 October 1965 and completed it on 2 June 1966. The base was administratively handed over to the RTN on 10 August 1966. The runway became operational on 6 July 1966 and U-Tapao received its first complement of United States Air Force (USAF) Strategic Air Command (SAC) KC-135 tankers in August 1966. The USAF had been flying B-52 Operation Arc Light bombing missions from Kadena Air Base on Okinawa, but Okinawa was judged to be too far from Vietnam to meet mission requirements. An optimal solution was to base the B-52s in South Vietnam or Thailand, however base security in South Vietnam was problematic. U-Tapao had an existing runway suitable for the bombers and the cost for upgrades to the base was minimal. In January 1967, negotiations between the US and Thai government started to base them at U-Tapao. The agreement, reached on 2 March 1967, allowed 15 B-52s and their support personnel to be based at U-Tapao, with the provision that missions flown from Thailand would not over fly Laos or Cambodia on their way to targets in Vietnam. The first B-52's arrived on 10 April 1967. The next day, B-52 sorties were flown from U-Tapao. By 1972 there were 54 B-52 aircraft stationed in Thailand. US use of U-Tapao during the Vietnam War Prior to 1965, the base at U-Tapao was a small RTN airfield. At Don Muang Air Base near Bangkok, the USAF had stationed KC-135 tanker aircraft to refuel combat aircraft over the skies of Indochina. Although Thailand was an active participant in the Vietnam War, with a token ground force deployed to the South Vietnam as well as involved in the largely secret civil war in Laos, the presence and the visibility of USAF aircraft near its capital city was causing a fair degree of political embarrassment for Thailand's military government. In June 1965, the B-52 was first used in the Vietnam War. B-52 aircraft from the 7th and 320th Bomb Wings were sent to bomb suspected Viet Cong enclaves in South Vietnam, the operation being supported by KC-135As stationed at Kadena AB on Okinawa. In September 1966 2 radio relay KC-135A Combat Lightning aircraft and their personnel were ordered to deploy to U-Tapao to support air operations over North Vietnam. The expansion of U-Tapao RTN airfield began in October 1965. The runway was built in eight months and the base was completed slightly more than two years later. The runway was opened on 6 July 1966 and the first aircraft to land was a Royal Thai Air Force HH-16 helicopter, then a USAF C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft. With the completion of U-Tapao, most US forces were transferred from Don Muang, and U-Tapao RTNAF became a front-line facility of the United States Air Force in Thailand from 1966 to 1975. The USAF forces at U-Tapao were under the command of the United States Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), with the Strategic Air Command (SAC) units being a tenant unit. The APO for U-Tapao was APO San Francisco, 96330 4258th Strategic Wing The 4258th Strategic Wing (SAC) was activated in June 1966 at U-Tapao under the 3rd Air Division, Andersen AFB, Guam. The wing was charged with the responsibility of supporting refueling requirements of USAF fighter aircraft in Southeast Asia, plus conducting bombing missions on a daily basis. Steadily progressing and adding to the mission, U-Tapao welcomed its first complement of KC-135 tankers in August 1966. By September, the base was supporting 15 tankers. From 1966 to 1970, 4258th wing tankers flew over 50,000 sorties from U-Tapao. The Seventh Air Force (PACAF) wanted additional B-52s missions flown in the war zone. B-52 missions from Andersen and Kadena, however, required long mission times and aerial refuelling en route. Having the aircraft based in South Vietnam made them vulnerable to attack. It was decided that, as the base at U-Tapao was being established as a KC-135 tanker base, to move them all out of Don Muang and to also base B-52s at U-Tapao where they could fly without refuelling over both North and South Vietnam. In March 1967, the Thai Government approved the stationing of B-52s at U-Tapao; on 10 April 1967, three B-52 bombers landed at U-Tapao following a bombing mission over Vietnam. The next day, B-52 operations were initiated at U-Tapao and by 15 July, B-52s were typically operating from U-Tapao. Under Operation Arc Light, wing bombers flew over 35,000 strikes over South Vietnam from 1967 to 1970. In early-October 1968, a KC-135A tanker (55-3138) lost power in the outside right engine (#4) on takeoff at U-Tapao and crashed, killing all four crew members. Known SAC units at U-Tapao U-Tapao was initially more of a forward field than it was a main operating base, with responsibility for scheduling missions still remaining at Andersen AFB. Small numbers of aircraft were drawn from each SAC B-52D unit to support the effort in Thailand. Known squadrons which deployed B-52 and KC-135 aircraft and crews to U-Tapao were: 2nd Bombardment Squadron 6th Bombardment Squadron (Heavy) 9th Bombardment Squadron 77th Bombardment Squadron 69th Bombardment Squadron 322nd Bombardment Squadron 325th Bombardment Squadron 328th Bombardment Squadron 329th Bombardment Squadron 337th Bombardment Squadron 346th Bombardment Squadron 348th Bombardment Squadron 367th Bombardment Squadron 393rd Bombardment Squadron 486th Bombardment Squadron 528th Bombardment Squadron 716th Bombardment Squadron 736th Bombardment Squadron 764th Bombardment Squadron 305th Air Refueling Squadron 911th Air Refueling Squadron 912th Air Refueling Squadron 920th Air Refueling Squadron These units deployed usually on 90 days tours. U-Tapao based B-52s flew in support of US Marines in the Battle of Khe Sanh in early-1968. Under Operation Niagara waves of six B-52s, attacking every three hours, dropped bombs as close as from the perimeter of the outpost. A total of 2,548 B-52 sorties were flown in support of the defense of Khe Sanh, dropping a total of 54,129 tonnes (59,542 tons) of bombs. U-Tapao based B-52s also bombed the southernmost part of North Vietnam near the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone. Raids in Cambodia Beginning in March 1969, B-52s were raiding not only South Vietnam and Laos, but Cambodia as well. The Nixon Administration had approved this expansion of the war not long after entering office in the spring of 1969. Cambodian bombing raids were initially kept secret, and both SAC and Defense Department records were falsified to report that the targets were in South Vietnam. The Cambodian raids were carried out at night under the direction of ground units using the MSQ-77 radar, which guided the bombers to their release points and indicated the precise moment of bomb release. This made deception easier, as even crew members aboard the bombers did not have to know what country they were bombing. However, the specific flight coordinates (longitude and latitude) of the points of bomb release were noted in the navigator's logs at the end of each mission, and a simple check of the map could tell the crews which country they were bombing. Following the opening of the Cambodian Campaign in late April 1970 the secret Menu bombings came to an end on 26 May and the USAF began overt operations against North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces in eastern Cambodia. 307th Strategic Wing On 21 January 1970, the 4258th SW was redesignated as the 307th Strategic Wing. The 307th was the only regular Air Force SAC Wing stationed in Southeast Asia. The 307th was under the command and control of Eighth Air Force, based at Andersen AFB, Guam. Four provisional squadrons were organized under the 307th: Bombardment Squadron (Provisional), 364, 1973–1975 Bombardment Squadron (Provisional), 365, 1973–1974. Disbanded 7/17/74 Bombardment Squadron (Provisional),486, 1970–1971 Air Refueling Squadron (Provisional), 901, 1974–1975 In addition, two four-digit bomb squadrons (4180th, 4181st) were assigned, but were not operational. Detachment 12 of the 38th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron operating 2 HH-43s provided search and rescue at the base. In May 1970 USAF tactical airlift C-130s that had been based at Don Muang Air Base moved their operations to U-Tapao and the 6th Aerial Port Squadron followed in July. The C-130s were withdrawn in late-1971 but returned in April 1972. Sapper attack On 10 January 1972, three communist sappers attempted to destroy B-52s in a sapper attack using grenades and satchel charges. One attacker was apparently killed in the attack, while the other two managed to cause minor damage to three B-52s before fleeing the base. Operation Linebacker In late March 1972, the North Vietnamese launched a full-scale offensive across the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone, supported by tanks and heavy artillery. By this time, the US was no longer in the forefront of the ground war, with South Vietnamese units taking the lead. However, the US was still providing air power, and President Richard Nixon ordered a large increase on US airpower in response to the invasion. Although there had been no campaign of strikes into North Vietnam since the end of Rolling Thunder, the Nixon Administration ordered a new air offensive, initially code named Freedom Train, later becoming Operation Linebacker, with relatively few restrictions on targets that could be hit. At this time 51 B-52s were based at U-Tapao. The B-52s conducted a limited number of strikes against North Vietnam as part of the spring 1972 invasion, though most of their sorties were on Arc Light missions elsewhere. The North Vietnamese offensive was crushed, but the strikes on North Vietnam continued, only winding down in October, ahead of the 1972 United States presidential election, which resulted in Richard Nixon being re-elected and the attacks quickly ramped up again in November. In late 1972, B-52s were confronted with surface-to-air missile (SAM) defenses. On 22 November 1972, a B-52D was damaged by an SA-2 SAM in a raid on Vinh, an important rail center in the southern part of North Vietnam. The bomber's pilot managed to get the burning aircraft back to Thailand before the crew bailed out, leaving the aircraft to crash. All the crew were recovered safely. Operation Linebacker II In late-1972 the Nixon Administration ordered an all-out air offensive against North Vietnam. The bombing raids, codenamed Operation Linebacker II, began on 18 December 1972 involving heavy attacks by almost every strike aircraft the US had in theater, with the B-52 playing a prominent role. The initial plan scheduled attacks for three days. Along with heavy strikes by USAF and Navy tactical aircraft, 129 B-52s in three waves (approximately four hours apart) from the 307th Strategic Wing at U-Tapao RTNAF and B-52Ds and B−52Gs of the 43d Strategic Wing and the 72 Strategic Wing (Provisional) both at Andersen AFB. The U-Tapao-based B-52Ds were able to carry more bombs and perform more sorties than the other units which operated less capable versions and had to fly much further to reach targets in North Vietnam. In 11 days of concentrated bombing, B-52s had completed 729 sorties and dropped 13,640 tonnes (15,000 tons) of bombs. The North Vietnamese claimed that almost 1,400 civilians were killed. The campaign was expensive, 16 B-52s were lost and nine others suffered heavy damaged, with 33 aircrew killed or missing in action. On the night of 26 December a B-52 was hit by a SAM wounding its tail gunner and knocking out four engines, the aircraft limped back to U-Tapao where it crash-landed killing four crewmen with the tail gunner and co-pilot surviving the crash. The Paris Peace Accords were signed on 27 January 1973, however, the B-52's war was not quite over, with Arc Light strikes on Laos continuing into April and on Cambodia into August. The 307th SW ended all combat operations on 14 August 1973. On 23 March 1973 the USAF airlift control center at Tan Son Nhut Air Base moved to U-Tapao becoming the Pacific Transportation Management Agency, Thailand, responsible for all C-130 operations in Southeast Asia. U-Tapao based C-130s of the 374th Wing flew missions into Cambodia, South Vietnam, and a weekly flight to Hanoi in support of the International Commission of Control and Supervision until April 1975. The C-130s flew supply missions into Cambodia until May 1974 when these operations were taken over by BirdAir which operated under contract to the US Government. In addition Khmer Air Force C-123s also began flying supply missions from U-Tapao into bases in Cambodia. 1975 South Vietnamese collapse On the afternoon of 12 April 1975, following the completion of Operation Eagle Pull, the evacuation of US nationals and allied Cambodians from Phnom Penh, an HMH-462 CH-53 carried Ambassador John Gunther Dean from to U-Tapao. On 13 April, the Eagle Pull evacuees were flown to U-Tapao on HMH-462 helicopters. In the two years following the Paris Peace Accords, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) underwent a massive rebuilding to recoup the losses suffered during their failed 1972 Easter Offensive. On 12 December 1974 the PAVN attacked Phuoc Long. The lack of any US response convinced the North Vietnamese leadership that the time was ripe to seize the South and they quickly launched their 1975 Spring Offensive overrunning many of the major cities and defensive positions in South Vietnam during March and April. By early-April the South Vietnamese made their last stand at Xuân Lộc on their final defensive line before Saigon. Xuân Lộc fell on 20 April and South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu resigned the following day, fleeing the country four days later. An estimated 8,000 U.S. and third-country nationals needed to be evacuated from Saigon and the shrinking government-controlled region of South Vietnam, along with thousands of "at-risk" Vietnamese who had worked for the United States during the war. Evacuation by civil and military fixed-wing aircraft from Tan Son Nhat International Airport had been taking place since early-March and continued until 28 April when PAVN artillery fire rendered the runways unusable. At this time a helicopter evacuation, code-named Operation Frequent Wind was implemented. U-Tapao and other USAF facilities in Thailand supported the evacuation. Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) C-47s, C-119s and C-130s filled to capacity with men, women and children, began flying into U-Tapao on 28 April as command and control collapsed, with a total of 123 aircraft arriving at U-Tapao. After their arrival, the Vietnamese were sequestered in tents near the runway. The adjacent parking ramps and grassy areas were being filled to capacity with South Vietnamese helicopters and aircraft. VC-47A 084 of Air America crashed on landing on a flight from Tan Son Nhut. On 30 April the South Vietnamese government surrendered. The handful of RVNAF planes that had been performing last-ditch air strikes completed their missions and flew to U-Tapao. The former RVNAF C-130s that had arrived in Thailand were flown out to Singapore, while 27 RVNAF A-37s, 25 F-5s, and 50 UH-1s at U-Tapao were loaded by helicopter and barge onto for transport to the US. Mayagüez incident On 12 May 1975, less than two weeks after the fall of Saigon, a unit of the Cambodian Khmer Rouge Navy seized the American-flagged container ship SS Mayaguez, taking the crew hostage. A U-Tapao based US Navy P-3 Orion was one of the first aircraft sent to locate the Mayaguez. On 13 May, Seventh Air Force commander Lieutenant General John J. Burns and his staff developed a contingency plan for volunteers of the Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base 56th Security Police (SP) Squadron to be dropped onto the containers on the decks of the Mayaguez. The next morning, 75 SPs from the 56th boarded helicopters of 21st Special Operations Squadron to proceed to U-Tapao for staging. A CH-53 #68-10933 crashed, killing 18 SPs and the five-man flight crew. The hasty attempt to effect recovery of the vessel and her crew using only USAF resources was abandoned. U-Tapao then served as a staging point for U.S. Marines to deploy aboard the remaining CH-53s of the 21st SOS and HH-53s of the 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron and assault Koh Tang Island some 195 nautical miles from U-Tapao, where the Mayaguez crew was believed to be held. At dawn on 15 May the assault on Koh Tang began. The Khmer Rouge put up a fierce defense, shooting down three CH-53 helicopters and damaging several others which limped back to U-Tapao. The Khmer Rouge pinned the Marines in their landing zones, where they relied on air and naval gunfire for their survival, they were eventually evacuated as darkness fell. Meanwhile, the abandoned Mayaguez was recovered by a boarding party from the . The crew which had been taken to the Cambodian mainland two days earlier were released unharmed by the Khmer Rouge. Total US losses were 15 killed in action and three missing in action. USAF withdrawal On 14 October 1973 following the 1973 Thai popular uprising former Supreme Court Judge Sanya Dharmasakti, then chancellor and dean of the faculty of law at Thammasat University, was appointed prime minister by royal decree, replacing the succession of staunchly pro-American and anti-Communist military dictatorships that had ruled Thailand previously. With the fall of both Cambodia and South Vietnam in the spring of 1975, the political climate between Washington and the government of PM Sanya soured. Immediately after the news broke of the use of Thai bases to support the Mayaguez rescue, the Thai government lodged a formal protest with the US and riots broke out outside the US Embassy in Bangkok. The Thai government wanted the US out of Thailand by the end of the year. The USAF implemented Palace Lightning, the plan to withdraw its aircraft and personnel from Thailand. The SAC units left in December 1975. The 3rd Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group left on 31 January 1976, however the base remained under US control until it was formally returned to the Thai government on 13 June 1976. USAF major units at U-Tapao 4258th Strategic Wing (1966–1970) 307th Strategic Wing (1970–1975) Young Tiger Tanker Force (1966–1975) Strategic Wing (Provisional), 310th (1972) Consolidated Aircraft Maintenance Wing (Provisional), 340th (1972) 99th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron (1972–1976) Air Division (Provisional), 310th (1972) 11th USAF Hospital 635th Combat Support Group 1985th Communications Squadron 554th CES (Red Horse – Combat Engineers) Current military use For several years, beginning in 1981, U-Tapao has hosted parts of Cobra Gold, jointly involving US, Singaporean, and Thai armed forces, and designed to build ties between the nations and promote interoperability between their military components. Thailand is an important element in The Pentagon's strategy of "forward positioning". Despite Thailand's neutrality on the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Thai government allowed U-Tapao to be used by American warplanes flying into combat in Iraq, as it had earlier done during the war in Afghanistan. In addition, U-Tapao may be where Al Qaeda operative Abu Zubaydah was interrogated, according to some retired American intelligence officials. A multinational force headquarters was established at U-Tapao to coordinate humanitarian aid for the Sumatran tsunami of 26 December 2004. On 7 May 2008, in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, Thai C-130 transports were permitted to land at Yangon International Airport in Burma, carrying drinking water and construction material. From 12 to 20 May, USAID and the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) coordinated the delivery of nearly US$1.2 million of relief commodities to Yangon on 36 DOD C-130 flights, with supplies sufficient to provide assistance to more than 113,000 beneficiaries. The DOD efforts were under the direction of Joint Task Force Caring Response. As of 26 June 2008, United States assistance directed by the USAID DART (Disaster Assistance Response Team) stationed in Thailand, had totaled US$41,169,769. Units involved were the 36th Airlift Squadron (36 AS) of the 374th Airlift Wing (374 AW) from Yokota Air Base, Japan, flying C-130H Hercules; and Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 152 (VMGR-152) from Marine Corps Air Station Futenma, Okinawa, Japan, flying the Lockheed Martin KC-130R and the newer KC-130J. In 2012, a proposal for the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to use U-Tapao to support weather research was rejected by the Thai government. In 2015, a Politico article reported that the United States Government rented space at U Tapao from a private contractor for use as a "major logistics hub for the Iraq and Afghanistan wars." Because the lease was technically with a private contractor, this allowed "U.S. and Thai officials to insist there's no U.S. 'base' and no inter-governmental basing agreement." Units U-Tapao is the main flying base for the RTN. Squadrons based there include: No 101 Squadron flying Dornier 228-212 (seven aircraft) No 102 Squadron flying Lockheed P-3T/UP-3T (three aircraft) and Fokker F-27-200ME aircraft (a total of three, at least one of which is in store) No 103 Squadron flying Cessna 337 H-SP (10 aircraft, some may be stored) No 201 Squadron flying Canadair CL-215 (one aircraft), GAF Nomad N-24A (three aircraft, a fourth aircraft is in store) and Fokker F-27-400M (two aircraft) No 202 Squadron flying Bell 212 helicopters (approximately six) No 203 Squadron flying Bell 214SP helicopters (recently grounded after a fatal crash killing nine crew members on 23 March 2007), Sikorsky S-76B (six helicopters) and Super Lynx Mk.110 (two helicopters) No 302 Squadron flying Sikorsky S-70B Seahawk anti-submarine helicopters (six in service) Two squadrons are dormant No 104 Squadron which flew 14 A-7E and 4 TA-7C Corsair strike aircraft No 301 Squadron which flew AV-8S and TAV-8S (two aircraft) See also United States Air Force in Thailand United States Pacific Air Forces Strategic Air Command Eighth Air Force References Bibliography Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM. Glasser, Jeffrey D. (1998). The Secret Vietnam War: The United States Air Force in Thailand, 1961–1975. McFarland & Company. . Martin, Patrick (1994). Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History. . USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present The Royal Thai Air Force (English Pages) Royal Thai Air Force – Overview External links Utapao Royal Thai Airbase mid-summer 1971 unit history U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield history 635 Supply Chain Operations Wing fact sheet — successor to 635 Combat Support Group U-Tapao – history, photos, maps, etc. YouTube.com – video – U-Tapao 1969 YouTube.com – video – U-Tapao Buff Launch – (early 1970s) Royal Thai Navy Military installations of Thailand Closed facilities of the United States Air Force in Thailand Installations of Strategic Air Command 1966 establishments in Thailand
4904460	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Expeditionary%20Force%20order%20of%20battle%20%281940%29	British Expeditionary Force order of battle (1940)	This is the British Expeditionary Force order of battle on 9 May 1940, the day before the German forces initiated the Battle of France. High-level order of battle First Expeditionary Force General John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort 5th Infantry Division (Major-General Harold Franklyn) I Corps (Lieutenant-General Michael Barker) 1st Infantry Division (Major-General Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander) 2nd Infantry Division (Major-General Henry Charles Loyd) 48th (South Midland) Infantry Division (Major-General Augustus Francis Andrew Nicol Thorne) II Corps (Lieutenant-General Alan Brooke) 3rd Infantry Division (Major-General Bernard Montgomery) 4th Infantry Division (Major-General Dudley Johnson) 50th (Northumbrian) Motor Infantry Division (Major-General Giffard Martel) III Corps (Lieutenant-General Sir Ronald Forbes Adam 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division (Major-General William Holmes) 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division (Major-General Edmund Osborne) Saar Force (Major-General Victor Fortune) 51st (Highland) Infantry Division (Major-General V. M. Fortune) Formations undergoing training and performing labour duties HQ Lines of Communication British Expeditionary Force (Major-General Philip de Fonblanque) Units arriving in France after 10 May 1940 Other formations Air Component Second Expeditionary Force First Expeditionary Force General Headquarters (GHQ) General Officer Commanding-in-Chief: General John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort Chief of the General Staff: Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Royds Pownall Adjutant General: Lieutenant-General Sir W. D. S. Brownrigg Quartermaster General: Lieutenant-General W. G. Lindsell Deputy Chief of the General Staff; Major-General Philip Neame Major-General Royal Artillery: Major-General Sydney Rigby Wason Engineer-in-Chief: Major-General Ridley Pakenham-Walsh GHQ, British Expeditionary Force Headquarters Troops GHQ-attached units Intelligence Section, Intelligence Corps General Headquarters Signals, Royal Signals 2nd Wireless Company, Royal Signals 100th Special Wireless Section (Providing support for GHQ) 101st Special Wireless Section (Providing support for I Corps) 102nd Special Wireless Section (Providing support for II Corps) 103rd Special Wireless Section (Providing support for III Corps) 1st Air Formation Signals, Royal Signals 2nd Air Formation Signals, Royal Signals 1st Air Liaison Signals Section Royal Signals 4th Air Liaison Signals Section Royal Signals 6th Air Liaison Signals Section Royal Signals 7th Air Liaison Signals Section Royal Signals 12th (The Prince of Wales's) Royal Lancers 1st Battalion, Welsh Guards 7th Battalion, Cheshire Regiment (Machine-Guns) 14th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment) (company size) - garrison unit 8th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (Duke of Cambridge's Own) (Machine-Guns) 9th Overseas Defence Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (Prince of Wales's Own) - garrison unit 6th (Argyllshire) Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louises's Own) (Machine-Guns) 6th Battalion, King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) (Pioneers) 7th Battalion, King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) (Pioneers) 8th Battalion, King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) (Pioneers) 6th Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment (Pioneers) 5th Movement Control Group Royal Engineers 2nd Advanced Medical Depot, Royal Army Medical Corps 4th Advanced Medical Depot, Royal Army Medical Corps 9th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 2nd Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 3rd Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 9th Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 11th Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 13th Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 4th Motor Ambulance Convoy, Royal Army Medical Corps 5th Motor Ambulance Convoy, Royal Army Medical Corps 6th Motor Ambulance Convoy, Royal Army Medical Corps 8th Motor Ambulance Convoy, Royal Army Medical Corps 2nd Field Security Police Section Royal Military Police 6th Field Security Police Section Royal Military Police 30th Field Security Police Section Royal Military Police 33rd Field Security Police Section Royal Military Police Headquarters, G.H.Q. Troops, Royal Army Service Corps 1st G.H.Q. Troops Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd G.H.Q. Troops Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd G.H.Q. Troops Company, Royal Army Service Corps 1st Lines of Communication Railhead Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd Lines of Communication Railhead Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd Supply Personnel Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Petrol Depot, Royal Army Service Corps 1st Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps 4th Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps 9th Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps 13th Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps 14th Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps 1st Motor Transport Works Services Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd Motor Transport Works Services Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Motor Transport Works Services Company, Royal Army Service Corps 4th Motor Transport Works Services Company, Royal Army Service Corps Armoured Brigades 1st Light Armoured Reconnaissance Brigade Brigade manning armoured cars 1st Light Armoured Reconnaissance Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Fife and Forfar Yeomanry 1st East Riding of Yorkshire Lancers 2nd Light Armoured Reconnaissance Brigade Brigade manning armoured cars 2nd Light Armoured Reconnaissance Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 5th (Royal Inniskilling) Dragoon Guards 15th/19th (The King's) Royal Hussars 1st Army Tank Brigade Brigade manning infantry and cavalry tank 1st Army Tank Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 4th Royal Tank Regiment 7th Royal Tank Regiment Commander Royal Artillery Direct reports 1st Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 2nd Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 4th Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 58th (Suffolk) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 61st Carnarvon and Denbigh (Yeomanry) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 63rd (Midland) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 65th (Highland) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 1st Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 51st (Lowland) Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 52nd (Bedfordshire Yeomanry) Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 1st Super-Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 2nd Super-Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 3rd Super-Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 1st Anti-Aircraft Brigade 1st Anti-Aircraft Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 6th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 85th (Tees) Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 2nd Anti-Aircraft Brigade 2nd Anti-Aircraft Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 60th (City of London) Anti-Aircraft Regiment Royal Artillery 51st (Devon) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment Royal Artillery 58th (Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 3rd Anti-Aircraft Brigade 3rd Anti-Aircraft Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Anti-Aircraft Regiment Royal Artillery 8th (Belfast) Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 79th (Hertfordshire Yeomanry) Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 37th (Tyne Electrical Engineers) Searchlight Regiment, Royal Artillery 4th Light Anti-Aircraft Battery, Royal Artillery 174th Light Anti-Aircraft Battery, Royal Artillery 4th Anti-Aircraft Brigade 4th Anti-Aircraft Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 4th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 52nd (East Lancashire) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery – from I Corps 5th Searchlight Brigade 5th Anti-Aircraft Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Searchlight Regiment, Royal Artillery 2nd Searchlight Regiment, Royal Artillery 3rd (Ulster) Searchlight Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers Major-General Ridley Pakenham Pakenham-Walsh Direct reports 100th (Monmouthshire) Army Field Company, Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers 101st (Monmouthshire) Army Field Company, Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers 216th (1st London) Army Field Company, Royal Engineers 228th (West Riding) Field Company, Royal Engineers 242nd (Lowland) Field Company, Royal Engineers 223rd (2nd London) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers 109th Workshop and Park Company, Royal Engineers 1st Army Troops Company, Royal Engineers 2nd Army Troops Company, Royal Engineers 19th Army Field Survey Company, Royal Engineers 119th Road Construction Company, Royal Engineers 135th Excavator Company, Royal Engineers 1st Boring Section, Royal Engineers 2nd Boring Section, Royal Engineers 1st Anti-Gas Laboratory, Royal Engineers 58th (Chemical Warfare) Company, Royal Engineers 61st (Chemical Warfare) Company, Royal Engineers 62nd (Chemical Warfare) Company, Royal Engineers 1st Tunnelling Group, Royal Engineers 170th Tunnelling Company, Royal Engineers 171st Tunnelling Company, Royal Engineers 172nd Tunnelling Company, Royal Engineers 173rd Tunnelling Company, Royal Engineers 5th Infantry Division Major-General Harold Franklyn [nb 1] [nb 1] [nb 1] [nb 1] [nb 1] [nb 1] Division-level units 5th Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon, Royal Pioneer Corps 5th Infantry Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 5th Divisional Signals, Royal Signals 9th Battalion, The Manchester Regiment 5th Infantry Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers 9th Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 5th Infantry Divisional Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 13th Infantry Brigade 13th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, The Scottish (Cameronian) Rifles 2nd Battalion, The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers 2nd Battalion, The Wiltshire Regiment 13th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 17th Infantry Brigade 17th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, The Royal Scots Fusiliers 2nd Battalion, The Northamptonshire Regiment 6th (Morayshire) Battalion, The Duke of Albany's Seaforth Highlanders (The Ross-shire Buffs) 17th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery, 5th Division Commander Royal Artillery, 5th Division HQ 9th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 91st (4th London) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 92nd (5th London) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 52nd (6th London) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 5th Division Commander Royal Engineers, 5th Division HQ 38th Field Company, Royal Engineers 245th (Welsh) Field Company, Royal Engineers 252nd (West Lancashire) Field Company, Royal Engineers 254th (West Lancashire) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 5th Division 5th Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps HQ 5th Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 5th Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 5th Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 5th Division 5th Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps HQ 141st (County of London) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 158th (Welsh) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 164th (West Lancashire) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 24th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps I Corps Lieutenant-General Michael Barker Corps-level units I Corps Signals, Royal Corps of Signals I Corps Postal Unit, Royal Engineers 4th (The Earl of Chester's) Battalion, Cheshire Regiment (Machine-Guns) 2nd Battalion, Manchester Regiment (Machine-Guns) I Corps Troops Ammunition Column, Royal Army Service Corps I Corps Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps I Corps Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps I Corps Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 1st Reception Camp 1st Storage Unit 2nd Storage Unit 3rd Storage Unit 8th Storage Unit Corps Headquarters Troop, I Corps 1st Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 2nd Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 3rd Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 48th Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps I Corps Troops, Royal Engineers Direct reports 102nd (London) Army Field Company, Royal Engineers 107th (North Riding) Army Field Company, Royal Engineers 221st (2nd London) Field Company, Royal Engineers 105th Army Field Park Company, Royal Engineers 13th Corps Field Survey Company, Royal Engineers 1st Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Troop Carrying Company, Royal Army Service Corps Cypriot Pack Transportation Company, Royal Army Service Corps 5th Section from 1st Personnel Company, Royal Army Service Corps 6th Section from 1st Personnel Company, Royal Army Service Corps 32nd Section from 2nd Personnel Company, Royal Army Service Corps 1st Motor Ambulance Convoy, Royal Army Service Corps 1st Ordnance Field Park, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 1st Army Field Workshop, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 2nd Army Field Workshop, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 11th Army Field Workshop, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 7th Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 13th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 6th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 1st Advanced Medical Stores Depôt, Royal Army Medical Corps 1st Mobile Hygiene Laboratory, Royal Army Medical Corps 1st Mobile Bacteriological Laboratory, Royal Army Medical Corps 1st Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 8th Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 102nd Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 1st General Construction Group, Royal Engineers 660th General Construction Company, Royal Engineers 661st General Construction Company, Royal Engineers 667th General Construction Company, Royal Engineers 223rd (2nd London) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers 12th Group, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps 44th Company, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps 45th Company, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps 61st Company, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps I Corps Artillery Troops 1st Survey Regiment, Royal Artillery 1st General Headquarters Artillery Company, Royal Army Service Corps I Corps Commander Royal Artillery Commander Corps Artillery Royal Artillery, I Corps 115th (North Midland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 140th (5th London) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 1st Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 61st (Caernarvon & Denbigh Yeomanry) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 52nd (East Lancashire) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery I Corps Commander Medium Artillery Commander Corps Medium Artillery, I Corps 27th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 98th (Surrey and Sussex Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 3rd Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 5th Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 63rd (Highland) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 1st Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 3rd Super-Heavy Battery, Royal Artillery 1st Infantry Division Major-General Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander Division-level units 1st Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon 1st Infantry Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 1st Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals 13th/18th Royal Hussars 2nd Battalion, Cheshire Regiment (Machine-Guns) 4th (City of Aberdeen) Battalion, Gordon Highlanders (Machine-Guns) 1st Infantry Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers 1st Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 1st Company, Corps of Military Police 1st (Guards) Infantry Brigade 1st (Guards) Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 3rd Battalion, Grenadier Guards 2nd Battalion, Coldstream Guards 2nd Battalion, Hampshire Regiment 1st Guards Brigade Anti-Tank Company 2nd Infantry Brigade 2nd Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Battalion, Loyal North Lancashire Regiment 2nd Battalion, North Staffordshire Regiment (Prince of Wales's) 6th (Banffshire) Battalion, Gordon Highlanders 2nd Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 3rd Infantry Brigade 3rd Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment (West Riding) 2nd Battalion, Sherwood Foresters 1st Battalion, King's Shropshire Light Infantry 3rd Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery, 1st Division 1st Infantry Divisional Artillery HQ 2nd Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 19th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 67th (South Midland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 21st Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 1st Division 1st Infantry Divisional Royal Engineers HQ 23rd Field Company, Royal Engineers 238th (County of Renfrewshire, Highland) Field Company, Royal Engineers 248th (East Anglian) Field Company, Royal Engineers 6th Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 1st Division 1st Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps HQ 1st Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 1st Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 1st Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 1st Division 1st Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps HQ 1st Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 2nd Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 3rd Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 1st Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 2nd Infantry Division Major-General Henry Charles Loyd Division-level units 2nd Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon 2nd Infantry Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 2nd Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals 4th/7th Royal Dragoon Guards 2nd Battalion, Manchester Regiment (Machine-Guns) 2nd Infantry Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers 2nd Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 2nd Company, Corps of Military Police 4th Infantry Brigade 4th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Battalion, Royal Scots 2nd Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment 8th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers 4th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 5th Infantry Brigade 5th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 7th Battalion, Worcestershire Regiment 2nd Battalion, Dorsetshire Regiment 1st Battalion, Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders 5th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 6th Infantry Brigade 6th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Battalion, Royal Welch Fusiliers 1st Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment (Princess Charlotte of Wales's) 2nd Battalion, Durham Light Infantry 6th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery, 2nd Division 2nd Infantry Divisional Royal Artillery HQ 10th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 16th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 99th (Buckinghamshire Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 13th Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 2nd Division 2nd Infantry Divisional Royal Engineers HQ 5th Field Company, Royal Engineers 208th (Sussex) Field Company, Royal Engineers 506th Field Company, Royal Engineers 21st Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 2nd Division 2nd Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps HQ 2nd Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 2nd Division 2nd Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps HQ 4th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 5th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 6th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 2nd Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 48th (South Midland) Infantry Division Major-General Augustus Francis Andrew Nicol Thorne Division-level units 48th (South Midland) Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon 48th (South Midland) Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 48th (South Midland) Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals 4th Battalion, Cheshire Regiment 48th (South Midland) Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers 14th Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 48th (South Midland) Divisional Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 143rd Infantry Brigade 143rd Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Battalion, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry 7th Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment 8th Battalion, The Royal Warwickshire Regiment 143rd Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 144th Infantry Brigade 144th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment 5th Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment 8th Battalion, Worcestershire Regiment 144th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 145th Infantry Brigade 145th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment 1st (Buckinghamshire) Battalion, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry 4th Battalion, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry 145th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery, 48th Division 48th (South Midland) Divisional Royal Artillery HQ 18th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 24th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 68th (South Midland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 53rd (Worcestershire and Oxfordshire Yeomanry) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 48th Division 48th (South Midland) Divisional Royal Engineers HQ 9th Field Company, Royal Engineers 224th (South Midland) Field Company, Royal Engineers 226th (South Midland) Field Company, Royal Engineers 227th (South Midland) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 48th Division 48th (South Midland) Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps HQ 48th (South Midland) Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 48th (South Midland) Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 48th (South Midland) Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 48th Division 48th (South Midland) Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps HQ 143rd (South Midland) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 144th (South Midland) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 145th (South Midland) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 12th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps II Corps Lieutenant-General Alan Brooke Corps-level units 4th Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 5th, Royal Army Pay Corps 6th, Royal Army Pay Corps II Corps Signals, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers (Machine-Guns) 2nd Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (Duke of Cambridge's Own) (Machine-Guns) 7th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (Duke of Cambridge's Own) (Machine-Guns) II Corps Postal Unit, Royal Engineers II Corps Troops Ammunition Column, Royal Army Service Corps II Corps Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps II Corps Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps II Corps Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd Ambulance Car Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Section from 1st Personnel Company, Royal Army Service Corps 18th Section from 2nd Personnel Company, Royal Army Service Corps 33rd Section from 2nd Personnel Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Ordnance Field Park, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 2nd Army Field Workshop, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 8th Army Field Workshop, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 14th Army Field Workshop, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 6th Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 14th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 7th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 3rd Advanced Medical Stores Depot, Royal Army Medical Corps 2nd Mobile Hygiene Laboratory, Royal Army Medical Corps 2nd Mobile Bacteriological Laboratory, Royal Army Medical Corps 5th Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 6th Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 103rd Provost Company, Royal Military Police 2nd Reception Camp 4th Storage Unit 5th Storage Unit 6th Storage Unit 13th Storage Unit II Corps Headquarters Troops Intelligence Section, Intelligence Corps 2nd Air Intelligence Section, Intelligence Corps 8th Air Intelligence Section, Intelligence Corps 5th Employment Platoon 4th Field Security Police Section, Royal Military Police 5th Field Security Police Section, Royal Military Police 8th Field Security Police Section, Royal Military Police 12th Field Security Police Section, Royal Military Police 20th Field Security Police Section, Royal Military Police II Corps Troops, Royal Engineers 222nd (2nd London) Army Field Company, Royal Engineers 234th (Northumbrian) Army Field Company, Royal Engineers 240th (Lowland) Army Field Company, Royal Engineers 108th (Essex) Corps Field Park, Royal Engineers 14th Corps Survey Company, Royal Engineers 2nd General Construction Group, Royal Engineers 660th General Construction Company, Royal Engineers 661st General Construction Company, Royal Engineers 667th General Construction Company, Royal Engineers 223rd (2nd London) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers 11th Group, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps 40th Company, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps 42nd Company, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps 60th Company, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps II Corps Artillery Troops 2nd Survey Regiment, Royal Artillery 2nd General Headquarters Artillery Company, Royal Army Service Corps II Corps Commander, Royal Artillery 60th (North Midland) Army Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 88th (2nd West Lancashire) Army Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 53rd (London) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 59th (4th West Lancashire) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 53rd (King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery II Corps Commander, Medium Artillery 2nd Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (Field) 32nd Army Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 2nd Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 4th Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 58th (Suffolk) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 51st (Lowland) Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 2nd Super Heavy Battery, Royal Artillery 3rd Infantry Division Major-General Bernard Montgomery Division-level units 3rd Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon 3rd Infantry Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 3rd Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals 2nd Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (Duke of Cambridge's Own) 7th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (Duke of Cambridge's Own) 3rd Infantry Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers 3rd Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 3rd Infantry Divisional Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 7th (Guards) Infantry Brigade 7th (Guards) Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signal Section, Royal Signals 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards 1st Battalion, Coldstream Guards 7th (Guards) Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 8th Infantry Brigade 8th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signal Section, Royal Signals 1st Battalion, Suffolk Regiment 2nd Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment (Duke of York's Own) 4th Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment (Princess Charlotte of Wales's) 8th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 9th Infantry Brigade 9th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signal Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment 1st Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers 2nd Battalion, Royal Ulster Rifles 9th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery, 3rd Division 3rd Infantry Division Royal Artillery Headquarters 7th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 33rd Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 76th (Highland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 20th Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 3rd Division Headquarters, 3rd Infantry Divisional Royal Engineers 17th Field Company, Royal Engineers 246th (Welsh) Field Company, Royal Engineers 253rd (West Lancashire) Field Company, Royal Engineers 15th Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 3rd Division Headquarters, 3rd Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Infantry Divisional, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 3rd Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 3rd Division Headquarters, 3rd Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps 7th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 8th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 9th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 3rd Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 4th Infantry Division Major-General Dudley Johnson Division-level units 4th Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon 4th Infantry Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 4th Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals 2nd Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers 4th Infantry Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers 13th Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Medical Corps 4th Infantry Divisional Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 10th Infantry Brigade 10th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment 6th Battalion, East Surrey Regiment 2nd Battalion, Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry 10th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 11th Infantry Brigade 11th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers 1st Battalion, East Surrey Regiment 5th (Huntingdonshire) Battalion, Northamptonshire Regiment 11th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 12th Infantry Brigade 12th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment) 1st Battalion, The South Lancashire Regiment 6th (Perthshire) Battalion, The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) 12th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery, 4th Division 4th Infantry Divisional Royal Artillery HQ 22nd Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 30th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 77th (Highland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 14th Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 4th Division 4th Infantry Divisional Royal Engineers HQ 7th Field Company, Royal Engineers 59th Field Company, Royal Engineers 225th (South Midland) Field Company, Royal Engineers 18th Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 4th Division 4th Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps HQ 4th Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 4th Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 4th Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 4th Division 4th Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps HQ 10th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 11th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 12th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 4th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 50th (Northumbrian) Motor Infantry Division Major-General Giffard Martel Division-level units 50th Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 50th (Northumbrian) Divisional Signals, Royal Signals 4th Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers—Divisional motorcycle reconnaissance unit 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers unknown #, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 25th Infantry Brigade 25th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Essex Regiment 1st Battalion, Royal Irish Fusiliers 7th (Southwark) Battalion, Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment 150th Infantry Brigade 150th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 4th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment (Duke of York's Own) 4th Battalion, Alexandra, Princess of Wales Own Yorkshire Regiment (Green Howards) 5th Battalion, Alexandra, Princess of Wales Own Yorkshire Regiment (Green Howards) 151st Infantry Brigade 151st Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 6th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry 8th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry 9th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry Commander Royal Artillery, 50th Division 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Royal Artillery HQ 72nd (Northumbrian) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 74th (Northumbrian) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 65th (Norfolk Yeomanry) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 50th Division 50th (Northumbrian) Divisional Engineers HQ 232nd (Northumbrian) Field Company, Royal Engineers 505th Field Company, Royal Engineers 235th (Northumbrian) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 50th Division 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps HQ 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 50th Division 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps HQ 149th (Northumbrian) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 150th (Northumbrian) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 183rd Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 22nd Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps III Corps Lieutenant-General Sir Ronald Forbes Adam III Corps Headquarters, Troops III Corps Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 44th Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps III Corps Signals, Royal Corps of Signals 1/9th Battalion, The Manchester Regiment (Machine-Guns) III Corps Postal Unit, Royal Engineers 78th Company, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps III Corps Troops Ammunition Column, Royal Army Service Corps III Corps Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps III Corps Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps III Corps Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 2nd Ambulance Car Convoy, Royal Army Service Corps 4th Ordnance Field Park, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 4th Army Field Workshop, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 9th Army Field Workshop, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 15th Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 159th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 23rd Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 10th Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 12th Casualty Clearing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps 104th Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 3rd Reception Camp 7th Storage Unit 9th Storage Unit 12th Storage Unit Commander Royal Engineers, III Corps 214th (North Midland) Army Field Company, Royal Engineers 217th (1st London) Army Field Company, Royal Engineers 293rd Corps Field Park Company, Royal Engineers 668th General Construction Company, Royal Engineers 514th Corps Field Survey Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Artillery, III Corps 3rd Survey Regiment, Royal Artillery 3rd General Headquarters Artillery Company, Royal Army Service Corps 4th General Headquarters Artillery Company, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Artillery, III Corps III Corps Royal Artillery HQ 5th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (Field) 97th (Kent Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 56th (Highland) Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery 54th (Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Medium Artillery, III Corps III Corps Medium Artillery HQ 139th (4th London) Army Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 65th (8th London) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 69th (West Riding) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 52nd (Bedfordshire Yeomanry) Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division Major-General William Holmes Division-level units 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 42nd (East Lancashire) Divisional Signals, Royal Signals 7th Battalion, The Cheshire Regiment 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers 10th Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 125th Infantry Brigade 125th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 5th Battalion, The Lancashire Fusiliers 6th Battalion, The Lancashire Fusiliers 1st Battalion, The Border Regiment 125th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 126th Infantry Brigade 126th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 5th Battalion, The King's Own Royal Lancaster Regiment 1st Battalion, The East Lancashire Regiment 5th (Cumberland) Battalion, The Border Regiment 126th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 127th Infantry Brigade 127th Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 4th Battalion, The East Lancashire Regiment 5th Battalion, The Manchester Regiment 1st Battalion The Highland Light Infantry 127th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery, 42nd Division 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Royal Artillery HQ 52nd (Manchester) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 53rd (Bolton) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 56th (King's Own) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 42nd Division 42nd (East Lancashire) Divisional Engineers HQ 200th (East Lancashire) Field Company, Royal Engineers 201st (East Lancashire) Field Company, Royal Engineers 250th (East Anglian) Field Company, Royal Engineers 203rd (East Lancashire) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 42nd Division 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps HQ 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 42nd Division 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps HQ 125th (East Lancashire) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 126th (East Lancashire) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 127th (East Lancashire) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 20th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division Major-General Edmund Osborne Division-level units 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division Headquarters and Employment Platoon 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Field Cash Office, Royal Army Pay Corps 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals 8th Battalion, The Duke of Cambridge's Own Middlesex Regiment 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Field Post Office, Royal Engineers 11th Mobile Bath Unit, Royal Army Ordnance Corps 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Provost Company, Corps of Military Police 131st Infantry Brigade 131st Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, The Royal East Kent Regiment (Buffs) 5th Battalion, The Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment 6th (Bermondsey) Battalion, The Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment 131st Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 132nd Infantry Brigade 132nd Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 1st Battalion, The Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment 4th Battalion, The Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment 5th Battalion, The Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment 132nd Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 133rd Infantry Brigade 133rd Infantry Brigade Headquarters and Signals Section, Royal Signals 2nd Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment 4th Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment 5th (Cinque Ports) Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment 133rd Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery, 44th Division 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Royal Artillery HQ 57th (Home Counties) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 58th (Sussex) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 65th (8th London) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 57th (East Surrey) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers, 44th Division 44th (Home Counties) Divisional Engineers HQ 11th Field Company, Royal Engineers 209th (Sussex) Field Company, Royal Engineers 210th (Sussex) Field Company, Royal Engineers 211th (Sussex) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Commander Royal Army Service Corps, 44th Division 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Royal Army Service Corps HQ 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Ammunition Company, Royal Army Service Corps 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Petrol Company, Royal Army Service Corps 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Supply Column, Royal Army Service Corps Commander Royal Army Medical Corps, 44th Division 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Divisional Royal Army Medical Corps HQ 131st (Home Counties) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 132nd (Home Counties) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 133rd (Home Counties) Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps 14th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps Saar Force Major-General Victor Fortune On 10 May 1940, this force, which was really just the 51st Division reinforced by various small units, was part of the Colonial Army Corps of the French Third Army in front of the Maginot Line. Units attached to the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division in April 1940 to form Saar Force Lothians and Border Horse 7th Battalion The Northumberland Fusiliers (Machine-Guns) 1st Battalion Princess Louise's Kensington Regiment (Machine-Guns) 7th Battalion The Royal Norfolk Regiment (Pioneers) 6th Battalion The Royal Scots Fusiliers (Pioneers) Sound Ranging and Survey Troop - detached from 3rd Survey Regiment RA 1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery (Field) 51st (Midland) Medium Regiment Royal Artillery 385/97 Army Field Battery Royal Artillery 213th (North Midland) Army Field Company Royal Engineers Topographic Section from 19th Army Field Survey Company Royal Engineers 22nd Animal Transportation Company Royal Indian Army Service Corps Sub-Division from III Corps Ammunition Park Royal Army Service Corps F Section from III Corps Petrol Park Royal Army Service Corps 10th Army Field Workshop Royal Army Ordnance Corps 10th Salvage Unit 51st (Highland) Infantry Division Major-General V. M. Fortune Division-level units 51st (Highland) Infantry Divisional Signals Royal Signals 51st Postal Unit Royal Engineers 8th Mobile Bath Unit Royal Army Medical Corps 51st Provost Company Royal Military Police 152nd Infantry Brigade 2nd Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders 4th Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders 4th Battalion, Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders 152nd Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 153rd Infantry Brigade 4th Battalion, Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) 1st Battalion, Gordon Highlanders 5th Battalion, Gordon Highlanders 153rd Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company 154th Infantry Brigade 1st Battalion, Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) 7th Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders 8th Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders 154th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company Commander Royal Artillery 17th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 23rd Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 75th (Highland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 10th Army Field Workshop WO 167/1210 51st (West Highland) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers 26th Field Company, Royal Engineers 236th (City of Aberdeen, Highland) Field Company, Royal Engineers 237th (City of Dundee, Highland) Field Company, Royal Engineers 239th (Highland) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers Formations undergoing training and performing labour duties 12th (Eastern) Infantry Division Major-General R. L. Petre 35th Infantry Brigade 2/5th Battalion, Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) 2/6th Battalion, Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) 2/7th Battalion, Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) 36th Infantry Brigade 5th Battalion, Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment) 6th Battalion, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment 7th Battalion, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment 37th Infantry Brigade 2/6th Battalion, East Surrey Regiment 6th Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment 7th Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment Commander Royal Engineers 262nd Field Company, Royal Engineers 263rd Field Company, Royal Engineers 264th Field Company, Royal Engineers 265th Field Park Company, Royal Engineers 23rd (Northumbrian) Division Major-General W. N. Herbert Divisional Troops 8th Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers (Motorcycle Battalion) 9th Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers (Machine Gun Battalion) 69th Infantry Brigade 5th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment 6th Battalion, Green Howards 7th Battalion, Green Howards 70th Infantry Brigade 10th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry 11th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry 1st Battalion, Tyneside Scottish Commander Royal Engineers 233rd Field Company, Royal Engineers 507th Field Company, Royal Engineers 508th Field Park Company, Royal Engineers 46th Infantry Division Major-General H. O. Curtis 137th Infantry Brigade 2/5th Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment 2/6th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment 2/7th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment 138th Infantry Brigade 6th Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment 2/4th Battalion, King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry 6th Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment 139th Infantry Brigade 2/5th Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment 2/5th Battalion, Sherwood Foresters 9th Battalion, Sherwood Foresters Commander Royal Engineers 270th Field Company, Royal Engineers 271st Field Company, Royal Engineers 272nd Field Company, Royal Engineers 273rd Field Park Company, Royal Engineers HQ Lines of Communication British Expeditionary Force Major-General Philip de Fonblanque 104th Army Troops Company, Royal Engineers 106th Army Troops Company, Royal Engineers 110th Army Troops Company, Royal Engineers 212th Army Troops Company, Royal Engineers 218th Army Troops Company, Royal Engineers 4th Battalion, Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment) 14th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers 12th (Garrison) Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment 4th Battalion, Border Regiment 1/5th Battalion, Sherwood Foresters 3rd Anti-Aircraft Brigade 2nd Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 8th (Belfast) Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 79th (Hertfordshire Yeomanry) Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery 4th Light Anti-Aircraft Battery, Royal Artillery Units arriving in France after 10 May 1940 1st Armoured Division Major-General R. Evans 2nd Armoured Brigade 2nd Dragoon Guards (Queen's Bays) 9th Queen's Royal Lancers 10th Royal Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own) 3rd Armoured Brigade 2nd (Battalion) Royal Tank Regiment 5th (Battalion) Royal Tank Regiment 30th Infantry Brigade 3rd (Battalion) Royal Tank Regiment 2nd Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps 1st Battalion, Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own) 1st Battalion, Queen Victoria's Rifles (7th Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps) (Motorcycle Battalion) 20th Guards Brigade Group 2nd Battalion, Irish Guards 2nd Battalion, Welsh Guards 20th Guards Brigade Anti-Tank Company 1st Support Group 101st Light Anti-Aircraft/Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Air Component Air Vice-Marshal Charles Blount (Data from Jackson 1974 unless indicated.) 85 Squadron: Hurricane (fighter) 87 Squadron: Hurricane (fighter) 607 Squadron: Gladiator (fighter, converting to Hurricane May 1940) 615 Squadron: Gladiator (fighter, converting to Hurricane May 1940) 3 Squadron: Hurricane (fighter; reinforcement, May 1940) 79 Squadron: Hurricane (fighter; reinforcement, May 1940) 504 Squadron: Hurricane (fighter; reinforcement, May 1940) From 22 (Army Co-operation) Group 81 Squadron: Blenheim I (strategic reconnaissance) 57 Squadron: Blenheim I (strategic reconnaissance) 53 Squadron: Blenheim IV (bomber) 59 Squadron: Blenheim IV (bomber) 2 Squadron: Lysander (army co-operation) 4 Squadron: Lysander (army co-operation) 13 Squadron: Lysander (army co-operation) 16 Squadron: Lysander (army co-operation) 26 Squadron: Lysander (army co-operation) Second Expeditionary Force The following force was sent to France during the second week of June 1940 in an unsuccessful attempt to form a second British Expeditionary Force. This second formation was to be commanded by Lieutenant-General A. F. Brooke. All units were evacuated in late June 1940, during Operation Aerial. 1st Canadian Infantry Brigade (from 1st Canadian Infantry Division) Royal Canadian Regiment Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment 48th Highlanders of Canada 1st Field Regiment Royal Canadian Horse Artillery 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division Major-General J. S. Drew 155th Infantry Brigade 7th/9th (Highlanders) Battalion, Royal Scots 4th Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers 5th Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers 156th Infantry Brigade 4th/5th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers 6th Battalion, Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders 7th Battalion, Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders 157th Infantry Brigade 1st Battalion, Glasgow Highlanders 5th Battalion, Highland Light Infantry 6th Battalion, Highland Light Infantry Commander Royal Artillery 70th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 71st Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 78th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery 54th (Queen's Own Royal Glasgow Yeomanry) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery Commander Royal Engineers 202nd Field Company, Royal Engineers 241st Field Company, Royal Engineers 554th Field Company, Royal Engineers 243rd Field Park Company, Royal Engineers See also Order of battle for the Battle of France List of British Empire divisions in the Second World War Notes Footnotes References External links "Documents – France & Norway 1940". British Military History. Retrieved 2019-10-27. "British Expeditionary Force, May 1940". niehorster.org. Retrieved 2019-10-26. "British Infantry Brigades, 1st thru 215th - 1939-1945" (PDF). web.archive.org. 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2019-10-29. Field armies of the United Kingdom in World War II World War II orders of battle British Army in World War II
4904530	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20Leeds	Economy of Leeds	The economy of Leeds is the most diverse economy of all the UK's main employment centres and has seen the fastest rate of private-sector jobs growth of any UK city and has the highest ratio of public to private sector jobs of all the UK's Core Cities. Leeds has the third-largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in England outside of London, and third largest in the UK after Edinburgh, and in 2011 its financial and insurance services industry was worth £2.1 billion. with more than 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds is also the UK's third largest manufacturing centre with around 1,800 firms and 39,000 employees, Leeds manufacturing firms account for 8.8% of total employment in the city. The largest sub-sectors are engineering, printing and publishing, food and drink, chemicals and medical technology. Leeds is also ranked as a gamma world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network; Over the next ten years, the economy is forecast to grow by 25% with financial and business services set to generate over half of GVA growth over that period with Finance and business services accounting for 38% of total output. Other key sectors include retail, leisure and the visitor economy, construction, manufacturing and the creative and digital industries. Leeds' growth has helped to change the economic geography of the United Kingdom, as Leeds is now the largest financial centres in Britain outside the capital. New tertiary industries such as retail, call centres, offices and media have contributed to a high rate of economic growth since the early 1990s. Leeds was successful in becoming the first British city to have full broadband and digital coverage during the dot-com bubble, enabling it to become one of the key hubs in the emerging new media sector. Companies such as Freeserve, Energis, Sportal, TEAMtalk, Contactmusic.com and Ananova emerged from Leeds to dominate the UK internet industry. Now, over 33% of the UK's internet traffic passes through Leeds, making it one of the most important regional internet centres in the UK. Economic indices Below is a collection of economic indices featuring Leeds. It is important to remember that while useful, surveys and indicators have limitations, and are at times subjective and incomplete. For example, no complete list of factors affecting quality of life can be created, and the way people weight these factors differs. Quality of life 5th in the UK for quality of life (2013), according to a rating of the UK's 12 largest cities. The cities were assessed on a range of factors including property market activity, rental costs, salary levels, disposable income growth, cost of living, unemployment rates and life satisfaction. 4th most deprived local authority in England in terms of income and employment according to the 2010 English Indices of Deprivation. 15th in the UK amongst big cities for 'cycle-friendliness' (2010). Business Cushman & Wakefield European Cities Monitor (2010) - A survey based on the views of 500 European businesses of Europe's leading business cities. Overall 23rd in Europe, 4th in the UK after London, Manchester and Birmingham, best city to locate a business based on factors which are disaggregated below. 16th in Europe, 4th in the UK after London, Birmingham and Manchester, for ease of access to markets, customers or clients. 17th in Europe, 4th in the UK after London, Manchester and Birmingham, for best qualified staff. 20th in Europe, 4th in the UK after London, Manchester and Birmingham, for quality of telecommunications. 18th in Europe, 4th in the UK after London, Manchester and Birmingham, for external transport links to other cities and internationally. 1st in Europe and the UK in terms of value for money of office space. 10th in Europe, 1st= in the UK with Glasgow, for cost of staff. 7th in Europe, 3rd in the UK after Manchester and Birmingham, for availability of office space. 21st in Europe, 5th in the UK after London, Manchester, Glasgow and Birmingham, for climate governments create for businesses. 24th in Europe, 4th in the UK after London, Birmingham and Manchester, in terms of languages spoken. 15th in Europe, 3rd in the UK after London, and Manchester for ease of travelling around within the city. In the same survey, when asked how well companies know each of the cities as a business location, 19% said they were familiar with Leeds as a business location. This was the 6th highest in the UK after London (82%), Manchester (33%), Birmingham (28%), Edinburgh (25%) and Glasgow (21%). GVA In 2012, Leeds' GVA was £18.8bn ($33.2bn) accounting for 1.4% of UK GVA. It also accounts for 44% of the GVA of West Yorkshire, and 20% of the GVA of Yorkshire and Humber. Leeds is by far the largest centre of economic activity in the Yorkshire and Humber region: it is 80% higher than Sheffield's and 117% higher than Bradford's, for example. Compared with other major UK cities and conurbations, its GVA is exceeded only by London (comprising five NUTS 3 areas - £309.3bn), Greater Manchester South (£34.8bn) and Birmingham (£21.2bn). In 2012, the economy of Leeds remained 2.6% behind its peak output in 2008. Over the last 10 years, GVA growth in Leeds was marginally lower than West Yorkshire, but equal to the region as a whole. Growth was also lower than the UK as a whole. Over the last 5 years, again it was lower in these three areas. excluding Leeds, included Birmingham, Bristol, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Nottingham and Sheffield Productivity GVA per employee in Leeds is estimated to be £46,900 per employee in 2012. It is higher than other areas in the region, but lower than London. It was higher than all other NUTS 3 areas except Edinburgh (£54,100). Growth between 2007 and 2012 was 7% - equal 9th of all comparable 18 NUTS 3 areas. excluding Leeds, included Birmingham, Bristol, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Nottingham and Sheffield GVA by sector Employment, welfare and education The 2012 mid-year estimate for the population of Leeds was 757,700, and growth between 2011 and 2012 was estimated to be 0.93%, the second lowest of the Core Cities ahead of Liverpool (0.83%). Employment Earnings Median earnings in pounds for employees living in Leeds. Median earnings in pounds for employees working in Leeds. Education Head offices Asda has its head office in the Asda House in Leeds. Jet2.com, an airline, has its head office on the grounds of Leeds Bradford Airport in Yeadon, City of Leeds. GHD have their headquarters at Bridgewater Place. Other companies to be headquartered in Leeds include First Direct, Republic, Premier Farnell, Ginetta Cars, Leeds Building Society and Yorkshire Bank. GDF Suez Energy UK, a subsidiary of GDF Suez, has its offices in Leeds. Manufacturing Leeds has nearly 1,800 companies engaged in a diverse range of manufacturing activities, including specialised engineering, print, food and drink manufacture, chemicals and medical technology. Employing well over 144,200 people, the sector generates 10.8% of Leeds’ total output of over £15 billion a year. Most Leeds manufacturing companies are small to medium-sized. See https://web.archive.org/web/20130520122559/http://www.leedsmanufacturing.co.uk/ for lists of companies. Major companies include Siemens and Mitsubishi, ARLA foods and DairyCrest. Vehicle production Optare buses were made in Cross Gates until 2010 when production was moved to new facilities at Sherburn-in-Elmet. Ginetta sports cars are made in Garforth. Treves UK have a factory in Leeds as well as one at nearby Knaresborough manufacturing components for car interiors. Food production Food production makes up part of the Leeds manufacturing base. Arla Foods UK are based at Stourton, Northern Foods based at Cross Green and Goldenfry at Wetherby. Supercook were based in Leeds but have since also relocated to Sherburn-in-Elmet. Brewing has for sometime been prominent in Leeds. The Tetley's Brewery was until its closure in 2011 the main site for this, Carlsberg-Tetley's still have a distribution centre at Tingley. The Leeds Brewery still brew beer in Leeds as does the reopened Kirkstall Brewery (although not at the original site). Unilever manufacture a variety of goods at their factory in the city's Whinmoor district. Chemicals The city's main chemical producer, Yorkshire Chemicals closed both its Hunslet and Kirkstall plants in the 2000s. Rhodia UK also closed their smaller chemical works in Wortley, demolition was approved in 2011. There remains however several chemical works within the city, including E Chem in Kirkstall, Clariant in Rawdon and Chemsol in Hunslet. Financial and professional services Leeds is one of the largest business centres in the United Kingdom, around a quarter of a million people are employed in the financial and professional sector in the Leeds City Region with an output valued at £13 billion per year. Financial and professional services are largely based around the traditional business quarter in the city centre, as well as the newer area along the South bank of the River Aire. Many smaller legal and professional firms occupy the smaller Georgian office buildings around Park Square, while many banks and insurance underwriters are set around Park Row and East Parade. First Direct have their headquarters some distance from the main business districts in the industrial Stourton area. Unlike many comparable Northern cities, Leeds had a mixed economy throughout the latter half of the 20th century and so did not suffer the same industrial decline as other cities. However, by the 21st century Leeds' economy went into economic decline following the Great Recession, and unlike comparable Northern cities, it is yet to recover economically. The service sector of the economy flourished in the 2000s, with legal, accounting, consultancy, banking, insurance and recruitment firms moving to the city. In 2002 it was estimated that 38,000 new jobs would be created in Leeds over the next ten years, and most would be in the financial services sector. Companies with regional or national offices in Leeds, include KPMG, Norwich Union, First Direct, Lloyds Banking Group (Lloyds TSB), Lloyds Banking Group (HBOS), Allied Irish Bank, Royal Bank of Scotland, HSBC, Leeds Building Society, Alliance and Leicester, Yorkshire Bank, Zurich Financial Services and Direct Line. There are further financial institutions within the Leeds City Region with Yorkshire Building Society and Bradford and Bingley offices in Bradford and further HBOS offices in Halifax. The Bank of England, who have their headquarters on Threadneedle Street in London, have their second offices on King Street in the heart of Leeds' business quarter. The Financial crisis of 2007–2010 lead to the loss of jobs within the sector. A report produced in December 2008 predicted 28,000 jobs would be lost in Leeds, throughout the course of the recession, with many in the financial sector. The report however also predicted that other boroughs within the Leeds City Region would bear the brunt of job losses more than the city. A report produced in January 2009, stated that there was a possibility that employment in the financial sector in Leeds would not return to its previous levels with fears that 'Companies could be attracted by lower rent in other cities like Sheffield or Liverpool when recovery begins'. Both the University of Leeds and Leeds Metropolitan University have established business schools, their presence being supported by businesses in the city. Retail Leeds is the 3rd largest retail destination in the UK outside of London. The range of shopping facilities, from individual one-off boutiques to large department stores such as Harvey Nichols and Louis Vuitton outlets, has greatly expanded the Leeds retail base. The Victoria Quarter, several existing arcades connected together by roofing the entirety of Queen Victoria Street with stained glass, is located off Briggate, Leeds' main shopping street. In October 2016 Leeds' newest shopping centre Victoria Gate was opened, bringing a flagship John Lewis store to the city, along with a variety of luxury brands. Leeds features many stunning Victorian arcades, each with their own original features and unique charm: Thornton's Arcade, Queens Arcade, Grand Arcade and Central Arcade. Other popular shopping attractions include Leeds Kirkgate Market (founding place of the first Marks & Spencer and one of the largest indoor markets in Europe), Trinity Leeds, Crown Point Retail Park, The Light, The St John's Centre, The Merrion Centre Leeds, Birstall Retail Park and the White Rose Centre. Tourism Leeds has received several accolades in the field of tourism: it was named a Top 10 European Destination in 2017 by Lonely Planet; in the 2017 Condé Nast Traveler survey of readers, Leeds rated 6th among The 15 Best Cities in the UK for visitors. Earlier awards included being voted by Condé Nast Traveler magazine Readers' Awards as the "UK's favourite city" in 2004, "Best English city to visit outside London" in 2005, and also "Visitor city of the year" by The Good Britain Guide in 2005. Situated close to the UK's geographical centre, the city benefits from good transport connections with the M1 running from Leeds to London, the M62 connecting Leeds with Manchester and the seaport cities of Hull and Liverpool, and the A1(M) for linking to the north. Leeds Bradford Airport is a rapidly growing regional UK airport, with an 87 per cent growth in terminal passenger numbers in the last five years. Over 450 weekly flights connect the city to over 70 major European business and holiday destinations. Tourism in Leeds is estimated to support over 20,000 full-time equivalent jobs, and on average Leeds attracts around 1.5 million people annually who stay overnight, plus a further 10 million who visit on day trips. In 2009 Leeds was the 8th most visited city in England by UK visitors and the 13th most visited city by overseas visitors. Visitors to the city bring nearly £735 million into the local economy each year. Major national and regional attractions include the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds Art Gallery, the Henry Moore Institute and the West Yorkshire Playhouse. Leeds is also the only city outside London to have both its own opera and ballet companies – Opera North and Northern Ballet Theatre, both internationally renowned. By 2016, Leeds received 27.29 million leisure tourist visits generating over £1.6bn for the city, according to data from a STEAM survey. That was a 15.9% increase in revenue over 2015. A 9.7% increase in visits had been recorded since 2013. The industry supported over 19,000 full time equivalent jobs in 2016. Infrastructure Leeds is situated on the M1, the M62 and the A1(M) motorway connecting it with cities to the north, south, east and west. Leeds railway station is one of Network Rail's 20 principal stations and has rail links to London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow, Edinburgh and other major cities. The station is the busiest rail station in the North of England, with 31 million passengers passing through annually, putting it on a par with London King's Cross. Leeds has no mass transit system, the previously proposed Leeds Supertram was axed during the early stages of construction following the escalation of costs, the Leeds Trolleybus has since been proposed as an alternative, running the same route. Leeds is served by Leeds Bradford Airport, with connections to most major European cities. Air connections to Heathrow (British Airways) and Amsterdam (KLM & Jet2.com) are available. Although a railway line lies close to the airport, only buses connect it with the city centre. Heating In 2016 Leeds approved a £21m plan to district heat 2,000 homes using surplus heat from the Cross Green energy recycling and materials recovery facility, which opened in 2016. Development Leeds has seen a whole host of development taking place across the city centre, from new student living in close proximity to the First Direct Arena, to the regeneration of the area south of the river known as Leeds South Bank. Further information: https://leedscitycentrevision.co.uk/home Leeds South Bank represents one of the largest single city centre regeneration initiatives in Europe, the regeneration of the 253ha South Bank, supported by the transformation of Leeds Station to include HS2, will double the size of Leeds City Centre. Already a hub for National HQs, award-winning residential development and workspaces for the creative sectors, its regeneration will facilitate development of 8,000 homes by 2028 and over 35,000 jobs. In recent times Leeds has seen many new developments, with high rise schemes making a much larger mark on Leeds' skyline. Sixteen skyscrapers are currently under construction or proposed, all of them taller than West Riding House () – Leeds' tallest building from 1972 to 2005. Bridgewater Place, known locally as 'The Dalek', became the tallest building in Leeds and Yorkshire. Leeds City Region Enterprise Zone was launched in April 2012 to promote development in four sites along the A63 East Leeds Link Road. References External links Financial Leeds
4904667	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20triangle%20inequalities	List of triangle inequalities	In geometry, triangle inequalities are inequalities involving the parameters of triangles, that hold for every triangle, or for every triangle meeting certain conditions. The inequalities give an ordering of two different values: they are of the form "less than", "less than or equal to", "greater than", or "greater than or equal to". The parameters in a triangle inequality can be the side lengths, the semiperimeter, the angle measures, the values of trigonometric functions of those angles, the area of the triangle, the medians of the sides, the altitudes, the lengths of the internal angle bisectors from each angle to the opposite side, the perpendicular bisectors of the sides, the distance from an arbitrary point to another point, the inradius, the exradii, the circumradius, and/or other quantities. Unless otherwise specified, this article deals with triangles in the Euclidean plane. Main parameters and notation The parameters most commonly appearing in triangle inequalities are: the side lengths a, b, and c; the semiperimeter s = (a + b + c) / 2 (half the perimeter p); the angle measures A, B, and C of the angles of the vertices opposite the respective sides a, b, and c (with the vertices denoted with the same symbols as their angle measures); the values of trigonometric functions of the angles; the area T of the triangle; the medians ma, mb, and mc of the sides (each being the length of the line segment from the midpoint of the side to the opposite vertex); the altitudes ha, hb, and hc (each being the length of a segment perpendicular to one side and reaching from that side (or possibly the extension of that side) to the opposite vertex); the lengths of the internal angle bisectors ta, tb, and tc (each being a segment from a vertex to the opposite side and bisecting the vertex's angle); the perpendicular bisectors pa, pb, and pc of the sides (each being the length of a segment perpendicular to one side at its midpoint and reaching to one of the other sides); the lengths of line segments with an endpoint at an arbitrary point P in the plane (for example, the length of the segment from P to vertex A is denoted PA or AP); the inradius r (radius of the circle inscribed in the triangle, tangent to all three sides), the exradii ra, rb, and rc (each being the radius of an excircle tangent to side a, b, or c respectively and tangent to the extensions of the other two sides), and the circumradius R (radius of the circle circumscribed around the triangle and passing through all three vertices). Side lengths The basic triangle inequality is or equivalently In addition, where the value of the right side is the lowest possible bound, approached asymptotically as certain classes of triangles approach the degenerate case of zero area. The left inequality, which holds for all positive a, b, c, is Nesbitt's inequality. We have If angle C is obtuse (greater than 90°) then if C is acute (less than 90°) then The in-between case of equality when C is a right angle is the Pythagorean theorem. In general, For circumradius R and inradius r we have with equality if and only if the triangle is isosceles with apex angle greater than or equal to 60°; and with equality if and only if the triangle is isosceles with apex angle less than or equal to 60°. We also have and likewise for angles B, C, with equality in the first part if the triangle is isosceles and the apex angle is at least 60° and equality in the second part if and only if the triangle is isosceles with apex angle no greater than 60°. Further, any two angle measures A and B opposite sides a and b respectively are related according to which is related to the isosceles triangle theorem and its converse, which state that A = B if and only if a = b. By Euclid's exterior angle theorem, any exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either of the interior angles at the opposite vertices: If a point D is in the interior of triangle ABC, then For an acute triangle we have with the reverse inequality holding for an obtuse triangle. Furthermore, for non-obtuse triangles we have with equality if and only if it is a right triangle with hypotenuse AC. Area Weitzenböck's inequality is, in terms of area T, with equality only in the equilateral case. This is a corollary of the Hadwiger–Finsler inequality, which is Also, and From the rightmost upper bound on T, using the arithmetic-geometric mean inequality, is obtained the isoperimetric inequality for triangles: for semiperimeter s. This is sometimes stated in terms of perimeter p as with equality for the equilateral triangle. This is strengthened by Bonnesen's inequality also strengthens the isoperimetric inequality: We also have with equality only in the equilateral case; for semiperimeter s; and Ono's inequality for acute triangles (those with all angles less than 90°) is The area of the triangle can be compared to the area of the incircle: with equality only for the equilateral triangle. If an inner triangle is inscribed in a reference triangle so that the inner triangle's vertices partition the perimeter of the reference triangle into equal length segments, the ratio of their areas is bounded by Let the interior angle bisectors of A, B, and C meet the opposite sides at D, E, and F. Then A line through a triangle’s median splits the area such that the ratio of the smaller sub-area to the original triangle’s area is at least 4/9. Medians and centroid The three medians of a triangle each connect a vertex with the midpoint of the opposite side, and the sum of their lengths satisfies Moreover, with equality only in the equilateral case, and for inradius r, If we further denote the lengths of the medians extended to their intersections with the circumcircle as Ma , Mb , and Mc , then The centroid G is the intersection of the medians. Let AG, BG, and CG meet the circumcircle at U, V, and W respectively. Then both and in addition, For an acute triangle we have in terms of the circumradius R, while the opposite inequality holds for an obtuse triangle. Denoting as IA, IB, IC the distances of the incenter from the vertices, the following holds: The three medians of any triangle can form the sides of another triangle: Furthermore, Altitudes The altitudes ha, etc. each connect a vertex to the opposite side and are perpendicular to that side. They satisfy both and In addition, if then We also have For internal angle bisectors ta, tb, tc from vertices A, B, C and circumcenter R and incenter r, we have The reciprocals of the altitudes of any triangle can themselves form a triangle: Internal angle bisectors and incenter The internal angle bisectors are segments in the interior of the triangle reaching from one vertex to the opposite side and bisecting the vertex angle into two equal angles. The angle bisectors ta etc. satisfy in terms of the sides, and in terms of the altitudes and medians, and likewise for tb and tc . Further, in terms of the medians, and in terms of the altitudes, inradius r and circumradius R. Let Ta , Tb , and Tc be the lengths of the angle bisectors extended to the circumcircle. Then with equality only in the equilateral case, and for circumradius R and inradius r, again with equality only in the equilateral case. In addition,. For incenter I (the intersection of the internal angle bisectors), For midpoints L, M, N of the sides, For incenter I, centroid G, circumcenter O, nine-point center N, and orthocenter H, we have for non-equilateral triangles the distance inequalities and and we have the angle inequality In addition, where v is the longest median. Three triangles with vertex at the incenter, OIH, GIH, and OGI, are obtuse: > > 90° , > 90°. Since these triangles have the indicated obtuse angles, we have and in fact the second of these is equivalent to a result stronger than the first, shown by Euler: The larger of two angles of a triangle has the shorter internal angle bisector: Perpendicular bisectors of sides These inequalities deal with the lengths pa etc. of the triangle-interior portions of the perpendicular bisectors of sides of the triangle. Denoting the sides so that we have and Segments from an arbitrary point Interior point Consider any point P in the interior of the triangle, with the triangle's vertices denoted A, B, and C and with the lengths of line segments denoted PA etc. We have and more strongly than the second of these inequalities is: If is the shortest side of the triangle, then We also have Ptolemy's inequality for interior point P and likewise for cyclic permutations of the vertices. If we draw perpendiculars from interior point P to the sides of the triangle, intersecting the sides at D, E, and F, we have Further, the Erdős–Mordell inequality states that with equality in the equilateral case. More strongly, Barrow's inequality states that if the interior bisectors of the angles at interior point P (namely, of ∠APB, ∠BPC, and ∠CPA) intersect the triangle's sides at U, V, and W, then Also stronger than the Erdős–Mordell inequality is the following: Let D, E, F be the orthogonal projections of P onto BC, CA, AB respectively, and H, K, L be the orthogonal projections of P onto the tangents to the triangle's circumcircle at A, B, C respectively. Then With orthogonal projections H, K, L from P onto the tangents to the triangle's circumcircle at A, B, C respectively, we have where R is the circumradius. Again with distances PD, PE, PF of the interior point P from the sides we have these three inequalities: For interior point P with distances PA, PB, PC from the vertices and with triangle area T, and For an interior point P, centroid G, midpoints L, M, N of the sides, and semiperimeter s, Moreover, for positive numbers k1, k2, k3, and t with t less than or equal to 1: while for t > 1 we have Interior or exterior point There are various inequalities for an arbitrary interior or exterior point in the plane in terms of the radius r of the triangle's inscribed circle. For example, Others include: for k = 0, 1, ..., 6; and for k = 0, 1, ..., 9. Furthermore, for circumradius R, Let ABC be a triangle, let G be its centroid, and let D, E, and F be the midpoints of BC, CA, and AB, respectively. For any point P in the plane of ABC: Inradius, exradii, and circumradius Inradius and circumradius The Euler inequality for the circumradius R and the inradius r states that with equality only in the equilateral case. A stronger version is By comparison, where the right side could be positive or negative. Two other refinements of Euler's inequality are and Another symmetric inequality is Moreover, in terms of the semiperimeter s; in terms of the area T; and in terms of the semiperimeter s; and also in terms of the semiperimeter. Here the expression where d is the distance between the incenter and the circumcenter. In the latter double inequality, the first part holds with equality if and only if the triangle is isosceles with an apex angle of at least 60°, and the last part holds with equality if and only if the triangle is isosceles with an apex angle of at most 60°. Thus both are equalities if and only if the triangle is equilateral. We also have for any side a where if the circumcenter is on or outside of the incircle and if the circumcenter is inside the incircle. The circumcenter is inside the incircle if and only if Further, Blundon's inequality states that We also have, for all acute triangles, For incircle center I, let AI, BI, and CI extend beyond I to intersect the circumcircle at D, E, and F respectively. Then In terms of the vertex angles we have Denote as the tanradii of the triangle. Then with equality only in the equilateral case, and with equality only in the equilateral case. Circumradius and other lengths For the circumradius R we have and We also have in terms of the altitudes, in terms of the medians, and in terms of the area. Moreover, for circumcenter O, let lines AO, BO, and CO intersect the opposite sides BC, CA, and AB at U, V, and W respectively. Then For an acute triangle the distance between the circumcenter O and the orthocenter H satisfies with the opposite inequality holding for an obtuse triangle. The circumradius is at least twice the distance between the first and second Brocard points B1 and B2: Inradius, exradii, and other lengths For the inradius r we have in terms of the altitudes, and in terms of the radii of the excircles. We additionally have and The exradii and medians are related by In addition, for an acute triangle the distance between the incircle center I and orthocenter H satisfies with the reverse inequality for an obtuse triangle. Also, an acute triangle satisfies in terms of the circumradius R, again with the reverse inequality holding for an obtuse triangle. If the internal angle bisectors of angles A, B, C meet the opposite sides at U, V, W then If the internal angle bisectors through incenter I extend to meet the circumcircle at X, Y and Z then for circumradius R, and If the incircle is tangent to the sides at D, E, F, then for semiperimeter s. Inscribed figures Inscribed hexagon If a tangential hexagon is formed by drawing three segments tangent to a triangle's incircle and parallel to a side, so that the hexagon is inscribed in the triangle with its other three sides coinciding with parts of the triangle's sides, then Inscribed triangle If three points D, E, F on the respective sides AB, BC, and CA of a reference triangle ABC are the vertices of an inscribed triangle, which thereby partitions the reference triangle into four triangles, then the area of the inscribed triangle is greater than the area of at least one of the other interior triangles, unless the vertices of the inscribed triangle are at the midpoints of the sides of the reference triangle (in which case the inscribed triangle is the medial triangle and all four interior triangles have equal areas): Inscribed squares An acute triangle has three inscribed squares, each with one side coinciding with part of a side of the triangle and with the square's other two vertices on the remaining two sides of the triangle. (A right triangle has only two distinct inscribed squares.) If one of these squares has side length xa and another has side length xb with xa < xb, then Moreover, for any square inscribed in any triangle we have Euler line A triangle's Euler line goes through its orthocenter, its circumcenter, and its centroid, but does not go through its incenter unless the triangle is isosceles. For all non-isosceles triangles, the distance d from the incenter to the Euler line satisfies the following inequalities in terms of the triangle's longest median v, its longest side u, and its semiperimeter s: For all of these ratios, the upper bound of 1/3 is the tightest possible. Right triangle In right triangles the legs a and b and the hypotenuse c obey the following, with equality only in the isosceles case: In terms of the inradius, the hypotenuse obeys and in terms of the altitude from the hypotenuse the legs obey Isosceles triangle If the two equal sides of an isosceles triangle have length a and the other side has length c, then the internal angle bisector t from one of the two equal-angled vertices satisfies Equilateral triangle For any point P in the plane of an equilateral triangle ABC, the distances of P from the vertices, PA, PB, and PC, are such that, unless P is on the triangle's circumcircle, they obey the basic triangle inequality and thus can themselves form the sides of a triangle: However, when P is on the circumcircle the sum of the distances from P to the nearest two vertices exactly equals the distance to the farthest vertex. A triangle is equilateral if and only if, for every point P in the plane, with distances PD, PE, and PF to the triangle's sides and distances PA, PB, and PC to its vertices, Two triangles Pedoe's inequality for two triangles, one with sides a, b, and c and area T, and the other with sides d, e, and f and area S, states that with equality if and only if the two triangles are similar. The hinge theorem or open-mouth theorem states that if two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the included angle of the first is larger than the included angle of the second, then the third side of the first triangle is longer than the third side of the second triangle. That is, in triangles ABC and DEF with sides a, b, c, and d, e, f respectively (with a opposite A etc.), if a = d and b = e and angle C > angle F, then The converse also holds: if c > f, then C > F. The angles in any two triangles ABC and DEF are related in terms of the cotangent function according to Non-Euclidean triangles In a triangle on the surface of a sphere, as well as in elliptic geometry, This inequality is reversed for hyperbolic triangles. See also List of inequalities List of triangle topics References Mathematics-related lists
4904928	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel%20vPro	Intel vPro	Intel vPro technology is an umbrella marketing term used by Intel for a large collection of computer hardware technologies, including VT-x, VT-d, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT), and Intel Active Management Technology (AMT). When the vPro brand was launched (circa 2007), it was identified primarily with AMT, thus some journalists still consider AMT to be the essence of vPro. vPro features Intel vPro is a brand name for a set of PC hardware features. PCs that support vPro have a vPro-enabled processor, a vPro-enabled chipset, and a vPro-enabled BIOS as their main elements. A vPro PC includes: Multi-core, multi-threaded Xeon or Core processors. Intel Active Management Technology (Intel AMT), a set of hardware-based features targeted at businesses, allow remote access to the PC for management and security tasks, when an OS is down or PC power is off. Note that AMT is not the same as Intel vPro; AMT is only one element of a vPro PC. Remote configuration technology for AMT, with certificate-based security. Remote configuration can be performed on "bare-bones" systems, before the OS and/or software management agents are installed. Wired and wireless (laptop) network connection. Intel Trusted Execution Technology (Intel TXT), which verifies a launch environment and establishes the root of trust, which in turn allows software to build a chain of trust for virtualized environments. Intel TXT also protects secrets during power transitions for both orderly and disorderly shutdowns (a traditionally vulnerable period for security credentials). Support for IEEE 802.1X, Cisco Self Defending Network (SDN), and Microsoft Network Access Protection (NAP) in laptops, and support for 802.1x and Cisco SDN in desktop PCs. Support for these security technologies allows Intel vPro to store the security posture of a PC so that the network can authenticate the system before the OS and applications load, and before the PC is allowed access to the network. Intel Virtualization Technology, including Intel VT-x for CPU and memory, and Intel VT-d for I/O, to support virtualized environments (these features are also supported without vPro). Intel VT-x accelerates hardware virtualization which enables isolated memory regions to be created for running critical applications in hardware virtual machines in order to enhance the integrity of the running application and the confidentiality of sensitive data. Intel VT-d exposes protected virtual memory address spaces to DMA peripherals attached to the computer via DMA buses, mitigating the threat posed by malicious peripherals. Execute disable bit that, when supported by the OS, can help prevent some types of buffer overflow attacks. The 12th generation of Intel Core processors introduced four distinct platforms: vPro Essentials, vPro Enterprise for Windows, vPro Enterprise for Chrome and vPro Evo Design. The difference of vPro Essentials is that it does not support some features: Out-of-band KVM remote control, Wireless Intel® AMT, Fast call for help, Intel® Remote Secure Erase with Intel® SSD Pro. Intel processors that support vPro Essentials are using Intel Standard Manageability (a subset of Intel AMT) which supports out-of-band management and can be monitored with the "Access Monitor" feature. Remote management Intel AMT is the set of management and security features built into vPro PCs that makes it easier for a sys-admin to monitor, maintain, secure, and service PCs. Intel AMT (the management technology) is sometimes mistaken for being the same as Intel vPro (the PC "platform"), because AMT is one of the most visible technologies of an Intel vPro-based PC. Intel AMT includes: Encrypted remote power up/down/reset (via wake-on-LAN, or WOL) Remote/redirected boot (via integrated device electronics redirect, or IDE-R) Console redirection (via serial over LAN, or SOL) Preboot access to BIOS settings Programmable filtering for inbound and outbound network traffic Agent presence checking Out-of-band policy-based alerting Access to system information, such as the PC's universally unique identifier (UUID), hardware asset information, persistent event logs, and other information that is stored in dedicated memory (not on the hard drive) where it is accessible even if the OS is down or the PC is powered off. Hardware-based management has been available in the past, but it has been limited to auto-configuration (of computers that request it) using DHCP or BOOTP for dynamic IP address allocation and disk-less workstations, as well as wake-on-LAN for remotely powering on systems. VNC-based KVM remote control Starting with vPro with AMT 6.0, PCs with i5 or i7 processors and embedded Intel graphics, now contains an Intel proprietary embedded VNC server. You can connect out-of-band using dedicated VNC-compatible viewer technology, and have full KVM (keyboard, video, mouse) capability throughout the power cycle—including uninterrupted control of the desktop when an operating system loads. Clients such as VNC Viewer Plus from RealVNC also provide additional functionality that might make it easier to perform (and watch) certain Intel AMT operations, such as powering the computer off and on, configuring the BIOS, and mounting a remote image (IDER). Not all i5 & i7 Processors with vPro may support KVM capability. This depends on the OEM's BIOS settings as well as if a discrete graphics card is present. Only Intel integrated HD graphics support KVM ability. Wireless communication Intel vPro supports encrypted wired and wireless LAN wireless communication for all remote management features for PCs inside the corporate firewall. Intel vPro supports encrypted communication for some remote management features for wired and wireless LAN PCs outside the corporate firewall. vPro laptop wireless communication Laptops with vPro include a gigabit network connection and support IEEE 802.11 a/g/n wireless protocols. AMT wireless communication Intel vPro PCs support wireless communication to the AMT features. For wireless laptops on battery power, communication with AMT features can occur when the system is awake and connected to the corporate network. This communication is available if the OS is down or management agents are missing. AMT out-of-band communication and some AMT features are available for wireless or wired laptops connected to the corporate network over a host OS-based virtual private network (VPN) when laptops are awake and working properly. A wireless connection operates at two levels: the wireless network interface (WLAN) and the interface driver executing on the platform host. The network interface manages the RF communications connection. If the user turns off the wireless transmitter/receiver using either a hardware or software switch, Intel AMT cannot use the wireless interface under any conditions until the user turns on the wireless transmitter/receiver. Intel AMT Release 2.5/2.6 can send and receive management traffic via the WLAN only when the platform is in the S0 power state (the computer is on and running). It does not receive wireless traffic when the host is asleep or off. If the power state permits it, Intel AMT Release 2.5/2.6 can continue to send and receive out-of-band traffic when the platform is in an Sx state, but only via a wired LAN connection, if one exists. Release 4.0 and later releases support wireless out-of-band manageability in Sx states, depending on the power setting and other configuration parameters. Release 7.0 supports wireless manageability on desktop platforms. When a wireless connection is established on a host platform, it is based on a wireless profile that sets up names, passwords and other security elements used to authenticate the platform to the wireless Access Point. The user or the IT organization defines one or more profiles using a tool such as Intel PROSet/Wireless Software. In release 2.5/6, Intel AMT must have a corresponding wireless profile to receive out-of-band traffic over the same wireless link. The network interface API allows defining one or more wireless profiles using the same parameters as the Intel PROSet/Wireless Software. See Wireless Profile Parameters. On power-up of the host, Intel AMT communicates with the wireless LAN driver on the host. When the driver and Intel AMT find matching profiles, the driver routes traffic addressed to the Intel AMT device for manageability processing. With certain limitations, Intel AMT Release 4.0/1 can send and receive out-of-band traffic without an Intel AMT configured wireless profile, as long as the host driver is active and the platform is inside the enterprise. In release 4.2, and on release 6.0 wireless platforms, the WLAN is enabled by default both before and after configuration. That means that it is possible to configure Intel AMT over the WLAN, as long as the host WLAN driver has an active connection. Intel AMT synchronizes to the active host profile. It assumes that a configuration server configures a wireless profile that Intel AMT uses in power states other than S0. When there is a problem with the wireless driver and the host is still powered up (in an S0 power state only), Intel AMT can continue to receive out-of-band manageability traffic directly from the wireless network interface. For Intel AMT to work with a wireless LAN, it must share IP addresses with the host. This requires the presence of a DHCP server to allocate IP addresses and Intel AMT must be configured to use DHCP. Encrypted communication while roaming Intel vPro PCs support encrypted communication while roaming. vPro PCs version 4.0 or higher support security for mobile communications by establishing a secure tunnel for encrypted AMT communication with the managed service provider when roaming (operating on an open, wired LAN outside the corporate firewall). Secure communication with AMT can be established if the laptop is powered down or the OS is disabled. The AMT encrypted communication tunnel is designed to allow sys-admins to access a laptop or desktop PC at satellite offices where there is no on-site proxy server or management server appliance. Secure communications outside the corporate firewall depend on adding a new element—a management presence server (Intel calls this a "vPro-enabled gateway")—to the network infrastructure. This requires integration with network switch manufacturers, firewall vendors, and vendors who design management consoles to create infrastructure that supports encrypted roaming communication. So although encrypted roaming communication is enabled as a feature in vPro PCs version 4.0 and higher, the feature will not be fully usable until the infrastructure is in place and functional. vPro security vPro security technologies and methodologies are designed into the PC's chipset and other system hardware. During deployment of vPro PCs, security credentials, keys, and other critical information are stored in protected memory (not on the hard disk drive), and erased when no longer needed. Security and privacy concerns According to Intel, it is possible to disable AMT through the BIOS settings, however, there is apparently no way for most users to detect outside access to their PC via the vPro hardware-based technology. Moreover, Sandy Bridge and future chips will have, "...the ability to remotely kill and restore a lost or stolen PC via 3G ... if that laptop has a 3G connection" Many vPro features, including AMT, are implemented in the Intel Management Engine (ME), a distinct processor in the chipset running MINIX 3, which has been found to have numerous security vulnerabilities. Unlike for AMT, there is generally no official, documented way to disable the Management Engine (ME); it is always on unless it is not enabled at all by the OEM. Security features Intel vPro supports industry-standard methodologies and protocols, as well as other vendors' security features: Intel Trusted Execution Technology (Intel TXT) Industry-standard Trusted Platform Module (TPM) Intel Platform Trust Technology (Intel PTT), an TPM 2.0 fTPM that introduced in Skylake Support for IEEE 802.1x, Preboot Execution Environment (PXE), and Cisco Self Defending Network (SDN) in desktop PCs, and additionally Microsoft Network Access Protection (NAP) in laptops Execute Disable Bit Intel Virtualization Technology (Intel VT-x and VT-d) Intel VMCS-Intel Virtual Machine Control Structure Shadowing Intel Data Protection Technology Intel Identity Protection technology Intel Secure key (RDRAND) Intel Anti-Theft Technology Intel Boot Guard Intel OS Guard Intel Active Management Technology (Intel AMT) Intel Stable Image Platform Program (SIPP) Intel Small Business Advantage (Intel SBA) Intel Boot Guard Intel Boot Guard is a processor feature that prevents the computer from running firmware (UEFI) images not released by the system manufacturer (OEM or ODM). When turned on, the processors verifies a digital signature contained in the firmware image before executing it, using the public key of the keypair, the OEM/ODM public key is fused into the system's Platform Controller Hub (PCH) by the system manufacturer (not by Intel). As a result, Intel Boot Guard, when activated, makes it impossible for end users to install replacement firmware (such as Coreboot) or modded BIOS. Intel Boot Guard was first released in Haswell processors in June 2013. Technologies and methodologies Intel vPro uses several industry-standard security technologies and methodologies to secure the remote vPro communication channel. These technologies and methodologies also improve security for accessing the PC's critical system data, BIOS settings, Intel AMT management features, and other sensitive features or data; and protect security credentials and other critical information during deployment (setup and configuration of Intel AMT) and vPro use. Transport layer security (TLS) protocol, including pre-shared key TLS (TLS-PSK) to secure communications over the out-of-band network interface. The TLS implementation uses AES 128-bit encryption and RSA keys with modulus lengths of 2048 bits. HTTP digest authentication protocol as defined in RFC 2617. The management console authenticates IT administrators who manage PCs with Intel AMT. Single sign-on to Intel AMT with Microsoft Windows domain authentication, based on the Microsoft Active Directory and Kerberos protocols. A pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) in the firmware of the AMT PC, which generates high-quality session keys for secure communication. Only digitally signed firmware images (signed by Intel) are permitted to load and execute. Tamper-resistant and access-controlled storage of critical management data, via a protected, persistent (nonvolatile) data store (a memory area not on the hard drive) in the Intel AMT hardware. Access control lists for Intel AMT realms and other management functions. vPro hardware requirements The first release of Intel vPro was built with an Intel Core 2 Duo processor. The current versions of Intel vPro are built into systems with 10 nm Intel 10th Generation Core i5 & i7 processors. PCs with Intel vPro require specific chipsets. Intel vPro releases are usually identified by their AMT version. Laptop PC requirements Laptops with Intel vPro require: For Intel AMT release 9.0 (4th Generation Intel Core i5 and Core i7): 22 nm Intel 4th Generation Core i7 Mobile processors 22 nm Intel 4th Generation Core i5 Mobile processors Mobile QM87 chipsets For Intel AMT release 8.0 (3rd Generation Intel Core i5 and Core i7): 32 & 45 nm Intel 3rd Generation Core i7 Mobile processors 32 & 45 nm Intel 3rd Generation Core i5 Mobile processors Mobile QM77 & Q77 chipsets For Intel AMT release 4.1 (Intel Centrino 2 with vPro technology): 45 nm Intel Core2 Duo processor T, P sequence 8400, 8600, 9400, 9500, 9600; small form factor P, L, U sequence 9300 and 9400, and Quad processor Q9100 Mobile 45 nm Intel GS45, GM47, GM45 and PM45 Express chipsets (Montevina with Intel Anti-Theft Technology) with 1066 FSB, 6 MB L2 cache, ICH10M-enhanced For Intel AMT release 4.0 (Intel Centrino 2 with vPro technology): 45 nm Intel Core2 Duo processor T, P sequence 8400, 8600, 9400, 9500, 9600; small form factor P, L, U sequence 9300 and 9400, and Quad processor Q9100 Mobile 45 nm Intel GS45, GM47, GM45 and PM45 Express chipsets (Montevina) with 1066 FSB, 6 MB L2 cache, ICH9M-enhanced For Intel AMT release 2.5 and 2.6 (Intel Centrino with vPro technology): Intel Core2 Duo processor T, L, and U 7000 sequence3, 45 nm Intel Core2 Duo processor T8000 and T9000 Mobile Intel 965 (Broadwater-Q) Express chipset with ICH8M-enhanced Note that AMT release 2.5 for wired/wireless laptops and AMT release 3.0 for desktop PCs are concurrent releases. Desktop PC requirements Desktop PCs with vPro (called "Intel Core 2 with vPro technology") require: For AMT release 5.0: Intel Core2 Duo processor E8600, E8500, and E8400; 45 nm Intel Core2 Quad processor Q9650, Q9550, and Q9400 Intel Q45 (Eaglelake-Q) Express chipset with ICH10DO For AMT release 3.0, 3.1, and 3.2: Intel Core2 Duo processor E6550, E6750, and E6850; 45 nm Intel Core2 Duo processor E8500, E8400, E8300 and E8200; 45 nm Intel Core2 Quad processor Q9550, Q9450 and Q9300 Intel Q35 (Bearlake-Q) Express chipset with ICH9DO Note that AMT release 2.5 for wired/wireless laptops and AMT release 3.0 for desktop PCs are concurrent releases. For AMT release 2.0, 2.1 and 2.2: Intel Core 2 Duo processor E6300, E6400, E6600, and E6700 Intel Q965 (Averill) Express chipset with ICH8DO vPro, AMT, Core i relationships There are numerous Intel brands. However, the key differences between vPro (an umbrella marketing term), AMT (a technology under the vPro brand), Intel Core i5 and Intel Core i7 (a branding of a package of technologies), and Core i5 and Core i7 (a processor) are as follows: The Core i7, the first model of the i series was launched in 2008, and the less-powerful i5 and i3 models were introduced in 2009 and 2010, respectively. The microarchitecture of the Core i series was code-named Nehalem, and the second generation of the line was code-named Sandy Bridge. Intel Centrino 2 was a branding of a package of technologies that included Wi-Fi and, originally, the Intel Core 2 Duo. The Intel Centrino 2 brand was applied to mobile PCs, such as laptops and other small devices. Core 2 and Centrino 2 have evolved to use Intel's latest 45-nm manufacturing processes, have multi-core processing, and are designed for multithreading. Intel vPro is a brand name for a set of Intel technology features that can be built into the hardware of the laptop or desktop PC. The set of technologies are targeted at businesses, not consumers. A PC with the vPro brand often includes Intel AMT, Intel Virtualization Technology (Intel VT), Intel Trusted Execution Technology (Intel TXT), a gigabit network connection, and so on. There may be a PC with a Core 2 processor, without vPro features built in. However, vPro features require a PC with at least a Core 2 processor. The technologies of current versions of vPro are built into PCs with some versions of Core 2 Duo or Core 2 Quad processors (45 nm), and more recently with some versions of Core i5 and Core i7 processors. Intel AMT is part of the Intel Management Engine that is built into PCs with the Intel vPro brand. Intel AMT is a set of remote management and security hardware features that let a sys-admin with AMT security privileges access system information and perform specific remote operations on the PC. These operations include remote power up/down (via wake on LAN), remote / redirected boot (via integrated device electronics redirect, or IDE-R), console redirection (via serial over LAN), and other remote management and security features. See also Intel Management Engine Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware (DASH) Active Management Technology (AMT) Intel AMT versions Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) TrustZone Trusted Platform Module (TPM) Threat model Intel Core 2 Centrino 2 Centrino Intel Viiv Intel CIRA (Client-Initiated Remote Access) Notes References External links Intel ARK Intel Business Client Developer's Zone Intel AMT SDK 8.1 Reference Guide Blog: Intel Manageability Firmware Recovery Agent Forum Support: Intel Business Client Software Development Forum Resource to help install (activate) vPro systems Intel Centrino 2 Explained (CNET) vPro on Intel.com Intel vPro is everything we said it would be Intel vPro to Boost Security – Energy Efficiency – Cost Reduction Blogcast of the vPro Launch Intel(r) vPro(TM) Expert Center PRO TOOL WIKI ROI PODcast Vpro
4904950	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20Mitchell	Joan Mitchell	Joan Mitchell (February 12, 1925 – October 30, 1992) was an American artist who worked primarily in painting and printmaking, and also used pastel and made other works on paper. She was an active participant in the New York School of artists in the 1950s. A native of Chicago, she is associated with the American abstract expressionist movement, even though she lived in France for much of her career. Mitchell's emotionally intense style and its gestural brushwork were influenced by nineteenth-century post-impressionist painters, particularly Henri Matisse. Memories of landscapes inspired her compositions; she famously told art critic Irving Sandler, "I carry my landscapes around with me." Her later work was informed and constrained by her declining health. Mitchell was one of her era's few female painters to gain critical and public acclaim. Her paintings, drawings, and editioned prints can be seen in major museums and collections around the world, and have sold for record-breaking prices. In 2021, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and Baltimore Museum of Art co-organized a comprehensive retrospective of her work. In her will, Mitchell provided for the creation of the Joan Mitchell Foundation, a non-profit corporation that awards grants and fellowships to working artists and maintains her archives. Early life and education Mitchell was born in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of dermatologist James Herbert Mitchell and poet Marion Strobel Mitchell. She enjoyed diving and skating growing up, and her art would later reflect this athleticism; one gallery owner commented that Mitchell "approached painting almost like a competitive sport". Mitchell frequently attended Saturday art classes at the Art Institute of Chicago, and eventually would spend her summers of later adolescence in an Institute-run art colony, Ox-Bow. She lived on Chestnut Street in the Streeterville neighborhood and attended high school at Francis W. Parker School in the Lincoln Park neighborhood. She was close to her Parker classmate Edward Gorey and remained friends with him in later years, although neither cared for the other's work. Mitchell studied at Smith College in Massachusetts and the Art Institute of Chicago, where she earned her BFA in 1947 and her MFA in 1950. After moving to Manhattan in 1947, she wanted to study at Hans Hofmann's school in New York City but, according to curator Jane Livingston, Mitchell attended only one class and declared, "I couldn't understand a word he said so I left, terrified." A $2,000 travel fellowship allowed her to study in Paris and Provence in 1948–49, and she also traveled in Spain and Italy. During this period, her work became increasingly abstract. Mitchell married American publisher Barney Rosset in September 1949 in Le Lavandou, France. The couple returned to New York City later that year. They would divorce in 1952. Early career (New York) In 1950 Mitchell painted what would be her last picture with a human figure incorporated in the work Figure and the City, of which she said later "I knew that it would be my last figure". Then throughout the 1950s, Mitchell was active in the New York School of artists and poets, and was associated with the American Abstract expressionist movement, although she personally abhorred aesthetic labels. Beginning in 1950, she maintained a studio in Greenwich Village, first on Eleventh Street and later on Ninth Street. She was a regular at established artist gathering spots like the Cedar Tavern and The Club, an invitation-only loft space on Eighth Street where Mitchell participated in panel discussions and attended social gatherings throughout the 1950s. Mitchell maintained a robust creative discourse with fellow New York School painters Philip Guston, Franz Kline, and Willem de Kooning, whose work she greatly admired. As Katy Siegel wrote in Joan Mitchell, "She went to their studios and shows, and they came to hers; she had dinner and drinks with them, in company and alone, talking painting materials and great art." Along with Lee Krasner, Grace Hartigan, Helen Frankenthaler, Shirley Jaffe, Elaine de Kooning, and Sonia Gechtoff, Mitchell was one of the few female artists in her era to gain critical acclaim and recognition. In 1951, Mitchell's work was exhibited in the landmark "Ninth Street Show," organized by art dealer Leo Castelli and by members of the Artists' Club; the show also included work by Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, and Hans Hofmann. Joan Mitchell carried her large abstract painting across town with the help of Castelli. Her friends Franz Kline and Willem de Kooning thought her work was excellent and put the painting in good place in the exhibition. Her first solo exhibition was held at the New Gallery in New York in 1952. By the mid-1950s Mitchell was spending increasing amounts of time traveling and working in France. She continued to exhibit regularly in New York, with numerous solo exhibitions at the Stable Gallery throughout the 1950s–1960s. In an interview with Linda Nochlin, Mitchell admitted that though many of her colleagues were very supportive of her artistic career, because she was a woman in the art field she did have a few setbacks. She said that she was once told by Hans Hofmann that she should be painting, which sounds very nice, but she took it to mean that the male artists were not threatened by female artists so much that they did not care if they advanced their artistic career. In 1955, while in Paris, Mitchell met Canadian painter Jean-Paul Riopelle, with whom she would have a long, rich, and tumultuous relationship (from 1955 to 1979). They maintained separate homes and studios, but had dinner and drank together nearly daily. In 1956 Mitchell painted one of her breakthrough works Hemlock, named by the artist after it was completed for what she called the "dark and blue feeling" of Wallace Stevens 1916 poem Domination of Black. In October 1957, the first major feature on Mitchell's work appeared in ARTnews. In the article, entitled "Mitchell Paints a Picture", art critic Irving Sandler wrote, "Those feelings which she strives to express she defines as 'the qualities which differentiate a line of poetry from a line of prose.' However, emotion must have an outside reference, and nature furnishes the external substance in her work." Mid-career (France) By 1959, Mitchell was living full-time in France and painting in a studio on the rue Fremicourt in the 15th arrondissement of Paris. During this time, her paintings appeared in a string of high-profile international exhibitions, including the Osaka exhibition International Art of a New Era: Informel and Gutai; the 29th Venice Biennale; the V Bienal do Museo de Arte Moderna, São Paulo; and Documenta II in Kassel. Along with regular solo exhibitions at the Stable Gallery and group exhibitions at other venues in New York, she began exhibiting in Paris with Galerie Jean Fournier (known as Galerie Kléber until 1963). Fournier would remain Mitchell's Paris dealer for more than three decades. Also in the early 1960s, Mitchell had solo exhibitions in Paris with Galerie Neufville (1960) and Galerie Lawrence (1962). She had additional solo exhibitions in Italy (Galleria Dell'Ariete, Milan, 1960) and Switzerland (Klipstein und Kornfeld, Bern, 1962). Throughout the 1960s, Mitchell's work was included in the Salon de Mai and the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles in Paris, as well as numerous group exhibitions held at France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Japan, The Netherlands, and other international venues. During the period between 1960 and 1964, Mitchell moved away from the all-over style and bright colors of her earlier compositions, instead using sombre hues and dense central masses of color to express something inchoate and primordial. The marks on these works were said to be extraordinary: "The paint flung and squeezed on to the canvases, spilling and spluttering across their surfaces and smeared on with the artist's fingers." The artist herself referred to the work created in this period of the early 1960s as "very violent and angry," but by 1964 she was "trying to get out of a violent phase and into something else." In 1967, Mitchell inherited enough money following the death of her mother to purchase a two-acre estate in the town of Vétheuil, France, near Giverny, the gardener's cottage of which had been Claude Monet's home. Mitchell bought the house "so she wouldn’t have to dogwalk" and that came in useful for her 13 dogs. She lived and worked there for the remainder of her life. The landscape in Vétheuil, particularly the view of the Seine and the gardens on her property, became frequent reference points for her work. Mitchell often invited artist friends from New York to come on creative retreats to Vétheuil. Painter Joyce Pensato recalled, "She wanted to give to young people. Carl [Plansky] and I called it the Fresh Air Fund...The first time she invited me for the summer, it ended up being March to September. I got brainwashed for six months, and that’s how I found out who I am." In 1968, Mitchell began exhibiting with Martha Jackson Gallery in New York; she continued to exhibit with the gallery into the 1970s. In 1972, Mitchell staged her first major museum exhibition, entitled My Five Years in the Country, at the Everson Museum of Art in Syracuse, New York. The exhibition, especially Mitchell's "Sunflower" paintings from the late 1960s-early 1970s, received critical acclaim. Writing for The New York Times, Peter Schjeldahl predicted that Mitchell would ultimately be recognized "as one of the best American painters not only of the fifties, but of the sixties and seventies as well." He continued, "This claim will not, I think, seem large to anyone lucky enough to have viewed the recent massive and almost awesomely beautiful Mitchell exhibition—49 paintings, some of them huge, done during the five years the artist has been living in France—at the Everson Museum in Syracuse." The exhibition traveled to Martha Jackson Gallery following the Everson Museum presentation. In 1969 Mitchell completed her first large scale triptych, the 16.5 foot wide Sans Neige (without Snow). In 1976, Mitchell began exhibiting regularly with New York gallerist Xavier Fourcade, who was her New York dealer until his death in 1987. In 1979 Mitchell completed two of her [what went on to be] best known large scale works, the polyptychs La Vie en Rose (named after the famed song by the French chanteuse Edith Piaf) and Salut Tom (dedicated to her friend the art critic and curator Thomas B. Hess who died in 1978). Tausif Noir in writing for the New York Times says of La Vie en Rose [that in it] ... "Mitchell juxtaposes energetic — nearly violent — sections of black and blue brush strokes against a haze of lavender and pale pink, warping the viewer’s sense of the painting’s scale and directing the eye".... Later years and death (France) In 1982, Mitchell became the first female American artist to have a solo exhibition at the Musee d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris. In Paris, Mitchell had a circle of artist friends, such as the composer Gisèle Barreau and painters such as Kate Van Houten, Claude Bauret Allard, Michaële-Andréa Schatt, Monique Frydman, Mâkhi Xenakis, Shirley Jaffe, Zuka, and Katy Crowe. In November 1984, Mitchell commenced sessions with Parisian psychoanalyst Christiane Rousseaux-Mosettig in the Bastille area. There she met and became friends with the American artist Sara Holt and her husband, artist Jean-Max Albert. She wrote: "Kids… I really love your plural work and natch both of you. So nice liking the work and the artist too — it’s rather rare I have found… I’m very very happy… ". In 1984, Mitchell was diagnosed with advanced oral cancer and a mandibulectomy (removal of the jaw) was advised. In October, she obtained a second opinion from Jean-Pierre Bataini, a pioneer in radiation oncology with the Curie Institute, whose therapy was successful, but left Mitchell with a dead jawbone (osteonecrosis), along with anxiety and depression. She had quit smoking on doctor's orders, but remained a heavy drinker. After 1985, Mitchell's post-cancer paintings reflect the psychological changes cancer had effected: six Between paintings, Faded Air I, Faded Air II, the A Few Days cycle, the Before, Again cycle and the Then, Last Time group of four. Her health further deteriorated when Mitchell developed osteoarthritis as a result of hip dysplasia. She underwent hip replacement surgery at Hôpital Cochin in December 1985, but with little success. During her subsequent recuperation at a clinic in Louveciennes, she started watercolor painting. Her postoperative difficulties necessitated using an easel and working on a smaller format. Her River cycle is emblematic of this period. Around the same time, Mitchell's New York dealer, Xavier Fourcade, had been diagnosed with AIDS and, in 1986, travelled to France to undergo treatment. Fourcade and Mitchell visited Lille in December to view an exhibition of works by Matisse from the State Hermitage Museum, Leningrad. The trip resulted in the Lille cycle of paintings, followed, after Xavier Fourcade's death on April 28, 1987, by the Chord paintings. The River, Lille and Chord paintings were exhibited at Galerie Jean Fournier, Paris between June 10 and July 13, 1987. In 1988, Mitchell's work was showcased in a major retrospective exhibition, which she referred to as being "art-historized live." Entitled The Paintings of Joan Mitchell: Thirty-six Years of Natural Expressionism, the exhibition toured the United States in 1988 and 1989, originating at the Corcoran Gallery of Art before traveling to San Francisco Museum of Art, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, La Jolla Museum of Contemporary Art, and Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University. Mitchell's first solo show at Robert Miller Gallery (of nine paintings) ran from October 25 to November 25, 1989. Her second Robert Miller Gallery solo ran from March 26 to April 20, 1991. It proved to be very popular, and featured paintings described by John Russell of The New York Times as "self-portraits by someone who has staked everything on autonomous marks that are peculiar to herself". In the final years of her life, Mitchell returned to the subject of sunflowers with renewed focus. Sunflowers, 1990–91 was painted to "convey the feeling of a dying sunflower". In October 1992, Mitchell flew to New York for a Matisse exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art. Upon her arrival, she was taken to a doctor, who diagnosed advanced lung cancer. She returned to Paris on October 22, returning to Vétheuil briefly before entering hospital in Paris, where friends like John Cheim and Joseph Strick visited her. She died on the morning of October 30, 1992, at the American Hospital of Paris. Style and influences Although her painting style evolved over the years, Mitchell remained committed to abstraction from the early 1950s until her final works in 1992. Grounded in years of visiting the Art Institute of Chicago as a child to look at nineteenth-century painting, Mitchell cited Paul Cézanne, Wassily Kandinsky, Henri Matisse, and Vincent van Gogh as influences on her work, and once said, "If I could paint like Matisse, I'd be in heaven." Her paintings are expansive, often covering multiple panels. Memories and the feelings she associated with remembered landscapes provided the primary source material for her work. Mitchell told critic Irving Sandler, "I carry my landscapes around with me." Mitchell painted primarily with oil paints on primed canvas or white ground, using gestural, sometimes violent brushwork. She has described a painting as "an organism that turns in space." According to art historian Linda Nochlin, the "meaning and emotional intensity [of Mitchell's pictures] are produced structurally, as it were, by a whole series of oppositions: dense versus transparent strokes; gridded structure versus more chaotic, ad hoc construction; weight on the bottom of the canvas versus weight at the top; light versus dark; choppy versus continuous strokes; harmonious and clashing juxtapositions of hue – all are potent signs of meaning and feeling." Mitchell said that she wanted her paintings "to convey the feeling of the dying sunflower" and "some of them come out like young girls, very coy ... they're very human." Mitchell was very influenced by her feelings and incorporated them into her artwork. She even compared these feelings that influenced her paintings to poetry. Legacy Joan Mitchell Foundation In her will, Mitchell provided for the creation of a foundation that would "aid and assist" artists while stewarding her legacy. Established in New York in 1993 as a not-for-profit corporation, the Joan Mitchell Foundation awards grants and fellowships to U.S.-based painters, sculptors, and artist collectives. More than 1,000 U.S.-based artists have received grants from the Foundation, including Mel Chin (1995), Mark Bradford (2002), Wangechi Mutu (2007), Simone Leigh (2011), Amy Sherald (2013), Amanda Ross-Ho (2013), Ann Purcell (2014), Michi Meko (2017), Elisabeth Condon (2018), Daniel Lind-Ramos (2019), and Zarouhie Abdalian (2020). The Foundation provides artists with free resources and instruction in the areas of career documentation, inventory management, and legacy planning. An Artist-in-Residence program at the Joan Mitchell Center in New Orleans, Louisiana opened in 2015 at 2275 Bayou Road in the Seventh Ward. Past residency participants include Laylah Ali, Firelei Báez, Heather Hart, Maren Hassinger, Laura Kina, Carrie Moyer, Shani Peters, Alison Saar, Amy Sherald, Cullen Washington, Jr., Carl Joe Williams, and Mel Ziegler. In addition, the Foundation manages a collection of Mitchell's artwork, her papers (including correspondence and photographs), and other archival materials related to her life and work. In 2015, the Foundation established the Joan Mitchell Catalogue Raisonné project, which is researching Mitchell’s paintings for the eventual publication of a catalogue raisonné. Select legacy exhibitions Mitchell's work was featured in mid-career surveys in 1961 and 1974, and a major late-career retrospective toured in 1988 and 1989. A retrospective survey, The Paintings of Joan Mitchell, opened at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 2002. On the eve of the exhibition's opening in 2002, friend and art writer Klaus Kertess wrote in the New York Times: "A passionate inner vision guided Joan's brush. Like her peer Cy Twombly, she extended the vocabulary of her Abstract Expressionist forebears. She imbued their painterliness with a compositional and chromatic bravery that defiantly alarms us into grasping their beauty." In 2016 her work was included in the exhibition Women of Abstract Expressionism organized by the Denver Art Museum. In 2015, Kunsthaus Bregenz, Austria, organized Joan Mitchell Retrospective: Her Life and Paintings, which traveled to Museum Ludwig, Cologne, Germany (2015–2016). In September 2021, a comprehensive retrospective, Joan Mitchell, opened at San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (September 4, 2021 – January 17, 2022). The retrospective was co-curated by Sarah Roberts, SFMOMA, and Katy Siegel, Baltimore Museum of Art. In a review for The New York Times, critic Tausif Noor wrote that the exhibition "tracks how Mitchell’s steely resolve to be written in history as one of the greatest painters produced a signature style that extended the contours of Abstract Expressionism." Following the run at SFMOMA, the show traveled to the Baltimore Museum of Art (March 6 – August 14, 2022) and the Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris (Fall 2022). In 2023 her work was included in the exhibition Action, Gesture, Paint: Women Artists and Global Abstraction 1940-1970 at the Whitechapel Gallery in London. Mitchell's art is held in the permanent collection of over 100 public institutions worldwide. Art market Mitchell's artwork has been extremely commercially successful, both during her lifetime and after her death. Mitchell earned over $30,000 in art sales between 1960 and 1962, while still in the middle of her career. This was a significant figure for a woman painter at that time. At the time of her death in 1992, Mitchell was represented by Robert Miller Gallery in New York and Galerie Jean Fournier in Paris. Both galleries continued to present exhibitions of her work throughout the 1990s. In 2004, Cheim & Read in New York assumed gallery representation for the Joan Mitchell Foundation; the gallery presented numerous solo exhibitions of Mitchell's work until 2018, when the Foundation shifted representation to David Zwirner. In 2019, Mitchell's multi-panel works were the subject of a solo exhibition at David Zwirner New York, entitled Joan Mitchell: I carry my landscapes around with me. Auctions In 2007, the Art Institute of Chicago sold Ste. Hilaire, 1957 at Christie's New York for $3.8 million. In 2012, an untitled 1971 painting of Mitchell's sold for €5.2 million ($7 million) at Christie's Paris. That year, Mitchell's canvases were the two most expensive works by any woman artist sold at auction, according to auction database Artnet. Works by Mitchell fetched $239.8 million in sales from 1985 through 2013, according to figures compiled by Bloomberg. At Christie's New York in 2014, Mitchell's untitled 1960 abstract painting sold for $11.9 million, surpassing the high estimate and setting an auction record for the artist. The result also established a new record for an artwork by any female artist at auction, formerly held by Berthe Morisot's Apres le dejeuner (1881). This price in turn was exceeded by the $44.4 million achieved by the 1932 painting Jimson Weed/White Flower No 1 by Georgia O'Keeffe on 20 November 2014. In June 2018, nine of Mitchell's paintings were expected to sell for more than $70 million at the world's largest modern art fair, Art Basel. In May 2021, Mitchell’s painting 12 Hawks at 3 O’Clock (ca. 1962) sold for a record $20 million at Art Basel Hong Kong. References Further reading Reverse chronological by date of publication Roberts, Sarah and Katy Siegel. Joan Mitchell. San Francisco: SFMOMA; New Haven: Yale University Books, 2021. ISBN 9780300247275 Hudson, Suzanne and Robert Slifkin. Joan Mitchell: I carry my landscapes around with me. Catalogue of exhibition held at David Zwirner New York, May 3 – July 12, 2019. New York: David Zwirner Books, 2019. ISBN 9781644230282 Tap, M. (2018). Joan Mitchell and Jean-Paul Riopelle. Border Crossings, 37(3), 122–124. Gabriel, Mary. Ninth Street Women: Lee Krasner, Elaine de Kooning, Grace Hartigan, Joan Mitchell, and Helen Frankenthaler: five painters and the movement that changed modern art. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2018. Hickey, Dave. 25 Women: Essays on Their Art. Illinois: University of Chicago Press, January, 2016. Mitchell, Joan. "Interview with Yves Michaud." Stiles, Kristine, and Peter Selz. Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art: A Sourcebook of Artists' Writings. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2012, pp. 32–34. Albers, Patricia. Joan Mitchell: Lady Painter: A Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. Chadwick, Whitney. Women, Art, and Society. London: Thames & Hudson, 2007. Mitchell, Joan, and Helen Anne Molesworth. Joan Mitchell: Leaving America, New York to Paris, 1958–1964. Göttingen: Steidl, 2007. Catalog of an exhibition held at Hauser & Wirth London, May 24 – July 21, 2007. Livingston, Jane, Yvette Y. Lee, and Linda Nochlin. The Paintings of Joan Mitchell. Berkeley: Los Angeles, 2002. Exhibitions: Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, June 20 – September 29, 2002; Birmingham Museum of Art, Alabama, June 27 – August 31, 2003; Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Texas, September 21, 2003 – January 7, 2004; The Phillips Collection, Washington, February 14 – May 16, 2004. Herskovic, Marika. American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s: An Illustrated Survey with Artists' Statements, Artwork and Biographies. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New York School Press, 2003, pp. 226–229. Herskovic, Marika. New York School: Abstract Expressionists : Artists Choice by Artists : a Complete Documentation of the New York Painting and Sculpture Annuals, 1951–1957. New Jersey: New York School Press, 2000, pp. 8, 16, 38, 254–257. Seidner, David. Artists at Work : Inside the Studios of Today's Most Celebrated Artists. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 1999, pp. 90–103. Bernstock, Judith. Joan Mitchell. New York: Hudson Hills Press, in association with Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University, Ithaca, 1988. Joan Mitchell: Choix de peintures, 1970–1982. Introduction by Suzanne Pagé; essays by Marcelin Pleynet and Barbara Rose. Paris: ARC, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, 1982. Munro, Eleanor. Originals: American Women Artists. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979, pp. 233–247. Tucker, Marcia. Joan Mitchell. New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1974. External links The Joan Mitchell Foundation Dorothy Seckler, Oral history interview with Joan Mitchell, 1965 May 21 – Archives of American Art Joan Mitchell: Portrait of an Abstract Painter, documentary film by Marion Cajori Joan Mitchell Biography on TheArtStory Mitchell/Riopelle Exhibit East Ninth Street LACMA Joan Mitchell at MoMA Joan Mitchell at David Zwirner Abstract expressionist artists Abstract painters 1925 births 1992 deaths American women painters American women printmakers Artists from Illinois Artists from New York (state) School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni 20th-century American painters 20th-century American women artists 20th-century American printmakers Francis W. Parker School (Chicago) alumni
4905353	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LocoRoco	LocoRoco	LocoRoco (Japanese: ロコロコ, Romaji: Rokoroko) is a platform video game developed by Japan Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment, which was released worldwide in 2006 for the PlayStation Portable (PSP) handheld game console. The game was developed by Tsutomu Kouno, striving to create a game that was different from other titles being released for the PSP at the time. After demonstrating a prototype of the core gameplay to his management, Kouno was able to complete development over the course of a year and a half. In LocoRoco, the player must tilt the environment by using the shoulder buttons on the PSP in order to maneuver the LocoRoco, multi-colored jelly-like characters, through each level, being aided by other odd residents while avoiding hazards and the deadly Moja Troop, to reach an end goal. Along the way, the LocoRoco can grow in size by eating special berries, and then can be split and rejoined to pass the LocoRoco through narrow spaces. The game's bright and colorful visuals and dynamic music soundtrack were hallmarks of the game, earning it several awards from the gaming press in 2006. While the game did not sell high volumes, its success led to the development of four other LocoRoco titles – two sequels for the PSP (PlayStation Portable)/PSP Go, a spin-off for the PlayStation 3 and a mobile version (called LocoRoco Mobile and LocoRoco Hi, depending on the market) for cellular (mobile) telephones. A remastered version of the game was released in 2017 for the PlayStation 4. Plot Living peacefully on a faraway planet, the LocoRoco and their friends, the Mui Mui, help grow vegetation and look after nature, making the planet a pleasant place to be, playing and singing the days away. When the Moja Troop comes to the planet to take it over, the LocoRoco do not know how to fight against these invaders from outer space. As such, the player assumes the role of "the planet" that is capable of guiding the LocoRoco around to defeat the Moja Troop and rescue the remaining LocoRoco, returning the planet to its peaceful ways. Gameplay Loco Roco is divided into 5 worlds each consisting of 8 levels. In each level, the goal is to reach the end point of the level, with the player scored on the number of LocoRoco found, the time to complete the level, and other factors. There are six varieties of LocoRoco in the game, identified by their color, appearance, and musical voice, but outside of the first "Yellow" one, the rest are unlocked as the player completes the level. The player can then opt which LocoRoco they want to use for a level, however, this selection has no fundamental gameplay effects and only changes the songs used. LocoRoco act as blobs of gelatin, deforming from their normally round shape when demanded by the environment. Certain beings in the world can change the default shape of the LocoRoco into other forms, such as squares or triangles, which lasts until the end of the level or they encounter another similar being. The player starts with a single LocoRoco. When this LocoRoco eats a berry, it grows by one, up to a maximum size of twenty. The single large LocoRoco may be split into individual beings by tapping a face button or through specific points on the level, while individual LocoRoco can merge back into a single being by holding down a face button. Manipulation of the LocoRoco in this manner may be necessary to guide them to the finish; while the single large LocoRoco is easier to control, small passages can only be navigated by individual LocoRoco. The player can lose LocoRoco if they are touched by harmful objects or they run into the Moja, and the player will have to restart the level if they lose all their LocoRoco. The player does not otherwise directly control the LocoRoco, but instead controls the planet itself, tilting the planet using the shoulder buttons. This causes the LocoRoco to roll in the direction of tilt, as well as causing certain mechanical objects such as platforms to also tilt. The player can also cause the LocoRoco to jump by holding and releasing both shoulder buttons; this not only allows the LocoRoco a way to cross gaps, but to burst through walls as well as harm the Moja without taking damage. As the player collects more Loco Roco in a level, the music gains more voices, each Loco Roco singing a part in the overall song. Throughout the levels are areas that require a minimum number of LocoRoco in order to cause them to sing and wake up one of the planet's odd residents, who will then reward the player with an item for their "Loco House". There are also hidden Mui Mui throughout the levels to be found. Levels also contain "Pickories" which can be collected by the LocoRoco and are used as a form of currency to play two mini-games outside of the main game. The mini-games are "Mui Mui Crane", a variation of a crane game, and "Chuppa Chuppa" that use Chuppa, bird-like launchers for the LocoRoco, to navigate a long course. Both mini-games grant additional Loco House parts and Pickories as prizes. The player can use the accumulated Loco House parts to create a course that the Loco Roco will automatically navigate, with additional parts that can be collected by directing the course appropriately. A Loco Editor is also an unlockable feature in the game, creating an interactive course with a start and finish using the Loco House parts. Development LocoRoco was envisioned by Tsutomu Kouno, who had previously work on development of Ico. While on a train during the second quarter of 2004, Kouno had used a PDA to sketch a game that would involve multiple similar characters that would not be in direct control of the player. He realized the planet-tilting aspect after seeing how rotating the phone with the sketch around would lead to a compelling game. At that time, the PlayStation Portable was nearing release, and Kouno felt the unit's shoulder buttons would be appropriate for the tilting controls. Kouno also opted to develop for the PSP to break the mold of other, more complicated sequels from PlayStation 2 games that were being developed for the unit and instead create something that "really seemed at home on the PSP". Kouno also wanted "every aspect of the game [...] to be unique", and led to his choices for graphics and music in the game. Three concepts were part of Kouno's vision for the game, "easy to play, fun and to have dramatic visuals". Kouno sought not only to make the game accessible to younger players, but also to a wider, international audience. While his team experimented with different control schemes for the game, they recognized that the simple tilting controls would be easily learned by children as well as those outside Japan. This approach also led to the use of a new "language" for the music, instead of relying on Japanese works which would not be understood by the international audience. However, despite the simple controls, Kouno noted they included deep gameplay around those that would require players to master to gain all the collectibles in the game. Kouno opted to keep the game in 2D instead of the more popular 3D to maintain the simplicity of the game. The Loco Roco team had experimented with different designs for the characters and world, including claymation, papercraft, and detailed textures, but settled on the resulting patterns not only to convey a "bright, cheerful" world, but as well as to keep budget costs down, no longer having a need to seek artists for textures. Kouno drew upon his interest in the natural world to design the other characters in the game; for example, one character was based on the appearance of his pet tropical fish. Kouno found that using 2D graphics allowed him to constantly present the faces of the LocoRoco and other beings within the game, and used that to convey a constant sense of emotion from all the characters. Maya was used to construct the levels and place hazards and obstacles. The graphics themselves were based on using and animating Bezier curves, a feature of the PSP's software capabilities. Kouno had attempted to present the idea at pitch meetings twice in the early part of 2005 but was turned away. While management was able to understand the mechanic of tilting the world, they could not understand Kouno's vision of applying artificial intelligence to the LocoRoco or other creatures in the game. On the second rejection, the management staff suggested that Kouno return with something more concrete to explain his ideas. Kouno spent one month with a four-person team to create a simple pre-prototype version of the game that demonstrated the rolling gameplay aspect. The pre-prototype version was well received, and Kouno was given further resources to develop the full game. A complete prototype was created by an eight-person team over three months to establish the rest of the game's core mechanics, including the joining and splitting of the Loco Roco and the dynamic music. The remainder of the game was completed in the following 11 months by the full 16-person staff at Sony Computer Entertainment Japan. Soundtrack {{Listen \|filename=LocoRoco-BuBuPoruche.ogg \|title=Track #5: "Bu Bu Poruche", from the LocoRoco Original Soundtrack \|description=LocoRocos soundtrack uses a fictional language created by Kouno to appeal to an international audience. \|format=Ogg}} The soundtrack for Loco Roco is based on a fictional language created by Kouno to avoid alienating foreign players by using Japanese music. Kouno created the language by compiling a list of interesting words in katakana, then altering the words slightly to make them sound cool in Japanese as to mask their origins. Kouno then sent the lyrics along with some of his preferred reggae, soul and R&B music to the composers, Nobuyuki Shimizu and Kemmei Adachi, to complete the soundtrack. Kouno requested that the composers use as little electronic-sounding instruments as possible to give the music a feeling of "live sound". The team ultimately created about 60 songs to be used in the game. While the soundtrack had many different themes, Kouno felt that the fictional LocoRoco language helped to unify the songs across the game. The LocoRoco Original Soundtrack: LocoRoco No Uta''' was published by Columbia Records and released in October 2006 in Japan. The album contains 42 tracks from the game. Versions Demos Following the release of Firmware 2.7 on April 25, 2006, a downloadable demo of LocoRoco was released on the game's Japanese website and was the first Sony-sanctioned user-downloadable game for the PSP. A demo localized for western countries was released in June 2006, shortly before the game's full European release. It includes one level that will take the player around 5–15 minutes to complete, depending on the number of secret areas the player encounters. A special Halloween-themed demo was released for download on October 26, 2006, It featured some exclusive graphics and objects, like Jack-o-lanterns, spirits, and more. Few puzzles were implemented. A Christmas-themed demo was released for download on December 11, 2006. It featured some exclusive graphics like Santa's sleigh and more. A unique LocoRoco song is implemented. Mobile version A mobile version of LocoRoco, LocoRoco Mobile, was created for distribution via i-mode, a wireless service in Japan in 2007. The mobile game has since been released in western countries by Gamelion, however it has been renamed LocoRoco Hi. ReceptionLocoRoco has received mostly positive reviews from critics. The game was consistently praised for its bright and bold graphics. Charles Herold of the New York Times compared the graphics to Katamari Damacy, calling them "simple" and "pretty" while Sam Kennedy of 1UP considered it akin to "playing out an adorable cartoon". The unique environments of each level were also credited to help the game's charm, with Kristan Reed of Eurogamer believing that the game presents a "look and feel unlike anything we've seen before" and that shows "a truly brilliant realisation of how to take 2D gaming into uncharted territory." The music of the game was considered to be "quirky and catchy", with Will Tuttle of GameSpy saying that "there's a good chance that you'll be humming some of the tunes all day". The game, at times, was compared to a "slow-motion version of Sonic the Hedgehog" with the player controlling the LocoRoco as they move up and down hills and through loop-de-loops in the level. This gameplay allows the game to be easily accessible to players, with IGN's Juan Castro noting that the controls are "not simplistic so much as it's refreshingly elegant", and Kennedy commenting that while LocoRoco is not perfect, it was "perfect for the PSP". As noted by Neil McGreevy of the BBC, LocoRoco "is the best game Nintendo never made." A common complaint from game reviewers was the repetitive nature of the game, as no new gameplay mechanics are introduced after the player learns to roll and jump, and that the levels are "far from challenging". However, these reviewers also commented that the monotonous gameplay is not as significant an issue with a gaming system like the PSP that encourages shorter play sessions. Reviewers also commented on the length of the game, considering it short with only a few extras that would add some additional enjoyment after completing the main game. The game has won two awards at the 2006 BAFTA Games Awards for "Best Children's Game" and "Best Character", and was nominated for six additional awards, "Best Audio", "Best Original Score", "Best Innovation", "Artistic Achievement", "Best Gameplay" and "Best Casual and Social Game". LocoRoco also won two awards at the 10th Annual Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences Awards for "Children's Game of the Year" and "Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Competition", in addition to being nominated for "Outstanding Innovation" and "Handheld Game of the Year". The Associated Press named LocoRoco its handheld game of the year for 2006. Prior to its release in North America, 1UP blogger Alejandro Quan-Madrid equated the Moja characters in LocoRoco to blackface, and citing the game as an example of "institutionalized racism that needs calling out". Quan-Madrid and 1UP reporter Jemery Parish noted that the Japanese culture does not have the same racial population as western countries like the United States, and as such, blackface or other similar representations of black persons are taken for granted in that country, and localization usually handles such issues. Quan-Madrid called on Sony to make a simple color change to the Moja, similar to what Capcom had done for the character of Oilman in Mega Man Powered Up. Developers for the game, including Kouno, noted that the Moja character design was based on the hairstyle of Keigo Tsuchiya, the game's artist, at the time of development, and did not mean to imply any racist tones. The accusation of racism came days before a similar charge against Sony for an advertisement for the white-colored PSP, portraying a white woman subjugating a black woman. The Yellow LocoRoco, as seen on the game's cover, has become a mascot for the PSP system. Sales of LocoRoco were not strong in Japan, with just more than 30,000 copies sold the first week, and about 170,000 in total sales for the year. The game was more successful in Europe and North America, prompting Sony to start development of additional titles. SequelsLocoRoco Cocoreccho is a LocoRoco program for the PlayStation 3, released in September 2007 as a downloadable title through the PlayStation Store. It is described by Sony as an "interactive screensaver," rather than a game. Instead of tilting the world, the game instead puts the player in control of a butterfly that will draw LocoRoco to it, guiding them to sleeping LocoRoco to wake them up and collect enough LocoRoco to progress to other parts of the single stage.LocoRoco 2, a sequel to the original LocoRoco, was officially announced at the 2008 Tokyo Game Show though Phil Harrison, Sony's worldwide studios chief, revealed the game to be in development during an interview at the 2007 D.I.C.E. Summit. The game was released worldwide between late 2008 and early 2009. A third PSP LocoRoco game, LocoRoco Midnight Carnival, is a Halloween-themed spin-off title which features an enhanced bounce skill called "Boing!" The game was digitally released on October 29, 2009 for North American and European areas, and on November 1, 2009 in Japan for the launch of the PSP Go. There are also LocoRoco costumes for LittleBigPlanet''. References External links Official website 2006 video games Platformers PlayStation 4 games PlayStation Portable games Puzzle video games Sony Interactive Entertainment games Sony Interactive Entertainment franchises Video games developed in Japan Video game franchises introduced in 2006 BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for Best Games winners Single-player video games Japan Studio games
4905401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%20Spiegelgrund%20clinic	Am Spiegelgrund clinic	Am Spiegelgrund was a children's clinic in Vienna during World War II, where 789 patients were murdered under child euthanasia in Nazi Germany. Between 1940 and 1945, the clinic operated as part of the psychiatric hospital Am Steinhof later known as the Otto Wagner Clinic within the Baumgartner Medical Center located in Penzing, the 14th district of Vienna. Am Spiegelgrund was divided into a reform school and a children's ward, where sick and disabled adolescents were unwitting subjects of medical experiments and victims of nutritional and psychological abuse. Some died by lethal injection and gas poisoning; others by disease, starvation, exposure to the elements, and "accidents" relating to their conditions. The brains of up to 800 victims were preserved in jars and housed in the hospital for decades. The clinic has gained contemporary notoriety, due to publications concerning Hans Asperger and his association with the patient selection process in the Children's Ward. Background Beginning in the spring of 1938, an extensive network of facilities was established for the documentation, observation, evaluation and selection of children and adolescents, whose social behavior, disabilities, and/or parentage did not comply with the Nazi ideology. The recording of these individuals often began in infancy. Doctors and midwives across the Reich reported mental and physical abnormalities in newborns and children to health authorities. In 1941 in Vienna, seventy-two percent of newborns were documented within their first year of life by the city's more than 100 maternity clinics. Anyone who came into contact with a health institution was systematically recorded into a "hereditary database" which included the patient's genetic information. Over 700,000 Viennese citizens were entered into this database. Genetic information was compounded with school assessments and with employer information and criminal records, when applicable. Many within Vienna's healthcare system adhered to Nazi eugenics, and patients of all ages were funneled into specialized facilities, in which many patients were mistreated and killed. Throughout Germany and Austria, euthanasia centers were established, including Hadamar Euthanasia Centre and Hartheim Euthanasia Centre, for people with mental or physical disabilities. Children were not spared. Many children were "mercifully" sent to children's hospitals, and among the most prominent of these was the Kinderspital (Children's Clinic) Am Spiegelgrund in Vienna. Among the patients were those deemed "Life unworthy of life". As part of the Steinhof psychiatric complex the Spiegelgrund clinic housed state sponsored pediatric euthanasia. Around 789 children died in the Spiegelgrund clinic while the Steinhof complex was responsible for the death of around 7,500 patients by the end of World War II. The clinic operated under the direction of the Führer's Chancellery and Ministry of the Interior where physicians conducted "all manner" of procedures on the vulnerable and disabled children which were often fatal. The Am Steinhof psychiatric hospital was established in the early 1900s, but from July 1940 to April 1945 it housed the Spiegelgrund Clinic. On 16 March 1945, the 2nd Ukrainian and 3rd Ukrainian fronts launched the Vienna offensive in an effort to take the city from Nazi forces. After a month of fighting, the Red Army captured Vienna. The liberation of Vienna by Soviet forces in the spring of 1945 resulted in the end of the Spiegelgrund clinic. Aktion T4 and the children's ward The establishment of a children's ward at the Am Steinhof facility was not possible until the implementation of Aktion T4, a product of the Euthanasia Letter signed by Adolf Hitler. This called for the relocation of approximately 3,200 patients, or about two thirds of the patient population at the time, in July 1940. The order subsequently emptied many of the "pavilions", or buildings, within the grounds. The patients were taken, sometimes after a brief transfer to the institutions of or Ybbs an der Donau, to the Hartheim Euthanasia Centre, near Linz. It is likely that Am Steinhof served as a transfer point for patients of other institutions, as well. The gassing of patients at Hartheim began in May 1940; by the end of the summer of 1940, the 3,200 patients from Am Steinhof were systematically brought to the centre. Both the patient selection process and the implementation of the action were carried out by the Commission of Berlin, assembled by Werner Heyde. The institutions themselves were informed only that large-scale transfers were necessary "for the defense of the Reich". On 24 July, just weeks after the transfers began, the children's clinic, Am Spiegelgrund, opened its doors with room for six hundred and forty patients in nine buildings on the grounds. The curative education or special needs department of the Central Children's Home was relocated to Spiegelgrund, along with the department's so-called School Children Observation Centre. This is where children were evaluated to determine their educability. Educability became a part of the patient selection process. Some of the children arrived perfectly healthy, in both mind and body, but were brought to the center due to delinquent behavior, poor upbringing, or unsuitable parentage. They were considered delinquents if they had run away from home or resorted to petty crimes; they were considered inferior if they were born out of wedlock or came from impoverished homes; they were considered "defective" if their parents were alcoholics or criminals. These educable children were not exempt from experimentation and punishment at the hands of their caretakers, since they were often seen as a burden on society. In this way, "the child euthanasia program came to medicalize social belonging, incorporating social concerns as eugenicist criteria." Known officially as the Infant Centre, Building 15 was designated as a Children's Ward, the second of its kind in the Reich after Brandenburg an der Havel. The ward would report any supposed genetic or contagious diseases to the central healthcare office in Vienna, which would determine if "treatment" were necessary. Patient records were evaluated by professionals to determine whether a patient should be euthanized, allowed to live, or observed pending a final decision. One preserved example of the evaluation records belonged to an adult patient, "Klara B.", institutionalized at Steinhof, who was among the 3,200 patients evicted in the summer of 1940. Highlighted in red pen are the terms Jew (German: Jüdin) and her diagnosis of schizophrenia. The red "+"s on the bottom left of her form mark her for euthanasia. She was transferred from the Vienna facility to Hartheim, where she was gassed on 8 August 1940, at the age of 31. She and other institutionalized Jews faced unfavorable odds. Of the approximately 3,200 patients, around 400, or 12.5%, were Jewish, when the Jewish community constituted just 2.8% of Austria's national population in 1933. Those who remained behind or who were later brought to Am Steinhof were in no less danger than those who were removed. The death rates among patients at Am Steinhof increased annually between 1936 and 1945, from 6.54% to 42.76%, respectively. As the death rate climbed, the patient population naturally decreased. In 1936, there were 516 reported deaths; in 1945, there were approximately 2300. Despite the regime's attempts to keep Aktion T4 a secret, the public was in some measure aware of increasing death rates among the institutionalized patients. In July 1940, Anna Wödl, a nurse and the mother of a disabled child, led a protest movement against the evacuation and killing of institutionalized children. Family members and supporters sent many letters to high-ranking officials in Berlin. They also protested outside institutions, but police and the SS soon put an end to the demonstrations. The Austrian Communist Party, the Catholic and Protestant Churches and others formally condemned the killings, and on 24 August 1941, Hitler was pressured to abolish Aktion T4. The abolition, however, did not stop the killings. Other child euthanasia programs, particularly Action 14f13, quickly and quietly took its place. Anna Wödl's protests proved to be in vain; while her son, Alfred Wödl, was spared a transfer to Hartheim, he died of "pneumonia" in the Children's Ward at Am Spiegelgrund on 22 February 1941. His brain was kept for research and housed in the hospital until 2001, when his remains were finally laid to rest. Experimentation and child euthanasia Deputy-führer of the Third Reich, Rudolf Hess, once said that "National Socialism is nothing but applied biology." This idea provides context to Hitler's Darwinian ideas of how to promote the spread of what he believed to be the superior race. Inspired by Darwin's discovery of evolution by natural selection, Nazis coined several terms for those they deemed unfit; for example, the terms , which translates to ; , meaning ; and , which means . To strengthen the Nazi regime and Germany as a whole, utilizing euthanasia to select against individuals who would not produce strong and productive offspring was seen as a merciful gesture. The children who were sent to euthanasia centers such as Am Spiegelgrund were selected on the basis of medical questionnaires. Physicians were bribed to report children with conditions such as intellectual disability, cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, any deformities, bed wetting, learning disabilities, along with many other things that would lower their ability to strengthen Hitler's superior race. If a child had any sort of mental or physical condition, their questionnaire would be sent to Hitler's Chancellery, who would recommend "special treatment" despite having never met the children. The victims of Am Spiegelgrund were subjected to torture-like experimental treatments as well as punishments for a variety of offenses. Survivors Johann Gross, Alois Kaufmann, and Friedrich Zawrel described and testified to several of the "treatments", which included electroshock therapy, a so-called "cold water cure" in which Zawrel and Kaufmann recall being repeatedly submerged into freezing bath water until they were blue and barely conscious and had lost control of their bowels; a "sulfur cure", which was an injection that caused severe pain in the legs, limiting mobility and ensuring that escape was impossible; spinal injections of apomorphine; injections of phenobarbital; overdoses of sedatives, which would often lead to death when the children were exposed to extreme cold or disease; observed starvation; and efficacy testing of tuberculosis vaccines, for which children were infected with tuberculosis pathogens. Many patients who had been deemed seriously disabled died under mysterious circumstances. Upon inquiry, the hospital staff would blame pneumonia or a fatal muscle conniption caused by the mental state of the patient. In reality, the children were being killed via lethal injection, neglect and disease. Alois Kaufmann, a victim of Am Spiegelgrund, compared the Nazi's approach to child euthanasia to a predator-prey relationship. According to Kaufmann, every two to three weeks, the weakest children would be plucked from the group, never to be seen again. The children who were picked first were "the bedwetters or harelips or slow thinkers". The children who were killed at Am Spiegelgrund often died by overdose of depressants such as morphine, scopolamine, and barbiturates, gassing by carbon monoxide, which was a common Nazi tactic, exposure, and starvation. Once the children died, fake death certificates were fabricated, and the victim's families still had to pay a fee for the special treatment they believed their children were receiving during their time at Am Spiegelgrund. After death, the bodies were subjected to medical experiments. Brains and other body parts were removed, placed in formaldehyde jars or sealed in paraffin wax, to be stored secretly in the basement for "research". In 2002, the last two victims out of the 800 children murdered at the Am Spiegelgrud Clinic were laid to rest. The remains of Anne Marie Tanner, who was four at her time of death, and Gerhard Zehetner, who was 18 months at the time of his death, were buried in the section of the cemetery dedicated to victims of National Socialism. Tanner and Zehtner were murdered as they were seen to be "unfit" by the Nazis. Heinrich Gross was the head of the psychiatric clinic during the war and he was thought to have had a hand in the deaths of Tanner and Zehtner. Allegedly, he injected children with cleft lips, stutters, and learning disabilities with drugs that caused lung infections. He then left these "unworthy" children outside to die. Although he admitted to knowing about the killings, he denied any personal involvement. It was Dr. Werner Vogt, a physician, who accused Dr. Gross of gross malpractice at the Am Spiegelgrund clinic in 1979. Known victims Gerhard Zehetner: A male patient admitted to Am Spiegelgrund on 10 October 1942, who subsequently died on 12 December 1943. His brain was found in glass vitrine in the clinic basement; the vitrine was labeled "idiocy". Irma Sperling: A three-year-old girl who had learning difficulties and was possibly autistic. She was listed to have a flat head, obvious facial bulges, and a thick jaw. Sperling was declared an idiot by the clinic. Her family received notice of her death in 1945 along with the cost of care receipt. Annemarie Tanner: A young girl admitted to the clinic in 1943 who was treated by Gross for rickets. She died 15 months later at the age of four, and was said to have been poisoned. Tanner was dropped off at the Am Spiegelgrund clinic by her parents, who were unaware that her admittance to the clinic would result in her death. Tanner was later declared a victim of National Socialism. Alois Kauffmann: A male survivor of Am Spiegelgrund who was born out of wedlock in 1943 and given up by his mother at birth. He was admitted to Spiegelgrund in 1943 with syphilis, and was treated by Gross for 22 months. He later published a novel titled Hearses – Childhood in Spiegelgrund. Following the war, he investigated the crimes committed by the clinic. Rudolf Karger: A male patient admitted to Am Spiegelgrund on 1 September 1941, who would survive his stay there. Karger suffered severe abuse after an escape attempt, and later recalled that there was not a single day that went by without punishment. Friedrich Zawrel: A male patient sent to Am Spiegelgrund at the age of 11, Zawrel was a patient of Gross and a victim of various medical experiments and prolonged solitary confinement. Zawrel survived the clinic, and later described being tortured and humiliated by Gross. Zawrel received nauseating injections and attempted drownings by orderlies, and often went days without food or water. He was labeled a "hereditary defective" on account of his alcoholic father. Leading personnel There were several people involved in the euthanasia practices occurring at Am Spiegelgrund Clinic. These people included Erwin Jekelius, Hans Bertha, Ernst Illing, Heinrich Gross, Margarethe Hübsch and Marianne Türk. Their roles at the clinic differed as some were the director of the clinic and others were scientists directly involved in the murder of hundreds of children. Over time, some of these people left the clinic and new ones entered it. During World War II, Am Spiegelgrund clinic was led by Ernst Illing and for two years by Heinrich Gross. The head of the institution from 24 July 1940, to January 1942 was Erwin Jekelius, who in October 1940 was one of 30 participants in a conference about "Euthanasia" laws, which were never put into effect. The T4 program also used him as an expert to decide the fate of institutionalized patients. Jekelius was known for his ruthlessness in selecting children for death and for his brutality in handing out corporal punishments to the children under his care. In September 1941, the Royal Air Force dropped pamphlets detailing his involvement in multiple murders at Spiegelgrund which eventually led to his removal as the director of the clinic. He was arrested by Soviet forces in 1945, and in 1948, he was sentenced in Moscow to 25 years of hard labor. He died of bladder cancer in a Soviet labor camp in May 1952. Succeeding Jekelius and presiding over the institution for the next six months was Hans Bertha, who was significantly involved in the T4 campaign from its conception in 1940. Bertha was never tried for his crimes despite documented evidence that he was involved in the murders of patients at Spiegelgrund and his close association with Jekelius and other war criminals. Bertha also used the patient murders for his "scientific" progress. According to the murderous Hartheim doctor Georg Renno, Bertha was particularly interested in epilepsy cases. When epileptic patients were murdered at Hartheim, for example, their brains were removed and given to Bertha for his research. After the war, he had an illustrious academic career in Graz. On 1 July 1942, Ernst Illing took over as medical director of Am Spiegelgrund. He previously worked as a senior physician in the first children's division at the national institution at Brandenburg-Görden, alongside Hans Heinze, infamous for his involvement in the euthanasia program. Illing maintained his position until April 1945. In 1946, he was found guilty of torture and abuse resulting in death for killing at least 250 children. Illing was sentenced to death and hanged later that year. Heinrich Gross, a psychologist and neurologist trained by Hans Heinze, became the senior doctor of the Children's Ward in Pavilion 15 in 1940. At least half of all Spiegelgrund victims died under Gross' care. From July 1942 to the end of March 1943, he shared the responsibilities of the Children's Ward with Margarethe Hübsch and Marianne Türk. He was enlisted around then, but records indicate he had returned to the clinic by the summer of 1944. Gross experimented on both the living and the dead. He monitored behavior after "treatments" were administered and experimented on his victims' brains and spinal tissue, which were stored in formaldehyde in the basement. In 1950, Gross was brought to trial in Austria and convicted of manslaughter, though he never served his two-year sentence. Gross went on to become a highly successful speaker, expert witness and researcher, publishing 34 works between 1954 and 1978 based upon the experiments. He received an Honorary Cross for Science and Art in 1975, which was stripped in 2003. Nazi-era files uncovered in the mid-1990s reopened the case against Gross. The ensuing investigation provided compelling evidence of his involvement in the deaths of nine children, whose preserved remains contained traces of poison; however, by then, he was seen unfit to stand trial. Margarethe Hübsch assisted Heinrich Gross when he was the senior doctor of the Children's Ward in Pavilion 15. She was tried for murder alongside Ernst Illing and Marianne Türk between 15 and 18 July 1946. Unlike Illing and Türk, Hübsch was acquitted and released for lack of evidence. The national newspaper article detailing the trial claims that further testimony strongly suggested that she at least was aware of the killings, even if she did not commit them herself. Marianne Türk shared responsibilities of the Children's Ward with Heinrich Gross. During her trial, Türk confessed to "sometimes" giving injections, but she did not know the number of victims. She was sentenced to ten years in prison but initially served only two. She was granted probation for poor health in 1948 but resumed her sentence in 1952. After her release, she did not return to the medical field. Involvement of Hans Asperger There are dueling opinions on the question of Asperger's involvement with the Nazi eugenics program or if he was aware of the euthanasia program occurring at Am Spiegelgrund. During World War II, Asperger worked as a doctor in the University of Vienna Pediatric Clinic, which was in close proximity to Am Spiegelgrund. Herwig Czech attempted to dissect Asperger's involvement with the clinic. Czech found that Asperger signed his diagnostic reports with "Heil Hitler", and his name was present in the patient files of mentally deficient children who were sent to Am Spiegelgrund. One notable patient of Am Spiegelgrund whom Asperger had a great involvement with was Herta Schreiber, a three-year-old child who had experienced mental and physical delays after having encephalitis. In his diagnostic report of Schreiber, Asperger wrote: "Severe personality disorder [post-encephalitic parkinsonism?]: most severe motoric retardation; erethic idiocy; seizures. At home the child must be an unbearable burden to the mother, who has to care for five healthy children. Permanent placement at Spiegelgrund seems absolutely necessary." While it is not confirmed that Asperger was aware of the euthanasia happening at Am Spiegelgrund, it is notable that he called for Schreiber's "permanent placement;" he did not expect her to ever return to her family or society. Czech's opinions are disputed by Ketil Slagstad, who stated that while Asperger's involvement should be examined according to the circumstances at the time, it is not disputable that he sent patients to Am Spiegelgrund, and the diagnosis "Asperger's syndrome" should only be used when there is awareness of Asperger's past. Authors with differing opinions give Asperger's devout Catholicism and his lack of membership to the Nazi party as reasons that he was not associated with the medical and racial eugenics occurring at the time. Instead, he was reported to have been more involved with the diagnoses of disabled patients and was said to have "protected" children from Nazi eugenic policies; his diagnoses were described as "prescient" as opposed to "thin research". Asperger was not personally involved in any euthanasias and "was cleared of wrongdoing after the war". It is described that in a draft of a speech Asperger was preparing, his colleague Josef Feldner stated that it was "a bit too Nazi for your reputation". Further Research By Ernst Tatzer, Werner Malaczek and Franz Wauldhahuser in 2022 concluded ″Our detailed investigation, aided by historians, and investigations by other authors, showed no clear evidence to support the allegation that Asperger knowingly or willingly participated in the National Socialist Child Euthanasia programme in Vienna. This investigation included thorough analyses of the records for all the patients he and colleagues referred to Am Spiegelgrund from the Therapeutic Pedagogy Unit of the University Children's Hospital in Vienna. This covered the period between 1939 and March 1943 when Asperger was drafted by the military.″ Burial site and memorial In April 2002, six hundred urns containing the remains of children killed at Spiegelgrund were interred at Vienna's Central Cemetery in the section reserved for victims of the Nazi regime. Approximately three hundred mourners came to pay their respects at the funeral, and the names of all the children are inscribed onto eight stone slabs, accompanied by a stone bench and bowl of flowers. Detailed coverage of the burial ceremony, as well as full background are told in the 2004 documentary film Gray Matter. Among those laid here were: Gerhard Zehetner, 18 months old; Irma Sperling, aged 3, from Hamburg; Annemarie Tanner, aged 4, who was admitted for rickets in 1941 and lost twenty-five percent of her body weight within six months. A photo of the child, taken by Gross, shows her naked on a sheet. Tanner's older sister, Waltraud Häupl, became an outspoken supporter of a memorial when she discovered her sister's remains in 1999; Felix Janauschek, aged 16, was diagnosed with cerebral palsy. He contracted influenza in March 1943 and was left outside on the balcony of the ward until his condition worsened. His official cause of death was pneumonia. The site now contains multiple exhibits about the euthanasia program and memorials to the victims. A permanent memorial was erected on the site in 2002, and since November 2003, has included 772 lighted poles, whose arrangement was designed by Tanja Walter. A plaque nearby states that the strict arrangement of the lighted stelae reflects the "situation of the children, held hostage and deprived of their freedom". References Holocaust locations in Austria Aktion T4 euthanasia centres 1930s in Vienna 1940s in Vienna
4905590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%20General%20Entertainment%20Content	Disney General Entertainment Content	Disney General Entertainment Content (DGEC), formerly ABC Group, Disney–ABC Television Group and the second incarnation of Walt Disney Television, is part of Disney Entertainment, a division of The Walt Disney Company that oversees its owned-and-operated television content, assets and sub-divisions. Following the full acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney on March 20, 2019, the division was given the unification name Walt Disney Television and rebranded two years later as Disney General Entertainment Content. Sub-divisions of DGEC include the American Broadcasting Company, ABC News, Disney Branded Television, Disney Television Studios, ABC Signature, ABC Family Worldwide, Hulu Original Content Teams as well as assets acquired from 21st Century Fox and then fully integrated, i.e. FX Networks, FX Productions, 20th Television and 20th Television Animation. History ABC Group Media conglomerate Capital Cities/ABC Inc. merged into The Walt Disney Company in 1996 and was initially re-branded as ABC Group. Acquired assets from the merged company included ABC Television Network Group, CC/ABC Broadcasting Group (ABC Radio Network, 8 TV and 21 radio stations), ABC Cable and International Broadcast Group, CC/ABC Publishing Group and CC/ABC Multimedia Group to the fold. The Cable and International Broadcast Group contained ownership shares of ESPN Inc. (80%), A&E Television Networks (37.5%), DIC Productions, L.P. (Limited Partnership stake), Lifetime Television (50%) and its international investments. These investments included Telephone-München (50%, Germany; included 20% of RTL II), Hamster Productions. (33%, France) and Scandinavian Broadcasting System (23%, Luxembourg). ESPN also had international holdings: Eurosport (33.3%, England), TV Sport (10%, France; Eurosport affiliate) and The Japan Sports Channel (20%). The Publishing Group including Fairchild Publications, Chilton Publications, multiple newspapers from a dozen dailies (including the Ft. Worth Star-Telegram, The Kansas City Star) and more weeklies, and dozens more publications in the fields of farm, business and law trade journals plus LA Magazine to Institutional Investor. ABC Group pursued businesses in new and emerging media technologies, including the interactive television, pay-per-view, VOD, HDTV, video cassette, Optical disc, on-line services and location-based entertainment. In April 1996, due to the ongoing post Disney-CC/ABC merger realignment and retirement of its president, the Walt Disney Television and Telecommunications group's division was reassigned to other groups with Walt Disney Television International (including Disney Channels International and Buena Vista Television domestic syndication and pay-TV divisions, GMTV and Super RTL holdings) were transferred to Capital Cities/ABC. In May due to the merger, ABC ended its ABC Productions division operations while keeping its boutique production companies: Victor Television, DIC Productions, L.P., ABC/Kane Productions and Greengrass Productions. The international operations of Disney TV International and ABC Cable and International Broadcast Group were merged in June as Disney/ABC International Television. Under Disney, ABC Group sold various publishing companies in 1997. Chilton was sold to Reed Elsevier for $447 million and received $142 million from Euromoney Publications for Institutional Investor. In April, Knight Ridder purchased four newspapers including The Kansas City Star and The Fort Worth Star-Telegram for $1.65 billion. In August 1999, Fairchild Publications was sold to Conde Nast Publications for $650 million. In March 1998, ABC placed it shares of Scandinavian Broadcasting System up for sale. In late 1999, Walt Disney Television, along with other television units, were transferred again from The Walt Disney Studios to Disney–ABC Television Group and merged with ABC's primetime division, ABC Entertainment, forming ABC Entertainment Group. Robert A. Iger was promoted from president and chief operating officer in February 1999 to chairman of ABC Group and president of Walt Disney International. In March 2000, ABC formed the Disney Kids Network (DKN) advertising group via consolidation to sell ads for ABC's "TGIF" primetime programming, Disney's One Saturday Morning, the Disney's One Too syndicated programming block, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, The Wonderful World of Disney and Winnie the Pooh primetime specials. DKN was placed under senior vice president of sales at ABC, Dan Barnathan, and would also work on some ads with Radio Disney, Disney.com and the Disney Adventures magazine. DKN added Toon Disney when the channel started accepting ads in September 2000. Iger was named president and chief operating officer of The Walt Disney Company in January 2000. In 2000, with an investment by Bain Capital and Chase Capital Partners, Heyward re-purchased DIC Entertainment, L.P. from Disney, making the company re-independent In September 2002, then-Disney Chairman/CEO Michael Eisner outlined a proposed realignment of the ABC broadcast network's daytime parts with the similar unit in its cable channels: ABC Saturday mornings with Disney Channel units (Toon Disney & Playhouse Disney), ABC daytime with Soapnet and ABC prime time with ABC Family. In October 2003, ABC Family Worldwide was changed from a unit directly reporting to the Disney COO to a unit running within the ABC Cable Networks Group under Anne Sweeney. Disney–ABC Television Group On April 21, 2004, Disney announced a restructuring of its Disney Media Networks division with Sweeney being named president of Disney–ABC Television Group, and then-ESPN president George Bodenheimer becoming co-CEO of the division with Sweeney, as well as president of ABC Sports. This move added ABC TV Network within Disney–ABC. ABC1 channel initially launched in the United Kingdom on as the first use of the ABC brand outside the US. While ABC News Now was launched that year in the US on digital subchannel of 70 ABC owned & operated and affiliates. On June 12, 2007, Disney spun off its ABC Radio Networks and merged it into Citadel Communications with Citadel Broadcasting while retaining its ESPN Radio and Radio Disney networks and stations and a 10-year news provider licensing agreement with Citadel for ABC News Radio and the networks. In February 2007, the previous iteration of Touchstone Television was renamed ABC Television Studio as part of Disney's push to drop secondary brands like Buena Vista for Disney, ABC, ESPN, and most recently, A&E Networks. ABC1 in the UK was shut down on . On January 22, 2009, Disney–ABC announced a merger of ABC Entertainment and ABC Studios into ABC Entertainment Group. That April, ABC Enterprises took an ownership stake in Hulu in exchange for online distribution license and $25 million in the ABC network ad credits. The Live Well Network (LWN) was launched on April 27, 2009, by ABC Owned Television Stations on the stations' subchannels. Later that year, A+E Networks acquired Lifetime Entertainment Services with DATG ownership increasing to 42%. In November, Disney-ABC sells GMTV to ITV for $37 million. On March 24, 2012, following the dissolution of the ABC Daytime division, ABC Family Worldwide began taking operational control of Soapnet until that network was slowly discontinued for Disney Junior. In July 2012, NBCUniversal confirmed plans to sell its 15.8% stake in A+E Networks to Disney for $3 billion (along with its previous owner Hearst Entertainment & Syndication, who became 50-50 partners in the joint venture). On August 21, 2013, Disney–ABC announced it will lay off 175 employees. The layoffs are expected to hit positions among technical operations as well as the unit's eight local stations. On October 28, ABC News and Univision Communications launched Fusion, a cable Hispanic news and satire channel. In August 2014, A+E took a 10% stake in Vice Media for $250 million, then announced in April 2015 that H2 would be rebranded into the Vice channel with an indicated early 2016 launch. Disney also directly made two $200 investments in Vice Media in November 2015, then a week later in December, they directly invested in it again for 10% to assist in funding its programming. ABC Family became Freeform on January 12, 2016. On April 21, 2016, Disney–ABC sold its share in Fusion to Univision. In September 2016, the group's president Ben Sherwood named Bruce Rosenblum, Television Academy chairman and former head of Warner Bros. TV Group, as president of business operations in s the newly created position, to reduce the number of direct reports from 17 to about 8. Roseblum would oversee ad sales in conjunction with channel heads, affiliate sales and marketing, engineering, digital media, global distribution, IT, research and strategy and business development. This allows Sherwood to focus on content and direct operating units that continue to directly report to him, ABC network units, cable channel units (Disney Channels Worldwide, and Freeform), ABC Studios and ABC TV Stations. With the March 14, 2018, Disney Company reorganization, in anticipation of integrating Fox assets from a proposed acquisition, all international channels including Disney Channels have been transferred to Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer and International, a new segment, with US channels remaining with Disney–ABC Television Group. All global sales units and distribution units have been transfer to the Disney Direct-to-Consumer segment. Walt Disney Television On October 8, 2018, Disney announced the division would be renamed into the second incarnation of Walt Disney Television following the completion of its acquisition of 21st Century Fox. The acquisition added 20th Century Fox Television, FX Networks and FX Productions, Fox 21 Television Studios, and National Geographic Global Networks to the division. Fox television executives Peter Rice, Dana Walden, John Landgraf, and Gary Knell joined The Walt Disney Company on March 20, 2019. On March 5, 2019, Craig Hunegs was named to lead the combined Disney Television Studios — ABC Studios, ABC Signature, 20th Century Fox Television and Fox 21 Television Studios. He would report to Walden. Following the completed acquisition of the 21st Century Fox assets in March 2019, Disney reorganized its television division to align various operations. On June 10, 2019, Disney announced that both Disney Television Studios and FX Entertainment would share the same casting division. After assuming full control over Hulu in May 2019, Disney reorganized Hulu's reporting structure in July 2019, placing Hulu's Scripted Originals team under Walt Disney Television. Under the new structure, Hulu's SVP of Original Scripted Content would report directly to the chairman of Disney Television Studios and ABC Entertainment. On August 10, 2020, Disney Television Studios rebranded all of its three studios as part of merger terms which required dropping the "Fox" name from assets acquired from 21st Century Fox, with 20th Century Fox Television becoming 20th Television; Fox 21 Television Studios became the second incarnation of Touchstone Television to avoid brand confusion with Fox Corporation; and ABC Studios merged with the original incarnation of ABC Signature Studios to form the current ABC Signature. In addition, the original syndication arm of 20th Century Fox Television also called "20th Television" was folded into Disney-ABC Domestic Television. Disney General Entertainment Content On October 12, 2020, the division was rechristened as Disney General Entertainment Content. In December 2020, Touchstone Television merged into 20th Television. On February 3, 2021, Disney Television Studios established a new unit known as "Walt Disney Television Alternative", which will be headed by former senior vice president of alternative, specials and late-night series at ABC, Rob Mills, to oversee the development of non-scripted programming. Leadership Dana Walden, Co-Chairman, Disney Entertainment Steve Chung, Chief Legal Officer Craig Erwich, President, Disney Television Group Ayo Davis, President, Disney Branded Television Sharon Klein, Executive Vice President, Casting Rob Mills, Executive Vice President, Unscripted and Alternative Entertainment Simran Sethi, Executive Vice President, Programming and Content Strategy, ABC Entertainment and Freeform Kimberly Godwin, President, ABC News John Landgraf, Chairman, FX, National Geographic and Onyx Collective Gina Balian, President, FX Entertainment Tara Duncan, President, Onyx Collective Nick Grad, President, FX Entertainment Stephanie Gibbons, President, Creative, Strategy and Digital, Multi-Platform Marketing, FX Courteney Monroe, President, Content, National Geographic Debra O'Connell, President, Networks & Television Business Operations Chad Matthews, President, ABC Owned Television Stations Jen Reberger, Senior Vice President, Human Resources Shannon Ryan, President, Marketing Naomi Bulochnikov-Paul, Executive Vice President, Publicity, and Head of Communications Pamela Levine, Head of Marketing, Disney Branded Television and National Geographic Global Networks Eric Schrier, President, Disney Television Studios and Global Original Television Strategy Karey Burke, President, 20th Television Trisha Husson, Head of Strategy, Business Operations and Finance Marci Proietto, Executive Vice President, 20th Television Animation Units Current structure , the following are the current units based on reporting structure: Disney Television Studios ABC Signature 20th Television 20th Television Animation Disney Television Group ABC Entertainment ABC Freeform Hulu Originals Disney Branded Television Disney Channel Disney Junior Disney XD Disney+ Originals Production units Disney Television Animation It's a Laugh Productions Disney Original Documentary Disney Unscripted and Alternative Entertainment Walt Disney Television Alternative FX, National Geographic and Onyx Collective FX Networks FX FXX FX Movie Channel FX Entertainment FX Productions National Geographic Partners National Geographic Global Networks National Geographic Nat Geo Wild Nat Geo Mundo National Geographic Studios National Geograpfic Documentary Films National Geographic Magazine Other units Onyx Collective ABC News ABC Audio ABC News Radio ABC News Studios Networks ABC Owned Television Stations Former units Transferred to Disney Media and Entertainment Distribution (DMED) Disney XD ABC Owned Television Stations Re-organizational transfers 2018 These assets were transferred to Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer & International (then Disney Media and Entertainment Distribution) in 2018, which include: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment – formerly Buena Vista Home Entertainment Disney–ABC Domestic Television – also known as Disney–ABC Home Entertainment and Television Distribution and formerly Buena Vista Television Disney Media Distribution – formerly Disney–ABC International Television and before that, ABC Cable and International Broadcast Group Disney Branded Television - international channels only Broadcast Satellite Disney Co., Ltd. (April 2009–2018) – operator of Dlife channel (Japan) Hungama TV (2006–2018) Buena Vista International Television Investments RTL Disney Television Limited Partnership, 50% (–2018) Tele Munich Television Media Participation Limited Partnership, 50% RTL 2 Television Limited Partnership, 31.5% (1994–2018) RTL II (Germany) Super RTL (1995–2021) Germany Kividoo subscription video-on-demand (2015) Toggo Plus (2016) Others ABC Radio Networks (1945–2007) sold to Cumulus Media American Contemporary Network (January 1, 1968) American Information Network (January 1, 1968) American Entertainment Network (January 1, 1968) American FM Network (January 1, 1968) ABC Rock Radio Network (January 4, 1982) ABC Direction Radio Network (January 4, 1982) ABC Talk Radio (1980s) Urban Advantage Network (UAN) Radio Disney Group (2003–2014) sold individual stations except one. Walt Disney Television (1999–2003) Disney MovieToons/Disney Video Premieres (1996–2003) launched as a part of Disney TV Animation; transferred out to Walt Disney Feature Animation (now Walt Disney Animation Studios). DIC Entertainment, L.P. (1996–2000) sold back to Andy Heyward. Jetix – merged into Disney Channels Worldwide (now Disney Branded Television). ABC News Now (2004–2009) digital subchannel network. Touchstone Television (2020) folded into 20th Television Walt Disney Television and Telecommunications Walt Disney Television and Telecommunications (WDTT) was a division of The Walt Disney Company. At the time Disney and Capital Cities/ABC merged, WDTT's divisions were The Disney Channel, KCAL-TV Los Angeles, Walt Disney Television, Touchstone Television, Buena Vista Home Entertainment, and Disney Interactive. WDTT history On August 24, 1994, with Jeffrey Katzenberg's resignation, a reorganization of Disney took place in which Richard H. Frank became head of newly formed Walt Disney Television and Telecommunications, which was split from its filmed entertainment business, Walt Disney Studios. On December 5, 1994, Walt Disney Computer Software was transferred within WDTT as Disney Interactive. At the end of his contract on April 30, 1995, Frank left Disney. Dennis Hightower, a marketing executive, was appointed by April 9 to succeed Frank. In April 1996, due to ongoing post-Disney-CC/ABC merger realignment and the retirement of Hightower as president, WDTT's divisions were reassigned to other groups, with most of them transferred to either The Walt Disney Studios or CC/ABC. KCAL was sold to Young Broadcasting in May 1996 due to CC/ABC ownership of KABC-TV. See also Fox Networks Group Notes References External links 1996 establishments in California Broadcasting companies of the United States Disney Media Networks Mass media companies established in 1996 American Broadcasting Company The Walt Disney Company divisions American companies established in 1996 1996 mergers and acquisitions Owned-and-operated television stations in the United States Companies based in Burbank, California Cable network groups in the United States Television production companies of the United States
4905882	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paden%20City%20High%20School	Paden City High School	Paden City High School is a 7–12 grade, class A high school in Wetzel County, West Virginia in the small town of Paden City. Paden City High School opened its doors as a 9-12 school in 1951 and graduated its first class in 1952. , Paden City High School houses grades 7-12 with an enrollment of 158. PCHS has received recognitions for academics and has been named a W.V.D.E. High Achieving School and for the W.V.D.E. Annual Performance Index, PCHS received the status of "Distinguished School," which means it was the upper quartile for academic performance. In 2013, Paden City High School, received Full Accreditation Status by the W.V. Board of Education following a positive assessment of PCHS by the W.V. Office of Education Performance Audits as well as a rating as a WV Success School, an honor given to only three schools in RESA 6, and the only high school in Wetzel County to receive this honor. Paden City High School has several West Virginia State Champions, Ohio Valley Athletic Conference Champions (OVAC), and Mason-Dixon Champions. The current structure that houses Paden City High School was completed for the fall 1976 classes, with an addition and remodeling project completed in 1988. The 1976 structure was built after the original structure that was built as Paden City Junior High in 1922, burned in January 1975, more information on the current and past buildings is included below. After Paden City Middle School, which housed grades 6-8, was closed in 1993, grade 6 became part of Paden City Elementary School, and grades 7 and 8 became part of the high school. History Establishment Educational opportunity was first offered in Paden City in a proverbial little red schoolhouse. This one-room brick building was located in the Wetzel County part of town, just across the highway from what is now the Wesleyan Methodist church. The second school was built on the back of the present school site. It was a four-room building of wood frame construction. About 1916 the school population had increased to such an extent that the four-room building was inadequate, and the J.R. Henthorne Building on Main Street was secured for school purposes. A few years later the Kannan Building on Fourth Avenue was rented since it afforded more space than the Henthorne Building. The temporary building being very unsatisfactory created a strong sentiment favoring the construction of a new school building. Since similar crowding conditions existed in the schools of other Magnolia District communities, a bond issue for financing a district building program was laid on December 14, 1922. The building was erected and the interior partially completed at a cost of less than $70,000. It was further completed as need for space arose. During this period of expansion the State Department of Education authorized the establishment of the "Junior High School," with special permission being granted to include the tenth grade. Because the Tyler/Wetzel county line divides Paden City, juniors and seniors living on the Tyler side of the line had to travel to Sistersville and attend Sistersville High School, and juniors and seniors living on the Wetzel side of the line had to travel to Magnolia High School in New Martinsville. Paden City found friends competing against friends and even brothers against brothers in athletic competitions. During the years that the Junior High School served the educational needs of the community, parents and students envisioned the time when the change at the eleventh grade level would not have to be made. In 1949 a concerted effort with a vision of the formation of a four-year high school at Paden City was made. That effort was led by Ray Berger, Owen McKay, Jess Brown, Guy Nichols, and Dr. R.F. Miller. The state superintendent of schools approved the plan, and after three appearances Paden City finally had the high school it had long sought. The Wetzel County Board of Education approved the measure by a 3-2 vote. The measure was approved by the Wetzel County Board of Education only after the Paden City Lions Club volunteered to purchase typewriters and office equipment; and Owen McKay, speaking for the community, told the board of education that the citizens of Paden City would buy an athletic field for the school. The annual Labor Day Celebration was started to raise money for facilities at the new school. Workers at Paden City Pottery and Paden City Glass gave money through payroll deduction plans to support the school. The amount workers gave may only have been $2 per week, but at a salary of $15 per week, that was a sacrifice. They did it because Paden City kids needed a school at Paden City. No state or county tax dollars were used to purchase or build the athletic field. As there was approximately a four-foot drop from one end of the property, which was to be used for an athletic field, to the other, the field had to be leveled off. A fence measuring 1,830 feet was installed, the field house was built, and bleachers were put up. It was estimated that it would take 80 months to pay the $17,300 cost of the land. In actuality the citizens of Paden City made the final loan payment in just 24 months. The light towers for the field arrived in a most unusual way. After raising $25,000 for the lights and the towers, they came by rail car to the south end of Paden City. A general call went out, and about 400 people carried the equipment, by hand, to the field. Men would work eight to ten hours a day at local industries and then work another six hours at the field to build bleachers. In the fall of 1951, Paden City "High School" opened its doors for the first time. in Ray Berger, one of the moving forces behind the formation of the high school, became the first principal. In 1952, more than a year before the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court ruling Brown vs. the Board of Education, which integrated southern schools, Paden City High School was an integrated educational institution. 1975 fire destroys PCHS On January 8, 1975 fire destroyed the 53-year-old high school building. However, while the body of the building lay cremated, churches and other institutions provided space for classrooms. Classes were held in the PCHS Gymnasium, which was not destroyed by the fire, the Paden City Christian Church, Paden City Church of the Nazarene, St. Paul's Methodist Church, and the Mater Dolorosa Catholic Church. Portable classroom trailers were also brought in and placed behind Berger Football Field. Less than one week of classes was missed due to the fire. New building (1977) Rumor that the school would not be rebuilt after the fire brought such a public outcry that construction of a new school began almost immediately. On May 1, 1977, the dedication of the present Paden City High School was held. The ceremony featured various guests, including Jack Dulany, superintendent of Wetzel County Schools; Ira Satterfield, the current principal of PCHS; Board Member Tim Miller; Rev. John Negley; and featured speaker, James Jeffers of the Class of 1964. The new building with its definite modern style shows no resemblance of its predecessor but has nonetheless become a landmark in Paden City and the school continues to be a source for community pride in Paden City. The new building departed slightly from the then-popular "open classroom" design of the 1970s era. The building features a spacious hall on the ground floor with a two-story open ceiling giving a view of the classrooms on both floors at once. The second floor consists of four major classrooms with another four down the hall. The gymnasium, band room, and shop rooms were not destroyed, although damaged, as they were protected by a firewall. The school also featured "wall-to-wall" carpeting, something unheard of in public schools until the 1970s. In a short time trophy cases were installed on the first floor by various parents and the Paden City Boosters Association. Later, the Sprouse family donated trophy cases for the second floor commons area for athletic awards and the Paden City Band Patrons along with the family of John Nail (former Band Director) and the Paden City Boosters Association installed more cases on the second floor and in the band room to house the trophies of the Paden City High School Band. Later in 1986, a bond levy in Wetzel County was passed giving money to re-build the other three county high schools and to add the addition of the Multi-Purpose Building to Paden City High School along with many other upgrades and remodeling projects within the main building. The Multi-Purpose Building complete with a cafeteria, common area and auditorium was completed and opened in 1988. Areas of PCHS named in Honor of Notable People Band Room- John Nail Band Room, Paden City Band Director 1982-1990 Fine Arts Wing- R. E. Ed Hood Fine Arts Wing, Paden City Band Director 1959-1982 Football Dressing Room - Coach Hen Healy coached 1960 basketball team to a WV State Championship and in 1970 led his team to a WV State football title. Football Field- (Ray) Berger Field, First PCHS Principal Gymnasium- Bob Burton Gymnasium, long-time Paden City basketball coach who captured two state championships (1973 and 1987) Multi-Purpose Building- Jess Brown Hall, Former Principal Paden City High School saved in 2010 In early spring of 2009, rumors started that Paden City High School would be merged with another high school in the Wetzel County School System. Every 10 years, West Virginia school districts must submit a Continued Education Facilities Plan (CEFP). The plan was constructed by a CEFP committee, made up of selected individuals within Wetzel County. Paden City High School and the City of Paden City had no representation on this committee that recommended the closure of PCHS by fall of 2012. When rumors started, the Paden City Foundation formed "Project Cornerstone" which was made up of community members, PCHS Alumni, and PCHS Supporters. For several months the project worked on fact finding and advertisement for reasons to keep Paden City High School open and operational as a 7-12 high school. (The name "Cornerstone" was chosen because the group believes PCHS is the cornerstone of the Paden City Community.) A public hearing was held in March 2010 with the Wetzel County Board of Education for purposes of getting an idea of how the community felt about the possible closure of Paden City High. 35 individuals spoke on the issue. All 35 expressed that they wanted to see Paden City High School remain open and operational. Well over 1,000 individuals packed the PCHS Gymnasium, including Paden City Citizens, PCHS Alumni, PCHS Parents, PCHS Supporters, Political Officials, also in attendance was over 99% of the Paden City High School Student body as well as many students from Paden City Elementary School. The Paden City High School Band was also in attendance and played the PCHS Alma Mater and Fight Song before the hearing began. On April 19, 2010 the Wetzel County Board of Education voted 5-0 in favor of keeping PCHS open and operational, and to have the CEFP re-written to state that Paden City High School would remain open and not consolidate with another high school in the county district. The Paden City Foundation's "Project Cornerstone" has remained together as a group even after the vote of confidence by the board of education. Project Cornerstone continues to work to raise funds and support to recognize the importance of and ensure the future of Paden City High School and Paden City Elementary School. Mission statement PCHS stands by the thought that "The historical support of "The Wildcat Philosophy" identifies Paden City High School as one whose expectations for students are high. It is a school with vibrant and colorful legacy of the past and a window to the future for any who choose to attend." Extracurricular activities Athletics The school's mascot is the wildcat, and the school colors are green and white. The Wildcats, as Paden City students are called, inherited their name from a semi-pro football team in Paden City during the 1940s. They had played with such ferocity that they were given then name Wildcats by their coach - a term that endured at the new high school in 1951. Although Paden City High School now uses the wildcat animial, the nickname given by the semi-pro coach was actually in reference to hard working industrial workers that were called "Wildcats" in the industrial revolution. At the time, Paden City had many operating factories and was known as "Paden City- The Industrial Town," a slogan that was used to attract citizens and industry to the town. PCHS competes in the following WVSSAC sports: football, volleyball, boys and girls basketball, boys and girls track, baseball, softball, golf, cheerleading. PCHS is a conference member of Ohio Valley Athletic Conference (OVAC) and Mason-Dixon Conference. For Boys and Girls Track, PCHS is a member of the Ohio River Valley Track League and for basketball (boys and girls) PCHS is a member of the Hometown Invitational Tournament which is a group of smaller "hometown" schools in West Virginia that participate in a tournament across the state and crowns champions annually. Despite being one of the smallest public schools in the state, Paden City High School has a history of athletic excellence capturing multiple state championships including football in 1970 and 1979, boys basketball in 1960, 1973, 1987, and cheerleading in 1994 and 1998. Bands PCHS is home to the Biggest Little Band in the Land, the Paden City Wildcat Band. The first director of the Wildcats was Mr. Robert "Bob" Thomas who was actually "shared" between the bands of Magnolia and Paden City from 1951-1959. Since most of Paden City's games were played on Saturday afternoon, this did not cause a conflict with Mr. Thomas' direction of both bands and on the occasion where both schools played at the same time, a teacher from PCHS would supervise the PCHS Band and Mr. Thomas would go with the MHS Band. In 1959, Paden City hired its first full-time director, Mr. R.E. Hood. While under the direction of Ross "Ed" Hood, Paden City (a WV Class 'A' School) was awarded a WV state championship title for Stage/Jazz Band in 1973 and for a second time in 1978, competing against bands from schools representing Class AAA, AA, and A. Under the direction of Ed Hood, the Paden City Marching, Concert, Pep and Stage Bands were the considered by many to be the best in the state, as they returned many times to Paden City from competitions with multiple awards, including Grand Champion during marching season in his era. The band captured multiple grand champions at several festivals including the Marietta (Oh) Band Festival and Sistersville Oil and Gas Festival. After Ed Hood retired in 1982 to direct a local middle school band, the tradition continued under the direction of the late John Nail. The Paden City Band captured regional championships in the Marching Bands of America, placed 7th in the United States in 1985 at the Indiana Hoosier Dome after placing first at the MBA (BOA) Pittsburgh Regional Championships in Penn Hills, PA. John Nail also directed the band in an unheard of "Undefeated" 1982 season, as the Paden City Band never received anything but first-place trophies that year. Following the tragic death of John Nail, the Paden City Band was then directed by Douglas Carter, followed by Debra Pollock Price, and then Byron W. Filben. The Wildcat Band also placed 10th at the BOA Eastern Regionals in 1998 under the direction of Byron Filben. After Byron Filben left at the end of the 1999-2000 school year, the band was then directed for two years by Malissa A. Buckovenski, before Steven W. Jones took leadership of the band. PCHS was under the direction of Steven Jones from 2002-2014, and during that era the Paden City Band has nearly doubled in size under his leadership and continued to place at competitions and festivals in West Virginia and Ohio and received 'Superior' and 'Excellent' ratings at State Adjudication Festivals. In September 2014, Steven Jones left PCHS to be the director of a middle school program in a neighboring school district and former director Debra Price returned to direct the Wildcats once again. Price, in her first year back lead the band at several competitions where they placed in every category, notably receiving runner-up state champion in class 1A in 2014 and 2015, and state champion in class 1A in 2017 and 2018 at the State Marching Band Festival (WV Marching Band Invitational) in the capital city of Charleston, WV. In 2018 the band was also the Blue Division Grand Champion at the WV State Marching Band Invitational, Division I Grand Champion at Parkersburg South, and Runner-up Grand Champion at Ripley Viking Festival for the second year in a row. The Concert Band over the past few years has received several Superior Ratings at the State Regional Adjudication Festival and the Marching Band continues to place at competitions in the state of West Virginia for High Honors in Marching and High Honors in Music, including the Sistersville / Tyler Consolidated High Oil and Gas Festival, Roane County High School WV Black Walnut Festival, Sissonville High School Invitational Band Festival, and the Ripley High School Viking Festival, Parkersburg High School 'Big Red' Band Competition, and since the festival's inception in 2013 has participated in the West Virginia Invitational Band Festival in Charleston- which is the "state championship" band festival. In the area of music, Paden City High School offers to students: Marching Band, Concert Band, Jazz/Stage Band, Percussion Ensemble, Basketball Pep Band, Woodwind and Brass Ensembles, and Chorus. The Paden City High School Band is known as the "Biggest Little Band in the Land," a nickname that dates back to the early 1960s originating from Harry Bright of WETZ Radio. The term "biggest little band in the land" did not come from the band being small in numbers. It was because it was such a huge band of 150+ members (giving the adjective "Biggest") from a small school (giving the adjective "little".) In the 1960s, most band competitions were categorized by school size and not band size, and since PCHS was a small school, it competed in the small class with a bigger band. It was more of a tongue in cheek comment because it is said that people would say, "Heck, THAT is the 'biggest "little" band I've ever seen!" Today, the band marches around 40 members and most say that in any event, it is still a great way to identify the band because even if it is small in numbers, the Paden City band "plays and performs with the heart of 200 members." Paden City High School also has an active Alumni Band that is composed of former members who are graduates of PCHS. The Paden City Alumni Band (or Wildcat Alumni Spirit Band as it is often called) performs by itself as well as in conjunction with the PCHS Band several times a year. Annually, between 50-60 members participate. Often, former directors of the PCHS Band are invited to conduct the alumni band's performances, most recently former PCHS Assistant Director of Bands Cutch McAtee conducted the band's pre-game performance in 2015 in honor of R. Ed Hood, who he was the assistant under for several years in the 1970s. Performances are usually dedicated in honor of former members and support staff of the band who have died. Those who have been honored recently have been John H. Ice, Jr., R. Ed Hood, John Nail, C. Woodrow Higginbotham, and Marty Vogel-Howell. At the Annual Homecoming Game in October 2014, Paden City High School, with approval by the Wetzel County Board of Education and recommendation of the Paden City Foundation, officially renamed the fine arts wing of PCHS "The R. E. 'Ed' Hood Fine Arts Wing" in honor of respected director R. E. Hood, director of Paden City Bands 1959-1982. Hood died in July 2014, and the PCHS Band and the PCHS Alumni Band attended his memorial service and performed the Alma Mater in tribute to him after the service. Clubs PCHS also offers membership in academic honor societies for Mathematics (Mu Alpha Theta), English and Science as well as annual participation in the RESA SCIENCE FAIR and the West Virginia Department of Education's STATE SOCIAL STUDIES FAIR, which has three levels including the School Fair, Regional Fair, and State Fair. PCHS continually has winners in the Regional and has had several state winners, most recently in 2017. PCHS also sends participants to MATH FIELD DAY, which has a county, region, and state level. PCHS has had students compete on all three levels of Math Field Day, including the state level, most recently in Spring of 2010. PCHS is also home to a chapter of the International Thespian Society (THEATER/DRAMA)Troupe 4892 which performs both non-competitively and competitively in the regional and state competitions and performs Broadway Musicals such as "You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown" in 2013, and "Once Upon A Mattress" in 2014. In 2012, 2014, 2016, and 2017, PCHS had representation at the International Thespian Festival in Lincoln, Nebraska. In 2013, Paden City High School received first place at the Fairmont State University ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE Competition which is open to all high schools in West Virginia. Previous winners of that competition have included AAA high schools such as University High School of Morgantown, that had an enrollment of 1,252 at the time of the 2012 competition. Paden City High School also has a club of students that functions as the staff for "The Green and White", the school's award-winning yearbook, as well as a school newspaper staff. Alumni Notable alumni Mark Funkhouser, former mayor of Kansas City, Missouri, current publisher of Governing (magazine) and director of the Governing Institute W. Craig Broadwater Clark Barnes Jeff Casteel Paden City Alumni Association Paden City High School has an active alumni association that includes alumni from every decade the school has graduated students. The alumni association appoints officers and meets regularly to sponsor events within the school and for the alumni of the school. The association sponsors events including the annual homecoming festivities and parade which occurs every October, the alumni weekend (which occurs yearly during the weekend closest to the July 4th holiday.) The alumni weekend includes a multitude of events, but notably the Alumni Memorial Service, Alumni Parade, and the Distinguished Alumni Banquet are the hallmarks of the weekend festivities which begin on Thursday of Alumni Weekend and close Sunday evening. Every year, the weekend is led by the ten year classes. The association also designates "Distinguished Alumni" for contributions to their field of expertise, their community, or the Paden City Community based upon a rigorous application process and selection committed composed of alternating Paden City Alumni of various ages. Distinguished Alumni Recipients include: Jesse Brown (2001,) Owen McKay (2002,) John D. Hopkins (2003,) Margaret Keifer Sine (2004,) Matthew Long (2005,) Rodney McWilliams and Sue Miles Nichols (2006,) Patricia Lyle Bullock (2007,) J. Ford Huffman (2008,) Jeff Casteel (2009,) Jim Richmond (2010,) Tom McKay, Jarvis Moyers, and Walter Smittle III (2011,) Brian Feldmeier (2012-2013,) Roy Huffman (2014,) Edward Toman (2015,) To Be Announced (2016-2017.) See also Wetzel County Schools Paden City Elementary School, Paden City High's Feeder School References Public high schools in West Virginia Schools in Wetzel County, West Virginia Educational institutions established in 1951 Public middle schools in West Virginia 1951 establishments in West Virginia
4906279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopewell%20Valley%20Central%20High%20School	Hopewell Valley Central High School	Hopewell Valley Central High School is a four-year comprehensive public high school operating as part of the Hopewell Valley Regional School District that serves students in ninth through twelfth grades from Hopewell Borough, Hopewell Township and Pennington Borough, three communities in Mercer County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. Although the high school has a Pennington mailing address, it is located within the political boundaries of Hopewell Township, just outside Pennington Borough. As of the 2021–22 school year, the school had an enrollment of 1,076 students and 107.3 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 10.0:1. There were 30 students (2.8% of enrollment) eligible for free lunch and 7 (0.7% of students) eligible for reduced-cost lunch. History The district's first high school was established in 1907, with a separate high school facility constructed in Hopewell Borough in 1912 at a cost of $20,000 (equivalent to $ in ). A second building was constructed in 1929, when a new facility was completed at a cost of $158,000 on of land on a site in Pennington. The current High School was built along Pennington-Titusville road in 1958. Since then, there have been multiple additions and renovations to the original building, including in 1965 and 1974 when additional classrooms and a library were built (the existing library was converted into offices for child study, guidance, and counseling. A 1997 addition added eight science classrooms and a band room, with older science rooms being renovated. In 2003, work was completed on a new 865-seat Performing Arts Center, a new gymnasium, as well as some classroom renovations as part of a referendum approved by voters in 2000. A 2016 referendum allowed for the addition of a new front entrance, a cafeteria extension, a black box theater, and an auxiliary gymnasium, along with significant HVAC improvements and roofing repairs. These were completed in 2018. On February 16, 2017, Fried Chicken was an option on that days lunch menu. The sign that had the menu had a heading that read, "In Celebration of Black History Month we have a Special Menu Today!" The superintendent of Hopewell Valley Regional School District, Thomas A. Smith, apologized for the racial stereotypes that were being promoted by putting fried chicken on the menu. The district's food vendor, Pomptonian, explained themselves for the incident. The Vice President of Pomptonian, Cathy Penna, claims one of the company's directors worked with an administrator of the district to create the menu for that day. At Hopewell Valley Central High School in the 2016–2017 school year, there were about 1,200 total students. About 82% of the students were white (about 984 students) and only about 3.8% were black (about 46 students). Profile The Hopewell Valley Central High School credo is that the school is a "high-performing, high-achieving school with a soul." HVCHS encourages and fosters partnerships between teachers, students, parents, and the community. The Municipal Alliance and Healthy Communities/Healthy Youth play a key role in the "Culture of Respect." Students are involved in service organizations with community outreach programs. Hopewell Valley Central High School provides a curriculum that is broad, diversified and comprehensive, allowing students to structure their own challenges. HVCHS encourages high expectations and achievement. Awards, recognition and rankings The school was the 41st-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 339 schools statewide in New Jersey Monthly magazine's September 2014 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", using a new ranking methodology. The school had been ranked 31st in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 38th in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. The magazine ranked the school 39th in 2008 out of 316 schools. Schooldigger.com ranked the school 101st out of 381 public high schools statewide in its 2011 rankings (a decrease of 31 positions from the 2010 ranking) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the mathematics (87.8%) and language arts literacy (95.4%) components of the High School Proficiency Assessment (HSPA). In the 2011 "Ranking America's High Schools" issue by The Washington Post, the school was ranked 57th in New Jersey and 1,666th nationwide. In Newsweek's May 20, 2012, issue, ranking the country's top high schools, Hopewell Valley Central High School was listed in 427th place, the 39th-highest ranked school in New Jersey. In the magazine's 2007 rankings, Hopewell Valley Central High School was listed in 1239th place, the 42nd-highest ranked school in New Jersey. In its 2013 report on "America's Best High Schools", The Daily Beast ranked the school 638th in the nation among participating public high schools and 50th among schools in New Jersey. Academics Hopewell Valley Central High School offers 26 different AP courses, as well as three dual-enrollment courses in conjunction with Syracuse University. Science The HVCHS Envirothon Team placed first in the 11th Annual New Jersey Envirothon Competition at the School of Conservation in Stokes State Forest. The team then represented the state of New Jersey and placed third in the National Envirothon held at West Virginia Wesleyan College. Performing arts The high school music program is on an upward trend. It has been twice named a finalist in the Grammy Foundation's Grammy Signature Schools program. In 2004, the program was named to the American Music Conference's list of the "Best 100 Communities for Music Education in America". The NAMM organization has recognized the school's music program on multiple occasions, including both 2009 and 2010. In regional and national competitions, the band, choir, and orchestra have been recognized for excellence. The choir program has received top ratings at festivals since 2002 and was selected for the 2006 National Choral Invitational Festival of Gold in New York City. The choirs were treated to a one-week workshop with choral composer Stephen Hatfield. The symphonic band has worked with several musical notables, including the Dallas Brass and Houston-based composer Michael Story. The Marching Black and Gold, an extracurricular marching band established in 2007, has achieved top ratings in many area competitions. The band performs at varsity football games, participates in Memorial Day parades and other celebrations in Hopewell Valley, and has traveled to participate at Festival Disney in Florida and other locations across the eastern United States. Alumni of the Marching Black and Gold have gone on to join prestigious marching bands at colleges and universities across the US. Some have participated in drum and bugle corps associated with Drum Corps International and Drum Corps Associates. The school offers a four-year, sequential, curricular program in theater arts. An 865-seat Performing Arts Center opened at the high school in 2003, and is now used by the community and music programs in the district. Graduates of Hopewell's Performing Arts programs have gone on to major in various performing arts fields in college. Visual arts The Visual Arts Department is comprehensive and sequential and its curriculum culminates in the various AP art courses. Student artists have received accolades for works in various local, state, and national art shows as they successfully placed first, second, and third in these juried art show competitions. Athletics The Hopewell Valley Central High School Bulldogs compete in the Colonial Valley Conference, which comprises public and private high schools in Mercer, Middlesex and Monmouth counties, operating under the supervision of the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA). With 838 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group III for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 761 to 1,058 students in that grade range. The football team competes in the Capitol Division of the 94-team West Jersey Football League superconference and was classified by the NJSIAA as Group III South for football for 2022–2024, which included schools with 680 to 889 students. Hopewell's athletic program offers 22 sports. The school participates as the host school / lead agency for a joint ice hockey team with Montgomery High School. The co-op program operates under agreements scheduled to expire at the end of the 2023–24 school year. Hopewell Valley has a longstanding rivalry with the Pennington School. Other rivals include Notre Dame High School and Lawrence High School. After suspending the football program in 1932, the school reinstituted the program after a 70-year hiatus, due to the founding of HIKE Hopewell Involved in Kids Enrichment, a non profit which raised the funds to bring a high School Football team back to HVRSD. Hundreds of citizens and students worked multiple fund raising events to raise moneyto fund the first 5 years of the football program. The first team the freshman team which was made of a combination of freshman and sophomore athletes (due to league regulations) beginning play in 2002. The re-established football program's first varsity victory came on October 17, 2005, with a 28–6 win against West Windsor-Plainsboro High School North. The Bulldogs had been able to successfully start their first Varsity level season in 2004. Although winless, the community celebrated the fact that Varsity Football was once again being played at the HVCHS. The 2006 season had the Bulldogs going 3–6, and tying for the Colonial Valley Conference Patriot Division title with Ewing High School and West Windsor Plainsboro North. The 2007 season was even more successful for the Hopewell Varsity football team, going 5–4, and again tying for the Patriot Division title. In 2008, the Bulldogs had another winning season, at 6–4. At Homecoming, the crowds number in the thousands. In 2013, the HV Bulldogs finished the program's tenth varsity season with a 10–1 record, the best season in the ten years since the re-introduction of football, and defeated Lawrence High School by a score of 31–14 before 7,500 fans at The College of New Jersey to win the program's first Central Jersey Group III state sectional championship. It was the first time that two Mercer County teams had reached the finals in the same season and Hopewell Valley became the sixth team from the county to win a football sectional title. The field hockey team won the Central Jersey Group II state sectional championship in 1976, 1977, 1981, 1985 and 1988. In 1977, the baseball team finished the season with a record of 26–2 after winning the Group II state championship by defeating Lenape Valley Regional High School in the tournament final by a score of 3–2. The girls' soccer team won the Group I/II state championship in 1982 (against runner-up Mahwah High School in the finals) and 1983 (as co-champion with Chatham Borough High School), and won the Group III title in 2009 (as co-champion with Northern Highlands Regional High School). In 2009, the team played a scoreless tie against Northern Highlands in the Group III state finals at The College of New Jersey, marking the first time Hopewell girls' varsity soccer team has claimed a state title since 1983. The boys' soccer team won the Group II state championship in 1989, with a 3–2 win against Millburn High School in the tournament final played at Trenton State College. The 2005 boys' soccer team went were co-champions of Mercer County, went undefeated in the CVC, won their division, won the Group III sectional title with a 2–1 win over Monroe Township High School and lost 3–2 in overtime to Ocean City High School in the state semi-finals. They were ranked 13th in the state at the end of the year. The ice hockey team won the Mercer County Championship in 1999 (as co-champion with Hightstown High School) and 2008. The girls' track team has won the Group II indoor relay championships in 1991 and each year from 2002 to 2009, winning the Group III title in 2010; the 10 state titles won by the program are tied for the most of any school in the state. The boys team won the Group III title in 2017 (as co-champion). In 2010, the girlswinter track team set a state record by winning the state relays for its ninth consecutive year, a streak that ended in 2011. In 1997 the golf team won the Group II state title, and defeated rival Group IV champion West Windsor-Plainsboro High School South in a one-hole playoff for the Tournament of Champions overall state championship. Along with the team honors, senior David Schmutz won the individual state title by three shots, and received First Team All-County, First Team All-State Group II, First Team, All-State, and State Player of the Year honors. The girls' cross country team won the Group II state championship in 1999 and 2002, and won the Group II title in 2001. The boys' cross country team won the Group II state championship in 1999. The girls' track team won the Group II indoor track championship in 2002, 2003, 2005 and 2007–2009; the program's six state titles are tied for fifth-most in New Jersey. The girls' spring track team was the Group II state champion in 2003 and won the Group II title in 2005. In 2003–04 Hopewell Valley Central High School teams won six Patriot Division Championships, two Mercer County Championships, and the Group II Winter Track Relay state championship. Championship teams included Boys Cross Country, Girls Soccer, Girls Tennis, Girls Basketball and Girls Track and Field. In addition, the CHS 4X4 relay team won the championship at the 2003 Penn Relays. The 2006 Girls' softball team won the Mercer County Tournament. The men's cross country team went undefeated in Mercer County, won the Mercer County Championship, won the Central Jersey state championship, and placed second at the Group III state meet. The women's cross country team also went undefeated in the county, placed second in the Mercer County Championship, and was first at the Central Jersey state championship. The 2007 girls lacrosse team won the South, Group II state sectional championship with a 15–7 victory over Camden Catholic High School. In 2010, the baseball team finished the season 21–10 and won the NJSIAA Central Jersey Group III state sectional championship over West Windsor-Plainsboro High School North by a score of 12–2. In 2011, the girls' spring track team won the NJSIAA Group III state title for the seventh consecutive time. Clubs and organizations Students at HVCHS are able to become involved in school clubs and organizations. Clubs and activities are focused on artistic, athletic, academic, and special interest areas. Over 60% of the 1,200 students compete in one of the 22 athletic programs or an extracurricular activity. Administration The school's principal is Patricia Riley. Her core administration team includes two vice principals. Notable alumni Val Ackerman (born 1959), class of 1977, best known for being the first president of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), serving from 1996 to 2005. Steve Braun (born 1948, class of 1966), former Major League Baseball player. Danielia Cotton (born 1967), jazz singer, songwriter and guitarist. Gregory S. Glasson (born 1974), bass player who has played for Grammy Award winning artist Seal both live onstage and in studio recordings. Jim Himes (born 1966), Congressman from Connecticut's 4th congressional district. Cassidy Hutchinson (born 1996 or 1997, class of 2015), former aide to White House Chief of Staff Mark Meadows during the Trump administration who testified at a hearing of the United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack. At the school, she was a member of the girls' track team. Mark Hsu Syers (1952—1983), Broadway actor John Tanguay (born 1998), rower who won a silver medal at the 2019 World Rowing Championships. Colleen Williams (born 1991), former soccer forward and midfielder who played for the Washington Spirit in the National Women's Soccer League. References External links Hopewell Valley Central High School web pages Hopewell Valley Regional School District Data for the Hopewell Valley Regional School District, National Center for Education Statistics 1907 establishments in New Jersey Educational institutions established in 1907 Hopewell, New Jersey Hopewell Township, Mercer County, New Jersey Pennington, New Jersey Public high schools in Mercer County, New Jersey
4906482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicious%20Circle%20%28comics%29	Vicious Circle (comics)	The Vicious Circle is a criminal organization of mutants, cyborgs, monsters, assassins, and magicians that serves as the primary opponents for the superheroes in Erik Larsen's comic-book titles, primarily the Dragon. Overview The group has a varying line-up, sometimes consisting of five-to-six members and sometimes having a staggeringly huge membership. Originally the Vicious Circle was led by the Overlord, an armored mastermind who ruled all of Chicago's underworld. Later, it would be ruled by the technology controlling Cyberface. Once the Savage Dragon started policing the streets of Chicago, the Vicious Circle began to falter and its members started winding up in prison, the hospital or just plain dead. The Vicious Circle remains a consistent thorn in the Savage Dragon's side, and frequently faces off with the SuperPatriot and others, including Raphael of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, who in issues 10 and 11 of the series run with Image took on the entire Vicious Circle himself in a bar fight. The Circle desires to utterly control Chicago. Members have attacked the Dragon time and time again, willing to kill anyone who gets in their way. Occasionally, they use subtler methods. A power vacuum causes an inter-faction war, ending with the sex-changed Johnny Redbeard in charge. Using insiders, they have Dragon fired and replaced with a more buffoonish superpowered hero, She-Dragon. However, this plan fails as She-Dragon is carefully trained by other police officers and becomes a credible threat. The Circle is briefly part of the superhero/gang war that erupts in New York City, as mentioned in Wildcats #28. Circle members are part of the heroic resistance when Martians attack Earth, though they try to claim power and territory once the Dragon kills all the aliens. After the alien invasion, the Dragon shrunk much of their group with a Martian device, sucked them up in a vacuum cleaner and tossed them out the window. The shrunken members were then used to free other members from jail. Presumably, the Vicious Circle, along with most of Earth, are dead after a cosmic entity named Universo attacks the planet. Some people of this Earth survived to travel to another, but it is not known whether any Circle members did. Leaders Overlord Overlord first appeared in Larsen's Savage Dragon series, serving as that title's first principal villain and the archenemy of the Dragon. Like many of Larsen's characters, Overlord was based on a character that Larsen had created during his childhood. First conceived as "Bronzeman", a sort of criminal counterpart to Iron Man, Larsen later found he disliked the name and changed it to Overlord. The character's costume also went through multiple revisions before Larsen was satisfied. Fictional character biography Overlord is a Chicago-based crime lord named Antonio Seghetti with extensive ties to the Mafia and the European pocket nation of Lieberheim. As a child, he kills his sister's rapist during the act itself. Though noble, he starts a downward spiral into thuggery. He soon is involved in all sorts of crime, including rape itself. In the 1990s, the superhuman population of the world skyrockets, resulting in Seghetti's illegal operations being threatened. In response, Saghetti has Sebastian Kahn (a cybernetics genius) design and construct for him a powerful battlesuit to wear. Donning the armor, Saghetti dubs himself Overlord and recruits countless superhuman thugs into his criminal empire, calling the group the Vicious Circle. With superhuman agents, he breaks away from his Mafia connections and Overlord soon has the city of Chicago at his mercy. The Overlord's luck changes when the Savage Dragon becomes a police officer. The Dragon began to dismantle his empire piece by piece. Later the Overlord also has to contend with Kahn, who had been technologically augmented and is now called CyberFace. CyberFace leads a team of superhumans called the Annihilators against the Vicious Circle, but is arrested. After negotiating with the police, CyberFace plans to testify against Overlord and reveal his identity. Overlord panics and dispatched several assassins. Cyberface ended up dead in his cell, having been poisoned through his food. He is soon revived through artificial means. Dragon's first confrontration with Overlord ends with being thrown off a roof and impaled on a church spire. Later, the Dragon returns with a S.W.A.T. team. The other police officers are killed almost instantly. The Dragon takes apart Overlord's armor and shoots him in the mouth, one of his few vulnerable spots. Overlord falls off the roof, breaking a spire and slamming into the sidewalk. Armor On Other forces conspire to send Dragon to hell, though Dragon does not believe it is real. Nevertheless, he viciously torments Antonio when they meet. Antonio has his armor recreated by mystical means. The Dragon bites off Antonio's finger and spits it through the man's head. Since then, Overlord's armor has been used by others who have tried to gain power in the Chicago underworld. Some, such as Brainiape, must deal with literally not being able to fit into the armor. Then there was Victor Nixon, Chicago Police officer. He had developed an attraction to the married Rita Meadermade. His use of the armor to spy on her corrupts Nixon, mixing his thought patterns with Antonio's remnants. Nixon ends up killing Rita's other stalker, her homicidal brother-in-law. He also seemingly kills Dragon's wife, but Jennifer had been replaced by a double. Nixon then gathers a force of villains to go after Dragon. This fails and in a one-on-one confrontation with the Dragon, Nixon is beaten to death. His identity is only discovered after the fact. Under careful supervision, the armor is destroyed in a fire. In an alternate dimension, the armor is used by a mysterious figure to keep the Vicious Circle in line with the mutation-granting blood of Dragon. Overlord claims to be trying to turn the Circle 'straight', to become a mutated-beings rights group. As part of this goal, he works unofficially with the police. These stated goals suffer a setback after the Dragon, overcome by his previous persona of evil Emperor Kurr, kills many of the Circle's powered forced. In other media Overlord is the main villain in the short lived Savage Dragon animated series, voiced by Tony Jay. Cyberface Cyberface (Sebastian Khan) is a supervillain and enemy of the Dragon in the Image Universe. He first appears in Savage Dragon (vol. 2) #5 and was created by Erik Larsen.He was the second primary villain of the series. Fictional history The city of Chicago has long been renowned for its organized crime, most famously during the infamous reign of Al Capone. The mobs and gangsters managed to retain power for decades but the growing superhuman population threatened their rule by the early 1990s. A Mafia crime lord, Antonio Seghetti, saw this growing menace and acted on it. He had his second-in-command, Sebastian Khan, exercise his technological expertise to try and come up with an answer to the freaks. The mob had a healthy relationship with the small country of Lieberheim and it's ruthless dictator, Dread Knight, was given a prototype suit of armour to increase his influence of power, as well as constructing him a legion of android soldiers, the Dreadheads. With the success of the original armour, Khan improved upon his own designs and created the nigh-invulnerable armour that would allow Seghetti to assume the role of OverLord. In this new role, the crime lord was forced to remain within his suit or face certain death from the freaks he has subdued and recruited into his new organisation, the Vicious Circle. OverLord soon spent less and less time with his Mafia associates while maintaining his new persona twenty-four hours a day. Khan was abandoned and left the mob to pursue other plans. At some unknown point, Khan gained superhuman powers to manipulate all technology and he took on the guise of CyberFace. Gathering a number of other superpowered criminals, CyberFace formed the Annihilators and prepared them to seize control of the Vicious Circle. Unfortunately for him, the Chicago Police Department's Freak Force program interfered and apprehended him, as well as trapping the Annihilators in a dimensional limbo. While in police custody, CyberFace was poisoned on the orders of OverLord and was presumed dead. Desperate to get CyberFace back so that he can testify against OverLord, as he is the only man able to identify the armoured crime lord in his human guise, the Dragon takes the dead man's carcass to the government's Project: Born Again program. The villain was partially resurrected before the facility was destroyed, and CyberFace wandered back to Chicago and was manipulated by Octopus, planning to use him to conquer the Vicious Circle. Octopus was later apprehended and CyberFace was cleared of any charges after giving evidence against OverLord so that a warrant for his arrest could be made. Shortly after, Horde took possession of CyberFace and used his might to become the new leader of the Vicious Circle after the Dragon had killed OverLord. Due to the incomplete resurrection, CyberFace slowly began to degenerate and was saved from death by Abner Cadaver, who infused him with the life essences of some of the Undead. This lifeforce was very unstable, and when CyberFace attempted to conquer Chicago in light of the Martian invasion, he was destroyed by a single punch from the Dragon. Octopus, OpenFace and PowerHouse revived CyberFace in the gorilla body of BrainiApe, and he stole the OverLord armour from the government as part of a bid to reclaim the Vicious Circle, now under the leadership of Horde. In a mass battle which killed Horde, the remains of CyberFace were finally destroyed by BrainiApe. Savage World CyberFace formed the Annihilators and took them to seize control of the Vicious Circle. CyberFace managed to successfully claim leadership away from OverLord, who he then killed. From this point on, Khan's sphere of influence continued to expand and the Vicious Circle soon became a serious force to be reckoned with. When the Cosmic Cops invaded Earth in 1994, they managed to decimate much of New York City and looked set to expand their precincts to contain much of the planet. No heroes were able to get close enough to accomplish anything and numerous teams were being monitored and threatened with death if they acted. It was only when CyberFace entered the fray that the aliens were defeated. The Cosmic Cops’ impressive technology was enslaved by CyberFace who then used it to destroy the invaders and convert them into his mindless cybernetic slaves. New York City was the next city behind Chicago to become controlled by CyberFace and his powerbase increased immensely. Few could oppose him now that he had the enhanced technology of the Cosmic Cops. Three years later when the Martians launched their mammoth invasion of Earth and destroyed much of the planet, CyberFace again came to humanity's rescue, albeit to serve his own selfish gains. CyberFace defeated these latest aggressors and added their technology to his growing cache of equipment was able to seize complete control of Earth and became the King of the World. Only one person has had the audacity to truly oppose CyberFace, and that is Dragon. He carried out a failed assassination attempt which has earned him the unenviable position of being public enemy number one with a huge bounty on his head. In May 1999, our Dragon's mind took control of his alternate timeline's body and he has begun his own quest to depose CyberFace from power. Over the next few years, Dragon proceeded to gather together a resistance movement that consisted of abandoned Vicious Circle members, the Underground Freaks and other freedom fighters. Dragon led an assault upon the White House which prompted CyberFace to flee up to the starship of Vanguard's but was unable to hide from his arch-enemy. Dragon confronted his foe, leading him to the isolation booth that once housed the Possessor, neutralising his powers. This then allowed the hero to free Vanguard so that they can gas CyberFace, leaving him locked away in case his incredible abilities are needed to save the Earth in the future. He could still access remote units under his control such as Wally who shot the villain dead rather than turn into his loyal slave. Powers and abilities CyberFace has immense electro-magnetic abilities that allow him to effortlessly manipulate huge amounts of technology. He also possesses great strength and invulnerability. Alison Summers Alison Summers is the fifth main villain of the series and the niece of Dart 1 and Dart III. Samurai The new leader of the Vicious Circle. Members Abner Carvader A scientist of the Vicious Circle. BrainApe An ape with Adolf Hitler's brain. Horde Horde is a fictional villain in the comic book series Savage Dragon where he, 50 issues, a secret antagonist, plotting events from behind the scenes. Horde is the wizard Fon~Ti, the wizard who grants mortals the power of Mighty Man. Trapped and controlled by Mighty Man's old enemy The Wicked Worm. Duplicated bodies of the worm covered Fon~Ti at the command of his old rival Abner Cadaver and used him to slowly take control of Chicago's super-powered criminal underworld. Horde possesses a number of characters before stepping out of the shadows, the first character is possessed in the very first issue of the Savage Dragon's ongoing series. First the homeless freak The Shrew; then veteran hero Superpatriot; The Dragon himself, causing him to go on a mindless rampage nearly destroying the city of Chicago; vigilante Mace and wannabe heroine She-Dragon; before taking control of criminal Cyberface. Horde used Cyberface to control the Vicious Circle, the biggest super-criminal organisation in Chicago. When Cyberface was killed for the third time Horde revealed himself, took control of all of the Vicious Circle members with his worms. The Vicious Circle under Horde's leadership cause enough problems to force The Dragon to return from Washington DC and deal with them himself in a final battle in the series' fiftieth issue. During the battle at their headquarters and despite Horde using She-Dragon's power gloves, The Dragon is able to kill off the Wicked Worms covering Fon~Ti with a can of industrial insect killer. Fon~Ti returns eighth issues later to destroy his old enemy Cadaver and revive the Dragon fully, who had been killed shortly after destroying Horde. Horde used the leech-like worms that covered his body to control people's minds. The Leeches, later referred to as 'Wicked Worms' (as they were all duplicates of The Wicked Worm), attached themselves at the base of each victim's skull. Each worm, it was later revealed, also had the intellect, personality and power of speech that the original Wicked Worm had. Jimbo da Mighty Lobster Jimbo Da Mighty Lobster was a large, super-powered anthropomorphic Lobster who cursed frequently and battled The Dragon simply to prove he was the stronger of the two. In the end The Dragon threw the fight to end the battle and Jimbo went away thinking he was indeed, the strongest. He was not seen again. The character was the winner of Erik Larsen's 'Ultimate Character Creation Contest'. Launched in issue 1 of the Savage Dragon ongoing series with a deadline of July 31, 1993 fans could enter their finest creation (Hero or Villain), the prize was their character would appear in issue #10 and the creator would retain the copyrights. Several thousand entered and Larsen chose the winner (Jason Merritt). Jimbo was super-strong and invulnerable, plus had two strong claws instead of hands. He was a criminal of some kind 'making runs' using a boat. Mako A mutant Shark-man. Octopus ORIGINAL IMAGE UNIVERSE Unhappy with the way that OverLord was running the Vicious Circle, two of its seemingly minor members joined forces to try and claim power for themselves. Octopus and OpenFace performed a number of thefts from electronics warehouses such as Donner Electronics, killing any guards they encountered. This drew the attention of Officer Dragon along with neophyte heroes Justice and She-Dragon. In the main warehouse of Donner Electronics, Dragon caught up with his suspects and OpenFace provided cover for his partner to escape. Despite being apprehended and ultimately sentenced to time in Stronghold Penitentiary, Octopus was able to remain at large and continue his plan. Octopus created a device using the stolen electronic mechanisms and used this invention to summon the recently resurrected CyberFace to him. CyberFace became a mindless pawn of Octopus and was entombed below the city of Chicago to prevent his discovery by the police that very much wanted him back to testify against OverLord. Octopus was forced to abduct Officer Howard Niseman which led Dragon down into the sewers. He apprehended both the disorientated CyberFace and the enraged Octopus. Octopus remained in prison until the Martian invasion decimated much of Chicago and allowed CyberFace to assert control. The police tried to get Octopus to help them bring down CyberFace but he escaped and gathered up the remains of his former pawn when his unstable body blew up. Octopus took this disembodied head and attached it to the body of BrainiApe. CyberFace and Octopus were soon joined by PowerHouse and then Baby Boom and OpenFace in building up a rebellion against the rule of Horde over the Vicious Circle. This attempt left both Horde and CyberFace dead, leaving PowerHouse, BrainiApe and OverLord II battling for sole leadership. PowerHouse ultimately won out and installed Octopus as one of his inner circle. OpenFace and Octopus aided the miniaturised Dataman in analysing and reversing a shrinking gun for the smaller Vicious Circle members so that the criminal organisation could return to full capacity. OpenFace was later reverted to a normal human when the second Nega-Bomb detonated. He and the rest of the Vicious Circle were left without purpose and were forced to restart their lives... until Universo consumed the entire planet. SAVAGE WORLD In this reality, Octopus was among the thirty or so Vicious Circle members that refused to pledge loyalty to CyberFace when he killed OverLord. Unfortunately, their exile to the devastated Chicago left these outcasts losing members until around half their number had fallen. Octopus managed to remain alive and was present when this group's fortunes begun to change. The leader of this faction was HellRazor who was talked into an alliance with Dragon by his colleague Neutron Bob. These Vicious Circle thugs were part of a rebellion mounted against CyberFace's primary headquarters in the White House. Octopus came through such a dangerous conflict alive but was apprehended by the newly formed Liberty League before he could escape. A massive breakout at Stronghold Penitentiary later occurred and Octopus was able to return to work with the Vicious Circle. The organisation was being restructured by SkullFace, using the older members as cannon fodder to eliminate Dragon. Octopus and OpenFace created a massive android that was deployed against their target but when it was destroyed, the pair was assumed to have been killed, but this was actually all a ruse. They had in fact created holographic illusions of themselves that they knew would be destroyed so that they could continue their research unmolested. Octopus and OpenFace remained hidden for years and combined their efforts to draw the OverLord armour down from space where it was found by the Chicago Police Department. They activated the suit's most powerful photon blast to exterminate all of the officers present. Unfortunately, their plan to control the OverLord armour and conquer the Vicious Circle fell through when it was taken from them by an unknown figure. The duo fell in line behind the new OverLord and worked as his chief scientists, creating a way to employ Dragon's blood to restore older Vicious Circle members to their former glory, albeit with a Dragon-ised appearance. SAVAGE DRAGON ANIMATED SERIES Octopus appeared as a recurring villain in the Savage Dragon Animated series, and was voiced by Rob Paulsen. Openface Openface is a fictional scientist and secondary antagonist in Erik Larsen's Savage Dragon comic book series. He is a short, noseless man with olive skin whose head splits vertically to reveal a large Venus Fly Trap like second mouth with a large tongue. he was the main villain of Savage Dragon issue #12. Openface was first seen stealing from a laboratory when the Dragon and new heroes Justice and She-Dragon interrupt them. Unable to free his head from Openface's second mouth, Dragon ripped out the villains tongue with his teeth, it was later stitched back on. Having escaped during the prison break organised by Cyberface and, following his old partner's escape from prison 11 issues later, teamed up with Octopus to take control of the Vicious Circle criminal organisation. Once their plan failed, Openface was not seen again. The Savage Dragon series was originally set on another Earth to the one it is now. On this new earth Openface took part in an attempted coup to liberate the world from Cyberface, who had become a dictator. References savagedragon.com official homepage of The Savage Dragon series Savage Dragon issues 1, 10, 12, 38, 50, 58, Image Comics. Savage Dragon characters Image Comics teams Image Comics supervillains Characters created by Erik Larsen
4906530	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20World%20Snooker%20Championship	2002 World Snooker Championship	The 2002 World Snooker Championship (also referred to as the 2002 Embassy World Snooker Championship for the purposes of sponsorship) was a professional snooker tournament that took place from 20 April to 6 May 2002 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. It was the final ranking event of the 2001–02 snooker season. This was the 26th consecutive year that the World Snooker Championship had been held at the Crucible, marking the 25th anniversary of the first staging of the event at this venue. The championship was sponsored by cigarette manufacturer Embassy. Peter Ebdon won his only world title by defeating seven-time winner Stephen Hendry 18–17 in the final. Ebdon defeated Matthew Stevens 17–16 in the semi-finals, and Hendry defeated the defending champion Ronnie O'Sullivan 17–13 to reach the final. This was Hendry's ninth and last appearance in a World Championship final. There were 65 century breaks during the tournament. The highest break of the tournament was by Stevens, who achieved 145 in his quarter-final match. Hendry made 16 centuries during the event, a record for any individual tournament, equalled by Mark Williams in 2022. A total prize fund of £1,615,770 was awarded at the event, the winner receiving £260,000 Overview The World Snooker Championship is the official world championship of the game of professional snooker, organised by World Snooker. Founded in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India, the sport was popular in the British Isles. In the modern era it has become increasingly popular worldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations such as China, Hong Kong and Thailand. The championship featured 32 professional players competing in one-on-one snooker matches in a single elimination format, each played over several . The 32 competitors in the main tournament were selected using a combination of the top players in the world snooker rankings and a pre-tournament qualification stage. Joe Davis won the first World Championship in 1927, the final match being held in Camkin's Hall, Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the event has been held in the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The championship was sponsored by cigarette manufacturer Embassy. Format The championship was held from 20 April and 6 May 2002 at the Crucible Theatre, the 26th consecutive year that the tournament was held at the venue. It was the ninth and last ranking event of the 2001–02 snooker season on the World Snooker Tour. There were 120 entrants from the tour, and the competition's main draw had 32 participants. Following a seven-round amateur qualifying tournament, a six-round knockout qualifying competition was held at the Manhattan Club, Harrogate, the Telford International Centre and the Newport Centre in Newport, Wales. This qualifying tournament produced the 16 qualifying players who progressed into the main draw to play the top 16 seeds. The top 16 players in the latest world rankings automatically qualified for the main draw as seeded players. As defending champion, Ronnie O'Sullivan was seeded first for the event with world number one Mark Williams seeded second; the remaining seeds were allocated based on the players' world ranking positions. Matches in the first round of the main draw were played as best-of-19-frames. The number of frames needed to win a match increased to being the best-of-25 in the second round and quarter-finals, and best-of-33 in the semi-finals; the final match was played as best-of-35-frames. Prize fund The tournament featured a prize fund of £1,615,770 with the winner receiving £260,000 and bonuses for completing a maximum break. The breakdown of prize money for the event is shown below: Winner: £260,000 Runner-up: £152,000 Semi-final: £76,000 Quarter-final: £38,000 Last 16: £21,000 Last 32: £14,500 Last 48: £11,000 Last 64: £6,825 Last 80: £5,500 Last 96: £4,150 Last 128: £1,185 Qualification highest break: £2,250 Main stage highest break: £20,000 Qualification maximum break: £5,000 Main stage maximum break: £147,000 Total: £1,615,770 Tournament summary First round The first round was played as the best-of-19 frames matches, held over two sessions. The defending champion Ronnie O'Sullivan's opening match against Drew Henry was delayed for 25 minutes due to a problem with the scoreboard. The first six were shared, but from 3–3 O'Sullivan won six in a row to lead 9–3, and won the match at 10–5. Quinten Hann became the first Australian player to reach the second round since Eddie Charlton in 1989. Hann, a WEPF World Eightball Championship winner, had smashed the pack of reds open when breaking off in the sixth frame, from which Paul Hunter made a 77 break and took the frame. An uncommon shot, commentator Dennis Taylor described it as "bordering on ungentlemanly conduct". Hunter was 6–3 ahead after their first session, but Hann won the match 10–9. Seven-time winner Stephen Hendry recorded a break of 130 in frame three of his match with Shaun Murphy and led 6–3 at the end of their first session. He won the last frame with a break of 111 as he completed a 10–4 victory. Stuart Bingham narrowly missed out on a maximum break during his match against Ken Doherty, failing to pot the . Doherty later won the match 10–8. James Wattana won only one frame of his match against John Higgins. Higgins made breaks of 109, 136 and 116 in winning 10–1. Peter Ebdon led Michael Judge 5–4 at the end of their first session then took five frames in a row to win 10–4. Dominic Dale, who had been ill with food poisoning in the days before his match with Jimmy White, accused White of making a , pretended to go to sleep in his chair during the final frame, and after losing 2–10, snapped his own and threw it out of his dressing-room window. This match and the contest between Hunter and Hann which were being played simultaneously, were interrupted by a streaker wearing a Sven-Göran Eriksson mask. Second round The second round featured matches played as the best-of-25 frames held over up to three sessions. O'Sullivan defeated Robert Milkins 13–2 in only two sessions. When the third session was scheduled to be played O'Sullivan visited a chiropractor. O'Sullivan said "I've got an imbalance in my body and I find it hard to walk, among other things." Hann smashed the pack of reds on the break-off shot four times during his 3–13 loss to Stephen Lee. Lee commented after the match "I don't know why Quinten [Hann] plays like that... perhaps he actually wants to go home early?" Qualifier Anthony Davies trailed 2–6 after the first session, and won just one frame in the second session as he was defeated 3–13 by Hendry. Doherty won eight frames in a row to go from 3–7 behind to 11–7 ahead against Mark King. King forced the match to a decider, which was won by Doherty 13–12. Higgins notched up five century breaks and defeated Dott 13–2. Ebdon and Joe Perry shared the frames in their first session and tied 4–4. Ebdon won seven of the next eight frames to lead 11–5 after the second session, and later won 13–7. White played Matthew Stevens and lost 3–13 with a . In the eighth and final frame in the first session, White had missed a on the , and as the returned towards him, hit it with such force that both balls were both forced off the table. He issued an apology before resuming play the following day. World number one Mark Williams was defeated 9–13 by world number 19 Anthony Hamilton. Hamilton had been defeated by Williams in the final of the China Open earlier in the season, despite being ahead by three frames. He commented that he had been "shaking like a leaf" in making his match winning break but that the previous match spurred him to victory. Williams commented that, despite being ranked number one in the world, his performances were not good enough: "I'm sick with the way I performed. I don't enjoy playing that bad but I seem to play like that fairly often. I don't know what it is." Quarter-finals The quarter-finals were played as best-of-25 frames matches, held over three sessions. During his second session match again Lee, O'Sullivan missed a shot on the , throwing his cue stick in the air in frustration. He was unable to catch it, damaging the table, which had to be fixed before the next session. With the scores tied at 10-10, O'Sullivan made breaks of 83, 102 and 113 to win the match 13–10. Stephen Hendry and Ken Doherty were tied after the first session, Hendry winning four frames in a row to lead 8–4, but Doherty won the next four to tie at 8–8. With the match also tied at 12-12, Hendry made a break of 91 to win 13–12. Post-match, Hendry commented: "Ken and I always have brilliant matches, but this one was special". John Higgins, who had only conceded three frames in his previous two matches, trailed 0–3 to Stevens in the quarter-finals. Higgins won four frames in a row, before Stevens tied the match at 4–4 in the first session. Stevens made the highest break of the championship, a 145 in frame 11, and held a four frame lead after the second session. Stevens won three of the next four frames to win 13–7 and reach his third successive semi-final. Ebdon reached the semi-finals for the second time, as he beat Hamilton 13–6. Ebdon commented that he preferred the longer frame matches and cited his physical condition as having prepared him well for the match. Semi-finals The semi-finals were played as best-of-33 frames matches, held over four sessions between 3 and 4 May. Before the match between O'Sullivan and Hendry, O'Sullivan made comments due to a dispute from their last meeting at the tournament, where Hendry accused O'Sullivan of playing a . He commented "the most satisfying thing for me to send Stephen Hendry back home to Scotland", and that "there is not a lot of respect there at all". He also made comments about Hendry's manager Ian Doyle, who was a previous manager to O'Sullivan. John Dee for the Daily Telegraph commented that O'Sullivan had "blown hot and cold" during interviews, and the comments surprised him. O'Sullivan experienced the Crucible curse as he lost 13–17 to Hendry. O'Sullivan had started the match with a break of 115 in the opening frame and led 5–3 at the end of the first session. In the second session, Hendry moved into a 9–7 lead, with breaks of 125, 122 and 124. The third session ended with the players tied at 12–12. In the final session Hendry took a 16–12 lead and went on to win 17–13. In the other semi-final, Ebdon led Stevens 5–3 after the first session and then 9–7 after the second. It was all square after the third, at 12–12. Stevens moved within one frame of victory at 16–14. In frame 31, leading by 33 points, with 35 points remaining, Stevens lost position, and Ebdon cleared the table to win the frame. Ebdon made a 138 in the penultimate frame and won a deciding frame with a break of 55 to win the match 17–16. After the match, Ebdon commented that he "can't believe he won", and that he felt "sorry" for Stevens, because he knew "how he feels right now". Final The final held between Ebdon and Hendry was played as a best-of-35 frames match over four sessions on 5 and 6 May. Ebdon (seeded seventh) and Hendry (fifth) had also competed in the 1996 final, Hendry winning 18–12 to gain his sixth world title Over eight million viewers watched the 2002 final in the expectation of Hendry winning his eighth world title; many commentators also favoured Hendry to win the event again. The final was refereed by John Williams, his tenth final. Ebdon took the first four frames of the match to lead 4–0 at the first mid-session interval, but Hendry pulled back the next four frames to end the first session tied at 4–4. By the end of the second session, Ebdon was again four frames ahead at 10–6, and then took the first frame of the third session to lead 11–6, but Hendry fought back and levelled the score at 12–12 by the end of the third session. Hendry made a strong start to the final session, taking the lead for the first time with breaks of 63, 55 and 38, to put him 14–12 ahead. Ebdon won the next two frames to draw level at 14–14, after Hendry missed a relatively simple red in the 28th frame. Hendry then compiled a break of 58 in frame 29, to lead 15–14, but Ebdon took three of the next four frames with breaks of 73, 111 and 85 to move ahead 17–16. Poised to win the championship, Ebdon was 52–27 up in frame 34 when he missed a straight pot on the black on its spot, allowing Hendry to clear the colours and level the match at 17–17. This was the second time that Hendry had been taken to a deciding frame in the World Championship final, having also done so in 1994 when he defeated White 18–17. Hendry was the first to score in the decider, just seven points, before Ebdon compiled a break of 59. Then, with just four reds remaining on the table, Hendry potted the cue ball while attempting to play a snooker, giving Ebdon his chance to take the frame and win the match 18–17. With his win, Ebdon received a cheque for £260,000 and moved up to third place in the end-of-season world rankings (behind O'Sullivan and Williams). In a post-match interview, he said "It's what I have been working for and dreaming about for the last 17 years... I wasn't ready to win it six years ago, but I've improved as a player and as a person". Hendry ultimately blamed his defeat on nerves and poor concentration, but also conceded that Ebdon was a stronger player than he had been in their previous world final encounter in 1996. This was Hendry's last appearance in a World Championship final, and he reached his last ranking final four years later at the 2006 UK Championship, where he again lost to Ebdon. The Guardian's Sean Ingle described the final as "one of the sporting highlights of the year." Main draw Shown below are the results for each round. The numbers in parentheses beside some of the players are their seeding ranks. Players in bold denote match winners: Qualifying Following amateur pre-qualifying, seven rounds of qualifying were played at the Manhattan Club, Harrogate. After Harrogate there were a further five rounds of qualifying at Telford International Centre. The final qualifying round was held at Newport on 16 and 17 March 2002. Willie Thorne, in his 27th world championship, lost in the seventh round of amateur pre-qualifying to Stephen Croft. Thorne was the only entrant in the qualifiers to have played at the first Crucible finals in 1977. Three-times semi-finalist Tony Knowles lost 3–5 to Rob James in the third round. During her fifth-round defeat, Kelly Fisher became the first female player to compile a century break at the World Championship, making a 106. Amateur pre-qualifying Round 1 The first round of qualifying took place in Telford as best-of-19 frames matches. Round 2 There were 32 players eliminated in the second round of qualifying. 1986 Champion Joe Johnson was 4–1 ahead of Ricky Walden but then lost a contact lens and, with impaired vision, ended the first session 4–5 behind. He went on to win 10–5. Round 3–6 There were 16 players eliminated in each of rounds 3 to 6 of qualifying. Johnson experienced problems with his vision, as he had in the previous round, and retired from his third round match against Ryan Day when 1–5 behind. The final qualifying round saw John Parrott progress to the Crucible stage for the 19th consecutive year; six-times former champion Steve Davis failed to reach the Crucible for only the second time in 24 seasons. Murphy, ranked 169th and aged 19, was both the lowest-ranked and youngest player to reach the final stages in 2002. Century breaks There were 68 century breaks in the main stages of the event, which was at the time a record total. It was equalled in 2007 and superseded in 2009. The highest break of the tournament was 145, made by Matthew Stevens during his quarter-final match against Higgins. Hendry's 16 century breaks made during the tournament bettered the previous record total of 14 set by John Higgins in 1998. 145, 135, 113, 105, 105, 105, 101 Matthew Stevens 141, 134, 132, 130, 126, 126, 125, 124, 122, 116, 113, 113, 111, 108, 104, 100 Stephen Hendry 138, 134, 127, 111, 108, 103, 102, 101, 100, 100 Peter Ebdon 136, 124, 116, 112, 109, 107, 105, 101 John Higgins 136, 119 Stephen Lee 135, 101 Dave Harold 134, 109 Stuart Bingham 134, 109, 100 Joe Perry 134 Alan McManus 132, 129, 115, 115, 113, 110, 110, 102 Ronnie O'Sullivan 120, 117, 106, 105 Ken Doherty 109, 106 Anthony Hamilton 107 Drew Henry 102 Michael Judge 101 Paul Hunter Notes References 2002 World Championship World Snooker Championship Sports competitions in Sheffield April 2002 sports events in the United Kingdom May 2002 sports events in the United Kingdom
4906562	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libera%20Universit%C3%A0%20Internazionale%20degli%20Studi%20Sociali%20Guido%20Carli	Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali Guido Carli	Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali "Guido Carli" (Italian for Free International University of Social Studies "Guido Carli"), known by the acronym "LUISS" or "LUISS Guido Carli", is a private university located in Rome, Italy, founded in 1974 by a group of entrepreneurs led by Umberto Agnelli, brother of Gianni Agnelli. It provides undergraduate and post-graduate education, in addition to a range of Double Degree programs, in the fields of finance, business, management, law, and political science. It is located near the historical center of the city, between the neighborhoods of Parioli and Trieste. The university is supported by Confindustria, the Italian Confederation of Industries. Luiss has four different campuses: one in Viale Romania, one in Via Parenzo, one in Villa Blanc, and the last one in Viale Pola. It also has a library in Via Santa Costanza. History In 1974 a group of entrepreneurs led by Umberto Agnelli (the brother of Gianni Agnelli, who at the time was president of Confindustria), launched a project investing economic and intellectual resources in the establishment of a university. This university would be designed to offer undergraduate and postgraduate education that is geared toward the needs of the market. Luiss came out of a pre-existing university (Pro Deo University, founded in 1966), which was redesigned and renamed Luiss (an acronym for Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali, which means "Free International University of Social Studies") in 1977. Eventually, other public and private industrial groups, as well as some banks, joined the founders. The group of businessmen and bankers who had promoted and financed the birth of the project, as well as the transformation of the organization of the old Pro Deo University, into the more modern ones of Luiss University, as it is today, was established in 1985 in the current “Friends of Luiss”. This has had since its inception Senator Umberto Agnelli as its president, who was then succeeded by Francesco Gaetano Caltagirone (still in office), and plays a vital role in the collection and distribution of economic resources to be allocated to provide scholarships for students who have enormous potential but a lack of economic resources, and to ensure that the most brilliant Luiss graduates have the possibility of earning PhDs to dedicate themselves to scientific research with a view to an academic career or advanced professional activities. Guido Carli, former Governor of the Banca d'Italia, President of Confindustria, and later Senator was President of Luiss from 1978 until he died in 1993. His work was so highly esteemed that in 1994 the university changed its name to Luiss Guido Carli. Originally the university had only the faculties of Economics and Political Science, which added the faculty of Law in 1982. In 2011 an academic reorganization took place, which resulted in today's four Departments: Law, Business and Management, Economics and Finance, and Political Science. Today the university offers many courses entirely taught in English, such as 'Economics & Business' or 'Politics, Philosophy and Economics'. Rankings ● Luiss ranks among the top 100 European Business Schools, as stated by the Financial Times' official ranking. ● Luiss is ranked 14th in the world, 1st in Italy and 2nd in Europe in political science and international studies, according to the QS ranking 2023. ● Top 46 worldwide in economics and management (QS ranking 2023) ● Top 47 worldwide in law (QS ranking 2023) ● It entered the top 100 of the world's most prestigious universities for the social sciences in 2022, doubling its position from 2021. ● Ranked 1st in Italy among medium-sized universities, and 1st in Italy among private universities (Censis). ● Since 2017, the university has climbed an average of more than 200 places in every field it teaches (according to the QS 2022 ranking by subject). ● In late 2022, according to the Financial Times Master's in Management 2022 rankings, the university remains in the top 100 for all indicators and has moved up more than 20 places in one year, ranking 53rd. Luiss joins the world’s elite 15 universities in Politics and International Studies in the QS World University Rankings by Subject 2023. The University’s impressive rise continues as it now ranks in the top 50 positions globally for “Business and Management” and “Law” areas, having climbed more than 30 positions in one year. Admission To attend a degree program at one of the four Departments at Luiss, candidates must pass an admission test. Each year a maximum number of places available is set and the admission test is done in two different sessions (one in February and one in May), after which a ranking by session is drafted, where each student has a score made up of their final grade in secondary school and their test score. Admission is based on the available slots and where selected students choose not to attend, other students are selected from the waiting list. The admission test lasts 90 minutes and is made up of 100 multiple-choice questions measuring general culture (15%) and aptitude (85%). The subjects on the test are logic and reading comprehension; logical and mathematical aptitude and financial mathematics; numerical and spatial logic; abstract reasoning and critical/verbal skills; knowledge of general math and general culture (current events, history, literature, philosophy); and English. On average, candidates admitted to Luiss are high achievers: 68.1% of students have a final secondary school average of over 90/100, compared to the national average of 24.6%. To be admitted to a master's degree, Luiss' graduates with degree grades of 100 or above can be admitted to degree programs without having to take an admission test, until all the available slots are taken. Graduates from other universities (for a maximum of 250) must take a written test to apply for admission. Organization The university is divided into the following four departments: Department of Law The academic organization provides a single five-year cycle for the combined bachelor's and master's degree program in Law (Category: LGM/01). Department of Business and Management The Department of Business and Management offers the following degree programs: Bachelor's degree in Economics and Management (category L-18); Management and Computer Science (category L-18); Master's degree in Business Management (category LM-77); Management in English (category LM-77); Accounting, Finance and Control (category LM-77); Marketing (category LM-77); Corporate Finance (category LM-77); Global Management and Politics (category LM-77) Department of Economics and Finance The Department of Economics and Finance offers the following degree programs: Bachelor's degree in Economics and Business (category L-33); Master's degree in Economics and Finance (category LM-56) Department of Political Science The Department of Political Science offers the following degree programs: Bachelor's degree in Politics, philosophy and economics (category L-36); Master's degree in International Relations (category LM-62); Government and Policies (category LM-62) Postgraduate degrees The university has several autonomous postgraduate schools: LUISS Business School is a school for professional management and a center of research and management consulting. It has its MBA program, various types of master's degrees, and ad hoc training courses for business customers; LUISS School of Government offers specific training, through the provision of four different master's degrees in the field of political processes and decision-making, both in the public and private sectors; The Specialized School for the Legal Professions offers two-year programs for the theoretical study of specific legal issues along with practice activities such as mock trials; The Massimo Baldini School of Journalism offers two-year programs that require enrollment in the journalism trainee program. At the end of the course (taught by professional journalists, academics, and technical specialists), the university confers a diploma. Corporate placement and campus drive LUISS provides a wide network of corporate placement opportunities for its students and recently collaborated internationally for exploring students' dynamics for international experience. The first collaboration took place in December 2021 with TreeAndHumanKnot RisingIndia Think-tank. Campuses LUISS Guido Carli currently has five campuses in Rome. The historic campus is situated at Viale Pola 12 (in the 1930s, this was the residence of Galeazzo Ciano and Edda Mussolini), which is referred to in most of the documents that mention the university. It continues to house the university's general management, administrative services, human resources, and academic support services. Also at this location are master's degrees, the School of Journalism and the Specialized School for the Legal Professions, as well as the Luiss Business School and LUISS University Press. The Viale Romania campus opened in October 2007 at Viale Romania 32, in the heart of the Parioli quarter in Rome. This campus has the largest number of buildings and students even though it has not yet been completed: only the first 9,420 m² out of the 28,000 m² planned are currently being used. This campus (converted from a former school entirely redesigned as a university campus) houses the Departments of Business and Management, Economics and Finance, and Political Science, the Student Office, the Orientation Office, the Placement Office, Teaching and Research, International Relations and IT. The Department of Law is located at Via Parenzo 11, which is not far from the historic campus of Viale Pola. The building was originally a hospital for blind war veterans (commemorated by a marble plaque inside the building). In the 1990s, Confindustria decided to take over the structure, restoring the original plan and shape of the building while completely renovating the interior. The building was designed by Pietro Aschieri in 1929-1931 and renovated by Studio Passarelli 1990-93. Substantial parts of the interior were renovated to their original design. The newest Luiss campus is Villa Blanc, home to the LUISS Business School, at Via Nomentana 216. The campus was inaugurated in June 2018. There is also the campus located at Via di Santa Costanza, which houses a library that specializes in the economic, legal, political, and social sciences. The Library has over 100,000 books, 1,800 journals, and 80 databases. Administration Presidents , from the university's founding to October 31, 1975 ("Pro Deo" and "Luiss") Carlo Ferrero, from November 1, 1975, to October 31, 1978 Guido Carli, from November 1, 1978, to April 23, 1993 Luigi Abete, from November 1, 1993, to July 18, 2001 Antonio D'Amato, from July 18, 2001, to December 20, 2004 Luca Cordero di Montezemolo, from December 20, 2004, to July 15, 2010 Emma Marcegaglia, from July 16, 2010 Vincenzo Boccia, from June 19, 2019 Rectors Roberto Lucifredi, from November 1, 1966, to July 27, 1974 ("Pro Deo") Giuseppe Mira, from November 1, 1974, to October 31, 1977 ("Pro Deo" and "Luiss") Rosario Romeo, from November 1, 1978, to July 16, 1984 ("Luiss") Carlo Scognamiglio, from November 1, 1984, to June 18, 1992 Mario Arcelli, from July 16, 1992, to September 30, 2002 Adriano De Maio, from October 1, 2002, to June 16, 2005 Marcello Foschini, from June 16, 2005, to September 30, 2006 Massimo Egidi, from October 1, 2006, to October 3, 2016 Paola Severino, from October 3, 2016, to June 18, 2018 Andrea Prencipe, from June 18, 2018 General Managers Pier Luigi Celli, from May 1, 2005, to July 14, 2013 Giovanni Lo Storto, from July 15, 2013 Other figures Deans of departments Antonio Nuzzo (Dean of the Department of Law) Stefano Manzocchi (Dean of the Department of Economics and Finance) Alessandro Zattoni (Dean of the Department of Business and Management) Roberto D'Alimonte (Dean of the Department of Political Science) Faculty (former and current) Glauco Benigni (Author, journalist, former Head of International Press Rai International) Francesco Giorgino (RAI Conductor) Giuliano Amato (jurist, politician, former Prime Minister of Italy) Dario Antiseri (philosopher) Daniele Archibugi (economist) Fabiano Schivardi (economist) Fabrizio Cacciafesta (mathematician) Matteo Arpe (banker, former CEO of Capitalia) Antonio Baldassarre (former President of the Constitutional Court of Italy, President of SISAL and RAI) Giuseppe Conte (former Prime Minister of Italy) Vincenzo Caianiello (former President of the Constitutional Court of Italy, jurist, magistrate and politician) Lucio Caracciolo (geopolitical analyst) Antonio Catricalà (jurist) Pier Luigi Celli (writer, entrepreneur, manager) Fulvio Conti (CEO and general manager of ENEL) Roberto D'Alimonte (political analyst) Vincenzo Fagiolo (cardinal) Fabio Fortuna (economist) Augusto Fantozzi (former Minister of Finance) Domenico Fisichella (political analyst, then Senator, Minister of Culture, Vice President of the Senate) Giovanni Maria Flick (former President of the Constitutional Court of Italy) Franco Fontana (President of Cassa di Risparmio della Provincia dell'Aquila and chairman of the board of Statutory Auditors at ENEL) Enrico Giovannini (economist, statistician and former Minister of Labour) David Held (political analyst, philosopher) Antonio Martino (economist, politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Minister of Defense) Daniele Mastrogiacomo (journalist) Giuseppe Mazzei (journalist) Carlo Mezzanotte (Vice President Emeritus of the Constitutional Court of Italy) Andrea Monorchio (economist and accountant general of the State) Fiamma Nirenstein (journalist and politician) Giovanni Orsina (historian, scientific editor of the Luigi Einaudi Foundation, Rome) Alessandro Pajno (magistrate, President of the Council of State) Luciano Pellicani (sociologist and journalist) Pietro Perlingieri (jurist and university professor) Mario Pescante (entrepreneur and politician) Roberto Pessi (labor law expert and lawyer) Francesco Pizzetti (jurist, President of the Authority to Guarantee Privacy) Gianni Profita (economist) Gaetano Quagliariello (politician, former Minister for Constitutional Reform) Giuseppe Pizza (politician and Undersecretary of Public Education, Universities and Scientific Research) Pietro Reichlin (economist, brother of Lucrezia Reichlin) Gian Luigi Rondi (critic) Giuseppe Sacco (economist, columnist) Paolo Savona (economist, former Minister of Industry, President of Unicredit Bank of Rome) Carlo Scognamiglio (former President of the Senate, Minister of Defense, Honorary President of the Italian Aspen Institute and of the Rizzoli-Corriere della Sera publishing group) Vincenzo Scotti (politician, Minister of the Interior and Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs) Paola Severino (jurist, former Minister of Justice) Chicco Testa (entrepreneur) Sergio Vento (diplomat) Vincenzo Visco (former Minister of Finance and Vice Minister of Economy) Victor Zaslavsky (historian) Alumni Elisabetta Belloni (Secretary General of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) Rosy Bindi (politician) Concetta Brescia Morra (professor of Law, member of the SSM Administrative Board of Review) Daniele Capezzone (politician) Annagrazia Calabria (politician) Fabio Caressa (journalist) Lorenzo Cesa (politician) Giovanni Chiodi (politician) Ranieri de Marchis (Head of Internal Audit at UniCredit) Giovanni Floris (journalist) Gerardo Greco (journalist) Giulia Innocenzi (journalist) Maurizio Lauri (Chairman of the Board of Statutory Auditors at UniCredit) Giampiero Massolo (Ambassador, President of Fincantieri, former General Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) Antonio Mele (economist) Carlo Messina (CEO of Intesa Sanpaolo) Massimo Moratti (CEO of Saras S.p.A.) Marco Nori (CEO of Isolfin) Marco Furore (politician, MEP) Nicola Ottaviani (politician, mayor of Frosinone) Pieter Omtzigt (Dutch politician) Elio Leoni Sceti (businessman) Alessandro Cardelli (Capitan Regent of the Republic of San Marino) Alessandro Battilocchio (politician) Fabio Panetta (Deputy Governor of Banca d'Italia, member of the SSM Supervisory Board) Roberto Speranza (politician, current Minister of Health) Riccardo Zacconi (CEO of King) Luca Maestri (CFO of Apple Inc.) Paljin Tulku Rinpoche Princess Victoria Romanovna (businesswoman) See also List of Italian universities List of business schools in Europe Rome References External links Educational institutions established in 1974 Mass media in Rome 1974 establishments in Italy Rome Q. XVII Trieste
4907323	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi%20Sang	Yi Sang	Kim Hae-Gyeong (, September 23, 1910 – April 17, 1937), also known as his art name Yi Sang (이상, 李箱) was a writer and poet who lived in Korea under Japanese rule. He is well-known for his poems and novels, such as Crow's-Eye View and Wings. He is considered as one of the most important and revolutionary writers of modern Korean literature. Timeline Life Kim Hae-Gyeong was born in Seoul, Korea on September 23, 1910 (August 20, 1910 in lunar calendar), in Seoul. His father Kim Young-Chang worked in the letterpress printing service in a palace before his birth, but after an accident that cut off his finger, he opened a barbershop and made their living. He was raised by his uncle Kim Yeon-Pil (hangul: 김연필, hanja: 金演弼) since 1913, because Yeon-Pil and his wife had no children at that point. Later, however, Yeon-Pil takes Kim Young-Sook (hangul: 김영숙, hanja: 金英淑) as his concubine and the son she already had, Kim Moon-Kyung (hangul: 김문경, hanja: 金汶卿), became a legal son of Yeon-Pil. His primary and secondary education were through Sinmyeong School (hangul: 신명학교, hanja: 新明學校. 1917–1921), Donggwang School (hangul: 동광학교, hanja: 東光學校. 1921–1922) and (hangul: 보성고등보통학교, hanja: 普成高等普通學校.1922–1926. Donggwang School was merged into Posung School at 1922.). He met his friend Koo Bon-Woong (hangul: 구본웅, hanja: 具本雄) at Sinmyeong School. The Posung School record shows that he wanted to become an artist. In 1926, he entered (hangul: 경성고등공업학교, hanja: 京城高等工業學校), which was the most prominent tertiary education institution at that time, majoring architecture. In 1928, he graduated the college with 1st place honor. In the graduation photobook, he used his writing name Yi Sang (hangul: 이상, hanja: 李箱) for the first time, as far as known. In April 1929, with the recommendation through the college, he was employed as a public official (hangul: 기수, hanja: 技手) in the architecture team in the department of domestic affairs (hangul: 내무국 건축과, hanja: 內務局建築課) of the Government-General of Korea (hangul: 조선총독부, hanja: 朝鮮總督府). At November, he moved his position to the building maintenance team of the department of secretariat and accounting (hangul: 관방회계과 영선계, hanja: 官房會計課營繕係). In December 1929, he became a member of Joseon Architecture Society (Joseon Geonchukhoe, hangul: 조선건축회, hanja: 朝鮮建築會), of which the members were mainly Japanese architects in Korea, and he won first and third prizes in a design contest for the cover of Joseon and Architecture (Joseongwa Geonchuk, Japanese: 朝鮮と建築, hangul: 조선과건축), a journal issued by the Joseon Architecture Society. Most of his works were produced during the 1930s. In 1933, he coughed up blood as he had tuberculosis, which had him quit his job as a public official of architecture. Then he opened a coffee house, Jebi, where he had related with other writers and artists. In 1934 he joined the Circle of Nine (Guinhoe, hangul: 구인회, hanja: 九人會), of which core members included Kim Kirim, Lee Taejun, and Jung Jiyong. In 1936 Yi Sang edited Siwa soseol (hangul: 시와 소설), the Circle of Nine magazine, published by Changmunsa under the aegis of Koo Bonung. His “Street exterior, street passage” (Gaoe gajeon, hangul: 가외가전, hanja: 街外街傳) was published in this journal. His short story “Diary Before Death” (Jongsaenggi, hangul: 종생기, hanja: 終生記) and his personal memoir “Monotony” (Gwontae, hangul: 권태, hanja: 倦怠) were published posthumously in Tokyo. In 1935, the coffee shop Jebi was closed due to financial difficulties and broke up with Geumhong. Cafe Tsuru and Coffee Shop 69 in Insa-dong were opened and transferred, and after managing Coffee Shop Mugi in Myeong-dong, and right after he closed it he healed in Seongcheon and Incheon. In November 1936 he went to Japan. In February 1937, he was investigated by the Nishi-Ganda Police Station in Tokyo on ideological charges, and after being investigated for about a month, he was bailed for worsening tuberculosis and released from prison. He was hospitalized to the Tokyo Imperial University Hospital, and died on April 17 at the age of 28 at the Tokyo Imperial University Hospital. His wife, Byun Dong-rim, moved to Japan directly after hearing that Yi Sang was in critical condition, and after Yi Sang died, She cremated his ashes and buried them in Miari Cemetery. Later, according to Byun Dong-rim, Byun Dong-rim asked him what he wanted to eat, and he died soon after leaving the words, "Sembikiya's melon." Park Tae-won, a fellow literary man and friend, mentions the following, "He loved girl so much, loved alcohol, loved his friends, and loved literature, but not half of it loved his body." And "His death is named as death from illness, but isn't the essence of death suicide? Such suspicions become intense," he said. Literary Relationship Jung Ji-yong Jung Ji-yong is a founding member of the Guinhoe which Lee Sang belongs. In 1933, he was an editorial advisor to <Catholic Youth> and played a major role in promoting Yi sang's poems to the world. With the help of Jeong Ji-yong, Yi sang published works such as "꽃나무" and "이런시" in Korean in <Catholic Youth>. Park Tae-won Park Tae-won and Yi Sang were members of Guinhoe(九人會), which means the Circle of Nine people. And they joined the club in 1934. They first met at Dabang Jebi, which is coffee house opened by Yi Sang in Jong-no 1(il)-ga. The time when they first met is supposed June or July 1933, because, Kim Ki-rim, one of members of Guinhoe, and Ko Un wrote Jebi was held in July 1933 and Kim Ok-hee, sister of Yi Sang, wrote June of same year. The story of their first met is written in Park Tae-won’s memoir for Yi sang, “Yi sang-ui Pyeonmo (이상의 편모)” after Yi sang’s death. Park Tae-won has interest in that Yi Sang is a poet and the poem of first met poet, “Movement (운동, 運動)” . Maintaining their relationship, Park Tae-won and Yi Sang consulted with worker of newspaper “Joseon-Jungang-ilbo” to post series of Yi Sang’s poetries, “Ogam-do(오감도, 烏瞰圖)” and Park’s novel “소설가 구보씨의 일일 (小說家仇甫氏─一日)” on the newspaper. They could put their literature in the newspapers, and Yi Sang also composed illustrations for his friend Park Tae-won’s novel, “소설가 구보씨의 일일(小說家仇甫氏─一日)". Even if, they encountered harsh criticism because of abstrusities of their literatures, after Yi Sang’s admission to “Guinhoe(九人會)” in fall of 1934, they focused on publication of bulletin “시와 소설 (Poet and Novel)” . They also have literary relationship with Yi Sang’s poet “Movement (운동, 運動)” and Park Tae-won’s short novel “Bangranjang Juin (芳蘭莊主人)” . Both are written in only one sentence. However, their relation is halted by Yi Sang’s death in Tokyo. Kim Ki-rim Kim Ki-rim, a poet and a newspaper reporter at the Chosun Ilbo, played as one of the founding members of Guinhoe. Initially, Yi was introduced to Kim by Park Tae-won. In their first encounter, they talked about Jules Renard, Salvador Dalí, and René Clair. Kim got interested in Yi because there was a common aesthetic affinity about surrealism between them. Kim's 7 letters with Yi Sang remains today with the name "To Kim Ki-rim (김기림에게)". The letters were written in 1936 to 1937. In that period, Yi moved to Mainland Japan, and was about to die due to chronic lung disease. In those letters, Yi's everyday thoughts and experiences are represented. For example, in the fourth letter, Yi refers to René Clair, a French filmmaker, and criticize his movie, The Ghost Goes West. On the other hand, he comments about paper of Choi Jae-seo, a Korean literature critic, that criticizes works of Yi such as "The Wings (날개)". After the death of Yi Sang, Kim Kirim wrote a tribute named 'Memories of the late Yi Sang (고 이상의 추억)'. In the tribute, he recognizes the death of Yi Sang as a "tragedy of a reduce-printed era", contextualizing Yi's death within a historical framework. Koo Bon-Woong Koo Bon-Woong is a painter and art critic who graduated from the Taiheiyo Art School(太平洋美術學校). He first met Yi Sang at Sinmyeong School. Koo Bon-Woong, who had had a hunchback, attended school intermittently because of health problems and ended up graduating alongside Yi Sang, who was four years younger. Koo Bon-Woong, teased because of his hunchback, had a keen interest in art. Similarly, Yi Sang, who also had a strong interest in art, became friends with Koo Bon-Woong, supporting and respecting him. This marked the beginning of their relationship, which continued into adulthood. In 1933, to care for Yi Sang, who had quit his job as a public official of due to illness, Koo Bon-Woong took him to Baechon Hot Springs in Hwanghae Province. Baechon Hot Springs is also known as the place where Yi Sang first met Geum-Hong. After Yi Sang's health slightly improved, Yi Sang and Geum-Hong returned to Seoul (Koo Bon-Woong came back to Seoul before them) and they opened a coffee shop called "Jebi". It is said that Koo Bon-Woong's painting, "Still Object with a Doll(인형이 있는 정물)" (71.4 cm*89.4 cm), was displayed in this café. After Jebi closed down, Yi Sang had no means of livelihood. He eventually found work as a proofreader at Koo Bon-Woong's printing press. There, with Koo Bon-Woong's assistance, Yi Sang founded a literary magazine called "Poetry and Novel(시와 소설)" featuring works from members of Guinhoe. Although only the inaugural issue was produced due to a lack of active participation from the members, looking at Yi Sang's postscript in the magazine, it is evident that Koo Bon-Woong was a fervent supporter of Yi Sang's artistic activities. Furthermore, Yi Sang's last lover Byun Dong-Rim was the younger sister of Koo Bon-Woong's stepmother. This somewhat unusual relationship was due to the fact that Koo Bon-Woong's stepmother was not significantly older than Koo Bon-Woong. Yi Sang's Lovers Geum-Hong In 1933, 23-years-old Yi Sang first encountered Keum Hong, who was Kisaeng, when he was on a trip to Baecheon Oncheon (hangul: 배천온천, Hanja: 白川温泉) for recuperation of his tuberculosis. They developed their romantic relationship, thus they managed a coffee house, Jebi, in Jong-no 1st Street, Gyeongseong. He designated her as the manager of the coffee house and lived together estimate for two years. Their relationship was rough since they had suffered from financial degradation. She frequently stayed outside then, and accordingly, Yi sang lashed out her mind by mentioning her prior routine as a Kisaeng. In consequence, she beat him physically and often ran away from their home, and eventually, they broke up. Accordingly, in September 1935, the coffee house Jebi was closed. The love story about them is illustrated in his novel, Bongbyeolgi, which means "a story of meet and separate." Moreover, Keum Hong is implicitly appeared in his short story, The Wings (novel), as Yeon-shim-i (Hangul: 연심이) is her real name. Gwon Sun-ok After the failure of the coffeehouse Jebi, he took over the cafe 'Tsuru'(Hangul: 쓰루, Kanji: 鶴) by being mortgaged the house held by Yi Sang's parents. He scouted Kwon Soon-ok had worked in the other cafe, 'Angel', as a waitress. Since she was highly educated, she had broad interaction with other writers like Jeong In-taek. While he fell over to her, their romantic relationship was not completely established. Jeong In-taek had a secret crush on her, which led to a romantic triangle. Even Jeong In-taek attempted suicide to be in her favor, and after the incident, Kwon Soon-ok and Jeong In-taek married. Ironically, Yi sang and presided over their wedding ceremony. Following Jeong In-taek's death, Gwon Sun-ok remarried to Park Tae-won. Byeon Dong-rim Byeon Dong-rim (hangul: 변동림), a writer introduced to Yi Sang through Gu Bon-woong, became his wife. Yi Sang and Byeon Dong-rim met in 1936, through a set-up by Gu Bon-woong. Only three months into their marriage, Yi Sang left for Tokyo alone, where his health sharply deteriorated, resulting in his transfer to the attached hospital of Tokyo Imperial University. His condition further worsened due to a sudden arrest, and he was already in a severe state by the time he arrived at the hospital. Upon receiving the news, Byeon Dong-rim immediately traveled to Tokyo in two days. After just four months of marriage, Yi Sang passed away in her presence. Their feelings towards each other can be traced through Yi Sang's "Tokyo" (Donggyeong, hangul: 동경, hanja: 東京) and Byeon Dong-rim's "The Mind Under the Moon" (hangul: 월하의 마음, hanja:月下의 마음). In later years, Byeon Dong-rim reflected on Yi Sang's death, stating, "He lived a most brilliant, enchanted life. The 27 years he spent on this earth were enough time for a genius to fully blossom and then fade away." Work Yi was perhaps the most famous avant-garde writer of the colonial era. In his work he experimented with language, interiority, separation from inside one's self as well as the outer world. His poems, particularly, were influenced by Western literary concepts including Dadaism and Surrealism. Yi's history in architecture influenced his work, which often included the languages of mathematics and architecture including, lines, dots, number systems, equations and diagrams. His literary legacy is punctuated by his modernist tendencies evinced throughout his oeuvre. His poems reveal the desolate internal landscape of modern humanity and, as in “Crow's eye view poem No. 1” (Ogamdo si je1ho), utilize an anti-realist technique to condense the themes of anxiety and fear. His stories disjoint the form of traditional fiction to show the conditions of the lives of modern people. “Wings” (Nalgae), for example, utilizes a stream-of-consciousness technique to express these conditions in terms of the alienation of modern people, who are fragmented commodities unable to relate to quotidian (daily) realities. Yi Sang never received much recognition for his writing during his lifetime, but his works began to be reprinted in the 1950s. In the 1970s his reputation soared, and in 1977 the Yi Sang Literary Award was established. In 2007, he was listed by the Korean Poets' Association among the ten most important modern Korean poets. His most famous short story is "The Wings" ("Nalgae", ), and his poem "Crow's-Eye View" is also well-known. Work Timeline In 1930, he serialized his first literature work (a medium-length novel) "December 12th (hanja: 十二月十二日, hangul: 십이월십이일)" on the Korean version of the magazine Joseon (hanja: 朝鮮, hangul: 조선), which was a magazine issued by the Government-General of Korea (hangul: 조선총독부, hanja: 朝鮮總督府) to promote their colony policies. In 1931, he released several Japanese poems. On July 1931, he released six Japanese poems together on Joseon and Architecture; A Strange Reversible Reaction (Japanese: 異常ナ可逆反應, hangul: 이상한가역반응), The Scenery of Broken Parts (Japanese: 破片ノ景色, hangul: 파편의경치), The Amusement of ▽ (Japanese: ▽ノ遊戯, hangul: ▽의 유희), The Beard (Japanese: ひげ, hangul: 수염), BOITEUX · BOITEUSE, and The Empty Stomach (Japanese: 空腹, hangul: 공복). On August 1931, he released a set of eight Japanese poems under the name "Bird's-Eye View" (Japanese: 鳥瞰圖, hangul: 조감도) on Joseon and Architecture. The title of each poem is "Two People ····1····" (Japanese: 二人····1····, hangul: 이인····1····), "Two People ····2····" (Japanese: 二人····2····, hangul: 이인····2····), "A Nervously Obese Triangle" (Japanese: 神経質に肥満した三角形, hangul: 신경질적으로비만한삼각형), "LE URINE", "Face" (Japanese: 顔, hangul: 안 or 얼굴), "Movement" (Japanese: 運動, hangul: 운동), "Confession of A Crazy Woman" (Japanese: 狂女の告白, hangul: 광녀의고백), "Entertainment Angel" (Japanese: 興行物天使, hangul: 흥행물천사). On October 1931, he released a set of seven Japanese poems under the name "Three-Dimensional Angle Blueprint" (Japanese: 三次角設計圖, hangul: 삼차각설계도). The title of each poem is "Memorandum on the Line 1" (Japanese: 線に関する覚書１, hangul: 선에관한각서1), ···, and "Memorandum on the Line 7". This set of poems has many scientific terms and concepts, such as spectrum, speed of light, and time travelling. On March and April 1932, he released two Korean novels "Darkroom of a Map" (hanja: 地圖의暗室, hangul: 지도의암실) and "Suspension of Business and Circumstances" (hanja: 休業과事情, hangul: 휴업과사정) on the magazine Joseon. He used different pen names on these two pieces; Bigu (hanja: 比久, hangul: 비구) for the former and Bosan (hanja: 甫山, hangul: 보산) for the latter. On July 1932, he released a set of seven Japanese poems under the name "Building Infinite Hexahedral Bodies" (Japanese: 建築無限六面角體, hangul: 건축무한육면각체). The title of each poem is "AU MAGASIN DE NOUVEAUTES", "Rough Map Under Heat No.2" (Japanese: 熱下略圖 No.2, hangul: 열하약도 No. 2), "Diagnosis 0:1" (Japanese: 診断 0:1, hangul: 진단 0:1), "Twenty-two years" (Japanese:二十二年, hangul: 이십이년), "The Publication Law" (Japanese: 出版法, hangul: 출판법), "Departure of Mr. Cha 8" (Japanese:且８氏の出発, hangul: 차8씨의출발), "Midday―Some ESQUISSE―" (Japanese: 真昼―或るESQUISSE―, hangul: 대낮―어떤ESQUISSE―). In 1933, he released following Korean poems: "A Flower Tree" (hangul: 꽃나무), "This Kind of Poem" (hangul: 이런시), "Mirror" (hangul: 거울). In 1934, he released following Korean poems and essays: "보통기념", "Three states of blood calligraphy"(hanja:血書三態, hangul:혈서삼태), "Crow's-Eye View" (hanja: 烏瞰圖, hangul: 오감도), "지팡이 역사", "소영위제", "산책의 가을". "혈서삼태" is a set of five essays. The title of each essay of "혈서삼태" is "오스카 와일드", "관능 위조", "하이드 씨", "악령의 감상", "혈서기삼". "오감도" is a set of 15 poems (originally designed to be 30, but was quit in the middle because of a massive complaint from readers). The title of each poem of "오감도" is "The 1st Poem" (詩第一號, 시제일호), ···, "The 15th Poem" (詩第十五號, 시제십오호) and three of them have additional title; "The 8th Poem Dissection" (詩第八號解剖, 시제팔호 해부), "The 9th Poem Gun Muzzle" (詩第八號銃口, 시제팔호 총구), "The 10th Poem Butterfly" (詩第十號 나비, 시제십호 나비). Some of "Crow's-Eye View" poems parodied his early Japanese works "Building Infinite Hexahedral Bodies". From 1935 to his death in 1937, he released more than 20 literature pieces, including poems and essays. After his death, from 1937 to 1939, 16 of his posthumous works were released, including poems, essays, and novels. In 1956, nine more Japanese poems were found and their Korean translations were released. In following years, more draft notes in Japanese, which are almost certainly thought to be Yi Sang's for several reasons, were found, and they were translated into Korean and introduced from 1960 to 1976. Work Timeline Table Critical Nonfiction Letter Works in translation Yi Sang: Selected Works (translated by Don Mee Choi, Jack Jung, Joyelle McSweeney, and Sawako Nakayasu), Seattle and New York: Wave Books, 2020. . The Wings, Seoul: Jimoondang Publishing, 2001. . Three Poets of Modern Korea: Yi Sang, Hahm Dong-seon, and Choi Young-mi, Louisville: Sarabande Books, 2002. Meetings and farewells : Modern Korean stories, Chong-wha Chung St Lucia QLD: University of Queensland Press, 1980. The Wings : eBook I-AHN CREATIVE, 2015. . Works in Korean Short stories Wings (1936) First published in literary magazine Jogwang, Sep. 1936 (issue 11) Essays Lingering Impressions of a aMountain Village - a Few Paragraphs from a Journal of Travels to Seongcheon (1976) In Azalea, issue 2, p .331. 《Ennui》《The First Wander》 Poems <Mirror> 〈BOITEUX·BOITEUSE〉(《朝鮮と建築 (Joseon and Architecture)》1931.07) 〈Architectural infinite hexahedron(Subtitle: French: AU MAGASIN DE NOUVEAUTES)〉 <Movement (운동, (運動)> (Poem included in series poetries "Aerial views (조감도, 鳥瞰圖)") Fairy Tales <The Bull and the Goblin> (March 8, 1937) Collections Collected Works of Yi Sang (1956, 1977, 1991) Study of Yi Sang Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology(GIST) 'Yi Sang's Literature and Science' course, which is opened annually for undergraduate students by Division of liberal arts and sciences of the Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology(GIST), aims to analyze the Yi Sang's literary works from the perspective of science. In this class, in addition to Korean, the Yi Sang text is created in old Korean, Chinese characters, Japanese, English, German, French, modified characters, coined words, and homonymy language play, and these parts are interpreted modernly. As many scientific elements have appeared in the Yi Sang's literary works, students analyze and discuss what those elements mean from a scientific perspective. They also investigates and presents the Yi Sang's biographical facts, the level of science education in Joseon in the 1920s and 30s, and contemporary writers and works mentioned in the Yi Sang text, and closely analyzes and discusses prose, novels, and poems left by Yi Sang. Through this class, a student at the Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology wrote a paper that logically interpreted the Yi Sang's "Building Infinite Hexahedral Bodies" and "Triple Angle blueprint" from the perspective of space-time design and architecture in four dimensions, causing a great stir in the literary world. See also Yi Sang Literary Award References External links Review of Wings at KTLIT (korean) 1910 births 1937 deaths 20th-century Korean writers Literature of Korea under Japanese rule Korean male writers
4907523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20New%20Church%20%28Swedenborgian%29	The New Church (Swedenborgian)	The New Church (or Swedenborgianism) is any of several historically related Christian denominations that developed as a new religious group, influenced by the writings of scientist and mystic Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772). Swedenborgian organisations acknowledge what they believe to be the universal nature of God's church: all who do good in accordance with the truth of their religion will be accepted into heaven (since God is goodness itself), and doing good joins one with God. Swedenborg published some of his theological works anonymously; his writings promoted one universal church based on love and charity, rather than multiple churches named after their founders and based on belief or doctrine. History Although Swedenborg spoke in his works about a "New Church" that would be based on theology, he never tried to establish such an organisation. In 1768, a heresy trial began in Sweden against Swedenborg's writings and two men who promoted them; the trial questioned whether Swedenborg's theological writings were consistent with Christian doctrine. A royal ordinance in 1770 declared that his writings were "clearly mistaken" and should not be taught, but his theology was never examined. Swedenborg's clerical supporters were ordered to stop using his teachings, and customs officials were directed to impound his books and stop their circulation in any district unless the nearest consistory granted permission. Swedenborg begged the king for grace and protection in a letter from Amsterdam; a new investigation of him stalled, and was dropped in 1778. At the time of Swedenborg's death, few efforts had been made to establish an organised church. On 7 May 1787, however (15 years after his death), the New Church movement was founded in England – where Swedenborg had often visited, and where he died. A number of churches had sprung up around England by 1789, and in April of that year the first General Conference of the New Church was held in Great Eastcheap, London. New Church ideas were brought to the United States by missionaries, one of whom was John Chapman (Johnny Appleseed). Early missionaries also travelled to parts of Africa. Swedenborg believed that the "African race" was "in greater enlightenment than others on this earth, since they are such that they think more 'interiorly', and so receive truths and acknowledge them." African enlightenment was considered a liberal concept at the time, and Swedenborgians accepted freed African converts in their homes as early as 1790. Several Swedenborgians were also abolitionists. Occultism became increasingly popular during the 19th century (particularly in the United States, France, and England), and some followers blended Swedenborg's writings with theosophy, cabala, alchemy, and divination. Swedenborg's mystical side fascinated them; they concentrated on Heaven and Hell, which describes Swedenborg's visits to Heaven and Hell to experience (and report on) the conditions there. In structure, it was related to Dante's Divine Comedy. The U.S. church was organised in 1817 with the founding of the General Convention of the New Church (sometimes shortened to the Convention), now also known as the Swedenborgian Church of North America. The movement in the United States strengthened until the late 19th century, and there was a New-Church Theology School in Cambridge. Controversies about doctrine and the authority of Swedenborg's writings caused a faction to split off and form the Academy of the New Church. It later became known as the General Church of the New Jerusalem – sometimes called the General Church – with its headquarters in Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania (a suburb of Philadelphia). Other congregations felt doctrinally compelled to join the General Church at its inception. Two Convention congregations in Canada (one in Toronto and another in Kitchener) and two congregations from the British Conference – Michael Church in London and Colchester New Church – joined the General Church. The Adelaide Society of the New Church, in Adelaide, in the Colony of South Australia. was founded by Jacob Pitman, William Holden, and Smith Owen Smith and their families in 1844. On 11 July 1852, a Swedenborgian church opened on Carrington Street, with Pitman serving as minister until 1859. The congregation grew to a peak in the 1890s, by which a new church had been built in Hanson Street. In 1971, a new church at Warradale, in a style that could be converted to a house in the future. Branches and membership , the most recent membership figures for the four church organisations were: General Conference of the New Church (Great Britain): 1,314 Swedenborgian Church of North America, also known as the General Convention (USA): 2,029 General Church of the New Jerusalem: 5,563 The Lord's New Church Which Is Nova Hierosolyma: 1,000 Membership in the New Church has always been small, and the organisations have been deeply involved in publishing. Main doctrines The New Church has two essential doctrines. The first is that there is one God, Jehovah, who incarnated as Jesus so that he may redeem mankind. The second is the obligation to live according to his commandments. "There are two essentials which constitute the church, and hence two principal things of doctrine—one, that the Lord's Human is Divine; the other, that love to the Lord and charity toward the neighbor constitute the church, and not faith separate from love and charity." These "two things, the acknowledgment of the Lord, and a life according to the precepts of the Decalogue[…] are the two essentials of the New Church." Adherents believe that these two doctrines bring about salvation and union with Jesus. "All things of the doctrine of the New Church have reference to these two, because they are its universals, on which all the particulars depend, and are its essentials, from which all the formalities proceed" If a person is unaware of the doctrines but has believed in one God and lived a good life, according to Swedenborg, they will learn them from angels after death. Swedenborg argued that the Trinity was not three persons—the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—but one, "the Father being the originating divine being itself, the Son the human embodiment of that divine soul, and the Holy Spirit the outflowing activity of Jesus, or the 'Divine Human'." He wrote that the doctrine of a three-person Trinity originated during the fourth century with the adoption of the Nicene Creed to combat Arianism, but it was unknown to the Apostolic Church (indicated by the Apostles' Creed, which he believed preceded the Nicene Creed). Doctrine of the Lord The New Church's universal principle of faith is that the "Lord from eternity, who is Jehovah, came into the world to subjugate the hells and to glorify His Human; and without this no mortal could have been saved; and those are saved who believe in Him": From this doctrine, the Trinity is defined as "the three essentials of one God, and they make one as soul, body, and operation make one in man. Before the world was created this Trinity was not; but after creation, when God became incarnate, it was provided and brought about; and then in the Lord God the Redeemer and Savior Jesus Christ." As a trinity of body, soul, and spirit exists in every man, this became the Holy Trinity in Jesus. The doctrine of one God as one person distinguishes the New Church from other Christian churches, most of which define the Trinity as three eternal persons. The New Church sees Trinitarianism as illogical: "In the ideas of thought a Trinity of Divine Persons from eternity, or before the world was created, is a Trinity of Gods; and these ideas cannot be effaced by a lip-confession of one God." Monotheism is defined as one God who is one person; only the Lord (Jehovah) is worshiped. Worship of, and faith in, Jesus is not worshiping a created being: although he was born with a human body, the New Church holds that his soul was eternally divine. When he rose from the dead, he discarded the human body he inherited from Mary and put on a human body from the divinity within him (known in the New Church as the Divine Human). According to Swedenborg, God the Father is the inner divinity which became outwardly manifest in human form known as the Son. Since adherents believe that the Lord is one with the Father, the Lord's Prayer is directed to the Lord only. In the opening "Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name", "name" is everything by which God is worshiped (particularly the Son, through whom he is approached). According to the New Testament, Jesus sometimes prayed to the Father and declared himself one with the Father at other times. New Church adherents believe that this was because Jesus progressed towards God during his life by gradually making his human body one with the divine. Doctrines of faith and charity New Church adherents believe that faith in Jesus brings salvation. Faith in Jesus is faith in a visible God. Jesus is the image and form of the invisible God, on whom the human mind can focus. According to the New Church, God is man himself. If a person is good and follows the truth, God lives in that person (who becomes an image and likeness of him). The New Church is said to be the "crown of all churches which preceded it", since the invisible God is worshiped in human form. The sum of the concept of faith in the New Church is that a person who lives well believes is saved. Faith is not defined as belief alone; the New Church holds that faith without charity is not faith, and charity without faith is not charity; in this way, faith and charity are intertwined. Faith and charity become one in acts of good works or repentance. The union of faith and charity is a central tenet of the New Church; all substantial things are related to divine love and divine wisdom, and the will and understanding of each person is a receptacle of God's love and wisdom. According to New Church adherents, a person must learn and live by the truth; in the union between humanity and the Lord, faith becomes living and spiritual. All the precepts of how one should live are contained in the Ten Commandments. The first act of faith is repentance: self-examination, acknowledging one's sins, and turning away from evil. The Bible The Bible concerns God and his kingdom. The New Church has three pillars: God's divinity, the holiness of the Bible, and a life of good works. The Bible is divinely inspired; according to adherents, its spiritual sense has been revealed in the New Church through symbolic correspondence. Its literal meaning, similar to a parable, hides the inner, spiritual sense: "The truths of the sense of the letter of the Word are in part not naked truths, but are appearances of truth, and like similitudes and comparisons are taken from such things as are in nature; and thus are such as have been accommodated and adapted to the capacity of the simple and also of children." The Bible cannot be properly understood without doctrine, and church doctrine should be confirmed with it. Doctrine can only be known by those who are enlightened by God, and those who are not can fall into heresy. The Bible contains divine truth; according to New Church adherents, a person joins God and his angels when reading it. Sacraments Baptism and Eucharist The New Church has two primary sacraments: baptism and the Eucharist (also known as communion, or holy supper). These external rituals symbolise inner, spiritual life. Baptism signifies entrance into Christianity and reformation of the mind, where falseness is replaced by truth. Although believers should be baptised at the age of reason (to make a decision to follow Jesus), Swedenborg said that baptised infants receive a guardian angel to guide them into the Christian faith. Marriage Marriage is a personal sacrament of the New Church, and its administration by a priest is desirable but not essential. According to Swedenborg, marriage should be administered by a priest "because marriages, considered in themselves, are spiritual, and thence holy; for they descend from the heavenly marriage of good and truth, and things conjugial correspond to the divine marriage of the Lord and the church; and hence they are from the Lord himself." Married love is founded in religion, since both originate from God. Without a religious foundation, a marriage can turn cold. According to the New Church, man is a form of truth and woman is a form of love; the two make one. Married love comes directly from heaven, and celibacy interferes with this. Therefore, marriage is preferable to celibacy. Marriage is considered a union of souls, and this can only exist between one man and one woman. Contrary to mainstream Christian beliefs, Swedenborg did not condemn all sexual activity between those who were not married. While he was particularly against infidelity, Swedenborg believed that all erotic love between a man and a woman – even that which arose within unpropitious circumstances – still had the potential to develop into true conjugial love. He also believed that not all married couples necessarily experience conjugial love. Afterlife New Church adherents believe that there was no space and time before the universe was created, and the realm with no space and time is the spiritual world. The spiritual world, which is divided between heaven and hell, is where the soul is realised. "All who die and become angels put off those two things proper to nature, which[…] are space and time; for they enter then into spiritual light, in which the objects of thought are truths, and the objects of sight are similar to the objects in the natural world, but correspondent to their thoughts." States of being replace time, and love replaces space or distance. Origin of the soul New Church adherents believe that the soul is the recipient of life from God, and the body is its clothing. The beginning of life (the soul) comes from the seed of the father, and the external body comes from the mother. Since most Christians believe that Jesus was born of a virgin by the Holy Spirit, his soul was God itself and he always preexisted as Jehovah. Since souls originate from the seed of the father, New Church adherents do not believe in reincarnation. Spirits and angels, through whom one approaches heaven or hell (depending on one's actions), are associated with a person during their life. Although communication between spirits and humans does not generally occur, it was more widespread in ancient times. Angels and spirits retain their memories and, in a mental state where communication is open, a person may experience a spirit's memory as if it were their own. This mental state (which may be achieved under hypnosis) resembles past life regression and was how some ancients came to believe in the preexistence of souls and reincarnation. However, the New Church does not consider this to be true, instead believing that one lives only once, and how one lives this life determines one's eternal destiny. At death, the soul sheds the physical body and becomes aware of the spiritual society with which one's soul was associated. Spirit world New Church adherents do not believe in purgatory; punishment occurs only in hell. Immediately after death, one enters the spirit world (an intermediate state) and awaits judgment of whether they will enter heaven or hell. Since the evil try to appear good and the good retain false ideas, one remains in this intermediate state until they are examined. Those who are good and know the truth go immediately to heaven, and those who are evil go to hell. Otherwise, one gradually withdraws from exterior appearances and fallacies into one's interior intentions and affections in the spirit world. This process is complete when one acts in complete freedom without exterior restraint, and a person's character is open and manifest. "Thus hidden things are laid open and secret things are uncovered, according to the Lord's words: 'There is nothing covered that shall not be revealed, and hid that shall not be known: whatsoever ye have said in the darkness, shall be heard in the light, and what ye have spoken in the ear in closets, shall be preached on the housetops' (Luke 12:2-3). And in another place: 'I say unto you, that every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgment' (Matthew 12:36)." Hell When all external restraints are removed in the spirit world, nothing remains to stop evil spirits except punishment. Since evil spirits act in accordance with their nature, they are drawn towards hell: New Church adherents believe that God sends no one to heaven or hell; since hell is the internal state of evil and heaven the internal state of good, each person enters a state matching his or her internal nature. Because every spirit joins the like-minded group after death in which it feels the most comfortable according to Swedenborg, hell is believed to be a place of happiness for the spirits which delight in evilness. Each person will remain eternally in accordance with their will or love. Heaven New Church adherents believe that heaven proceeds from God, who is seen by the angels as the light of heaven and occasionally appears in angelic form. Jesus said that he was the light of the world, and the apostles once saw his face shining like a sun. For this reason, the ancients aligned their temples with the rising sun. In heaven, countless societies fulfill a particular purpose, each according to their love. Since angels and demons were human, angels have a human form. There is no individual devil (or Satan): "In the whole heaven there is not one angel who was so created from the beginning, nor in hell any devil who was created an angel of light and cast down; but that all, both in heaven and in hell, are from the human race; in heaven those who lived in the world in heavenly love and faith, in hell those who lived in infernal love and faith; and that hell taken as a whole is what is called the devil and satan." Free will, morality and salvation New Church adherents believe that the free will to choose between good and evil originates from one's spiritual equilibrium between heaven and hell. Hell influences humans to do evil, and heaven influences them to do good. This spiritual equilibrium frees humans to think rationally, which can lead to spiritual reform by acknowledging evil in oneself, ceasing to do evil and avoiding it. This choice is spiritual because every thought and action influences the soul and mind. Good works join a person with angels, and evil joins them with evil spirits. Reform and salvation are possible with divine truth, which fights evil and falseness. When the truth is accepted and one has an evil desire, temptation (conflict) results. Although one must resist temptation, it is really a combat between God and the devil (or hell). Thus, "He who thinks that he fights from himself against the devil is enormously deceived." Salvation (or condemnation) is a result of moral choices, based on intentions. Good is only considered good when evil is removed, and must be done out of love for God (not for profit or honour). Good comes only from God, who can conquer temptation (a continuous, lifelong process). Jesus came to save humanity because the spiritual equilibrium between heaven and hell had become unbalanced; more people began to choose evil, threatening the entire human race. By taking human form, God could fight hell directly; Jesus experienced temptation. Remission of sins is their removal after repentance. The New Church differs from older Christian churches on this point. "The belief that the passion of the cross was redemption itself is a fundamental error of the church; and that error, together with the error concerning three Divine persons from eternity, has perverted the whole church, so that nothing spiritual is left in it." The crucifixion was the last temptation endured by Jesus. Biblical canon New Church adherents believe that the word of God is in the Bible, which has a symbolic, hidden spiritual meaning. Swedenborg's visions told him how (and why) the Bible is divinely inspired and are described in his multi-volume (Heavenly Secrets). He called its symbolic language, where passages follow each other coherently and logically, correspondence. This inner meaning was kept hidden, and was revealed when humanity was ready. This hidden meaning distinguishes the Bible from other books, and Swedenborg supports his statements with biblical passages. The books with this inner, spiritual meaning forms the New Church biblical canon. Old Testament According to Swedenborg, the original text of the Old Testament is preserved in the Hebrew Masoretic Text, where letters were counted by the Masoretes to ensure that the text remained accurate. Like Judaism does, he divides the Old Testament into three parts: the Law of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms. The Old Testament books with an internal spiritual sense (and, thus, divinely inspired) include: The Law of Moses The Prophets The Psalms Swedenborg's grouping differs from Judaism's; he assigned Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings to the Law of Moses, but according to the Jewish biblical canon the Law of Moses (the Torah) refers to the first five books—Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings belong to the Prophets (Nevi'im). Elsewhere, however, Swedenborg says that Moses and Elijah represent the Law and the Prophets respectively. The other books of the Old Testament (which are not generally believed to be divinely inspired) include those grouped by the Jews as "Writings" (Ketuvim). The Greek Septuagint incorporated other writings into the Hebrew texts, which Martin Luther removed and placed in the Apocrypha. Although the Jews included Lamentations, Daniel and the Psalms in the Ketuvim, New Church adherents consider them divinely inspired. New Testament The New Church regards the words of Jesus as divinely inspired, and considers the New Testament Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John and the Book of Revelation as sacred scripture. The church holds the Acts of the Apostles and the epistles in esteem, similar to the Jewish regard for the Old Testament writings. Swedenborg wrote that these books were included as an act of divine providence, since books for the general public explaining Christian doctrine were needed. He believed that although Paul's letters did not contain a word-for-word symbolic correspondence, they were still divinely influenced: "Paul indeed spoke from inspiration, but not in the same way as the prophets, to whom every single word was dictated but that his inspiration was that he received an influx, according to those things which were with him, which is quite a different inspiration, and has no conjunction with heaven by correspondences." Pre-biblical texts Swedenborg believed that sacred texts of an "Ancient Church" in the Middle East preceded Judaism, but the texts have been lost. Some, such as The Wars of Jehovah (mentioned in Numbers 21:14–15) and another book similar to those in the Prophets (mentioned in Numbers 21:27–30), are quoted in the Bible (see non-canonical books referenced in the Bible). Another work that Swedenborg believed belonged to the ancient church was the Book of Jasher, which is also quoted in the Bible (Joshua 10:12–13, 2 Samuel 1:17–18); according to him, this book still existed in Tartary. A Hebrew midrash, was published in Venice in 1625; an English translation was published in 1840. The Hebrew text was examined by the 19th-century biblical scholar George Bush (a relative of the Bush family), who later became a Swedenborgian minister. Although the New Church has no official position on this Hebrew text, Swedenborg said that the first parts of Genesis were taken from the "Ancient Word" and are found in the book of Jasher. Assessment of other beliefs The doctrines of the New Church review and assess the doctrines of earlier churches. Swedenborg believed that before the New Church can be received, the doctrines of older churches must be exposed and rejected; the New Church is so opposed to the doctrines of the older Christian churches that they cannot coexist. Former Christian creeds In the New Church, authority is based on divine revelation rather than creeds or church councils. All doctrine should be confirmed by scripture. The interpretation of scripture is determined by doctrine, however, and enlightenment by God should be sought when reading his words. Apostles' Creed The Apostles' Creed, the creed of the Apostolic Church, does not refer to a trinity: "I believe in God the Father Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth; and in Jesus Christ His only Son our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary: also in the Holy Spirit." This creed is in agreement with the New Church, since it does not mention an eternally-existing son. Nicene Creed The Nicene and Athanasian Creeds introduced the trinity. The Nicene Creed is a modified version of the Apostles' Creed; according to the New Church, a trinity of persons is a trinity of gods. The creed also introduces the concept of a son "begotten from eternity", which the New Church considers erroneous: "the Human, by which God sent Himself into the world, is the Son of God." Athanasian Creed The New Church considers the Athanasian Creed, like the Nicene, incorrect in defining a trinity of persons. However, the church believes that the Athanasian Creed can be corrected if a trinity of one person in God is understood when it speaks of a trinity of persons. The creed expresses the church's doctrine of the divine human: "That our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is both God and Man; and although He is God and Man, still there are not two, but there is one Christ. He is one, because the Divine took to itself the Human; yea, He is altogether one, for He is one Person: since as the soul and the body make one man, so God and Man is one Christ." According to the New Church, God's human nature was made divine. Council of Chalcedon The Council of Chalcedon declared that Jesus has two natures (divine and human), which contradicts New Church doctrine. Swedenborg said that it was revealed to him in a heavenly vision that: Although most other churches maintain that Jesus has two natures, the New Church believes that his human nature was made divine. Socinianism and Arianism In Socinianism, Jesus' divinity is denied. Arianism is similar, believing that Jesus was a created being. Both are considered heretical by the New Church, which believes that the divine human is the means by which humanity is saved; since all those who are in heaven are in his presence, Christians who deny Jesus' divinity go to hell. However, this does not apply to those who have been born and lived outside Christianity. According to New Church revelation, many Christians are Socinian at heart and deny that Jesus is divine; this derives from a trinitarian doctrine, from dividing Christ into two natures, and from calling Jesus merely the son of Mary. Islam The New Church considers Islam to have been established by divine providence to eliminate idolatry. The New Church considers it a partial (or introductory) revelation; Islam worships one God, teaches one to live well and shun evil and teaches that Jesus was a great prophet and the son of the virgin Mary, but not the son of God (as in Christianity). The Quran contains teachings from sacred scripture. The church believes that Islam is a religion adapted to societies that practice polygamy. Since polygamy is an opposite love from monogamous marriage, and a marriage between a husband and wife corresponds to the marriage of God and the church, spiritual matters were not revealed in Islam. It is regarded differently from Socinianism or Arianism because only Christians can profane what is holy by distorting scripture; non-Christians, such as Muslims, cannot. Muslims oppose any Trinitarian Christian church. The New Church believes that Muslims may enter heaven, but only those who reject polygamy can learn the true nature of God. Catholicism According to Swedenborgianism, the Catholic Church has perverted scripture to obtain primacy and dominion in spiritual matters. The Council of Chalcedon declared that Jesus has a divine and human nature so that the pope could claim to be the vicar of Christ and appropriate spiritual powers to the priesthood that belong to God alone. Authority is claimed by the pope and the priesthood over that of scripture. The desire to spiritually rule others or appear pious for honour and reputation originates from self-love, which is opposite the love of God and others. Papal primacy is claimed by the Catholic Church from an interpretation of Matthew 16:18–19, where the apostle Peter is appointed the rock on which the church will be built and given the keys to heaven. In the New Church, this passage is understood spiritually; the "rock" signifies the truth that Jesus is God, "Peter" signifies faith in God, and the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" signify the faith that allows one to enter heaven. Divine providence gave the Catholic Church spiritual dominion, since it helped spread the gospel and prevented the Christian church from being destroyed by Arianism or Socinianism. Catholics who do not read scripture worship externally only, to prevent the scriptures from being profaned. New Church adherents believe that Catholics who have avoided idolatry, worshiped God alone and done good works can receive spiritual truth from scripture more easily. Protestantism Although the Protestant churches have broken away from the Catholic Church and rejected many of its traditions, their basic theology remains the same. Catholics and Protestants agree on the belief in the trinity, original sin, and justification by faith; the main difference is that the Protestants believe that faith alone saves, without acts of charity. The reformers separated faith from charity to separate completely from the Catholic Church. In the New Church, good works must be done with the acknowledgment that good originates from God and not from self. The Protestant separation of faith and good works is derived from an epistle by Paul the Apostle saying that humanity is justified by faith, without "works of the law" (Romans 3:28). New Church adherents consider this is a false interpretation, for by "works of the law" Paul meant the external rituals of Mosaic law (not the Ten Commandments or acts of charity). There is no instantaneous salvation by paying lip service to a belief in Christ. A person acquires a nature according to their works, and must repent for their sins by refusing to do evil. "The faith of the former church is, that repentance, remission of sins, renewal, regeneration, sanctification, and salvation, follow of themselves the faith that is given and imputed, without any thing of man being mingled or joined with them: but the faith of the New Church teaches repentance, reformation, regeneration, and thus remission of sins, with man's cooperation. The faith of the former church teaches the imputation of Christ's merit, and the imputation embraced in the faith that is given: but the faith of the New Church teaches the imputation of good and evil, and at the same time of faith, and that this imputation is according to the Sacred Scripture, while the other is contrary to it." Some Protestant churches (including the New Church) have withdrawn from the doctrine of faith alone: "The Word is read by them, and the Lord is worshipped, and hence with them there is the greatest light; and spiritual light, which is from the Lord as the Sun, which in its essence is Divine love, proceeds and extends itself in every direction, and enlightens even those who are in the circumferences round about, and opens the faculty of understanding truths, so far as they can receive them in accordance with their religion." Eschatology New Church adherents do not believe in an end of the world. The church has passed through several ages, each ending with a spiritual Last Judgement; the last of these occurred in 1757. Judgments also occurred at the time of Noah's Flood and Jesus' crucifixion. The purpose of the judgments is to separate good from evil in the intermediate spiritual world lying between heaven and hell. As a result of the judgments, a new age (or new church) begins among the people on earth. The New Church is a result of revelation. Four churches have preceded the New Church. The first was the "Most Ancient Church" before the flood, when contact with heaven was direct. The second was the "Ancient Church", following the flood, which was destroyed by idolatry. The third was Judaism, which began with the revelation of the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai. The fourth was Christianity, established by Jesus and his apostles, which divided into the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church, and Protestantism. Adherents believe that the New Church, the final phase, is a renewal of Christianity based on Jesus' Second Coming. It is the fulfilment of the prophecy of a New Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation. Swedenborg said that the New Church would be established gradually, since the false beliefs of the former churches had to be set aside. Criticism Swedenborg stated that he had distributed his books to English bishops and nobility, who considered them well-written but of little value and advised against reading them. Some members of other Christian denominations have criticised the church's denial of a trinity and Jesus' atonement. The New Church believes that there is one God in Jesus, and some Christian theologians classify the church as a cult. Others reject Swedenborg's visions. Walter Ralston Martin quoted a critic that Swedenborg's spiritual experiences "were admittedly of such a character, that in an ordinary man they would have sufficed to qualify him for an asylum." According to Martin, however, his theological writings were so systematic that "no one can reasonably say that Swedenborg was insane": "Swedenborg was a rationalist, and paradoxically, a mystic. He was one who absorbed the introspective and subjective philosophy of Rene Descartes, and the empiricism of John Locke, which he combined with the transcendentalism of lmmanuel Kant, thus forming a mold into which Christian theology was poured, and what would not go into the mold (selected Old Testament works, the Pauline epistles, Acts, James, Peter, Jude, etc.), he simply discarded. What emerged was a deeply speculative philosophical system of theology, couched in a redefined Christian terminology, and buttressed with mystical visions, trances, and dreams." The earliest assessment of Swedenborg came from contemporary German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Swedenborg was relatively unknown until 1759, when a fire broke out in Stockholm and threatened to burn down his house and his writings. At a dinner in Gothenburg, away, he reportedly turned pale and described to the guests exactly what was happening until the fire was put out (three houses away from his house). This was investigated by Kant, who wrote Dreams of a Spirit-Seer criticising Swedenborg and knowledge derived from dreams and visions. Kant wrote in letters that he privately admired Swedenborg, but did not publicly admit it in fear of ridicule. Swedenborg stated that all teachings came to him from the Lord while reading scripture in a full waking state, and although allowed to converse with angels and spirits to give an account of the afterlife all doctrinal teachings were received from Jesus alone. Religious critics disagree, saying that he received his information from evil spirits and his revelations are "among the most antibiblical and anti-Christian material ever printed." According to Martin, Swedenborg "was apparently well aware of the fact that Pauline theology, if accepted at face value, would vitiate almost en toto his own. So he began with the basic assumption that he was right, and that the apostle Paul was wrong! In some of his visions and dreams, he stated that he actually argued with Paul, Luther, Calvin, and others. And, as ego triumphed, these great thinkers all retreated before Swedenborg's new revelations. However, one factor must never be forgotten, and that is the statement that the New Testament is the criterion for measuring all subsequent revelations, and whatever is found to be contrary to it, must be and always has been, rejected by the Christian church." Christians emphasise that in distinguishing an evil spirit from an angel, angels must glorify Jesus and teachings must be based on scripture. New Church adherents say that Swedenborg would agree, since he said no evil spirit can utter the name of Jesus; it signifies salvation, and those in the spiritual world speak as they think. Unlike many spiritualists, Swedenborg praises Jesus as the God of heaven and earth and his doctrines are derived from scriptural references. According to Swedenborg, none of the teachings originated from an angel or spirit and the spiritual world was revealed to him so humanity would know that there is life after death: "When I think of what I am about to write and while I am writing, I enjoy a complete inspiration, for otherwise it would be my own; but now I know for certain that what I write is the living truth of God." "That the Lord manifested Himself before me His servant, and sent me to this office, and that He afterward opened the sight of my spirit, and so has admitted me into the spiritual world, and has granted to me to see the heavens and the hells, also to converse with angels and spirits, and this now continuously for many years, I testify in truth; likewise, that from the first day of that call I have not received any thing which pertains to the doctrines of that church from any angel, but from the Lord alone while I read the Word." Critics note that Swedenborg viewed only 36 books in the Bible as divinely inspired. According to them, masquerading as a being of light is a demonic tactic; Swedenborg's allegorical, esoteric interpretations and paranormal encounters (bordering on the occult) contradict the scriptures and make his claims spurious. This criticism ignores the fact that the majority of Swedenborg's writings are based on direct scriptural quotations with numerous cross references. As for the writings of Paul, Swedenborg clarified the distinction between the epistles of Paul with the rest of scripture in his private diary: "Paul indeed spoke from inspiration, but not in the same way as the prophets, to whom every single word was dictated but that his inspiration was that he received an influx, according to those things which were with him, which is quite a different inspiration, and has no conjunction with heaven by correspondences." Influence Mormonism D. Michael Quinn suggests that Joseph Smith, the first president and prophet of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, was influenced by Swedenborg's writings. Like Swedenborg, members of the Church believe in eternal marriage. However, they require that the ritual be performed in a temple by one having authority given from God. Smith's concept of three heavens is similar to Swedenborg's view. Both Swedenborg and Smith refer to heaven as "celestial", similar to Paul's (see 2 Corinthians 12:2) description of a visit to the "third heaven". Edward Hunter (a Swedenborgian who became a member of the Church) reported that in 1839 Joseph Smith told him that he was familiar with Swedenborg's writings. New Thought New Thought, a spiritual movement that began in the United States during the late 19th century, promotes positive thinking and healing. Phineas Quimby, a healer who said that illness in the body originated in false beliefs, was an early proponent. Quimby healed Warren Felt Evans, a Swedenborgian minister who became a healer and published several books promoting New Thought in New Church doctrines. According to Swedenborg, there is a correspondence from heaven with all things on earth. Psychology Carl Jung, founder of analytical psychology and a contemporary of Sigmund Freud, was familiar with Swedenborg's works. He cited Swedenborg's reported clairvoyance about the 1759 Stockholm fire as an example of synchronicity: "When[...] the vision arose in Swedenborg's mind of a fire in Stockholm, there was a real fire raging there at the same time, without there being any demonstrable or even thinkable connection between the two". Notable figures with Swedenborgian connections William Blake: His The Marriage of Heaven and Hell satirised Swedenborg's Heaven and Hell. Blake and his wife, Catherine, attended the first General Conference of the New Jerusalem Church in 1789. Blake was influenced by an earlier version of the New Church. His doctrine, however, later evolved. Daniel Burnham: American architect and urban designer. His parents were Swedenborgians. Robert Carter III (1728–1804): a planter from the Northern Neck of Virginia, "Virginia's first emancipator," was influenced by Swedenborg's views Johnny Appleseed (John Chapman): American missionary and pioneer who planted apple trees throughout the midwestern United States Robert Frost: American poet who was baptised in the church Leonard Gyllenhaal: entomologist and Swedenborgian, an ancestor of American actors Jake Gyllenhaal and Maggie Gyllenhaal Stephen Gyllenhaal: descendant of Leonard, who was raised Swedenborgian William Harbutt: inventor of plasticine George Inness: American landscape painter Helen Keller: wrote Light in My Darkness, which advocated Swedenborg's ideals James Tyler Kent: late-19th-century American homeopathic physician who incorporated Swedenborgian principles into the homoeopathic theory of disease, as described in his Lectures on Homeopathic Philosophy George Lauder, Sr.: Scottish educator and political leader for the Chartist cause. Father to George Lauder and uncle to Andrew Carnegie, mentor to both. Lucius Lyon (1800–1851): American statesman William Rainey Marshall (1825–1896): fifth governor of Minnesota and advocate for African-American suffrage Mehmet Oz ( 1960): influenced by Swedenborg Isaac Pitman (1813–1897): inventor of shorthand and member of the New Jerusalem church in Bath, England Arthur Sewall (1835–1900): Democratic candidate for vice-president in the 1896 US presidential election Ernest George Trobridge (1884–1942): architect and developer active in domestic architecture during the first half of the 20th century, particularly in London's northwestern suburbs Lois Wilson (1891–1988): founder of Al-Anon, who was raised Swedenborgian Lisa Oz ( 1963), author and television personality See also Bible Christian Church (vegetarian) Bryn Athyn College Glencairn Museum Henry James Sr. References External links Official Site Library of the Swedenborgian Church History of the New Church Heavenly Doctrines Bayside Swedenborgian Church Digital Swedenborg Library Swedenborg Foundation Press Swedenborg Society Swedenborg Open Learning Centre Academy of the New Church Secondary Schools Swedenborgian House of Studies The New Christian Bible Study The New Church theology: sermons, doctrinal classes, history 1787 establishments in England Swedenborgian denominations Members of the National Council of Churches Nontrinitarian denominations Protestant denominations established in the 18th century Religious organizations established in 1787
4907747	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20Encarnaci%C3%B3n	Edwin Encarnación	Edwin Elpidio Encarnación Rivera (born January 7, 1983) is a Dominican former professional baseball designated hitter, third baseman and first baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Cincinnati Reds, Toronto Blue Jays, Cleveland Indians, Seattle Mariners, New York Yankees, and Chicago White Sox. Encarnación is a three-time All-Star. Early life Encarnación was born in the Dominican Republic to Elpidio Encarnación, a track and field coach, and Mireya Rivera. He is the third of three sons, including Richard and Julio, and four children, including younger sister, Evelin. Encarnación also had twelve half-siblings via his father. Encarnación split time as a high school student between his native country and Puerto Rico after his father took a job coaching at a Puerto Rican college. His Puerto Rican residence made him eligible for the Major League Baseball draft. Professional career Cincinnati Reds The Texas Rangers selected Encarnación in the ninth round of the 2000 Major League Baseball draft, and he signed with them. On June 15, 2001, the Rangers traded him and Rubén Mateo to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for pitcher Rob Bell. He made his Major League Baseball debut on June 24, 2005, and played in 69 games. He finished with a .232 batting average, nine home runs, and 31 runs batted in (RBIs). In the 2006 season, Encarnación played 117 games for the Reds, and batted .276 with 15 home runs and 72 RBIs. Encarnación won the National League Player of the Week award for the week of August 7–13. During the week, he led the league with 4 home runs and 24 total bases, batting .440 with eight RBIs. In 2007, Encarnación started the year slowly, struggling to bat over .200. He was frequently benched in favor of Ryan Freel, which gave Josh Hamilton, who was attempting to resurrect his career after it was derailed by addiction to drugs and alcohol, more starts in center field. Encarnación was benched again at one point by then manager Jerry Narron for not running out a fly ball. On May 10, 2007, Encarnación was demoted to the Reds' Triple-A affiliate, the Louisville Bats. He was recalled to the Major Leagues on May 22, 2007. For the 2007 season, Encarnación batted .289 with 16 home runs and 76 RBI. In 2008, Encarnación set career highs in games played and home runs. He batted .251 in 146 games with 26 home runs and 68 RBIs, and also struck out 102 times, the first time he had struck out more than 100 times in his career. For the 2009 season, Encarnación stated that he wanted to be more consistent as a hitter who did not try to hit home runs in every at bat: "I want to try to stay more to the middle. Last year, I tried to pull too many balls and hit more homers. That's why my average went down. I will be more consistent as a hitter. I know I can do it. I've done it before. I know I can hit better than that and I just have to keep working". Encarnación played in 43 games with the Reds in the 2009 season, batting just .209 with five home runs and 16 RBIs before being traded to Toronto. Toronto Blue Jays 2009–2011 Encarnación, along with right-handed pitchers Josh Roenicke and Zach Stewart, was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for Scott Rolen on July 31, 2009. It was reported that then Blue Jays General Manager J. P. Ricciardi was only interested in acquiring Roenicke and Stewart, but Cincinnati would not accept the trade unless the Blue Jays also took on Encarnación. Encarnación played in 42 games for the Blue Jays during the 2009 season, and batted .240 with eight home runs and 23 RBIs. During the offseason, Encarnación suffered first and second-degree burns to the forehead and the right side of his face when a rocket firecracker hit him in the jaw and exploded near his mouth. After initially being treated near his Dominican Republic home, Encarnacion was transferred to a Miami hospital. He was discharged less than two days after the incident. Encarnación missed 30 games through April and May 2010 with a right arm injury, before returning on May 18, 2010. He hit a home run in his first at bat since the injury against the Minnesota Twins. On May 21, he had three home runs against the Arizona Diamondbacks, homering in three straight at-bats. On June 20, after a loss to the Giants, Encarnacion was optioned to the Triple-A Las Vegas 51s. However, in a surprise move, he was designated for assignment the next day by the Blue Jays. Encarnación was eventually assigned to Triple-A Las Vegas on June 23, 2010, but was later called up to the Blue Jays again on July 2, 2010, after a struggling performance by Encarnacion's replacement, Jarrett Hoffpauir. He hit his 100th career home run against the Minnesota Twins on the last day of the season, and also became the Jays' 7th player of the 2010 season with 20 or more home runs. Encarnación finished the 2010 season with a batting average of .244, 21 home runs and 51 RBI. On November 12, 2010, Encarnacion was claimed off waivers by the Oakland Athletics. On December 2, he was non-tendered by the Athletics, making him a free agent. On December 16, 2010, he signed a one-year deal with the Blue Jays worth $2.5 million, with a club option worth $3.5 million in 2012. He began the 2011 season playing third base for the Blue Jays and struggled offensively. His numbers improved significantly after he was moved to the designated hitter position. In a game against the Boston Red Sox on September 7, 2011, Encarnacion set a new career record for doubles in a single season with 34. On September 22, Encarnacion hit a walk-off home run off the Rogers Sportsnet One sign in the 12th inning against Angels rookie Garrett Richards. In 2011, Encarnación batted .272 with 17 home runs and 55 RBIs. On October 31, 2011, the Blue Jays picked up the $3.5 million club option for the 2012 season. 2012–2013 In a game against the Seattle Mariners on April 28, 2012, Encarnación hit his fourth career grand slam in the 8th inning leading the Blue Jays to a 7–0 win. His grand slam marked the first time that Encarnación held his arm out in his trademark "chicken-wing" fashion while rounding the bases. This trademark would be known as the "Parrot Walk" which Edwin would do for every home run he would hit from then on. Fans would mimic it in the stands and even flap their arms as though they were the wings of a parrot. It was so popular it generated T-shirts, hats and even toy parrots that fans could attach to their right arm. On April 30, 2012, in a home game against the Texas Rangers, Encarnación hit the first home run off of starter Yu Darvish. In an inter-league game against the Milwaukee Brewers on June 19, Encarnación hit the last of three straight solo home runs by the Blue Jays, following Colby Rasmus and José Bautista, the first time in the 2012 season that the Jays went back-to-back-to-back with home runs, and only the sixth time in franchise history. On July 12, Encarnación signed a 3-year, $27 million contract extension with Toronto. The deal included a $10 million club option for the 2016 season. On September 13, 2012, in a home game against the Seattle Mariners, Encarnación hit his 40th home run of the season (off starter Félix Hernández), and recorded his 100th RBI of the season, marking the first time in his career that he had surpassed 40 home runs and 100 RBIs. Encarnación was unanimously named by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) as the Blue Jays Player of the Year on November 28, 2012. He also received the Most Improved Player award for the Jays. On May 23, 2013, Encarnación hit his fifth career grand slam to give the Blue Jays an 8–3 lead over the Baltimore Orioles. The Jays would win the game 12–6. On July 6, 2013, Encarnación was named to his first All-Star Game as a reserve designated hitter for the American League. Encarnación was one of four Blue Jays to be named, the others being José Bautista, Brett Cecil, and Steve Delabar. Up to the All-Star break, Encarnación posted a triple-slash of .264/.353/.532 with 25 home runs and 72 RBIs. In the All-Star Game, Encarnación entered as a pinch-hitter for David Ortiz in the seventh inning, and finished the game 0–2. In a game against the Houston Astros on July 26, 2013, Encarnación became only the second Blue Jay in franchise history to hit two home runs in one inning, joining Joe Carter who did so on October 3, 1993 – tying the Major League record for most home runs in an inning. Leading off the 7th inning behind at 6–4, Encarnación hit a solo home run and would later hit his sixth career grand slam, receiving a curtain call afterwards as the Blue Jays would score 8 runs in the inning and lead 12–6. He was named the American League Player of the Week on July 29, after batting .520 with three doubles, two home runs, and eight RBIs over the prior week. Encarnación hit his 30th home run of the season on August 7, 2013, against the Seattle Mariners. In doing so, he recorded back-to-back 30 home run seasons for the first time in his career. Playing against the Kansas City Royals on August 31, 2013, Encarnación recorded his 1,000th career hit, a single off Kansas City starter Jeremy Guthrie. On September 2, he reached 100 RBIs for the second consecutive season on a two-run home run against Brandon McCarthy of the Arizona Diamondbacks. He spent time on the bench in mid September with a wrist injury, but made a brief comeback before being placed on the disabled list on September 17. He underwent successful surgery on September 19. Encarnación finished the 2013 season with a .272 average, 36 home runs, and 104 RBIs. He finished with more walks than strikeouts for the first time in his career, with 82 and 62 respectively. 2014–2016 Encarnación hit his 200th career home run on May 8, 2014, against A. J. Burnett of the Philadelphia Phillies. On May 12, he was named the American League Player of the Week for May 5–11, when he recorded a league-leading four home runs and 10 RBIs, and batted .321. Encarnación continued his hot hitting in May by becoming the first player in Blue Jays franchise history to have 4 multi home run games in a month, and the first player in the majors to do so since Troy Tulowitzki in September 2010. On May 26 he established a new club record for home runs in May by hitting his 13th off of Álex Colomé of the Tampa Bay Rays. The following day, Encarnación tied the team record for home runs in any month of the season, when he hit his 14th to help the Blue Jays extend their winning streak to 8 games. On May 29, in a home game against the Kansas City Royals, Encarnación hit two home runs for a total of 18 on the season and 16 in the month of May, giving him the Blue Jays franchise record for home runs in any month of the regular season. He also tied Mickey Mantle for the American League record for home runs in May. He was unanimously selected as the Blue Jays Player of the Month by the Toronto chapter of the BBWAA on June 2. A day later he was named the AL Player of the Month of May by MLB. Encarnación hit two 3-run home runs in a win over the Cincinnati Reds on June 20. His 6 RBIs were a key contribution in helping the Blue Jays to their second-largest comeback victory in franchise history, being down 8–0 after the second inning and going on to win 14–9. In total for 2014, Encarnación batted .268 with 34 home runs and 98 RBIs. On June 30, 2015, Encarnación earned 10-and-5 rights by having at least 10 years of service time in the big-leagues, with the last 5 being on the same team. These rights give Encarnación the ability to veto any trade he would be involved in. He joined fellow Blue Jay José Bautista on the list of active players to hold this distinction. Encarnación hit his 250th career home run on August 6, in a 9–3 win over the Minnesota Twins. In an 8–5 win over the Philadelphia Phillies on August 18, Encarnación surpassed Jesse Barfield on the Blue Jays' all-time home run list, hitting his 180th home run with the franchise. He also extended his hitting streak to a career-high 15 games. Encarnación extended his hitting streak to 24 games on August 29, hitting 3 home runs against the Detroit Tigers, including his third grand slam of the season, and tied Roy Howell's franchise record with nine RBIs in a single game. The following day, Encarnación broke the franchise record for RBIs in a single month, when he hit a solo home run to give him 35 RBIs in August. He was named the American League Player of the Week on August 31, after batting .391 with 6 home runs and 17 RBIs. On September 2, Encarnación won the American League Player of the Month award for the second time in his career, after batting .407 with 11 home runs and 35 RBIs in August. He finished the 2015 regular season with a .277 batting average, 39 home runs, and 111 RBIs. Encarnación played in all 5 games of the 2015 American League Division Series, and batted .333 with one home run and 3 RBIs. In the American League Championship Series, he hit .227 with two RBIs in 6 games. On October 27, Encarnación underwent successful sports hernia surgery. Encarnación's $10 million option for 2016 was exercised by the Blue Jays on November 3. Prior to 2016 spring training, Encarnación set an Opening Day deadline to negotiate a contract extension with the Blue Jays. He suffered an oblique injury early in the spring, and as a result did not participate in any Major League games. In addition, contract extension negotiations ended early, when both sides could not agree on the terms of the contract. On April 26, Encarnación hit his 200th home run as a member of the Blue Jays. Encarnación hit his fourth walk-off home run as a Blue Jay on June 10, defeating the Baltimore Orioles 4–3 in the tenth inning. In doing so, he became the Blue Jays all-time leader in walk-off home runs as well as the eighth player in franchise history to reach 600 RBI. In the first inning of a game on July 1, Encarnación was ejected by home plate umpire Vic Carapazza for arguing balls and strikes. He made contact with Carapazza after being ejected, and on July 3, was given a one-game suspension. On August 12, Encarnación hit the 300th home run of his career, joining Joe Carter, Carlos Delgado, and teammate José Bautista as the only players to hit their 300th home run with the Blue Jays franchise. Encarnación recorded his 100th RBI of the season in a 12–6 win over the New York Yankees on August 16, becoming the first player to reach the milestone in 2016. On September 16, he hit his 40th home run of the season, and joined José Bautista and Carlos Delgado as the only Blue Jays with multiple 40-homer seasons. In the eleventh inning of the 2016 Wild Card game, Encarnación hit a walk-off, three-run home run to give the Blue Jays a 5–2 victory over the Baltimore Orioles and send them to the American League Division Series to face the Texas Rangers. The Blue Jays eventually lost the ALCS to the Cleveland Indians in five games. On November 7, the Blue Jays extended a $17.2 million qualifying offer to Encarnación, which he declined on November 14. Cleveland Indians On January 5, 2017, Encarnación signed a three-year contract with the Cleveland Indians worth $60 million. The deal included a club option for the 2020 season worth an additional $25 million, with a $5 million buyout clause. On Opening Day, he hit a home run against the Texas Rangers. On July 25, 2017, in the first game of a series against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Encarnación hit a walk-off grand slam in the bottom of the 11th inning, winning the game 11-7 for the Indians. In his first season with the Indians, he hit .258 with 38 home runs and 107 RBIs. He also drew a career high 104 walks. On August 12, 2018, Encarnación was placed on the disabled list with a hand contusion, his second stint on the disabled list in the season. He finished the season with 32 home runs and 107 RBIs, his seventh consecutive season of over 30 home runs and his fourth consecutive season of 100 or more RBIs. However, he batted .246. Seattle Mariners On December 13, 2018, the Indians traded Encarnación to the Seattle Mariners in a three-team trade with the Tampa Bay Rays which sent Carlos Santana to the Indians, with the Indians also acquiring Jake Bauers from the Rays, with the Rays getting Yandy Díaz and Cole Sulser. Encarnación hit his first home run as a member of the Seattle Mariners on March 28, 2019. On April 8, he hit two home runs in the sixth inning against the Kansas City Royals, becoming the fifth player in major league history to hit two home runs in the same inning twice. In 65 games with the Mariners through mid-June, Encarnación batted .241 with 21 home runs and 49 RBIs. New York Yankees On June 15, 2019, the Mariners traded Encarnación to the New York Yankees in exchange for minor league pitcher Juan Then and cash considerations. On August 3, Encarnación was hit by a pitch; he left the game with a fractured right wrist, and was placed on the 10-day injured list later that day. On October 31, 2019, the New York Yankees announced they would not be exercising their club option for Encarnación for 2020, allowing him to enter the 2019-2020 free agent market. Chicago White Sox On January 9, 2020, Encarnación signed a 1-year deal with the Chicago White Sox. On July 24, 2020, he was the starting designated hitter, making his White Sox debut on Opening Day against the Minnesota Twins. In the pandemic-shortened 2020 season, Encarnación batted .157/.250/.377 with 10 home runs and 19 RBIs, while striking out 54 times in 159 at bats. Coaching career On February 24, 2023, Encarnación joined the coaching staff of the Toronto Blue Jays, helping to assist the club during spring training. See also List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders List of Toronto Blue Jays team records Major League Baseball Player of the Week Award References External links 1983 births Living people Águilas Cibaeñas players American League All-Stars American League RBI champions Billings Mustangs players Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players Chattanooga Lookouts players Chicago White Sox players Cincinnati Reds players Cleveland Indians players Dayton Dragons players Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in Canada Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in the United States Dominican Republic expatriates in Puerto Rico Dunedin Blue Jays players Gulf Coast Rangers players Las Vegas 51s players Louisville Bats players Major League Baseball designated hitters Major League Baseball first basemen Major League Baseball players from the Dominican Republic Major League Baseball third basemen New York Yankees players Sportspeople from Caguas, Puerto Rico Sportspeople from La Romana, Dominican Republic Potomac Cannons players Savannah Sand Gnats players Seattle Mariners players Toronto Blue Jays players 2013 World Baseball Classic players
4908068	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra%20de%20Guadarrama	Sierra de Guadarrama	The Sierra de Guadarrama (Guadarrama Mountains) is a mountain range forming the main eastern section of the Sistema Central, the system of mountain ranges along the centre of the Iberian Peninsula. It is located between the systems Sierra de Gredos in the province of Ávila, and Sierra de Ayllón in the province of Guadalajara. The range runs southwest–northeast, extending from the province of Ávila in the southwest, through the Community of Madrid, to the province of Segovia in the northeast. The range measures approximately in length. Its highest peak is Peñalara, in elevation. The flora of the Sierra de Guadarrama are characterized in the higher elevation Atlantic vegetation region with Juniper groves, montane grasslands, Spanish broom thickets, pine forests, and Pyrenean Oaks forests; and in the lower elevation Mediterranean vegetation region by Holm oak forests. while the pastures around the summits are fringed by juniper and Spanish broom shrubs. The mountains abound with a variety of wildlife such as Iberian ibex, roe deer, fallow deer, wild boar, badger, various types of weasel, European wild cat, fox and hare. The area is also rich in birdlife, including birds of prey such as the Spanish imperial eagle and the Eurasian black vulture. The mountain range's proximity to Madrid means it can get crowded with visitors. The range is crossed by numerous roads and railway routes. It has a highly developed tourism infrastructure, coupled with provisions for various mountain sports. This poses a threat to the fragile environment and habitats of the mountains. Description Etymology of the name The name, (Guadarrama Mountains), is taken from the Guadarrama River and the town of Guadarrama, both of which are located in these mountains. The word Guadarrama itself is derived from the Arabic words for 'sandy river' — composed of guad (from , meaning 'river') and arrama (from , meaning 'sandy'). Another interpretation considers unlikely that a minor river could design a vast mountain range, and makes the name derive from the Latin , meaning 'water divide', which very aptly describes the position of the sierra between the two largest water basins in the Iberian Peninsula, those of the Douro, to the north, and of the Tagus, to the south. In the Middle Ages, this mountain range was called ('dragon range') because of the profile of Siete Picos mountain. General information The Guadarramas form a natural division between the North and South mesetas of the Iberian Peninsula, part of the so-called Sistema Central. The mountain bases are located between 900 and 1,200 metres above sea level, and the principal peaks of the range have an average topographic prominence of 1,000 metres. The range's highest peak, Peñalara, reaches 2,428 metres above sea level. The range begins in the valley of the Alberche river, which divides the Sierra de Gredos into two portions, and finishes at the Somosierra Pass, which serves as the hydrographic boundary between the river basins of the Tagus and Douro rivers. The mountains contribute fluvial material to both rivers through the action of various mountain streams, such as the Jarama, Guadarrama, and Manzanares, which empty into the Tagus, and the Duratón, Cega, and Eresma, which flow into the Duero. The geographical coordinates of the range's northeast terminus lies near 41° 4' North, 3° 44' West, and the southwestern end near 40° 22' North, 4° 18' West. Diverging from its main southwest-to-northeast alignment, the range has a westward-trending branch: the ("Long Rope"), or Carpetanos Mountains (Montes Carpetanos). (This name is sometimes also applied to the northern part of the main axis of the Guadarramas between Peñalara and Somosierra.) The 15 km long Carpetanos sub-range is an imposing sight, starting in the Community of Madrid at Navacerrada Pass, and averaging more than 2,000 metres in elevation all the way to the Morcuera Pass (). From there, the Carpetanos slope downward until they reach the confluence of the Lozoya and Jarama rivers. The highest peak of the Cuerda Larga is the Cabezas de Hierro at 2,383 metres. Between Cuerda Larga and the main extent of the Sierra de Guadarrama lies the Lozoya valley, one of the most picturesque mountain valleys of the Sistema Central, which attracts numerous tourists in the winter for skiing, as well as in the summer for other diversions. Another western branch of the Guadarramas, ("The Dead Woman"), or (Quintanar Mountains), begins at the Fuenfría Pass (Puerto de la Fuenfría), and is located entirely in the province of Segovia. It is 11 km long and has several summits surpassing 2,000 metres, among them, the Montón de Trigo ("Wheat Pile"). In addition to the and , a series of small mountains or foothills are located on the periphery of the main range. Notably, in the Segovia area, there are the Cerro (hill) de las Cardosillas (1,635 m, 5,364 ft), the Cerro de Matabueyes (1,485 m, 4,872 ft), the Cerro del Caloco (1,565 m, 5,134 ft), and the Sierra de Ojos Albos (1,662 m, 5,452 ft); and, in the Madrid area (from north to south), there are the Cerro de San Pedro (1,423 m, 4,668 ft), the Sierra del Hoyo (1,404 m, 4,606 ft), the Cerro Cañal (1,331 m, 4,366 ft), and Las Machotas (1,466 m, 4,809 ft). Notable peaks The peaks of Guadarrama have a relatively soft silhouette, with few standing out as exceptionally larger than others in the chain: Monte Abantos (1,753 m, 5,751 ft) Bola del Mundo (2,265 m, 7,431 ft) Cabezas de Hierro (2,383 m, 7,818 ft), highest of the Cuerda Larga Dos Hermanas (2,285 m, 7,496 ft) Flecha (2,078 m, 6,807 ft) La Maliciosa (2,227 m, 7,306 ft) La Najarra (2,108 m, 6,916 ft) El Nevero (2,209 m, 7,227 ft); one of the most northern peaks in the mountain range Pandasco (2,238 m, 7,342 ft) Peña del Águila (2,010 m, 6,594 ft) Peñalara (2,428 m, 7,965 ft), the highest mountain of the Guadarramas La Peñota (1,945 m, 6,381 ft) Risco de los Claveles (2,387 m, 7,831 ft) Risco de los Pájaros (2,334 m, 7,657 ft) Siete Picos (2,138 m, 7,014 ft) Montón de Trigo (2,161 m, 7,089 ft) Cerro de Valdemartín (2,280 m, 7,480 ft) El Yelmo (1,717 m, 5,633 ft), the most important peak of La Pedriza Geology The Sierra de Guadarrama is the result of a clash between tectonic plates belonging to the South sub-plateau and the North sub-plateau, both part of the Iberian Peninsula's larger Meseta Central (Central Plateau). The mountain range was formed during the Cenozoic era (starting 66 million years ago), although the predominant material of which the mountains are composed (granite shelf tableland) was preexisting, having been laid down during the Variscan orogeny during the Paleozoic era when the continental collision between Laurasia and Gondwana occurred to form Pangaea. The mountains have undergone significant erosion since their formation, which is the reason why many peaks, especially in the northern and southern sections, have flattened summits, called "cuerdas" by mountaineers. For these reasons, the material making up the Sierra de Guadarrama is of more ancient origin than many other well-known mountain systems, such as the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Andes and the Himalayas. Formation detail In the mid Paleozoic era (between 360 and 290 mya), an initial substratum of ancient granites and sediments started bending and metamorphizing, forming gneiss. Thereafter, approximately 290 and 250 mya during the Carboniferous period, the gneiss fractured, allowed a mass of magma to reach the surface which ultimately hardened into a granite shelf tableland. In the final phase of the Paleozoic era, during the Permian period, the tectonic plate collision causing the whole mountain range to rise. Finally, during the end of the Paleozoic through the Mesozoic era (between 250 and 65 mya) and up to the present, ongoing erosion processes reduced the size and smoothed and rounded the profile of the mountains of the Guadarramas. It was also during this geologic era that an ocean shift took place, causing the present-day location of the mountains to be part of the ocean for a time. It is possible that the then-peak formations were only small islands, barely rising above the level of the ocean. This accounts for the presence of limestone (a sedimentary rock formed predominately from calcite derived from marine organisms) found in the rims of Guadaramma mountain peaks and in some of their interior caves. Limestone formations are evident at a number of the peaks, notably El Vellón, La Pinilla and Patones. Other processes were in play during the Cenozoic era that shaped the present form of the Guadarramas. The erosion of the rocky massif provoked sedimentation which filled the mountain basins with sandstone. The action of glaciers during the Quaternary Period (1.8 mya up to the present) shaped several mountain profiles with small cirques, carved glacial lakes and left behind moraines. All three features can be found on Peñalara. Additionally, some traces of glacial passage are found in El Nevero and La Maliciosa in the form of sheepback-grooved rocks and small cirques. Finally, in the last million years, the action of glaciers caused consolidation of the network of rivers crisscrossing the mountain slopes, carved valleys and terraces resulting in the current appearance of the landscape. Principal cities and towns The Sierra de Guadarrama is surrounded by prominent population centres, which feature many second residences, occupied during holiday periods. The population pressure on and nearby the southeast slopes of the mountains near the Community of Madrid is very high, motivated partly by the large quantity of people who wish to live near the mountains. The most important cities are San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Guadarrama, Navacerrada, Cercedilla, Manzanares el Real, Miraflores de la Sierra and Rascafría in the Community of Madrid, and Los Ángeles de San Rafael and San Ildefonso in the province of Segovia. These towns are departure points for accessing the nearby mountain slopes and function as a centre of the tourism trade providing lodgings, restaurants and stores for visitors. Although these municipalities are located at the feet of the mountains, they are situated below 1,200 meters. The Sierra de Guadarrama serves as backdrop for the cities of Madrid and Segovia, although Segovia is located closer to the peaks than is Madrid. Places of interest The Sierra de Guadarrama has a series of valleys and zones which are of special interest from both an aesthetic and ecological viewpoint. Due to the proximity of Madrid's metropolitan area to the Guadarramas, many such special interest zones are host to a large number of mountain climbers and general interest tourists the year round. The most heavily visited areas are the Parque Natural de Peñalara (Peñalara Natural Park) and La Pedriza, an unusual mountain formation. Valle (valley) de la FuenfríaAn eastern valley in Cercedilla, the Community of Madrid, featuring one of the better preserved wild pine forests of the mountains. The valleys faces in a north to south direction, has a length of approximately 5 km, a width of approximately 2 km and is located between Siete Picos and the edge of the province of Segovia. The valley's dense forest features a deep creek and a well-preserved, ancient Roman road that crosses the mountain running toward the Fuenfría Pass. On weekends and holidays the valley is flooded with tourists and mountain climbers who debark at a recreation area with a car park at the valley's lower edge. Valle de Valsaín Like the Fuenfría, the Valsaín valley is also covered by a well-preserved pine tree woodland, considered the best of the Guadarramas. It is a wide, sloped valley running in a north to south direction, having a length of approximately 10 km, an average width of 5 km, and is located between the mountains, Mujer Muerta and the bulk of Peñalara. On its lower slopes is the municipality of Valsain, named after the valley. In the heart of the valley, amidst the pine and oak groves, there are three separate recreation centers, each with areas for parking. Nearby these areas are a number of human-made Eresma river dams that create small pools suitable for bathing in the summer. Several paths begin in the recreation area that crisscross the whole of the woodsy valley. La PedrizaThe Pedriza is one of the more exceptional areas of the mountain range. It is located on the south slope of the Cuerda Larga, in the municipal area of Manzanares el Real (part of the province of Madrid) and inside the Parque Regional (Regional Park) de la Cuenca Alta del Manzanares. The Pedriza's landscape is noted for its enormous rock formations and walls of granite displaying unusual and eye-catching configurations. Below the high rocky areas is an underbrush made up of rockroses and savin junipers which become a pine thicket farther way from the rock face. At the heart of the small valleys that make up La Pedriza runs the Manzanares river at the high river basin of its course. In the low part of the area is a recreational area with parking accommodations which allows visitors several routes to cross the territory. The most esteemed and sensational peak of La Pedriza, as well as its largest, is El Yelmo (The Helmet), a gigantic granite rockface towering over the surrounding peaks, rising to 1,700 m in elevation. El Yelmo's south face presents a massive stone wall that is highly prized by advanced mountain climbers. Throughout its history, La Pedriza's complex of caves was used as a hideout by exiles and by those seeking shelter during times of war. Peñalara's cirques and lakes On the south slope of the Sierra de Guadarrama's highest peak, Peñalara (2,428 m), is a protected area considered to be of exceptional beauty and which has been declared a nature reserve under the title Parque Natural de Peñalara; the only area of the Guadarramas to receive such official designation. In the reserve are found, three cirques and a series of lakes, all the handiwork of ancient glacial action. Peñalara's cirques take the form of walls rising more than 300 meters in the shape of a "U". Several small lakes are found in the areas surrounding the cirques, up to a height of approximately 2,000 m, which give rise to streams and small waterfalls during spring thaws. Most outstanding of these are the Laguna Grande (Big Lagoon), the Laguna Chica (Small Lagoon), the Lagunas de los Claveles (Lagoons of the Carnations) and the Laguna de los Pájaros (Lagoon of the Birds). Below 2,000 m, wild pine forests are also found in the designated zone. In the heights of the nature reserve are prairies in which high mountain shrubs dominate the terrain. The reserve is accessed by three routes feeding to and from the Puerto de Cotos. Valle del LozoyaThe Valle del Lozoya is the most extensive valley of the Sierra de Guadarrama range and one of the best conserved. It is located entirely within the Community of Madrid, between the Cuerda Larga and the main alignment of the mountain system, running in a southwest to northeast direction, and located, with respect the range as a whole, at its northeast stretch. The valley is more than 25 km in length and 6 km in average width. The slopes of the valley are covered with wild pine, oak and chestnut forests. By contrast, the lower valley area is dominated by grass pastures and farm crops. In the heart of the valley are two towns: Rascafría and Lozoya, both of which lend their names to the two rivers that run through the valley. Hydrography The climate of the Sierra de Guadarrama is marked by heavy precipitation which gives birth to the territory's numerous streams and rivers. There are several rivers of special relevance. The range's Segovia facing slopes give rise to the Moros and Eresma rivers, with the latter flowing through the City of Segovia. The Madrid facing slopes give rise to the Guadarrama river (from which the range and the town of Guadarrama take their names), the Manzanares river, that passes by Madrid, and the Lozoya river (location of the El Atazar Dam), that passes by its namesake valley. On the South slope of the peak of Peñalara, at 2,200 m of elevation, there is a series of small, protected lakes of glacial origin. Although the mountain range proper features a great number of dams, they are all of small volume. In the Segovia facing slopes, the more prominent dams are Peces, Revenga, Pontón and Pirón, while on the Madrid facing slopes are found the Tobar, Jarosa, Navacerrada and Pinilla. Outside the boundaries of the mountain range, in the Community of Madrid, there are three dams of much greater size: the Valmayor, Santillana and Pardo. Flora and fauna The flora and fauna of the Sierra de Guadarrama is very diverse, reflecting something of a synthesis between species common to the mediterranean landscape and climate of Spain's Central Plateau, and the more specialized plants and animals native to the higher altitude and mountainous terrain of the Pyrenees and Alps. Flora The high slopes of the mountains are covered in Alpine grasses and are extensively used as grazing land for cattle. The meat that these cattle produce is of excellent quality and is specially denominated and certified as Ternera de Guadarrama ("Veal of Guadarrama"). Below the high mountain pastures, in the subalpine and mountainous flats, are some of the best natural scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forests in Spain. Below the pine forests, the middle elevations are covered by groves of Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica), which sometimes encroach on the higher pine belt; this is problematic as Pyrenean oak have a protected conservation status and cannot be felled without dispensation from national park authorities. Nevertheless, controlled logging is allowed every year with the felled trees used to supply firewood to local mountain villages. The westernmost area of the mountain range shows a change in species distribution and variety, with a predominance of stone pine (Pinus pinea) in place of scots-pine, and Portuguese oak and Holm oak in place of Pyrenean oak due to the lower elevations and higher precipitation of the region. List of plant species TreesEuropean black pine, maritime pine, Scots pine and mountain pine; holly, alder, maple, hazel, boxwood, beech, holm oak, Portuguese oak, Pyrenean oak, savin junipers, rowan and yew. Shrubs tree heath, French lavender, common juniper, bearberry, fern, rockroses, common hawthorn, Fabaceae, boiss, rosemary and thyme. Prevalent pine grove fungi morel, saffron milk cap, Lepiota, chanterelle and king trumpet mushroom. Fauna As might be expected in such an important ecosystem, there is a great variety of wildlife, with mammals such as Iberian ibex, roe deer, fallow deer, wild boar, badger, various types of weasel, European wild cat, fox and hare among others. Birds are also well represented with such specialities as citril finch and crested tit as well as the usual waterfowl, especially in the Embalse de Santillana (Santillana reservoir). Birds of prey include the impressive Spanish imperial eagle and Eurasian black vulture. In fact, the animal species inhabiting the Guadarramas represent 45% of the fauna of Spain and 18% of those in Europe as a whole. The Guadarramas is also a migration route for many species of bird including crane and black stork. Endangered species that inhabit the range include Spanish imperial eagle and the Eurasian wolf. List of animal species Reptiles and amphibians Various snakes both smooth and viperous, the Iberian endemic mountain lizard (Iberolacerta cyreni), alpine newt and fire salamander Mammals Squirrel, weasel, Iberian ibex, rabbit, roe deer, genet, boar, hare, garden dormouse, Eurasian wolf, badger and fox Birds Citril finch, Iberian pied flycatcher, southern grey shrike, European bee-eater, hoopoe, short-toed treecreeper, jay, great tit, Eurasian woodcock, wren, chough, crested tit, blue tit, kingfisher, white-throated dipper, blackbird, firecrest, golden oriole, European robin Birds of prey Golden eagle, booted eagle and short-toed eagle, Eurasian black vulture and griffon vulture, eagle owl, tawny owl and little owl, peregrine falcon, red kite and both common and honey buzzard Waterfowl Mallard, coot, grey heron and little and great crested grebe Climate The Guadarramas have climatic features, characterized by considerable temperatures changes between summer and winter and a very dry summer. But, as in any mountainous zone, the climate on the mountains proper changes markedly with increases in height, and can be differentiated into discrete climatic zones. Between 800m and 1,400m, the average annual temperature varies from 9 °C to 13 °C, with a summer high of 28 °C and winter low of -3 °C. Average annual precipitation is between 500 and 800 mm, predominately in non-summer months. At this elevation, much of the precipitation falls as snow, between December and February, although there are always exceptions, and the snow rarely remains unmelted for more than three days. It is in this region that all cities and the majority of people live; this also means that of all distinguished elevations, it is the most susceptible to damage from human traffic and intrusion. Between 1,400 and 2,000 m, the average annual temperature is 6-9 °C, with a summer high of 25 °C and winter low of -8 °C. Average annual precipitation increases with the height to 700–1,300 mm, again primarily during the non-summer season in the form of snow, but between December and April. Much of the snow remains on the ground for the duration of the winter, especially on the range's north slope. Between 2,000 and 2,428 m, the average annual temperature is between 4-6 °C, with a summer high of 20 °C and a winter low of -12 °C. Average annual precipitation is between 1,200 and 2,500 mm, mostly snowfall between November and May which remains all winter and into the spring. In summary, the climate of the Guadarramas is quite humid, more so than that of the rest of the Meseta Central (Central Plateau), and generally cold, increasing with elevation. In the peaks the wind is usually very intense and thunderstorms in the mountains are more frequent than in the plateau. Average temperatures by elevation Through routes As it forms a natural barrier, the Guadarramas is crossed by important routes through the mountains linking the north and south of the Iberian Peninsula. The routes date back to Roman times with the construction of their famous roads, one of which starts in the town of Cercedilla, crosses the mountains and terminates at the Fuenfría Pass. Although the road is still present with some original stone, it was rendered obsolete by roads built during the mid-18th century: the Guadarrama Pass, or "del León" route, serviced by national highway six, running from Madrid to Coruña (although another freeway, AP-6, which tunnels through the mountains, can also be used); the Navacerrada Pass highway passage between Madrid and Segovia; and the Somosierra pass, through which runs the Autovía del Norte, along with the Madrid to Irun railway. The mountains are crossed by separate rail routes between Madrid and Ávila, Segovia and Burgos, connecting the capital to the north of the country. These lines are already considered antiquated, and will be partially replaced with the new high speed Alta Velocidad Española ("Spanish High Speed") trains, with tunnels between Miraflores de la Sierra and Segovia. The AVE can achieve speeds of up to 300 km/h on dedicated tracks. The AVE route between Madrid and Segovia is already open, and the network is slowly being expanded further north. History For much of its history, the central part of the range – including the forests and grasslands on both sides of the mountains – was associated with the city of Segovia, at least as far back as its Roman control under the name of Segóbriga. However, after the creation of the province of Madrid to meet the requirements of the Spanish Court, the political designation of the mountains was distributed between the two provinces. Today the range is more often associated with Madrid, given that city's prominence as Spain's capital. The Guadarramas' role as a natural barrier has been of importance in many of the armed conflicts that have afflicted Spain. For centuries, the range constituted a border between the Christian kingdoms to the north and Muslims kingdoms to the south, during the times of Reconquest. The legacy of that epoch can be seen in the splendid medieval walled cities occupying both sides of the mountains, such as Buitrago del Lozoya and Manzanares el Real in Madrid, and the Castillo de Pedraza in Segovia. In 1808, during the Peninsular War fought by Spain against invaders from France, the Battle of Somosierra took place at the range's Somosierra Pass, where the Spanish were defeated by Napoleonic troops composed principally of Polish lancers. Likewise, in the Battle of Guadarrama during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) the range comprised an important front with skirmishes fought in the mountain passes between the loyalist and the rebel faction. Today, trenches and gun emplacements still survive along the line of the mountains' summits. The Guadarramas, as a result of their proximity to high population centres of cultural and educational importance, was one of the first areas of Spain where natural resources and the study of nature came to be valued, both for economic and educational reasons. This culminated in the establishment of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institution of Education) in 1876, which advocated an assimilation into Madrid's cultural values of the nearby mountain range's natural beauty. By the 1920s, there was a call to declare the entire range a protected national park; a notion that is still unrealized but has support today. Monuments and structures of interest The magnificent scenery, the balmy summer climate and, especially, the proximity to Madrid and Segovia have resulted in the erection of many striking buildings and monuments on the hillsides of the Sierra de Guadarrama. The Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, is an immense palace built to commemorate the Battle of St. Quentin (1557), El Escorial is also an Augustinian monastery, museum, and library complex. It is in the town of San Lorenzo de El Escorial. Designed by the architects Juan Bautista de Toledo and Juan de Herrera in an austere Herrerian classical style, and built from 1563 to 1584, it is shaped as a grid in memory of the martyrdom of Saint Lawrence. The complex has an enormous store of art, including masterworks by Titian, Tintoretto, El Greco, Velázquez, Rogier van der Weyden, Paolo Veronese, Alonso Cano, José de Ribera, Claudio Coello and others; its library containing thousands of priceless ancient manuscripts; and the complex has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In the north face of , surrounded by thick pine groves, is the Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos ("Holy Cross of the Valley of the Fallen"). Conceived by General Francisco Franco to honour those killed during the Spanish Civil War, the monument contains beneath it the remains of 40,000 fallen soldiers, as well as a basilica in which Franco was interred. Above rises a massive granite cross — 150 m high — which is visible from as far away as 50 km. In , in the centre of the Lozoya valley, lies the Monasterio de Santa María de El Paular ("Monastery of Santa María of Paular"). Surrounded by scenic mountainscapes, the monastery features a large cloister and dates to the late 14th century. It was constructed at the behest of king Henry II of Castile and in 1876 was declared a Spanish National Monument. Manzanares Castle is a medieval fort in the municipality of Manzanares el Real, at the foot of La Pedriza. It is composed of several cylindrical towers and dates to the 15th century. In the town of Pedraza, is a namesake medieval castle, . The citadel rises on a hill protecting the town. It dates to the 14th century and an expansion during the 16th century. Although at one time in disrepair, the castle was restored in modern times and is in a good state of preservation. The structure is protected on all sides by its original, ancient walls, lending a medieval ambience to the surroundings. In the municipality of San Ildefonso in Castile and León lies the Baroque-style Palacio Real de la Granja de San Ildefonso, a royal residence actually used in summer by Spanish nobility. It was commissioned by Philip V of Spain in 1724. The palace's extensive gardens feature numerous sculptures of mythological beings, which are highly prized for their artistic value. The gardens were based on those King Philip V had known during his childhood in the French royal court. Protected zones Guadarrama National Park For some years, a proposal to designate the range as a national park (Parque Nacional de Guadarrama) has been under discussion. The aim was to protect the range from degradation caused by the heavy human traffic as a result of its proximity to large cities such as Madrid. The law that regulates the approved national park was published on June 26, 2013. Formerly two high traffic areas of the Guadarrama mountains have achieved protected nature reserve status: The Parque Regional de la Cuenca Alta del Manzanares ("High River Basin Regional Park of the Manzanares"), located in the Community of Madrid was the first Sierra de Guadarrama zone to receive protected status. When the designation was first granted it included only La Pedriza (an area including a number of peaks, valleys and rivers in the Guadarramas), but later it was extended to cover the Monte de El Pardo — a densely forested area to the north of Madrid, covering more than 470 square kilometres (181 mile²). The Parque Natural de la Cumbre, Circo y Lagunas de Peñalara ("Peñalara's Summit, Cirques and Lakes Natural Park"). The natural park is much smaller and more recently designated than the preceding one, only covering the tallest part of the massif of Peñalara (at 2,428 m the highest mountain in the Sierra de Guadarrama) and one of few glaciers formations of the whole Sistema Central, with three small cirques, two moraines, and almost twenty glacial lakes. Myths and legends Over the centuries, several myths and legends about the region have developed: The Shepherd's Chasm It is believed that in the mountains nearby San Lorenzo de El Escorial, a secret treasure cache lies buried. Many have prospected in the region, searching for this illusive trove. This legend holds that a certain Rafael Corraliza, who managed the rich financial affairs of the El Escorial monastery, was lured by greed to plunder the monastery's treasury of doubloons. Corraliza then absconded, heading for sanctuary in Portugal. He stole out at night, taking a mountain footpath that led to the nearest village, Robledondo. However, upon attempting to traverse the mountain area known as the Shepherd's Chasm, named for a deep mountain crevasse, he was caused by a saint watching over the monastery to fall into the chasm, which swallowed up both him and the stolen gold. In the course of time, the abyss was covered with branches and stones for fear that cattle or any person could suffer the same fate as Corraliza. The Boulder of the Dead The name of this legend comes from a namesake peculiar rock formation in La Pedriza. The story is that a group of three brigands kidnap a young woman of a rich and powerful Madrid family. While the chief of the band is temporarily away, the two remaining bandits decide to rape the young woman. Upon the chief's unexpected return, he attempts to throw each of them over the cliff above the namesake boulder as quick justice. The first is done successfully, but the second grabs the leg of the ringleader as they struggle at the brink of the precipice, and they both plummet to their deaths on the rocks below. According to local people, for a time, the corpses of the three bandits could be seen in a crack of the rocks. See also Sistema Central Peñalara Nature Reserve Guadarrama National Park Guadarrama Pass Valsain Mountains Peñalara La Pedriza Imperial Route of the Community of Madrid Puerto de Cotos Bola del Mundo Montón de Trigo References Bibliography Fidalgo García, Pablo & Martín Espinosa, Agustín (2005). Atlas Estadístico de la Comunidad de Madrid 2005. Instituto de Estadística de la Comunidad de Madrid. Pliego Vega, Domingo (2005). Guadarrama. 50 excursiones fáciles. Ediciones Desnivel. Rincón, Manuel (1987). Caminar por la Sierra de Guadarrama. Editorial Barrabes. Sánchez Martínez, Javier & Martínez de Pisón, Eduardo (2004). La Sierra de Guadarrama:La Imagen de una Montaña. Ediciones La Librería. Vías, Julio (2004). La Sierra de Guadarrama. Biografía de un paisaje. Ediciones La Librería. Zarzuela Aragón, Javier (2003). Excursiones para niños por la Sierra de Madrid. Ediciones La Librería. External links Information Official Website of Sierra de Guadarrama Information of the mountain range in Ascensiones Information of the mountain range in Montipedia News in Sierra de Madrid Routes and climbs Ascensions to the principal mountains Treks and ascents in the Guadarrama mountains in rutasserranas.net Treks in the Guadarrama mountains Miscellaneous The Guadarrama mountains in Google Maps Meteorological prediction to Guadarrama mountains Webcams in Valdesquí and Puerto de Cotos Guadarrama Mountain ranges of the Community of Madrid Geography of the Community of Madrid Geography of the Province of Ávila Geography of the Province of Segovia Forests of Spain
4908176	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Religious%20Freedom%20Act%20of%201998	International Religious Freedom Act of 1998	The International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 (Public Law 105–292, as amended by Public Law 106–55, Public Law 106–113, Public Law 107–228, Public Law 108–332, and Public Law 108–458) was passed to promote religious freedom as a foreign policy of the United States, to promote greater religious freedom in countries which engage in or tolerate violations of religious freedom, and to advocate on the behalf of individuals persecuted for their religious beliefs and activities in foreign countries. The Act was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on October 27, 1998. Three cooperative entities have been maintained by this act to monitor religious persecution. An Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious Freedom within the Department of State, who is the highest-ranking US diplomat on international religious freedom, and who is tasked with carrying out the provisions of IRFA: the Annual Report, negotiations with foreign governments to bring about greater religious freedom, and the determination of Countries of Particular Concern (CPC's) under IRFA, which entails further actions. A bipartisan United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, designed to provide independent policy recommendations and fact-finding, and A Special Adviser on International Religious Freedom within the National Security Council. IRFA was introduced on March 26, 1998, by Senator Don Nickles (R-OK), Senator Joseph Lieberman (D-CT) and others, as a far-reaching policy response to the Freedom from Religious Persecution Act of 1997, introduced by Congressman Frank Wolf (R-VA) and Senator Arlen Specter on May 27, 1997, as H.R.1685/S.772, and subsequently reintroduced on September 8, 1997, as H.R. 2431, the Freedom from Religious Persecution Act. H.R. 2431 affected only a handful of countries, with a narrow range of measures; IRFA based its measures on international human rights law and created a structure to address religious freedom issues in depth all over the world. On October 8, 1998, the Senate passed IRFA by a vote of 98–0. IRFA was renumbered as Amendment S. 3789 to H.R.2431, so that the Senate version could be adopted in its entirety as an amendment in the nature of a substitute to H.R.2431, including its title, the "International Religious Freedom Act." IRFA was passed in full by the House on the consent calendar on October 10, 1998. History This Act was a response to the growing concern about religious persecution throughout the world. There had been instances of toleration on the part of the governments when the religious rights of their citizens and others had been violated. There are governments around the world which openly sponsor and tolerate restrictions on their citizens' right to practice, observe, study, or associate with other members of their religious faith. The former Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, John Shattuck, cited specific countries that fail to recognize the fundamental right of religious freedom. There is a civil war ensuing in Sudan because of the ruling party's intolerance of opposing religions. The Chinese Catholics and Chinese Protestant groups battle government repression, and the Chinese government tightly regulates religious practices in the regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. Members of the Rohingya Muslim minority are forced to take refuge in neighboring Bangladesh. There are suspect cases of minority oppression in Europe as well. Russia's new religion law seeks to make restraints and inhibit new religious communities' ability to own property, publish literature or operate schools. This Act tries to recognize such kind of blatant forms of religious discrimination and oppression. It finds that over one-half of the population of the world lives under regimes that have strict policies against basic religious freedoms. Title VII of the Act has noted that some regimes engage in persecution that includes subjection of those people who engage in practice of religious faiths that are not state sponsored, to detention, torture, beatings, forced marriage, rape, imprisonment, enslavement, mass resettlement and death. IRFA Sponsor Senator Don Nickles (R-OK), in his speech to the Congress on October 2, 1998, stated: This Act was first introduced as S.1868 by Senator Don Nickles on March 26, 1998. It provided an alternative to H.R. 2431, "the Freedom from Religious Persecution Act of 1997", originally H.R.1685/S.772 introduced by Representative Frank Wolf and Senator Arlen Specter (R-PA) on May 27, 1997 (https://www.congress.gov/bill/105th-congress/house-bill/1685/text) and then reintroduced as H.R. 2431 on September 9, 1997 (https://www.congress.gov/bill/105th-congress/house-bill/2431/text/ih?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22H.R.+2431%22%5D%7D&r=1). During consideration of H.R. 2431 in the House International Relations Committee (HIRC) on April 1, 1998, Rep. Kevin Brady (R-TX) proposed the text of S.1868, just introduced in the Senate, as an Amendment in the Nature of a Substitute. This forced several important changes to H.R. 2431, including moving the persecution "tzar" contained in H.R.2431 from the White House to the State Department, and an agreement to allow Rep. Brady to offer a floor amendment to H.R.2431 if he would withdraw his amendment in committee. Rep. Brady withdrew his amendment in committee, and added several provisions from S.1868 to H.R.2431 during the general vote on H.R. 2431, which passed the House on May 14, 1998, by a vote of 375–41, and was subsequently sent to the Senate. However, H.R. 2431 was never considered by the Senate. S.1868 was sponsored by many senators in addition to Majority Whip Don Nickles, including powerful Foreign Relations chairman Senator Jesse Helms (R-NC). Despite initial opposition from the State Department, the White House and advocates of H.R. 2431, S.1868 eventually passed the Senate 98–0. Because this vote was one of the last substantive votes of the 105th Congress, the House agreed to take the Senate version in its entirety, as there was no time for a conference. Accordingly, the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 was renumbered in the Senate as S. 3789, an Amendment in the Nature of a Substitute to H.R. 2431, and then passed on to the House, where it was voted in on the consent calendar on October 10, 1998. The differences between H.R. 2431, the "Freedom from Religious Persecution Act" and S. 1868, the "International Religious Freedom Act", were comprehensive, but can be summarized as a narrow focus in FRPA on punishing worst violators, compared with IRFA's worldwide focus on promoting religious freedom, using both positive and negative incentives. H.R.2431 affected a handful of countries and religious groups, with mandatory sanctions if a persecution monitoring "tzar" in the White House found that persecution was "widespread and ongoing" "when such persecution includes abduction, enslavement, killing, imprisonment, forced mass resettlement, rape, or crucifixion, or other forms of torture" (https://www.congress.gov/bill/105th-congress/house-bill/1685/text). This definition was so extreme as to exclude most countries in which gross violations of international religious freedom take place. IRFA, in contrast, used the internationally recognized definitions of "gross violations of human rights" in the requirement to take action in persecuting countries, on behalf of any religious believers. Further, IRFA put in place a comprehensive structure headed by a high-ranking diplomat who could negotiate with other governments on behalf of the President, rather than a mid-level White House official tasked with making findings, under FRPA. IRFA also established the Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, which requires US embassies all over the world to interact with their counterparts and NGO's in the process of reporting, as well as requiring the US to state what efforts it has undertaken to promote religious freedom. In addition to the Ambassador at Large for International Religious Freedom, and the Annual Report, the cornerstone of IRFA is the requirement that each year the President review and determine whether any country has met the threshold, based on international human rights law, of "Country of Particular Concern" or CPC, engaging in or tolerating "particularly severe violations of religious freedom." The CPC determinations lead to a consultation and negotiations process resulting in a range of actions and sanctions if the offenses are not addressed. Based on similar successful provisions in trade law, IRFA included a ground-breaking provision that the goal of these negotiations was to secure a "Binding Agreement" to cease the violations. In such a case, sanctions would be withheld. In a landmark first for human rights, after designating Vietnam a CPC, Ambassador John Hanford (appointed by George W. Bush as IRF Ambassador from 2002 to 2009) secured a Binding Agreement under IRFA with Vietnam. Reversing the violations that had led to CPC designation, Vietnam issued a decree ordering the cessation of its practice of forced renunciations of faith, released all known religious prisoners, and allowed hundreds of churches it had shut down to re-open. To date this is the only Binding Agreement secured under IRFA, but it demonstrates the IRFA policy goal of securing systemic change rather than mere punishment. Organization The Act has seven titles, each containing numerous sections. These are: Title I—Department of State Activity Title II—Commission on International Religious Freedom Title III—National Security Council Title IV—Presidential Actions Title V—Promotion of Religious Freedom Title VI—Refugee, Asylum, and Consular Matters Title VII—Miscellaneous Provisions Scope and substance of the Act As per the Act, the Congress and the President are obligated to take into account the various issues of religious freedom while developing the country's foreign policy. Under Title I of the Act, a permanent infrastructure within the State Department is created for dealing with religious issues. This is known as the Office of International Religious Freedom, headed by the Ambassador at Large for International Religious Freedom, who wields the authority to negotiate on behalf of the President with other governments, and oversees the Annual Report and the designation of Countries of Particular Concern (CPC). Title I also details the composition of the Annual Report on International Religious Freedom. Title II creates the Commission on International Religious Freedom and Title III a special advisor to the president on international religious freedom within the National Security Council. The crux of the Act lies in Title IV. Title IV details the requirement that the President annually review and determine whether any country has met the CPC threshold, based in international human rights law, of "engaging in or tolerating particularly severe violations of religious freedom". Any designation then leads to a series of negotiations and consultations resulting in a number of possible actions available to the president, in consultation of the secretary of state, the ambassador at large, the National Security Council special advisor, and the commission, design a response to those countries. In practice this authority of the President is delegated to the Secretary of State and the Ambassador. Countries that are severe violators of religious freedom are categorized as CPC's under Sec 402 of the Act and this subjects them to punitive sanctions which are listed in Sec. 405. Under this section, the president must either enter into a binding agreement with the concerned country to end the religious persecution, or to choose from remedies outlined in Sec. 405 of the Act. This section offers the president fifteen options to exercise against countries engaging in religious persecution, ranging from private negotiations to sanctions, or a "commensurate action" not listed in IRFA but which would serve the purpose of advancing religious freedom. These include a private or a public demarche; a private or public condemnation; the delay or cancellation of scientific or cultural exchanges; the denial, delay, or cancellation of working, official or state visits; the withdrawing, limitation, or suspension of some forms of U.S. aid; direction to public and private international institutions to deny assistance; and sanctions prohibiting the US government from entering into import or export agreements with the designated governments. Under Title IV, the president may waive punitive measures against the concerned country if he or she determines that national security is at risk or if the proposed action would harm rather than benefit the individuals and communities the Act is designed to help. Title V of the act seeks to promote religious freedom abroad through the way of international media, exchanges and foreign service awards for working to promote human rights. Title VI requires appropriate training for asylum officers (domestic), refugee officers (abroad) and judges. The final provision of the Act, Title VII contains miscellaneous provisions, including 701, which urges transnational corporations to adopt codes of conduct sensitive to the right to freedom of religion. Ambassador at Large for International Religious Freedom and Office of International Religious Freedom The establishment of a high-ranking Ambassador at Large for International Religious Freedom is a foundational provision of IRFA, investing all the authority of the United States government in the Ambassador's negotiations with governments around the world, in the promotion of religious freedom. The Office of International Religious Freedom, supporting the Ambassador, was formed under Title I of the International Religious Freedom Act, until June 2019 the office was housed in but not under the authority of the U.S. Department of State's Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. On June 21, 2019, along with the release of the 2018 International Religious Freedom Report, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announced that the Office of International Religious Freedom, along with the Office of the Special Envoy to Monitor and Combat Anti-Semitism, were elevated to report directly to the under secretary for civilian security, democracy, and human rights and the Ambassador at Large would report directly to the Secretary of State. The IRF office has the mission of promoting religious freedom as a core objective of US foreign policy. The Office Director and the staff monitor religious persecution and discrimination worldwide, and assist in recommending and implementing policies in respective regions or countries. The Ambassador oversees the IRF office and is the highest-ranking US advocate for international religious freedom, serving as primary adviser advisor on this issue to the President and the Secretary of State. In negotiations abroad dealing with religious freedom, the Ambassador outranks the country ambassador. The United States seeks to conform with international covenants that guarantee the inalienable right of religious freedom to every human being. The Act is committed to the promotion of freedom of religion and conscience throughout the world as a fundamental human right and a source of stability for all countries. It further seeks to assist newly formed democracies in implementing freedom of religion and conscience. Religious and human rights non-governmental organizations are sought to promote religious freedom. Furthermore, the U.S. seeks to identify and denounce regimes that are severe persecutors of their citizens or others on the basis of religious beliefs. The Office is responsible for the monitoring of religious persecution and discrimination worldwide, and for advocating for greater religious freedom. Its specific activities include: It makes the Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, which is submitted to the Congress annually by the Department of State in compliance with Section 102(b) of the Act. This report supplements the most recent Human Rights Reports. It includes individual country chapters on the status of religious freedom. On the basis of these annual reports, the Secretary of State will designate any country that commits "systematic, ongoing and egregious violations of religious freedom" as a Country of Particular Concern or CPC. States so designated are subject to further actions, including economic sanctions by the United States. Meetings are organized with foreign government officials at all levels, as well as religious and human rights groups in the United States and abroad, to address the problem of religious freedom. Providing testimony to the United States Congress, on issues of international religious freedom. Maintaining a close cooperation with the independent United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. Sponsorship of reconciliation programs in disputes that divide groups along lines of religious beliefs. The office seeks to support NGOs that are promoting reconciliation in such disputes. Outreach programs to American religious communities. Commission on International Religious Freedom This commission is an independent nine-member, bipartisan U.S. government agency that was created to provide independent recommendations to the State Department and the President, and to monitor the status of freedom of thought, conscience, and religion or belief abroad, as defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and related international instruments and to give independent policy recommendations to the President, the Secretary of State and the United States Congress. This commission is funded entirely by the federal government on an annual basis and staffed by government employees. The Commission monitors the effect of other countries' policies on religious groups, and may hold hearings to educate Congress and the public about religious persecution around the world. The Commission may not implement sanctions on countries that violate religious freedom as it only has advisory and monitoring authority, including the authority to hold hearings. While the Department of State report contains a detailed country-by-country analysis of religious freedom, the commission's report covers few countries, but makes policy recommendations to the executive and legislative branches of the government. The Commission report also reviews and analyzes the work of Department of State. Special Advisor on International Religious Freedom The President is assigned a special advisor on international religious freedom within the National Security Council by Title III of the Act. Under the Act, the special advisor is designated to serve as a resource for executive branch officials, compiling and analyzing information on the facts and circumstances of violations of religious freedom and formulating possible US reactions to religious persecution in the light of US national security interests. The position of the director shall be comparable to that of director within the executive office of the President. Justification and legal basis IRFA was enacted by the US Congress on the basis of constitutional and international law principles. Several of the sponsors of the bill spoke of the United States as being born out of the need for religious freedom, and that this principle was codified in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The First Amendment explicitly guarantees the fundamental right of religious freedom and liberty to practice any faith as according to one's choice. Their contention made, to this is that the United States has the duty to uphold this fundamental right. During a speech about the Act, on October 9, 1998, IRFA co-sponsor Senator Joseph Lieberman (D-CT), gave the reason as to why the founding fathers were drawn to America, The principles of international law were made inherent in the act so as to clarify its commitment to promote international religious freedom. As per the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), religious freedom is one of the most fundamental human rights outlined. This right explicitly includes the freedom to change religious faith or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. All the members of the United Nations have adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the virtue of their UN membership and are pledged to uphold its provisions. The Article 18(1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights was ratified with reservations in April 1992, also includes a freedom of religion clause similar to that of the UDHR's. The principles in the above-mentioned international law documents, according to the Act, create a sense of responsibility in its governments to protect the freedom of religion, which the Act does by exercising the United States' ability to choose its limit in dealing with countries that violate religious freedom. The justification for this Act lies on the guarantee of freedom of religion found in the US Constitution and in principles of international law. Critics of this Act would probably contend that while the US Constitution does prohibit Federal and State governments from infringing on the religious liberties of people living within the US, it does not obligate or permit the US to use embargo or military intervention as means to uphold these rights abroad. The rejoinder would be that the US can prioritize those rights it holds most dear in its interaction with other states, and that IRFA is a means to help other nations secure freedoms to which they have already committed themselves, but may not in fact uphold. Related legislation On February 10, 2014, Rep. Grace Meng introduced the bill To amend the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 to include the desecration of cemeteries among the many forms of violations of the right to religious freedom (H.R. 4028; 113th Congress) in the United States House of Representatives. The bill would amend the findings of the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 by including the desecration of cemeteries among the various violations of the right to religious freedom. Meng said that "this legislation would be a new and important tool in our fight against the desecration of cemeteries" because it would "combat religiously-motivated vandalism of cemeteries and also prevent developers from building over cemeteries, a new and emerging threat in places where there are no Jewish communities left to protect burial grounds." On May 9, 2014, Rep. Steve Stockman introduced the European Union Religious Freedom Act in the United States House of Representatives. The bill would amend the findings of the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 by including prohibitions against homeschooling, religious methods of meat production, circumcision, and wearing religious garb, among the various violations of the right to religious freedom. On December 16, 2016, Barack Obama signed into law the Frank R. Wolf International Religious Freedom Act which amends the 1998 Act by specifically extending protection to non-theists as well as those who do not claim any particular religion. The Frank Wolf Act does not materially change IRFA, but it does spell out certain authorities and provisions in greater clarity, such as the ability to designate non-state actors under IRFA (this authority exists already in IRFA under Section 404 (2) and others, but is further clarified by the Frank Wolf Act.) See also United States Commission on International Religious Freedom Religious intolerance Country of Particular Concern Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights Religion in the United States Narendra Modi is the only person ever banned under this law. References External links United States Commission on International Religious Freedom Text of International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 Office of International Religious Freedom official website International Religious Freedom Report United States Department of State Examining the Government's Record on Implementing the International Religious Freedom Act: Hearing before the Subcommittee on National Security of the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, June 13, 2013 International Religious Freedom Act: State Department and Commission are Implementing Responsibilities but Need to Improve Interaction: Report to Congressional Committees Government Accountability Office https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040206/http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/csrpl/Religious%20Persecution/relperse.pdf Christianity and law in the 20th century Freedom of religion in the United States United States federal civil rights legislation 1998 in religion 1998 in American law United States legislation about religion Acts of the 105th United States Congress Sanctions legislation United States sanctions
4908299	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20H.%20Steuart%20%28brigadier%20general%29	George H. Steuart (brigadier general)	George Hume Steuart (August 24, 1828 – November 22, 1903) was a planter in Maryland and an American military officer; he served thirteen years in the United States Army before resigning his commission at the start of the American Civil War. He joined the Confederacy and rose to the rank of brigadier general in the Army of Northern Virginia. Nicknamed "Maryland" to avoid verbal confusion with Virginia cavalryman J.E.B. Stuart, Steuart unsuccessfully promoted the secession of Maryland before and during the conflict. He began the war as a captain of the 1st Maryland Infantry, CSA, and was promoted to colonel after the First Battle of Manassas. In 1862 he became brigadier general. After a brief cavalry command he was reassigned to infantry. Wounded at Cross Keys, Steuart was out of the war for almost a year while recovering from a shoulder injury. He was reassigned to Lee's army shortly before the Battle of Gettysburg. Steuart was captured at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, and exchanged in the summer of 1864. He held a command in the Army of Northern Virginia for the remainder of the war. Steuart was among the officers with Robert E. Lee when he surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House. Steuart spent the rest of a long life operating a plantation in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. In the late nineteenth century, he joined the United Confederate Veterans and became commander of the Maryland division. Early life George Hume Steuart was born on August 24, 1828, into a family of Scottish ancestry in Baltimore. The eldest of nine children, he was raised at his family's estate in West Baltimore, known as Maryland Square, located near the present-day intersection of Baltimore and Monroe Streets. The Steuart family were wealthy plantation owners and were opposed to the abolition of slavery. The Steuarts shared a long tradition of military service. He was the son of Major General George H. Steuart, of Anne Arundel County, Maryland, who served in the War of 1812, and with whom he is often confused. Baltimore residents referred to the father and son as "The Old General" and "The Young General." The elder Steuart inherited approximately of land in around 1842, including a farm at Mount Steuart, and around 150 slaves, a high number in the Upper South. Steuart was the grandson of Dr. James Steuart, a physician who served in the American Revolutionary War, and the great-grandson of Dr. George H. Steuart, a physician who emigrated to Maryland from Perthshire, Scotland, in 1721, and was lieutenant colonel of the Horse Militia under Governor Horatio Sharpe. Early military career Steuart attended the United States Military Academy between July 1, 1844, and July 1, 1848, graduating 37th in the class of 1848, aged nineteen. Steuart was assigned as 2nd lieutenant to the 2nd Dragoons, a regiment of cavalry that served in the frontier fighting Indians. He served in the Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, in 1848, carried out frontier duty at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1849, and participated in an expedition to the Rocky Mountains in 1849. He actively participated in the US Army's Cheyenne expedition of 1856, the Utah War against the Mormons in 1857–1858, and the Comanche expedition of 1860. Marriage and family He married Maria H. Kinzie, granddaughter of John Kinzie, founder of the city of Chicago, on January 14, 1858. The couple had met in Kansas and, once married, lived at Fort Leavenworth, although they were separated for long periods while Steuart was on campaign duty and stationed at distant frontier posts. They had two daughters: Marie Hunter, who was born in 1860 and went on to marry one Edmund Davis, and Ann Mary, born in 1864, who married one Rudolph Aloysius Leibig (1863-1895). The coming of war would place considerable strain on the Steuarts' marriage, leading to "unfortunate differences", as Maria's sympathies lay firmly with the Union cause. Civil War Even though Maryland did not secede from the Union, Steuart's loyalty lay with the South, as did that of his father. He commanded one of the Baltimore city militias during the riot of April 1861, following which Federal troops occupied Baltimore, an incident which was arguably the first armed confrontation of the Civil War. Steuart resigned his captain's commission on April 16, 1861 and soon entered the service of the Confederate army as a cavalry captain. He and his father were determined to do their utmost to prevent Union soldiers from occupying Maryland. On April 22 Steuart wrote to Charles Howard, President of the Board of Baltimore Police: "If the Massachusetts troops are on the march [to Annapolis] I shall be in motion very early tomorrow morning to pay my respects to them". However, events did not move in their favor and, in a letter to his father, Steuart wrote: "I found nothing but disgust in my observations along the route and in the place I came to – a large majority of the population are insane on the one idea of loyalty to the Union and the legislature is so diminished and unreliable that I rejoiced to hear that they intended to adjourn...it seems that we are doomed to be trodden on by these troops who have taken military possession of our State, and seem determined to commit all the outrages of an invading army." Steuart's efforts to persuade Maryland to secede from the Union were in vain. On April 29, the Maryland Legislature voted 53–13 against secession. and the state was swiftly occupied by Union soldiers to prevent any reconsideration. Steuart's decision to resign his commission and join the rebels would soon cost his family dear. The Steuart mansion at Maryland Square was confiscated by the Union Army and Jarvis Hospital was erected on the estate, to care for Federal wounded. However, Steuart was welcomed by the Confederacy as "one of Maryland's most gifted sons", and it was hoped by Southerners that other Marylanders would follow his example. First Bull Run Steuart soon became lieutenant colonel of the newly formed 1st Maryland Infantry, serving under Colonel Arnold Elzey, and fought with distinction at the First Battle of Bull Run, taking part in the charge that routed the Union army. Very soon after he was promoted to colonel, and assumed command of the regiment, succeeding Elzey, who was promoted to brigadier general. He soon began to acquire a reputation as a strict disciplinarian and gained the admiration of his men, though he was initially unpopular as a result. Steuart was said to have ordered his men to sweep the bare dirt inside their bivouacs and, rather more eccentrically, was prone to sneaking through the lines past unwitting sentries, in order to test their vigilance. On one occasion this plan backfired, as Steuart was pummeled and beaten by a sentry who later claimed not to have recognized the general. Eventually however, Steuart's "rigid system of discipline quietly and quickly conduced to the health and morale of this splendid command." According to Major W W Goldsborough, who served in Steuart's Maryland Infantry at Gettysburg: "...it was not only his love for a clean camp, but a desire to promote the health and comfort of his men that made him unyielding in the enforcement of sanitary rules. You might influence him in some things, but never in this". George Wilson Booth, a young officer in Steuart's command at Harper's Ferry in 1861, recalled in his memoirs: "The Regiment, under his master hand, soon gave evidence of the soldierly qualities which made it the pride of the army and placed the fame of Maryland in the very foreground of the Southern States". Other historians have been less kind, seeing Steuart as a "tough and nasty martinet" and as a "cruel disciplinarian", suggesting that such "old army" discipline was not the best way to mould and lead what was essentially a citizen army. Shenandoah Campaign and the First Battle of Winchester Steuart was promoted to brigadier general on March 6, 1862, commanding a brigade in Major General Richard S. Ewell's division during Stonewall Jackson's Shenandoah Valley campaign. On May 24 Jackson gave Steuart command of two cavalry regiments, the 2nd and 6th Virginia Cavalry regiments. At the First Battle of Winchester, on May 25, 1862, Jackson's army was victorious, and the defeated Federal infantry retreated in confusion. The conditions were now perfect for the cavalry to complete the victory, but no cavalry units could be found to press home the advantage. Jackson complained: "never was there such a chance for cavalry! Oh that my cavalry were in place!" The exhausted infantry were forced forward again, while Lieutenant Sandie Pendleton of Jackson's staff was sent to find Steuart. Pendleton eventually found Steuart and gave him the order to pursue Banks' retreating army but the general delayed, wasting valuable time on a point of military etiquette. He declined to obey the order until it came through General Ewell, his immediate divisional commander. The proper channels had not been followed. A frustrated Pendleton then rode two miles to find Ewell, who duly gave the order, but "seemed surprised that General Steuart had not gone on immediately". Steuart eventually gave chase and overtook the advance of the Confederate infantry, picking up many prisoners, but, as a result of the delay, the Confederate cavalry did not overtake the Federal army until it was, in the words of Jackson's report, "beyond the reach of successful pursuit". Jackson continued: "There is good reason for believing that had the cavalry played its part in this pursuit, but a small portion of Banks' army would have made its escape to the Potomac". It remains unclear precisely why Steuart was reluctant to pursue Banks' defeated army more vigorously, and contemporary records shed little light on the matter. It may be that his thirteen years' training as a cavalry officer led him to obey orders to the letter, with little or no room for personal initiative or variation from strict due process. No charges were brought against him however, despite Jackson's reputation as a stern disciplinarian. It is possible that Jackson's leniency had to do with the strong desire of the Confederacy to recruit Marylanders to the Southern cause, and the need to avoid offending Marylanders who might be tempted to join Lee's army. Soon after Winchester, on June 2, Steuart was involved in an unfortunate incident in which the 2nd Virginia Cavalry was mistakenly fired on by the 27th Virginia Infantry. Colonels Thomas Flournoy and Thomas T. Munford went to General Ewell and requested that their regiments, the 6th and 2nd Virginia Cavalry, be transferred to the command of Turner Ashby, recently promoted to Brigadier General. Ewell agreed, and went to Jackson for final approval. Jackson gave his consent, and for the remainder of the war Steuart would serve as an infantry commander. Battle of Cross Keys At the Battle of Cross Keys (June 8, 1862), Steuart commanded the 1st Maryland Infantry, which was attacked by, and successfully fought off, a much larger Federal force. However, Steuart was severely injured in the shoulder by grape shot, and had to be carried from the battlefield. A ball from a canister shot had struck him in the shoulder and broken his collarbone, causing a "ghastly wound". The injury did not heal well, and did not begin to improve at all until the ball was removed under surgery in August. It would prevent him from returning to the field for almost an entire year, until May 1863. Gettysburg Campaign and the advance into Maryland Upon his recuperation and return to the army, Steuart was assigned by Gen. Robert E. Lee to command the Third Brigade, a force of around 2,200 men, in Major General Edward "Allegheny" Johnson's division, in the Army of Northern Virginia. The brigade's former commander, Brigadier General Raleigh Colston, had been relieved of his command by Lee, who was disappointed by his performance at the Battle of Chancellorsville. The brigade consisted of the following regiments: the 2nd Maryland (successor to the disbanded 1st Maryland), the 1st and 3rd North Carolina, and the 10th, 23rd, and 37th Virginia. Rivalries between the various state regiments had been a recurring problem in the brigade and Lee hoped that Steuart, as an "old army" hand, would be able to knit them together effectively. In addition, by this stage in the war Lee was desperately short of experienced senior commanders. However, Steuart had only been in command for a month when the Gettysburg Campaign got under way. In June 1863 Lee's army advanced north into Maryland, taking the war into Union territory for the second time. Steuart is said to have jumped down from his horse, kissed his native soil and stood on his head in jubilation. According to one of his aides: "We loved Maryland, we felt that she was in bondage against her will, and we burned with desire to have a part in liberating her". Quartermaster John Howard recalled that Steuart performed "seventeen double somersaults" all the while whistling Maryland, My Maryland. Such celebrations would prove short lived, as Steuart's brigade was soon to be severely damaged at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863). At first however, Lee's advance north went well. At the Second Battle of Winchester (June 13–15, 1863) Steuart fought with Johnson's division, helping to bring about a Confederate victory, during which his brigade took around 1,000 prisoners and suffered comparatively small losses of 9 killed, 34 wounded. Battle of Gettysburg The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863) was to prove a turning point in the war, and the end of Lee's advance. Steuart's men arrived at Gettysburg "exhausted and footsore...a little before dusk" on the evening of July 1, following a march from Sharpsburg, "many of them barefooted". Steuart's men attacked the Union line on the night of July 2, gaining ground between the lower Culp's Hill and the stone wall near Spangler's Spring. But fresh Federal reinforcements blocked his further advance, and no further ground was gained. During the night a large number of Union artillery was wheeled into place, the sound of which caused the optimistic Steuart to hope that the enemy was retreating in its wagons. The morning of July 3 revealed the full scale of the Union defenses, as enemy artillery opened fire at a distance of 500 yards with a "terrific and galling fire", followed by a ferocious assault on Steuart's position. The result was a "terrible slaughter" of the Third Brigade, which fought for many hours without relief, exhausting their ammunition, but successfully holding their position. Then, late on the morning of July 3, Johnson ordered a bayonet charge against the well-fortified enemy lines, "confident of their ability to sweep him away and take the whole Union line in reverse". Steuart was appalled, and was strongly critical of the attack, but direct orders could not be disobeyed, and Steuart gave the order to "Left face" and "file right", sending his men into heavy enfilading fire. Steuart's Third Brigade advanced against the Union breastworks and attempted several times to wrest control of Culp's Hill, a vital part of the Union Army defensive line. The result was a "slaughterpen", as the Second Maryland and the Third North Carolina regiments courageously charged a well-defended position strongly held by three brigades, a few reaching within twenty paces of the enemy lines. So severe were the casualties among his men that Steuart is said to have broken down and wept, wringing his hands and crying "my poor boys". Overall, the failed attack on Culp's Hill cost Johnson's division almost 2,000 men, of which 700 were accounted for by Steuart's brigade alone—far more than any other brigade in the division. At Hagerstown, on the 8th July, out of a pre-battle strength of 2,200, just 1,200 men reported for duty. The casualty rate among the Second Maryland and Third North Carolina was between one half and two-thirds, in the space of just ten hours. Even though Steuart had fought bravely under extremely difficult conditions, neither he nor any other officer was cited by Johnson in his report. Gettysburg marked the high-water mark of the Confederacy; thereafter Lee's army would retreat until its final surrender to General Grant at Appomattox Court House. Battle of Payne's Farm During the winter of 1863 Steuart's Marylanders again saw action, at the Battle of Mine Run, also known as the battle of Payne's Farm. On November 27 Steuart's brigade was among the first to be attacked by Union soldiers, and Johnson himself rode to Steuart's aid, bringing reinforcements. Steuart, bringing up the Confederate rear, halted his brigade and swiftly formed a line of battle in the road, to repel the Union attack. Confused fighting followed during which the Confederates fell back taking heavy losses, but prevented a Union breakthrough. Steuart himself was wounded for the second time, sustaining an injury to his arm. According to a historical marker which commemorates the engagement, Steuart's "boldness against a vastly superior force...helped to stall the advance of the entire Union army". Battle of the Wilderness In the summer of 1864, Steuart saw severe action during the Battle of the Wilderness (May 5–7, 1864). Steuart led his North Carolina infantry against two New York regiments, causing Union losses of almost 600 men. During the battle his brother, Lieutenant William James Steuart, was severely wounded in the hip, and was sent to Guinea station, a hospital for officers in Richmond, Virginia. There, on 21 May 1864, he died of his injuries. A friend of the family at the University of Virginia wrote to their bereaved father: "You will not charge me, I trust, with intruding on the sacredness of your grief, if I cannot help giving expression to my deep, heartfelt sympathy with your great sorrow. You have sacrificed so much for the righteous cause already, that I know you will present this last and most precious offering also with the fortitude of your character and the submission of a Christian. Still, I know how valuable this son of yours had been to your interests, how dear to your heart, and I cannot tell you, with what deep and sincere grief I heard of your terrible loss." Disaster at Spotsylvania Soon afterward, at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House (May 8–21, 1864), Steuart was himself captured, along with much of his brigade, during the brutal fighting for the "Mule Shoe" salient. The Mule Shoe salient formed a bulge in the Confederate lines, a strategic portion of vital high ground but one which was vulnerable to attack on three sides. During the night of May 11, Confederate commanders withdrew most of the artillery pieces from the salient, convinced that Grant's next attack would fall elsewhere. Steuart, to his credit, was alert to enemy preparations and sent a message to Johnson advising him of an imminent enemy attack and requesting the return of the artillery. Unfortunately, shortly before dawn on May 12, Union forces comprising three full divisions (Major General Winfield S. Hancock's II Corps) attacked the Mule Shoe through heavy fog, taking the Confederate forces by surprise. Exhaustion, inadequate food, lack of artillery support, and wet powder from the night's rain contributed to the collapse of the Confederate position as the Union forces swarmed out of the mist, overwhelming Steuart's men and effectively putting an end to the Virginia Brigade. Confederate muskets would not fire due to damp powder, and apart from two remaining artillery pieces, the Southerners were effectively without firearms. During the thick of the fierce hand-to-hand fighting that followed, Steuart was forced to surrender to Colonel James A. Beaver of the 148th Pennsylvania Infantry. Beaver asked Steuart "Where is your sword, sir?", to which the general replied, with considerable sarcasm, "Well, suh, you all waked us up so early this mawnin' that I didn't have time to get it on." Steuart was brought to General Hancock, who had seen Steuart's wife Maria in Washington before the battle and wished to give her news of her husband. He extended his hand, asking "how are you, Steuart?" But Steuart refused to shake Hancock's hand; although the two men had been friends before the war, they were now enemies. Steuart said: "Considering the circumstance, General, I refuse to take your hand", to which Hancock is said to have replied, "And under any other circumstance, General, I would have refused to offer it." After this episode, an offended Hancock then left Steuart to march to the Union rear with the other prisoners. After the battle, Steuart was sent as a prisoner of war to Charleston, South Carolina, and was later imprisoned at Hilton Head, where he and other officers were placed under the fire of Confederate artillery. The fighting at Spotsylvania was to prove the end of his brigade. Johnson's division, 6,800 strong at the start of the battle, was now so severely reduced in size that barely one brigade could be formed. On May 14 the brigades of Walker, Jones, and Steuart were consolidated into one small brigade under the command of Colonel Terry of the 4th Virginia Infantry. Petersburg, Appomattox and the end of the war Steuart was exchanged later in the summer of 1864, returning to command a brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia, in the division of Major General George Pickett. Steuart's brigade consisted of the 9th, 14th, 38th, 53rd and 57th Virginia regiments, and served in the trenches north of the James River during the Siege of Petersburg (June 9, 1864 – March 25, 1865). By this stage of the war, Confederate supplies had dwindled to the point where Lee's army began to go hungry, and the theft of food became a serious problem. Steuart was forced to send armed guards to the supply depot at Petersburg in order to ensure that his men's packages were not stolen by looters. He continued to lead his brigade in Pickett's division during the Appomattox Campaign (March 29 – April 9, 1865), at the Battle of Five Forks (April 1, 1865), and at Sayler's Creek (April 6, 1865), the last two battles marking the effective end of Confederate resistance. During Five Forks General Pickett had been distracted by a shad bake, and Steuart was left in command of the infantry, as it bore the brunt of a huge Union assault, with General Sheridan leading around 30,000 men against Pickett's 10,000. The consequences were even more disastrous than at Spotsylvania the previous year, with at least 5,000 men falling prisoner to Sheridan's forces. The end of Confederate resistance was now just days away. At Sayler's Creek Lee's starving and exhausted army finally fell apart. Upon seeing the survivors streaming along the road, Lee exclaimed in front of Maj. Gen. William Mahone, "My God, has the army dissolved?" to which he replied, "No, General, here are troops ready to do their duty." Steuart continued fighting until the end, finally surrendering with Lee to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, one of 22 brigadiers out of Lee's original 146. According to one Maryland veteran, "no-one in the war gave more completely and conscientiously every faculty, every energy that was in him to the Southern cause". After the war After the war's end, Steuart returned to Maryland, and swore an oath of loyalty to the Union. He farmed at Mount Steuart, a two-storey farmhouse on a hillside near the South River, south of Edgewater. The house no longer exists, having since been destroyed by fire. He also served as commander of the Maryland division of the United Confederate Veterans. Maryland Square, the house owned by Steuart and his father before the war, was returned to the family in 1866 but Steuart chose not to live there, taking rooms instead at the Carrollton Hotel in Baltimore. The end of war saw Steuart reunited with his family, but domestic happiness did not follow. In the early 1890s he took in a housekeeper by the name of Fanny Grenor, causing a "still further estrangement between husband and wife... [which also] resulted in much bitter feeling on the part of the two children, Mrs Leibeg and Mrs Davis, these ladies holding with the mother that General Steuart should have selected some other housekeeper". Steuart died on 22 November 1903 at the age of 75 at South River, Maryland, of an ulcer. He died intestate, leaving an estate valued at around $100,000, which was soon contested by Miss Grenor, who sought "pay for the 10 years she had acted as housekeeper, and also performed other duties of a more or less menial character". Steuart is buried in Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore with his wife Maria, who died three years later, in 1906. They were survived by their two daughters, Marie and Ann. Perhaps not surprisingly, as Maryland had remained in the Union throughout the war, there is no monument to Steuart in his home state. However, the Steuart Hill area of Baltimore recalls his family's long association with the city. See also List of American Civil War generals (Confederate) Maryland Line (CSA) Notes References Allan, Col. William. Stonewall Jackson, Robert E. Lee, and the Army of Northern Virginia, 1862. New York: Da Capo Press, 1995. . First Work, History of the Campaign of Gen. T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, First Published Boston: Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1880. Second Work, The Army of Northern Virginia in 1862, First Published Boston, Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1882. Baltimore Sun, General Steuart's Estate, December 19, 1903 Blair, Jayne E., Tragedy at Montpelier - the Untold Story of Ten Confederate Deserters from North Carolina, Heritage Books (2006) Cullum, George Washington, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U. S. Military, J. Miller (1879), ASIN: B00085668C Davis, William C, Editor, The Confederate General, Volume 6, National Historical Society, . Dowdey, Clifford, Lee's Last Campaign, University of Nebraska Press (1993), . Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. . Freeman, Douglas S. Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command. 3 vols. New York: Scribner, 1946. . Goldsborough, W. W., The Maryland Line in the Confederate Army, Guggenheimer Weil & Co (1900), . Green, Ralph, Sidelights and Lighter Sides of the War Between the States, Burd St Press (2007), . Hess, Earl J. In the Trenches at Petersburg: Field Fortifications & Confederate Defeat. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009. . Jordan, David M. Winfield Scott Hancock: A Soldier's Life. Bloomfield: Indiana University Press, 1988. . Maryland Gazette, Steuart: Only Anne Arundel Rebel General, Thursday November 13, 1969, by Roger A. White Miller, Edward A, Lincoln's Abolitionist General: The Biography of David Hunter, University of South Carolina Press (1997). Nelker, Gladys P., The Clan Steuart, Genealogical Publishing (1970). Patterson, Gerard A., Rebels from West Point - the 306 US Military Academy Graduates who Fought for the Confederacy, Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA (2002). Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg: Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. . Porter, Horace. Campaigning With Grant. New York: The Century Co., 1897. Time-Life Books reprint 1981. . Robertson, James I., Jr. The Stonewall Brigade. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963. . Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. New York: Facts On File, 1988. . Steuart, James, Papers, Maryland Historical Society, unpublished. Steuart, William Calvert, Article in Sunday Sun Magazine, "The Steuart Hill Area's Colorful Past", Baltimore, February 10, 1963. Tagg, Larry, The Generals of Gettysburg, Savas Publishing (1998), . Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. . White, Roger B, Article in The Maryland Gazette'', "Steuart, Only Anne Arundel Rebel General", November 13, 1969. External links Excerpt from Cullum, George Washington, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U. S. Military, J. Miller (1879) Retrieved on Jan 10 2010 George H Steuart biography at stonewall.hut.ru Retrieved on Jan 8 2010 Steuart's reports from the Gettysburg Campaign, June 19 1863 Retrieved on Jan 8 2010 George H. Steuart at www.researchonline.net Retrieved on Jan 8 2010 Steuart's capture at Spotsylvania, at 48thpennsylvania.blogspot.com Retrieved on Jan 8 2010 Capture at spotsylvania described in Campaigning with Grant, by Horace Porter Retrieved on Jan 8 2010 Capture at spotsylvania described in William Scott Hancock, by David M. Jordan Retrieved on Jan 8 2010 Detailed account of Steuart's brigade in action at Gettysburg, by his aide-de-camp, Rev. Randolph H. McKim Retrieved on Jan 8 2010 Gettysburg, Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill by Harry W. Pfanz, p.311 Retrieved on Jan 11 2010 Lincoln's Abolitionist General: The Biography of David Hunter, by Edward A. Miller, University of South Carolina Press (1997) Retrieved on Jan 12 2010 Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders, by Ezra Warner Retrieved Jan 12 2010 A Maryland Boy in Lee's Army: Personal Reminiscences of a Maryland Soldier in the War Between the States, by George Wilson Booth, Bison Books (2000). Retrieved Jan16 2010 George H. Steuart at www.2ndmdinfantryus.org/csinf1.html Retrieved February 20, 2010 1828 births 1903 deaths Confederate States Army brigadier generals United States Military Academy alumni People of Maryland in the American Civil War American Civil War prisoners of war Burials at Green Mount Cemetery Military personnel from Baltimore People from Anne Arundel County, Maryland George United States Army officers
4908723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius%20%28Highlander%29	Darius (Highlander)	Darius is a fictional character from Highlander: The Series, portrayed by actor Werner Stocker. He first appeared in the season one episode "Band of Brothers" (1993) and is featured in four subsequent episodes of the same season, as well as in one Highlander novel. A two-thousand-year-old Immortal living as a monk in Paris, France, he is a friend and mentor of protagonist Duncan MacLeod. He is a peace advocate, having rejected violence fifteen hundred years ago. He is retired on Holy Ground where other Immortals are forbidden to fight him and lives in his spartanly furnished rectory, visited by other Immortals, studying old books, playing martial games, and brewing ancient beverages. Creative Consultant David Abramowitz's initial idea of Darius having an ugly face but a beautiful soul was abandoned when Stocker was cast and Darius became a moral figure of the show. Darius' further development in following seasons was prevented by Stocker's illness and subsequent death, leading Abramowitz to rewrite the season one final episode "The Hunters" (1993). Appearances A recurring character, Darius appeared in five episodes of the first season of Highlander: The Series and is a character in the Highlander novel Highlander: Shadow of Obsession. Highlander: The Series Darius' first appearance was in "Band of Brothers" (1993). Darius is visited in his chapel in Paris by fellow Immortal and former pupil Grayson (James Horan). Grayson has just killed the man Darius planted in Grayson's organization to spy on him. Darius is shocked by the man's death, to which Grayson answers that he will continue killing Darius' protégés until Darius leaves Holy Ground and faces him for having betrayed him fourteen hundred years ago. Darius sends a secret message in ancient runes to MacLeod in Seacouver, Washington asking him to protect Victor Paulus, another protégé of his, from Grayson. MacLeod tells Richie Ryan (Stan Kirsch) Darius' legend: two thousand years old, an ancient general and Grayson was his second-in-command. Fifteen hundred years ago, Darius could have led his armies across Europe and ruled for a thousand years, but he turned his armies back to become a peacemaker and Grayson felt betrayed. MacLeod then recounts, "The legend has it Darius killed a holy man at the gates of Paris. The oldest living Immortal at that time. And suddenly he changed. He turned his back on war." Richie rationalizes that the holy man's Quickening went to Darius and made him benevolent, the only known example of a Light Quickening. However, a deleted line from the script has MacLeod say: "Maybe what the Old One told him finally made sense to Darius", suggesting an intellectual realization of the horrors of war rather than the overwhelming positive power of the holy man's Quickening. MacLeod's memories of his first encounter with Darius are then shown in a flashback sequence set at the Battle of Waterloo. A British soldier, MacLeod carries a sick comrade when he meets Darius. MacLeod is eager to get back to fight, but Darius vehemently tries to show him the worth of human life and the futility of war. MacLeod protests that he has always been a warrior, fighting battles he believed to be just. Darius counters, "Oh, I'm sure. You're quite loyal to your convictions and compatriots. But I wonder what these men think about that, about convictions and compatriotism now?" MacLeod watches the snow-covered battlefield where men are dying, lost for words. The subsequent flashback, set at Darius' chapel in Paris in 1816 (date from script), shows Darius facing three burglars. The chief brigand stabs him to death for having no gold to steal. Out of the church, they meet MacLeod who defeats two of them. Darius, who has just revived, urges MacLeod to spare the third one, who flees. Darius is truly pained by the death of his own murderer, while MacLeod feels he has done well by ridding the world of a killer. He frustratedly admits that he is unable to follow Darius' teachings. Darius sadly realizes that MacLeod is leaving him to go to America, away from the hatred of Europe. Back in the present, MacLeod protects Paulus' life. After meeting Grayson and realizing he will not stop chasing Paulus, he fights and beheads him. Then MacLeod leaves Seacouver for Paris and meets Darius again. Learning of Grayson's death, Darius comments, "He was once my closest friend on earth." In "For Tomorrow We Die" (1993), Darius is visited in his church by Immortal Xavier St. Cloud (Roland Gift) who has just killed six people in the heist of a nearby jewelry store. St. Cloud confesses the murders and humiliates Darius, saying one of the great warriors in history does nothing to stop him. Later, MacLeod in turn visits Darius for a game of chess, and suspects what happened when Inspector LeBrun comes in to investigate the murders and mentions poison gas. Darius is bound by the secret of confession and says nothing, to the great annoyance of LeBrun. When MacLeod visits Darius again later, Darius recollects having found St. Cloud hiding from the police in his church long ago. St. Cloud would have had to face guillotine for having stolen a piece of jewelry. Darius comments, "You know, that's hardly a crime to die for." He expresses guilt and concern about St. Cloud's behavior, believing he should have stopped St. Cloud, and considers leaving holy ground to prevent further killings. MacLeod dissuades him and eventually faces St. Cloud, who loses a hand and escapes. In the following episode, "The Beast Below" (1993), MacLeod is searching for Immortal Ursa (Christian Van Acker) and visits Darius for help. Darius recalls having met Ursa before the Revolution and having unsuccessfully tried to discover where he came from. After discussing this, they agree that Ursa most likely hides in the catacombs under the Opéra de Paris. This episode also shows Darius' habit of making beverages out of moss and mold forms. In the next episode, "Saving Grace" (1993), Darius and MacLeod are in the middle of recreating the Battle of Gettysburg with toy soldiers when they are visited by fellow Immortal Grace Chandel (Julia Stemberger). Grace is harassed by Immortal Carlo Sendaro (Georges Corraface), who has stalked her ever since she left him decades ago. Darius offers to shelter Grace on holy ground in a convent, and even allows Grace and Sendaro to have a private conversation in his rectory. When Sendaro refuses to admit that Grace does not love him anymore, MacLeod fights him in a metro rail underground track where Sendaro falls accidentally due to an electric shock from the track that causes a train to run over him triggering a quickening which finds Macleod. This episode reveals the name of Darius' fictional church, St. Joseph Chapel. The season finale episode "The Hunters" (1993) depicts Darius' death. At the beginning of the episode, MacLeod mentions to fellow Immortal Hugh Fitzcairn (Roger Daltrey) that Darius has premonitory dreams about his own death. In the meanwhile, Darius hears ominous-looking people enter his chapel. When Darius does not answer the phone, MacLeod and Fitzcairn rush to the chapel to find Darius' body in the messy nave. MacLeod searches Darius' rectory and remembers various moments with Darius until he finds Darius' last clue: an old book wrapped in old Clan MacLeod tartan cloth. Darius' murderers kidnap Fitzcairn and thwart MacLeod's investigations. Following one of them, MacLeod eventually reaches their headquarters. He meets their leader, renegade Watcher James Horton (Peter Hudson), who believes all Immortals to be threats to mankind and considers Darius "a malignant evil that has walked this earth in the form of a man for the last two thousand years." MacLeod fights them, but Horton escapes. After setting Fitzcairn free, they return to the barge and along with Tessa and Richie scatter Darius' ashes in the Seine River while MacLeod says, "Fifteen hundred years ago, you led an army of barbarians to the gates of Paris. You disbanded your army, and spared the city, but you broke a promise to yourself - to march west from the Ural mountains until you'd reached the sea. So now, old friend, travel on. Go where you never went, to the sea. I'll miss you." In the season two pilot episode "The Watchers" (1993), MacLeod returns to Seacouver to find Darius' murderer. A clue written by Darius on the old book hidden in the rectory leads MacLeod to a bookshop in which Joe Dawson (Jim Byrnes) works. After MacLeod gets rid of some Hunters, Dawson reveals to MacLeod the existence of a secret organization called the Watchers, that observes Immortals and records their lives without interfering. Dawson tells MacLeod, "Darius? The great general who became a monk? I hope the immortal who killed him rots in hell." Dawson cannot believe the existence of the Hunters, a group of rogue Watchers dedicated to killing all Immortals: "We would have never hurt Darius. He was one of our great hopes." Dawson admits this when he surprises Horton armed with an axe and a gun, waiting for MacLeod. MacLeod finally stabs Horton with his sword. Highlander novels Darius is a character in the Highlander novel Shadow of Obsession (1998) by Rebecca Neason. The story is set in the present (January 1996), when Darius is already dead. MacLeod returns to Seacouver from Sudan, where for nearly three months he has been helping Darius' protégé, Victor Paulus and his lover, Immortal Cynthia VanDervane. Then the story goes on from Cynthia's point of view, when she recalls how she had loved Darius in 409. When Alaric I was king of the Visigoths, she was his sister, then called Callestina, Darius his general and Grayson, Darius' second-in-command. While they prepared to invade Rome, Cynthia became Darius' lover and stayed so until the following year when the two armies sacked Rome, at which point Darius made clear he never loved her. Then Darius and Grayson left Rome to head north and reached Paris. There Darius fought Emrys, the oldest immortal at the time, and beheaded him. The power of love in Emrys' Quickening changed Darius completely and he decided to be a peacemaker. Grayson could not understand this and turned on his teacher. He left Darius and joined Cynthia so that they could destroy Darius' work. Back in the present, MacLeod is unsuccessful at preventing Cynthia from killing Paulus, and he fights and beheads her. Characteristics In Highlander: The Series, Darius is portrayed as tall and thin and always wearing "a rough Franciscan-like robe with a cowl". The Watcher Chronicles - a collection of character profiles available as a CD-ROM and as bonus material of the Highlander: The Series DVD edition - describes him as "not the oldest or strongest, [but], perhaps, the wisest. His genius lay not just in the military arts, but in his knowledge of the contents of the human heart." Darius always understands people. His former friend and student Grayson admits that Darius is "a man of (...) insight into a person's soul." As a general of Late Antiquity, he is described as selfish, manipulative and cynical, a skilled commander and an accomplished strategist. In Shadow of Obsession, Grayson remarks, "The whole world is just a plaything to Darius." Darius despises mortals : "They are born, they love, they fight, they die - and we go on." Darius is nevertheless a beloved general. He "always understood what his men needed - he knew them better than they knew themselves." After his change of life, Darius has accepted his violent past, because "to deny what I was is to deny what I am." He still enjoys martial pastimes such as chess and recreating famous battles such as Gettysburg. In "Saving Grace", MacLeod tells him, "You may be a priest, but you still think like a warrior." Darius considers that "war, in the abstract, is a great intellectual puzzle, but in reality it's all blood and tears." As a peacemaker, Darius is described as loving and compassionate. The Watcher Chronicle observes, "there is a quality in the man that I've seen in no other, a sense of peace - perhaps even a sense of God." In Shadow of Obsession, Joe Dawson states, "All the reports mention the sense of sanctity, the aura of peace that surrounded him." Darius considers peace the highest human value and is always shocked and saddened by unnecessary death. The script of "Band of Brothers" has him say: "In the face of violence, we must insist on nonviolence... Weapons have no dominion over the souls of men. Put your weapons down." He is actively involved in promoting and maintaining peace, "preaching his message to those who would become the peacemakers of their own generations," such as Victor Paulus. He also uses less obvious means such as using MacLeod (who has not rejected violence) to protect Paulus, or planting a spy in Grayson's organization. To help mankind to fight violence, he has studied Buddhism and Hinduism and is now a Roman Catholic priest of the Franciscan Brothers of the Poor. However, Darius believes more in the spirit than in the letter of dogmas. MacLeod says of him, "I don't think Darius believes in religion or a set of rules, [but in] being your brother's keeper. I think Darius, if he has to help mankind, he has to honor their codes." Character development Darius was originally intended as a mentor for MacLeod. Executive Producer Bill Panzer explains, "Duncan MacLeod needed somebody to talk to, who was Immortal, who was significantly older than he was, and with whom he had some kind of epiphany-like experience in the past." In this respect, Panzer compares Darius to Ramirez, Connor MacLeod's mentor in Highlander. Creative Consultant David Abramowitz recounts, "We wanted to create a character who was once a warrior, who gave up warfare because he realized there were other things in life." The script of "Band of Brothers" describes Darius as a monk with a "hideously ugly face", but when the producers cast the part, they chose German actor Werner Stocker, who did not fit this description. Abramowitz explains, "Darius, originally in the script, was written as almost to look like the Hunchback of Notre Dame, to be physically ugly and with a glorious soul. And when I got to France, I noticed that they cast this young, handsome German actor named Werner Stocker. I said, 'Wait a minute. What's going on here? He's supposed to be ugly.' And it seemed that the Germans, who were putting up a great deal of money, didn't want the only German actor in the show to be ugly; so he wasn't ugly. And this was one of the cases where politics won out and it didn't hurt anything." Panzer comments on Stocker's performance as Darius, "He had a kind of tranquility, but yet you believed that he could have been a great and brutal warrior." Abramowitz states, "He had an elegance, presence, and I was happy with the episode ["Band of Brothers"]." Associate Creative Consultant Gillian Horvath says, "Werner Stocker brought a lot to that role." The promotional booklet reports that Darius was "played with soulful grace by (...) Stocker. Stocker was an instant hit with fans." Despite his limited number of appearances, the character of Darius has an important moral influence in the show. Horvath remarks, "When he joined the show it was the first time that someone started talking about peace." She explains, "The arrival of Darius, aside from bringing in a great character, represented the first time that someone questioned the basic premise of the show. The basic premise is that [MacLeod]'s a hero and he goes around kicking the ass of the bad guys. Now you have this character in Darius who shows up and says, 'Yes, but is it actually a good goal to kick the ass of the bad guys?' Even though Mac has to be a good guy who has to fight the bad guys, you set up this scenario where one of his closest friends has questioned whether beating up bad guys makes you a good guy or whether you should be a man of peace. (...) That underlying question shaped the whole rest of the series." Abramowitz says further, "It was a major moment for MacLeod. And it was the first time for him when he believed that the way of the warrior may not be the only way." Abramowitz summarizes, "Darius was the voice of God on the show, and then God died." Associate Creative Consultant Donna Lettow says about Darius' character development, "It was always planned that Darius would die in [the season one episode] "The Hunters". The original plan for Darius was that he would reappear in flashbacks, much like Fitzcairn does now." Stocker's illness in early 1993 prevented this. Panzer remembers that Stocker "had announced that he had a brain tumor." The season 1 promotional booklet recounts, "Just days before going into production [of "The Hunters"] actor Werner Stocker was stricken ill and was unable to work. By now the character of Darius had become an integral part of the story and the writers had to scramble to adjust the story line." Abramowitz recalls, "I got a call at three o'clock in the morning, saying Werner would not be available, we were shooting in a day and a half, and there was fear if we were going to have to shut down. I went into work, wrote twenty-five straight hours, without a break, and got out a script and the show went on and it turned out pretty well." This script bears the date March 15, 1993. The production crew, too, had to adapt to the situation. The promotional booklet reports, "Footage from previous episodes was successfully used to fill in for the absent actor." Stocker died on May 27, 1993. The episodes "Unholy Alliance" and "Unholy Alliance Part Two" are dedicated to him. The consequences of those unexpected events are described in the promotional booklet : "The season finale went on to mark a huge shift in the Highlander saga, forever altering the future of the series with the introduction of "Hunters" and "Watchers"." The Watchers, a secret organization of mortals watching Immortals without interfering, appears in this episode for the first time and is featured in all subsequent Highlander series and movies, and Watcher Joe Dawson would become one of the main characters of the Highlander franchise. Also, Darius' death would leave the show without a moral figure. This, Horvath explains, led the creative staff "to create wise, advisor-type characters to fill the void in MacLeod's life left by the death of Darius." Darius was the first thousands-years-old Immortal featured in the show. In this sense, Abramowitz states, "Darius was a forerunner to Methos, which is why we took Methos in a totally different direction." References External links Darius on IMDb Highlander (franchise) characters Fictional characters with immortality Fictional priests and priestesses Fictional Christian monks Fictional warlords Television characters introduced in 1993 Fictional ancient people Fictional characters from the 16th century Fictional characters from the 17th century Fictional characters from the 18th century Fictional characters from the 19th century Fictional characters from the 20th century Male characters in television Fictional people from Paris Fictional murdered people
4909775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni%20Ca.60	Caproni Ca.60	The Caproni Ca.60 Transaereo, often referred to as the Noviplano (nine-wing) or Capronissimo, was the prototype of a large nine-wing flying boat intended to become a 100-passenger transatlantic airliner. It featured eight engines and three sets of triple wings. Only one example of this aircraft, designed by Italian aviation pioneer Gianni Caproni, was built by the Caproni company. It was tested on Lake Maggiore in 1921: its brief maiden flight took place on February 12 or March 2. Its second flight was March 4; shortly after takeoff, the aircraft crashed on the water surface and broke up upon impact. The Ca.60 was further damaged when the wreck was towed to shore and, in spite of Caproni's intention to rebuild the aircraft, the project was soon abandoned because of its excessive cost. The few surviving parts are on display at the Gianni Caproni Museum of Aeronautics and at the Volandia aviation museum in Italy. Development Gianni Caproni became a famous aircraft designer and manufacturer during the First World War; his Caproni aviation company had major success, especially in the field of heavy multi-engine bombers, building aircraft such as the Caproni Ca.32, Ca.33, Ca.36 and Ca.40. The end of the conflict, however, caused a dramatic decrease in the demand for bombers in the Italian military. As a result, Caproni, like many other entrepreneurs of the time, directed his attention to the civil aviation market. As early as 1913 Caproni, then aged 27, had said during an interview for the Italian sports newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport that "aircraft with a capacity of one hundred and more passengers" would soon become a reality. It was after the war, however, that (besides converting some of his large wartime bombers into airliners) Caproni began designing a huge and ambitious passenger flying boat; he first took out a patent on a design of this kind on February 6, 1919. The idea of a large multi-engined flying boat designed for carrying passengers on long-range flights was considered, at the time, rather eccentric. Caproni thought, however, that such an aircraft could allow the travel to remote areas more quickly than ground or water transport, and that investing in innovative aerial means would be a less expensive strategy than improving traditional thoroughfares. He affirmed that his large flying boat could be used on any route, within a nation or internationally, and he considered operating it in countries with large territories and poor transport infrastructures, such as China. Caproni believed that, to attain these objectives, rearranging wartime aircraft would not be sufficient. On the contrary, he thought that a new generation of airliners (featuring extended range and increased payload capacity, the latter in turn allowing a reduction in cost per passenger) had to supersede the converted leftovers from the war. In spite of criticism from some important figures in Italian aviation, especially aerial warfare theorist Giulio Douhet, Caproni started designing a very innovative aircraft and soon, in 1919, he took out a patent on it. Caproni was aware of the safety problems connected to passenger flights, such concerns being the root of Douhet's criticism. So, he concentrated on both improving the aircraft's reliability and minimizing the damage that could be caused by possible accidents. First of all, he conceived his large seaplane as a multi-engine aircraft featuring enough motors to allow it to keep flying even in case of the failure of one or more of them. He also considered (but then discarded) the opportunity of providing the aircraft with "backup engines" that could be shut off once the cruise altitude had been reached and only restarted in case of emergency. The seaplane configuration assured the capability of performing relatively safe and easy emergency water landings on virtually any water surface calm and large enough. Moreover, Caproni intended to improve the comfort of the passengers by increasing the cruise altitude, which he meant to achieve with turbochargers and variable-pitch propellers (such devices could compensate for the loss of power output of the engines at high altitude). The construction of the model 3000, or Transaereo, began in the second half of 1919. The earliest reference to this event is found in a French daily newspaper of August 10, 1919, and perhaps the first parts were built in the Caproni factory of Vizzola Ticino. In September an air fair took place at the Caproni factory in Taliedo, not far from Milan, during which the new, ambitious project was heavily publicized. Later in September, Caproni experimented with a Caproni Ca.4 seaplane to improve his calculations for the Transaereo. In 1920, the huge hangar where most of the construction of the Transaereo was to take place was built in Sesto Calende, on the shore of Lake Maggiore. The several parts built by Caproni's subcontractors, many of whom had already collaborated with the company during the Great War, were assembled here. At the end of the year, the construction yard was visited by United States Ambassador to Italy Robert Underwood Johnson, who admired Caproni's exceptional aircraft. The press affirmed that the aircraft would be able to begin test flights in January 1921, and added that, were the tests successful, Italy would swiftly gain international supremacy in the field of civil aerial transport. On January 10, 1921 the forward engines and nacelles were tested, and no dangerous vibrations were recorded. On January 12 two of the aft engines were also successfully tested. On the fifteenth, Caproni forwarded his request for permission to undertake test flights to the Inspector General of Aeronautics, General Omodeo De Siebert. Design The Transaereo was a large flying boat, whose main hull, which contained the cabin, hung below three sets of wings in tandem, each composed of three superimposed aerodynamic surfaces: one set was located fore of the hull, one aft and one in the center (a little lower than the other two). The wingspan of each of the nine wings was 30 m (98 ft 5 in), and the total wing area was 750.00 m² (8073 ft²); the fuselage was 23.45 m (77 ft) long and the whole structure, from the bottom of the hull to the top of the wings, was 9.15 m (30 ft) high. The empty weight was 14,000 kg (30,865 lb) and the maximum takeoff weight was 26,000 kg (57,320 lb). Lifting and control surfaces Each set of three wings was obtained by the direct reuse of the lifting surfaces of the triplane bomber Caproni Ca.4; after the end of the war several aircraft of this type were cannibalized in order to build the Transaereo. The flight control system was composed of ailerons (fitted on each single wing) and rudders, even if the aircraft didn't have a tail assembly in the traditional sense and, in particular, didn't have a horizontal stabilizer. Roll (the aircraft's rotation about the longitudinal axis) was controlled in a completely conventional way by the differential action of port and starboard ailerons; pitch (the aircraft's rotation about the transverse axis) was controlled by the differential action of fore and aft ailerons, since the aircraft didn't have elevators; four articulated vertical surfaces located between the wings of the aftmost wing set acted as vertical stabilizers and rudders controlling the yaw (the aircraft's rotation about the vertical axis). Wings had a positive dihedral angle, which contributed to stabilizing the aircraft on the roll axis; Caproni also expected the Transaereo to be very stable on the pitch axis because of the tandem-triplane configuration, for the aft wing set was supposed to act as a very big and efficient stabilizer; he said that the huge aircraft could "be flown with just one hand on the controls." Caproni had patented this particular control system on September 25, 1918. Propulsion The aircraft was powered by eight Liberty L-12 V12 engines built in the United States. Capable of producing 400 hp (294 kW) each, they were the most powerful engines produced during the First World War. They were arranged in two groups of four engines each: One group at the foremost wing set, and one at the aftmost wing set. Each group featured a central nacelle, containing two engines in a push-pull configuration, all with four-blade propellers. To either side were single-engine nacelles, with two-blade propellers. In the forward engine group, these were pulling, while in the aft engine group, they were pushing. All nacelles had radiators for the cooling liquid. Each of the two fore side engines was connected to the central wing set and to the corresponding aft engine thanks to a truss boom with a triangular section. The two central nacelles also housed an open-air cockpit, for one flight engineer each, who controlled the power output of the engines in response to the orders given by the pilots via means of a complex system of lights and indicators located on electrical panels. The fuel tanks were located in the cabin roof, close to the central wing set. Fuel reached the engines thanks to wind-driven fuel pumps. Hulls The main fuselage ran the entire length of the plane, below most of the wing structure. The passenger cabin was enclosed, and featured wide panoramic windows. Travelers were meant to sit in pairs on wooden benches that faced each other—two facing forward and two backwards. It featured a lavatory at the rear end of the fuselage. An open-air cockpit was positioned above and slightly behind the forward windows. It accommodated a pilot in command and a co-pilot side-by-side. Its floor was raised above the passenger cabin floor, so that the shoulders and heads of the pilots protruded through the roof. The flight deck could be reached from inside the fuselage by a ladder. Besides the main hull, the aircraft was fitted with two side floats located under the central wing set, acting as outriggers which stabilized the aircraft during static floating, takeoff and landing. Caproni had Alessandro Guidoni, one of the most important seaplane designers of the time, create the hull and floats, the hydrodynamic surfaces that connected them and the two small hydrofoils located close to the nose of the aircraft: Guidoni designed new and innovative floats for the Transaereo to reduce dimensions and weight. Test flights The Transaereo was taken out of its hangar for the first time on January 20, 1921, and on that day it was extensively photographed. On January 21, the aircraft was scheduled to be put in the water for the first time, and a cameraman had been hired to shoot some sequences of the aircraft floating on the lake. Because of the low level of the lake and of some difficulties related to the slipway that connected the hangar with the surface of the lake, the flying boat could not reach the water. After receiving De Siebert's authorization, the slipway was lengthened on January 24, and then again on 28. Operations were carried on among problems and obstacles until February 6, when Caproni was informed that 30 wing ribs had broken and needed to be repaired before the beginning of test flights. He was infuriated, and kept his employees awake through the night to allow the tests to begin on February 7. The ribs were fixed, but then a starter was found broken, causing Caproni's frustration, so that the tests had to be postponed again. On February 9, finally, the Transaereo was put in the water its engines running smoothly and it started taxiing on the surface of the lake. The pilot was Federico Semprini, a former military flight instructor who was known for having once looped a Caproni Ca.3 heavy bomber. He would be the test pilot in all the subsequent trials of the Transaereo; no tests were going to be performed with more than one pilot on board. Always keeping on the water surface, the aircraft made some turns, then accelerated simulating a takeoff run, then made other maneuvers in front of Gianni Caproni and other important representatives of the Italian aviation in the 1920s: Giulio Macchi and Alessandro Tonini of Nieuport-Macchi, Raffaele Conflenti of SIAI. The tests were soon interrupted by the worsening of the weather conditions, but their outcome was positive. The aircraft had proved responsive to the controls, maneuverable and stable; it seemed to be too light towards the bow and at the end of the day some water was found to have leaked inside the fuselage, but Caproni was satisfied. On the next day, after reconsidering some of his calculations, Caproni decided to load the bow of the Transaereo with ballast before carrying out further tests, in order to keep the aircraft from pitching up excessively. More taxiing tests were successfully carried out on February 11. On February 12 or March 2, 1921, the bow of the aircraft loaded with of ballast, the Transaereo reached the speed of and took off for the first time. During the brief flight it proved stable and maneuverable, in spite of a persisting tendency to climb. The second flight took place on March 4. Semprini (according to what he later recalled) accelerated the aircraft to 100 or 110 km/h (54–59 kn, 62–68 mph), pulling the yoke toward himself; suddenly the Transaereo took off and started climbing in a sharp nose-up attitude; the pilot reduced the throttle, but then the aircraft's tail started falling and the aircraft lost altitude, out of control. The tail soon hit the water and was rapidly followed by the nose of the aircraft, which slammed into the surface, breaking the fore part of the hull. The fore wing set collapsed in the water together with the nose of the aircraft, while the central and the aft wing sets, together with the tail of the aircraft, kept floating. The pilot and the flight engineers escaped the wreck unscathed. Caproni, coming from Vizzola Ticino by automobile, was delayed, and only arrived on the shore of Lake Maggiore after the Transaereo had crashed. He later commented, "So the fruit of years of work, an aircraft that was to form the basis of future aviation, all is lost in a moment. But one must not be shocked if one wants to progress. The path of progress is strewn with suffering." At the time, the accident was blamed on two concurrent causes. First, the wake of a steamboat that was navigating on the lake close to the area where the Transaereo was accelerating was thought to have interfered with the takeoff. Second, test pilot Semprini was blamed for having kept pulling the yoke trying to gain altitude while he should have performed corrective maneuvers, for example lowering the nose to let the huge aircraft gain speed. Another theory suggests the aforementioned boat was a ferry loaded with passengers and Semprini (who was only performing some taxiing trials, for he did not mean to take off before Caproni's arrival on the spot) was suddenly compelled to take off, in spite of the insufficient speed, to avoid a collision. According to more recent theories, the cause of the accident was probably the sandbags that had been placed in the aircraft to simulate the weight of passengers: not having been fastened to the seats, they may have slid to the back of the fuselage when, upon takeoff, the Transaereo suddenly pitched up. With the tail burdened by this additional load and a shift in the center of gravity, the aircraft became uncontrollable and the nose lifted more and more, until the Transaereo stalled and violently hit the water tail first. Because the photographer was on board the same car as Caproni, no photos exist of the takeoff, flight or crash, but many were shot of the wreck. The flying boat had sustained heavy damage in the crash, but the rear two-thirds of the fuselage and the central and aft wing sets were almost intact. However, the Transaereo had to be towed to shore. The crossing of the lake, performed thanks to a boat that may have been the same that had interfered with the takeoff, further damaged the aircraft: a considerable quantity of water leaked in the hull and the fuselage was partly submerged, while the central and aft wing sets got damaged and partly collapsed in the water. The possibility of repairing the Transaereo was remote. After the accident, only the metallic parts and the engines were still usable. Almost all wooden parts would have to be rebuilt. The cost of the repairs, according to Caproni's own estimate, would be one-third of the total cost of building the prototype, but he doubted the company's resources would be sufficient to sustain such a financial effort. After initial discouragement, however, on March 6 Caproni was already considering design modifications to carry on the project of a 100-passenger transatlantic flying boat. He was sure that the Transaereo was a promising machine, and decided to build a 1/4 scale model to keep on testing the concept. After discussing with De Siebert and Ivanoe Bonomi (who had been the Ministry of War until shortly before), Caproni was convinced he could build a 1/3 scale model and Bonomi promised that, had he won the elections, his cabinet would grant him all the financial support he needed. However, even though Bonomi actually became Prime Minister in July, more urgent political priorities ultimately caused the project of the Transaereo to be abandoned. Even if, overall, it was not successful, the Caproni Ca.60 keeps being considered "one of the most extraordinary aircraft ever built." Aircraft on display Most of the damaged structure of the wreck was lost after the Transaereo project was eventually abandoned. Caproni, however, was convinced of the importance of preserving and honoring the historical heritage related to the birth and early development of Italian aviation in general, and to the Caproni firm in particular; his historical sensibility meant that several parts of the Transaereo, retrospectively known as the Caproni Ca.60, survived: the two outriggers, the lower front section of the main hull, a control and communication panel and one of the Liberty engines were spared and, after following the Caproni Museum in all its whereabouts between its foundation in 1927 and its move to its current location in Trento in 1992, they were displayed together with the rest of the permanent collection in the main exhibition hall of the museum in 2010. A section of one of the two triangular truss-booms also survived, as well as one of the hydrofoils that connected the main hull and the outriggers. These fragments are on display at the Volandia aviation museum, in the Province of Varese, hosted in the former industrial premises of the Caproni company at Vizzola Ticino. Specifications (Ca.60) In popular culture The Caproni Ca.60 was featured in the 2013 semi-fictional movie The Wind Rises by Japanese director Hayao Miyazaki, as was Caproni himself. See also Gianni Caproni Museum of Aeronautics List of experimental aircraft List of flying boats and floatplanes Notes References Bibliography External links Period documentary about the Transaereo (static display) Ca.060 1920s Italian airliners Flying boats Triplanes Tandem-wing aircraft Multiplane aircraft Eight-engined push-pull aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1921
4909834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20line%20filter	Atomic line filter	An atomic line filter (ALF) is a more effective optical band-pass filter used in the physical sciences for filtering electromagnetic radiation with precision, accuracy, and minimal signal strength loss. Atomic line filters work via the absorption or resonance lines of atomic vapors and so may also be designated an atomic resonance filter (ARF). The three major types of atomic line filters are absorption-re-emission ALFs, Faraday filters and Voigt filters. Absorption-re-emission filters were the first type developed, and so are commonly called simply "atomic line filters"; the other two types are usually referred to specifically as "Faraday filters" or "Voigt filters". Atomic line filters use different mechanisms and designs for different applications, but the same basic strategy is always employed: by taking advantage of the narrow lines of absorption or resonance in a metallic vapor, a specific frequency of light bypasses a series of filters that block all other light. Atomic line filters can be considered the optical equivalent of lock-in amplifiers; they are used in scientific applications requiring the effective detection of a narrowband signal (almost always laser light) that would otherwise be obscured by broadband sources, such as daylight. They are used regularly in Laser Imaging Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) and are being studied for their potential use in laser communication systems. Atomic line filters are superior to conventional dielectric optical filters such as interference filters and Lyot filters, but their greater complexity makes them practical only in background-limited detection, where a weak signal is detected while suppressing a strong background. Compared to etalons, another high-end optical filter, Faraday filters are significantly sturdier and may be six times cheaper at around US$15,000 per unit. History The predecessor of the atomic line filter was the infrared quantum counter, designed in the 1950s by Nicolaas Bloembergen. This was a quantum mechanical amplifier theorized by Joseph Weber to detect infrared radiation with very little noise. Zero spontaneous emission was already possible for x-ray and gamma ray amplifiers and Weber thought to bring this technology to the infrared spectrum. Bloembergen described such a device in detail and dubbed it the "infrared quantum counter". The media of these devices were crystals with transition metal ion impurities, absorbing low-energy light and re-emitting it in the visible range. By the 1970s, atomic vapors were used in atomic vapor quantum counters for detection of infrared electromagnetic radiation, as they were found to be superior to the metallic salts and crystals that had been used. The principles hitherto employed in infrared amplification were put together into a passive sodium ALF. This design and those that immediately followed it were primitive and suffered from low quantum efficiency and slow response time. As this was the original design for ALFs, many references use only the designation "atomic line filter" to describe specifically the absorption-re-emission construction. In 1977, Gelbwachs, Klein and Wessel created the first active atomic line filter. Faraday filters, developed sometime before 1978, were "a substantial improvement" over absorption-re-emission atomic line filters of the time. The Voigt filter, patented by James H. Menders and Eric J. Korevaar on August 26, 1992, was more advanced. Voigt filters were more compact and "[could] be easily designed for use with a permanent magnet". By 1996, Faraday filters were being used for LIDAR. Properties A technical definition of an atomic line filter is as an "ultra-narrow-band, large-acceptance-angle, isotropic optical filter". "Ultra-narrow-band" defines the thin range of frequencies that an ALF may accept; an ALF generally has a passband on the order of 0.001 nanometer. That atomic line filters also have wide acceptance angles (near 180°) is another important characteristic of the devices; conventional dielectric filters based on the spacing of reflective or refractive layers change their effective spacing when light enters at an angle. The exact parameters (temperature, magnetic field strength, length, etc.) of any filter may be tuned to a specific application. These values are calculated by computers due to the extreme complexity of the systems. Input/output Atomic line filters may operate in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In absorption-re-emission ALFs, the frequency of light must be shifted in order for the filter to operate, and in a passive device, this shift must be to a lower frequency (i.e. red shifted) simply because of energy conservation. This means that passive filters are rarely able to work with infrared light, because the output frequency would be impractically low. If photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are used then the "output wavelength of the ARF should lie in a spectral region in which commercial, large-area, long-lived PMT's [sic] possess maximum sensitivity". In such a case, active ALFs would have the advantage over passive ALFs as they would more readily, "generate output wavelengths in the near UV, the spectral region in which well-developed photocathodes possess their highest sensitivity". In a passive ALF, the input frequency must correspond almost exactly to the natural absorption lines of the vapor cell. Active ARFs are much more flexible, however, as the vapor may be stimulated so that it will absorb other frequencies of light. Faraday and Voigt filters do not shift the frequency or wavelength of the signal light. Response time and transmission rate The response time of an absorption-re-emission atomic line filter directly affects the rate information is transmitted from the light source to the receiver. Therefore, a minimal response time is an important property of these ALFs. The response time of such an ALF, is largely dependent on the spontaneous decay of the excited atoms in the vapor cell. In 1988, Jerry Gelbwachs cited, "typical rapid spontaneous emission times are ~ 30 ns, which suggests that the upper limit on the information rate is approximately 30 MHz". Many methods of decreasing the response time of ALFs have been developed. Even in the late 1980s, certain gases were used to catalyze the decay of the electrons of the vapor cell. In 1989, Eric Korevaar had developed his Fast ALF design which detected emitted fluorescence without photosensitive plates. With such methods employed, gigahertz frequencies are easily attainable. Effectiveness Efficiency Atomic line filters are inherently very efficient filters, generally classified as "ultra-high-Q" as their Q factor is in the 105 to 106 range. This is partially because the, "crossed polarizers ... serve to block out background light with a rejection ratio better than 10−5". The passband of a typical Faraday filter may be a few GHz. The total output of a Faraday filter may be around 50% of the total input light intensity. The light lost is reflected or absorbed by imperfect lenses, filters and windows. Band-pass The band-pass of an atomic line filter is usually equal to the Doppler profile of the vapor cell, the natural range of frequencies at which a vapor cell will be excited by a pure light source. The Doppler profile is the width of the spectrum of Doppler shifted radiation emitted by the vapor cell due to its thermal motion. This value is less for larger atoms at lower temperatures, a system considered more ideal. There are some circumstances where this is not the case, and it is desirable to make the width of the transition line larger than the Doppler profile. For instance, when tracking a quickly accelerating object, the band-pass of the ALF must include within it the maximum and minimum values for the reflected light. The accepted method for increasing the band-pass involves placing an inert gas in the vapor cell. This gas both widens the spectral line and increases the transmission rate of the filter. Sources of noise For all of their efficiency, atomic line filters are not perfect; there are many sources of error, or "noise", in a given system. These are manifest as electromagnetic radiation independent of the working processes of the filter and the intensity of the signal light. One source of error is the thermal radiation of and within the ALF itself. Some thermal radiation comes directly from the filter and happens to be within the bandpass of the second broad band filter. More noise is created if the filter is designed for output in the infrared range, as most of the thermal radiation would be in that spectrum. These emissions may stimulate the vapor and create the radiation it is trying to detect in the first place. Active atomic line filters are more likely to produce noise than passive ones because actives have no "state selectivity"; the pumping source may accidentally excite atoms hit by the wrong light up to the critical energy level, emitting radiation spontaneously. Other errors may be caused by atomic absorption/resonance lines not targeted but still active. Though most "near" transitions are over 10 nanometers away (far enough to be blocked by the broad-band filters), the fine and hyperfine structure of the target absorption line may absorb incorrect frequencies of light and pass them through to the output sensor. Relevant phenomena Radiation trapping in an atomic line filter may seriously affect the performance and therefore tuning of an ALF. In the original studies of atomic line filters in the 1970s and early 1980s, there was a "large overestimation of the [signal bandwidth]". Later, radiation trapping was studied, analyzed and ALFs were optimized to account for it. In all atomic line filters, the position and widths of the vapor cell resonance lines are among the most important properties. By the Stark effect and Zeeman splitting, the base absorption lines may be split into finer lines. "Stark and Zeeman tuning... can be used to tune the detector." Consequently, manipulation of electric and magnetic fields may alter other properties of the filter (i.e. shifting the passband). Types Absorption-re-emission An absorption-re-emission atomic line filter absorbs the desired wavelength of light and emits light that bypasses broadband filters. In passive absorption-re-emission ALFs, a high-pass filter blocks all low-energy incoming light. The vapor cell absorbs the signal, which coincides with the vapor's thin absorption line, and the cell's atoms become excited. The vapor cell then re-emits the signal light by undergoing fluorescence at a lower frequency. A low-pass filter blocks radiation above the frequency of the fluorescent light. In an active ALF, optical or electrical pumping is used for exciting these atoms so they absorb or emit light of different wavelengths. For active ALFs, other systems of conventional filters may be needed. Faraday filter A Faraday filter, magneto-optical filter, FADOF or EFADOF (Excited Faraday Dispersive Optical Filter) works by rotating the polarization of the light passing through the vapor cell. This rotation occurs near its atomic absorption lines by the Faraday effect and anomalous dispersion. Only light at the resonant frequency of the vapor is rotated and the polarized plates block other electromagnetic radiation. This effect is related to and enhanced by the Zeeman Effect, or the splitting of atomic absorption lines in the presence of the magnetic field. Light at the resonant frequency of the vapor exits a FADOF near its original strength but with an orthogonal polarization. Following the laws which govern the Faraday effect, the rotation of the targeted radiation is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the width of the vapor cell and the Verdet constant (which is dependent on the temperature of the cell, wavelength of the light and sometimes intensity of the field) of the vapor in the cell. This relationship is represented the following equation: Voigt filter A Voigt filter is a Faraday filter with its magnetic field shifted to be perpendicular to the direction of the light and at 45° to the polarization of the polarized plates. In a Voigt filter, the vapor cell acts as a half wave plate, retarding one polarization by 180° per the Voigt effect. Common components Preceding an atomic line filter may be a collimator, which straightens incident light rays for passing through the rest of the filter consistently; however, collimated light is not always necessary. After the collimator, a high-pass filter blocks almost half of the incoming light (that of too long a wavelength). In Faraday and Voigt filters, the first polarizing plate is used here to block light. The next component in an atomic line filter is the vapor cell; this is common to all atomic line filters. It either absorbs and re-emits the incident light, or rotates its polarization by the Faraday or Voigt effect. Following the vapor cell is a low-pass filter, designed to block all of the light that the first filter did not, except the designated frequency of light which came from the fluorescence. In Faraday and Voigt filters, a second polarizing plate is used here. Other systems may be used in conjunction with the rest of an atomic line filter for practicality. For instance, the polarizers used in the actual Faraday filter don't block most radiation, "because these polarizers only work over a limited wavelength region ... a broad band interference filter is used in conjunction with the Faraday filter". The passband of the interference filter may be 200 times that of the actual filter. Photomultiplier tubes, too, are often used for increasing the intensity of the output signal to a usable level. Avalanche photomultipliers, which are more efficient, may be used instead of a PMT. Vapor cell While every implementation of each kind of ALF is different, the vapor cell in each is relatively similar. The thermodynamic properties of vapor cells in filters are carefully controlled because they determine important qualities of the filter, for instance the necessary strength of the magnetic field. Light is let into and out of this vapor chamber by way of two low-reflection windows made of a material such as magnesium fluoride. The other sides of the cell may be of any opaque material, though generally a heat-resistant metal or ceramic is used as the vapor is usually kept at temperatures upwards of 100 °C. Most ALF vapor cells use alkali metals because of their high vapor pressures; many alkali metals also have absorption lines and resonance in the desired spectra. Common vapor cell materials are sodium, potassium and caesium. Note that non-metallic vapors such as neon may be used. As the early quantum counters used solid state metal ions in crystals, it is conceivable that such a medium could be used in the ALFs of today. This is presumably not done because of the superiority of atomic vapors in this capacity. Applications Atomic line filters are most often used in LIDAR and other exercises in laser tracking and detection, for their ability to filter daylight and effectively discern weak, narrowband signals; however, they may be used for filtering out the earth's thermal background, measuring the efficiencies of antibiotics and general filtering applications. Laser tracking and communication Without an atomic line filter, laser tracking and communication may be difficult. Usually, intensified charge-coupled device cameras must be used in conjunction with simple dielectric optical filters (e.g. interference filters) to detect laser emissions at a distance. Intensified CCDs are inefficient and necessitate the use of a pulsed laser transmission within the visible spectrum. With the superior filtering system of an ALF, a non-intensified CCD may be used with a continuous wave laser more efficiently. "[Atomic line filters] with passbands of about 0.001 nm have been developed to improve the background rejection of conventionally filtered laser receivers". The total energy consumption of the latter system is "30 to 35 times less" than that of the former, so space-based, underwater and agile laser communications with ALFs have been proposed and developed. LIDAR LIDAR comprises firing lasers at relevant portions of the atmosphere where light is backscattered. By analyzing the reflected laser beam for Doppler shifts, wind speeds and wind directions in the target region may be calculated. The thermal structure, diurnal/semi-diurnal tides, and seasonal variations in the mesopause region may thus be studied. This is a valuable faculty for meteorologists and climatologists, as these properties can be significant. However, without the ability to effectively track weak laser signals, collection of atmospheric data would be relegated to times of day where the sun's electromagnetic emissions did not drown out the laser's signal. The addition of an atomic line filter to the LIDAR equipment effectively filters interference to the laser's signal to the point where LIDAR data can be collected at any time of the day. For the past decade, Faraday filters have been used to do this. Consequently, scientists know significantly more today about the Earth's middle atmosphere than they did before the advent of the FADOF. See also Stimulated emission Arecibo Observatory Ferromagnetic resonance Fraunhofer lines Rayleigh scattering References Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patents Further reading H. Chen, M. A. White, D. A. Krueger, and C. Y. She. Daytime mesopause temperature measurements with a sodium-vapor dispersive Faraday filter in a lidar receiver. Opt. Letters, 21(15):1093–1095, 1996. H. Chen, C. Y. She, P. Searcy, and E. Korevaar. Sodium-vapor dispersive Faraday filter. Optics Letters, 18:1019–1021, June 1993. Optical filters Meteorological instrumentation and equipment
4909854	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A1ssico%20dos%20Milh%C3%B5es	Clássico dos Milhões	The Clássico dos Milhões (English: Derby of Millions) is the name given to Flamengo and Vasco da Gama association football derby, both teams from the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Considered as one of the most fiercely contested derbies in Brazilian football, both in historic rivalry and in popularity. It has been named that way since its beginnings in the 1920s, as Flamengo and Vasco have the two largest fan bases in the state of Rio de Janeiro. This is a football confrontation that most appears with attendances above 100,000 people in the history of football, in addition to having the highest average audience in the history of the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A. In addition, it is among the seventeen oldest classics of Brazilian football, having its first football match held in April 1923. Poll estimations, though variable, attribute Flamengo and Vasco with a combined share of about 20% of the overall population, i.e., totaling around 45 million supporters nationwide (roughly 30 million to Flamengo and 15 million to Vasco). At local Rio state level, polls suggest that both clubs account for more than two quarters of the declared supporter base (typically 50% of the overall Rio State population for Flamengo, 19% for Vasco, 15% for Fluminense and 12% for Botafogo, because Vasco and Botafogo have more supporters outside their home state). Its intense rivalry, though more stressed in football since 1923 when Vasco rose to first division, started already in the first decades in rowing regatte, as both clubs were founded in the late 19th century (Vasco 1898 and Flamengo 1895) as rowing clubs. Both teams also compete often at national level in other sports such as basketball, swimming, futsal and judo. Early days Since its first year, it capitalized on the already-existing rivalry in rowing. But it took a whole new scale as football opened to the masses. Flamengo has had in 99 years an overall edge in teams of direct matches but also titles and direct decisions. In state league, it has won 37 titles against 24 to Vasco, since 1923 when both teams staged, Flamengo has won 33 titles (plus one Special as Rio State and Rio City merged in 1979) against 24 to Vasco. 1958 and the "Super-super-championship" At a time when both clubs were already known for their mass appeal, but the rivalry still missed some anthologic matches, this championship was considered unique as twice Botafogo, Flamengo and Vasco had to play a tie-break triangular. The final match finally was disputed by Vasco and Flamengo, the latter playing for a draw which was eventually obtained, in front of a record crowd. This championship would though sign a drought period of 12 years for Vasco, which helped to promote other derbies like Flamengo x Botafogo and as ever Flamengo x Fluminense as challengers throughout the 1960s. The 1972–2001 period This period can be singled out as the one that established the derby's reputation as the top one in Rio and eventually in Brazil, definitely surpassing its Fla-Flu rival both on the field and off it. In the span of 30 years, at least one of the teams managed to reach every final phase of the Rio state league. It also corresponds barely to the creation of the Brazilian national championship (1971), which displayed the popularity of both teams across the country, particularly in northern/northeastern states (but also southern states such as Santa Catarina), where often they constitute the main fanbase in front of local teams. Rio state level Given the once-traditional structure of Rio state league divided in turno and returno (home and away season) occasionally complemented by a shorter third turno with the top overall teams, Vasco and Flamengo have clinched 50 out of the 68 turnos (25 each). In 4 occasions an extra play-off between both teams was needed to decide the turno. In 9 occasions the derby was the last-round decisive game for both teams. The first turno of Rio state league is given an extra importance as dubbed the "Taça Guanabara", incorporating a previously traditional competition only from the inner-city clubs. Flamengo clinched it 13 times and Vasco 9 in this period. They also participated together in a final phase (be it direct decision, triangular, quadrangular or semi-final) in 17 occasions out of 24 (in 6 occasions no final phase was needed as one team would win all turnos– this occurred 3 times for Vasco in 1977, 1992 and 1998 and also to Flamengo in 1978, 1979 and 1996). Flamengo at the end clinched 11 titles in that period against 8 from Vasco. This in particular stems from a three-in-a-row win (see below) in the last years (1999–2001). Fluminense also clinched 8 titles, proving despite it much lower presence a greater efficiency (out of only 11 turnos wins). A: América B: Bangu F: Botafogo M: Flamengo N: Fluminense V: Vasco National level Though less frequent given the overall balance of national clubs and its scattered group structure, both teams met decisively 3 times in final phase, but never the finals: in 1983 in quarterfinal playoffs (Flamengo had the edge), and 1992 and 1997 in semi-final phase (Flamengo had the edge on the first but the derby was no ultimate decider as played two rounds before round-robin end, while Vasco had the edge in the latter in a famous 4–1 decider). Most notably, in each occasion the winner of the derby eventually clinched the title. Both teams in the 1971–2000 period ranked in the top 6 of the tournaments (Vasco #1 and Flamengo #6) and feature each among the few clubs (alongside Palmeiras and Corinthians) to have clinched more than 4 Brazilian titles since its inception in 1971 (Flamengo had won 5 titles by then against Vasco da Gama's 4). In Brazilian Cup, though less prestigious, both teams were scheduled to meet in finals in July, 2006. It was Flamengo's 5th final and Vasco's first. Flamengo eventually clinched its second Cup title ever. The competition though did not count with the participation of the top 5 Brazilian championship teams as they participated the Libertadores Cup, but in relative terms it was for the derby's history one of the most important ever. Zico vs Roberto "Dinamite" During the period above, the rivalry was personified in both players, still today considered the two most important players of each club ever. They played for about the same time lapse: though Roberto (or simply, Dinamite, after its powerful shot, a nickname given to him at the time he scored his first goal as a professional in 1972) started playing earlier, both reached early stardom around 1974 (when Vasco reached its first national title) and continued until the late 1980s. Both players crystallized the style of play, Zico embodying the more technical, refined Flamengo of the 1980s and Roberto the attacking, never-say-die style of Vasco at the time. It can be said that the first tests between both started in the play-offs of 1976 Taça Guanabara, where Zico missed a penalty kick to award Vasco the title. The same occurred a year later, to give Vasco the overall title. Later on, Flamengo had a clear edge as it swept all turnos of 78 and 79 (including the 79 Special championship). In the early 1980s, Vasco saw Flamengo raise to its three national titles then but still consistently gave a run for the money of their arch-rivals (as in the 1980 finals). After a long runner-up series to either the Flamengo and Fluminense from 1978 through 1981, they eventually defeated the brilliant world-champ Flamengo side in 1982 to recoup the Carioca title. Both players always displayed enormous respect for their opponents and somehow were constantly admired by the other side, most supporters secretly hoping that one day each one could turn sides and play for their club. Vasco supporters still pride the day Zico wore their jersey in a friendly for Dinamite's retirement. Tita and Bebeto After the Zico & Roberto phase, both teams experienced a transition period, though still maintaining a high standard. In that period some important players change sides, raising some passionate discussions. First Tita had been discovered by Flamengo but later on joined Vasco, only to score the winning goal in the 1987 Carioca final in Vasco's 1–0 victory. Also Bebeto followed the same path and offered Vasco brilliant participation in the 1989 Brazilian league, before going north and eventually clinching the 1994 World Cup with Romário. 1988 In this year, the two teams decided the title in direct play-offs for the third time in a row. Flamengo had clinched the 1986 title and Vasco the 1987 one, so 1988 would decide the best-of-three. Vasco confirmed its status as favorite and won the last game 1–0 while playing for a draw. The winning goal though only came with 1 minute left to play and was scored by an unknown player who came on as a substitute a few minutes before, nicknamed Cocada (after a popular coconut sweet), only to be sent off for provocative celebration. On the day after, Vasco supporters would tease their rivals by offering them cocadas. Romário Romário alone eschewed this rivalry, displaying ambiguous positions regarding his support. More recently he declared supporting neither club, but rather América, a small and formerly prestigious club of Rio. Tough Romário was discovered by Vasco and started as a professional in 1986, clinching the 1987 title before going north, he later decided to join Flamengo in 1995 when returning to Brazil, much to Vasco supporters' outrage. Despite this betrayal, he still managed to be hired by Vasco in the late 1990s. He was somewhat forgiven as he would still clinch its fourth Brazilian title in 2000 and Mercosul cup in 2001. This contrasts with the almost blank record playing with Flamengo except for the Carioca title of 1996. He also twice succeeded as top striker of the Brazilian championship, the last as recently as 2005, at age 40. He expressed the desire of retiring by playing half time with the jerseys of each team. 2001 Flamengo and Vasco had displayed very balanced statistics in the latter decades, with a very slight advantage though to Flamengo specially in direct decisive confrontations. This had from time to time allowed Flamengo supporters to call their arch-rivals as "freguês" (i.e. customer) and tease them as consistent "vice" (runners-up), especially during the time of the great Flamengo side of the early 1980s. But Vasco eventually reverted this as in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when it clinched its first tri-campeonato (three championships in a row, a rare feat). By the time of the late 1990s, Vasco could even claim to be the major Carioca winner since 1923, ahead of Flamengo and Fluminense. This "freguês" (similar to Boca vs River) teasing returned in early 2001 as Flamengo clinched another "tri-campeonato", with all three titles being won directly over Vasco, and largely contributing to the recent imbalance in statistics. Ironically, these wins of Flamengo at state league level were obtained at arguably the best period ever of Vasco's history, during which it clinched two Brazilian titles and two South American titles. In each final from 1998 through 2001, Flamengo was rated as the underdog. The title of the "tri" came in a specially dramatic way, as Vasco played the last game with a one-goal cushion advantage and saw Flamengo score 3 x 1 with few minutes to play. It was for Flamengo fans a compensation for the series of humiliating defeats (among which two 5 x 1) imposed by the brilliant Vasco side of the time. After 2001 Since 2001 when Flamengo clinched the tri and Vasco the Mercosur Cup, both teams have been plagued by financial problems and have simultaneously reached an unprecedented decadence, struggling to avoid the same spots of relegation to Brazilian second division. Vasco (2003) and Flamengo (2004 – over Vasco, again) still won since one state league title each. In their seemingly atavistic manner of crossing in each other's way, both teams recently managed to reach the finals of Brazilian Cup scheduled for July 2006. 2006 In a painful re-run of the early 1980s for Vasco supporters, Flamengo managed in July 2006 to win its fifth decision in a row in recent years. Though the previous ones could maybe have been minimized as local State leagues as Vasco then fought for Brazilian and South American titles, this time it was the first ever decision between both teams at national level. By the same way Flamengo clinched its second Brazilian Cup title against one to Vasco. 2009 – 2011 As new economic bright times shine for Brazil, new sponsors and investments have also shaped strengthening the Classico dos Milhões with bigger payrolls on both sides, once again putting Rio football into the limelight of dominating the Brazilian scene. Vasco dropped to the Campeonato Brasileiro Série B in 2008 following a disastrous turn of power in the club with longtime president Eurico Miranda being ousted and Roberto Dinamite stepping in, whilst having lost both games to Flamengo. In the 2009 Carioca State League, the first match between the clubs following Vasco's relegation to Série B, Vasco beat Flamengo 2–0, however the Red-and-blacks went on to clinch the title, the third in a row. In that same year Flamengo, led by the Petkvovic and Adriano duo, managed an incredible run in the end of the year to win the Série A for the fifth time (their sixth title overall), following a 17 years-long drought. Meanwhile, in the second tier, Vasco got promoted by easily winning the Série B title. 2010 began full of hopes for the Red-and-Black Nação. With the arrival of striker Vagner Love, the defending Brazilian Champions dreamt of a good run in the 2010 Copa Libertadores. A rough start made them finish second in their group, and 16th overall. In the Round of 16, a 1–0 win at home and a 2–1 defeat away in the face-off against 1st placed Corinthians made the Gávea club advance thanks to the away goals rule. In the very next phase, Flamengo tasted their own medicine, when Chilean champions Universidad de Chile (who topped Flamengo's group earlier) advanced to the semi-finals making use of the same away goals rule after a 3-3 aggregate result. Following the Libertadores elimination and a second-place finish in the Carioca League, an exodus plagued Flamengo. Home-grown and star-of-the-company Adriano left for AS Roma, while Vágner Love went back to CSKA Moscow. In the Brasileirão, a fight against relegation began and what was once seen as the first year of a dynasty quickly turned into a nightmare. A constant change of head coaches, something frequent in Brazilian football, made things worse. Even though the team never actually entered the bottom four, a disastrous run of only 9 wins in 38 games made Flamengo fight at the lower end of the table the whole year. And with some 'help' from the fixtures (16th-placed Atlético Goianiense and 17th-placed Vitória faced each other in the last game, meaning guaranteed salvation for Flamengo) the Vanderlei Luxemburgo-led squad stayed in the first tier, finishing 14th. Recently promoted Vasco had a slightly better season, finishing 11th. With both matches in the Campeonatio Brasileiro Serie A having ended in draws, 0–0 and 1–1, whilst the encounters in the Campeonato carioca turned in favour of Flamengo, is easy to say both teams failed to achieve any sort of success that year. In 2011, both clubs would see better times. Flamengo, who had seen 2009 Champions and fan-favourites Serbian midfielder Petkovic retire at the end of 2010 and left-back Juan leave for São Paulo, brought in new star players for their squad. Thiago Neves arrived at the beginning of the season along with goalkeeper Felipe and Argentine midfielder Dario Bottinelli, Ronaldinho Gaúcho followed right after. The team also had players such as Léo Moura, Ronaldo Angelim, Renato and Deivid. Vasco da Gama also considerably better their team for the season, with the arrivals of club idols Felipe and Juninho, midfielder Diego Souza (who had previously played for two Vasco's rivals Fluminense and Flamengo) and striker Alecsandro, along with players such as Fernando Prass, Dedé, Fagner, Éder Luis, Rômulo and Élton. The year would start better for the Vultures, who beat Vasco in the Taça Rio final after a penalty shootout and went on to win their 32nd Campeonato Carioca title, this time unbeaten. This defeatless run would last until the Copa do Brasil quarterfinals, when Flamengo lost 2–1 to Ceará and got eliminated. This also culminated in a 10 winless run in the Campeonato Brasileiro, ultimately pushing Flamengo out of title contention. The Cruzmaltino however, had a much better season overall. The return of Juninho quickly proved to be a turning point for the club, bringing them to a very high level of football. After a 1–0 home victory in the first leg of the final against Coritiba and a 3–2 away defeat in the second, the away goals rule gave Vasco the Copa do Brasil title on June 8. Fighting for the Série A title until the end, Vasco would finish second to Corinthians after a 1-1 Clássico dos Milhões draw on the final day. 2013 - The beginning of Vasco's dark times, and a new light for Flamengo After losing Ronaldinho and Thiago Neves, and only managing a midtable finish in 2012, Flamengo started 2013 with a new president. Eduardo Bandeira de Mello was elected for a 3-year tenure, replacing Patrícia Amorim. With the objective of paying up all the club's debts (which at the time were closing in to 1 billion Reais), the Bandeira era started with a more modest squad. Vágner Love, who had come back the previous year, was returned to CSKA Moscow once again. Coach Dorival Júnior was released due to high salaries, and Mano Menezes was brought in. After a 4–2 defeat for Athletico Paranaense at the Maracanã, in which the team opened up 2-0 and got 4 goals past them in the second half, along with a bad season up to that point made the ex-Seleção manager quit the job during a post-game press conference. For his place, assistant coach Jayme de Almeida was selected, and the fans expected another relegation fight. The team, led by loanee midfielder Elias and striker Hernane 'Brocador', clinched the club's third Copa do Brasil title, beating the same Athletico Paranaense 3–1 in the final (1-1 away and 2–0 at home). This run is remembered by the fans due to a late winner from Elias against Cruzeiro in the Round of 16, and a 4-0 smashing of crosstown rivals Botafogo in the quarter-finals. In the other side of town Vasco, who had a great 2012 season, finishing 5th in Série A and reaching the Copa Libertadores quarter-finals, would get relegated once again. Many of the fan-favourites left the club, including goalkeeper Fernando Prass went to play for Palmeiras in the second division, Dedé who left for Cruzeiro, club legend Felipe switched sides to rival club Fluminense, and Juninho who signed for the New York Red Bulls. That way, all the 2011 CdB winning squad was out of São Januário. A melencolic season started, and a 5–1 defeat in the final day sealed the Admirals second ever descent to Série B. Flamengo's Eternal Glory and Vasco's 5th Série B The 2013's relegation and only a 3rd-place finish in 2014 meant a lot of changes in Vasco. Eurico Miranda returned as the president once more, Nenê and Dagoberto were brought in along with 29 other players. A Umbro contract and back-to-back Carioca titles did not help Vasco who, after just one season back in the top flight, were relegated once more. The Olympic year of 2016 saw the Gigante da Colina struggle to finish 3rd in the Série B again. In 2017, however, things got a little better. Vasco managed a spot in the 2018 Copa Libertadores qualifying stage following a 7th-place finish in Série A, one place below Flamengo who finished 6th. Drowning in debt, and with the passing of president Eurico Miranda, Vasco's newfound 'luck' wouldn't last very long. Back-to-back polemic filled elections, a constant fight for power inside the club, many coach sackings, hundreds of players coming and going and a pandemic couldn't result in anything else but yet another relegation. At the end of the 2020 season, Vasco descended to Série B for the fourth time in their history, this time with the company of rivals Botafogo. However, 2021 would be even worse. In what was called "The Super Serie B" due to the high number of first tier champions participating, Vasco would struggle from the start. Even with the return of the now 40-year-old Nenê and the hiring of rising-star coach Fernando Diniz, Vasco had their worst season ever, losing any chances of promotion following a 4–0 home defeat to Botafogo, a game in which they could've got a historic beating if the Alvinegros hadn't decided to respect their rivals (as was revealed by Botafogo's manager Enderson Moreira after the match). Vasco da Gama will play their 5th Série B, the second in a row, in 2022. After the 2013 Copa do Brasil title, Flamengo would consistently increase their squad and performance in the following years. Being the club with the biggest fan-base in the Americas, paying the astronomical debt was not as hard as the past presidents made it out to be. Having a surplus of money for the first time in decades, Flamengo started to bring in new stars for the team. The first one to be signed was Peru international and ex-Corinthians striker Paolo Guerrero. The next year, 2016, an old dream of the Nação arrived in Rio de Janeiro, midfielder Diego Ribas. Éverton Ribeiro, Diego Alves, Vitinho, Gabigol, Bruno Henrique, De Arrascaeta, Gérson, Filipe Luis and Rafinha would come in the following years. After three years fighting for the top spots in the Brasileirão, but with disappointing performances in the Libertadores, 2019 came along to change the club's history. An excursion to the US in the beginning of the year, where Flamengo faced Ajax and Eintracht Frankfurt, would be the starting point of what was to come. Qualifying to the Libertadores Round of 16 for only the second time in ten years gave confidence to the fans, and with the arrival of Portuguese manager Jorge Jesus and a few other reinforcements the team got even stronger. A rocky start (which included a Copa do Brasil elimination) didn't shake the selefla and with almost every record being broken in Série A and a 5–0 victory against Grêmio in the semis, Flamengo reached the Libertadores final for only the second time in history. The final against River Plate started with the Argentine side scoring early, but the "Magic Trio" of Bruno Henrique, Arrascaeta and Gabigol turned things around in the most Flamengo way possible. Scoring twice, in the 89th and the 92nd minutes, Gabigol gave the second continental title to Mengão. The very next day, while in a parade commemorating the title, Flamengo went on to win the Série A with five games to go, thanks to a Grêmio away victory over second placed Palmeiras. Even though Jesus left during the pandemic, Flamengo would manage to be champions of Brazil again in 2020, and reach another Libertadores final in 2021. Overall Statistics Summary of results First meeting Flamengo 1–0 Vasco, March 26, 1922, Estádio das Laranjeiras, Torneio Início 1922 Latest meetings Vasco 1-4 Flamengo, June 5, 2023, Maracanã, Campeonato Brasileiro Série A Vasco 1-3 Flamengo, March 19, 2023, Maracanã, Campeonato Carioca - Semi-Final, Second Leg Flamengo 3-2 Vasco, March 13, 2022, Maracanã, Campeonato Carioca - Semi-Final, First Leg Largest victories by team Vasco 7–0 Flamengo, April 26, 1931, Campeonato Carioca Flamengo 6–2 Vasco, October 3, 1943, Campeonato Carioca Titles comparison (1): Other State Trophies include: Copa Rio, Taça Guanabara Independente, Torneio Extra, Torneio Relâmpago, Torneio Início, Torneio Aberto and Campeonato Carioca Série B. List of decisive games Arguably the first decision ever between both teams ever started in 1944, more than twenty years after their accession to first division, when Flamengo played Vasco in last round to clinch its first ever three-in-a-row title. Between then and 1972, only one decisive game was played in 1958 in the uniquely named super-super-championship as twice Vasco, Flamengo and Botafogo had to play a tie-break triangular. 1944 – Last round decisive (Flamengo 1–0) 1958 – Last round decisive (Flamengo 3–1) 1958 – Final tie-break triangular (super) – 1st-round (Vasco 2–0) 1958 – Final tie-break triangular (super-super) – last-round decisive (Vasco 1–1) 1972 – Final triangular – 1st round (Flamengo 1–0) 1973 – Taça Guanabara (1st turno) – last-round decisive – (Flamengo 1–0) 1973 – Semi-final play-off – decisive (Flamengo 0–0) 1974 – Final triangular – last-round decisive (Flamengo 0–0) 1975 – 3rd turno extra tie-break play-off (Vasco 1–0) 1976 – Taça Guanabara extra tie-break play-off (Vasco 1–1, 5–4 on p.s.) 1977 – 2nd turno extra tie-break play-off (Vasco 0–0, 5–4 on p.s.) 1978 – 2nd turno – last round decisive (Flamengo 1–0) 1979 – Final octagonal – decisive (Flamengo 3–2) 1981 – Final play-offs (3 matches: Flamengo 0–2, 0–1 and 2–1) 1982 – Taça Guanabara extra tie-break play-off (Flamengo 1–0) 1982 – Final triangular – last-round decisive (Vasco 1–0) 1983 – Campeonato Brasileiro – quarter-finals (Flamengo 2–1, 1–1) 1984 – Final triangular – 2nd round (Flamengo 1–0) 1986 – Taça Guanabara – last-round decisive (Vasco 2–0) 1986 – Final play-offs (3 matches: Flamengo 0–0, 0–0, 2–0) 1987 – Final triangular – last-round decisive (Vasco 1–0) 1988 – 3rd turno quadrangular – last-round decisive (Vasco 3–1) 1988 – Final play-offs (2 matches: Vasco 2–1, 1–0) 1989 – Taça Guanabara – last-round decisive to Flamengo only (Flamengo 3–1) 1989 – Taça Rio (2nd turno) – last-round decisive to Flamengo only (Vasco 2–1) 1992 – Taça Guanabara – last-round decisive (Vasco 1–1) 1992 – Campeonato Brasileiro – semi-final quadrangular (Flamengo 1–1, 2–0) 1994 – Final quadrangular – (2 matches : Vasco 1–2, 1–1) 1996 – Taça Guanabara – last-round decisive (Flamengo 2–0) 1996 – Taça Rio – last-round decisive (Flamengo 0–0) 1997 – Taça Rio – decisive to Vasco only (Vasco 1–0 by WO) *1997 – Campeonato Brasileiro – semi-final quadrangular (Vasco 1–1, 4–1) 1998 – Taça Guanabara – last-round decisive (Vasco 2–0 by WO) 1999 – Taça Guanabara – last-round decisive (Flamengo 2–0) 1999 – Taça Rio – last-round decisive (Vasco 2–0) 1999 – Final play-offs (2 matches: Flamengo 1–1, 1–0) 2000 – Final play-offs (2 matches: Flamengo 3–0, 2–1) 2001 – Taça Guanabara – semi-final play-off (Flamengo 1–0) 2001 – Final play-offs (2 matches: Flamengo 1–2, 3–1) 2003 – Taça Guanabara – last-round decisive (Vasco 1–1) 2004 – Taça Guanabara – semifinals (Flamengo 2–0) 2004 – Taça Rio – last-round decisive to Vasco only (Vasco 2–1) 2004 – Final play-offs (2 matches: Flamengo 2–1, 3–1) 2006 – Copa do Brasil – final play-offs (Flamengo 2–0, 1–0) 2007 – Taça Guanabara Semi-Final (Flamengo 3–1 penalty kicks after 1–1 in the normal time) 2008 – Taça Guanabara Semi-Final (Flamengo 2–1) 2010 – Taça Rio Semi-Final (Flamengo 2–1) 2011 – Final play-offs (Flamengo 3–1 penalty kicks after 0–0 in the normal time) 2012 – Taça Guanabara Semi-Final (Vasco 2–1) 2004 – Taça Rio - penultimate-round decisive to Flamengo only (Flamengo 2–1) 2012 – Taça Rio Semi-Final (Vasco 3–2) 2014 – Final play-offs (2 matches: Flamengo 1–1, 1–1) 2015 – Semi-Final (2 matches: Vasco 0–0, 1–0) 2015 – Copa do Brasil – Quarterfinals (Vasco 1–0, 1–1) 2016 – Semi-Final (Vasco 2–0) 2017 – Taça Guanabara Semi-Final (Flamengo 1–0) 2015 – Semi-Final (Flamengo 0–0) 2019 – Taça Rio Final (Flamengo 3–1 penalty kicks after 1–1 in the normal time) 2019 – Final play-offs (2 matches: Flamengo 2–0, 2–0) 2022 – Taça Guanabara - This game secured Flamengo's tie advantage in the semifinals (Flamengo 2–1) 2022 – Semi-Final (2 matches: Flamengo 1–0, 1–0) Other notable matches 1975 – 3rd turno – Vasco 3 x 2 Flamengo – This game arguably triggered Vasco's most enduring reputation, dubbed "o time da virada" (i.e., the turnaround team), after its never-say-die attitude which led to many remounting scores (others may say never-win-easy instead). After this win (after trailing 0x2, a remounting that never occurred again between the two clubs), Vasco would win a series of derbies by remounting to clinch the turno, and the press labeled "Vascão vira-vira" (meaning roughly Big Vasco bottom-up). Since then, its supporters incorporated this feature in their songs ("the team of tournaround and love"). An epic 4x3 away win over Palmeiras in Mercosur Cup finals in 2001 after trailing 0x3, among others less notable in-between, recently sustained this reputation. 2000 – Taça Guanabara – Vasco 5 x 1 Flamengo – Dubbed since by Vasco supporters "o chocolate da Páscoa" (i.e., Easter chocolate, after the Rio's football slang "chocolate" for a big win and as the game was played on Easter). Vasco confirmed the clinching of the turn title. Related works Books Flamengo x Vasco – o clássico, ASSAF/MARTINS 1999, Editora Relume Dumará – Videos Duels de légende /vol.2 Flamengo – Vasco da Gama, Rod Hay 2005, WARNER VISION FRANCE References Football derbies in Brazil CR Flamengo CR Vasco da Gama
4910965	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima%20Peace%20Memorial%20Park	Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park	is a memorial park in the center of Hiroshima, Japan. It is dedicated to the legacy of Hiroshima as the first city in the world to suffer a nuclear attack at the end of World War II, and to the memories of the bomb's direct and indirect victims (of whom there may have been as many as 140,000). The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park is visited by more than one million people each year. The park is there in memory of the victims of the nuclear attack on August 6, 1945, in which the United States dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park was planned and designed by the Japanese Architect Kenzō Tange at Tange Lab. The location of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park was once the city’s busiest downtown commercial and residential district. The park was built on an open field that was created by the explosion. Today there are a number of memorials and monuments, museums, and lecture halls, which draw over a million visitors annually. The annual 6 August Peace Memorial Ceremony, which is sponsored by the city of Hiroshima, is also held in the park. The purpose of the Peace Memorial Park is not only to memorialize the victims of the bombing, but also to perpetuate the memory of nuclear horrors and advocate world peace. Notable symbols A-Bomb Dome The A-Bomb Dome is the skeletal ruins of the former Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall. It is the building closest to the hypocenter of the nuclear bomb that remained at least partially standing. It was left as it was after the bombing in memory of the casualties. The A-Bomb Dome, to which a sense of sacredness and transcendence has been attributed, is situated in a distant ceremonial view that is visible from the Peace Memorial Park’s central cenotaph. It is an officially designated site of memory for the nation’s and humanity’s collectively shared heritage of catastrophe. The A-Bomb Dome was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List on December 7, 1996. Many A-Bomb survivors and Hiroshima citizens were pushing for the A-Bomb Dome to be registered as a World Heritage Site as it was "a symbol of horror and nuclear weapons and humankind's pledge for peace." This collective petition from many citizens groups was finally given influence when the Japanese government officially recommended the dome to the World Heritage Site committee in December 1995. A marker was placed on the A-Bomb Dome on April 25, 1997 by Hiroshima City. It reads: Children's Peace Monument The Children's Peace Monument is a statue dedicated to the memory of the children who died as a result of the bombing. The statue is of a girl with outstretched arms with a folded paper crane rising above her. The statue is based on the true story of , a young girl who died from radiation from the bomb. She is known for folding over 1,000 paper cranes in response to a Japanese legend. To this day, people (mostly children) from around the world fold cranes and send them to Hiroshima where they are placed near the statue. The statue has a continuously replenished collection of folded cranes nearby. Rest House The Rest House of Hiroshima Peace Park is another atomic bombed building in the park. The building was built as the Taishoya Kimono Shop in March 1929. It was used as a fuel distribution station when the shortage of fuel began in June 1944. On August 6, 1945, when the bomb exploded, the roof was crushed, the interior destroyed, and everything consumable burned except in the basement. Eventually, 36 people in the building died of the bombing; 47-year-old Eizo Nomura survived in the basement, which had a concrete roof through which radiation had a more difficult time penetrating. He survived into his 80s. The former Nakajima District, which today is Peace Memorial Park, was a prominent business quarter of the city during the early years of the Showa period (1926–89) and had been the site of many wooden two-story structures. However, in 1929, the three-story Taishoya Kimono Shop was constructed, surrounded by shops and movie theaters. It was said that if you went up to the roof, a panoramic view of the city awaited. In 1943 the Kimono Shop was closed and in June 1944, as World War II intensified and economic controls became increasingly stringent, the building was purchased by the Prefectural Fuel Rationing Union. At 8:15 a.m. on August 6, 1945, the explosion of the atomic bomb about 600 meters above the hypocenter destroyed the building’s concrete roof. The interior was also badly damaged and gutted by ensuing fires, and everyone inside was killed except Nomura, who miraculously survived. The building was restored soon after the war and used as the Fuel Hall. In 1957, the Hiroshima East Reconstruction Office, which became the core of the city’s reconstruction program, was established there. At the time of the bombing, 37 people were working there. All of them perished, with the exception of Eizo Nomura, who had gone down to the basement at that moment and survived the bombing. Nomura, who was then 47, was a worker for the Hiroshima Prefectural Fuel Rationing Union. Nomura managed to escape through rising fire and vigorous smoke. However, after his survival, he struggled with high fever, diarrhea, bleeding gums, and other symptoms caused by the radiation. Although the building was heavily damaged, it still stood and was renovated soon after the war, including a new wooden roof. After the war, the Hiroshima municipal government purchased the building and established a postwar recovery office in it. Today it is used as the Rest House in Peace Memorial Park. The Rest House has been in debates many times over whether or not it should be preserved. In 1995, the city decided to demolish the building, but the plan was put aside. One of the reasons was because of the announcement of the A-Bomb Dome as a World Heritage site. Right now, the first floor of the Rest House is used as a tourist information office and a souvenir shop, the second/third floors as offices, and the basement is preserved nearly as it was at the time of the bombing. Ceremonies Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony Every year on 6 August, "A-Bomb Day," the City of Hiroshima holds the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony to console the victims of the atomic bombs and to pray for the realization of lasting world peace. The ceremony is held in the morning from 8:00 AM, in front of the Memorial Cenotaph with many citizens including the families of the deceased. During the ceremony, a one-minute silence to honor the victims is observed at 8:15 AM, the time of the atomic bomb's explosion. Lantern Ceremony In the evening of the same day, a Lantern ceremony is held to send off the spirits of the victims on lanterns with peace messages floating on the waters of the Motoyasu River. Museums Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum is the primary museum in the park dedicated to educating visitors about the bomb. The Museum has exhibits and information covering the buildup to war, the role of Hiroshima in the war up to the bombing, and extensive information on the bombing and its effects, along with substantial memorabilia and pictures from the bombing. The building also has views of the Memorial Cenotaph, Peace Flame, and A-Bomb Dome. International Conference Center Hiroshima International Conference Center Hiroshima is in the Peace Park, west side of the main building of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum. Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall The Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims is an effort by the Japanese national government to remember and mourn the sacred sacrifice of the atomic bomb victims. It is also an expression of Japan's desire for genuine and lasting peace. The Hall contains a number of displays. On the roof, near the entrance (the museum is underground) is a clock frozen at 8:15, the time the bomb went off. The museum contains a seminar room, library, temporary exhibition area, and victims' information area. The Hall of Remembrance, contains a 360 degree panorama of the destroyed Hiroshima recreated using 140,000 tiles — the number of people estimated to have died from the bomb by the end of 1945. Monuments Memorial Cenotaph Near the center of the park is a concrete, saddle-shaped monument that covers a cenotaph holding the names of all of the people killed by the bomb. The monument is aligned to frame the Peace Flame and the A-Bomb Dome. The Memorial Cenotaph was one of the first memorial monuments built on open field on August 6, 1952. The arch shape represents a shelter for the souls of the victims. The cenotaph carries the epitaph , which means "please rest in peace, for [we/they] shall not repeat the error." In Japanese, the sentence's subject is omitted, thus it could be interpreted as either "[we] shall not repeat the error" or as "[they] shall not repeat the error". This was intended to memorialize the victims of Hiroshima without politicizing the issue, taking advantage of the fact that polite Japanese speech typically demands lexical ambiguity in the first place. The epitaph was written by Tadayoshi Saika, Professor of English Literature at Hiroshima University. He also provided the English translation, "Let all the souls here rest in peace for we shall not repeat the evil." On November 3, 1983, an explanation plaque in English was added in order to convey Professor Saika's intent that "we" refers to "all humanity", not specifically the Japanese or Americans, and that the "error" is the "evil of war": Perhaps unsurprisingly, the ambiguity of the phrase has the potential to offend; some right-wing circles in Japan have interpreted the words as an admission of guilt—implicitly reading it as "we (the Japanese people) shall not repeat the error"—and they criticize the epitaph as a self-accusation by the Japanese empire. In July 2005, the cenotaph was vandalized by a Japanese man affiliated with the Japanese right. Peace Flame The Peace Flame is another monument to the victims of the bomb that destroyed Hiroshima, but it has an additional symbolic purpose. The flame has burned continuously since it was lit in 1964, and will remain lit until all nuclear bombs on the planet are destroyed and the planet is free from the threat of nuclear annihilation. Peace Bells There are three Peace Bells in the Peace Park. The smaller one is used only for the Peace Memorial Ceremony. Except that day, it is displayed in the east building of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum. The more well-known Peace Bell stands near the Children's Peace Monument and consists of a large Japanese bell hanging inside a small open-sided structure. Visitors are encouraged to ring the bell for world peace and the loud and melodious tolling of this bell rings out regularly throughout the Peace Park. The Peace Bell was built out in the open on September 20, 1964. The surface of the bell is a map of the world, and the "sweet spot" is an atomic symbol, designed by Masahiko Katori [1899–1988], cast by Oigo Bell Works, in Takaoka, Toyama. The inscriptions on the bell are in Greek (γνῶθι σεαυτόν), Japanese, and Sanskrit. It is translated as "Know yourself." The Greek embassy donated the bell to the Peace Park and picked out the most appropriate ancient Greek philosophical quote of Socrates. The Sanskrit text is a quotation from Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra which was attested by the Indian ambassador. The Japanese text was provided by a university lecturer. Atomic Bomb Memorial Mound The Atomic Bomb Memorial Mound is a large, grass-covered knoll that contains the cremated ashes of 70,000 unidentified victims of the bomb. Cenotaph for Korean Victims Among the 400,000 people who were killed or exposed to lethal post-explosion radiation, at least 45,000 were Korean, but the number is uncertain, because the population has been neglected as the minority. Additionally, 300,000 survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki returned to Korea after liberation from Japanese colonialism. The monument, decorated with Korean national symbols, is intended to honour Korean victims and survivors of the atomic bomb and Japanese colonialism. The monument's inscription reads "The Monument in Memory of the Korean Victims of the A[tomic]-Bomb. In memory of the souls of His Highness Prince Yi Wu and over 20000 other souls", while the side-inscription reads "Souls of the dead ride to heaven on the backs of turtles." Gates of Peace Added in 2005, this monument contains ten gates covered with the word "peace" in 49 languages from around the world. The gates represent the nine circles of Hell plus one: "the living hell of Hiroshima caused by the atomic bombing." Each gate is 9 meters high and 2.6 meters wide. Memorial Tower to the Mobilized Students The Association for the Mobilized Student Victims of Hiroshima Prefecture built this tower in May 1967 in order to console the souls of over 10,000 students, including those who were Atomic Bomb victims, who died in bombings during the Pacific War. In Hiroshima, there were 8,387 students who were mobilized; 6,907 of which were killed in the Atomic Bombing. The memorial is twelve meters tall, five stories, and is decorated with the Goddess of Peace as well as eight doves which are placed around the tower. To the sides of the tower are plaques which depict the work that the students did, such as factory work, female students sewing, or showing students working to increase food production. There is a plaque in front of the tower which has two buttons that narrate the background information in either Japanese or English. Other monuments Pond of Peace – encircling the Cenotaph Peace Clock Tower A-bombed Gravestone – gravestone of Jisenji temple – the temple used to be there Peace Fountain Monument to the Old Aioi Bridge Phoenix Trees Exposed to the A-bomb – also known as Chinese Parasols, these trees have deep scars from the blast. They were moved here from the courtyard of the former Hiroshima Post & Telecommunications Office in 1973. Linden Tree Monument Hair Monument Hiroshima City Zero Milestone Peace Cairn Stone Lantern of Peace Friendship Monument Peace Memorial Post Peace Tower Fountain of Prayer – a small fountain pond Monument of Prayer Prayer Monument for Peace Prayer Haiku Monument for Peace Hiroshima Monument for the A-bomb Victims Statue of Mother and Child in the Storm Peace Watch Tower – indicating the number of days since the A-bomb Statue of Peace "New Leaves" – from the words of Dr.Hideki Yukawa – designed, carved by Katsuzo Entsuba Statue of Merciful Mother Statue of a Prayer for Peace The Figure of the Merciful Goddess of Peace (Kannon) Mobilized Students' Merciful Kannon Monument Hiroshima Second Middle School A-bomb Memorial Monument Memorial Monument of the Hiroshima Municipal Commercial and Shipbuilding Industry Schools Monument to the A-bombed Teachers and Students of National Elementary Schools A-bomb Monument of the Hiroshima Municipal Girl's High School Monument Dedicated to Sankichi Tōge Monument to Tamiki Hara Literary Monument Dedicated to Miekichi Suzuki Monument in Memory of Dr.Marcel Junod Clock Commemorating the Repatriation of Those Who Chose to Return to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea Monument of the Former North Tenjin-cho Area Monument of the Former South Tenjin-cho Area Monument of the Former Zaimoku-cho Memorial Tower for A-bomb-related Victims Memorial Tower to Console A-bomb Victims Monument in Memory of the Korean Victims of the A-bomb Monument of the Volunteer Army Corps Monument of "Zensonpo"(All Japan Nonlife Insurance Labor Union) Monument to Those Who Died From the Chūgoku-Shikoku Public Works Office Monument of the Hiroshima District Lumber Control Corporation Monument Dedicated to Construction Workers and Artisans Monument to the Employees of the Hiroshima Post Office Monument of the Hiroshima Gas Corporation Monument to the Employees of the Coal Control-related Company Monument for the A-bomb Victims from the Hiroshima Agricultural Association Monument to Mr. Norman Cousins Monument of US POWS {at former Chugoku MP HQ} Festivals Hiroshima Flower Festival Hiroshima Flower Festival is held from the 3rd of May to the 5th during Japanese Golden Week, in the Peace Park and Peace Boulevard. Hiroshima Dreamination Hiroshima Dreamination is held in winter. Access Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park bus stop Hiroden Genbaku Dome-mae Station Hiroden Chuden-mae Station Astram Hondōri Station See also Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Atomic Bomb Dome) Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Sadako Sasaki Children's Peace Monument Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony Hiroshima Witness Nagasaki Peace Park Norman Cousins Marcel Junod Peace Boulevard Honkawa Elementary School Peace Museum Fukuromachi Elementary School Peace Museum References External links Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum (Guide to Peace Memorial Park) Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims Hiroshima Peace Camp 2011 hiroshima peace memorial park blog in japanese Peace Message, Lantern Ceremony, 2009 U.S. Attending 2010 Hiroshima Memorial – video report by Democracy Now! Monuments and memorials in Japan Parks and gardens in Hiroshima Peace parks Peace monuments and memorials World War II memorials in Japan P Atomic tourism
4911369	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funk%20carioca	Funk carioca	Funk carioca (), also known as favela funk, in other parts of the world as baile funk and Brazilian funk, or even simply funk, is a hip hop-influenced music genre from Rio de Janeiro, blending the rap subgenres of Miami bass and gangsta rap. Despite its name, funk carioca has no musical correlation with the American funk by any means. In Brazil, "Baile funk" refers not to the music, but to the actual parties or discotheques in which the music is played (, from baile, meaning "ball"). Although originated in Rio, "Funk carioca" has become increasingly popular among working classes in other parts of Brazil. In the whole country, funk carioca is most often simply known as "funk", although it is very musically different from what with "funk music" is internationally meant. In fact, it still shows its urban Afro beats influences. Overview Funk carioca was once a direct derivative of samba, Miami bass, Latin music, traditional African religious music, Candomble, hip-hop and freestyle (another Miami-based genre) music from the US. The reason why these genres, very localized in the US, became popular and influential in Rio de Janeiro is due to proximity. Miami was a popular plane stop for Rio DJs to buy the latest American records. Along with the Miami influence came the longtime influence of the slave trade in Colonial Brazil. Various African religions like vodun, and candomble were brought with the enslaved Africans to the Americas. The same beat is found in Afro-Religious music in the African diaspora and many black Brazilians identify as being part of this religion. This genre of music was mainly started by those in black communities in Brazil, therefore a boiling pot of influences to derive the trademark. Many similar types of music genres can be found in Caribbean island nations such as; Jamaica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Barbados, Haiti, Puerto Rico, among others. Bounce music, which originates from New Orleans, Louisiana, also has a similar beat. New Orleans, originally a French territory, was a hub for Atlantic slave trade before it was sold to the United States. All of these areas with similar music genres retain the influence of American hip hop, African music and Latin music. During the 1970s, nightclubs in Rio de Janeiro played funk and soul music. One of the bands that was formed in this period was Soul Grand Prix. Funk carioca was popularized in the 1980s in Rio de Janeiro's favelas, the city's predominantly Afro-Brazilian slums. From the mid-1990s on, it was a mainstream phenomenon in Brazil. Funk songs discuss topics as varied as poverty, human dignity, racial pride of black people, sex, violence, and social injustice. Social analysts believe that funk carioca is a genuine expression of the severe social issues that burden the poor and black people in Rio. According to DJ Marlboro, the main influence for the emergence of funk carioca was the single "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Soulsonic Force, released in 1982. Carioca in its early days were mostly loops of electronic drums from Miami bass or freestyle records and the 4–6 beat Afrobeat tempo, while a few artists composed them with actual drum machines. The most common drum beat was a loop of DJ Battery Brain's "808 volt", commonly referred to as "Voltmix", though Hassan's "Pump Up the Party" is also notable. Nowadays, carioca funk rhythms are mostly based on tamborzão rhythms instead of the older drum machine loops. Melodies are usually sampled. Older songs typically chopped up freestyle samples for the melody, or had none at all. Modern funk uses a set of samples from various sources, notably horn and accordion stabs, as well as the horn intro to the "Rocky" theme. Funk carioca has always used a small catalog of rhythms and samples that almost all songs take from (commonly with several in the same song). Funk carioca songs can either be instrumental or include rapping, singing, or something in between the two. Popularized by Brazilians and other Afro-Latino people, the saying "Bum-Cha-Cha, Bum Cha-Cha" , "Bum-Cha-Cha, Cha Cha" or even "Boom-Pop-Pop, Pop,Pop" is a representation of the beat that comes along in most funk songs. Funk carioca is different from the funk originated in the US. Starting in 1970, styles like bailes da pesada, black soul, shaft, and funk started to emerge in Rio de Janeiro. As time went on, DJs started to look for other rhythms of black music, but the original name did not remain. Funk carioca first emerged and is played throughout the state of Rio de Janeiro, but not only in the city of Rio, like Rio natives like to believe. Funk carioca is mostly appealing to the youth. In the decade of 1980, anthropologist Herman Vianna was the first social scientist to take Funk as an object to study in his masters thesis, which gave origin to the book O Mundo Funk carioca, which translates to The Carioca Funk World(1988). During that decade, funk dances lost a bit of popularity due to the emergence of disco music, a pop version of soul and funk, especially after the release of the film Saturday Night Fever (1977) starring John Travolta and with soundtrack of the band Bee Gees. At the time, the then teenager, Fernando Luís Mattos da Matta was interested in the discotheque when listening to the program Cidade Disco Club on Radio City of Rio de Janeiro (102.9 FM). Years later Fernando would adopt the nickname of DJ Marlboro and the radio would be known as the Rio "rock radio". Bailes funk The term baile funk is used to refer to the parties in which funk carioca is played. The history of these parties were important in shaping the Brazilian funk scene, and in fact predate the genre itself. In the late 60's, legendary Brazilian DJ and radio personality Big Boy (born Newton Alvarenga Duarte) was on a personal mission to introduce Brazil to the best sounds from around the globe. Collecting records covering genres such as pop, rock, jazz, and soul from all over the world, he gained popularity on air for his wide taste of music, as well as the relaxed way of presenting his programs. His success on air also attracted large audiences for parties he DJ'd in the Zona Sul area of Rio, which like his show, featured a wide array of different music. His sound mainly featured elements of rock, psych, and soul music, and many described the tunes he played as 'heavy'. At the same time, Ademir Lemos had been hosting his own block parties centering more around soul and funk, both of which had a growing audience in Brazil. The two eventually came to host parties together, infusing the heavy sounding records from Big Boy's (primarily) rock background with Lemos' funkier influences. Thus formed the Baile da Pesada, or "Heavy Dance", which brought (North American) funk music to the forefront of Rio's street scene as the city entered the 70's. For almost two decades afterwards, other DJs from the streets of Rio would use evolving forms of African-American and American music in their own block parties, put together by equipes de som (sound teams). Soul music became the immediate focus of the parties, and quickly ushered in a new wave of Brazilian soul artists to the mainstream. Soon, the soul movement was overshadowed by disco, but disco music was not easily embraced by many of the DJs hosting the bailes. Many of these DJs bought records from the US, particularly Miami given its closer proximity to Brazil. The DJs took a liking to various forms of hip-hop, most notably Miami bass and electro/freestyle, which changed the style of the bailes once again. Still, the term funk remained in Rio's party scene. DJs would incorporate local sound with Miami bass beats, including their own lyrics in Portuguese. DJ Marlboro was the pioneer of this phenomenon, and was the first to engineer the sound that would become known in Rio as funk carioca. Subgenres There are a number of subgenres derived from funk carioca. Brega funk Brega funk born in Recife, influenced by brega in the early 2010s in the Northeast region of Brazil. Unlike funk carioca, brega funk has a glossy sound that features glistening syncopated MIDI pianos, synths, often filtered guitars, and the distinct pitched metallic snares called caixas, vocal chops are a common companion to the wonky kick rhythm and up-down bass inherited from brega, and even though the genre commonly ranges from 160 to 180 BPM, the half-time beat makes it feel slower than other funk subgenres. An example of the Brega funk genre is the song "Parabéns" by Pabllo Vittar. Funk melody Funk melody is based on electro rhythms but with a romantic lyrical approach. It has been noted for being powered by female artists. Among the popular funk melody singers are Anitta, Perlla, Babi and Copacabana Beat. Funk ostentação Funk ostentação is a sub-genre of Rio de Janeiro funk created in São Paulo in 2008. The lyrical and thematic content of songs in this style focuses mainly on conspicuous consumption, as well as a focus on materialistic activities, glorification of style of urban life and ambitions to leave the favela. Since then, funk ostentação has been strongly associated with the emerging nova classe média (new middle class) in Brazil. Proibidão Proibidão is a derivative of funk carioca related to prohibited practices. The content of the genre involves the sale of illegal drugs and the war against police agencies, as well as the glorification and praise of the drug cartels, similar to gangsta rap. Rasteirinha Rasteirinha or Raggafunk is a slower style of Rio de Janeiro funk that rests around 96 BPM and uses atabaques, tambourines and beatboxing. It also incorporates influences from reggaeton and axé. "Fuleragem" by MC WM is the best known songs of the Rasteirinha genre. Rave funk Rave funk is a mix of funk carioca and electronic music, created in 2016 by DJ GBR. Among rave funk's most popular songs is "É Rave Que Fala Né" by Kevinho. Funk 150 BPM In 2018, the Funk carioca of 150 beats per minute or 150 BPM was created by DJs Polyvox and Rennan da Penha. In 2019, the funk carioca 150 BPM was adopted by carnival blocks. "Ela É Do Tipo", by Kevin O Chris, is one of the most popular songs of the genre. Funk mandelão Funk mandelão, also known as Ritmo dos Fluxos, is a subgenre that emerged in São Paulo in the late 2010s, inspired by the Baile do Mandela, a popular party in Praia Grande. The term “mandelão” comes from “Mandela”, a reference to the South African leader Nelson Mandela. Mandelão is characterized by having simple and repetitive lyrics. The musical production is minimalist and raw, with heavy beats and blown basses, that create a catchy and danceable rhythm. Some of the instruments used in mandelão are the piano, synthesizer, sampler and the computer. Funk mandelão is also marked by having its own choreography, which consists of fast and synchronized movements of the arms and legs. An example of the success of Mandelão was the song “Automotivo Bibi Fogosa”, sung by the Brazilian artist Bibi Babydoll and produced by DJ Brunin XM, which reached the top of the music charts in Ukraine in 2023 and then spread throughout the rest of Europe. Brazilian phonk Brazilian phonk is a subgenre inspired by the underground hip hop style called phonk, which originated in the United States in the 1990s. The genre combines elements of funk carioca, electronic music, and trap, creating a distinct and aggressive sound, with lyrics that address topics such as violence, drugs, sex and ostentation. The term “Brazilian phonk” was popularized by the Norwegian producer William Rød, better known as Slowboy. Pagofunk Fusion of funk carioca with pagode, the term also refers to parties where both genres are played, the origins of the subgenre can be traced back to the mid 90s, in 1997, the duo Claudinho & Buchecha released the song Fuzuê on the album A Forma, the song uses a cavaquinho, an instrument present in genres such as samba, choro and pagode, in the lyrics, the duo pays tribute to pagode artists. Grupo Raça was successful with "Ela sambou, eu dancei", written by Arlindo Cruz, A. Marques and Geraldão, which alluded to funk carioca. In 2014, the song was reinterpreted with elements of carioca funk with Arlindo Cruz himself with Mr. Catra. Mc Leozinho, made use of the cavaquinho in the song Sente a pegada from 2008. Artists such as MC Delano and Ludmilla also use the cavaquinho in some songs, in 2015, Ludimilla also participated in a duet with the band Molejo in Polivalência from the album of the same name released in 2000, in 2020, she released Numanice, an EP dedicated to the pagode. Recognition in Europe Until the year 2000, funk carioca was only a regional phenomenon. Then the European media began to report its peculiar combination of music, social issues with a strong sexual appeal (often pornographic). In 2001, for the first time, funk carioca tracks appeared on a non-Brazilian label. One example is the album Favela Chic, released by BMG. It contained three old-school funk carioca hits, including the song "Popozuda Rock n' Roll" by De Falla. In 2003, the tune Quem Que Caguetou (Follow Me Follow Me) by Black Alien & Speed, which was not a big hit in Brazil, was then used in a sports car commercial in Europe, and it helped increase the popularity of funk carioca. Brazilian duo Tetine compiled and mixed the compilation Slum Dunk Presents Funk Carioca, released by British label Mr Bongo Records featuring funk artists such as Deize Tigrona, Taty Quebra Barraco, Bonde do Tigrão amongst others. From 2002 Bruno Verner and Eliete Mejorado also broadcast Funk Carioca and interviewed artists in their radio show Slum Dunk on Resonance Fm. Berlin music journalist and DJ Daniel Haaksman released the seminal CD-compilations Rio Baile Funk Favela Booty Beats in 2004 and More Favela Booty Beats in 2006 through Essay Recordings. He launched the international career of Popozuda Rock n´Roll artist Edu K, whose baile funk anthem was used in a soft drink commercial in Germany. Haaksman continued to produce and distribute many new baile funk records, especially the EP series "Funk Mundial" and "Baile Funk Masters" on his label Man Recordings. In 2004, dance clubs from Eastern Europe, mainly Romania and Bulgaria, increased the popularity of funk carioca due to the strong sexual appeal of the music and dance, also known as Bonde das Popozudas. Many funk carioca artists started to do shows abroad at that time. DJ Marlboro and Favela Chic Paris club were the pioneer travelers and producers. The funk carioca production was until then limited to playing in the ghettos and the Brazilian pop market. DJ Marlboro, a major composer of funk carioca's tunes declared in 2006 in the Brazilian Isto É magazine how astonished he was with the sudden overseas interest in the genre. He would go on to travel in over 10 European countries. In London, duo Tetine assembled a compilation album called Slum Dunk Presents Funk Carioca, which was released by Mr Bongo Records in 2004. Tetine also ran the weekly radio show Slum Dunk on London's radio art station Resonance Fm 104.4. Their radio show was entirely dedicated to funk carioca and worked as a platform for the duo to produce and organize a series of film programmes as well as interviews and gigs involving funk carioca artists from Rio. Tetine were also responsible for the first screening of the post-feminist documentary Eu Sou Feia Mas Tô Na Moda by filmmaker Denise Garcia which was co-produced by Tetine in London, and first shown in the city at the Slum Dunk Film Program at Brady Arts Centre in Bricklane in March 2005. Apart from this, Tetine also produced two albums with experimental DIY queer funk carioca tracks: Bonde do Tetão, released by Brazilian label Bizarre Records in 2004, and L.I.C.K My Favela, released by Kute Bash Records in 2005. Tetine also recorded with Deize Tigrona the track "I Go to the Doctor", included in the LP L.I.C.K My Favela in 2005 and later on their album Let Your X's Be Y's, released by Soul Jazz Records in 2008. In Italy, Irma Records released the 2005 compilation Colors Music #4: Rio Funk. Many small labels (notably European label Arcade Mode and American labels Flamin´Hotz and Nossa) labels released several compilations and EPs in bootleg formats. The artist MIA brought mainstream international popularity to funk carioca with her single Bucky Done Gun released in 2005, and brought attention to American DJ Diplo, who had worked on M.I.A.'s 2004 mixtape Piracy Funds Terrorism on the tracks Baile Funk One, Baile Funk Two, and Baile Funk Three. Diplo made a bootleg mixtape, Favela on Blastin, in 2004 after Ivanna Bergese shared with him some compiled remix mixtapes of her performance act Yours Truly. He also produced documentary Favela on Blast, which was released in July 2010 and documents the role, culture, and character of funk carioca in Rio's favelas. Other indie video-documentaries have been made in Europe, especially in Germany and Sweden. These generally focused on the social issues in the favelas. One of the most famous of these series of documentaries is Mr Catra the faithful (2005) by Danish filmmaker Andreas Rosforth Johnsen, broadcast by many European open and cable television channels. London-based artist Sandra D'Angelo was the first Italian singer-producer to bring funk carioca to Italy. She performed in London with MC Gringo at Notting Hill Arts Club in 2008. She performed her baile funk productions for the contest Edison Change the Music in 2008. Sandra D'Angelo performed Baile Funk also in New York and produced tracks with EDU KA (Man Recordings) and DJ Amazing Clay from Rio. In 2008, Berlin label Man Recordings released Gringão, the debut album by German MC Gringo — the only non-Brazilian MC performing in the bailes of Rio de Janeiro. English indie pop band Everything Everything claim the drum patterns used on their Top 40 single Cough Cough were inspired by those used on Major Lazer's Pon de Floor, a funk carioca song. Criticism In Brazil, funk carioca lyrics are often criticized due to their violent and sexually explicit lyrics. Girls are called "cachorras" (bitches) and "popozudas" – large buttocks, and many songs revolve around sex. "Novinhas" (young/pubescent girls) are also a frequent theme in funk carioca songs. Some of these songs, however, are sung by women. The extreme banalization of sex and the incitement of promiscuity is viewed as a negative aspect of the funk carioca culture. Besides the moral considerations, in favelas, where sanitary conditions are poor and sex education low, this might lead to public health and social issues. In such communities, definitive contraceptive methods are hardly available and due to lack of education and awareness, family planning is close to nonexistent. This environment results in unwanted pregnancies, population overgrowth, and eventually the growth of the communities (favelização). The glamorization of criminality in the favelas is also frequently viewed as another negative consequence of funk carioca. Some funk songs, belonging to a style known as "proibidão" ("the forbidden"), have very violent lyrics and are sometimes composed by drug-dealing gangs. Its themes include praising the murders of rival gang members and cops, intimidating opposers, claiming power over the favelas, robbery, drug use and the illicit life of drug dealers in general. Authorities view some of these lyrics as "recruiting" people to organized crime and inciting violence, and playing some of these songs are thus considered a crime. Due to the lack of regulation and the locations where they usually take place, "bailes funk" are also very crime prone environments. They are popular hot spots for drug trade and consumption, dealers display power frequenting the parties heavily armed, and even murder rates are high. More popular funk carioca artists usually compose two different sets of similar lyrics for their songs: one gentler, more "appropriate" version, and another with a harsher, cruder set of lyrics (not unlike the concept of "clean" and "explicit" versions of songs). The first version is the one broadcast by local radio stations; the second is played in dance halls, parties, and in public by sound cars. Recurrent lyric topics in funk carioca are explicit sexual positions, the funk party, the police force, and the life of slum dwellers in the favelas. Another large part of the lyrics is the use of the world around them – mainly the poverty that has enveloped the area. This is usually denounced in the lyrics and the hope for a better life is carried through many of their messages. See also Surra de Bunda Miami bass References External links "Ghetto Fabulous" Observer Music Monthly article on Baile Funk by Alex Bellos 2005 "Samba, That's So Last Year" article by Alex Bellos at The Guardian 2004 "In The Fight Club Of Rio" article on "corridor balls" at Free Radical by Canadian Nicole Veash 2000 Article with Baile Funk master Sany Pitbull by Sabrina Fidalgo at Musibrasil 2007 "The Funk Phenomenon" article by Bruno Natal at XLR8R magazine 2005 Funk Carioca and Música Soul by Carlos Palombini Brazilian styles of music
4911855	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat%20White%20%28American%20football%29	Pat White (American football)	Patrick Christian White (born February 25, 1986) is an American football offensive assistant for the Los Angeles Chargers of the National Football League (NFL), and former West Virginia University quarterback. He was drafted by the Miami Dolphins in the second round (44th overall) of the 2009 NFL Draft. White was also a baseball outfielder. He was drafted in the fourth round of the 2004 MLB Draft by the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, and in later rounds by the Cincinnati Reds in 2008 and New York Yankees in 2009, but never played for those organizations except in instructional leagues. Early years White was voted 3rd in the Mr. Football for Alabama his senior high school season. His senior season he rushed for 1,905 yards and 31 touchdowns at Daphne High. He also passed for 1,488 yards and 15 touchdowns. He became a class 6-A All-State first team for football, but played pitcher and outfield in baseball as well, winning two state championships. White was being pursued by West Virginia, Auburn, Kentucky, LSU, Mississippi State, and Vanderbilt. However, West Virginia University promised White a chance to play quarterback in college. He originally had committed to LSU as a wide receiver but changed his mind and signed his letter of intent to WVU. College career 2005 White passed up a career in affiliated baseball and a six-figure salary with the Anaheim Angels to play college football. He began the season as a co-starter along with Adam Bednarik. He started his season out against Syracuse, with 63 yards passing and 20 yards rushing. In the 35–7 victory over Wofford, White passed for 82 yards on six passes out of 10, and rushed for 107 yards and a score. In the 31–19 victory over Maryland, White rushed for 62 yards on nine carries. In the 20–15 victory over ECU, White scored his first ever passing touchdown of his collegiate career and added 64 yards passing. In the 34–17 loss to Virginia Tech, White came into the game in the second half. He totaled 9 passes out of 11 attempts for 85 yards for two touchdowns and 44 yards on the ground. White's shared time with Bednarik continued until the seventh game of the season against Louisville. With WVU down 24–7, White came in to replace an injured Bednarik and led the Mountaineers to a 46–44, triple overtime victory. He teamed-up with freshman running back Steve Slaton to lead the Mountaineers with his 118 total yards on the game, while Slaton scored a Big East record 6 touchdowns. The game marked the first major game in the duo's memorable career together. The next game, the 45–13 victory over Connecticut, White totaled 106 passing yards and a touchdown, along with 63 rushing yards and two touchdowns for a total of 169 yards and three scores. In the 38–0 victory over Cincinnati, White passed for 100 yards and a score and rushed for 111 yards on only eight carries for 211 total yards. It marked the first 200-yard game of his career. One of White's best games in the tenure before the bowl game was against Pittsburgh in the Backyard Brawl rivalry game. He threw for 41 yards and a touchdown, and ran for 220 yards and 2 touchdowns in the 45–13 win. It was only White's second career 200-yard game and it had come consecutively to his previous 200-yard game against Cincinnati. Against USF, White led the Mountaineers to their first undefeated Big East season since 1993 with a 177-yard, two touchdown rushing performance. He had the longest rush of his career to date, a 76-yard run, and also totaled 89 yards and score through the air for his third consecutive 200-yard game of his freshman season. With White now the starting quarterback, the Mountaineers won the rest of their games to win the Big East Conference title and earn a bid to the 2006 Sugar Bowl against the Georgia Bulldogs. In what was essentially a home game for the Bulldogs as the Sugar Bowl was moved to the Georgia Dome due to Hurricane Katrina, White had what many described as his "coming-out party", rushing for 77 yards and throwing for 120 yards and a touchdown in WVU's 38–35 win against the Bulldogs. That season, he passed for 828 yards and 8 touchdowns. He also rushed for 952 yards and 7 touchdowns, which was then a new Big East and WVU record for quarterback rushing yards in a season. He also had three consecutive 200-yard games, which ended when he came short with 197 yards in the Sugar Bowl. White and Steve Slaton ended the season with 2,995 total yards and 24 touchdowns between the two players. 2006 White, running back Steve Slaton, and fullback Owen Schmitt were featured on one of the six regional covers of the August 21, 2006 issue of Sports Illustrated, as part of their "Big Men On Campus" article and their 2006–2007 college football season preview. Slaton was named West Virginia's "Big Man On Campus" in the same issue. White was named as one of 35 players to watch for the Walter Camp Football Foundation Player of the Year award. White followed up a tremendous freshman season with a great sophomore season, in which he passed for 1,655 yards and 13 TDs and rushed for 1,219 yards and 18 touchdowns on his way to being named the Big East Offensive Player of the Year and was named to the first-team all-Big East squad. He was considered the leader of the team and his three best performances of the year came in the Gator Bowl, in the loss to Louisville when White continued to try to come back late in the game, and against Pittsburgh in the annual rivalry game, a 45–27 win, when he threw for 204 yards and two touchdowns, and ran for 220 yards and two touchdowns. His 200+ rushing and passing yards makes him one of only eight players in NCAA history to do so in a game. He was also caught on camera mocking the Pitt Panther growl by a national ESPN audience in that game. Pittsburgh linebacker H. B. Blades, who was an all-Big East selection that season, said, "Pat White is the best quarterback in college football," after the loss. In the Gator Bowl against Georgia Tech, White battled ankle, neck, and wrist injuries and a 35–17 third-quarter deficit to bring the Mountaineers back to win 38–35 without the help of back Steve Slaton, who was out with injuries as well. White took the ball on 10 of the last 12 plays, gaining 54 yards and four first downs, to run out the clock for the Mountaineers. Georgia Tech linebacker Philip Wheeler said when asked the three players he liked to watch in college football, "Three? Forget it. How about one? Pat White. Dude is unbelievable. I mean, he can do it all. He's fast, he stronger than he looks and he can throw it. Yeah, I love watching him -- as long as he's not doing it to us." Also against Syracuse, White rushed for a career-high 247 yards and scored four touchdowns. White earned the Alabama Athlete of the Year award on May 8, 2007, for his sophomore season. He was also granted the key to his hometown of Daphne. White's all-purpose offense total of 2,878 yards is ranked third on the most total offense yards in a season in West Virginia school history, while his 1,219 rushing yards is the most ever in a season by a West Virginia quarterback, breaking his 2005 record. His 18 rushing touchdowns is tied for a school record in a season with running backs Ira Errett Rodgers and Amos Zereoué. White and running back Steve Slaton combined for 2,963 yards and 31 touchdowns rushing in the season. They totaled 4,978 total yards and 49 touchdowns together on the season, the second-best output between the two in their three-year career together. 2007 In the season opener against Western Michigan, White ended the day going 10-of-18 with 192 yards and two touchdowns through the air, also rushing for 98 yards and two touchdowns as the Mountaineers won 62–24. White's first rushing touchdown was a 38-yard scramble. In the next week against Marshall, the Mountaineers pulled away in the second half with 42 points to win the game 48–23. White led West Virginia to the win with 149 passing yards and two touchdowns and 125 rushing yards and a touchdown – WVU's first score of the game coming off of White's 46-yard pass to Darius Reynaud. In the third game of the season against Maryland, White was eight of thirteen passing with 92 yards and eleven rushes for 22 yards and a touchdown in the 31–14 win. In the following contest against ECU, White went 18-of-20 with 186 yards and two touchdown passes and nine rushes for 44 yards and two touchdowns. White's 90% passing accuracy tied a school record set in 1970, and he completed passes to eight different receivers. The Mountaineers' lost against USF 21–13 at South Florida the following game. White was injured in the game, but went 12-18 for 100 yards, although throwing his first interception on the season. The next game against Syracuse in a 55–14 win, White went 12–15 with 148 yards for a touchdown before injuring his shoulder. He also had 89 yards and a touchdown on 14 carries while being named Big East Player of the Week. At homecoming against Mississippi State, White only played the first half of the 38–13 blowout of the Bulldogs – totaling 8-of-12 passing with 61 yards and a touchdown and had five rushes for 89 yards, including a 64-yard run on the first play of the game for a touchdown. In New Jersey against #25 Rutgers, White threw for 144 yards while going 10-of-16, also rushing for 156 yards on 22 carries for a touchdown – accounting for 300 total yards of offense in the 31–3 win. Against Louisville, White led the Mountaineers to a 38–31 dramatic win. With the game tied 31–31 with less than two minutes less, White ran 50 yards for the game-winning touchdown – finishing the game by going 16-of-25 for 181 yards and two touchdowns while rushing for 147 yards on 24 carries and a touchdown (328 total yards), while also being awarded the Player of the Game honor from ESPN and named Big East Offensive Player of the Week. In the 28–23 win on the road against #22 Cincinnati, White led the Mountaineers to the victory by going 13-of-19 for 140 passing yards with an interception and rushing 27 times for 155 yards and two touchdowns, a total of 295 total offensive yards. His 155 rushing yards put him over Vince Young on the career NCAA quarterback rushing list as he moved to over 3,000 career rushing yards, the first Big East quarterback ever to do so. White and the Mountaineers wrapped up the 2007 Big East Championship with their 66–21 win over #20 Connecticut. White ended the game by going 9 of 13 for 107 yards for a touchdown, but throwing a late interception, and running 16 times for 186 yards and 2 touchdowns. He ended the game with a total of 293 yards and three total touchdowns. White also passed former Mountaineer quarterback Rasheed Marshall to become the school leader for the most total touchdowns. WVU entered the game against Pittsburgh as 28 point favorites to win the 100th Backyard Brawl and earn a berth in the BCS championship game. The Mountaineers, however, could never get their high-powered offense going against the Panthers and were hurt by fumbles, missed field goals, a run game they could not stop, and a thumb injury to the non-throwing hand of White. Trailing by one possession late in the fourth quarter (Pat White's backup had scored the only touchdown for West Virginia), West Virginia twice had the ball in Pitt territory. White had just returned but both times failed to convert on fourth down plays. The final Pitt possession saw the underdogs run the ball out of the back of the end zone for a safety as the clock expired. West Virginia kicker Pat McAfee missed two field goals in the game and Pitt's kicker missed one. The loss cost his team a place in the national championship game. In the 48-28 Fiesta Bowl victory over Oklahoma under interim head coach Bill Stewart, White earned the MVP award after passing for 176 yards and two touchdowns and rushing for 150 yards – his sixth career 300-yard game effort. White was named to the ESPN All-Bowl Team following the bowl season, being the only quarterback on the list. ESPN ranked White's performance in the Fiesta Bowl as the #9 best in BCS bowl game history. 2008 White was named to the Preseason All-American team. To open up the 2008 football season under head coach Bill Stewart, West Virginia defeated the Villanova Wildcats 48–21. White finished the day by completing 25 of 33 passes for 208 yards and a career-best and stadium-record five touchdowns, while also rushing for 63 yards. White's five passing touchdowns before a sell-out crowd is second-best in school history only to Marc Bulger's six in 1998, and his completions and attempts were also career-highs. In the following game against ECU, White was 11-of-18 for 72 yards and rushed 20 times for 97 yards in the 24–3 loss, for a total of only 169 yards of offense. West Virginia followed-up their loss to ECU with a 17–14 loss in overtime to Colorado, in which White rushed for 149 yards and two touchdowns and passed for 43 yards on 10-of-14 passing. White's 149 yards rushing led the team and his two touchdowns were the only scores of the game for WVU. Following the Colorado game, White completed 17 out of 21 passes for 130 yards and two touchdowns and also rushed 11 times for 61 yards against Marshall. West Virginia began Big East play with a 24–17 victory over Rutgers, in which White was 12-of-17 for 137 yards and two touchdowns passing and rushed 11 times for 59 yards before being taken out in the 3rd quarter after being injured. However, White sat out for the Syracuse game with a head injury, but the Mountaineers won 17-6 – snapping White's consecutive starting streak of 19 games. White started the following game against Auburn, in which the Mountaineers won 34–17. White had two interceptions early in the game, but finished the victory with 174 yards and three touchdowns on 13-of-21 passing. West Virginia then defeated #25 Connecticut 35–13, picking up the team's first road victory of the season. In the win, White completed 11 of 18 passes for 121 yards and a touchdown and rushed 21 times for 109 yards and two touchdowns. White finished the game with 230 total yards and three touchdowns – earning him Big East Offensive Player of the Week honors. However, the Mountaineers then lost the following Big East matchup against the Cincinnati Bearcats, 26–23 in overtime after a late comeback. White finished the game 20 of 38 passing for 219 yards with two touchdowns and an interception, and also rushed 20 times for 41 yards – totaling 260 total yards in the loss. White's 38 passing attempts was a career-high. White and the Mountaineers followed their loss with a 35–21 victory over Louisville in their annual series. White finished the game with 122 yards on 6-of-11 passing for two touchdowns and a season-high 200 yards on 21 carries for three touchdowns, including a 66-yard touchdown run. White's 200 rushing yards broke the NCAA record for most rushing yards in a career by a quarterback, passing Brad Smith for first place with his then-total of 4,292 yards. White's 5 total touchdowns (all of West Virginia's scores in the game), also made him become the most prolific scorer in Big East history, passing Donovan McNabb's 10-year record of 96 total touchdowns responsible for. Following White's record-setting performance against Louisville, the Mountaineers were defeated by Pittsburgh in the Backyard Brawl to the score of 19–15. White finished the loss by going 15 of 28 passing for 143 yards with two interceptions and 12 rushes for 93 yards and a touchdown – a 54-yard scramble. White's 54-yard run was the seventh longest of his career and second longest of 2008, but his two picks allowed Pitt back to finish the comeback win. For White's final regular season game as a Mountaineer, at home against South Florida, West Virginia promoted a "White-Out" to honor his career. In his Senior Night performance, a 13–7 victory over South Florida, White passed for 141 yards and a touchdown and rushed for 40 yards on a snow-covered field to finish his career at West Virginia in front of 48,000 white-clad fans. The Mountaineers' lone touchdown in the win, White's pass, was his 100th career touchdown and credited him with the milestone of 10,000 career total yards. Prior to the game, WVU managers scraped out the number 5 in the middle of the field in snow and formed a "5" in the student section with T-shirts before it opened for fans. White finished his collegiate career in the Meineke Car Care Bowl against North Carolina. White passed for a career-high 332 yards and three touchdowns on 26-of-32 attempts, also rushing 21 times for 55 yards, as the Mountaineers defeated the Tar Heels 31–30. In the victory, White became the first player in college football history to win four bowl games as a starting quarterback and was named the game MVP for the third consecutive bowl game. White ended his senior season with career-highs of 1,844 yards and 21 touchdowns on 180-of-274 passing with seven interceptions through the air and 974 yards rushing on 180 attempts for 8 touchdowns – totaling 2,818 yards and 29 touchdowns on offense. White finished his career with 6,051 yards and 56 touchdowns passing and 4,480 yards and 47 touchdowns rushing – a total of 10,531 yards and 103 touchdowns over his career. White also finished his career sixth in the NCAA among the most career victories as a starting quarterback with 34 overall. In spite of all his accomplishments, White was never an NCAA All-American and is not eligible for the College Football Hall of Fame. Career Rushing Yards by Quarterback On January 1, 2013, Denard Robinson of the University of Michigan surpassed White's career rushing yardage total.Robinson played the position of running back in games and accumulated rushing yards. Due to an NCAA rule, Robinson was given the career rushing record by 15 yards, even though he took handoffs at running back. White also had rushing yards as a running back when he took snaps from the wildcat formation. Awards and honors 2005 ESPN.com all-Big East Freshman All-American Two-time Big East Player of the Week WVU Coaches Contribution Award 2006 Walter Camp Award watchlist Two-time Big East Player of the Week first-team All-Big East first-team All-ECAC Big East Offensive Player of the Year West Virginia University MVP Gator Bowl MVP Davey O'Brien Award semifinalist Alabama Athlete of the Year West Virginia Amateur Athlete of the Year 2007 Three-time Big East Player of the Week Four-time WVU Offensive Player of the Week first-team All-Big East Big East Offensive Player of the Year West Virginia University MVP Davey O'Brien Award semifinalist Walter Camp Award semifinalist Heisman Trophy 6th Place Hardman Award ESPN All-Bowl Team Archie Griffin Award 2008 Fiesta Bowl MVP West Virginia Amateur Athlete of the Year 2008 Hardman Award Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award finalist West Virginia University MVP First-team All-Big East Heisman Trophy 7th place Meineke Car Care Bowl MVP 2009 Senior Bowl MVP West Virginia Amateur Athlete of the Year Records Has started a total of 40 games during his 4-year career. Starting record of 35-8 is unmatched by any quarterback in WVU history and sixth in the NCAA in most career victories as a starting quarterback. First quarterback to have started and won 4 consecutive bowl games. His 4,480 career yards rushing are the second most among any quarterback in FBS history. Denard Robinson, the career leader, and former quarterback at the University of Michigan, also took snaps at the running back position when an injury to the elbow of his throwing arm prevented him from playing quarterback. He has accounted for 100+ touchdowns, which is a Big East record for any position. Game One of only nine players in NCAA history to rush for 200 yards and pass for 200 yards in a game (Pitt 2006, 220 rushing and 204 passing) Highest single-game rushing total by a quarterback in Big East history – 247 yards against Syracuse on October 14, 2006 Tied for most yards of total offense in a single-game in WVU history – 424 yards against Pittsburgh in 2006 Fourth highest single game rushing total in WVU history – 247 Rushing Yards against Syracuse on October 14, 2006 Has three of the top seven highest rushing games in WVU history – #4: 247 yards against Syracuse on October 14, 2006, (tied) #7: 220 yards against Pitt on November 24, 2005, #7: 220 yards at Pitt on November 16, 2006. Season First in rushing yards in a season by a WVU quarterback (2007) – 1,335 yards Second in rushing yards in a season by a WVU quarterback (2006) – 1,219 yards Third in rushing yards in a season by a WVU quarterback (2005) – 952 yards First (tied) in rushing touchdowns in WVU history (2006) – 18 touchdowns Second most rushing yards in a season by a freshman in West Virginia school history (2005) – 952 yards Second in Season Total Yards Gained in WVU history (2007) – 3,059 yards Fourth in Season Total Yards Gained in WVU history (2006) – 2,874 yards Fourth in Season Total Passing Touchdowns in WVU history (2008) – 18 touchdowns Sixth in NCAA single-season quarterback rushing list in yardage (2007) – 1,335 yards Sixth in Season Rushing yards in WVU history (2007) – 1,335 yards Second best passing efficiency in a season at WVU (2006) – 159.73 rating Fifth best passing efficiency in a season at WVU (2007) – 151.40 rating Career passing stats Second in passing efficiency at WVU with a career quarterback rating of 147.62 Second in completion percentage in WVU history by completing 64.6% of his passes Second most in WVU history in passing touchdowns – 52 touchdowns Second all-time in WVU pass completions – 467 completions Fourth all-time in WVU passing yards – 5,576 yards Fifth all-time in WVU pass attempts – 728 attempts Career rushing stats First in NCAA career quarterback rushing list in yardage – 4,480 yards First in Big East and WVU career rushing yardage record for a quarterback – 4,480 yards First in most 200-yard rushing game in a career in WVU history – 4 games Second in total rushing yards in WVU history – 4,480 yards Second in total career rushing touchdowns in WVU history – 47 touchdowns Fourth in total rushing attempts in WVU history – 648 attempts Fourth in WVU career 100 yard rushing games – 18 Fourth in WVU career all-purpose rushing yardage – 4,480 yards First in 200 yard rushing games at WVU with 4 total Third duo (along with Steve Slaton) in FBS history to rush for 1,000 yards in consecutive seasons Career passing/rushing combined First in total offensive yards in a career in WVU history – 10,529 yards First in total touchdowns responsible for in WVU and Big East history – 104 touchdowns Fourth player in NCAA history with 40+ rushing and 40+ passing touchdowns in a career Second player in NCAA history with 4,000+ rushing yards and 5,000+ passing yards. One of five players in NCAA history to rush for 1,000 yards and pass for 1,000 yards in a season. (Accomplished twice, 2006 and 2007) Versus ranked opponents Has a W/L record of 7–2 against top 25 ranked opponents. Has a W/L record of 2–1 against top 10 ranked opponents. Has a W/L record of 1–0 against top 5 ranked opponents. Bowl games White is 4-0 as a starter in bowl games, 2–0 in BCS Bowl Games, becoming the first starting quarterback in college football history to do so. Joins Georgia's David Greene, Tennessee's Peyton Manning and Nebraska's David Humm to win three New Year's Day bowl games. Led WVU to an upset victory over the #9 ranked SEC Champion Georgia Bulldogs in the 2006 BCS Nokia Sugar Bowl. Led WVU to an 18-point come-from-behind victory over ACC runner-up Georgia Tech in the 2007 Gator Bowl. Led WVU to a stunning 20 point upset over #4 ranked Big 12 Champion Oklahoma Sooners in the 2008 BCS Tostitos Fiesta Bowl. Was named 2007 Gator Bowl MVP. Was named 2008 Fiesta Bowl MVP. 79 yard touchdown pass in 2008 Fiesta Bowl is longest pass play in WVU Bowl history. Ran for a team-high 150 yards in Fiesta Bowl victory over Oklahoma. Was named 2009 Meineke Car Care Bowl player of the game. Set career highs with 26 completions and 332 yards passing in final game (Meineike Bowl) 387 total yards against North Carolina was fifth-best single-game total in WVU history Statistics Regular and Post season Bowl games Professional football career Following the end of the regular season in his senior season of 2008, White was offered and accepted a bid to the Senior Bowl, where he worked out for scouts at quarterback. NFL Network's Mike Mayock predicted White to be the Senior Bowl MVP and be a 2nd round selection, while Mel Kiper, Jr. selected White as his #5 quarterback prospect in the class. White finished the Senior Bowl going 4 of 9 passing for 95 yards with a touchdown and 31 yards rushing on three rushes – totaling 126 yards with a touchdown. He led two scoring drives, including a 39-yard touchdown pass, en route to being named the 2009 Senior Bowl MVP. White officially received an invitation to the 2009 NFL Combine. Prior to Combine workouts, he told reporters that he was willing to play other positions besides quarterback in the NFL – although White was praised for his workouts at quarterback. On top of other praise, White as the co-winner of the General Motors Top Combine Performer. On March 3, 2009, White joined the NFL Total Access cast on NFL Network. On March 12, White worked out at his Pro Day exclusively at quarterback, contrary to reports that he would run routes as a receiver and return punts. Soon after, White appeared in a spread for ESPN The Magazine's April 20 feature. Miami Dolphins White was drafted by the Miami Dolphins with the 44th overall pick of the 2009 NFL draft, through a pick acquired from the Washington Redskins in a trade that sent Jason Taylor to Washington. After being drafted, Dolphins' general manager Jeff Ireland stated that White would be in competition for the starting quarterback job with Chad Pennington and Chad Henne, while also being used in the Wildcat formation (effectively making it a spread), and as a receiver. On August 1, 2009 the Dolphins agreed to terms with White on a four-year deal worth around $4.5 million. The deal included $2.4 million in guaranteed money. In the opening preseason game against the Jaguars, White was 2-of-7 passing for 14 yards and one interception (after it was tipped by the receiver). He also had six rushing attempts for 20 yards. White's first big play was set up in shotgun formation in Week 9 against the New England Patriots. The play was an option but White kept it himself and rushed for 33 yards before being stopped. In a game against the Pittsburgh Steelers on January 3, 2010, White suffered a helmet-to-helmet collision when, after being tripped, Ike Taylor hit him in the head and left him unconscious where he was carted off the field. White was released from the hospital the next day and drove himself to the Dolphins Training facility in Davie, Florida where he participated in team meetings just prior to the team breaking for the 2010 off-season. In July 2010, Ricky Williams said that White was the most improved player on the team. White would make two preseason appearances in 2010 prior to being waived on September 4. Virginia Destroyers White was signed by the Virginia Destroyers of the United Football League on June 28, 2011. He was cut on September 1, 2011. Washington Redskins After not playing professional football for two years, White agreed to sign with the Washington Redskins on April 2, 2013. He made four preseason appearances, including one start, prior to being waived on September 14. Edmonton Eskimos White signed with the Edmonton Eskimos of the CFL on March 27, 2014. In his first and only season in the CFL White completed 5-of-9 passes for 54 yards with a touchdown. He also carried the ball for 159 yards on 35 carries (4.54-yard average) with 4 touchdowns. On March 20, 2015, White announced his retirement from professional football. Professional baseball career White was selected by the Los Angeles Angels in the 4th round of the 2004 Major League Baseball Draft. He was offered a six-figure signing bonus, but declined in order to attend West Virginia. After he was waived by the Dolphins, White signed a minor league contract with the Kansas City Royals on September 10, 2010. He participated in the Fall instructional league. On January 25, 2013 White was signed by the Miami Marlins to a minor league contract. Personal life White's first child, Daphne Ruth White, was born on May 21, 2014. His second daughter, Clara, was born in March 2018. He married Cristina Chavarria in June 2020. Coaching career On April 18, 2018, White was hired to be the quarterbacks coach at Alcorn State. He joined his former WVU teammate Ryan Stanchek, who was at the time Alcorn's offensive coordinator. On January 2, 2020, after spending the past two seasons at Alcorn State, White was hired to coach the running backs group at South Florida. Reports came out that White was no longer a member of the USF coaching staff after the 2020 season. White would be hired as quarterbacks coach at Alabama State, serving there in the 2021 season, and after that season taking the same position at another FCS school, Campbell. On July 25, 2022, White was hired as an offensive assistant for the Los Angeles Chargers. References External links West Virginia Mountaineers bio Washington Redskins bio Edmonton Eskimos bio 1986 births Living people African-American baseball players African-American players of American football African-American players of Canadian football Alabama State Hornets football coaches Alcorn State Braves football coaches American football quarterbacks American football wide receivers Baseball outfielders Baseball players from Alabama Campbell Fighting Camels football coaches Canadian football quarterbacks Edmonton Elks players Los Angeles Chargers coaches Miami Dolphins players Minor league baseball players People from Daphne, Alabama Players of American football from Mobile, Alabama Virginia Destroyers players Washington Redskins players West Virginia Mountaineers football players 21st-century African-American sportspeople 20th-century African-American people
4912205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldiers%27%20and%20Sailors%27%20Monument%20%28Cleveland%29	Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (Cleveland)	The Cuyahoga County Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument is a major Civil War monument in Cleveland, Ohio, honoring the more than 9,000 individuals from Cuyahoga County who served the Union throughout the war. It was dedicated on July 4, 1894, and is located on the southeast quadrant of Public Square in Downtown Cleveland. It was designed by architect and Civil War veteran Levi Scofield, who also created the monument's sculptures. The monument is regularly open to the public, free of charge. History and construction Planning (1880–1890) On October 22, 1879, a meeting of Civil War veterans took place in Cleveland, wherein an idea to build a monument was proposed. At this meeting, a resolution was unanimously approved, “to appoint a committee of three, whose duty it will be to formulate a plan for the erection of a suitable monument or memorial to commemorate the Union Soldiers and Sailors of Cuyahoga County.” Shortly thereafter, a convention of the soldiers and sailors of Cuyahoga County was held on October 30. The 1,200 veterans in attendance discussed the idea of creating a monument and chose a seven-man committee to lobby the Ohio General Assembly for funding. On April 2, 1880, an act was passed through the Ohio State Legislature authorizing the Commissioners of Cuyahoga County to levy a county wide tax for the purpose of, “erecting a Monument or Memorial Tablet commemorative of the bravery and valor of all the Soldiers and Sailors from said county, who were killed in any of the battles fought in the service of the Republic of the United States, or who died from wounds or disease received or contracted in such service, and purchase a suitable site therefor.” In 1886, at a meeting of the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Union, an agreement was reached regarding the general design. Some favored a traditional obelisk or shaft, others preferred the idea of a tablet room. Levi T. Scofield, a local veteran and successful architect, was asked to draw up designs and plans for the future structure and proposed a unique combination of the two styles – a tablet room with an obelisk. With the design well in progress, the next question was as to the location of the monument. The initial proposal was to round off the four corners of Cleveland's Public Square and to place a large statue right in the center of the square at the junction of Ontario Street and Superior Avenue. Before this plan could be implemented, the railroad companies developing the rapidly expanding street car system in the city laid claim to the intersection. Other locations throughout the city were considered for the future monument. Nevertheless, the Monument Committee remained stalwart in their desire to see the structure built on Public Square. The Southeast quadrant at the terminus of Euclid Avenue was selected as the most ideal and appropriate site. Negotiations were then begun with the Park Commissioners of the City of Cleveland who maintained Public Square to secure the Southeast quadrant for the project. In April 1888, The General Assembly of the State of Ohio passed House Bill 462 to create a “Board of Commissioners, to be called the Monumental Commissioners of Cuyahoga County, to be composed of twelve persons, who shall be resident electors of said county, and members of the present Monumental Committee of the Cuyahoga County.” The twelve members of this building commission were: William J. Gleason, President Levi F. Bauder, Secretary James Barnett Edward H. Bohm Charles Dewstoe J. J. Elwell Emory W. Force James Hayr Mortimer D. Leggett Joseph B. Molyneaux Levi T. Scofield R. W. Walters Beginning of construction (1890–1894) In early 1890, artists, models, and other artisans began the work of designing the proposed sculptural elements under the direction of Levi T. Scofield. Maquettes of all of the exterior statuaries as well as various architectural features were produced for review and approval by the Monument Commission. The maquettes of the exterior sculptures were exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago along with Scofield's sculpture entitled “These Are My Jewels” which now resides on the property of the Ohio Statehouse in Columbus. In 1975, the maquettes were donated by Douglas F. Schofield II, Levi Scofield's grandson to the citizens of Cuyahoga County, and they are currently on display in Courtroom 2 of the Cuyahoga County Courthouse. As this work progressed, Elizabeth Scofield, the wife of Levi T. Scofield, was tasked with compiling the names of the veterans who would be honored in marble. Due to the fact that the State of Ohio did not complete its official roster of Civil War veterans until the mid-1890s, the names of those who served from the county had to be obtained manually. Using the incomplete records of the Adjutant General of the State of Ohio, Elizabeth Scofield compiled preliminary lists of eligible veterans. From 1889 to 1891, the Commission produced copies of these lists to be disseminated to Civil War veterans and Grand Army of the Republic posts for corrections and verification. With this process complete, work on producing the marble tablets for the memorial room, made from Amherst sandstone, was begun in the latter half of 1891. The Monument Commission, wishing to break ground prior to March 1891, requested that the Cleveland Board of Park Commissioners remove the Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry statue, which sat on the site, pursuant to the act passed by the Ohio State Legislature granting them authority over the Southeast quadrant. These efforts were stonewalled by the city while various interests attempted to persuade the Monument Commissioners to relocate the structure elsewhere. An injunction was filed by the Monument Commission against the City of Cleveland on April 15, 1891, in the Court of Common Pleas demanding relief from the Board of Park Commissioners's efforts to stymie construction. Judge Samuel E. Williamson joined in this suit on the side of the Park Commissioners alleging damages to the value of his nearby property which would result from the presence of the monument. His attorneys were Judge W. W. Boynton, Director and Attorney of the East Cleveland Street Railway Corporation, and Messrs. Estep, Dickey, Carr & Goff. The Court ruled against the Monument Commission. The Commissioners, who referred to this loss as their “Bull Run,” immediately filed an appeal to the Supreme Court of Ohio. Gleason et al. v. Cleveland was decided on June 21, 1892. Relying on the language of the original charter for Public Square from the Connecticut Land Company, it was deemed that the Monument Commission did not need permission from the city government to commence construction. This established the Monument Commission's control over the Southeast Quadrant. The circuit court judgment was reversed and the Monument Commission was given the authority to commence construction. Gleason wrote, “Our Gettysburg had been fought and won!” This cost the taxpayers $2,900 in legal fees. The city again offered any of the other three quadrants of the square to the commission on the basis that obstructing Euclid Avenue may not be desirable considering the city's rapid growth and potential future traffic issues. Other alternative locations presented included Lake View Cemetery, Wade Park, and the corner of Erie and Summit Streets which is approximately the location of modern-day Willard Park. The commission maintained that the Southeast quadrant was the only suitable and appropriate location for the yet unbuilt monument, although they continued to consider other options. A last-ditch legal action was taken by the city to stymie the construction of the monument in late September 1892. An injunction was requested by the city to the United States Circuit Court. In October, the judges in the case determined that the decision of the Ohio Supreme Court was binding and that the authority granted by the State Legislature to the Monument Commission was in keeping with the original land grant which stipulated that Public Square be preserved for “public use.” With this decision, the legal options to prevent the construction of the monument on the Southeast quadrant of Public Square had been fully exhausted. On December 2, 1892, Scofield supervised the removal of the Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry statue and turned it over to city officials whereupon it was relocated to Wade Park. While the city had estimated the moving cost at $300–$500 and pled a lack of funds, the Commission paid only $89.00 for its removal. Likewise, the city had projected the cost of relocating the water pipe at between $2,000–$5,000 and the time to complete the work at five weeks. In the spring of 1893, a new city administration headed by Robert Blee, who supported the construction of the monument, finished the job in four days for a cost of $1,248.68. The Commissioners boasted that it cost far less and happened far quicker than the city had been claiming. Work on the construction of the monument began in earnest in the Spring of 1893 and continued throughout the entire year. By the time the monument was completed, over $272,800 had been spent on its construction which equates to over $7,000,000 today, adjusted for inflation. Dedication (1894) On July 4, 1894, the Cuyahoga County Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument was dedicated on the Southeast quadrant of Public Square. The event was attended by a star-studded list of prominent persons and was begun with a one-hundred gun salute. Former Ohio governor Joseph Foraker spoke at the event. As did Civil War veteran, current Ohio governor, and future president William McKinley. Despite rain throughout the day, thousands of Army and Navy veterans, representatives from the Grand Army of the Republic, City and fraternal organizations, dignitaries, clergymen, school choirs, and bandsmen assembled for a patriotic extravaganza. 1896–1970 In the succeeding decades, the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument was host to numerous high-profile events. It was a focal point during the 1896 celebration of the centennial anniversary of the founding of Cleveland. A large temporary arch was constructed partially on the Southeast quadrant for the event. In September 1901, 36 years after the conclusion of the Civil War, Cleveland hosted the 35th National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic. This was the second time Cleveland hosted the National Encampment, the first being the 6th National Encampment which occurred between May 8 and 9, 1872. The 1901 event saw over 293,000 people travel to Cleveland. President William McKinley – who spoke at the dedication of the monument – was slated to speak at the event upon his return from the Pan-American Exposition occurring in Buffalo, New York. The lavish event was stymied when news of the president's assassination and subsequent death a few days later sent the nation into shock. The monument as well as much of downtown Cleveland was adorned with dark cloth and solemn expressions of mourning. With the turn of the century, the monument remained extremely popular with veterans and many Cuyahoga County residents. However, its location on Public Square and the uniqueness of its architecture again became the subject of criticism. In 1930, a plan to beautify Erie Street Cemetery recommended moving the monument to the cemetery and subjecting it to an extensive restoration. Although this plan was not undertaken, the structure received its first cleaning in 1932. In 1943, a proposal to construct an extensive subway system with a large central station beneath Public Square threatened the monument's position on Public Square. However, this plan was not pursued. A formal cleaning was again undertaken in 1946.From August 10–14, 1947, Cleveland hosted the 81st National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic. However, this event was considerably smaller than the event in 1901 as the Grand Army of the Republic only had 66 remaining members, most of whom were well into their ninth decade of life. In 1959, a downtown master plan revived the idea of constructing a subway station beneath the square. This would have required the monument to be relocated to the Northwest quadrant. During this period, a solution of acid was used to clean the walls of the monument, inadvertently stripping the original colors that had been painted on the stone, leaving the interior seriously altered. It would remain this way for over half a century. The political turmoil of the 1960s and 1970s brought forth a spate of stylistic and ideological opposition to the monument. Plans to modernize Public Square were proposed throughout this period, most including the removal of the monument. The monument was the scene of protests and demonstrations during the Vietnam War. Restoration and centennial (1980–2000) The explosive demolition of the Cuyahoga and Williamson Buildings in 1982, in order to allow for the construction of the Sohio Building, left the nearly 90 year old monument and her statuaries covered in dust. County architect Berj Shakarian reported in 1983 that over $150,000 would be needed for structural repairs to the monument. As more issues were discovered, the total price tag for these repairs were increased to more than $512,000. Shakarian remained involved with the monument. In 1988, he led the extensive redesign of the southeast quadrant. Shakarian became a trustee of the monument in 2011. The monument's centennial was celebrated on 2 July 1994 with a large ceremony. Prominent Civil War historian James McPherson spoke at the event. Ohio Governor George V. Voinovich also attended the ceremony. Extensive renovation (2008–2010) By 2008, the now 114-year-old structure had begun to show its age. In 2006, the Cuyahoga County Commissioners had recommended a modest $1,000,000 restoration of the structure. However, after further investigation of the needs of the monument, it was determined that $2,000,000 would be needed to complete the project. Under the direction of then Monument Commission President Neil K. Evans, this money was raised from federal, state, and county sources as well as from local corporations, foundations, businesses, veterans’ groups, and private individuals. Work on restoring the original colorization of the interior was assisted by individuals from the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. These efforts were widely praised at the time. The monument was reopened in December 2009 and officially rededicated on June 5, 2010, with a large ceremony. Today, visitors can step inside the monument and experience it as it was intended back in 1894. Since 2010 In 2011, researchers discovered that the names of 140 black soldiers from the area were omitted from the tablets. On June 19, 2019, after more than a decade of extensive research, 107 members of the United States Colored Troops were officially added to the monument's Roll of Honor with a formal ceremony. In 2015, the $32,000,000 proposed renovation of Public Square would result in major changes to the area surrounding the monument. This included revising the four-quadrant, New England–style design originally platted by Moses Cleaveland in 1796. Construction began in March 2015 and was completed officially on June 30, 2016, with the rededication of Public Square. During the 2016 Republican National Convention which was held in Cleveland, the Public Square and the monument were the scene of numerous demonstrations. In 2017, the television show American Ninja Warrior was filmed on the newly redesigned Public Square, just outside the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument. On July 4, 2019, the 125th anniversary of the dedication of the monument was celebrated with a ceremony on Public Square. The keynote address was delivered by Major General John C. Harris Jr., adjutant general of the Ohio Army National Guard. The monument remains a popular attraction both for tourists and local residents. Free to visit, around 40,000 visitors pass through the tablet room each year. Exterior design Architecture The monument serves as a unique example of late 19th century architecture. Architect Levi Scofield wished to create a structure that incorporated traditional architectural elements infused with militaristic imagery and symbolism. For example, the supports beneath the arched windows depict upturned cannons, while the edges of the columns running up the length of the building depict ramrods topped with capitals fashioned out of ammunition pouches. The central shaft is composed of Quincey granite and is tall capped with a personification of liberty. The figure, which is wearing a military frock coat and holding a sword and a shield, is oriented northward. The capital of the shaft features militaristic imagery and the bands that wrap around the mid-portion of the shaft have inscribed on them the names of major battles of the Civil War. The four flag poles that anchor the corners of the building are set in embellishments meant to resemble stacked cannonballs. Large bronze eagles sit above the north and south doors. Along the top of the structure, the corps badge emblems are carved in stone. These designs are reflected in the yearly flower displays which have been a tradition since 1894. There is a United States Geological Survey marker installed on the Northwest side of the esplanade. The benchmark was likely placed around the turn of the century and indicates an elevation of 668 feet above sea level. Landscaping As part of the original designs of the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument, the flower beds surrounding the structure were decorated with the insignias of the corps badges used throughout the Civil War, as well as various other military imagery. These designs were maintained in some form for much of the history of the structure until the 1988 redesign of the southeast quadrant which changed the layout and position of the gardens. The more modern shape of the gardens that came out of the redesign of Public Square in 2016 resulted in additional changes to the exterior landscaping. While the corps badge insignias are still included in the designs of the North and West beds, the South and East beds now incorporate other designs such as a G.A.R. badge, a patriotic swoosh, and an anchor. Statuary Groupings The upper esplanade is made of red Medina sandstone and features four large bronze statuary groupings: Mortar Practice, At Short Range, The Color Guard, and the Advanced Guard. The bronze statuary groupings stand atop Berea sandstone pedestals and depict scenes featuring the four branches of the armed forces at the time of the Civil War. Mortar Practice Mortar Practice honors the Navy and features no casualties. It depicts a scene near Island No. 10 on the Mississippi River, where an officer and five men are loading a mortar, in preparation for the shelling of entrenchments. At Short Range At Short Range honors the Artillery. An officer is seen attempting to aim a cannon, unaware that two of his men have fallen. The Color Guard The Color Guard honors the Infantry and is the only statuary that depicts a known battle. Levi T. Scofield, who served in the 103rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry Regiment, chose to depict the 103rd engaged in the Battle of Resaca, Georgia. This was largely considered to be a Union defeat and the grouping is Scofield's memorial to his regiment and the men lost in the battle. Every figure in this grouping has been killed or wounded. The Advanced Guard The Advanced Guard honors the Cavalry. It depicts a Union detachment that has encountered enemy troops. A Union trooper, still astride his injured horse, is seen firing his pistol at an enemy soldier at point blank range. Another Union soldier is seen aiming his carbine southward. A bugler stands at the edge of the scene, summoning help for the embattled Union soldiers. Interior design Overview The interior of the monument is designed to serve as a memorial tablet room. It features marble tablets along the outer walls on which the names of the veterans from Cuyahoga County are engraved. The inner walls, which surround the base of the large granite shaft, feature four large bronze panels. The bronze panels include life-size depictions of allegorical scenes relating to the Civil War. Above the bronze panels on the inner walls are a series of medallions which depict notable military figures from throughout the Civil War. Above the memorial tablets on the outer walls sit a series of busts which depict notable individuals from Cuyahoga County who died as a result of their service. Stained Glass Windows There are 14 stained glass windows which sit above the memorial tablets. Designed by a local glassworks known as H.W. Lewis & Co., they depict the arms and accoutrements of the various branches of the military corresponding to the statuary grouping outside. During the 2008 renovation, they were removed and re-leaded. This work was undertaken by Whitney Stained Glass Studios. Bronze Panels The Northern Ohio Soldiers’ Aid Society and Sanitary Commission Upon entering the South doors, the first panel one will encounter honors the Northern Ohio Soldiers’ Aid Society & Sanitary Commission. Begun in April 1861, shortly after the firing of Fort Sumter, the Soldiers’ Aid Society provided support both for soldiers stationed at the many nearby camps, as well to the local families of soldiers who had left to fight on behalf of the Union. The Soldiers’ Aid Society became a branch of the United States Sanitary Commission, a national organization mostly of women that supported the soldiers of the Union Army by providing supplies, medical expertise, and other services such as soldiers’ homes. Despite being a smaller branch compared to other parts of the Union, the women of the Northern Ohio Sanitary Commission raised nearly $1,000,000 worth of supplies to support the Union soldiers. Recognizing the efforts of women in this manner was progressive for the time. This panel features life-sized figures of individuals including Rebecca Cromwell Rouse, a leading social-services organizer and reformer; Lucy Webb Hayes, first-lady of the United States; as well as a Catholic nun, believed to be a Sister of Charity who is seen dressing the arm of a wounded man. Individuals Depicted (left to right, names as they appear): Mrs. John Shelly, Miss Ellen Terry, Mrs. W.M. Melhinch, Mrs. Benjamin Rouse, Miss Sara Mahan, Miss Mary C. Brayton, Mrs. J.A. Harris, Mrs. Rutherford B. Hayes, and Mrs. Peter Thatcher, Unidentified Catholic Nun. The Beginning of the War in Ohio Moving clockwise, the Beginning of the War panel depicts Ohio's three wartime governors, William Dennison Jr., David Tod, and John Brough in the center. Surrounding these men are major generals either from Ohio or in charge of Ohio troops. These include James A. Garfield, Jacob D. Cox, George B. McClellan, William S. Rosecrans, Rutherford B. Hayes, and Quincy A. Gilmore. In the background of the panel, there is a depiction of civilians signing up for military service on the right and, on the left, leaving for war in uniform. Individuals Depicted: James A. Garfield, Jacob D. Cox, George B. McClellan, William Dennison, David Tod, John Brough, William S. Rosecrans, Rutherford B. Hayes, Quincy A. Gilmore. The Emancipation Panel This represents two important pieces of federal legislation: the Emancipation Proclamation and the creation of the United States Colored Troops. Behind Abraham Lincoln stand four major figures from Ohio who fought for emancipation: Joshua R. Giddings, Benjamin Wade, Salmon P. Chase, and John Sherman. Abraham Lincoln, who stands at the center, is seen handing a union rifle to an African-American man named Dan R. Field who is seen being sworn into the Army. The panel faces North. Individuals Depicted: John Sherman, Salmon P. Chase, Dan R. Field, Abraham Lincoln, Benjamin F. Wade, Joshua R. Giddings. The Peace-Makers at City Point The Peace-Makers at City Point depicts an allegorical meeting between Abraham Lincoln and his generals and admirals discussing how the war would be brought to an end. Although not all of the men depicted in this panel were in the same place at the same time, the depiction was inspired by an actual council of war that occurred in March 1865 between President Lincoln, General Ulysses Grant, General William Sherman, and Admiral David Porter abroad the steamship called the River Queen near City Point, Virginia. At this meeting that Lincoln expressed his desire for a swift end to the war and magnanimous treatment of the rebels thereafter. General Sherman's aggressive posture in this panel represents his opposition to Lincoln's desires, favoring a much more aggressive strategy. Lincoln stands calmly, contrasting Sherman's stance while Grant stands off to the side. The panel mirrors the well-known 1868 painting called The Peacemakers by George P. A. Healy. Individuals Depicted: George A. Custer, Phillip H. Sheridan, George Crook, Ulysses S. Grant, John A. Rawlins, Abraham Lincoln, Robert T. Lincoln, Mortimer D. Leggett, Wm.T. Sherman, G.K. Warren, George G. Meade, E.O.C. Ord, David D. Porter, A.A. Humphreys Medallions The bronze medallions are affixed to the inner wall above the bronze panels and depict notable Ohioans associated with the Civil War. North Wall James B. McPherson Edwin M. Stanton William Babcock Hazen South Wall Alvin Coe Voris John Johnson Elwell John Stephen Casement East Wall Alexander McDowell McCook James Blair Steedman Manning Ferguson Force West Wall Emerson Opdycke George Washington Morgan Charles A. Hartman Notable honorees Roll of Honor James Barnett – Highest Ranking Officer from Cuyahoga County during the Civil War, Businessman, and Philanthropist – Tablet 27, North Door Bust Henry D. Coffinberry – Pioneer of the Modern Great Lakes Shipping Industry, President of the American Ship Building Company – Tablet 36 Henry Kirke Cushing – Prominent Physician, Educator, and Medical Reformer, Father of Harvey Cushing – Tablet 1 John H. Devereaux – Civil Engineer, Prominent Railroad Executive, Original Purchaser of The Spirit of '76 in which His Son, Henry Devereaux, Modeled as the Drummer – Tablet 36 Franz Frey – Medal of Honor Recipient for gallantry during the Siege of Vicksburg on May 22, 1863 – Tablet 6 William Gleason – President of Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument Commission, Secretary of Cleveland Public Library – Tablet 21 Marcus Alonzo Hanna – Businessman, Republican Senator from Ohio, Chairman of the Republican National Committee, and Close Advisor to President William McKinley – Tablet 20 Charles Hartman – Cuyahoga County Coroner, Only Union Regimental Surgeon Killed in Battle – Tablet 4, West Wall Medallion Joseph A. Joel – Editor and Publisher of the Grand Army Gazette, Friend of Rutherford B. Hayes, Author of 1866 Article in the Jewish Messenger Detailing His Observance of Passover while in the Union Army – Tablet 4 Simon Perkins – Ohio State Senator and Representative, Business Partner of John Brown, Son of Simon Perkins – Tablet 36 Jay C. Morse – Co-founder of Pickands Mather & Company, Shipping Agent for Cleveland Iron Mining Company. – Tablet 20 James S. Pickands – Co-founder of Pickands Mather & Company – Tablet 1 Franklin Rockefeller – Businessman, co-founder of Union Sulphur Company – Tablet 2 Levi Tucker Scofield – Prominent Architect and Sculptor, Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument Commissioner, First Cleveland Architect to join the American Institute of Architects, Author of The Retreat from Pulaski to Nashville – Tablet 14, South Door Bust Zephaniah Swift Spaulding – Appointed by President Andrew Johnson to Serve as American Consul to the Kingdom Hawaiʻi, Son of Rufus Spalding – Tablet 5 Anson Stager – Western Union Executive, Head of the Military Telegraph Department (1861-1868) – Tablet 36 George Steinbrenner – Grandfather of George Michael Steinbrenner III – Tablet 2 Randall P. Wade – Businessman, Chief Clerk of Military Telegraph Operations, Son of Jeptha Homer Wade, Father of Jeptha Homer Wade II – Tablet 36 Charles Whittlesey – Geologist, co-founder and President of the Western Reserve Historical Society – Tablet 4 Edward P. Williams – Co-founder of Sherwin-Williams – Tablet 12 Soldiers' Aid Society of Northern Ohio Mary Clark Brayton – Secretary of Cleveland Soldiers' Aid Society, Co-Author of Our Acre and Its Harvest, Co-Organizer of Northern Ohio Sanitary Fair Rebecca Cromwell Rouse – Philanthropist, Reformer, Founder of the First Baptist Church of Greater Cleveland, The Cleveland Ladies Temperance Union, and the Protestant Orphan Asylum, Organizer of the Cleveland Soldiers’ Aid Society Ellen F. Terry – Treasurer of Cleveland Soldiers' Aid Society, Co-Author of Our Acre and Its Harvest, Co-Organizer of Northern Ohio Sanitary Fair See also History of Cleveland Cleveland in the American Civil War Ohio in the American Civil War References External links Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument Commission 1894 establishments in Ohio 1894 sculptures Bronze sculptures in Ohio Buildings and structures in Cleveland Downtown Cleveland History of Cleveland Monumental columns in the United States Sculptures of birds in Ohio Sculptures of men in Ohio Sculptures of women in Ohio Statues in Ohio Tourist attractions in Cleveland Towers completed in 1894 Union (American Civil War) monuments and memorials in Ohio Sculptures of eagles
4912446	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interprocedural%20optimization	Interprocedural optimization	Interprocedural optimization (IPO) is a collection of compiler techniques used in computer programming to improve performance in programs containing many frequently used functions of small or medium length. IPO differs from other compiler optimizations by analyzing the entire program as opposed to a single function or block of code. IPO seeks to reduce or eliminate duplicate calculations and inefficient use of memory and to simplify iterative sequences such as loops. If a call to another routine occurs within a loop, IPO analysis may determine that it is best to inline that routine. Additionally, IPO may re-order the routines for better memory layout and locality. IPO may also include typical compiler optimizations applied on a whole-program level, for example dead code elimination (DCE), which removes code that is never executed. IPO also tries to ensure better use of constants. Modern compilers offer IPO as an option at compile-time. The actual IPO process may occur at any step between the human-readable source code and producing a finished executable binary program. For languages that compile on a file-by-file basis, effective IPO across translation units (module files) requires knowledge of the "entry points" of the program so that a whole program optimization (WPO) can be run. In many cases, this is implemented as a link-time optimization (LTO) pass, because the whole program is visible to the linker. Analysis The objective of any optimization for speed is to have the program run as swiftly as possible; the problem is that it is not possible for a compiler to correctly analyze a program and determine what it will do, much less what the programmer intended for it to do. By contrast, human programmers start at the other end with a purpose, and attempt to produce a program that will achieve it, preferably without expending a lot of thought in the process. For various reasons, including readability, programs are frequently broken up into a number of procedures that handle a few general cases. However, the generality of each procedure may result in wasted effort in specific usages. Interprocedural optimization represents an attempt at reducing this waste. Suppose there is a procedure that evaluates F(x), and that F is a pure function, and the code requests the result of F(6) and then later, F(6) again. This second evaluation is almost certainly unnecessary: the result could have instead been saved and referred to later. This simple optimization is foiled the moment that the implementation of F(x) becomes impure; that is, its execution involves reference to parameters other than the explicit argument 6 that have been changed between the invocations, or side effects such as printing some message to a log, counting the number of evaluations, accumulating the CPU time consumed, preparing internal tables so that subsequent invocations for related parameters will be facilitated, and so forth. Losing these side effects via non-evaluation a second time may be acceptable, or they may not. More generally, aside from optimization, the second reason to use procedures is to avoid duplication of code that would produce the same results, or almost the same results, each time the procedure is performed. A general approach to optimization would therefore be to reverse this: some or all invocations of a certain procedure are replaced by the respective code, with the parameters appropriately substituted. The compiler will then try to optimize the result. WPO and LTO Whole program optimization (WPO) is the compiler optimization of a program using information about all the modules in the program. Normally, optimizations are performed on a per module, "compiland", basis; but this approach, while easier to write and test and less demanding of resources during the compilation itself, does not allow certainty about the safety of a number of optimizations such as aggressive inlining and thus cannot perform them even if they would actually turn out to be efficiency gains that do not change the semantics of the emitted object code. Link-time optimization (LTO) is a type of program optimization performed by a compiler to a program at link time. Link time optimization is relevant in programming languages that compile programs on a file-by-file basis, and then link those files together (such as C and Fortran), rather than all at once (such as Java's just-in-time compilation (JIT)). Once all files have been compiled separately into object files, traditionally, a compiler links (merges) the object files into a single file, the executable. However, in LTO as implemented by the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and LLVM, the compiler is able to dump its intermediate representation (IR), i.e. GIMPLE bytecode or LLVM bitcode, respectively, so that all the different compilation units that will go to make up a single executable can be optimized as a single module when the link finally happens. This expands the scope of interprocedural optimizations to encompass the whole program (or, rather, everything that is visible at link time). With link-time optimization, the compiler can apply various forms of interprocedural optimization to the whole program, allowing for deeper analysis, more optimization, and ultimately better program performance. In practice, LTO does not always optimize the entire program—library functions, especially dynamically linked shared objects, are intentionally kept out to avoid excessive duplication and to allow for updating. Static linking does naturally lend to the concept of LTO, but it only works with library archives that contain IR objects as opposed to machine-code only object files. Due to performance concerns, not even the entire unit is always directly used—a program could be partitioned in a divide-and-conquer style LTO such as GCC's WHOPR. And of course, when the program being built is itself a library, the optimization would keep every externally-available (exported) symbol, without trying too hard at removing them as a part of DCE. A much more limited form of WPO is still possible without LTO, as exemplified by GCC's switch. This mode makes GCC assume that the module being compiled contains the entry point of the entire program, so that every other function in it is not externally used and can be safely optimized away. Since it only applies to a single module, it cannot truly encompass the whole program. It can be combined with LTO in the one-big-module sense, which is useful when the linker is not communicating back to GCC about what entry points or symbols are being used externally. Example Program example; integer b; {A variable "global" to the procedure Silly.} Procedure Silly(a,x) if x < 0 then a:=x + b else a:=-6; End Silly; {Reference to b, not a parameter, makes Silly "impure" in general.} integer a,x; {These variables are visible to Silly only if parameters.} x:=7; b:=5; Silly(a,x); write(x); Silly(x,a); write(x); Silly(b,b); write(b); End example; If the parameters to Silly are passed by value, the actions of the procedure have no effect on the original variables, and since Silly does nothing to its environment (read from a file, write to a file, modify global variables such as b, etc.) its code plus all invocations may be optimized away entirely, leaving the value of a undefined (which doesn't matter) so that just the statements remain, simply printing constant values. If instead the parameters are passed by reference, then action on them within Silly does indeed affect the originals. This is usually done by passing the machine address of the parameters to the procedure so that the procedure's adjustments are to the original storage area. Thus in the case of pass by reference, procedure Silly does have an effect. Suppose that its invocations are expanded in place, with parameters identified by address: the code amounts to x:=7; b:=5; if x < 0 then a:=x + b else a:=-6; write(x); {a is changed.} if a < 0 then x:=a + b else x:=-6; write(x); {Because the parameters are swapped.} if b < 0 then b:=b + b else b:=-6; write(b); {Two versions of variable b in Silly, plus the global usage.} The compiler could then in this rather small example follow the constants along the logic (such as it is) and find that the predicates of the if-statements are constant and so... x:=7; b:=5; a:=-6; write(7); {b is not referenced, so this usage remains "pure".} x:=-1; write(-1); {b is referenced...} b:=-6; write(-6); {b is modified via its parameter manifestation.} And since the assignments to a, b and x deliver nothing to the outside world - they do not appear in output statements, nor as input to subsequent calculations (whose results in turn do lead to output, else they also are needless) - there is no point in this code either, and so the result is write(7); write(-1); write(-6); A variant method for passing parameters that appear to be "by reference" is copy-in, copy-out whereby the procedure works on a local copy of the parameters whose values are copied back to the originals on exit from the procedure. If the procedure has access to the same parameter but in different ways as in invocations such as Silly(a,a) or Silly(a,b), discrepancies can arise. So, if the parameters were passed by copy-in, copy-out in left-to-right order then Silly(b,b) would expand into p1:=b; p2:=b; {Copy in. Local variables p1 and p2 are equal.} if p2 < 0 then p1:=p2 + b else p1:=-6; {Thus p1 may no longer equal p2.} b:=p1; b:=p2; {Copy out. In left-to-right order, the value from p1 is overwritten.} And in this case, copying the value of p1 (which has been changed) to b is pointless, because it is immediately overwritten by the value of p2, which value has not been modified within the procedure from its original value of b, and so the third statement becomes write(5); {Not -6} Such differences in behavior are likely to cause puzzlement, exacerbated by questions as to the order in which the parameters are copied: will it be left to right on exit as well as entry? These details are probably not carefully explained in the compiler manual, and if they are, they will likely be passed over as being not relevant to the immediate task and long forgotten by the time a problem arises. If (as is likely) temporary values are provided via a stack storage scheme, then it is likely that the copy-back process will be in the reverse order to the copy-in, which in this example would mean that p1 would be the last value returned to b instead. The process of expanding a procedure in-line should not be regarded as a variant of textual replacement (as in macro expansions) because syntax errors may arise as when parameters are modified and the particular invocation uses constants as parameters. Because it is important to be sure that any constants supplied as parameters will not have their value changed (constants can be held in memory just as variables are) lest subsequent usages of that constant (made via reference to its memory location) go awry, a common technique is for the compiler to generate code copying the constant's value into a temporary variable whose address is passed to the procedure, and if its value is modified, no matter; it is never copied back to the location of the constant. Put another way, a carefully written test program can report on whether parameters are passed by value or reference, and if used, what sort of copy-in and copy-out scheme. However, variation is endless: simple parameters might be passed by copy whereas large aggregates such as arrays might be passed by reference; simple constants such as zero might be generated by special machine codes (such as Clear, or LoadZ) while more complex constants might be stored in memory tagged as read-only with any attempt at modifying it resulting in immediate program termination, etc. In general This example is extremely simple, although complications are already apparent. More likely it will be a case of many procedures, having a variety of deducible or programmer-declared properties that may enable the compiler's optimizations to find some advantage. Any parameter to a procedure might be read only, be written to, be both read and written to, or be ignored altogether giving rise to opportunities such as constants not needing protection via temporary variables, but what happens in any given invocation may well depend on a complex web of considerations. Other procedures, especially function-like procedures will have certain behaviours that in specific invocations may enable some work to be avoided: for instance, the Gamma function, if invoked with an integer parameter, could be converted to a calculation involving integer factorials. Some computer languages enable (or even require) assertions as to the usage of parameters, and might further offer the opportunity to declare that variables have their values restricted to some set (for instance, 6 < x ≤ 28) thus providing further grist for the optimisation process to grind through, and also providing worthwhile checks on the coherence of the source code to detect blunders. But this is never enough - only some variables can be given simple constraints, while others would require complex specifications: how might it be specified that variable P is to be a prime number, and if so, is or is not the value 1 included? Complications are immediate: what are the valid ranges for a day-of-month D given that M is a month number? And are all violations worthy of immediate termination? Even if all that could be handled, what benefit might follow? And at what cost? Full specifications would amount to a re-statement of the program's function in another form and quite aside from the time the compiler would consume in processing them, they would thus be subject to bugs. Instead, only simple specifications are allowed with run-time range checking provided. In cases where a program reads no input (as in the example), one could imagine the compiler's analysis being carried forward so that the result will be no more than a series of print statements, or possibly some loops expediently generating such values. Would it then recognise a program to generate prime numbers, and convert to the best-known method for doing so, or, present instead a reference to a library? Unlikely! In general, arbitrarily complex considerations arise (the Entscheidungsproblem) to preclude this, and there is no option but to run the code with limited improvements only. History For procedural languages like ALGOL, interprocedural analysis and optimization appear to have entered commercial practice in the early 1970s. IBM's PL/I Optimizing Compiler performed interprocedural analysis to understand the side effects of both procedure calls and exceptions (cast, in PL/I terms as "on conditions") and in papers by Fran Allen. Work on compilation of the APL programming language was necessarily interprocedural. The techniques of interprocedural analysis and optimization were the subject of academic research in the 1980s and 1990s. They re-emerged into the commercial compiler world in the early 1990s with compilers from both Convex Computer Corporation (the "Application Compiler" for the Convex C4) and from Ardent (the compiler for the Ardent Titan). These compilers demonstrated that the technologies could be made sufficiently fast to be acceptable in a commercial compiler; subsequently interprocedural techniques have appeared in a number of commercial and non-commercial systems. Flags and implementation Unix-like The GNU Compiler Collection has function inlining at all optimization levels. At this only applies to those only called once (), at this constraint is relaxed (). By default this is a single-file-only behavior, but with link-time optimization it becomes whole program. Clang's command-line interface is similar to that of GCC, with the exception that there is no option. Object files produced by LTO contain a compiler-specific intermediate representation (IR) that is interpreted at link-time. To make sure this plays well with static libraries, newer GNU linkers have a "linker plugin" interface that allows the compiler to convert the object files into a machine code form when needed. This plugin also helps drive the LTO process in general. Alternatively, a "fat LTO" object can be produced to contain both machine code and the IR, but this takes more space. Since both GCC and LLVM (clang) are able produce an IR from a variety of programming languages, link-time IPO can happen even across language boundaries. This is most commonly demonstrated with C and C++, but LLVM makes it possible for Rust and all other LLVM-based compilers too. Non-LTO options GCC and Clang perform IPO by default at optimization level 2. However, the degree of optimization is limited when LTO is disabled, as IPO can only happen within an object file and non-static functions can never be eliminated. The latter problem has a non-LTO solution: the switch can be used to assume that only is non-static, i.e. visible from the outside. Another non-LTO technique is "function sections" ( in GCC and Clang). By placing each function into its own section in the object file, the linker can perform dead code removal without an IR by removing unreferenced sections (using the linker option ). A similar option is available for variables, but it causes much worse code to be produced. Other The Intel C/C++ compilers allow whole-program IPO. The flag to enable interprocedural optimizations for a single file is , the flag to enable interprocedural optimization across all files in the program is . The MSVC compiler, integrated into Visual Studio, also supports interprocedural optimization on the whole program. A compiler-independent interface for enabling whole-program interprocedural optimizations is via the property in CMake. See also Profile-guided optimization (PGO) Single compilation unit References External links How to trick C/C++ compilers into generating terrible code? Compiler optimizations
4912876	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane%20Roar%20FC	Brisbane Roar FC	Brisbane Roar Football Club is an Australian professional football club based in Brisbane, Queensland and has won the domestic title on three occasions, as well as holding the longest unbeaten record of 36 league matches without defeat. Brisbane competes in the country's premier competition, the A-League, and has Ross Aloisi as manager. The club has a shared history with Queensland Lions F.C. who competed in the inaugural A-League season as Queensland Roar. Background Formed in 1957 as Hollandia-Inala by Dutch immigrants, the club became 'Brisbane Lions' and then transitioned into Queensland Roar, playing under that name from the inaugural 2005–06 season of the A-League until the 2008–09 season before finally becoming 'Brisbane Roar'. Since joining the A-League, the club has won two league Premierships, three Championships and has competed in five AFC Champions League competitions. Brisbane Roar holds the record for the longest unbeaten run at the top level of any Australian football code, which stands at 36 league matches without defeat. Brisbane Roar are also the first and only club to win back to back Hyundai A-League Championships, and are the only club not have lost the Grand Final in the Hyundai A-League. The youth team competes in the A-League Youth and the women's team competes in the A-League Women. Commencing in 2014, the youth teams also compete in the NPL Queensland in order to provide sufficient matches to further develop their abilities. The youth team competes in the senior men's NPLQ division while the women's team compete in the NPLQ-W. The youth matches are typically played Roar's CoE while women's matches are played at various locations across Brisbane, including Heritage Park, Goodwin Park, QSAC, A.J. Kelly Park, Perry Park and occasionally Suncorp Stadium. History Foundation as Hollandia-Inala F.C. (1957–1970s) The origins of Brisbane Roar are traced back to the founding of Hollandia F.C. by Dutch immigrants in 1957. The club competed under this name for almost 20 years until, in the interest of inclusiveness and because perceptions that members of the public saw soccer as a migrants' game, all clubs were required to adopt non-ethnic names after a ruling by the Queensland Soccer Federation in 1973. Brisbane Lions F.C. (1973–2004) The club continued to be based in the Brisbane suburb of Richlands. After adopting the name Brisbane Lions in the 1970s, the club joined the National Soccer League (NSL) as one of the founding clubs in the 1977 season and competed until the end of the 1988 season before reverting down to the Brisbane Premier League thereafter. In the 1990s, the club again changed its name to Queensland Lions after coming to an agreement with the Australian rules football club, Brisbane Lions. At the end of the 2004 season, Queensland Lions withdrew from the local Senior Men's competition to compete in the new National A-League as Queensland Roar. The Premier Youth team remained in the local soccer league. For the next 3 seasons the senior Lions F.C. men's team was the Brisbane Roar but after 3 financially challenging years, Queensland Lions relinquished ownership of the Roar and reformed their men's team in the local Senior Men's competition. Entering the A-League (2004) Lions F.C. entered the A-League as Queensland Roar as a foundation member in 2004. The club continued to be based at Richlands where club administration and player training continued. At the time of conception of the A-League, teams from several capital cities were preferred to form the foundation clubs. By June 2004, two of the twenty submissions for joining the league were sought by partnerships formed in Brisbane, the capital of Queensland. On 1 November 2004, the group headed by Queensland Lions were chosen as operators of the Brisbane team. On 2 March the following year, Queensland Roar FC were officially announced. The board consisted of chairman John Ribot, a former CEO of both National Rugby League clubs Brisbane Broncos and Melbourne Storm, deputy chairman Gary Wilkins, former Queensland and Australian international player, and CEO Lawrence Oudendyk, who was also Queensland Lions CEO. Early A-League years (2004–2009) Miron Bleiberg was appointed as the inaugural manager on 2 March 2005. Under pressure from the fans to deliver on his promises of attractive, attacking and successful soccer he resigned on 12 November 2006 following a poor start to the 2006–07 season. After much speculation, Bleiberg was replaced by former Australian national team coach, Frank Farina just three days after Bleiberg's resignation. Frank Farina's arrival led to a mini-revival which saw the club narrowly miss out on what would have been the Roar's first finals appearance, on goal difference. The 2007–08 season, however, saw Farina make up for the shortfall of the previous season, qualifying for the finals for the first time in the club's history. A memorable performance in the second leg of the semi-final saw the Roar defeat arch rivals 2–0 (2–0 agg.) Sydney FC in front of a (then) club record 36,221 fans to qualify for the preliminary final against the Newcastle Jets. The Roar would controversially lose 3–2 to the Newcastle side, who would ultimately go on to win the Grand Final. Farina again qualified for the finals in 2008–09, where the Roar dispatched of Central Coast Mariners 4–2 on aggregate, however they ultimately lost, again in the preliminary final, to Adelaide United after failing to capitalise on their dominance. On 10 October 2009, Farina was arrested by Queensland Police for drink driving. He was initially suspended by the Roar and asked to show cause as to why he should not be sacked for tarnishing the name of the club. It was announced that assistant manager, Rado Vidošić would step into a caretakers role until a decision had been made which would include the M1 Derby, which the Roar lost 1–0 at home. Farina was ultimately sacked on 14 October 2009, with the club tasked with finding a replacement for the remainder of the 2009–10 season. Renamed Brisbane Roar (2009) In 2009, the club was officially renamed to Brisbane Roar Football Club due to two other Queensland-based clubs entering the A-League competition; that being Gold Coast United and North Queensland Fury. This was the club's fifth change of name after Hollandia-Inala F.C., Brisbane Lions F.C., Queensland Lions F.C., and Queensland Roar F.C. Postecoglou era (2009–2012) Ange Postecoglou arrived mid-season armed with the task of picking up the pieces of a season in tatters. Postecoglou's first season ended as the worst in the club's short history, finishing second from the bottom. Postecoglou completed a turn-around in the 2010–11 season. He made wholesale changes to the squad, commencing with the replacement of the "old-guard" of Charlie Miller, Craig Moore and Danny Tiatto and brought in his own squad which was a mixture of youth and talented experience. Under his brand of possession/attacking soccer, he led the team to win the club's inaugural premiership and go on to complete the club's first Double by also wrapping up the championship in a memorable 2011 A-League Grand Final in front of a then club record 50,168 supporters. The club went on an Australian sporting record 36-match unbeaten run which commenced in the 2010–11 season and ran through to the 2011–12 season. After much speculation on his future at the club, it was reported that Postecoglou had signed a three-year contract extension. With such a successful season behind him, there was much talk as to whether the Roar could equal or better that in the 2011–12 season. Their title credentials were in doubt when the club went on a club-record worst losing streak of five matches immediately following the ending of their record 36-match unbeaten streak. Postecoglou remained steadfast in the club's philosophy and the club went on to record just one loss in the last 14 games of the regular season to finish league runners-up. Unable to retain the Premiers Plate, Postecoglou led the club to back-to-back championships in the 2012 A-League Grand Final in front of a club-record 50,344 supporters. Postecoglou also led the Roar's initial foray into the 2012 Asian Champions League as reward for their success in the previous season. Success was mixed, picking up two draws from four matches. On 24 April 2012, Postecoglou left the club by way of mutual consent, citing a desire to seek "a new challenge". Ange leaves the club as the most successful manager in the club's history. On 26 April 2012, it was reported that Postecoglou did not, in fact, sign a new contract at the conclusion of the 2010–11 season due to the uncertainty around the club's ownership at the time. That allowed his original two-year contract with the club to expire at the conclusion of the 2011–12 season and leave to join Melbourne Victory without the Victory needing to pay out his "contract" with the Roar. Mulvey era (2012–2014) On 25 April 2012, Rado Vidošić was promoted to the manager's position after serving seven years as Assistant Manager under the three previous managers before him. On 18 December 2012, Vidošić was removed as coach, taking up the role of technical director for the club, with Mike Mulvey, then coach of the Melbourne Victory women's named as his replacement. Vidošić was only manager for 13 matches before transferring to the new role, similar to the one offered to Postecoglou before his exit earlier in 2012. At the end of the 2012–13 season, the Roar finished in 5th place, carried by striker Besart Berisha's 14 goals during the season. The club made it to the semi-finals in the finals series, bowing out to premiers Western Sydney Wanderers 2–0. The 2013/14 season began in terrific style, with the Roar winning 8 of their first 10 games. This form continued for the rest of the season as the club became dominant premiers. Players like Ivan Franjic, Luke Brattan and Dimitri Petratos shone while the return of former captain Matt McKay bolstered the midfield. Brisbane won the grand final 2–1 after extra time against Western Sydney Wanderers. Club talisman Besart Berisha and star utility Ivan Franjic would leave the club over the off-season for Melbourne Victory and Torpedo Moscow respectively. Frans Thijssen (interim) 2015 After a run of poor results at the beginning of the 2014–15 season, Mulvey stepped down from the head coach role. Frans Thijssen was appointed caretaker coach for the remainder of the season. Thinssen's first game in charge was a 1–1 draw against Perth Glory and ended with a 1–2 defeat against Urawa Red Diamonds. In total Thijssen was in charge for 28 games, winning eleven, drawing five and losing twelve. Captain Matt Smith left the club in December to join Bangkok Glass, and was replaced by former captain and club favourite Matt McKay. The season ended with the club recovering to finish in 6th position and qualify for the finals series. Brisbane were knocked out by Adelaide United in the elimination final 2–1. John Aloisi era (2015–2018) On 26 May 2015, John Aloisi was appointed head coach. Amidst off-field drama regarding the club's ownership during his first season as head coach, Aloisi led the Roar to an encouraging 3rd place on the ladder, narrowly missing out on the championship in the last game of the season and finishing only one point behind eventual champions Adelaide. The 2015/16 performance was sufficient for the Roar to enter qualification for the 2017 Asian Champions League. After defeating Global F.C. and Shanghai Greenland Shenhua F.C. in 2017, Brisbane qualified for the ACL Group Stage for the fourth time in their history. Brisbane were knocked out in the group stage, winning just 1 match, and losing four, including a 6–0 to Ulsan Hyundai FC. This 6–0 loss, coupled with the Western Sydney Wanderers' 5–1 loss to Shanghai SIPG F.C. on the same day led to Fox Sports commentators Mark Rudan and Mark Bosnich labelling the matchday as "the darkest day in Australian club football". Brisbane Roar's 2017/18 season started amid concerns over the quality of player signings, with the signing of former Serie A marksman, Massimo Maccarone, and former Ligue 1 duo, Fahid Ben Khalfallah, and, Eric Bautheac. Roar's first competitive match of the season was a round of 32 FFA Cup tie with Melbourne Victory FC at local ground, Perry Park. The home side started with an experimental side with some players playing in positions they were not usually deployed in. The game ended in a shambolic fashion for Aloisi's side, who lost 1–5 to their Melbourne opponents with the only positive coming from Petros Skapetis, who scored his first goal for the club with a shot coming from outside of the box and nestling in the top left corner of the Victory net. The season did not improve much with Brisbane without a win after 6 matches creating their worst ever season start. The Roar finally got their first win of the season at home to Melbourne City FC , the score was 3–1 with central defender, Avraam Papadopoulos scoring an unlikely brace. Brisbane Roar slowly climbed the A-league ladder with wins against Western Sydney Wanderers FC, Adelaide United FC, and, Perth Glory FC in the new year. After finishing third on the A-league table in the 2016–17 season, Brisbane Roar gained entry into the second qualifying round of the Asian Champions League where they were drawn against Filipino, Ceres-Negros F.C. The match was to be played at the Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre. This match proved to be arguably the worst moment in the club's history with the Roar crashing out of the competition at the hands of the Filipino side. After this horror show, Brisbane Roar's results slightly improved with more wins against Central Coast Mariners FC, Adelaide United FC, and surprise victories over then current champions and future premiers, Sydney FC and future grand final winners, Melbourne Victory FC. Brisbane ended the regular season with wins over Central Coast Mariners, and, Perth Glory. Brisbane Roar scraped a sixth-place finish on the table earning just two more points than seventh placed Western Sydney Wanderers. This sixth-place finish gave the Roar qualification for the A-League Finals Series, where they played Melbourne City in a preliminary final away. The Brisbane-based side put on a poor display and were outplayed with the performance being reflected on the scoreline, 2–0. The post season review saw numerous changes behind the scenes. The club finally moved in to its purpose built $10m City of Logan training facility in time for pre-season training and a new strength & conditioning coach was hired (from Western Sydney Wanderers), along with a former English Premier League physiotherapist. In addition, Darren Davies was appointed second assistant coach at Aloisi's request. In addition new player signings were made early, avoiding mistakes of previous seasons, with 21/23 players reporting for pre-season training and – amid growing optimism for the new season with Aloisi promising to turn Suncorp Stadium in to a "fortress" – membership and club sponsorship approached record levels. Aloisi's team again exited the FFA Cup at the first hurdle, losing 0–1 at home to Melbourne City despite having been back in pre-season training for 6 weeks prior to the game. The game was held at Dolphin Oval in Redcliffe in front of a club record FFA Cup home crowd of 6,151 Ahead of the new season Aloisi was very optimistic about Roars chances following a near-perfect pre-season free from off-field distractions with Aloisi claiming his side "has never been better". The season opened with a tense, come-from-behind 1–1 draw vs Central Coast Mariners in front of nearly 15,000 fans. Mariners would go on to record the worst ever start by any A-League club ever, a poor start that subsequently would only be slightly worse than Aloisi's Roar side. A second home game the following week saw a dire 0–0 draw vs Wellington Phoenix in front of more than 15,000 fans. The next two games were away from home with a come from behind 2–2 draw away to Western Sydney Wanderers at the Glen Willow Sports Complex, followed by a 1–2 defeat at Perth Glory. After the first 4 games, all against sides who had failed to make finals the previous season, Roar were winless with 3 points but then managed a 2–0 home win against Melbourne City, who had sacked John Aloisi for poor results five years earlier, putting Roar into a finals ladder position for the first time. Roar would go on to lose their next 4 games under Aloisi, including conceding four goals in consecutive matches, to slump to 9th on the ladder. As the season start went from bad to worse, Aloisi had to defend his team from multiple criticisms including that many players were too old and generally over the team's very poor start; with fan discontent increasing the pressure on Aloisi increased. On 28 December 2018, despite having received a "vote of confidence" from the Board two weeks earlier, John Aloisi resigned as manager of Brisbane Roar following the club's poor start to the season, with the Roar second-last on the A-League ladder with just 1 win in 9 matches at the time of his departure and in the worst start to a season ever by a Brisbane Roar team. He left as Brisbane Roar's longest serving manager. But after a promising first season the statistics showed that in subsequent seasons goals per game declined, the number of passes attempted and completed declined. and disciplinary issues increased Darren Davies (interim) 2019 Following Aloisi's departure, Darren Davies was appointed interim head coach for an unspecified period. Davies tenure began with an encouraging 1–2 defeat away to Sydney FC and a 2–2 draw away to Newcastle Jets. In April 2019 the club announced Robbie Fowler as the new head coach with Davies to take charge for the one remaining A-League game on ANZAC Day. Davies final game in charge ended with a 5–3 home defeat by Adelaide United in front of almost 12,000 fans including new head coach, Robbie Fowler. Davies' coaching record reads Played 18, Won 3, Drawn 3 and lost 12, scoring 28 goals whilst conceding 54. The final season of the Aloisi/Davies era saw Roar finish 9th on the ladder with a respectable home attendance of 9,632, the 4th best in the competition that season. Fowler era (2019–2020) The club announced the appointment of Robbie Fowler as head coach on 23 April 2019. It was also announced that Tony Grant would be joining the coaching team alongside Fowler and current interim coach, Darren Davies. Shortly after Fowler's appointment the club announced a massive clear out of playing staff with 14 players released in late April 2019 including marquee signing Eric Bautheac. In June 2019 Fowler announced his first signing in Roy O’Donovan from Newcastle United Jets. Fowler's first competitive match came in a shock 0 – 2 away win at reigning A-League Champions Sydney FC on 7 August 2019 in the FFA Cup. On 29 June 2020 Roar announced Fowler would not be returning to Roar after departing during the COVID-19 crisis. Fowler left with a 45% win record, with 10 wins from 22 A-League games. Warren Moon era (2020–2023) Following the departure of Robbie Fowler, the club announced internal appointment, Warren Moon, as permanent replacement and would manage the senior men's team on an open-ended contract. Moon would also maintain his current role as Academy Head. Moon is an “A-League Foundation Player” having played 16 games in Roars first season in the competition. He guided the team to 4th place in his first full season in charge before losing the elimination final at home to Adelaide United. In Moon's second full season at the club, the club fell to 11th place in the table. He was sacked on 20 February 2023, after Brisbane slumped to 11th place on the table. He also presided over Brisbane's Australia Cup semi-final loss to Sydney United 58. In total, Moon coached 75 games winning 22, drawing 22 and losing 31. Nick Green era (2023 R18 to EOS) Following the departure of Watren Moon the club announced the surprise appointment of Nick Green as interim coach through to the end of the season. Green finished with a 9 game record of 4 wins, 4 losses and a draw. Ross Aloisi era (2023–) On 2 May 2023, Ross Aloisi, brother of former coach John Aloisi, was appointed as Head Coach making a successful competitive debut in a 3–2 win away to Newcastle Jets in the Australia Cup. Crest and colours During the first two seasons the Roar played in a predominantly orange home strip with blue shorts and maroon socks. Queensland sporting teams traditionally play in maroon but the original home strip kept with the colours used by the team in its earlier incarnations. The colours of orange and blue honour the club's Dutch origins. On 31 July 2007 the club announced that it had ordered a strip that was half orange and half maroon, but that the colours were manufactured for prominence on television. For season three the home kit had been redesigned, the home strip is still orange but features maroon sleeves, the shorts are maroon instead of blue and orange socks are worn. Danny Tiatto and Craig Moore modelled in the strip launch on 1 August 2007 Before the 2009–10 A-League season, in accordance with the name changing of the club from Queensland Roar to Brisbane Roar, the club's logo was also changed with "Queensland" being dropped to make way for "Brisbane". On 20 May 2009, Reinaldo and Sergio van Dijk unveiled a new kit for the club, which would be worn for the next two seasons. The club stuck with the maroon and orange they had used for the last kit, but instead opted to drop the white slashes on the home kit. The orange used for the previous kit was brightened to the one used in season 1 of the A-League, with the design of both the new home and away kits changing. The slashes were dropped for a shoulder-pad style. The maroon shoulder pads would be displayed on an orange body, with maroon shorts. This was reversed on the away kit, with the shoulder-pads being orange on a white body with orange shorts. Prior to the 2011–12 A-League season, the club announced that maroon, which had featured in some way on the club's kits since the A-League inception, would be removed and replaced with black. On 5 September 2011, the club released their kits for the upcoming season. The club showed off their home kit, which was orange with black diagonal shoulders with a thin, white line under the black. This was supported by orange with black banded socks. The away kit would turn out to be predominately black, with only the orange shoulders on the top with the white line underneath and the black with orange banded socks. The same pants would be used for both the home and away kits, which would sport two orange bands and a white band on black pants. The kits released were almost identical to the same design used by Tottenham Hotspur during their 2010–11 season with the only difference being full diagonal sashes and a collared neck instead of a "V" neck. After two seasons in the diagonally sashed kit, both yielding Final Series soccer, the first season, winning the Grand Final, Puma released a new set of kits, including, for the first time, an alternative strip, deemed by the club as an "Event" kit. The home kit consisted of the usual orange, with black sides, black arm cuffs and a black V-neck collar, which also had a white piece of round-collared fabric attached, which had 3 centrally based lines, white in the centre, orange on the left and black on the right with white on the outside of the black and orange lines. The away kit reverted to the white with orange sides, black arm cuffs and a black V-neck collar. As with the home kit, the away kit had an orange piece of collared fabric attached to the collar, which had 3 centrally based lines, orange in the middle with a white stripe on the left and black on the right of the orange stripe with orange on the outside of the black and white lines. The alternative, or "event" strip, was silver with a top left to bottom right, orange diagonal sash. It also had black arm cuffs and a black V-neck collar with the inner silver fabric and the 3 centrally based stripes. Silver stripe in the middle with a black stripe on either side of the silver stripe and silver on the outside of the two black stripes. On 15 August 2014, before the 2014 FFA Cup game vs Stirling Lions of the 2014–15 season, the Roar would reveal that Umbro would be making their kits for the next 4 years, ending a 4-year tenure with Puma. Two days later, Brisbane Roar changed their logo to a more "traditional" shield type crest, the biggest change since the club was renamed ahead of the 2009–10 season. The revelation received mixed reviews, some saying it lost the plastic, American franchise logo feel and some saying it was too bland and that not enough time was put into it. Another 2 days later, the Roar released their new Umbro home kit, ditching the black pants and going with an all orange kit. The top was completely orange with white piping on the collar; the pants were orange as well with a white vertical strip going 3/4 of the way up the sides of the pants from the bottom, topped off with orange socks. Sponsors On 30 November 2007, the club signed a two and a half-year deal with cafe chain The Coffee Club to be their main shirt sponsor. The Coffee Club would re-sign with the Roar in August 2010 for another 3 years, making it one of the longest sponsorship deals in the A-League. After the club's licence was taken back by Football Federation Australia in March 2011, the Coffee Club committed their future to the club, signing a $2 Million dollar, 3-year contract extension, sealing their future as sponsors until at least 2015. At the conclusion of the 2010–11 A-League season, the League's collective kit deal with Reebok came to an end meaning that all A-League clubs could enter into their own separate kit manufacturer agreements. On 2 August 2011, the Roar announced that Puma would be the club's first kit manufacturer decided by the club, and agreed to a three-year deal with the sports brand. The club announced that Puma would manufacture the official playing kits for all Brisbane Roar teams, including the Youth and Women's teams as well as replica kits and other merchandise. Before the start of the 2014/15 A-League season Brisbane Roar announced that Umbro would be replacing Puma as the club's playing kit and apparel partner for the next four seasons. On 24 February 2015, it was announced that Griffith University would be the principal kit Sponsor for the 2015 AFC Champions League campaign. On 3 July 2015, it was announced that former front shirt sponsor, The Coffee Club would not renew its sponsorship with the club for the 2015/16 season. It was then announced that Ladbrokes would be the front shirt sponsor for the Roar's friendly against Liverpool on 17 July 2015. Steadfast were announced as "Principal Partners" and "Front of Shirt Sponsors" by the club on 10 August 2015 for the duration of the 2015–16 A-League season. Steadfast had previously sponsored the rear of the men's teams' shirts and this new partnership would see the Steadfast logo feature on the shirts of all three Brisbane Roar teams. Season 2017/18 commenced without a formal sponsor in place so the Roar featured the Starlight Children's Foundation branding on the front of its kits for the initial rounds of the 2017–18 A-League season. In February 2018 Roar announced Central Home Loans (CHL) had been secured as principal partner and would feature on the front of the men's shirt for the remainder of the season in July 2018 Roar announced Australian company ActronAir as principal partner, with the company logo to be displayed on the front of the men's shirt as well as feature on the women's team shirts. The value of the two-year deal was undisclosed. Commercial painting company BBC Painting was later signed as Platinum Partner and back-of-shirt sponsor for the 2019 season. Stadium and facilities Roar plays at 52,500-capacity Lang Park. Dolphin Oval Roar have hosted home games at Dolphin Oval in Redcliffe including their 2018 FFA Cup game versus Melbourne City, and again in 2019 versus Central Coast Mariners. Prior to the release of the 2019–20 season fixtures the club announced three games would be switched from Suncorp Stadium to Dolphin Oval increasing their use of the stadium from FFA Cup and W-League matches. The stadium has a capacity of 10,000 including 7,000 seated. After a three-year stay, Roar moved back to Lang Park in Brisbane. Potential new stadium On 6 February 2020 Roar announced plans to fund a $60m boutique stadium of their own. Alternative stadiums Throughout their history Roar have hosted games at alternative venues including Cbus Stadium and Perry Park; typically for FFA Cup games and ACL matches. At the beginning of the 2010–11 season, during negotiations with the operator of Suncorp Stadium, there were suggestions that the club may move its home games to Ballymore Stadium where the club then had its administration and training facilities. However, the owners of the club opted to stay at Suncorp Stadium on a new restructured contract that would ensure the financial viability of hosting games at the more expensive Suncorp Stadium. Following the flooding of Suncorp Stadium in the 2010–11 Queensland floods, the Roar were forced to move two home games against Wellington Phoenix and Melbourne Heart to the regular home of Gold Coast United at Skilled Park on the Gold Coast. These matches are the first 'home' league fixtures that the Roar have played at a venue other than Suncorp Stadium in the club's history. Largest attendances In a spectacular 2011 A-League Grand Final, the 50,168 strong fans would make history, being the largest crowd to watch both the Roar and a football match in Brisbane. This was bettered the following season when 50,334 people saw Brisbane defeat Perth in the 2012 A-League Grand Final. The attendance of the 2012 Grand Final would be bettered two years later when the 2013–14 Premiers, the Roar, would do the double, beating Western Sydney Wanderers in the 2014 A-League Grand Final in front of 51,153 passionate fans. Training ground Roar have had a nomadic existence moving between a variety of training venues since the club's separation from Queensland Lions. The initial training ground was at Lions F.C. while the team was a part of that club but moved to share Ballymore with the Queensland Rugby Union (QRU) in 2008. During their 2015–16 campaign, the Nathan campus of Griffith University became Brisbane Roar's new training base, with the Roar's contract at long-time training venue Ballymore Stadium expiring, and the field at their previous Perry Park administration base not meeting the standards required by the Roar. In 2016, Brisbane Roar announced the club would move to a permanent administration and training facility in Logan City. The $9 million Logan Metro Sports Park would also be the headquarters to the club's academy, youth and women's sides, as well as Football Brisbane. In mid-2017, Roar announced a 5-year deal with QUT to locate their U12-U16 Academy teams at QUT's Kelvin Grove sportsground in Brisbane's North. Prior to the commencement of the 2016–17 season, it was announced that Brisbane would return to Ballymore until their new Logan training centre was complete. In March 2018 the club formally opened their state-of-the-art Logan Center-of-Excellence with Administration moving in immediately and pre-season training for the men's team commencing in June 2018 In October 2020, after a dispute with Logan City Council over an unpaid water bill, the Roar moved their training base to the Gold Coast Sports Precinct in the suburb of Carrara, Queensland. Sometime in 2023/2024 the club intends to utilise a new purpose built facility in Brendale in Brisbane's north. However, in March 2023 the club announced Roar would be returning to Ballymore for training and to play as many matches as possible, the future of the Brendale facility was unclear. in October 2023, after less than a month training at Ballymore, the club announced it would be leaving the facility due to concerns over the quality of the training surface and return to QSAC Affiliations Queensland Lions – Founded the club and withdrew their Senior Men's team from local competition to enter it as Queensland Roar in the inaugural A-League season. Cooperation between the two clubs continues today. Academy Partners – Roar have affiliations with several local clubs as part of their Academy Preparation Program. Partnerships include Souths United, Gold Coast City, Grange Thistle SC, Sunshine Coast Wanderers F.C., Cairns F.C., Logan Lightning FC and Olympic FC Gareth Edds Soccer Academy – in Townsville, QLD, the BRFC Academy is represented by GESA Player Development Project – in July 2018 Roar were announced as a founding partner in the 'Player Development Project' along with Birmingham City FC, Fulham FC and AIK FC. A program designed to help clubs create a learning environment for their coaches East Coast Futsal Academy – in June 2019 a partnership between East Coast Futsal Academy in Port Macquarie and the Roar was announced specifically targeting players aged 13–16. Ownership and finances Current owners (2011–present) Currently, the club is owned 100% by Bakrie Group. In March 2011, just a week after the club won its first Grand Final, the FFA would take back the club's licence, agreeing to fund the club until new owners were found. Football Federation Australia CEO Ben Buckley thanked the previous owners for pouring money into the Roar, who stayed they could not keep up with the future costs for the club. On 4 October 2011, The World Game reported that Indonesian conglomerate, Bakrie Group, would takeover ownership of the club from the FFA under a 10-year term. Under the terms of the deal, Bakrie Group paid A$8 million for a 70% share of the club, with the FFA retaining the remaining 30% share. Under the terms of this deal, Bakrie Group had the option to purchase a further 20% stake in the club with the FFA holding the remaining 10% share. Following this change of ownership, the new chairman of the Roar was announced as Dali Tahir. After becoming the first majority-share foreign owner of an A-League team, on 6 February 2012, the FFA announced that Bakrie Group had acquired 100 percent ownership of the Brisbane club. Previous owners (2009–11) On 16 April 2009 reports surfaced that the FFA were willing to purchase up to a 55% share in the Roar to ensure its financial stability. This 55% encompassed CEO Lawrence Oudendyk's 15% per cent interest, the 25% previously owned by Queensland Lions and the 15% share owned by Rob Jones and Rob Jansen. The FFA advised that any takeover by the FFA would see Oudendyk replaced as CEO. Ultimately a new Brisbane-based ownership structure was formed with investors Emmanuel Drivas, Emmanuel Kokoris, Claude Baradel and Serge Baradel taking over 100% ownership of the club. On 30 April 2009 the FFA confirmed their offer to take a controlling share in the Roar. The new ownership group declined the FFA's assistance on 22 May 2009. The owners' commitment to the club was reinforced in a statement released by Emmanuel Drivas on behalf of the owners on 12 April 2010 after further speculation that the Roar would require financial assistance from the FFA after a poor 2009–10 season. Founding owners (2004–2008) Brisbane Roar was established and owned by Queensland Lions SC in March 2005 as the team that would represent Brisbane in the newly formed A-League. Queensland Lions held a majority share in the club through to 2008. It is understood that in 2008 the 25% share owned by Queensland Lions was bought by the Roar board at a discount. This led to financial instability in the club and rumours of the club handing back its A-League licence to Football Federation Australia (FFA). Support Brisbane Roar maintains one of the highest average attendances in the Hyundai A League, normally above the competition's season average, and by the end of 2018–19 a grand total of 2,544,306 supporters had seen Roar home games, giving a 14-season average attendance of 13,534. The 2018–19 season saw Roar welcome their 2,500,000th A-League Fan through the gates. Brisbane has two main supporters groups. The oldest is "The Den" which is the "Active Support Group" located in Bay 332 of the Northern stand of Suncorp Stadium, where they have been since the inaugural season of the A-League. As a Supporters group The Den can trace its origins back to Richlands and Lions F.C. In 2016, the "Roar Supporters Federation" (RSF) were formed, which is a broad based supporters group intended to give a voice to all fans with club owners and management. In October 2017, the RSF launched a dedicated supporters group for Brisbane's W-League side – "The Roar Corps" to be modelled on support groups in the American National Women's Soccer League. Supporter groups have emerged in cities away from Brisbane including "Roar Fans in Melbourne", "Roar Fans in Sydney", "Roar Fans in Tasmania", "Roar Fans in Adelaide", and "Roar Fans on the Gold Coast". Dispute between club and Active Support In January 2019, Roar became the latest A-League club to become embroiled in a dispute with active supporters. Hours before kickoff of their round 14 fixture against Melbourne Victory the club announced that they were withdrawing their support from the incumbent steering committee of "The Den". The remainder of the season was played out with no formal active support. Rivalries The Roar currently have no obvious rivals. Gold Coast United – Now defunct. Known as the M1 Derby, it shared the name of the main highway between the two cities, the M1. Due to Brisbane's close proximity to the Gold Coast, Brisbane Roar's geographical derby opponent was naturally going to be Gold Coast United. The glitzy Coast side only won 1 more game between the two (4 to 3), having won the first 3 games, all in Gold Coast's first season of 2009–10. They would, however, win only 1 of the 6 other games the two sides would play. The rivalry, however, concluded on 5 April 2012 when Football Federation Australia officially announced the axing of the Gold Coast side. There was also a rivalry with (now defunct) North Queensland Fury due to both clubs being in the same state although it was widely considered a regular match due to the distance between the two teams. The Fury was axed just a year prior to Gold Coast United being culled. Players First team squad Youth Players to have been featured in a first-team matchday squad for Brisbane Roar in a competitive match Club officials Management Football Department Administration Captaincy history Brisbane have had seven captains throughout their A-League history with Matt McKay holding the position on two separate occasions: Honours BPL and A-League Brisbane Premier League Winners (7): 1987, 1990, 1991, 1996, 2002, 2003, 2004 Runners-up (3): 1989, 1994, 2000 Brisbane Premier League Finals Winners (5): 1987, 1991, 1996, 2002, 2003, 2004 Runners-up (1): 1990 A-League Men Championship Winners (3): 2011, 2012, 2014 A-League Men Premiership Winners (2): 2010–11, 2013–14 Runners-up (1): 2011–12 Domestic cups NSL Cup Winners (1): 1981 Australia Cup Runners-up (1): 2023 Records Most consecutive games without defeat Brisbane hold the Australian record of 36 consecutive games without defeat. 18 September 2010 – 26 November 2011 Most consecutive away games without defeat 16 away games between 3 October 2010 and 19 November 2011. This is also an A-League record. Biggest win Brisbane Roar 7, Adelaide United 1 on 28 October 2011. Biggest defeat 0–5 against Melbourne Victory, A-League, 15 January 2019 Fastest goal scored Bersart Berisha holds the record for the fastest goal scored, scoring in the first minute of the 3–2 win over Melbourne Victory on 18 February 2012. The goal was recorded as 43 seconds. Fastest goal conceded Aaron Calver scored for Sydney with just 40 seconds on the clock in their 3–1 win over Brisbane at Suncorp Stadium on 29 March 2019. Most appearances Matt McKay holds the record for most appearances with 272, including 270 starts for a total of 23,691 minutes played. All-time Top Scorer Bersart Berisha is the club's all-time top scorer with 50 goals in 84 appearances between 2011 and 2014. Berisha scored 48 league goals in 76 appearances plus 2 goals in the Asian Champions League. Fastest hat-trick 6 minutes, Besart Berisha v Adelaide United, 28 October 2011. Highest attendance Brisbane's highest attendance is 51,153 for the 2014 Grand Final vs. Western Sydney Wanderers. Most games coached John Aloisi holds the record for most A-League games coached with 95 games between 2015 and 2018. Aloisi won 38, drew 23 and lost 34 of those games. With a win ratio of 40%. Youngest player Izaack Powell became the youngest player to represent Brisbane Roar in the Hyundai A-League when he made his debut off the bench against Sydney FC at just 16 years, 361 days on 8 February 2019. On 7 August 2019, Jordan Courtney-Perkins made his professional debut in a 2–0 win against Sydney FC in the 2019 FFA Cup, playing a full game in a 2–0 victory. In doing so, he became the youngest player to play for the Brisbane Roar at 16 years, 9 months and 1 days. Youngest goal scorer Tommy Oar is the youngest player to score a goal at the age of 17 years and 18 days old vs Wellington Phoenix in Round 17 of the 2008–09 season. Hall of Fame Thomas Broich In May 2017 Thomas Broich became the first inductee to the BRFC 'Hall of Fame'. Broich played 181 games for Roar between 2010 and 2017. In that time he won the Johnny Warren Medal twice, three A-League Championships, two A-League Premierships and a two time Gary Wilkins Medal winner, in addition, in 2014, Broich was awarded the Joe Marston Medal. Broich is considered one of the greatest players in A-League history. With 21 career goals and 66 assists, Broich is the leading assister in A-League history. Michael Theo In May 2017 Michael Theo was inducted in to the Hall of Fame making 159 appearances between 2010 and 2018. Theo won two A-League Premierships with Roar in 2010–11 and 2013–14 and three Championships in 2010–2011, 2011–2012, 2013–2014. He was also voted A-League 'Goalkeeper of the Year' in 2010 and holds the record for the most minutes (876) played not conceding a goal in an Australian League 2010–11). Matt McKay In May 2019 former Captain and club appearance record holder, Matt McKay, was inducted in to the 'Hall of Fame'. McKay made 272 appearances across 2 spells with Roar in addition to 59 Socceroos caps. McKay won two championships with Roar. Academy In July 2020 the club announced a partnership with Morton Bay Council for the development of an $18m training facility for use of the W-League team and the club's Academy The Roar Academy has three pathways: Brisbane Academy The Club launched its Academy in January 2018. and provides development for boys in the U14 age group through to U19. Pre-Academy The Pre-Academy serves players in the U10 age group up to U13 and is delivered through a network of partner clubs. Pathway for Girls The Academy does not currently accommodate girls. Instead BRFC and Football Queensland partner to deliver the National Training Center (NTC) curriculum. Development teams compete in National Premier Leagues (Queensland) under the name "Brisbane Roar NTC" in acknowledgment of this partnership. Controversies In 2009, Football Federation Australia revoked the club's Licence to participate. In addition, there were suggestions the FFA would use this opportunity to change certain branding elements including colours and the lion on the shirt. These changes did not eventuate but the club's name was changed to reflect its identity as a Brisbane club rather than a state-wide franchise. In 2009, head coach Frank Farina's second charge for drink-driving within two-and-a-half years occurred as he made his way to training, which forced Roar to launch an internal investigation, that led to his sacking. In 2012, Ange Postecoglou, the mastermind behind Brisbane Roar's historic back-to-back A-League championships, quit the club two days after Roar's second title victory to join bitter rivals Melbourne Victory. in 2014, head coach Mike Mulvey was sacked weeks in to the new season, and less than 6 months after guiding Roar to a Premiers Plate and Championship double. In 2015, Roar switched their home Asian Champions League games away from Brisbane and instead played them on The Gold Coast, a distance of 83 km. The move angered many supporters. In 2015 the club endured a financial crisis with FFA CEO David Gallop instructed the club owners to immediately address the Roar's financial problems or have their A-League licence revoked. Bakrie Group injected an initial sum of $1m to stabilise the club's finances before successfully retaining ownership of the club. In 2015, star midfielder Luke Brattan walked out on the club over unpaid Super contributions. in 2016, Chief executive David Pourre resigned from his role to take up a new opportunity outside of the sports industry. In 2016, Roar Director Daniel Cobb blamed Bakrie Group for late player payments. A crisis engulfed Brisbane Roar when the club's managing director effectively accused club owners of lying over promises to fund the club properly. Cobb eventually quit on the eve of the season start. in 2017, Brisbane Roar celebrated their 60th anniversary. The history of the Roar had often been muddied since the A-League license first changed hands in 2008; legendary soccer writer Michael Cockerill wrote "rightfully, the owners have opted to respect history, rather than trash it". In 2017, just 14 months after being appointed by club owners to replace Cobb, MD Mark Kingsman was fired in a surprise move by Roar chairman Rahim Soekasah who cited continued growth, greater governance and oversight and deeper connection with members, the business sector and the wider community as reasons for the move. In 2018, Roar's'peeling shirt numbers and a shock loss to Ceres-Negros in the Asian Champions League caused embarrassment with supporters calling it the "lowest moment in the club's history". The club were forced to make a public apology in relation to the incident. In 2019, in January the organising committee of 'The Den' supporters group withdrew organisation of Active Support issued demands on the club and refused to organise support for games until they were met, in response the club withdrew recognition of the organising committee. See also Brisbane Roar FC (W-League) Brisbane Roar FC Reserves Season History References External links Brisbane Roar results – latest scores for Brisbane Roar FC A-League Men teams Bakrie Group Soccer clubs in Brisbane Association football clubs established in 1957 1957 establishments in Australia
4912964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscorp	Oscorp	Oscorp (sometimes stylized as OsCorp), also known as Oscorp Industries, is a fictional multibillion-dollar multinational corporation appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, predominantly in stories about Spider-Man. The company was founded by Norman Osborn and has appeared in numerous media adaptations. It first appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man #37 (March, 1966) and was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. According to Forbes, highlighting the 25 largest fictional companies, Oscorp has an estimated sales of $3.1 billion, ranking it at number 23. History The corporation is based out of the Oscorp Tower in New York. It was created and run by its CEO Norman Osborn. Norman studied chemistry and electrical engineering in college. He also took a number of courses in business administration. Norman's teacher, Professor Mendel Stromm, formed the business partnership. Since Norman put up the bulk of the financing, they called their company the Osborn Corporation, or Oscorp. Stromm's early research was on a chemical that would provide enhanced strength in its test subjects and would eventually turn Osborn into the Green Goblin. Osborn, wanting the formula for himself, discovered that Stromm had been embezzling funds from Oscorp. Stromm explained that he was merely borrowing but Osborn turned him over to the police. After several years in prison, Stromm was released and tried to kill Osborn for revenge using evil robots. He was stopped by the superhero Spider-Man and seemingly died of a heart attack when he was nearly shot. Jay Allan's company "Allan Chemical" was merged with Normie Osborn's stocks from Oscorp and the last remaining properties of Horizon Labs after its destruction, establishing it under the new name of "Alchemax". It was later revealed that Norman Osborn under the guise of "Mason Banks" created the corporation in order to leave a strong empire for his grandson and establish an empire for the Osborn legacy. Their headquarters Oscorp Tower was the former headquarters of Oscorp. By 2099, Alchemax would eventually control most aspects of daily life in a possible future. Fictional staff members Current Norman Osborn - The Founder and CEO of Oscorp. Former Arthur Stacy - The Chief of Security at Oscorp who is the brother of George Stacy and the uncle of .... Charles Standish - The Senior Vice-President of Oscorp. Charles Standish was kidnapped by the Flaming Sword, but he was eventually rescued by the Avengers. Donald Menken - The personal assistant of Norman Osborn. Dr. David Patrick Lowell - A scientist who became Sundown upon being drenched in his chemicals that was similar to the Goblin Formula. Dr. Malek - A scientist who was part of the research team that was experimenting on Freak. Dr. Nels van Adder - A research scientist whose formula turned him into the Proto-Goblin. Dr. David Lowell - He developed the Photogenesis Project for Oscorp, and discovered a way to give a human superpowers through photosynthesis. Harry Osborn - Norman's son who for a time served as CEO. Mendel Stromm - Former partner of Norman Osborn. Mark Raxton - Former Head of Security. Other versions Ultimate Marvel In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Oscorp is much the same as in the Earth-616 version. The company is owned and operated by Norman Osborn who developed the Oz super soldier serum and the spiders who were behind the abilities of Peter Parker, and later Miles Morales. After an incident in which Osborn injected himself with Oz serum and became the Green Goblin, a big portion of the main building was left in ruins, and numerous scientists died or transitioned to other companies like Roxxon in the case of Conrad Marcus. Osborn Industries had been mentioned to still produce technologies. In other media Television Oscorp was featured in Spider-Man: The Animated Series. Norman Osborn hires Spencer Smythe to create a weapon to destroy Spider-Man by creating the Spider-Slayer. The deal made with Osborn meant that Norman would build a hoverchair for Spencer's paralyzed son, Alistair. The Slayer unintentionally captured Flash Thompson dressed as Spider-Man, and the real Spider-Man came to his rescue. This led to a large scale fire in the Oscorp plant. Norman Osborn quoted to Spencer "Remember our deal. No Spider-Splat, No Hoverchair." Spencer chose to stay behind and finish Spider-Man off while Norman got Alistair to safety. After the Spider-Slayer was destroyed by Spider-Man, Oscorp exploded and Spencer supposedly perished. However, Spencer had survived, having been found by the Kingpin. Norman invented the technology which would create the Hobgoblin and hired him to assassinate Kingpin. The assassination was foiled by Peter Parker and the Kingpin suspected a conspiracy against him. Norman subsequently fired the Hobgoblin, who allied with Kingpin and kidnapped Norman's son Harry. When the Kingpin refused to pay Hobgoblin immediately, they ceased their partnership. Following this, Osborn sold 50% of his company to the Kingpin in order to repay his debt. Norman and his partner Wardell Stromm were forced into creating chemical weapons for the Kingpin. An unstable reaction resulted during one experiment and Norman seemed to have perished in the explosion. However, Norman had survived the explosion, his strength enhanced by the gas from the explosion, and this combined with the Hobgoblin weapons created the Green Goblin. He then began kidnapping the Oscorp stockholders including Board members J. Jonah Jameson, Kingpin and Anastasia Hardy (mother of Felicia Hardy), although Spider-Man uncovered an underwater base where the Goblin intended to kill them. Fighting the Goblin, Spider-Man unmasked him. Amnesia ensued and Norman was unable to remember his dual identity. The following morning, Norman publicly announced that Oscorp would no longer be involved in the creation of chemical weapons, and allowing Harry to be brought on board. Oscorp is briefly featured in Spider-Man: The New Animated Series. In the episode "Heroes and Villains", Oscorp board of directors are convincing Empire State University to destroy one of its housing developments, Villaroy Towers, which prompts the arrival of a new vigilante Turbo Jet (secretly former NASA engineer Louis Wyler). In "Law of the Jungle", the vengeful Curt Connors in his Lizard state attacks Oscorp Tower and almost killed Harry if not for Spider-Man. It's revealed Curt lost his right arm due to testing a weapon: Wide Area Explosive Fragmentation Round (WAFER) and tried to sue the company but the case was thrown out. In "When Sparks Fly", a returning Electro is stopped by Spider-Man using an Oscorp High Voltage Storage container. Oscorp is featured in The Spectacular Spider-Man. Oscorp is the leading chemical manufacturing firm (which also had research divisions that dealt in other areas) that is based in New York City and was founded and owned by the ruthless businessman, inventor, and gifted chemist named Norman Osborn. At some point, Norman came across a chemical formula with the intention of using it to increase a person's intelligence and physical strength. Osborn tried to recreate the chemical (secretly) and used small doses of it. The formula indeed increased his intelligence and strength, but it also drove him insane. He created a Halloween-like costume for himself which he colored green after the solution and named himself the "Green Goblin" for which his major objective was to become the reigning crime boss in New York and to kill Spider-Man. Oscorp is featured in the Ultimate Spider-Man animated series. Similar to the Ultimate Marvel reality, Norman contacted Dr. Otto Octavius to capture Spider-Man and told his plan to create super soldiers from his DNA. Octavius hired the Frightful Four to do the job. Later that day Octavius got a message from Wizard that they found the vigilante. The next day when the Frightful Four were defeated, Norman chided Octavius, which the latter promised not to fail him again. Doctor Octopus later sends out an Octobot to acquire a sample of Spider-Man, the tiny Octobot came back with it and he created the Venom symbiote out of the sample. Norman ordered him to make of it in one day. Later, when Norman came back from his home, the vicinity was destroyed by Venom who escaped and searched for Spider-Man. After Venom was supposedly destroyed, Norman congratulated Octavius for the success and ordered him to make an advanced prototype of it. Doctor Octopus hired Taskmaster to capture Spider-Man. After Taskmaster returned from a failed mission, Octavius went into a rage and destroyed his facility, while Taskmaster decided to take revenge on Spider-Man. In the Avengers Assemble animated series, an Oscorp building is seen in the episode "Dark Avengers". Oscorp appears in Marvel's Spider-Man. It had a containment breach where some experimental spiders the company was working were on let loose in the facility; one spider went on to bite Midtown High student Peter Parker. Additionally, there's Osborn Academy as a technological rival to Horizon High, and a hi-tech security force called the Osborn Commandos made up of Osborn Academy's staff and students. Film Sam Raimi's Spider-Man trilogy Oscorp is featured in the first two films of Sam Raimi's Spider-Man trilogy. Oscorp Labs appears throughout Spider-Man (2002). Depicted as a chemical corporation based in New York headed by Norman Osborn (Willem Dafoe) and Mendell Stromm, it had a hand in military technology that produced a green metal flight-suit and purple flying glider, which after Norman undergoes the experiment with his own serum, he becomes superhuman yet is driven insane, and steals the armor and glider, becoming the Green Goblin. He then bombs rival Quest Aerospace during a test of their own exosuit, but this only propels the board to oust Norman by selling Oscorp to Quest via buyout. During the unity day festival, the Green Goblin murders the board via pumpkin bomb in retribution, eliminating the last threat towards his control over the company. In Spider-Man 2 (2004), Harry assumes control of Oscorp after Norman's death and funds Otto Octavius' ambition for fusion power. After a demonstration goes awry, which results in the death of Otto's wife Rosie, the destruction of the fusion reactor, and the electrocution of Otto that transforms him into Doctor Octopus, Harry claims "he's ruined" from his losses in the accident. The Amazing Spider-Man duology Oscorp is featured in The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) and The Amazing Spider-Man 2 (2014), both directed by Marc Webb. In the films, Oscorp is portrayed as a powerful and corrupt scientific corporation headed by Norman Osborn and others like Rajit Ratha and Donald Menken, who uses the company's vast resources in various attempts to find a cure for his terminal disease. The corporation is involved in a variety of illegal conspiracies, such as the framing and murder of Richard and Mary Parker, and the development of the spider-venom that gave Spider-Man his powers. Oscorp's scientific experiments and illegal activities play a role in the development of several supervillains, including the Lizard, Electro, Green Goblin, and Rhino. Additionally, Oscorp has control over the Ravencroft Institute for the Criminally Insane, in which they perform illegal and inhumane scientific experiments on the institute's mental patients. These experiments are over-seen by a mad scientist named Dr. Ashley Kafka. Marvel Cinematic Universe The Oscorp building from The Amazing Spider-Man was intended to appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film The Avengers (2012). However, by the time the Oscorp building was fully designed for The Amazing Spider-Man, the skyline for The Avengers was rendered, so the idea was abandoned due to timing constraints. In Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021), Norman Osborn, who is transported from the Sam Raimi films' universe, is unable to find his company in the MCU’s New York City, and assumes it does not exist. Sony's Spider-Man Universe An Oscorp building appeared in the trailer for the Sony's Spider-Man Universe film Morbius (2022); however, it was cut from the final version of the film. Video games Oscorp appears in the 2002 Spider-Man video game. The company in the game parallels that of the film, with Norman Osborn and his scientists attempting to capture Spider-Man in order to study his genetics to perfect a super-soldier serum that the company needs to develop for a military contract. After a number of failed attempts to capture Spider-Man using Oscorp robots, Norman subjects himself to the unfinished serum and becomes the Green Goblin. Later, Spider-Man infiltrates Oscorp to investigate the Goblin's relationship with the company after examining a Razor Bat he found during one of their battles. While there, Spider-Man shuts down a highly dangerous chemical weapons operation and destroys a gigantic robot. He then learns that the Green Goblin is targeting Mary Jane Watson after one of Oscorp's robots captures a picture of her kissing him. Oscorp appears in Spider-Man: Friend or Foe. Spider-Man fights Green Goblin on the helipad at Oscorp's Japanese branch. Oscorp appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes. The Avengers seem to be unaware that Green Goblin is Norman Osborn since they did not know why he went to Oscorp. Later on, Spider-Man, allied with Black Widow and Hawkeye, ventures through Oscorp while pursuing the Goblin, leading them to a fight with Venom. The Oscorp logo from The Amazing Spider-Man can be seen in Iron Man 3: The Official Game, which is based on the film of the same name. Oscorp appears in The Amazing Spider-Man video game. In the game, the company has largely shifted its focus towards Alistair Smythe's Spider-Slayers and other advanced robotics in response to the proliferation of "Cross-Species" experiments based on disgraced Oscorp scientist Curt Connors's research, such as Scorpion/MAC, Rhino, Iguana and Nattie. Other staff members mentioned or featured in the game include Otto Octavius, Mendell Stromm, and Michael Morbius. Oscorp appears in The Amazing Spider-Man 2 video game. Gang leader Herman Schultz and members of the Russian mob steal Oscorp technology to fight each other for dominance; Schultz in particular uses one of the stolen devices to become the Shocker later on. The tech stolen by the Russians features in the game's challenges. Oscorp appears in Marvel Contest of Champions video game. Marvel's Spider-Man game series Oscorp Industries appears in the Marvel's Spider-Man series developed by Insomniac Games. This version of the company was co-founded by Norman Osborn and Otto Octavius, and its name derives from "the Os", Norman and Otto's college nickname. However, Otto eventually left the company due to Norman's corruption and the dangerous and unethical experiments Oscorp conducted. Thanks to Norman's position as mayor of New York, Oscorp technology has been implemented into many of the city's public services. Research stations were also set up throughout the city by Norman's son Harry Osborn to carry out his late mother Emily's wishes of eradicating pollution and cleaning the environment and are part of a side-quest in the first game. In Marvel's Spider-Man (2018), the company plays a central role, as it was responsible for the creation of the "Devil's Breath", a bio-weapon originally intended to be a treatment for genetic disorders, in particular the illness that killed Norman's wife Emily and later also affected Harry. After one of the test subjects for Devil's Breath, Martin Li, gained super powers from it and accidentally killed his parents, he becomes the crime boss Mister Negative to pursue revenge against Norman. Additionally, after Norman withdraws Otto's funding for his research into advanced prosthetic limbs in a thinly veiled attempt to get him to return to Oscorp, Otto becomes inspired by Li's actions to pursue his own vendetta. Seeking to ruin Norman's reputation, Otto forms the Sinister Six and organizes several attacks against Oscorp while also releasing the Devil's Breath in an attempt to expose Norman's role in its creation. Oscorp's response is to hire Sable International and allow them to put the city under martial law, resulting in further abuses and corruption. The former chief scientist of the Devil’s Breath project, Morgan Michaels, eventually betrays his employer by helping Spider-Man devise a cure for the virus. Once the Devil's Breath outbreak is stopped and the Sinister Six are defeated, Oscorp is able to avoid any major lawsuits, though Norman resigns as mayor in disgrace. In Marvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales, the Underground use Oscorp's abandoned science center as a hideout. The science center prior to being abandoned appears in a flashback in which Miles Morales and Phin Mason win a contest held there by presenting the energy converter they created before entering their respective high schools. The science center is also the place where Miles indirectly met Peter Parker and Otto, when the latter two visited the center for an idea of their prosthetic limbs project. In Marvel's Spider-Man 2, it is revealed that Oscorp retrieved the Venom symbiote after it crash-landed outside New York, which was later experimented on by Dr. Curt Connors, turning it into an organic suit that can heal whoever it is bonded to. After discovering that the symbiote is sentient and can influence the behavior of its host, however, Connors advised to destroy it, but Norman attempted to use it to cure Harry's illness. This eventually results in Harry becoming Venom and starting a symbiote invasion in New York, which is thwarted by the Spider-Men (Peter Parker and Miles Morales) and Mary Jane Watson, while Venom is destroyed, leaving Harry in a comatose state. This prompts Norman to order his scientists to use the "G-serum" on his son and vow revenge against the Spider-Men, whom he blames for Harry's condition. See also Alchemax Cross Technological Enterprises Roxxon Energy Corporation Parker Industries Stark Industries References External links Oscorp at Marvel Wiki Oscorp at Comic Vine 1966 in comics Spider-Man
4913016	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlito%20%28wrestler%29	Carlito (wrestler)	Carlos Edwin Colón Coates Jr. (born February 21, 1979) is a Puerto Rican professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the SmackDown brand under the ring name Carlito as a member of the Latino World Order. He is a member of the Colón wrestling family, being the son of Carlos Colón. He made his debut for World Wrestling Council (WWC) in 1999, winning the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship 17 times and the WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship once. During the early years of his career, he made appearances for the X Wrestling Federation and Funking Conservatory, winning his first international championship for the second. In 2003, Colón signed a developmental contract with WWE. He worked in its developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) for 16 months, mostly wrestling in tag team matches while making appearances in WWC. In October 2004, he made his main roster debut. He went on to become a one-time United States Champion and one-time Intercontinental Champion, and was part of both the Raw and SmackDown brands. He is the only wrestler to win a championship on two separate debuts in WWE and the second Puerto Rican wrestler (after Pedro Morales) to hold the Intercontinental Championship. At WrestleMania 25, Colón and his brother Primo unified the WWE Tag Team Championship and World Tag Team Championship as the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship before leaving WWE in May 2010. In 2021, Colón briefly returned to WWE, first as an entrant in the Royal Rumble and then the following night on Raw. He then returned in May 2023 at Backlash to assist Bad Bunny and the Latino World Order (LWO). Following this, Colón re-signed with WWE, but it was not until Fastlane in October when he reappeared as the LWO's mystery tag team partner and was subsequently assigned to the SmackDown brand. Early life Carlos Edwin Colón Coates Jr. was born in the Santurce district of San Juan on February 21, 1979, the son of Puerto Rican professional wrestler and World Wrestling Council founder Carlos Colón and his Canadian-born wife Nancy. He has three younger siblings, including fellow wrestlers Eddie (best known in the WWE as Primo) and Stacy Colón, both of whom performed in the World Wrestling Council. A second sister, Melissa, did not enter the wrestling business. Other members of Colón's family have also been involved in the World Wrestling Council, including his cousin Orlando (best known in WWE as Epico) and uncle José. Colón graduated from the Jesuit school Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola in 1997. Unsatisfied with his physical conditioning, he joined a gym at the age of 11. He has said that he only did so for exercise and did not originally intend to become a wrestler. It was not until completing his college education that he decided to train, after noticing that his condition was on par with the wrestlers despite his age. Despite this, Colón initially expected to retire within a decade and go on to run a private business. He has admitted that, during this initial stage, he received peer pressure to match the accomplishments of his father. Professional wrestling career World Wrestling Council (1999–2003) In July 1999, Colón began working in the World Wrestling Council as a cameraman, then known by his actual nickname "Carly", being subtly introduced to the television programming. Soon after his first appearance, the promotion's main heel (or villainous) wrestler, Ray González, took an interest in him after learning his identity. After weeks of being pestered, Colón responded by punching González, which resulted in a beat-down by the dominant heel stable, La Familia del Milenio. At Aniversario 1999, Colón interrupted a match between González and Colón Sr., aiding his father by interrupting while wielding a shovel, which became his trademark weapon early in his career. The feud between Colón Sr. and González continued, with him interfering on his father's behalf. The final match of this feud concluded in the same manner that the first Aniversario encounter. Soon after, vignettes depicting him training with Isaac Rosario began airing in WWC's show, Superestrellas de la Lucha Libre. Colón made his in-ring debut in January 2000 by defeating Félix Tapia, a jobber and member of La Familia. He was immediately booked in a major push, defeating almost the entirety of the heel locker room during the following two weeks. Despite being active for less than three months, he earned the support of the WWC fanbase. On January 29, 2000, Colón defeated González to become the youngest wrestler to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship. Following his victory, he was engulfed by fans and carried to the locker room by the Ejercíto de la Justicia, the main fan-favorite stable in the promotion. González countered by creating a coalition of wrestlers that had feuded with Colón Sr. in the past, led by Hercules Ayala and Ramón Álvarez. On February 19, 2000, Colón dropped the Universal Heavyweight Championship to González, following intervention from Álvarez. This led to a double feud against Álvarez and Ayala, from which he emerged victorious. During this time frame, he also wrestled One Man Gang, who was involved a storyline where a $10,000 bounty was placed by La Familia to "end his career". On July 16, 2000, Colón defeated González to recover the championship in the main event of Aniversario, the promotion's anniversary event. This was followed with a feud with Curt Hennig, brought in by La Familia, who won the title by pinning him on September 30, 2000. Both met in a rematch the following event, with the championship being held-up following a time limit draw. On November 25, 2000, Colón recovered the belt by defeating Hennig in a no-disqualification contest without time limit. On December 3, 2000, Colón wrestled "The Botswana Beast" Benjamin Peacock to a double count out. In his next match, he defeated Horace Hogan. González turned on Hennig and brought in Jerry Flynn to recapture the title. Colón won their first encounters, but Flynn won the Universal Heavyweight Championship on February 17, 2001. He resumed his feud with González, before migrating to another angle against La Familia's main tag team, Thunder and Lightning, composed of Reynaldo "Thunder" Rodríguez and Alex "Lightning" Cruz. Teaming with his father and brother, Eddie Colón, he earned a victory over them. Thunder and Lightning went on to turn on González, who then pursued a partnership with Colón, looking for him in several locations. At Aniversario 2001: Septiembre Negro, he teamed with González to defeat Thunder and Lightning. However, the partnership was short lived, with González turning on Colón and regaining control of La Familia. On November 13, 2001, Colón participated in the television tapings of the X Wrestling Federation. In his only appearance for the promotion, he defeated David Sierra. On December 1, 2001, Colón defeated González to win the Universal Heavyweight Championship, restarting the formula of bringing foreign wrestlers to challenge him. His next feud was against Vampiro, winning the first encounters between them, but losing the title in a no-disqualification contest. A rematch ended in a double disqualification, with the belt being held-up after both assaulted the designated referee. To close this rivalry, Colón defeated Vampiro to regain the Universal Heavyweight Championship. On March 16, 2002, he teamed with his brother to defeat Thunder and Lightning and win the WWC World Tag Team Championship. Their reign only lasted a day, losing a rematch the following date. He subsequently formed an alliance with Konnan, winning the belts again on March 26, 2002, and holding them for nearly three months. After losing the titles back to Thunder and Lightning, Konnan turned on Colón by attacking his sister, Stacy Colón, with a guitar. He dropped the title in the ensuing feud, recovering it back on November 23, 2002. To open 2003, Colón lost the belt to José "Chicky Starr" Laureano, winning it back the following month. On March 15, 2003, he lost the championship to Sabu, before recovering it two weeks later. In May 2003, Colón wrestled in two tryout matches for World Wrestling Entertainment. His opponents were Tommy Dreamer and Jamie Noble, with both contests ending in a loss. Three different reports scouted his performance in a positive manner, with an official offer being made days after the initial appearances. On June 2, 2003, Colón signed a developmental contract with WWE, being assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling. He made a final appearance in WWC, winning a match over Mike Awesome at Aniversario 2003. Following this performance, Colón addressed the crowd and vacated the Universal Heavyweight Championship, with the next titleholder being decided in a tournament following his departure. The staff of WWC's main rival, the International Wrestling Association (IWA-PR), was surprised by the event due to the promotion's previous association with WWE. They expected the tryout to conclude with the same outcome that the ones that WWE held with their talents (Germán Figueroa, Ricky Banderas and Andy Anderson) without any offer being made, deciding to counter the signing's impact with a storyline that benefited from it. The following month in the tour to promote the Summer Attitude 2003 event, IWA-PR began announcing the arrival of the "son of a former world champion" and "legend that is universally recognized" to the promotion, which was heavily implied to be Colón, but actually served as a plot device to introduce David Flair. Before the identity was revealed, his music was played over the sound system, only for the crowd to be told by Savio Vega (Juan Rivera) that they should avoid "acting like morons". World Wrestling Entertainment/ WWE (2003–2010) Ohio Valley Wrestling (2003–2004) Upon joining OVW, Colón performed under his nickname of "Carly". On July 5, 2003, he debuted by teaming with Luther Reigns and John Hennigan in a loss to Tank Toland, Johnny Jeter, and Matt Cappotelli. In his first singles appearances, Colón defeated Rob Begley and Mike Mondo. He teamed with Henningan in a loss to Damien Sandow and Simon Dean, after which the team was dissolved. Hennigan then teamed with Cappotelli winning against Colón and his new partner, Joey Mercury. This team scored a win over Carl Lafon & Mondo, before being dissolved itself. Shortly afterwards, his ring name was changed as to the more formal "Carlos Colón, Jr.", his actual name. His performance in OVW was intercalated by appearances in dark matches that took place before WWE's main shows. On October 14, 2003, he teamed with Dean in a dark match loss to Sean O'Haire and Matt Morgan that preceded WWE Velocity. In February 2004, Colón performed as a heel for the first time in his career by joining Bolin Services, a faction led by Kenny Bolin and completed by Shad Gaspard, Jerome Crony, Demond Thompson, Mike Mondo and fellow Puerto Rican Lourdes Guenard. He was paired with several members of the faction, with his team with Mondo trading wins against the team of Mac Johnson & Seth Skyfire and defeating Adrenaline (a team composed by Chris Cage and Toland) twice. His teams with Shad Gaspard and Chris Masters did not meet the same success, losing three consecutive matches, two against Adrenaline and one to The British Knights respectively. Individually, Colón defeated Micah Taylor, but lost to Cappotelli. A trio formed by him, Mondo and Gaspard won a couple of matches over the trios of Skyfire, Mac Johnson, & Demond Thompson and Mike Taylor, Rob Begley & Steve Lewington. However, it also lost to Rod Steele, Mike Taylor & Rob Begley and Mac Johnson, Seth Skyfire, & Big Bad John. The trio wrestled the team of Adrenaline and Wavell Starr to a no contest. While working in OVW, Colón continued to appear in various World Wrestling Council events. Towards the year's end, he made sporadic appearances and feuded with the "Dominican Boy" Julio César López over the Universal Heavyweight Championship. Colón won a November encounter by disqualification, which prevented the title from changing hands. He won a rematch on December 20, 2003, and held on to the Universal Heavyweight Championship for two weeks, losing it to Abdullah the Butcher at WWC's Three Kings Weekend. During this timeframe, Colón also participated in several dark matches prior to Velocity and Sunday Night Heat, in the first teaming with Brent Dail in a loss to Jim Steele & Mike Barton and on the second losing to Johnny Jeter in singles. WWC scheduled him to wrestle Abyss on April 10, 2004, but WWE did not grant the permission to perform at the event, considering that it could be promoted as an interpromotional match against its rival, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. Throughout March and May, Colón wrestled in dark matches for both the Raw and SmackDown! brands. The outcome of these unofficial presentations were wins over Paul London, Ruffy Silverstein, Wavell Starr and Ricky Reyes, also including losses to Hardcore Holly, Shoichi Funaki, Shannon Moore and Billy Kidman. His work in OVW was a key plot device in WWC's main storyline of the year. On May 15, 2004, the promotion began a backstage angle where Enrique Cruz told Eddie Colón that Carly Colón was wrestling as a heel in OVW, only for José Rivera Jr. to dismiss it as "internet gossip". A subsequent phone conversation between brothers concluded without a direct response on the matter. On June 13, 2004, Carly Colón's role as a heel was made official in a segment where he told his sister that he was no longer interested in his father or the people of Puerto Rico. Consequently, Eddie Colón traveled to the United States to meet with his brother. Upon arriving to the hotel where Carly Colón was staying, he asked to contact him, but the clerk refused to attend him after receiving the response that "Mr. Colón says that he has no brother" and receiving no response upon knocking on the room door. Eddie Colón was expelled from the hotel and tried to attend his brother's training, but he received the same response and was denied access, buying a ticket for an OVW show held that night. After the event's start, Carly Colón was shown arriving late and being scolded by Jim Cornette. This skit reflected real conflicts between both. Cornette has stated that during Colón's stay in OVW he considered him a very talented performer, capable of doing "great stuff" but only did it when he "was on" due to being used to be treated as "wrestling royalty" in his role of "the boss' son". Cornette went on to explain the limited role, saying that: "I didn't feature Carlito, because he thought that he was more advanced than the rest of the guys and was cruising... but that wasn't what I wanted to see". Colón rebuffed this by saying that "they could have done more" with him in OVW and that the reason no to do it was because "Jim Cornette [doesn't] like" him. After noticing the hostile fan reaction and witnessing Carly's heel tactics from the public, Eddie Colón sneaked and waited by the locker rooms and confronted him, which resulted in a faceoff that concluded with the heel locker jumping him. Upon learning this, Colón Sr. travelled to Kentucky and interrupted an OVW scrimmage, which resulted in Carly Colón asking for his expulsion from the building. This served as setup for a feud between brothers, which saw Carly Colón return to Puerto Rico and mock the fans by stating that they would be "buying PPVs to see [him]" and using the recent Puerto Rico national basketball team's 19-point victory over the United States national basketball team to claim that they were "conformists" for celebrating a single win. The first match between brothers headlined Aniversario on August 21, 2004. Carly Colón won the match by faking a knee injury and then shoving his sister into Eddie Colón when she entered the ring to help, using the distraction to score the pinfall. Two rematches were held the following month at Fase 3, the first of which ended in a time limit draw. He lost the rubber match, which concluded with the heel factions assaulting both brothers and Colón Sr. futilely asking them to join forces. In response to this angle, IWA-PR began hinting that Colón would be joining a heel stable known as "Capitol Sports" (borrowing the name that WWC used during the 1970s-90s), which in storyline was being covertly operated by González in cooperation with his "business partners" (a reference to Colón Sr. and Jovica) with the intention of taking over the promotion. In a segment of their television show, the company ran a script where a surprise arrival was announced, which was promoted as "a young wrestler [...] with a tremendous future in the United States [...] who has Capitol flowing through veins" and with whom González had differences in the past that were overcome when he opened his eyes (in reference to WWC's heel turn) so that he could "complete" an unspecified task in the invasion. IWA-PR further mocked Colón in a skit where Savio Vega dismissed this revelation, citing that he had video evidence of a match where Flash Flanagan (who was active in the promotion performing as "Slash Venom") pinned him at OVW. This angle was concluded in a segment where González berated an unknown individual during a call for being unable to appear in a card, claiming that "he [was] a failure like [his] father and brother". United States Champion (2004–2005) In preparation for his debut, the WWE's creative team began testing different characters for him to use. The first attempt involved the promotion filing copyrights for the use of "Carlitos Colón", which is the nickname commonly associated with his father in Puerto Rico. On June 7, 2004, Colón wrestled under this name in a dark match, this time losing to Sean Morley. However, later that month, the name was modified to Carlito Colón and he was given the gimmick of a metrosexual man, originally intending to team him with Rico Constantino upon being promoted. However, this idea was dropped when Constantino was legitimately injured in a match. An afro was introduced to his gimmick during the last week of June, when he lost to Shane Helms in another dark match. As his promotion drew nearer, his team with Mondo lost to Capotelli and alternate partners Nick Dinsmore and Flash Flanagan. However, it also won a match over Capotelli and Steve Lewington. In singles, he was defeated by Elijah Burke. On September 19, 2004, he wrestled under the name of "Carlito Caribbean Cool" in a SmackDown! house show and defeated Scotty 2 Hotty. The creative team settled on this character and he wrestled under it in two more dark matches prior to Velocity, where he was booked in wins over Moore and Chris Cage. On October 7, 2004, Colón made his debut as a heel on SmackDown! as "Carlito Caribbean Cool" (though later shortened to simply "Carlito"), whose gimmick was an apple toting big mouth who would spit apple "in the face of people who don't want to be cool". Carlito defeated John Cena for the United States Championship in his first match on the main roster by using a steel chain to knock out Cena. He immediately entered an undefeated streak of 14 contests, during which he successfully defended the title against Rob Van Dam, Rey Mysterio, Eddie Guerrero and Hardcore Holly, also defeating Shannon Moore in a non-title match. Carlito was then involved in a storyline where his bodyguard Jesús stabbed Cena in a nightclub. Carlito held the United States Championship for forty-two days, losing it back to Cena after suffering a legitimate injury. Carlito made his pay-per-view debut at the 2004 Survivor Series, where he represented Team Angle in an eight-man tag team match against Team Guerrero, but did not actually participate in the event due to being chased out of the building by Cena. While Carlito was recovering from an injury, he was kept on television and got involved in a comical angle with SmackDown!'s general manager, Theodore Long. The storyline consisted of Carlito being forced to do demeaning chores around the arena, such as selling hot dogs, removing snow from parking lots with a shovel and mopping floors. As a result of these actions, Carlito created a petition in support of Long's destitution, but was unsuccessful. Carlito made his WrestleMania debut in a non-wrestling role at WrestleMania 21, in which he interrupted an edition of Rowdy Roddy Piper's Piper's Pit, with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the special guest. Following WrestleMania, Carlito created an interview segment entitled Carlito's Cabana. Carlito then entered a feud with The Big Show after Big Show refused an offer to work in an enforcer role for Carlito. This feud involved Carlito tricking Big Show into eating a poisoned apple, and Matt Morgan becoming Carlito's enforcer. This feud ended with Carlito defeating Big Show at Judgment Day after interference from Morgan. Intercontinental Champion (2005–2006) Carlito was drafted to the Raw brand in the 2005 WWE draft lottery. He made his brand debut on the June 20 episode of Raw in which he defeated Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship. He then lost the Intercontinental title to Ric Flair at Unforgiven. Towards the end of 2005, Carlito was involved in a brand rivalry which led to him discontinuing Carlito's Cabana. The angle concluded with Carlito wrestling for Team Raw against Team SmackDown! in a Survivor Series match at Survivor Series, which Team Raw lost. In late 2005, Carlito was added to angles involving the WWE Championship. After defeating Shelton Benjamin in a qualifying match, Carlito was added to the main event at New Year's Revolution in early 2006, the Elimination Chamber match. He was one of the final two wrestlers remaining, after eliminating Kane, Chris Masters and Shawn Michaels. He then lost the match to John Cena. Following New Year's Revolution, Carlito and Chris Masters joined forces as a tag team. Together they competed against Big Show and Kane for the World Tag Team Championship at WrestleMania 22. Carlito and Masters lost when Masters accidentally attacked Carlito. Following the match, Carlito confronted Masters, igniting a feud between them. Carlito turned face when he attacked Chris Masters after his "Masterlock Challenge" the next night on Raw. This storyline came to a conclusion at Backlash, where Carlito defeated Masters via an illegal assist from the ropes. Various feuds (2006–2008) At Vengeance, Carlito fought in a Triple Threat match against Shelton Benjamin and Johnny Nitro for Benjamin's Intercontinental title. Nitro won the match after pulling Carlito outside of the ring and pinning him. Following Vengeance, Carlito began an on-screen relationship with Trish Stratus. He also engaged in a short feud with Johnny Nitro and Melina, which ended after Carlito and Stratus defeated Nitro and Melina in a mixed tag team match at Saturday Night's Main Event XXXIII. Carlito next feuded with Randy Orton, following a spot where Orton attempted to attack Stratus during a backstage segment. The two wrestlers were booked for a match at Unforgiven and a rematch on Raw; Orton won both matches. The feud concluded in a match at WWE's annual Tribute to the Troops event, where Carlito won by pinfall. The angle involving Carlito's relationship with Trish Stratus lasted until Stratus' retirement from wrestling following Unforgiven. In the final months of 2006, Carlito competed in several matches involving the Intercontinental Championship. His involvement in this angle ended at Cyber Sunday, after being elected by the fans to face Jeff Hardy for the championship. Carlito, however, lost the match. During this time period Carlito's gimmick underwent a slight change and was sold as a "ladies man", eventually getting involved in another fictional relationship with Torrie Wilson. Carlito participated in the 2007 Royal Rumble, where he was eliminated by The Great Khali. Following the Royal Rumble, Carlito started a feud with Ric Flair, in which Flair insulted Carlito for leaving a show early by claiming that he had no heart, no passion and was undeserving of his spot on the roster. After Carlito challenged and lost to Flair in a match, they were booked as a tag team, with Flair serving as a mentor to Carlito. The team was involved in a Money in the Bank qualifying match which was declared a "no contest" after The Great Khali interfered. This led to a triple threat match the following week which included and was won by Randy Orton. Prior to WrestleMania 23, Colón expressed dissatisfaction with WWE management in an interview for not having plans to book him to appear at the pay-per-view and criticized their methods for selecting performers to push, making reference to backstage politics. Carlito, however, did participate in a dark match at WrestleMania, winning in a tag team match with Flair as his partner against the team of Chavo Guerrero and Gregory Helms. The team also lost a number one contender's match for the World Tag Team Championship against Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch. Carlito turned on Flair after the loss, which turned him heel again. Their feud ended with a match at Judgment Day, where Carlito lost to Flair by submission. Colón appeared in the World Wrestling Council's Aniversario 2007 event where he faced Scott Hall, who retook his WWE gimmick, Razor Ramon, for the first time since leaving the promotion in 1996. As a way to promote the match, Hall claimed that the "Carlito Caribbean Cool" character was an imitation of him, giving it the nickname "Mini Razor". Colón defeated Ramon with his Back Stabber finisher, in a match that included interference by the then-Universal Heavyweight Champion Apolo. All three were involved in a three-way match for the title the following day, which concluded with Ramon pinning Apolo. Following his feud with Flair he was involved in angles with The Sandman and Triple H. He then lost to Triple H at Unforgiven in a no disqualification match where the no disqualification rule only applied to Carlito. In late 2007, Colón requested his release from the WWE as he was unhappy with the direction of his character. Following a meeting with Vince McMahon, however, he was convinced to stay. On December 10, 2007, he was featured in a ladder match at the Raw 15th Anniversary against Jeff Hardy for the WWE Intercontinental Championship, which Hardy won. Carlito defeated Cody Rhodes to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXIV. He failed to win at the event. Carlito then formed a tag team with Santino Marella. The team was placed in several matches involving the World Tag Team Championship, twice being named the number one contenders; however, they lost the relevant championship matches. The Colóns (2008–2010) As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft, Carlito was drafted back to the SmackDown brand. After the draft, he asked for a vacation, using this time to attend his father's official retirement ceremonies at Aniversario 2008, where he also wrestled against Ray González. On September 12, he re-debuted on the brand turning face, forming a tag team with his brother, Primo. They defeated WWE Tag Team Champions Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder in the match to gain their first victory as a team. Two weeks later, both teams competed in a title match, with The Colóns winning to become WWE Tag Team Champions. Subsequently, Carlito and Primo entered a feud with World Tag Team Champions John Morrison and The Miz. At WrestleMania 25, The Colóns defeated Miz and Morrison in a tag team unification match, becoming the first team to simultaneously hold both sets of the company's Tag Team Championships since their creation. On April 15, 2009, both Carlito and Primo were drafted back to the Raw brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft. At The Bash, the duo dropped the Unified Tag Team Titles to Edge and Chris Jericho in a Triple Threat Tag Team Match also involving Ted DiBiase and Cody Rhodes. Carlito and Primo invoked their rematch clause the next night on Raw, but were unsuccessful. On the July 6 episode of Raw, following their loss to Edge and Jericho, Carlito turned heel by attacking Primo. At Night of Champions, Carlito challenged for the United States Championship in a Six-Pack Challenge, which also involved Primo, but neither of them were able to win the title. On the August 3 episode of Raw, Carlito defeated Primo to end their feud. On the August 13 episode of WWE Superstars, Carlito teamed with Rosa Mendes to defeat Kofi Kingston and Mickie James. Mendes would then become Carlito's manager until she was traded to the ECW brand in September. After a two-month hiatus, on the November 30 episode of Raw, Carlito returned to confront John Cena, after Cena challenged Sheamus to come out to the ring, telling him everyone on the roster were tired of him and that Sheamus was their representative of what the roster believed and then tried to spit apple in Cena's face, which led to him getting hit with Cena's finisher, the Attitude Adjustment. The following week, Carlito was defeated by Cena. In February 2010, Carlito was announced as one of the eight WWE Pros for the first season of WWE NXT. On the February 22 episode of Raw, Carlito was defeated by Christian in a Money in the Bank Qualifying match. The next night on WWE NXT, Carlito teamed with his NXT Rookie Michael Tarver in a losing effort against Christian and his NXT Rookie Heath Slater. On the May 6 episode of WWE Superstars, during his match with Primo, Carlito would stop the match and told Primo they shouldn't fight when the crowd cheers for two brothers to fight each other. Primo would agree and reunite with his brother, turning heel in the process. On the May 10 episode of Raw, Carlito and Primo attacked R-Truth for Ted DiBiase, who paid them afterwards. On May 21, Colón was released due to a violation of the WWE Wellness Program and refusal to attend a rehabilitation facility for a reported addiction to pain killers. Return to WWC (2010–2020) CCC and Rey Fénix (2010–2014) On July 11, 2010, Colón was booked in a match called "The Three Faces of Fear" at WWC's Aniversario 2010 which also involved Booker T. The concept of this contest was that he would face three unknown adversaries successively. Colón also performed on a second date of this event, working under a "tweener" concept, representing a morally ambiguous team without clear allegiance. He returned to WWC on September 25, 2010, at the "Septiembre Negro" event, where he defeated "El Triple Mega Campeón" Ricky Banderas. On November 27, 2010, Colón defeated Shelton Benjamin to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship at the Crossfire event. He made his first title defense against Banderas at WWC's last show of the year—Lockout. On January 8, 2011, Colón lost the Universal Heavyweight Championship to Banderas, following interference from Shane Sewell. On June 4, 2011, Carlito returned to WWC and defeated Steve Corino to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship for the thirteenth time. On July 17, 2011, at Aniversario 2011 Carlito made his first defense of the title against Abyss. In this event, Savio Vega cut a promo pursuing a feud as part of the first interpromotional angle between WWC and IWA-PR. However, this cooperation was stalled due to differences between the administration of both promotions, remaining fruitless for the rest of the year. On October 28, 2011, Colón returned to WWC first to join his brother and wrestled Gilbert Cruz and his cousin Orlando Colón, before successfully defending the Universal Heavyweight Championship against Masters the following night. On November 11, 2011, he won a rematch. At WWC's Euphoria 2012, he wrestled in a rematch against Banderas, which was left inconclusive when a video depicting Vega was shown in the titantron, draining the time limit. Colón dropped the Universal Heavyweight Championship to Gilbert at Noche de Campeones 2012, failing to win it back in a rematch held at Camino a la Gloria. In this event, he also aided Ray González, which resulted in both receiving an invitation to join La Nueva Familia, a recreation of La Familia del Milenio, proposed by Félix "Barrabás" López. González refused this approach, claiming that it was returning to the past. On May 12, 2012, Colón also declined the invitation by spitting an apple in López's face, who countered by ordering Thunder and Lightning to ambush both him and González during a number one contendership match. At Aniversario 2012, Colón and González defeated Thunder and Lightning, unmasking them for the first time in their career. They teamed once again, but lost a rematch by disqualification. At Septiembre Negro, a third and final encounter was set in a liberation match. Colón was the one to be handcuffed to the ring apron, turning on González upon being released and assaulting Carlos Colón Sr. when he tried to interfere. During the following weeks, vignettes aired where he berated members of his own family, eventually being confronted by José Huertas González. On October 7, 2012, Savio Vega reappeared in Superestrellas de la Lucha Libre, issuing yet another challenge. However, this time Colón fired back with a challenge of his own, inviting Vega to a special edition of Carlito's Cabana. The edition of Carlito's Cabana that featured Vega took place on October 14, 2012. In the segment, both traded insults and it finished with the security removing Vega when he tried to assault Colón after the former spat an apple in his face. At Halloween Wrestling Xtravaganza he was disqualified, assaulting his opponent after his father, who served as special referee, did not allow Huertas González to use his finisher. At Honor vs. Traición, Colón unsuccessfully challenged Ray González for the Universal Heavyweight Championship. A Hair vs. Hair rematch was immediately scheduled for Lockout, which will feature a guest referee elected by popular vote between Vega and Huertas González. The following night marked the first time that Colón participated in a match where his father was among his opponents, but he avoided facing him directly, instead requesting a tag and only entering later to pin González. During this time frame, an angle began in which Colón began pursuing the ownership of WWC. This led to the creation of the Carlito Caribbean Company (CCC), which acquired power when Rivera defeated Victor Jovica following a Huertas González heel turn to force him to sell WWC's stocks. Despite Rivera's involvement as a favored heel, Colón was booked in a spot where the new CCC management turned on him. The ownership of WWC was to be decided in a match between Huertas González and Colón Sr. held on June 29, 2013, at Summer Madness in which CCC lost its bid. In the same event, Colón faced Rivera for the first time, dominating throughout the match but losing after being sprayed in the face with "green mist". On July 13, 2013, he won a rematch by countering this same tactic. On August 18, 2013, Colón issued an open challenge for Aniversario 40, calling himself a "Puerto Rican icon". The following week the challenge was accepted by Sting, a former WCW and TNA world heavyweight champion commonly known as "The Icon". When Colón was preparing to finish the match with the Back Stabber, a masked wrestler known as Rey Fénix intervened and costed him the match. Since that mask was usually worn by Ray González, he began pursuing a match against him. On November 16, 2013, Colón defeated Fénix in a Hair vs. Mask match that served as the main event of Crossfire. However, when Rey Fénix unmasked, he was Ricky Santana instead of González. Various championship reigns (2014–2019) At Lockout 2013, Colón defeated Germán Figueroa but lost to Rivera, who was now wrestling under a character known as "TNT". After losing two consecutive matches to Ray González, he was able to win a tag team match where he joined Huertas González. However, after the event was over his partner turned on him, forcing a face switch and beginning a new feud. He joined Ray González to win the first match of this storyline. Afterwards, Huertas González challenged Colón to place his hair on the line, but was ignored on several occasions. The wager became official following the outcome of a match that made it mandatory. On March 30, 2014, Colón defeated Huertas González in a one-sided bet match, remaining undefeated in matches where his hair was at risk. On July 19, 2014, Carlito defeated TNT to win his first WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship. In July, he participated in WWC's Wrestlefest held at St. Marteen, advancing to the final of the Caribbean Cup Tournament before losing to Jerry Lawler. On October 10, 2014, Colón lost the title against Gilbert. The following month he wrestled Mighty Ursus to a double count out as part of a new feud. This extended to Aniversario where Colón lost to the latter in a failed titular as part of a lackluster tour that also included a double count out against Hernandez. At Lockout, he defeated Mighty Ursus in a cage match to win the Universal Heavyweight Championship. To open 2015, he retained in a Euphoria encounter where the ring was surrounded by fire. However, Ray González capitalized on this to win the belt the following night. The result proved controversial and Colón was able to defeat both González and Mighty Ursus in a three-way match at La Hora de la Verdad to regain it. The latter, however, remained successful against him and won a non-titular encounter that granted an inconclusive shot at the title. During the Camino a la Gloria tour, Chicano unseated Colón as Universal Heavyweight Champion, making way for another encounter against Mighty Ursus. Afterwards, his feud with González continued, facing both him and the teenage Ray González Jr. in singles and tag team matches. Colón's perennial rival opened the Summer Madness tour by winning an ambulance match. Despite only defeating moscardee Xix Xavant, he received another opportunity for the Universal Heavyweight Championship within two months, which saw Mr. 450 retain. At Aniversario 2016, Colón defeated Apolo and had another unsuccessful shot inside a cage, closing the event with a loss in a four-way Texas tornado match where the champion and other challengers competed. On January 9, 2016, Colón defeated Chicano to become the first contender to the Universal Heavyweight Championship. He successfully cashed in on this opportunity to earn the title again. On April 30, 2016, Colón defeated Bobby Lashley to retain the Universal Heavyweight Championship. He then defeated Roger Díaz, whose “El Sensacional” Carlitos character had been created as a parody of Carlos Colón Sr. in IWA-PR, to remain titleholder. At Noche de Campeones 2016, Colón defeated Rey Mysterio and Mr. 450 to retain the Universal Heavyweight Championship. His feud with the latter extended throughout September and resulted in the title being vacated. However, Colón emerged from the series as champion after winning a rematch. He opened Aniversario by winning a matchup against Monster Pain, who returned to WWC after a prolonged absence that included a reign as WWL World Heavyweight Champion. In the main night of the tour, Colón defeated Jeff Hardy to retain the Universal Heavyweight Championship. However, he was immediately placed in a feud against Alberto Del Rio, who managed to win a non-titular encounter. Colón closed the year with two double countouts at Lockout, the first against MVP and the second against “El Patrón”, which led to the title being vacated. At Euphoria 2017, Colón and Del Rio wrestled to a no contest in a titular match. Afterwards, his feud with González reignited and led to multiple double disqualifications. On March 27, 2017, Colón defeated Gilbert to become the first contender to the Universal Heavyweight Championship. The passing of hurricane Maria while he was immersed in an international tour led to a prolonged absence from WWC, which eventually returned at Camino a la Gloria in March 2018. In this event, Colón lost to Apolo. Returning during the summer for Aniversario, he failed to dethrone Mighty Ursus and lost an encounter with Jack Swagger. At Lockout, Colón defeated The Tahitian Warrior. Colón cousins WWC administration (2019) At Euphoria 2019, The Colóns reunited in a win over the champion and Gilbert. At Aniversario 2019, Colón defeated Eli Drake. After a brief rivalry with El Hijo de Dos Caras, he was placed in the titular stage again. However, since Orlando Colón won the Universal Heavyweight Championship and his brother was also interested in the belt, all three cousins clashed for the first time in a match that saw the titlist retain. Colón's first home appearance of 2020 resulted in a lost to Gilbert, the main associate of the now-heel Eddie Colón as part of a stable known as The Dynasty. On February 29, 2020, WWC aired a segment in which Nick Aldis announced a defense of the NWA World Heavyweight Championship as part of Alianza Letal, the first card held jointly by WWC and IWA-PR as part of a business agreement. Colón was selected as the challenger. Independent circuit (2010–2023) Following his release, Colón began accepting dates to work for independent promotions. The first promotion to include him in its roster was World Wrestling Today. Colón challenged for the heavyweight titles of Big Time Wrestling, Coastal Championship Wrestling, International Wrestling Cartel and Crossfire Wrestling, but either lost these matches or won by count out. He made short tours for promotions such as Pro Wrestling Syndicate, NWA Southwest, World Wrestling Association, Border City Wrestling, National Wrestling Superstars and Vendetta Pro Wrestling, scoring wins over the likes of Shane Douglas and Gangrel. On August 7, 2010, he made his debut in Lucha Libre USA's live shows, wrestling as "Carlitos". In February 2011, NWA Southwest in Texas booked Carlito in a match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Adam Pearce. Colón won Family Wrestling Entertainment's Heavyweight Championship on October 6, 2012, in main event of House of Hardcore's first show, defeating previous champions Tommy Dreamer and Mike Knox in a three-way match. In March 2013, Colón won the Millennium Wrestling Federation's Undisputed Championship. He had previously performed for the promotion, mostly in matches involving Benny Jux (David Bentubo) between 2011 and 2012. On June 21, 2013, he dropped the FWE Heavyweight Championship to John Hennigan. The following day, Colón defeated Mike Bennett in HOH. In July 2013, he made a one-night appearance for All American Wrestling by headlining the promotion's Scars and Stripes event, in which Keith Walker was booked as the winner. On October 12, 2013, Colón lost to Dreamer in the first round of the FWE Open Weight Grand Prix. On November 9, 2013, he and Rosita defeated Tara and Stevie Richards at House of Hardcore 3. On November 30, 2013, at WrestleCade, Carlito was defeated by Matt Hardy for the WrestleCade championship. Colón was a member of the International Wrestling Federation's inaugural roster, where he debuted with a win over Willie Mack. His 2019 appearances within the circuit were less in comparison to previous years, and included World Class Revolution (Oklahoma), Pro Wrestling Experience (Maine), Immortal Championship Wrestling (New York) and WildKat with challenges for the MM Maximum, cOw/WPWI United, PWE United States and ICW Heavyweight titles. Despite this, by debuting for IWA-PR's eponymous Florida spin off and winning the IWA Florida Heavyweight Championship over Wes Brisco, he became the first Colón to appear under the brand. His reign ended in December, when he was stripped of the belt. In 2020, Colón has wrestled for CCW, UXW, GWF, serving as contender for the GWF World Championship. International tours (2010–2014) Upon becoming a free agent in 2010, Colón began traveling throughout the world, frequently making tours by country or region. Among the first, were and Canadian Wrestling's Elite and the Canadian National Wrestling Alliance, receiving a titular opportunity in the former. In December 2010, Colón participated in Inoki Genome Federation in Japan, where he was pinned by Japanese superstar Kendo Kashin. On March 4, 2011, he made his debut for the Mexican promotion Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) billed as Carlito Caribbean Cool, defeating Decnnis, Jack Evans and Ozz in a four-way match to advance to the Rey de Reyes tournament finals at the Rey de Reyes pay-per-view. In the finals of the tournament, Colón was defeated by Extreme Tiger. On October 31, 2011, he was booked for the Halloween Lucha Tour event held in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, in which he tagged with Chavo Guerrero and Rikishi Phatu to face Mil Mascaras, Dos Caras and Cassandro. They repeated the match the following two days in different locations, but replaced Cassandro with El Hijo de Canek. On February 4, 2012, Colón continued by appearing on the World Wrestling Fan Xperience (WWFX) Champions Showcase Tour in Manila, Philippines, where he wrestled under his LLUSA name in a win over Snitsky. On October 26, 2012, he made a one-night appearance for Wrestling New Classic (WNC) in Japan, losing to Tajiri in the first round of the WNC Championship tournament. On September 6, 2013, he made his debut for the World Wrestling League (marking the first time that he performed for another Puerto Rico-based promotion) as part of a tour of Mexico. In his first appearance, Colón defeated established Mexican performers Blue Demon, Jr. and La Parka II. Two days later, he lost a rematch by submission. Colón was one of the first wrestlers to perform in Qatar Pro Wrestling, the first promotion in this Arabian state. At Wrestling Alliance Revolution's Super Leyendas del Ring, Colón won a three-way match for the WAR World Heavyweight Championship. On December 7, 2013, he wrestled at First Wrestling Society's Amo Del Hexágono winning the 1WS World Heavyweight Championship. On March 7, 2014, Colón participated in another of WWL's Mexican tours, joining Chavo Guerrero and Fuerza Guerrera in a 3-on-3 match against Juventud Guerrera, Octagón and Ricky Marvin, where his team lost by disqualification. Two days later, he participated in a three-way match for José "Monster Pain" Torres's WWL World Heavyweight Championship, but was not involved in the outcome after the champion pinned Guerrero. Colón lost the WAR World Heavyweight Championship to Pablo Marquez on April 19, 2014, as part of CCW's Spring Breakout. Return to WWE (2021, 2023–present) In March 2014, Carlito's father was announced as a WWE Hall of Fame inductee as part of that year's class. On April 6, Colón joined the other members of his family during the official induction ceremony. In 2018, Carlito made a surprise cameo as a boat captain in a parody of The Goonies on episode two of the second season of ‘The Edge & Christian Show That Totally Reeks Of Awesomeness’, titled “Hey You Guuuyyysss”. In January 2021, Carlito returned to WWE in the Royal Rumble match at Royal Rumble as the eighth entrant, where he was eliminated by Elias. On the February 1, 2021 episode of Raw, Carlito teamed up with Jeff Hardy in his first match on Raw in 10 years to face off against Elias and Jaxson Ryker, in a winning effort. On May 6, 2023, at Backlash, Carlito interfered in the San Juan Street Fight between Bad Bunny and Damian Priest, helping Bunny defeat Priest as an associate of the Latino World Order (LWO). It was later reported that Carlito had pulled out of mulitple independent wrestling bookings where an independent promotion, Great North Wrestling, mentioned that the reason is because he had re-signed with WWE. On October 7 at Fastlane, Carlito returned as part of the SmackDown brand to team up with the LWO's Rey Mysterio and Santos Escobar to defeat Bobby Lashley and The Street Profits in a six-man tag team match. Filmography Championships and accomplishments Big Time Wrestling BTW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Family Wrestling Entertainment FWE Heavyweight Championship (1 time) First Wrestling Society 1WS World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Funking Conservatory FC Television Championship (1 time) Imperio Lucha Libre Imperio World Championship (1 time, current) Imperio World Championship Tournament (2017) International Wrestling Association Florida IWA Florida Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Magnum Pro Wrestling Magnum Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Millennium Wrestling Federation MWF Undisputed Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Experience PWE United States Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI ranked him #27 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500 in 2006 Pure Wrestling Association PWA Elite Championship (1 time) Qatar Pro Wrestling QPW Tag Team Champion (1 time, current) – with Chris Masters United Pro Wrestling UPW Championship (1 time) UPW Championship Tournament (2017) Wrestling Alliance Revolution WAR World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) World Wrestling Council WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship (1 time) WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship (1 time) WWC Television Championship (1 time) WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship (17 times) WWC World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Eddie Colón (1) and Konnan (1) World Wrestling Entertainment WWE United States Championship (1 time) WWE Intercontinental Championship (1 time) WWE Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Primo World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Primo Luchas de Apuestas record References External links Online World of Wrestling profile 1979 births Living people Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola alumni Puerto Rican people of Canadian descent Puerto Rican male professional wrestlers People with acquired Canadian citizenship Sportspeople from San Juan, Puerto Rico NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions 20th-century professional wrestlers 21st-century professional wrestlers WWC Universal Heavyweight Champions WWC Puerto Rico Champions Latino World Order members World Tag Team Champions (WWE) WWE Raw Tag Team Champions
4913027	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20court	Supreme court	In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, and high (or final) court of appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of a supreme court are not subject to further review by any other court. Supreme courts typically function primarily as appellate courts, hearing appeals from decisions of lower trial courts, or from intermediate-level appellate courts. However, not all highest courts are named as such. Civil law states tend not to have a single highest court. Additionally, the highest court in some jurisdictions is not named the "Supreme Court", for example, the High Court of Australia. On the other hand, in some places the court named the "Supreme Court" is not in fact the highest court; examples include the New York Supreme Court, the supreme courts of several Canadian provinces/territories, and the former Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales and Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland, which are all subordinate to higher courts of appeal. The idea of a supreme court owes much to the framers of the Constitution of the United States. It was while debating the division of powers between the legislative and executive departments that delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention established the parameters for the national judiciary. Creating a separate "third branch" of government was a novel idea; in the English tradition, judicial power is just one aspect of the sovereign authority of the Crown. It was also proposed in the Constitutional Convention that the judiciary should have a role in checking the executive power to exercise a veto or to revise laws. In the end, the Framers of the Constitution compromised by sketching only a general outline of the judiciary, vesting of federal judicial power in "one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish". They delineated neither the exact powers and prerogatives of the Supreme Court nor the organization of the Judicial Branch as a whole. Some countries have multiple "supreme courts" whose respective jurisdictions have different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law. Some countries with a federal system of government may have both a federal supreme court (such as the Supreme Court of the United States), and supreme courts for each member state (such as the Supreme Court of Nevada), with the former having jurisdiction over the latter only to the extent that the federal constitution extends federal law over state law. However, other federations, such as Canada, may have a supreme court of general jurisdiction, able to decide any question of law. Jurisdictions with a civil law system often have a hierarchy of administrative courts separate from the ordinary courts, headed by a supreme administrative court (such as the Supreme Administrative Court of Finland, for example). A number of jurisdictions also maintain a separate constitutional court or other judicial or quasi-judicial body (first developed in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920), such as Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Russia, Spain and South Africa. Within the former British Empire, the highest court within a colony was often called the "Supreme Court", even though appeals could be made from that court to the United Kingdom's Privy Council (based in London). A number of Commonwealth jurisdictions retain this system, but many others have reconstituted their own highest court as a court of last resort, with the right of appeal to the Privy Council being abolished. In jurisdictions using a common law system, the doctrine of stare decisis applies, whereby the principles applied by the supreme court in its decisions are binding upon all lower courts; this is intended to apply a uniform interpretation and implementation of the law. In civil law jurisdictions the doctrine of stare decisis is not generally considered to apply, so the decisions of the supreme court are not necessarily binding beyond the immediate case before it; however, in practice the decisions of the supreme court usually provide a very strong precedent, or jurisprudence constante, for both itself and all lower courts. Common law jurisdictions Australia The High Court of Australia is the supreme court in the Australian court hierarchy and the final court of appeal in Australia. It has both original and appellate jurisdiction, the power of judicial review over laws passed by the Parliament of Australia and the parliaments of the states, and the ability to interpret the Constitution of Australia and thereby shape the development of federalism in Australia. The High Court is mandated by section 71 of the Constitution, which vests in it the judicial power of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Court was constituted by, and its first members were appointed under, the Judiciary Act 1903. It now operates under sections 71 to 75 of the Constitution, the Judiciary Act, and the High Court of Australia Act 1979. It is composed of seven Justices: the Chief Justice of Australia, currently Susan Kiefel , and six other Justices. They are appointed by the Governor-General of Australia on the advice of the federal government, and under the constitution must retire at age 70. Bangladesh The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is created by the provisions of the Constitution of Bangladesh, 1972. There are two Divisions of the Supreme Court, i.e. (a) Appellate Division and (b) High Court Division. Appellate Division is the highest Court of Appeal and usually does not exercise the powers of a court of the first instance. Whereas, the High Court Division is a Court of the first instance in writ/judicial review, company, and admiralty matters. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in 1997. Under the Basic Law, its constitution, the territory remains a common law jurisdiction. Consequently, judges from other common law jurisdictions (including England and Wales) can be recruited and continue to serve in the judiciary according to Article 92 of the Basic Law. On the other hand, the power of interpretation of the Basic Law itself is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing (without retroactive effect), and the courts are authorised to interpret the Basic Law when trying cases, in accordance with Article 158 of the Basic Law. This arrangement became controversial in light of the right of abode issue in 1999, raising concerns for judicial independence. India The Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution. Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that the law declared by Supreme Court is to be binding on all Courts within the territory of India while article 142 vests the court with the inherent power to pass any decree or order to ensure 'complete justice'. It is the highest court in India and has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local bylaws). The Supreme Court is also vested with the power of judicial review to ensure the application of the rule of law. Ireland The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Republic of Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin. Israel Israel's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself. The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice. As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג"ץ), the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, primarily in matters regarding the legality of decisions of State authorities: Government decisions, those of local authorities and other bodies and persons performing public functions under the law, and direct challenges to the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Knesset. The court has broad discretionary authority to rule on matters in which it considers it necessary to grant relief in the interests of justice, and which are not within the jurisdiction of another court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, as well as through declaratory judgments. The Supreme Court can also sit at a further hearing on its own judgment. In a matter on which the Supreme Court has ruled - whether as a court of appeals or as the High Court of Justice – with a panel of three or more justices, it may rule at a further hearing with a panel of a larger number of justices. A further hearing may be held if the Supreme Court makes a ruling inconsistent with a previous ruling or if the Court deems that the importance, difficulty or novelty of a ruling of the Court justifies such hearing. The Supreme Court also holds the unique power of being able to order "trial de novo" (a retrial). Kiribati Nauru In Nauru, there is no single highest court for all types of cases. The Supreme Court has final jurisdiction on constitutional matters, but any other case may be appealed further to the Appellate Court. In addition, an agreement between Nauru and Australia in 1976 provides for appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru to the High Court of Australia in both criminal and civil cases, with the notable exception of constitutional cases. New Zealand In New Zealand, the right of appeal to the Privy Council was abolished following the passing of the Supreme Court Act (2003). A right of appeal to the Privy Council remains for criminal cases which were decided before the Supreme Court was created, but it is likely that the successful appeal by Mark Lundy to the Privy Council in 2013 will be the last appeal to the Board from New Zealand. The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court. For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction. Pakistan The Supreme Court has been the apex court for Pakistan since the declaration of the republic in 1956 (previously the Privy Council had that function). The Supreme Court has the final say on matters of constitutional law, federal law or on matters of mixed federal and provincial competence. It can hear appeals on matters of provincial competence only if a matter of a constitutional nature is raised. With respect to Pakistan's autonomous territories (i.e. Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan) the Supreme Court's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan. The provinces have their own courts system, with the High Court as the apex court, except insofar as where an appeal can go to the Supreme Court as mentioned above. United Kingdom The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The Supreme Court shares its members and accommodation at the Middlesex Guildhall in London with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which hears final appeals from certain smaller Commonwealth realm countries, admiralty cases, and certain appeals from the ecclesiastical courts and statutory private jurisdictions, such as professional and academic bodies. (The Constitutional Reform Act also renamed the Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland to the Court of Judicature, and the rarely cited Supreme Court of Judicature for England and Wales as the Senior Courts of England and Wales). The Supreme Court was set up in 2009; until then the House of Lords was the ultimate court in addition to being a legislative body, and the Lord Chancellor, with legislative and executive functions, was also a senior judge in the House of Lords. United States The Supreme Court of the United States, established in 1789, is the highest federal court in the United States. It has final appellate powers over the federal court system, and can perform judicial review in matters involving US federal law (which applies to all the states). There are currently nine members of the US Supreme Court, however, there is no number specified in the Constitution. New members are nominated to life terms by the President of the United States and must be confirmed by the Senate. There are no specific requirements set out in the Constitution for Supreme Court nominees. Each U.S. state also has its own state supreme court, the highest authority in interpreting that state's law and administering that state's judiciary. The courts of Oklahoma and Texas have separate criminal and civil courts of last resort, while Delaware has separate courts for appellate and equity functions. The official names of state supreme courts vary, as do the titles of its members, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions. Alternative names for supreme courts includes Court of Appeals, Supreme Court of Appeals and Supreme Judicial Court. However the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division is a lower court, not a supreme court. The titles for judicial officeholders can cause confusion, even within the same jurisdiction. In Texas, the posts of Justice, Judge, and Justices of the Peace are members of successively lower levels of courts. Civil law jurisdictions The Roman law and the Corpus Juris Civilis are generally held to be the historical model for civil law. From the late 18th century onwards, civil law jurisdictions began to codify their laws, most of all in civil codes. Argentina The Supreme Court functions as a last resort tribunal. Its rulings cannot be appealed. It also decides on cases dealing with the interpretation of the constitution (for example, it can overturn a law passed by Congress if it deems it unconstitutional). Austria In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights. Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria's system of "ordinary courts" (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law. Brazil In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic. The Superior Court of Justice (Superior Tribunal de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Court (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Court (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Court (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law. Croatia In Croatia, the supreme jurisdiction is given to the Supreme Court, which secures a uniform application of laws. The Constitutional Court exists to verify constitutionality of laws and regulations, as well as decide on individual complaints on decisions on governmental bodies. It also decides on jurisdictional disputes between the legislative, executive and judicial branches. Denmark In Denmark, all ordinary courts have original jurisdiction to hear all types of cases, including cases of a constitutional or administrative nature. As a result, there exists no special constitutional court, and therefore final jurisdiction is vested with the Danish Supreme Court (Højesteret) which was established 14 February 1661 by king Frederik III. France In France, supreme appellate jurisdiction is divided among three judicial bodies: for judicial cases, i.e., civil or criminal matters: Court of Cassation (Cour de cassation) for administrative cases: Council of State (Conseil d'État) constitutional challenges of statutory laws: Constitutional Council (Conseil constitutionnel) When there is jurisdictional dispute between judicial and administrative courts: the Court of Arbitration (Tribunal des conflits), which is empanelled half from the Court of Cassation and half from the Council of State and presided over by the Minister of Justice, is called together to settle the dispute or hand down a final decision. The High Court (Haute Cour) exists only to impeach the President of the French Republic in case of "breach of his duties patently incompatible with his continuing in office". Since a constitutional amendment of 2007, the French Constitution states that the High Court is composed of all members of both Houses of Parliament. As of 2023, it has never been convened. While the President is not, members of the French government are subject to the same laws as other French citizens. However, since 1993, a new and different court was introduced to judge them in place of normal courts, the Justice Court of the Republic (Cour de Justice de la République). It has since been highly criticized and is scheduled for deletion in a constitutional amendment due for 2019. Germany In Germany, there is no de jure single supreme court. Instead, cases are decided in the final instance by one of five federal high courts (see below), depending on their nature. Final interpretation of the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective. In addition, it has the power to overrule decisions of all other courts, despite not being a court of appeals in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties, should their manifests or activism prove unconstitutional. When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Court of Justice) is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht (Federal Social Court) for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht (Federal Labour Court) for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof (Federal Fiscal Court) for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht (Federal Administrative Court) for administrative law. The so-called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court itself, but an ad-hoc body that is convened only when one high court intends to diverge from another high court's legal opinion. As the courts have well-defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently. Iceland The Supreme Court of Iceland (, lit. Highest Court of Iceland) was founded under Act No. 22/1919 and held its first session on 16 February 1920. The Court holds the highest judicial power in Iceland. The court system was transformed from a two level system to a three level system in 2018 with the establishment of Landsréttur. Italy Italy follows the French system of different supreme courts. The Italian court of last resort for most disputes is the Supreme Court of Cassation. There is also a separate constitutional court, the Constitutional Court, which has a duty of judicial review, and which can strike down legislation as being in conflict with the Constitution. As with France, administrative cases are ruled by the Council of State. Japan In Japan, the Supreme Court of Japan is called (Saikō-Saibansho; called 最高裁 Saikō-Sai for short), located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is the highest court in Japan. It has ultimate judicial authority within Japan to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local by laws). It has the power of judicial review (i.e., it can declare Acts of Diet and Local Assembly, and administrative actions, unconstitutional). Luxembourg In Luxembourg, challenges on the conformity of the law to the Constitution are brought before the Cour constitutionnelle (Constitutional Court). The most used and common procedure to present these challenges is by way of the "question préjudicielle" (prejudicial question). The Court of last resort for civil and criminal proceedings is the "Cour de cassation". For administrative proceedings the highest court is the "Cour administrative" (Administrative Court). Macau The supreme court of Macau is the Court of Final Appeal (; ), though like Hong Kong, the power to interpret the Basic Law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing, without retroactive effect. Mexico The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation () is the highest court in Mexico. Netherlands In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest court. Its decisions, known as "arresten", are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States-General; the court can, however, test legislation against treaties such as the European Convention on Human Rights. Next to the Hoge Raad, in administrative law there are also other highest courts of appeal. Which highest court has jurisdiction in this field of law depends on the subject of the case. The most important of these courts is the Department of Justice of the Council of State (Afdeling Bestuursrechtspraak van de Raad van State). Nigeria The Supreme Court is the highest court in Nigeria. The Supreme Court mainly regulates in disputes between states and/or the federal government. Another power of the Supreme court rests in its authority to oversee any decisions over presidential elections and term lengths. Portugal In Portugal, there are several supreme courts, each with a specific jurisdiction: The Supreme Court of Justice (Supremo Tribunal de Justiça) - for judicial (civil and criminal) matters; The Constitutional Court (Tribunal Constitucional) - for the constitutional matters; The Supreme Administrative Court (Supremo Tribunal Administrativo) - for administrative and fiscal matters; The Court of Auditors (Tribunal de Contas) - for auditing the public expenditure. Until 2003, a fifth supreme court also existed for the military jurisdiction, this being the Supreme Military Court (Supremo Tribunal Militar). Presently, in time of peace, the supreme court for military justice matters is the Supreme Court of Justice, which now includes four military judges. Republic of China (Taiwan) In the Republic of China (Taiwan), there are three different courts of last resort: Supreme Court of the Republic of China (中華民國最高法院): civil and criminal cases. Supreme Administrative Court of the Republic of China (中華民國最高行政法院): executive cases. Constitutional Court (憲法法庭): abstract review of the constitutionality of statutes and regulations, constitutional complaint against the final court decisions, disputes between constitutional organs, dissolution of political parties in violation of the Constitution, protection of local self-governments, uniform interpretation of statutes and regulations, trial of impeachments against the President or Vice President. The Constitutional Court, consisting of 15 justices and mainly dealing with constitutional issues. (The Council of Grand Justices was a previous form of Constitutional review organ until 2022.) All three courts are directly under the Judicial Yuan, whose president also serves as Chief Justice of the Constitutional Court. Scotland Founded by papal bull in 1532, the Court of Session is the supreme civil court of Scotland, and the High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court. However, the absolute highest court (excluding criminal matters) is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. South Africa In South Africa, a "two apex" system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA was subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional. South Korea In South Korea, role of highest court is divided among two constitutional judicial bodies of judicial branch. for major constitutional cases, Constitutional Court of Korea for every cases except jurisdiction of the Constitutional Court of Korea, Supreme Court of Korea Spain Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution). In Spain, high courts cannot create binding precedents; however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court. Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court: Section one judges private law cases (including commercial law). Section two decides about criminal appeals. Section three judges administrative cases and controls government normative powers. Section four is dedicated to labour law. Section five is dedicated to military justice. There is also a separate constitutional court, the Tribunal Constitucional, which has a duty of the supreme interpreter of the Spanish Constitution, with the power to determine the constitutionality of acts and statutes made by any public body, central, regional, or local in Spain. Sweden In Sweden, the Supreme Court, founded in 1789, and the Supreme Administrative Court, founded in 1909, respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal a case (prövningstillstånd) if the case involves setting a precedent in the interpretation of the law. Exceptions are issues where the Supreme Court is the court of first instance. Such cases include an application for a retrial of a criminal case in the light of new evidence, and prosecutions made against an incumbent minister of the Government for severe neglect of duty. If a lower court has to try a case which involves a question where there is no settled interpretation of the law, it can also refer the question to the relevant Supreme Court for an answer. Switzerland In Switzerland, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland is the final court of appeals. Due to Switzerland's system of direct democracy, it has no authority to review the constitutionality of federal statutes, but the people can strike down a proposed law by referendum. According to settled case law, however, the Court is authorised to review the compliance of all Swiss law with certain categories of international law, especially the European Convention of Human Rights. Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common-law and civil-law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions. However, when there is 2/3 majority in the parliament in favour of president (as with present), the supreme court and its judges' powers become nullified as they could be fired from their positions according to the Constitution, if the president wants. Therefore, in such situations, Civil law empowerment vanishes. Thailand Historically, citizens appealed directly to the King along his route to places out of the Palace. A Thai King would adjudicate all disputes. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn, an official department for appeals was set up, and, after Thailand adopted a western-styled government, Thai Supreme Court was established in 1891. At present, the Supreme Court of Thailand retains the important status as the highest court of justice in the country. Operating separately from the Administrative Court and the Constitutional Court, the judgement of the Supreme Court is considered as final. Turkey The Supreme Court is one of Turkey's four highest judicial authority. Judicial justice is the final review authority of the decisions and judgments issued by the courts of first instance and that the law does not leave to another judicial authority. The decisions of the Court of Appeal's General Assembly on the Unification of Judgments are binding on judges. This is not a separate appellate body but an assembly of the Court of Appeal which renders decisions regarding points of laws on which its different chambers disagree. United Arab Emirates In the United Arab Emirates, the Federal Supreme Court of the United Arab Emirates was created in 1973 after the adoption of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Emirati judicial system is complex blend of both Islamic law and civil law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the country (currently Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan). Other civil law jurisdictions For Honduras, see Supreme Court of Honduras. For Peru, see Supreme Court of Peru. For Poland, see Supreme Court of the Republic of Poland. For Romania, see High Court of Cassation and Justice. For Uganda, see Supreme Court of Uganda For Ukraine, see Supreme Court of Ukraine. For Uruguay, see Supreme Court of Uruguay. Mixed-system jurisdictions Canada Canada is a bi-jural country. Nine of the provinces use the common law, while the province of Quebec uses the civil law. Federal public law is based on the common law, but federal statute law must take into account both legal systems. The Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875. It is defined by the Constitution Act, 1867 and by the Supreme Court Act as a "General Court of Appeal". As a result, it can hear appeals on any legal issues considered by lower courts, on issues of constitutional law, federal law and provincial law. It can hear appeals involving the common law and the civil law, and has full authority to rule on those issues. The Court can hear appeals from the courts of appeal from the provinces and territories, and also appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal. The court's decisions are final and binding on the federal courts and the courts from all provinces and territories. The court can also hear reference questions; requests directly from the federal cabinet asking about a question of law, typically the constitutionality of a major issue before it is heard in a trial court. Reference questions asked by a provincial cabinet to a province's highest court can be appealed as of right to the Supreme Court. Opinions given by the Supreme Court in answer to a reference question are not legally binding, but no government has ever ignored the opinion. The Court is composed of the Chief Justice of Canada and eight puisne justices. Three of the nine justices are required to come from the Bar or superior courts of Quebec, to ensure the Court has a strong membership in the civil law of Quebec. The remaining six justices come from the rest of Canada, traditionally three from Ontario, two from the western provinces, and one from the Atlantic provinces. The Court is institutionally bilingual. Parties can argue their cases in either English or French, and file written materials in either language. The Court will provide simultaneous interpretation for counsel and members of the public. It issues its judgments in both languages simultaneously. Although created in 1875, the Supreme Court was not originally the final court of appeal. Canada was part of the British Empire, and appeals initially lay to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council from the Supreme Court, and also from the provincial appellate courts, by-passing the Supreme Court. In 1933, the federal Parliament abolished such appeals in criminal matters. It was not until 1949 that all appeals to the Judicial Committee were abolished, although appeals which were pending could be decided by the Judicial Committee. Indonesia Law of Indonesia at the national level is based on a combination of civil law from the tradition of Roman-Dutch law and customary law from the tradition of Adat. Law in regional jurisdictions can vary from province to province, including even Sharia law, for example Islamic criminal law in Aceh, though even at the national level, individual justices can cite sharia or other forms of non-Dutch law in their legal opinions. The Supreme Court of Indonesia is the main judicial arm of the state, functioning as the final court of appeal as well as a means to re-open cases previously closed. The Supreme Court, which consists of a total of 51 justices, also oversees the regional high courts. It was founded at the country's independence in 1945. The Constitutional Court of Indonesia, on the other hand, is a part of the judicial branch tasked with review of bills and government actions for constitutionality, as well as regulation of the interactions between various arms of the state. The constitutional amendment to establish the court was passed in 2001, and the court itself was established in 2003. The Constitutional Court consists of nine justices serving nine year terms, and they're appointed in tandem by the Supreme Court, the President of Indonesia and the People's Representative Council. Philippines The Philippines is generally considered the largest state with a hybrid civil law-common law system, and the Supreme Court is heavily modeled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land", belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions. The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided. Soviet-model jurisdictions In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort. People's Republic of China In the judicial system of mainland China the highest court of appeal is the Supreme People's Court. This supervises the administration of justice by all subordinate "local" and "special" people's courts, and is the court of last resort for the whole People's Republic of China except for Macau and Hong Kong. The final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are British-based common law and Portuguese-based civil law jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided. Socialist Republic of Vietnam For Vietnam, see Supreme People's Court of Vietnam and Standing Committee of the National Assembly of Vietnam. Islamic law jurisdictions Supreme Judicial Council of Saudi Arabia See also Constitutionalism Separation of powers Judiciary Independence of the judiciary List of national supreme courts Lists of supreme court justices References Courts by type
4913064	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand	New Zealand	New Zealand ( ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island country by area and lies east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and south of the islands of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. The country's varied topography and sharp mountain peaks, including the Southern Alps, owe much to tectonic uplift and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington, and its most populous city is Auckland. The islands of New Zealand were the last large habitable land to be settled by humans. Between about 1280 and 1350, Polynesians began to settle in the islands and then developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight and record New Zealand. In 1840, representatives of the United Kingdom and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which in its English version declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire. Subsequently, a series of conflicts between the colonial government and Māori tribes resulted in the alienation and confiscation of large amounts of Māori land. New Zealand became a dominion in 1907; it gained full statutory independence in 1947, retaining the monarch as head of state. Today, the majority of New Zealand's population of 5.1 million is of European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealand's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers, with recent broadening of culture arising from increased immigration. The official languages are English, Māori, and New Zealand Sign Language, with the local dialect of English being dominant. A developed country, it was the first to introduce a minimum wage, and the first to give women the right to vote. It ranks highly in international measures of quality of life, human rights, and it has low levels of perceived corruption. It retains visible levels of inequality, having structural disparities between its Māori and European populations. New Zealand underwent major economic changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy. The service sector dominates the national economy, followed by the industrial sector, and agriculture; international tourism is also a significant source of revenue. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament, while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet, led by the prime minister, currently Chris Hipkins. Charles III is the country's king and is represented by the governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing states in free association with New Zealand); and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, UKUSA, OECD, ASEAN Plus Six, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Community and the Pacific Islands Forum. Etymology The first European visitor to New Zealand, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, named the islands Staten Land, believing they were part of the that Jacob Le Maire had sighted off the southern end of South America. Hendrik Brouwer proved that the South American land was a small island in 1643, and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman's discovery from Latin, after the Dutch province of Zeeland. This name was later anglicised to New Zealand. This was written as Nu Tireni in the Māori language (spelled Nu Tirani in Te Tiriti o Waitangi). In 1834 a document written in Māori and entitled "" was translated into English and became the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand. It was prepared by , the United Tribes of New Zealand, and a copy was sent to King William IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and who recognised the declaration in a letter from Lord Glenelg. (pronounced in Māori and in English; often translated as 'land of the long white cloud') is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans; originally referred to just the North Island. Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including ("the fish of ") for the North Island and ("the waters of greenstone") or ("the canoe of ") for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island), and South (Stewart Island / ). In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands, and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or , and South Island or . For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together. Similarly the Māori and English names for the whole country are sometimes used together (Aotearoa New Zealand); however, this has no official recognition. In Moriori, the indigenous language of the Chatham Islands, the words Aote and Aotea are terms thought to refer to mainland New Zealand. History New Zealand was the last major landmass settled by humans. The story of Kupe as the first human to set foot on the New Zealand archipelago, accredited to by most Māori iwi, is considered credible by historians; he is generally believed to have existed historically. Most histories claim that this occurred approximately 40 generations ago (between 900 and 1200 AD). The more specific reasons for Kupe's semi-legendary journey, and the migration of Māori in general, are contested. It is thought by some historians that Hawaiki and other Polynesian islands were experiencing considerable internal conflict at that time, which is thought to have caused an exodus from them. Some historians contend that this was because of the fallout from the 1257 Samalas eruption, which caused crop devastation globally and possibly helped trigger the Little Ice Age. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest that Eastern Polynesians first settled the New Zealand archipelago between 1250 and 1300, although newer archaeological and genetic research points to a date no earlier than about 1280, with at least the main settlement period between about 1320 and 1350, consistent with evidence based on genealogical traditions. This represented a culmination in a long series of voyages through the Pacific islands. It is the broad consensus of historians that the settlement of New Zealand by Eastern Polynesians was planned and deliberate. Over the centuries that followed, the Polynesian settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population formed different (tribes) and (subtribes) which would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other. At some point, a group of Māori migrated to , now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture. The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862 in the Moriori genocide, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862, only 101 survived, and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933. In a hostile 1642 encounter between Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri and Dutch explorer Abel Tasman's crew, four of Tasman's crew members were killed, and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot. Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769, when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline. Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing, and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons, and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts, and water. The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns. The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori. From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population. The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor. The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832. His duties, given to him by Governor Bourke in Sydney, were to protect settlers and traders "of good standing", prevent "outrages" against Māori, and apprehend escaped convicts. In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection. Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori. The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840. In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington, Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign. With the signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty, the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase. New Zealand was administered as a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales until becoming a separate Crown colony, the Colony of New Zealand, on 3 May 1841. Armed conflict began between the colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars. Following these armed conflicts, large areas of Māori land were confiscated by the government to meet settler demands. The colony gained a representative government in 1852, and the first Parliament met in 1854. In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters (except native policy, which was granted in the mid-1860s). Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait. Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. In 1886, New Zealand annexed the volcanic Kermadec Islands, about northeast of Auckland. Since 1937, the islands are uninhabited except for about six people at Raoul Island station. These islands put the northern border of New Zealand at 29 degrees South latitude. After the 1982 UNCLOS, the islands contributed significantly to New Zealand's exclusive economic zone. In 1891 the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party. The Liberal Government, led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office, passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions. The Liberals also guaranteed a minimum wage in 1894, a world first. In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status. In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand. The British government's residual legislative powers were later removed by the Constitution Act 1986, and final rights of appeal to British courts were abolished in 2003. Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression. The depression led to the election of the first Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy. New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War, and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work. A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985. The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s. Government and politics New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified. Charles III is the king of New Zealand and thus the head of state. The king is represented by the governor-general, whom he appoints on the advice of the prime minister. The governor-general can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors, and other key public officials, and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law). The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints, and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the king and the House of Representatives. It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950. The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand. The House of Representatives is democratically elected, and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition. Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions. Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions. The 41st and current prime minister, since 25 January 2023, is Chris Hipkins. A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election. Almost all general elections between and were held under the first-past-the-post voting system. Since the , a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used. Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate, and the other is for a party. Based on the 2018 census data, there are 72 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote), and the remaining 48 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in Parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat. Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour. More parties have been represented in Parliament since the introdution of MMP. New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice, includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts. Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence. This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions. New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states. the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions, and first in government transparency and lack of corruption. LGBT rights in the nation are also recognised as among the most tolerant in Oceania. New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 82% voter turnout during recent general elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%. However, this is untrue for local council elections; a historically low 36% of eligible New Zealanders voted in the 2022 local elections, compared with an already low 42% turnout in 2019. A 2017 human rights report by the United States Department of State noted that the New Zealand government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population. In terms of structural discrimination, the New Zealand Human Rights Commission has asserted that there is strong, consistent evidence that it is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue. One example of structural inequality in New Zealand can be seen in the criminal justice system. According to the Ministry of Justice, Māori are overrepresented, comprising 45% of New Zealanders convicted of crimes and 53% of those imprisoned, while only being 16.5% of the population. Foreign relations and military During the period of the New Zealand colony, Britain was responsible for external trade and foreign relations. The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties, and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939, New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand". In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests, while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty. The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War, the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues, and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy. Despite the United States's suspension of ANZUS obligations, the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend. Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions. there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand. New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries, and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment. Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007, and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it. New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit). New Zealand has been described as a middle power in the Asia-Pacific region, and an emerging power. The country is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements. New Zealand's military services—the Defence Force—comprise the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the Royal New Zealand Navy. New Zealand's national defence needs are modest since a direct attack is unlikely. However, its military has had a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete, El Alamein, and Cassino. The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia. In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Second Boer War, the Korean War, the Malayan Emergency, the Gulf War, and the Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands. New Zealand is a member of the Five Eyes intelligence sharing agreement, known formally as the UKUSA Agreement. The five members of this agreement are Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Since 2012, New Zealand has had a partnership arrangement with NATO under the Partnership Interoperability Initiative. Local government and external territories The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy. Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales, and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876. The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries. Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government. In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities. The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils. The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management", while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents, and other local matters. Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils. The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council. The Realm of New Zealand, one of 15 Commonwealth realms, is the entire area over which the king of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands, and Niue. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand. The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is classified as a non-self-governing territory, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll). The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility. New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens. Geography and environment New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and more than 700 smaller islands. The two main islands (the North Island, or , and the South Island, or ) are separated by Cook Strait, wide at its narrowest point. Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island (across the Foveaux Strait), Chatham Island, Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf), D'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds) and Waiheke Island (about from central Auckland). New Zealand is long and narrow—over along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of —with about of coastline and a total land area of . Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area. The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks over , the highest of which is / Mount Cook at . Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island. The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism. The highly active Taupō Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupō, nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes. New Zealand is prone to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates. New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent. About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere, the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north. New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a region known as Australasia. It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia. Oceania is a wider region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model. Climate New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime (Köppen: Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from in the south to in the north. Historical maxima and minima are in Rangiora, Canterbury and in Ranfurly, Otago. Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland. Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount. Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours. The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season. Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country. Biodiversity New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species. The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal. About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera. The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand and 40% of these are endemic. The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates. The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock. Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees. Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement. Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land. The forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi, kākāpō, weka and takahē evolving flightlessness. The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle. Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuatara, skinks and geckos), frogs, such as the protected endangered Hamilton's Frog, spiders, insects (), and snails. Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils. Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old. Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters. Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country. More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species. Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced. However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas. Economy New Zealand has an advanced market economy, ranked 13th in the Human Development Index, and fourth in the Index of Economic Freedom. It is a high-income economy with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$36,254. The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands. Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focusing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber. The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand. High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises, led to a severe economic depression. Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank. In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period. Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a protectionist and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy. Unemployment peaked just above 10% in 1991 and 1992, following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low (since 1986) of 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations). However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major effect on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years, and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009. Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth. In the December 2014 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 5.8%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 15.6%. New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s that still continue today. Nearly one-quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation. In recent decades, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries. Today New Zealand's economy benefits from a high level of innovation. Poverty in New Zealand is characterised by growing income inequality; wealth in New Zealand is highly concentrated, with the top 1% of the population owning 16% of the country's wealth, and the richest 5% owning 38%, leaving a stark contrast where half the population, including state beneficiaries and pensioners, receive less than $24,000. Moreover, child poverty in New Zealand has been identified by the Government as a major societal issue; the country has 12.0% of children living in low-income households that had less than 50 percent of the median equivalised disposable household income . Poverty has a disproportionately high effect in ethnic-minority households, with a quarter (23.3%) of Māori children and almost a third (28.6%) of Pacific Islander children living in poverty . Trade New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade, particularly in agricultural products. Exports account for 24% of its output, making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%). New Zealand's main trading partners, , are China (NZ$27.8b), Australia ($26.2b), the European Union ($22.9b), the United States ($17.6b), and Japan ($8.4b). On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country. In July of 2023, New Zealand and the European Union entered into the EU–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement which eliminated tariffs on several goods traded between the two regions. This free trade agreement expanded on the pre-existing free trade agreement and saw a reduction in tariffs on meat and dairy in response to feedback from the affected industries. The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction. Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of the total workforce in 2016. In 2017, international visitor arrivals were expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022. Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century. Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues, but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities, and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers. In contrast, dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007, to become New Zealand's largest export earner. In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($14.1 billion) of total exports, and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade. Other exports in 2017–18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%). New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period, overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007. Infrastructure In 2015, renewable energy generated 40.1% of New Zealand's gross energy supply. The majority of the country's electricity supply is generated from hydroelectric power, with major schemes on the Waikato, Waitaki and Clutha / Mata-Au rivers, as well as at Manapouri. Geothermal power is also a significant generator of electricity, with several large stations located across the Taupō Volcanic Zone in the North Island. The four main companies in the generation and retail market are Contact Energy, Genesis Energy, Mercury Energy and Meridian Energy. State-owned Transpower operates the high-voltage transmission grids in the North and South Islands, as well as the Inter-Island HVDC link connecting the two together. The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas. New Zealand's transport network comprises of roads, including of motorways, and of railway lines. Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport. The railways were privatised in 1993 but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington, which are operated by Auckland One Rail and Transdev Wellington respectively. Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers. The road and rail networks in the two main islands are linked by roll-on/roll-off ferries between Wellington and Picton, operated by Interislander (part of KiwiRail) and Bluebridge. Most international visitors arrive via air. New Zealand has four international airports: Auckland, Christchurch, Queenstown and Wellington; however, only Auckland and Christchurch offer non-stop flights to countries other than Australia or Fiji. The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications in New Zealand until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990. Chorus, which was split from Telecom (now Spark) in 2011, still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased. A large-scale rollout of gigabit-capable fibre to the premises, branded as Ultra-Fast Broadband, began in 2009 with a target of being available to 87% of the population by 2022. , the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 13th in the development of information and communications infrastructure. Science and technology Early indigenous contribution to science in New Zealand was by Māori accumulating knowledge of agricultural practice and the effects of herbal remedies in the treatment of illness and disease. Cook's voyages in the 1700s and Darwin's in 1835 had important scientific botanical and zoological objectives. The establishment of universities in the 19th century fostered scientific discoveries by notable New Zealanders including Ernest Rutherford for splitting the atom, William Pickering for rocket science, Maurice Wilkins for helping discover DNA, Beatrice Tinsley for galaxy formation, Archibald McIndoe for plastic surgery, and Alan MacDiarmid for conducting polymers. Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) were formed in 1992 from existing government-owned research organisations. Their role is to research and develop new science, knowledge, products and services across the economic, environmental, social and cultural spectrum for the benefit of New Zealand. The total gross expenditure on research and development (R&D) as a proportion of GDP rose to 1.37% in 2018, up from 1.23% in 2015. New Zealand ranks 21st in the OECD for its gross R&D spending as a percentage of GDP. New Zealand was ranked 27th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023. The New Zealand Space Agency was created by the government in 2016 for space policy, regulation and sector development. Rocket Lab was the notable first commercial rocket launcher in the country. Demography The 2018 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4,699,755, an increase of 10.8% over the 2013 census figure. As of , the total population has risen to an estimated . New Zealand's population increased at a rate of 1.9% per year in the seven years ended June 2020. In September 2020 Statistics New Zealand reported that the population had climbed above 5 million people in September 2019, according to population estimates based on the 2018 census. New Zealand's population today is concentrated to the north of the country, with around % of the population living in the North Island and % in the South Island as of . During the 20th century, New Zealand's population drifted north. In 1921, the country's median centre of population was located in the Tasman Sea west of Levin in Manawatū-Whanganui; by 2017, it had moved north to near Kawhia in Waikato. New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with % of the population living in urban areas, and % of the population living in the seven cities with populations exceeding 100,000. Auckland, with over 1.4 million residents, is by far the largest city. New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2016, Auckland was ranked the world's third most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey. The median age of the New Zealand population at the 2018 census was 37.4 years, with life expectancy in 2017–2019 being 80.0 years for males and 83.5 years for females. While New Zealand is experiencing sub-replacement fertility, with a total fertility rate of 1.6 in 2020, the fertility rate is above the OECD average. By 2050, the median age is projected to rise to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18% to 29%. In 2016 the leading cause of death was cancer at 30.3%, followed by ischaemic heart disease (14.9%) and cerebrovascular disease (7.4%). , total expenditure on health care (including private sector spending) is 9.2% of GDP. Ethnicity and immigration In the 2018 census, 71.8% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 16.5% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (15.3%) and Pacific peoples (9.0%), two-thirds of whom live in the Auckland Region. The population has become more multicultural and diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%. While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally and by locals. The Māori loanword has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this name. The word today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders. The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the White Australia policy. There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian, German, and Italian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa. Net migration increased after the Second World War; in the 1970s and 1980s policies on immigration were relaxed, and immigration from Asia was promoted. In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents. In the 2018 census, 27.4% of people counted were not born in New Zealand, up from 25.2% in the 2013 census. Over half (52.4%) of New Zealand's overseas-born population lives in the Auckland Region. The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's immigrant population, with around a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa. The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002. Language English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 95.4% of the population. New Zealand English is a variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon. It is similar to Australian English, and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart. The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-i sound (as in kit) has centralised towards the schwa sound (the a in comma and about); the short-e sound (as in dress) has moved towards the short-i sound; and the short-a sound (as in trap) has moved to the short-e sound. After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged or forced from speaking their own language () in schools and workplaces, and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas. The Native Schools Act 1867 required instruction in English in all schools, and while there was no official policy banning children from speaking Māori, many suffered from physical abuse if they did so. The Māori language has recently undergone a process of revitalisation, being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987, and is spoken by 4.0% of the population. There are now Māori language-immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori. Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised. As recorded in the 2018 census, Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed by "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 2.0%), Hindi (1.5%), and French (1.2%). New Zealand Sign Language was reported to be understood by 22,986 people (0.5%); it became one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006. Religion Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most secular in the world. In the 2018 census, 44.7% of respondents identified with one or more religions, including 37.0% identifying as Christians. Another 48.5% indicated that they had no religion. Of those who affiliate with a particular Christian denomination, the main responses are Anglicanism (6.7%), Roman Catholicism (6.3%), and Presbyterianism (4.7%). The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana religions (1.2%) are also Christian in origin. Immigration and demographic change in recent decades have contributed to the growth of minority religions, such as Hinduism (2.6%), Islam (1.3%), Buddhism (1.1%), and Sikhism (0.9%). The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity. Education Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority of children attending from the age of 5. There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday. New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%, and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification. There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga, in addition to private training establishments. In 2021, in the population aged 25-64; 13% had no formal qualification, 21% had a school qualification, 28% had a tertiary certificate or diploma, and 35% have a bachelor's degree or higher. The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand as the 28th best in the OECD for maths, 13th best for science, and 11th best for reading. Culture Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whānau), subtribes (hapū) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira), whose position was subject to the community's approval. The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture, particularly with the introduction of Christianity. However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples. More recently, American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland. The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers. Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism. At the time, New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country. From the early 20th century until the late 1960s, Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders. In the 1960s, as tertiary education became more available, and cities expanded urban culture began to dominate. However, rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand's art, literature and media. New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. The silver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms. Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana". Art As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised, and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence. Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head. Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings. The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs. Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls. Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel. Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand. Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as an ideal race untainted by civilisation. The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style of regionalism. During the 1960s and 1970s, many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms. New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004. Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes. Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side. Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions. Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre. However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition. Literature Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form. Most early English literature was obtained from Britain, and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known. Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period, literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit. Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished. Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature. Media and entertainment New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation. Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient Southeast Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique "monotonous" and "doleful" sound. Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments or as signalling devices during war or special occasions. Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s. Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century. The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards, and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States. Some artists release Māori language songs, and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence. The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards. Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts. Public radio was introduced in New Zealand in 1922. A state-owned television service began in 1960. Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations. New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with many Australian and local shows. The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s. In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers, and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement. The highest-grossing New Zealand films are Hunt for the Wilderpeople, Boy, The World's Fastest Indian, Whale Rider, Once Were Warriors, Heavenly Creatures and The Piano. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives, have encouraged some producers to shoot very big-budget and well known productions in New Zealand, including The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies, Avatar, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong, Wolverine, The Last Samurai and The Power of the Dog. The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations. Since 1994, Freedom House has consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty, with the 19th freest media Sport Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins. Rugby union is considered the national sport and attracts the most spectators. Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) are particularly popular among young people. Horse racing is one of the most popular spectator sports in New Zealand and was part of the "rugby, racing, and beer" subculture during the 1960s. Around 54% of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school. Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity. Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby, and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches. New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism and strong mountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary. Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports, surfing and sailing are also popular. New Zealand has seen regular sailing success in the America's Cup regatta since 1995. The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s. New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union, rugby league, netball, cricket, softball, and sailing. New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia, before first participating on its own in 1920. The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Games. The All Blacks, the national rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby and have won the World Cup three times. Cuisine The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia, and Asia. New Zealand yields produce from land and sea—most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers. Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb, salmon, (crayfish), Bluff oysters, whitebait, (abalone), mussels, scallops, and (types of New Zealand shellfish), (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo, and pavlova (considered a national dessert). A hāngī is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven; still used for large groups on special occasions, such as tangihanga. See also List of New Zealand-related topics Outline of New Zealand Footnotes Citations References Further reading (Annual.) External links Government of the New Zealand Government New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage – includes information on flag, anthems and coat of arms Statistics New Zealand Travel of New Zealand Tourism General information "New Zealand". The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency. New Zealand country profile from BBC News Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand New Zealand. OECD. New Zealand. Directory from UCB Libraries GovPubs. Archived 7 June 2008. Key Development Forecasts for New Zealand from International Futures Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean Countries in Australasia Countries in Polynesia English-speaking countries and territories Island countries Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations Member states of the United Nations States and territories established in 1907 Zealandia Countries in Oceania OECD members
4913435	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Sanchez	Mark Sanchez	Mark Travis John Sanchez (born November 11, 1986) is an American former professional football player who was a quarterback in the National Football League (NFL) for 10 seasons. He played college football for the USC Trojans and was selected by the New York Jets in the first round (fifth overall) of the 2009 NFL Draft. He is currently a color analyst for NFL coverage on Fox and Fox Sports 1. A backup quarterback during his first three years at the University of Southern California, Sanchez rose to prominence in 2007 due to injuries suffered by starting quarterback John David Booty; he also became popular within the community due to his Mexican-American heritage. He was named the starter in 2008, and led USC to a 12–1 record and won the Rose Bowl against Penn State. Although USC coach Pete Carroll and many scouts considered him too inexperienced, Sanchez entered the 2009 NFL Draft and was selected by the Jets in the first round. Despite a subpar first season, Sanchez led the Jets to the AFC Championship Game, a losing effort to the Indianapolis Colts, becoming the fourth rookie quarterback in NFL history to win his first playoff game and the second to win two playoff games. In his second season, Sanchez again led the Jets to the AFC Championship Game, losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers; he joined Ben Roethlisberger as the only two quarterbacks in NFL history to reach the conference championship in their first two seasons in the league. The next two seasons would be a regression for both the team and Sanchez as they failed to reach the playoffs and he was eventually replaced towards the end of the 2012 season by Greg McElroy. Sanchez suffered a season-ending shoulder injury during the preseason in 2013; he was released after the season concluded and was subsequently signed by the Philadelphia Eagles. When Eagles starter Nick Foles went down with an injury, Sanchez started the second half of the season and set career highs in completion percentage and passer rating. Nevertheless, Sanchez was unable to reestablish himself as a starter and spent one season each as a backup for the Dallas Cowboys, Chicago Bears, and Washington Redskins before retiring after the 2018 season. Early life Mark Sanchez was born in Long Beach, California to Nick Sr. and Olga Sanchez. When Mark was four, his parents divorced; Mark and his brothers, Nick Jr. and Brandon, stayed with their father but their mother remained involved in their upbringing. Mark initially lived in Whittier and Pico Rivera; when he was six, his father moved with the children to Rancho Santa Margarita, a predominantly white city in Orange County. Mark's father remarried and raised them strictly, seeking to influence them to become leaders. Throughout his childhood and teenage years, Mark's father would have him combine athletic and mental training. Mark would have to dribble a basketball without looking at it while reciting multiplication tables; practice baseball swings in a batting cage while answering questions about the periodic table and similar combined drills that his father hoped would develop quick thinking and self-confidence that would guide Mark in all areas of life and not simply sports. By the time Sanchez entered the eighth grade, he had developed an interest in football but was unsure of what position to play. His father consulted coaches Bill Cunerty, who formerly coached at Saddleback College, and Bob Johnson, the head coach at Mission Viejo High School. Both coaches stated Mark could be a quarterback if he applied himself and was open to learning the intricacies of the position. Nick Sr. trained Mark during sessions in their backyard or at the park. Mark, who was attending Santa Margarita High School, joined the football team. During his first Varsity pass attempt as a sophomore in a game against El Modena High School, Mark threw a 55-yard touchdown to WR Bobby Whithorne on the first play of the fourth quarter to help Santa Margarita win 17–10. Prior to his junior year of high school, Sanchez transferred to Mission Viejo, where Johnson, who was recognized as a "quarterback guru", having trained professionals like Carson Palmer, was head coach. Under Johnson's tutelage, Mark felt he would have a better opportunity to become a better player. Johnson tutored Mark on the complexities of the position and in two seasons with the team, Mark led the Diablos to a 27–1 record culminating with the California Interscholastic Federation Division II championship in 2004. Sanchez was named football player of the year by several major college recruiting services and was considered the top quarterback in the nation upon the conclusion of his high school football career in 2005. In July 2004, Sanchez announced his commitment to the University of Southern California. College career 2005 season Being named the nation's top quarterback coming out of high school, Sanchez was well regarded upon his arrival at USC. With upperclassmen Matt Leinart and John David Booty returning, Sanchez did not play during his freshman year in 2005, opting to redshirt to preserve a year of eligibility. During this time, he participated as the quarterback of USC's scout team, earning the Trojans' Service Team Offensive Player of the Year Award. 2006 season In April 2006, Sanchez was arrested after a female USC student accused him of sexual assault. He was released from jail the following day and suspended. On June 3, 2006, the Los Angeles County District Attorney's office announced no charges would be filed, and Sanchez was reinstated, though he was disciplined by the football team for underage drinking and using false identification on the night he was arrested. At the outset of the 2006 season, Sanchez competed for the starting quarterback position; once Booty, a junior, suffered severe back spasms caused by a pre-existing back condition, surgery was required and Sanchez was promoted to run the first-team offense during the spring as Booty recovered. Coaches stated Booty would be considered the starting quarterback when he returned for fall practice. During the 2006 season, Sanchez saw limited playing time in games against Arkansas, Stanford and Oregon. Through those three games, Sanchez completed 3 of his 7 pass attempts for 63 yards and one interception. He also saw additional action against Arizona, Michigan, and Notre Dame but he did not attempt a pass in those contests. 2007 season In fall practice, before USC's 2007 season, Sanchez broke his right thumb, missing the first game against Idaho; he returned the following week and served as the primary backup to Booty. Sanchez earned limited playing time in wins against Nebraska and Washington State. Sanchez was named the starting quarterback by head coach Pete Carroll against Arizona after Booty suffered a broken finger during a 24–23 loss to Stanford. On October 13, Sanchez led USC to a 20–13 victory, overcoming a wavering performance during the first half of the game in which he threw two interceptions, as Arizona went on to tie the game heading into halftime. During the second half, Sanchez was more proficient in passing the ball and ultimately finished the game completing 19 of his 31 passes while throwing for 130 yards with one touchdown and two interceptions. With Booty still recovering, USC elected to start Sanchez for a second consecutive week against Notre Dame; he made significant improvements, completing 21 of 38 passes for 235 yards and four touchdowns in a 38–0 victory over Notre Dame. On October 27, Sanchez started for the final time in place of the injured Booty, an away game against Oregon at Autzen Stadium. USC lost 24–17; Sanchez had two passes intercepted by Oregon safety Matthew Harper in the second half. The first interception led to a fourth-quarter touchdown that gave Oregon a 14-point lead; the second interception ended USC's final chance for a comeback. In spite of a myriad of mistakes committed by his teammates in addition to his own, Sanchez publicly accepted blame for the loss. The following week, against Oregon State, Booty returned as USC's starting quarterback, with Sanchez resuming his position as Booty's backup. Sanchez did not perform in subsequent games and finished the season with 695 yards, seven touchdowns, and five interceptions. 2008 season Sanchez entered spring practice after the 2008 season as the front-runner to take over the starting quarterback position, but faced strong competition from redshirt freshman Aaron Corp and Mitch Mustain, a transfer from Arkansas, where he had been the starting quarterback; Mustain, like Sanchez, was named the top quarterback in the nation upon the conclusion of high school career in 2006. By the end of spring practice, Carroll announced Sanchez would be the starting quarterback heading into the fall. During the first week of fall camp, Sanchez dislocated his left kneecap during warm-ups prior to practice; trainers immediately put the kneecap back into place. After missing nearly three weeks, Sanchez was cleared to play in the opener against Virginia. Before the opener, Sanchez was contacted by USC's previous three quarterbacks—Carson Palmer, Leinart, and Booty—who wished him well and offered general advice. In the opener at Virginia, Sanchez threw for a career-best 338 yards, completing 26 of his 35 passes for three touchdowns and one interception. The Davey O'Brien Foundation named him the O'Brien Quarterback of the Week and his performance garnered early Heisman discussion. The Trojans suffered a stunning 27–21 loss against Oregon State on September 25. By season's end, the Trojans' lone loss was enough to remove them from contending for the BCS National Title and instead they were to play in the Rose Bowl against Penn State. The Trojans defeated the Nittany Lions 38–24. Sanchez won the 2009 Rose Bowl Most Valuable Player award for his performance on offense; his 413 passing yards ranked second in the history of the Rose Bowl and fourth in Trojan history. With Sanchez starting all thirteen games, the Trojans ended the season 12–1 and ranked number two in the Coaches' Poll and number three in the AP Poll. Sanchez finished the season with 3,207 yards passing, 34 touchdowns, second most in Trojan history, behind Leinart, and 10 interceptions. Upon the conclusion of the Rose Bowl, Sanchez stated it would be "hard to say goodbye to [USC]. I don’t think I can do it." However, with the subsequent announcement that other NFL-caliber quarterbacks, such as Sam Bradford, Tim Tebow, and Colt McCoy had decided to stay in school, rumors arose that Sanchez would use the opportunity to enter the 2009 NFL Draft. On January 15, Sanchez announced his plans to forgo his final year of college eligibility and enter the 2009 NFL Draft, although he continued as a USC student and completed work on his degree in the spring of 2009 while preparing for the draft. Sanchez became the first USC quarterback to leave school early for the NFL since Todd Marinovich did so after the 1990 season. During the press conference, head coach Pete Carroll made it clear that he did not agree with Sanchez's decision, and advised him of the low success-rate of quarterbacks who left college early. Despite the public disagreement, the two remained close afterward. Statistics Professional career Pre-draft Sanchez hired his older brother and business litigator, Nick Sanchez, to be his agent alongside David Dunn, who represented Carson Palmer. Sanchez received an invitation to the 2009 Scouting Combine, where his performance was well received. He was ranked as one of the top two quarterbacks, behind fellow junior Matthew Stafford from the University of Georgia. In the final days leading up to the draft, several NFL teams expressed serious interest in Sanchez, including the Seattle Seahawks (fourth overall selection), Cleveland Browns (fifth overall selection), Washington Redskins (13th overall selection), and New York Jets (17th overall selection). New York Jets The New York Jets drafted Sanchez in the first round as the fifth overall pick in the 2009 NFL Draft, making him the first quarterback selected by the Jets in the first round since Chad Pennington went 18th overall in the 2000 NFL Draft. To select Sanchez, the Jets traded their first and second round selections and three players, Kenyon Coleman, Abram Elam, and Brett Ratliff, to the Cleveland Browns. At the time, the selection was lauded as good value for both the team and Sanchez. Sanchez reached an agreement with the team on June 10, 2009, signing a five-year, $50 million contract, with $28 million guaranteed. It is the largest contract the Jets signed a player to in franchise history. 2009 season Heading into his rookie training camp, Sanchez was listed as the second quarterback behind veteran Kellen Clemens. Jets head coach Rex Ryan viewed the camp as an opportunity for both quarterbacks to compete against each other to determine the eventual starter for the 2009 season. On August 26, 2009, Sanchez was named the starter, becoming the first rookie quarterback to start the season for the team since Dick Jamieson in 1960. Sanchez started his first regular season NFL game against the Houston Texans on September 13, 2009, throwing his first touchdown pass, a 30-yard reception, to wide receiver Chansi Stuckey. Sanchez and the Jets won the game 24–7, with Sanchez throwing for 272 yards, a touchdown, and an interception. He was named the Pepsi Rookie of the Week for his performance in the game, the first of three consecutive Rookie of the Week awards. He played his first home game a week later versus the New England Patriots, a 16–9 victory; it was also his first AFC East division game and his first rivalry game. It was the Jets' first victory over New England at home since 2000. With a 24–17 victory over the Tennessee Titans in Week 3, Sanchez became the first rookie quarterback in NFL history to start and win his first three games of an NFL season. However, his performance began to regress as he had a pass intercepted for a 99-yard touchdown return, and fumbled another attempted pass in the end zone for another touchdown, as the Jets fell to the New Orleans Saints in Week 4. These two plays were enough to spoil an otherwise strong outing from the Jets's defensive unit as the team dropped to a 3–1 record. Following the loss to New Orleans, Sanchez received criticism in a 16–13 overtime loss to the Buffalo Bills in Week 6 when he threw five interceptions against a lowly Bills defense that previously had only four interceptions all season long. The Jets ended their losing streak in a 38–0 victory against the Oakland Raiders in Week 7. Sanchez was criticized after he was seen eating a hot dog on the Jets' bench in the fourth quarter. In the team's second meeting against the Bills on December 3, 2009, Sanchez suffered a sprained posterior cruciate ligament in the third quarter, prompting the veteran Clemens to take his place. Though there were no setbacks to the injury, head coach Ryan benched Sanchez the following game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers for precautionary reasons, much to Sanchez's dismay. At 7–7, the Jets had a chance to secure a playoff berth if they won the remainder of their games. One such game was against the Indianapolis Colts who had 23 consecutive regular season wins. Sanchez and the Jets engineered a comeback win following Colts head coach Jim Caldwell's decision to controversially rest the team starters in the third quarter with a five-point lead. The following week, on January 3, 2010, Sanchez led the team into the playoffs, despite a subpar effort, completing 8 of 16 passes for 63 yards, en route to a 37–0 victory over the Cincinnati Bengals, who rested their starters as the team had already clinched the AFC North division title and a playoff berth. The manner of the two wins, which gave the Jets their first playoff berth since 2006, caused many to claim the team had "backed into the playoffs". Sanchez completed his rookie season with 2,444 yards, 12 touchdowns, and 20 interceptions. 2009 postseason In the Wild Card Round, which took place on January 9, 2010, at Paul Brown Stadium, Sanchez led the Jets to another victory over the Bengals, 24–14, behind his positive performance where he completed 12 of 15 passes for 182 yards and a touchdown with a passer rating of 139.4. Sanchez became the fourth rookie quarterback in NFL history to win his first postseason contest, and the second to do so on the road. The others were Shaun King (1999 Bucs), Ben Roethlisberger (2004 Steelers), and Joe Flacco (2008 Ravens). On January 17, 2010, Sanchez, with the help of running back and fellow rookie Shonn Greene, defeated the heavily favored San Diego Chargers 17–14 to attain the Jets' third AFC Championship appearance in franchise history. Sanchez became only the second rookie quarterback to win two consecutive playoff games, behind Joe Flacco. In a rematch of their regular season meeting with the Colts, Sanchez performed well in the first half however, the offense succumbed to the Colts' defense in the second half and the Jets gave up an 11-point lead, losing by a score of 30–17. Sanchez was named to Sporting News''' All-Rookie team for his performance during the season, becoming the first Jets quarterback to ever receive the award. 2010 season On February 17, 2010, Sanchez underwent surgery to repair the patella ligament in his left knee that he originally injured when he played for USC. The surgery was successful. Sanchez was expected to miss early workouts and return in time for training camp however Sanchez made a quick recovery and participated in team drills during Organized Team Activities (OTA). The Jets opened the 2010 season with a 5–1 record despite the passing game being subpar as Sanchez struggled to accurately throw the football. Sanchez recorded his first career 300-yard passing game in a win over the Detroit Lions on November 7, 2010. He earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week for his Week 11 game against the Houston Texans. At 10–4, the Jets faced the Chicago Bears on December 26, 2010, with a chance to clinch a playoff berth. Though Sanchez injured his shoulder in a victory over Pittsburgh the previous week, he started the game completing 24 of 37 passes for a touchdown and an interception. However, the Jets were unable to defend the Bears' offense and subsequently lost the game 38–34 after a comeback drive was halted when Sanchez was intercepted. Fortunately for them, due to a loss by the Jacksonville Jaguars that same day, the Jets clinched the playoff berth. Sanchez finished the season with 3,291 yards, 17 touchdowns, and 13 interceptions. 2010 postseason The Jets finished the season with an 11–5 record and entered the wild card round facing the Indianapolis Colts in a rematch of their previous encounter in the AFC Championship. Although Sanchez had a subpar performance completing 18 of 31 passes while throwing an interception, he led the team in the final minutes of the game on a comeback drive culminating with kicker Nick Folk kicking the game-winning field goal as time expired. The Jets went on to face the New England Patriots in the divisional round and upset the heavily favored Patriots, 28–21, as Sanchez completed 16 of 25 passes for 194 yards and three touchdowns. With the win, Sanchez tied Len Dawson, Roger Staubach, Jake Delhomme, and Joe Flacco for the second most post-season road victories by a quarterback in NFL history. The team traveled to the AFC Championship, for a second consecutive season, to face the Pittsburgh Steelers on January 23, 2011. Heading into halftime trailing 24–3, the team, led by Sanchez, engineered a comeback following a heartfelt speech given by the quarterback at halftime. Although the Jets' defense did not allow Pittsburgh to score in the second half, the team fell short as their final offensive drive was stymied by the Steelers' defense and the Jets lost 24–19. 2011 season Prior to the outset of the 2011 season, head coach Rex Ryan named Sanchez a team captain. The Jets opened the season with a 2–3 record leading to discontent within the clubhouse. The team had begun to stray from their philosophy of consistently running the ball and began to pass more often; however, the offense struggled with this adjustment. Wide receivers Plaxico Burress, Santonio Holmes, and Derrick Mason approached coach Ryan to question offensive coordinator Brian Schottenheimer's system as Holmes and Mason averaged only three catches per game and Burress only 2.5 catches through four games. Additionally, Sanchez drew criticism for his difficulties to effectively throw the ball to his receivers. The struggles culminated with Holmes getting into a heated argument with another teammate in the huddle during their final regular season game against the Miami Dolphins. Holmes was benched in the fourth quarter while Sanchez threw three interceptions in the Jets' loss that eliminated the team from playoff contention for the first time in Sanchez's career. Statistically, Sanchez had similar numbers in a comparison to Eli Manning when he concluded his third year of football however, there were concerns that Sanchez was simply an ineffective quarterback and therefore expendable. During the offseason, Sanchez was criticized by anonymous teammates for his poor work ethic and his inability to improve; these claims were publicly refuted by other teammates. Despite questions surrounding his job security, after New York acquired Tim Tebow, the Jets agreed to a 3-year contract extension with Sanchez on March 9, 2012. The contract included $20 million in guarantees. 2012 season The Jets opened their 2012 season against the Buffalo Bills with Sanchez completing 19 of 27 passes for 266 yards, 3 touchdowns, and an interception in a 48–28 rout of the Bills. In the subsequent four games, Sanchez became the first quarterback since Stoney Case in 1999 to complete under 50% of his passes in four straight contests as the Jets fell to a 2–3 record. This led to fierce criticism from the media and fans and prompted calls for Sanchez to be benched in favor of Tim Tebow. Sanchez snapped this streak against the Indianapolis Colts on October 14, 2012, completing 11 of 18 passes for 82 yards and 2 touchdowns in a 35–9 victory over Indianapolis. The following week, the Jets faced their division rivals, the Patriots. Despite a second-half lead by New England, the game was tied at the end of regulation forcing overtime. Following a Patriots field goal, Sanchez had the ball knocked out his hand by linebacker Rob Ninkovich who recovered the fumble and sealed the Patriots' victory. This was Sanchez's best overall performance to that point in the season as he completed a career record 68% of his passes when attempting 40 or more passes. Sanchez's struggles continued in the following two games against Miami and Seattle; in Seattle, Sanchez completed 9 of 22 passes for 124 yards while throwing his fourth red zone interception of the year and was the fifth game of the season where he completed under 50% of his pass attempts. The Jets snapped their losing streak in a 27–13 victory over the St. Louis Rams in which Sanchez completed 15 of 20 passes for 178 yards and a touchdown. However, his struggles continued in a rematch against New England on Thanksgiving night. Despite completing 26 of 36 of his passes for 301 yards, a touchdown, and an interception, the Jets lost to the Patriots 49–19 and fell to 4–7 as Sanchez turned the ball over twice—each turnover led to Patriots touchdowns. The Jets surrendered 21 points within a 53-second span on 3 turnovers. The play that earned Sanchez the most criticism was a second-quarter fumble where he ran into the backside of lineman Brandon Moore and the Patriots scored on the resulting fumble; this play, becoming widely known as the butt fumble, was mocked in the media. Sanchez started the next week, but was benched in the third quarter of the Jets' contest against the Arizona Cardinals on December 2, 2012, in favor of third string back-up Greg McElroy. Prior to being benched by Rex Ryan, Sanchez threw three interceptions. McElroy threw a touchdown to tight end Jeff Cumberland to score the team's only points in a 7–6 victory over Arizona. Rex Ryan renamed Sanchez the starting quarterback the following Wednesday after seeking out multiple opinions within the organization. Sanchez returned to complete 12 of 19 passes for 111 yards against the Jacksonville Jaguars, fumbling once that led to a Jaguars field goal. The Jets won 17–10. In a must-win game against the Tennessee Titans to remain in playoff contention, Sanchez struggled; he completed 13 of 28 passes for 131 yards while throwing four interceptions and fumbling the ball in Titans territory in the closing minutes of the Jets' 14–10 defeat. A day later, Ryan named McElroy the starter. Sanchez started the Jets' final game against the Buffalo Bills after McElroy revealed he had been experiencing concussion symptoms in the days preceding. The Jets were defeated 28–9 with Sanchez completing 17 of 35 passes for 205 yards and two turnovers. 2013 season Sanchez suffered a shoulder injury on August 24, 2013, in the Jets' third game of the preseason against the New York Giants after being tackled by nose tackle Marvin Austin. The Jets, who drafted rookie quarterback Geno Smith in the 2013 NFL Draft, named Smith the starter on September 4 with Sanchez still recovering from his injury. On September 14, 2013, Sanchez was placed on injured reserve with a designation to return. After undergoing shoulder surgery on October 8, 2013, it was announced he would miss the rest of the season. After much speculation regarding his future in New York, the Jets released Sanchez on March 21, 2014, the same day they signed Michael Vick, the former Atlanta Falcons and Philadelphia Eagles quarterback. Philadelphia Eagles 2014 season Sanchez signed with the Philadelphia Eagles on March 29, 2014, for a 1-year, $2.25 million contract. After spending seven full games as Nick Foles' backup, Sanchez filled-in for an injured Foles, in a Week 9 game against the Houston Texans. Throwing for 202 yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions, Sanchez led the Eagles to a 31–21 win. After the game, Eagles head coach, Chip Kelly, praised Sanchez, saying, "He's a hell of a quarterback and we're excited that we got him." Foles was later confirmed to be out for 6 to 8 weeks with a broken collarbone, meaning Sanchez would take over as the team's quarterback. On November 10, 2014, Sanchez started his first game for the Eagles and led them in a 45–21 rout of the visiting Carolina Panthers on Monday Night Football. Even though it was his first start at quarterback since December 2012, Sanchez notched two touchdowns as he threw for 332 yards—the fourth highest total in his NFL career. The victory also marked the first time he had ever thrown for more than 265 yards without an interception. Sanchez followed this with a 53–20 loss against Green Bay, where he threw for 346 yards and two touchdowns, but was also intercepted twice and lost two fumbles. Sanchez came back with two consecutive wins, a 43–24 rout of the Titans where he threw for 300 yards in his third consecutive start, and a 33–10 win against the Cowboys on Thanksgiving, where he logged 207 yards and a touchdown as well as 28 rushing yards and a score. With the Eagles at a 9–3 record, and his record as a starter at 3–1, the Eagles looked poised to win the NFC East, but after three consecutive losses and playoff elimination, he finished the 2014 season with a 4–4 record as the Eagles starting quarterback. In nine games and eight starts, he threw for 2,418 yards, 14 touchdowns, and 11 interceptions with a 64.0 completion percentage, while rushing for 87 yards and one touchdown, with a career-high 88.4 passer rating. 2015 season The Eagles re-signed Sanchez to a two-year, $16 million contract on March 8, 2015, but despite his play in the 2014 season, he remained the backup quarterback as Nick Foles was traded for Sam Bradford. In Bradford's first several games, he had thrown more interceptions than touchdowns and often had a low completion percentage, but head coach Chip Kelly refused to bench Bradford in favor of Sanchez. Ironically, Sanchez would get his first playing time when Bradford was playing his best football of the season. On November 15, 2015, Sanchez came into a Week 10 game against the Miami Dolphins in relief of injured starter Sam Bradford with the Eagles trailing 20–16 late in the 3rd quarter. Sanchez went 14 of 23 with 156 yards and an interception. The interception was costly as it occurred in the endzone when the Eagles were in field goal range down 20–19, which ended up being the final score of the game. Sanchez was announced as the starter for the Eagles in the Week 11 game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers after it was revealed that Bradford suffered a separated shoulder and a concussion. Sanchez's opening drive was excellent, completing 100% of his passes and ending it with a 39-yard touchdown pass to Josh Huff to make the score 7–0. Sanchez continued to play well for the majority of the 1st half, and threw a second touchdown pass to Darren Sproles, but the Buccaneers offense had already scored 21 points. However, after that drive, Sanchez started to crumble, throwing an interception near the end of the second quarter. Sanchez finished the game with 3 interceptions, 1 of which was returned for a touchdown, in a humiliating 45–17 blowout. His two touchdown passes were the only points scored by the offense. Sanchez once again put up the only points for the offense in another humiliating blowout, this time a 45–14 loss to the Detroit Lions. Sanchez played relatively well, avoiding a 3-and-out on the first drive with a 5-yard scramble and managing to tie the game 7–7 with a touchdown pass to Brent Celek, but a defensive meltdown and lack of offensive momentum left the Eagles hopeless, and Sanchez finished his Eagles record with an 0–2 record as starter. Sanchez finished 19 of 27 for 199 yards, 2 touchdowns, and no interceptions, with a passer rating of 116.1. Despite his above average passer rating, Sanchez proceeded to go back to the bench the next week due to his winless record as starter, and he would not throw another pass for the rest of the season. Denver Broncos On March 11, 2016, Sanchez was traded to the Denver Broncos for a 2017 conditional draft pick. Prior to his arrival to the Broncos, Peyton Manning had retired and Brock Osweiler had signed with the Houston Texans. This opened up a competition for the Broncos starting quarterback job between Sanchez, second-year player Trevor Siemian, and rookie Paxton Lynch. On August 29, Broncos head coach Gary Kubiak named Siemian the starting quarterback for the 2016 season. On September 3, 2016, Sanchez was released by the team. Dallas Cowboys On September 3, 2016, hours after the Broncos released him, Sanchez signed a one-year $2 million contract with the Dallas Cowboys, who were looking to have a veteran presence behind rookie Dak Prescott, who was named the starter at quarterback while Tony Romo recovered from a vertebral compression fracture he suffered during the first quarter of the Cowboys' Week 3 preseason game against the Seattle Seahawks. In Week 17, with the Cowboys already having clinched the NFC's #1 seed, Sanchez split time with starter Prescott and backup Romo. Prescott played the first two series of the game, Romo played the third, and Sanchez played the rest of the game. Sanchez completed 9 of 17 passes for 85 yards and two interceptions as the Cowboys lost to the Philadelphia Eagles by a score of 27–13. Chicago Bears On March 23, 2017, Sanchez signed a one-year contract with the Chicago Bears. The Bears had noted the "positive influence" Sanchez had as a mentor to rookie quarterback Dak Prescott and looked for him to play a similar role in the development of rookie Mitchell Trubisky. On May 30, 2017, Sanchez suffered a small knee injury in his left knee. He missed the remainder of OTA's and the minicamp. In response, the Bears rescinded the waiver request to Connor Shaw following the injury to Sanchez. Sanchez made the Bears' final roster third on the quarterback depth chart behind Trubisky and Mike Glennon, but did not play at all in 2017. On April 13, 2018, Sanchez, while still a free agent, was suspended for four games for violating the NFL's performance-enhancing drug policy. Sanchez tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs and cited "unknowing supplement contamination" in his statement to the media following the suspension. Washington Redskins On November 19, 2018, Sanchez signed with the Washington Redskins to serve as the backup to Colt McCoy, after starter Alex Smith suffered a season-ending leg injury. Sanchez made his first appearance with the Redskins for an injured McCoy in a 28–13 loss to his former team, the Philadelphia Eagles. He completed 13 passes from 21 attempts for 100 yards and an interception. Sanchez became the starter after McCoy fractured his fibula in the game. In Week 14, Sanchez was benched at halftime in a 40–16 loss to the New York Giants in favor for Josh Johnson, after throwing two interceptions and only 38 yards in the first half. The next day, the Redskins named Johnson their starter for the Week 15 game against the Jacksonville Jaguars. Retirement Sanchez announced his retirement on July 23, 2019, and subsequently took a position with ESPN's college football coverage. In 2021, Sanchez moved from ESPN to Fox, where he calls NFL games and appears on FS1 studio shows. NFL career statistics Regular season Postseason Television and film career On October 15, 2020, Sanchez was revealed to have partaken in season four of The Masked Singer performing as the "Baby Alien", the show's first costume to incorporate a puppet. As Nick Cannon had a hard time figuring out how to remove Baby Alien's mask upon elimination, he had to receive help from the Men in Black to do the job. Player profile Early in his career, Sanchez was praised for his ability to maintain composure in the pocket amidst defensive pressure and focus on finding an open receiver to extend the team's offensive series. In his first four years, Sanchez had ten fourth quarter comebacks and twelve game winning drives. These characteristics were highlighted by Bill Parcells and Sam Wyche and garnered comparisons to Ben Roethlisberger. Sanchez was also noted for his proficiency in short passing situations and competitive nature; in December 2010, following dismal performances, Rex Ryan threatened to reduce Sanchez's repetitions with the first-team offense during practice which infuriated Sanchez. In December 2012, following a series of poor performances that eventually led to his benching, a panel of former NFL quarterbacks were questioned about Sanchez's different attributes. It was unanimously agreed upon that his arm strength was "good enough" to succeed in the league and that he could be effective while mobile in the pocket. His regression was mainly attributed to his poor accuracy, a byproduct of his indecisive mentality once the ball is snapped, and the fact the Jets did little to help surround Sanchez with the talent to overcome his shortcomings. Ron Jaworski commented that Sanchez had lost his confidence which contributed to his decline. While Sanchez has embraced a playboy lifestyle, drawing comparisons to former Jet Joe Namath, he was praised by Brian Schottenheimer for his ability to work with various personalities and build relationships with teammates. After undergoing knee surgery following his rookie season, Sanchez established "Jets West" in 2010, an annual off-season camp located in his home state of California. Sanchez hosts workouts and offers classroom review sessions for his skill-position teammates on offense for one week. During the NFL labor dispute, Sanchez managed to organize private workouts with over forty of his teammates. Personal life Sanchez is an avid fan of musical theatre. He was a presenter at the 2010 Tony Awards, where he introduced a number from the Broadway musical Memphis. Sanchez has been involved in multiple charities including the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation to help raise awareness for Type 1 diabetes and Sam's Club's Giving Made Simple'' which, helps raise awareness about childhood obesity and how families can prevent it. Sanchez has also worked with the Teddy Atlas Foundation through which he met Aiden Binkley, a terminally ill 11-year-old struck with rhabdomyosarcoma. Sanchez developed a bond with Binkley and the two remained close friends until Binkley's death in December 2010. Sanchez's father is a fire captain for the Orange County Fire Authority and a member of the national urban search and rescue team. In college, Nick Sanchez played quarterback for East Los Angeles College and was later a sergeant in the United States Army. His two older brothers both played college football. Nick Jr. attended Yale University, where he played quarterback while Brandon attended DePauw University, where he played on the offensive line. Nick Jr. went on to attend the USC Law School and is a business attorney; Brandon became a mortgage broker. Sanchez dated model and former wife of Sean Avery, Hilary Rhoda for several years. The two appeared in a GQ photo shoot. On May 28, 2023, Sanchez married actress Perry Mattfeld. In June 2016, a lawsuit filed by U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission alleged that Sanchez's broker conducted a "ponzi-like scheme" which defrauded Sanchez, as well as Roy Oswalt and Jake Peavy, out of 30 million. Mexican-American identity When Sanchez was elevated to prominence at USC, he found himself a symbol of Mexican-American identity and a role model for younger generations. Sanchez was placed on center stage in Los Angeles, home to more than 4.6 million Hispanics, the majority of whom are of Mexican descent. While there had been previous, successful Mexican-American quarterbacks such as Tom Flores, Jim Plunkett, Joe Kapp, Jeff Garcia, Tony Romo, and Marc Bulger, unlike most of his predecessors, Sanchez is a third-generation, full Mexican and none had been embraced to the extent Sanchez was. USC fans began playing up Sanchez's ethnicity by wearing items such as sarapes, lucha libre masks, and homemade "¡Viva Sanchez!" T-shirts. His rise to fame within the Mexican-American community was compared to that of boxer Oscar De La Hoya and baseball pitcher Fernando Valenzuela. While starting for an injured John David Booty in 2007, Sanchez wore a custom mouthguard that featured the colors of the Mexican flag in honor of his heritage. It became a prominent issue after a nationally televised game against Notre Dame. The mouthpiece became a symbol for two opposing viewpoints: for Mexican-Americans, it was a symbol of unity—Sanchez accepting his heritage; for critics, the gesture symbolized a radical political statement. Sanchez, who was born and raised in the United States, received hate mail urging him to return to Mexico. Sanchez responded to the controversy stating, "It’s not a Mexican power thing or anything like that. It’s just a little bit of pride in our heritage. Hopefully, it inspires somebody and it’s all for the best." Overwhelmed by the attention and shying away from politics, Sanchez stopped wearing the mouthpiece, but began participating in other efforts to help the Hispanic community. Sanchez, who knew how to speak some Spanish but was not fluent, began to take Spanish lessons during his junior year at USC so he could have conversations without the use of a translator. The USC band played "El Matador" when Sanchez would come onto the field. Sanchez participated in a fundraiser to help provide school supplies to first-graders in the city of Long Beach and region of South Bay, and helped Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa give holiday gifts to impoverished families. By the end of his USC career, he had been hailed as a role model for Hispanic youth. Sanchez serves as the Ambassador to the Inner-City Games Los Angeles, an after-school program that provides "at-risk youth" with positive, alternative activities. ESPN Radio came to an agreement with the Jets to broadcast all of the team's regular season games in 2011 on 710 ESPN Radio in Los Angeles. The agreement came about due to Sanchez's continued popularity in California. Career highlights Awards and honors NFL records First rookie quarterback to win his first three starts Third most postseason road victories by an NFL quarterback: 4 (tied with Jake Delhomme, Len Dawson, and Roger Staubach) Most playoff victories by a rookie quarterback: 2 (tied with Joe Flacco) Most consecutive conference championship game appearances to begin career: 2 (tied with Ben Roethlisberger) New York Jets franchise records Most career postseason victories by an NFL quarterback: 4 Longest touchdown pass in a playoff game (2009): 80 Most game winning drives in a single season (2010): 6 Most regular season wins by a starting quarterback in 16 starts (2010): 11 (tied with Ken O'Brien in 1985) Philadelphia Eagles franchise records Most pass completions, game (37, tied with Sam Bradford) References External links USC Trojans biography 1986 births Living people American football quarterbacks American philanthropists American sportspeople of Mexican descent American television sports announcers Chicago Bears players College football announcers Dallas Cowboys players Denver Broncos players ESPN people Fox Sports 1 people Mission Viejo High School alumni National Football League announcers New York Jets players People from Rancho Santa Margarita, California Philadelphia Eagles players Players of American football from Long Beach, California Players of American football from Mission Viejo, California Santa Margarita Catholic High School alumni USC Trojans football players Washington Redskins players
4913637	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Hewson	Ali Hewson	Alison Hewson (née Stewart; born 23 March 1961) is an Irish activist and businesswoman. She is married to singer and musician Paul Hewson, known as Bono, from the rock group U2. Raised in Raheny, she met her future husband at age 12 at Mount Temple Comprehensive School, and married him in 1982. She was awarded a degree in politics and sociology from University College Dublin (UCD) in 1989. The couple have four children together and live at residences in Ireland, France, and the United States. She has inspired several U2 songs, most famously "Sweetest Thing". Hewson became involved in anti-nuclear activism in the 1990s. She narrated Black Wind, White Land, a 1993 Irish documentary about the lasting effects of the Chernobyl disaster, and has worked closely with activist Adi Roche. She has been a patron of Chernobyl Children's Project International since 1994 and has participated in a number of aid missions to the high-radiation exclusion zones of Belarus. She has also campaigned against Sellafield, the northern English nuclear facility. In 2002 she helped lead an effort which sent more than a million postcards, urging the site be closed, to Prime Minister Tony Blair and others. Hewson has repeatedly been discussed by tabloid newspapers as a possible candidate for political offices, including President of Ireland; none of these suggestions have come to fruition. Hewson is the co-founder of two ethical businesses, the EDUN fashion line in 2005, and Nude Skincare products in 2007. The former, intended to promote fair trade with Africa, has struggled to become a viable business. French conglomerate LVMH has made substantial investments into both companies. Early life Alison Stewart was born on 23 March 1961, the daughter of Terry and Joy Stewart. She has an older brother, Ian, and nephew, Ross Stewart, who both live in Australia. The Stewart family, who resided in the suburb of Raheny on Dublin's Northside, raised their children as Protestants. Her father was a self-educated electrical worker who, according to Hewson, was "constantly questioning" things. Her mother, who was a housewife, had a secretarial career in mind for her daughter. Stewart studied at Mount Temple Comprehensive School. At the age of twelve, she met Paul Hewson, who was in the year above at the school. He pursued her immediately, but she initially kept her distance, labeling him "an eejit" even though she secretly admired him. In September 1974, Paul's mother Iris died suddenly, leaving him emotionally adrift and in conflict with his father and brother. Soon after, Alison began taking care of Hewson: cleaning his clothes, walking to school with him, and cooking for him. In September 1976, Hewson met the other members of what would become U2; the band members adopted nicknames, and Hewson soon became known as Bono. At around the same time, he and Ali, as she was known, began dating, and soon became a steady couple. It took Stewart a while to enjoy the band's music, as her own tastes ran toward her father's Frank Sinatra and Nat King Cole records. At one point, the pair split up, but soon reunited. The relationship became more serious as she accompanied him in his efforts to break through in the music industry, and by 1979 they were discussing marriage, conditional upon his career becoming established. In the meantime she worked in a motor insurance company and in her father's electrical business. Marriage and family Hewson married Bono on 31 August 1982 in a Church of Ireland ceremony at All Saints Church, Raheny. The ceremony combined rituals of both conventional Protestantism and the Shalom Friendship Christian group that Bono and other U2 members had belonged to. In debt to U2's record label, Island Records, the couple could not afford a honeymoon, but Island founder Chris Blackwell gave them use of the Goldeneye estate he owned in Jamaica. Having returned to Ireland, the couple moved to a small mews house in Howth, which they shared with the rest of U2. As the band broke through in popularity with the War Tour in 1983, Ali Hewson did not readily adapt to the new circumstances. After seeing her with the group at a trendy Hollywood nightspot, journalist Ethlie Ann Vare commented that Ali looked "as out of place as a dairymaid in a brothel." Although she had wanted to become a nurse, Hewson gave up on the notion, as the intense schooling required would have been incompatible with the direction that her husband's life had taken. Instead she focused on studying in the social sciences, to give her an ability to understand social policy and make a difference to people, similar to what nursing would have enabled. By Bono's own description, the marriage hit a period of strain in 1986 due to time commitments during the group's recording of The Joshua Tree. Tensions continued in 1987 during the subsequent Joshua Tree Tour. Hewson received a degree in social science, politics and sociology from University College Dublin in 1989 at age 28, giving birth to the couple's first daughter, Jordan, two weeks before her final exams. Further plans to earn a master's degree in moral and political ethics were put on hold after the birth of their second daughter, Memphis Eve, in 1991. Two sons, Elijah Bob Patricus Guggi Q and John Abraham, were born in 1999 and 2001, respectively. Being effectively a single parent while U2 toured was difficult for Hewson, but she now found Bono helpful even at a distance. Activism In late 1985, following U2's participation in Live Aid, Bono and Hewson spent five weeks as aid volunteers in Ajibar during the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia. She saw children with no possessions and at risk of death; despite this, to her they appeared more spiritually alive than those in Ireland who had material comforts but seemed spoiled and spiritually unaware, like her own children. In 1986, the couple traveled to strife-torn areas in Nicaragua and El Salvador on a visit organised by Central American Mission Partners. In 1992, Hewson participated in Greenpeace protests against the Sellafield plant for nuclear reprocessing, located across the Irish Sea in Cumbria, England. She was especially set against the under-construction Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant component being opened. She was aboard Greenpeace's MV Solo when it staged a publicity-oriented "raid" wherein the band members landed on the beach at the plant in rubber dinghies, but she said she had not been responsible for that particular protest. This involvement led her to become interested in the Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986. After a request by activist Adi Roche, she went to blighted, high-radiation exclusion zones in Belarus for three weeks to narrate part of Black Wind, White Land. The 1993 Irish documentary, shown on RTÉ, highlighted the plight of fallout victims of the Chernobyl event. Hot Press magazine wrote that Hewson had "obvious gifts as a presenter, which include a sense of quiet compassion that draws forth the best from the people she talks with." Another reviewer said that the documentary was very effective until she started speaking. Since 1994, Hewson has been a patron of Chernobyl Children's Project International (shortened to Chernobyl Children International in 2010), an organisation founded and run by Roche that works with children, families, and communities that continue to be affected by Chernobyl. Through the years, Hewson has taken at least ten trips to Belarus and other nations in the region despite the risk to her health. She has organised overland aid convoys and sometimes driven ambulances filled with medical supplies herself; in one case she had to retreat quickly when a fire spread in a village a few miles from Chernobyl. Hewson has made sure her own children met those from Chernobyl with birth deformities and other illnesses, so that they would have a broader appreciation of the world and what to be thankful for. She has said that fundraising for those affected is very difficult, given that many people believe the problems of Chernobyl are all in the past. She was aware from the outset that her circumstances would make her vulnerable to "ladies who lunch"-style remarks (sometimes made against women, married to wealthy, high-profile men, who engage in charitable activities), but said, "People who criticise these women are probably giving in to cynicism, and I think if you get cynical about life, you lose the real meaning of it." In 2007, she became a member of the board of directors for Chernobyl Children's Project International, a role that would give her a voice in the organisation's policy making. In 2009, she staged a public abseil of the 17-storey Elysian Tower in Cork to raise funds for the organisation. She returned to the Sellafield issue in 2002, noting that while Ireland had no nuclear power plants itself, Belarus had been the most affected region even though Chernobyl was not in it, and that was "exactly what could happen in Ireland if there was an explosion at Sellafield." In addition, she feared the ongoing low-level emissions from Sellafield: "I started to wonder how safe it was for [children] to play on the beach or to swim in the sea or even to eat fish." In the aftermath of the 11 September 2001 attacks, she also viewed the plant as vulnerable to terrorists. In April 2002, Hewson was one of the leaders of an effort which delivered over a million postcards demanding that the facility be shut down; recipients included British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Prince Charles, and Norman Askew, head of British Nuclear Fuels Limited. (The message to the first said, "Tony, look me in the eye and tell me I'm safe.") She personally delivered a giant postcard to Blair at 10 Downing Street. The Shut Sellafield Campaign had its postcards stocked in Superquinn and Dunnes Stores supermarkets, and Hewson publicly engaged Tesco when they refused to do the same. The campaign was backed by celebrities, including Ronan Keating and Samantha Mumba, and Hewson made many newspaper and radio appearances on its behalf. It was the first prolonged exposure Hewson had to the public eye, after two decades of mostly being focused upon maintaining her privacy. Her continued activism also meant that she too would not always be around for the couple's children. As the postcard effort was reaching its peak, tabloid newspapers speculated that the Labour Party wanted to put Hewson up for the Irish presidential election of 2004, with the Daily Mirror quoting an unnamed party insider as saying, "She's a mother of four but she has always had world issues at heart and she'd make the perfect candidate." (Labour had succeeded with its candidate Mary Robinson in the 1990 election but came in fourth with Roche in the 1997 election.) Hewson stated that she had not been approached, and that "It's not a serious proposition. It would obviously be a huge honour if I was asked to take on such a huge task, but for one thing I'm not sure I'm qualified, and for another I've got four small kids to bring up first." She also expressed contentment with incumbent President Mary McAleese staying for another term. She jokingly added that she could not see Bono agreeing to live in a smaller house. Hewson received a media mention two years later as a possible Social Democratic and Labour Party candidate in the 2004 European Parliament elections after John Hume had stood down. The notion of her running for Irish president came up again in 2008 in conjunction with the 2011 election. Hewson demurred once more, saying she did not speak the Irish language well enough, this time adding humorously that she could not see her husband being willing to walk behind her at events. The candidate that Labour did put up, Michael D. Higgins, won the post. Notwithstanding this speculation, Hewson generally shies away from political comments in the media. Hewson has long advocated for a children's museum for Ireland, inspired by a positive experience her daughters had at the Dallas Children's Museum in the mid-1990s. In 2003, plans were announced to build the so-called Exploration Station as part of the proposed Heuston Gate development near the Dublin Heuston railway station. The children-oriented science centre was to be owned by the Irish Children's Museum charitable trust, established in 2006, with Hewson as a member of the board led by Danny O'Hare. Hewson said, "Seeing as we're nearly the last European country in on it, we can learn from children's museums already up and running and expand on them". However, over the next few years the science centre faced significant cost overruns in the planning stages and a possible European Commission investigation into how the Office of Public Works had handled the awarding of the contract for it. The effects of the financial crisis of 2007–2008 then put a halt to the entire Heuston Gate project. As of August 2016, the site was finally fixed as between Earlsfort Terrace and the Iveagh Gardens, and as of October 2019, the post of CEO was advertised. In 2015 Hewson signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation. Business career In 2005, Hewson, Bono and designer Rogan Gregory co-founded the EDUN fashion label. It was intended to help bring about positive change in Africa through a fair trade-based relationship rather than by direct aid. Another aim of the label was to set an ethical example in an industry they felt had long exploited child labour. She said they wanted "to show that you can make a for-profit business where everybody in the chain is treated well." Hewson had not been particularly interested in fashion prior to this undertaking. Hewson emphasised that Edun would have to be profitable to be considered a success, but in this it struggled. She later admitted that the couple were naive about what it takes to make a successful fashion enterprise. Edun encountered problems with both quality of goods and delivery times from their African suppliers, and most of the stores originally carrying the line dropped it. It lost €9.7 million in 2007 and €12.8 million in 2008, suffering along with the rest of the apparel sector from the financial crisis of 2007–2008. After the couple had put $20 million of their own funds into the venture, they sold 49% of it to French conglomerate LVMH in 2009. The relaunched Edun featured Sharon Wauchob as its new chief designer. By 2010, the company had outsourced much of the manufacturing for its new fashion line to China, generating some negative reactions, while simpler garments were still African-made. Hewson said that business realities compelled this action, but that she hoped more work could be done in Africa in the future. Hewson devoted a large amount of time to Edun, saying in 2011, "I think [the fashion industry] is the toughest business there is," and that despite the obstacles and struggles, "you just keep going." The proposition remained difficult, however, and Edun lost €6.8 million in 2011 and €5.9 million in 2012. The Hewsons said the company was in an investment phase and they were satisfied with the five-year strategic business plan underway. Hewson is also co-founder, along with Bryan Meehan, of Nude skincare – a luxury, natural skincare company. Established in 2007, the venture sought to combine ethical principles and environmentally friendly, yet chic, packaging, with a high-performance product based on probiotics and omega oils. In 2009, Hewson brought legal action in England against Stella McCartney for bringing out Stella Nude, a new eau de toilette version of the Stella perfume, saying that it amounted to copyright infringement of her own Nude Skincare. Hewson lost in the High Court when Mr Justice Floyd ruled against her. In February 2011, LVMH purchased 70 percent of Nude skincare. The following year, Hewson said that being part of a much larger corporation gave them research and development resources that they previously lacked and a more focused approach to marketing. She added, "It took us much longer to get here than we anticipated. But we still have very big ambitions for the brand to go much farther." Hewson herself has pale skin and very dark hair, wears little jewellery, and has eschewed cosmetic surgery. The Evening Standard described Hewson's style as "the antithesis of bling" and columnist Amanda Brunker wrote that at age 50 her attractive appearance "seems to defy all the odds" given her hectic lifestyle. Hewson and U2 Hewson has served as at least partial inspiration for many Bono-authored U2 songs, going back to the track "Another Time, Another Place" from their 1980 debut album Boy. She helped Bono get through a bad period of writer's block during the lead-up to the 1983 War album, particularly in the composition of the lyrics to "Sunday Bloody Sunday". She inspired the personal themes in "New Year's Day", from the same record. That album and the accompanying War Tour brought financial success to the band, and Bono and Hewson moved into a three-level, three-room Martello tower in Bray. The group's 1984 song "Promenade" reflects both that location and the spiritual aspects of his desire for her. The U2 song "Sweetest Thing" was written for Hewson as a gift because Bono forgot her birthday whilst recording with the band during The Joshua Tree sessions. Originally released as a B-side in 1987, it was later re-recorded and released as a single from the compilation album The Best of 1980–1990 in 1998. Hewson agreed to appear in the single's music video as long as all proceeds from it went to Chernobyl Children's Project. Bono wrote the lyric of the 1988 song "All I Want Is You" as a meditation on the idea of commitment. He later said, "[It]'s clearly about a younger version of myself and my relationship with Ali," and added that by nature he was a wanderer, not a family man, and that "The only reason I'm here is because I met someone so extraordinary that I just couldn't let that go." U2 lyrics usually have several possible levels of interpretation, and it is not always possible to definitively ascribe Hewson's influence upon them, but music writer Niall Stokes believes that inspiration from Hewson is pronounced throughout the group's 1997 album Pop, particularly on "Staring at the Sun", which he believes reflects her Chernobyl Children's Project involvement and the feelings of both danger and hopefulness that it triggered in Bono. Stokes also believes that the 2000 song "When I Look at the World" is an explicit acknowledgement of Hewson's strength and commitment as exemplified by that Chernobyl work, while others think it is about Jesus or God. Bono has seemed to deflect those interpretations, saying that song is in part a hard-edged look at himself from the eyes of one losing faith. In any case, Bono has said that he does not feel constrained in his writing or interviews by what Hewson might think, as "[she] doesn't read newspapers. Or listen to the radio. There's a mysterious distance between us." Hewson and her family live in Killiney, in south County Dublin, in a mansion and grounds that overlook the Irish Sea and that have been expanded by purchasing the adjoining property. Bill Clinton and Salman Rushdie are among those who have stayed at the guest house there. With U2 bandmate The Edge, the couple co-own a 20-room villa in Èze in the Alpes-Maritimes in the south of France, where Bono and Hewson often mix with top celebrities. Hewson in particular has been friendly with several supermodels, which she uses to her advantage when booking charity events. Bono and Hewson also own a $14.5 million penthouse apartment at The San Remo on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, which they purchased from Steve Jobs. By 2011, the couple's fortune was placed at €572 million. While her husband has provoked a variety of critical responses—some negative—assessments of Hewson have generally been favourable, characterising her as down-to-earth. She views herself as "not a typical rock star wife". Their marriage has been considered one of the most long-lived and stable in the entertainment world. She does have to deal with the psychological effects of her husband coming off tour and readjusting to domestic life. After the extended 1992–1993 Zoo TV Tour, full of sensory overloads and alternate stage personae for Bono, the couple began a practice of hosting Sunday lunches at home, to establish a sense of regular, ordinary activities. The family became fixtures at Sunday services in Killiney as well, with a bond of Christianity still existing between the couple. She has stated, "I've no desire to be a star," seeing the effect intense public attention has had on both her husband and on activist Adi Roche. While she dislikes being referred to as "Bono's wife", she has said, " [...] I really don't have a big problem with my own identity, because I am a very private person, so I've always let Bono take the brunt of anything that was coming along. He is happy to do that; I am quite happy to make my own way around things." Awards and honours The Cranberries' 2001 song "Time Is Ticking Out" was inspired by Hewson's work with Chernobyl Children's Project. In 2002, Hewson received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the National University of Ireland for her work on environmental issues, particularly the Chernobyl Children's Project. Bono and Ali Hewson were given the Council of Fashion Designers of America board of directors' Special Tribute Award in 2007 for their humanitarian work via the Edun clothing line. Hewson was also voted Sexiest Celebrity Other Half in a 2008 poll by entertainment.ie. Notes References Bibliography Dunphy, Eamon (1987). Unforgettable Fire: The Story of U2. New York: Warner Books. . Flanagan, Bill (1995). U2: At the End of the World. New York: Delacorte Press. . Jobling, John (2014). U2: The Definitive Biography. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. . Kootnikoff, David (2012). Bono: A Biography. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. . Stokes, Niall (third edition, 2005). Into the Heart: The Stories Behind Every U2 Song. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. . U2; McCormick, Neil (ed) (2006). U2 by U2. London: HarperCollins. . External links 1961 births People from Raheny Irish Anglicans People educated at Mount Temple Comprehensive School Bono U2 Alumni of University College Dublin Irish activists Businesspeople from Dublin (city) Irish women in business 20th-century Irish businesspeople 21st-century Irish businesspeople Irish anti–nuclear power activists Living people
4913827	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium%20mining	Uranium mining	Uranium mining is the process of extraction of uranium ore from the ground. Over 50 thousand tons of uranium were produced in 2019. Kazakhstan, Canada, and Australia were the top three uranium producers, respectively, and together account for 68% of world production. Other countries producing more than 1,000 tons per year included Namibia, Niger, Russia, Uzbekistan, the United States, and China. Nearly all of the world's mined uranium is used to power nuclear power plants. Historically uranium was also used in applications such as uranium glass or ferrouranium but those applications have declined due to the radioactivity of uranium and are nowadays mostly supplied with a plentiful cheap supply of depleted uranium which is also used in uranium ammunition. In addition to being cheaper, depleted uranium is also less radioactive due to a lower content of short-lived and than natural uranium. Uranium is mined by in-situ leaching (57% of world production) or by conventional underground or open-pit mining of ores (43% of production). During in-situ mining, a leaching solution is pumped down drill holes into the uranium ore deposit where it dissolves the ore minerals. The uranium-rich fluid is then pumped back to the surface and processed to extract the uranium compounds from solution. In conventional mining, ores are processed by grinding the ore materials to a uniform particle size and then treating the ore to extract the uranium by chemical leaching. The milling process commonly yields dry powder-form material consisting of natural uranium, "yellowcake," which is nowadays commonly sold on the uranium market as U3O8. While some nuclear power plants – most notably heavy water reactors like the CANDU – can operate with natural uranium (usually in the form of uranium dioxide), the vast majority of commercial nuclear power plants and many research reactors require uranium enrichment, which raises the content of from the natural 0.72% to 3–5% (for use in light water reactors) or even higher, depending on the application. Enrichment requires conversion of the yellowcake into uranium hexafluoride and production of the fuel (again usually uranium dioxide, but sometimes uranium carbide, uranium hydride or uranium nitride) from that feedstock. History Early uranium mining Before 1789, when Martin Heinrich Klaproth discovered the element, uranium compounds produced included nitrate, sulfate, phosphate, acetate and potassium- and sodium-diuranate. Klaproth detected the element in pitchblende from the George Wagsfort mine, Ore Mountains, and established commercial use as glass coloring. Pitchblende from these mountains was mentioned as early as 1565, and 110 t of uranium was produced from 1825 until 1898. In 1852, the uranium mineral autunite from the Massif Central was identified. Around 1850, uranium mining began in Joachimsthal, Bohemia, where more than 620 t of uranium metal (tU) was produced from 1850 and 1898, with 10,000 tU produced before closure in 1968. In 1871, uranium ore mining began in Central City, Colorado, where 50 t were mined before 1895. In 1873, the uranium mining began in the South Terras mine, St Stephen-in-Brannel, Cornwall, producing most of the 300 tU from that area in the 19th century. In 1898, carnotite was first mined in the Uravan Mineral Belt, yielding 10 tU annually. In 1898, Pierre Curie and Marie Skłodowska-Curie took delivery of 1 t of pitchblende from St. Joachimsthal, from which Marie identified the element radium. Pierre advocated its usage as a cancer cure, which fostered a spa business for that town. In 1913, the Shinkolobwe, Katanga Province was discovered. In 1931, the Port Radium deposit was discovered. Other significant discoveries included Beira Province, Tyuya Muyun, and Radium Hill. Atomic age In 1922, Union Minière du Haut Katanga started producing medicinal radium from the Shinkolobwe mine, but closed down in the late 1930s as the radium market diminished. In May 1940, the Nazis invaded Belgium and seized Union Minière's uranium ore stored there. On 18 September 1942, 1250 t of Shinkolobwe uranium ore for the Manhattan Project was purchased from Union Minière's Edgar Sengier, who had stockpiled the ore in an Archer Daniels Midland warehouse near the Bayonne Bridge, Staten Island. In 1943, the Sengier reopened the Sinkolobwe mine with U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' resources, and a $13 million investment from the United States. Sengier reported that uranium ore had been extracted from the mine down to a depth of 79 meters, but that another 101 meters of ore was available for extraction. This amounted to 10,000 tons of up to 60% triuranium octoxide. The project also acquired most of the production from the Eldorado Mine (Northwest Territories). According to Richard Rhodes, referring to German uranium research, "Auer, the thorium specialists...delivered the first ton of pure uranium oxide processed from Joachimsthal ores to the War Office in January 1940. In June 1940...Auer ordered sixty tons of refined uranium oxide from the Union Miniére in occupied Belgium." While the Soviet Republics of Kazakhstan and the RSFSR would later become some of the leading uranium producers in the world, immediately after the end of World War II the availability of large uranium deposits in the USSR wasn't yet known and thus the Soviets developed immense mining operations in their satellite states East Germany and Czechoslovakia which had known uranium deposits in the Ore Mountains. The deliberately opaquely named SDAG Wismut (the German term "Wismut" for Bismuth should give the illusion of prospection for a metal the Soviets definitely weren't after) became the biggest employer in the Saxon Ore Mountains and remote mining towns like Johanngeorgenstadt swelled to ten times their population in a few years. The mining cost immense amounts of money and miners were on the one hand subject to heavier repression and surveillance but on the other hand allowed more generous supply with consumer goods than other East Germans. While production was never able to compete with global uranium market prices, the dual use nature of the mined material as well as the possibility to pay miners in soft currency but sell uranium for hard currency or substitute imports which would have had to be paid for in hard currency tipped the scales in favor of continuing mining operations throughout the Cold War. After German reunification, mining was wound down and the arduous task of rehabilitating the land impacted by mining was begun. The seventeen towns and mines under Wismut's control contributed 50 percent of the uranium used in the Soviet's first atomic bomb, Joe-1, and 80 percent of the uranium used in the Soviet nuclear program. Of the 150,000 laborers, 1281 were killed in accidents and 20,000 suffered injuries. After Stalin's death in 1953, the Red Army turned over control of production to SDAG, and prison laborers were released, reducing the population of laborers to 45,000. At its peak in 1953, the St. Joachimsthal mines had 16,100 inmates, half of whom were Soviet political prisoners. By 1975, 75% of global uranium ore production came from quartz-pebble conglomerates and sandstones located in the Elliot Lake area of Canada, Witwatersrand, and the Colorado Plateau. In 1990, 55% of world production came from underground mines, but this shrank to 33% by 1999. From 2000, new Canadian mines again increased the proportion of underground mining, and with Olympic Dam it is now 37%. In situ leach (ISL, or ISR) mining has been steadily increasing its share of the total, mainly due to Kazakhstan. In 2009, top producing mines included the McArthur River uranium mine at 7400 tU, the Ranger Uranium Mine at 4423 tU, the Rössing uranium mine at 3574 tU, the Moiynkum Desert mines at 3250 tU, the Streltsovsk mine at 3003 tU, the Olympic Dam mine at 2981 tU, the Arlit mine at 1808 tU, the Rabbit Lake mine at 1400 tU, the Akouta mine at 1435 tU, and the McClean Lake mine at 1400 tU. The world's largest deposits include the Olympic Dam mine at 295,000 tU, the Imouraren mine at 183,520 tU, the McArthur River mine at 128,900 tU, the Streltsovsk mine at 118,341 tU, the Novokonstantinovka mines at 93,630, the Cigar Lake Mine at 80,500 tU, Uzbekistan mines at 76,000 tU, the Elkon mine at 71,300 tU, the Brazilian Itataia complex at 67,240 tU, the Marenica project at 62,856 tU, the Langer Heinrich Mine at 60,830 tU, the Dominion mine at 55,753 tU, the Inkai Uranium Project at 51,808 tU, the Kiggavik project at 51,574 tU, the Rössing mine at 50,657 tU, the Australian Yeleerie project at 44,077, and the Trekkopje mine at 42,243 tU. Deposit types Many different types of uranium deposits have been discovered and mined. There are mainly three types of uranium deposits including unconformity-type deposits, namely paleoplacer deposits and sandstone-type, also known as roll front type deposits. Uranium deposits are classified into 15 categories according to their geological setting and the type of rock in which they are found. This geological classification system is determined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Uranium is also contained in seawater but at present prices on the uranium market, costs would have to be lowered by a factor of 3–6 to make its recovery economical. Sedimentary Uranium deposits in sedimentary rocks include those in sandstone (in Canada and the western US), Precambrian unconformities (in Canada), phosphate, Precambrian quartz-pebble conglomerate, collapse breccia pipes (see Arizona breccia pipe uranium mineralization), and calcrete. Sandstone uranium deposits are generally of two types. Roll-front type deposits occur at the boundary between the up dip and oxidized part of a sandstone body and the deeper down dip reduced part of a sandstone body. Peneconcordant sandstone uranium deposits, also called Colorado Plateau–type deposits, most often occur within generally oxidized sandstone bodies, often in localized reduced zones, such as in association with carbonized wood in the sandstone. Precambrian quartz-pebble conglomerate-type uranium deposits occur only in rocks older than two billion years old. The conglomerates also contain pyrite. These deposits have been mined in the Blind River–Elliot Lake district of Ontario, Canada, and from the gold-bearing Witwatersrand conglomerates of South Africa. Unconformity-type deposits make up about 33% of the World Outside Centrally Planned Economies Areas' (WOCA) uranium deposits. Igneous or hydrothermal Hydrothermal uranium deposits encompass the vein-type uranium ores. Vein-type hydrothermal uranium deposits represent epigenetic concentrations of uranium minerals that typically fill breccias, fractures, and shear zones. Many studies have sought to identify the source of uranium with hydrothermal vein-type deposits and the potential sources still remains a mystery, but are thought to include preexisting rocks that have been broken down by weathering and force that come from areas of long-term sediment build up. The South Chine Block is an example of a region that has been relying on vein-type hydrothermal uranium deposit demand for the past half century. Igneous deposits include nepheline syenite intrusives at Ilimaussaq, Greenland; the disseminated uranium deposit at Rossing, Namibia; uranium-bearing pegmatites, and the Aurora crater lake deposit of the McDermitt Caldera in Oregon. Disseminated deposits are also found in the states of Washington and Alaska in the US. Breccia Breccia uranium deposits are found in rocks that have been broken due to tectonic fracturing, or weathering. Breccia uranium deposits are most common in India, Australia and the United States. A large mass of breccia is called a breccia pipe or chimney and is composed of the rock forming an irregular and almost cylinder-like shape. The origin of breccia pipe is uncertain but it is thought that they form on intersections and faults. When the formations are found solid in ground host rock called rock flour, it usually is often a site for copper or uranium mining. Copper Creek, Arizona is home to approximately 500 mineralized breccia pipes and Cripple Creek, Colorado also is a site that contains breccia pipe ore deposits that is associated with a volcanic pipe. Olympic Dam mine, the world's largest uranium deposit, was discovered by Western Mining Corporation in 1975 and is owned by BHP. Exploration Uranium prospecting is similar to other forms of mineral exploration with the exception of some specialized instruments for detecting the presence of radioactive isotopes. The Geiger counter was the original radiation detector, recording the total count rate from all energy levels of radiation. Ionization chambers and Geiger counters were first adapted for field use in the 1930s. The first transportable Geiger–Müller counter (weighing 25 kg) was constructed at the University of British Columbia in 1932. H.V. Ellsworth of the GSC built a lighter weight, more practical unit in 1934. Subsequent models were the principal instruments used for uranium prospecting for many years, until geiger counters were replaced by scintillation counters. The use of airborne detectors to prospect for radioactive minerals was first proposed by G.C. Ridland, a geophysicist working at Port Radium in 1943. In 1947, the earliest recorded trial of airborne radiation detectors (ionization chambers and Geiger counters) was conducted by Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited. (a Canadian Crown Corporation since sold to become Cameco Corporation). The first patent for a portable gamma-ray spectrometer was filed by Professors Pringle, Roulston & Brownell of the University of Manitoba in 1949, the same year as they tested the first portable scintillation counter on the ground and in the air in northern Saskatchewan. Airborne gamma-ray spectrometry is now the accepted leading technique for uranium prospecting with worldwide applications for geological mapping, mineral exploration & environmental monitoring. Airborne gamma-ray spectrometry used specifically for uranium measurement and prospecting must account for a number of factors like the distance between the source and the detector and the scattering of radiation through the minerals, surrounding earth and even in the air. In Australia, a Weathering Intensity Index has been developed to help prospectors based on the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) elevation and airborne gamma-ray spectrometry images. A deposit of uranium, discovered by geophysical techniques, is evaluated and sampled to determine the amounts of uranium materials that are extractable at specified costs from the deposit. Uranium reserves are the amounts of ore that are estimated to be recoverable at stated costs. As prices rise or technology allows for lower cost of recovery of known, previously uneconomic, deposits, reserves increase. For uranium this effect is particularly pronounced as the biggest currently uneconomic reserve – uranium extraction from seawater – is bigger than all known land based resources of uranium combined. Mining techniques As with other types of hard rock mining there are several methods of extraction. In 2016, the percentage of the mined uranium produced by each mining method was: in-situ leach (49.7 percent), underground mining (30.8 percent), open pit (12.9 percent), heap leaching (0.4 percent), co-product/by-product (6.1%). The remaining 0,1% was derived as miscellaneous recovery. Open pit In open pit mining, overburden is removed by drilling and blasting to expose the ore body, which is then mined by blasting and excavation using loaders and dump trucks. Workers spend much time in enclosed cabins thus limiting exposure to radiation. Water is extensively used to suppress airborne dust levels. Groundwater is an issue in all types of mining, but in open pit mining, the usual way of dealing with it – i.e. when the target mineral is found below the natural water table – is to lower the water table by pumping off the water. The ground may settle considerably when groundwater is removed and may again move unpredictably when groundwater is allowed to rise again after mining is concluded. Land reclamation after mining takes different routes, depending on the amount of material removed. Due to the high energy density of uranium, it is often sufficient to fill in the former mine with the overburden, but in case of a mass deficit exceeding the height difference between the previous surface level and the natural water table, artificial lakes develop when groundwater removal ceases. If sulfites, sulfides or sulfates are present in the now-exposed rocks acid mine drainage can be a concern for those newly developing bodies of water. Mining companies are now required by law to establish a fund for future reclamation while mining is ongoing and those funds are usually deposited in such a way as to be unaffected by bankruptcy of the mining company. Underground If the uranium is too far below the surface for open pit mining, an underground mine might be used with tunnels and shafts dug to access and remove uranium ore. Underground uranium mining is in principle no different from any other hard rock mining and other ores are often mined in association (e.g., copper, gold, silver). Once the ore body has been identified a shaft is sunk in the vicinity of the ore veins, and crosscuts are driven horizontally to the veins at various levels, usually every 100 to 150 metres. Similar tunnels, known as drifts, are driven along the ore veins from the crosscut. To extract the ore, the next step is to drive tunnels, known as raises when driven upwards and winzes when driven downwards, through the deposit from level to level. Raises are subsequently used to develop the stopes where the ore is mined from the veins. The stope, which is the workshop of the mine, is the excavation from which the ore is extracted. Three methods of stope mining are commonly used. In the "cut and fill" or "open stoping" method, the space remaining following removal of ore after blasting is filled with waste rock and cement. In the "shrinkage" method, only sufficient broken ore is removed via the chutes below to allow miners working from the top of the pile to drill and blast the next layer to be broken off, eventually leaving a large hole. The method known as "room and pillar" is used for thinner, flatter ore bodies. In this method the ore body is first divided into blocks by intersecting drives, removing ore while so doing, and then systematically removing the blocks, leaving enough ore for roof support. The health effects discovered from radon exposure in unventilated uranium mining prompted the switch away from uranium mining via tunnel mining towards open cut and in-situ leaching technology, a method of extraction that does not produce the same occupational hazards, or mine tailings, as conventional mining. With regulations in place to ensure the use of high volume ventilation technology if any confined space uranium mining is occurring, occupational exposure and mining deaths can be largely eliminated. The Olympic Dam and Canadian underground mines are ventilated with powerful fans with radon levels being kept at a very low to practically "safe level" in uranium mines. Naturally occurring radon in other, non-uranium mines, also may need control by ventilation. Heap leaching Heap leaching is an extraction process by which chemicals (usually sulfuric acid) are used to extract the economic element from ore which has been mined and placed in piles on the surface. Heap leaching is generally economically feasible only for oxide ore deposits. Oxidation of sulfide deposits occurs during the geological process called weathering. Therefore, oxide ore deposits are typically found close to the surface. If there are no other economic elements within the ore a mine might choose to extract the uranium using a leaching agent, usually a low molar sulfuric acid. If the economic and geological conditions are right, the mining company will level large areas of land with a small gradient, layering it with thick plastic (usually HDPE or LLDPE), sometimes with clay, silt or sand beneath the plastic liner. The extracted ore will typically be run through a crusher and placed in heaps atop the plastic. The leaching agent will then be sprayed on the ore for 30–90 days. As the leaching agent filters through the heap, the uranium will break its bonds with the oxide rock and enter the solution. The solution will then filter along the gradient into collecting pools which will then be pumped to on-site plants for further processing. Only some of the uranium (commonly about 70%) is actually extracted. The uranium concentrations within the solution are very important for the efficient separation of pure uranium from the acid. As different heaps will yield different concentrations, the solution is pumped to a mixing plant that is carefully monitored. The properly balanced solution is then pumped into a processing plant where the uranium is separated from the sulfuric acid. Heap leach is significantly cheaper than traditional milling processes. The low costs allow for lower grade ore to be economically feasible (given that it is the right type of ore body). US environmental law requires that the surrounding ground water is continually monitored for possible contamination. The mine will also have to have continued monitoring even after the shutdown of the mine. In the past mining companies would sometimes go bankrupt, leaving the responsibility of mine reclamation to the public. 21st century additions to US mining law require that companies set aside the money for reclamation before the beginning of the project. The money will be held by the public to insure adherence to environmental standards if the company were to ever go bankrupt. In-situ leaching In-situ leaching (ISL), also known as solution mining, or in-situ recovery (ISR) in North America, involves leaving the ore where it is in the ground, and recovering the minerals from it by dissolving them and pumping the pregnant solution to the surface where the minerals can be recovered. Consequently, there is little surface disturbance and no tailings or waste rock generated. However, the orebody needs to be permeable to the liquids used, and located so that they do not contaminate ground water away from the orebody. Uranium ISL uses the native groundwater in the orebody which is fortified with a complexing agent and in most cases an oxidant. It is then pumped through the underground orebody to recover the minerals in it by leaching. Once the pregnant solution is returned to the surface, the uranium is recovered in much the same way as in any other uranium plant (mill). In Australian ISL mines (Beverley, Four Mile and Honeymoon Mine) the oxidant used is hydrogen peroxide and the complexing agent sulfuric acid. Kazakh ISL mines generally do not employ an oxidant but use much higher acid concentrations in the circulating solutions. ISL mines in the USA use an alkali leach due to the presence of significant quantities of acid-consuming minerals such as gypsum and limestone in the host aquifers. Any more than a few percent carbonate minerals means that alkali leach must be used in preference to the more efficient acid leach. The Australian government has published a best practice guide for in situ leach mining of uranium, which is being revised to take account of international differences. Seawater recovery The uranium concentration in sea water is low, approximately 3.3 parts per billion or 3.3 micrograms per liter of seawater. But the quantity of this resource is gigantic and some scientists believe this resource is practically limitless with respect to world-wide demand. That is to say, if even a portion of the uranium in seawater could be used the entire world's nuclear power generation fuel could be provided over a long time period. Some proponents claim this statistic is exaggerated.Although research and development for recovery of this low-concentration element by inorganic adsorbents such as titanium oxide compounds has occurred since the 1960s in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Japan, this research was halted due to low recovery efficiency. At the Takasaki Radiation Chemistry Research Establishment of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI Takasaki Research Establishment), research and development has continued culminating in the production of adsorbent by irradiation of polymer fiber. Adsorbents have been synthesized that have a functional group (amidoxime group) that selectively adsorbs heavy metals, and the performance of such adsorbents has been improved. Uranium adsorption capacity of the polymer fiber adsorbent is high, approximately tenfold greater in comparison to the conventional titanium oxide adsorbent. One method of extracting uranium from seawater is using a uranium-specific nonwoven fabric as an adsorbent. The total amount of uranium recovered from three collection boxes containing 350 kg of fabric was >1 kg of yellowcake after 240 days of submersion in the ocean. The experiment by Seko et al. was repeated by Tamada et al. in 2006. They found that the cost varied from ¥15,000 to ¥88,000 depending on assumptions and "The lowest cost attainable now is ¥25,000 with 4g-U/kg-adsorbent used in the sea area of Okinawa, with 18 repetitionuses." With the May, 2008 exchange rate, this was about $240/kg-U. In 2012, ORNL researchers announced the successful development of a new adsorbent material dubbed "HiCap", which vastly outperforms previous best adsorbents, which perform surface retention of solid or gas molecules, atoms or ions. "We have shown that our adsorbents can extract five to seven times more uranium at uptake rates seven times faster than the world's best adsorbents," said Chris Janke, one of the inventors and a member of ORNL's Materials Science and Technology Division. HiCap also effectively removes toxic metals from water, according to results verified by researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. In 2012 it was estimated that this fuel source could be extracted at 10 times the current price of uranium. In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, it was suggested that it would be economically competitive to produce fuel for light water reactors from seawater if the process was implemented at large scale. Uranium extracted on an industrial scale from seawater would constantly be replenished by both river erosion of rocks and the natural process of uranium dissolved from the surface area of the ocean floor, both of which maintain the solubility equilibria of seawater concentration at a stable level. Some commentators have argued that this strengthens the case for nuclear power to be considered a renewable energy. Co-product/by-product Uranium can be recovered as a by-product along with other co-products such as molybdenum, vanadium, nickel, zinc and petroleum products. Uranium is also often found in phosphate minerals, where it has to be removed because phosphate is mostly used for fertilizers. Phosphogypsum is a waste product from phosphate mining that can contain significant amounts of uranium and radium. Coal fly ash also contains significant amounts of uranium and has been suggested as a source for uranium extraction. Resources Uranium occurs naturally in many rocks, and even in seawater. However, like other metals, it is seldom sufficiently concentrated to be economically recoverable. Like any resource, uranium cannot be mined at any desired concentration. No matter the technology, at some point it is too costly to mine lower grade ores. Mining companies usually consider concentrations greater than 0.075% (750 ppm) as ore, or rock economical to mine at current uranium market prices. There are around 40 trillion tons of uranium in Earth's crust, but most is distributed at trace concentration over its mass. Estimates of the amount concentrated into ores affordable to extract for under $130 per kg can be less than a millionth of that total. Uranium-235, the fissile isotope of uranium used in nuclear reactors, makes up about 0.7% of uranium from ore. It is the only naturally occurring isotope capable of directly generating nuclear power. While uranium-235 can be "bred" from , a natural decay product of present at 55 ppm in all natural uranium samples, uranium-235 is ultimately a finite non-renewable resource. Due to the currently low price of uranium, the majority of commercial light water reactors operate on a "once through fuel cycle" which leaves virtually all the energy contained in the original , which makes up over 99% of natural uranium, unused. Nuclear reprocessing can recover part of that energy by producing MOX fuel or Remix Fuel for use in conventional power generating light water reactors. This technology is currently used at industrial scale in France, Russia and Japan. However, at current uranium prices, this is widely deemed uneconomical if only the "input" side is considered. Breeder reactor technology could allow the current reserves of uranium to provide power for humanity for billions of years, thus making nuclear power a sustainable energy. Reserves Reserves are the most readily available resources. About 96% of the global uranium reserves are found in these ten countries: Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, South Africa, Brazil, Namibia, Uzbekistan, the United States, Niger, and Russia. The known uranium resources represent a higher level of assured resources than is normal for most minerals. Further exploration and higher prices will certainly, on the basis of present geological knowledge, yield further resources as present ones are used up. There was very little uranium exploration between 1985 and 2005, so the significant increase in exploration effort that we are now seeing could readily double the known economic resources. On the basis of analogies with other metal minerals, a doubling of price from price levels in 2007 could be expected to create about a tenfold increase in measured resources, over time. Known conventional resources Known conventional resources are resources that are known to exist and easy to mine. In 2006, there were about 4 million tons of conventional resources. In 2011, this increased to 7 million tonnes. Exploration for uranium has increased: from 1981 to 2007, annual exploration expenditures grew modestly, from US$4 million to US$7 million. This increased to US$11 million in 2011. The world's largest deposits of uranium are found in three countries. Australia has just over 30% of the world's reasonably assured resources and inferred resources of uranium – about . Kazakhstan has about 12% of the world's reserves, or about . Canada has of uranium, representing about 9%. Undiscovered conventional resources Undiscovered conventional resources are resources that are thought to exist but have not been mined. It will take a significant exploration and development effort to locate the remaining deposits and begin mining them. However, since the entire earth's geography has not been explored for uranium at this time, there is still the potential to discover exploitable resources. The OECD Redbook cites areas still open to exploration throughout the world. Many countries are conducting complete aeromagnetic gradiometer radiometric surveys to get an estimate the size of their undiscovered mineral resources. Combined with a gamma-ray survey, these methods can locate undiscovered uranium and thorium deposits. The U.S. Department of Energy conducted the first and only national uranium assessment in 1980 – the National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) program. Secondary resources Secondary uranium resources are recovered from other sources such as nuclear weapons, inventories, reprocessing and re-enrichment. Since secondary resources have exceedingly low discovery costs and very low production costs, they have displaced a significant portion of primary production. In 2017, about 7% of uranium demand was met from secondary resources. Due to reduction in nuclear weapons stockpiles, a large amount of former weapons uranium was released for use in civilian nuclear reactors. As a result, starting in 1990, a significant portion of uranium nuclear power requirements were supplied by former weapons uranium, rather than newly mined uranium. In 2002, mined uranium supplied only 54 percent of nuclear power requirements. But as the supply of former weapons uranium has been used up, mining has increased, so that in 2012, mining provided 95 percent of reactor requirements, and the OCED Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency projected that the gap in supply would be completely erased in 2013. Inventories Inventories are kept by a variety of organizations – government, commercial and others. The US DOE keeps inventories for security of supply in order to cover for emergencies where uranium is not available at any price. Decommissioning nuclear weapons Both the US and Russia have committed to recycle their nuclear weapons into fuel for electricity production. This program is known as the Megatons to Megawatts Program. Down blending of Russian weapons high enriched uranium (HEU) will result in about of low enriched uranium (LEU) over 20 years. This is equivalent to about of natural U, or just over twice annual world demand. Since 2000, of military HEU is displacing about of uranium oxide mine production per year which represents some 13% of world reactor requirements. The Megatons to Megawatts program came to an end in 2013. Plutonium recovered from nuclear weapons or other sources can be blended with uranium fuel to produce a mixed-oxide fuel. In June 2000, the US and Russia agreed to dispose of each of weapons-grade plutonium by 2014. The US undertook to pursue a self-funded dual track program (immobilization and MOX). The G-7 nations provided US$1 billion to set up Russia's program. The latter was initially MOX specifically designed for VVER reactors, the Russian version of the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), the high cost being because this was not part of Russia's fuel cycle policy. This MOX fuel for both countries is equivalent to about of natural uranium. The U.S. also has commitments to dispose of of non-waste HEU. Reprocessing and recycling Nuclear reprocessing (or recycling) can increase the supply of uranium by separating the uranium from spent nuclear fuel. Spent nuclear fuel is primarily composed of uranium, with a typical concentration of around 96% by mass. The composition of reprocessed uranium depends on the time the fuel has been in the reactor, but it is mostly uranium-238, with about 1% uranium-235, 1% uranium-236 and smaller amounts of other isotopes including uranium-232. Currently, there are eleven reprocessing plants in the world. Of these, two are large-scale commercially operated plants for the reprocessing of spent fuel elements from light water reactors with throughputs of more than of uranium per year. These are La Hague, France with a capacity of per year and Sellafield, England at uranium per year. The rest are small experimental plants. The two large-scale commercial reprocessing plants together can reprocess 2,800 tonnes of uranium waste annually. The United States had reprocessing plants in the past but banned reprocessing in the late 1970s due to the high costs and the risk of nuclear proliferation via plutonium. The main problems with uranium reprocessing are the cost of mined uranium compared to the cost of reprocessing, At present, reprocessing and the use of plutonium as reactor fuel is far more expensive than using uranium fuel and disposing of the spent fuel directly – even if the fuel is only reprocessed once. Reprocessing is most useful as part of a nuclear fuel cycle using fast-neutron reactors since reprocessed uranium and reactor-grade plutonium both have isotopic compositions not optimal for use in today's thermal-neutron reactors. Unconventional resources Unconventional resources are occurrences that require novel technologies for their exploitation and/or use. Often unconventional resources occur in low-concentration. The exploitation of unconventional uranium requires additional research and development efforts for which there is no imminent economic need, given the large conventional resource base and the option of reprocessing spent fuel. Phosphates, seawater, uraniferous coal ash, and some type of oil shales are examples of unconventional uranium resources. Phosphates Uranium occurs at concentrations of 50 to 200 parts per million (ppm) in phosphate-laden earth or phosphate rock. As uranium prices increase, there has been interest in extraction of uranium from phosphate rock, which is normally used as the basis of phosphate fertilizers. There are 22 million tons of uranium in phosphate deposits. Recovery of uranium from phosphates is a mature technology; it has been utilized in Belgium and the United States, but high recovery costs limit the utilization of these resources, with estimated production costs in the range of US$60–100/kgU including capital investment, according to a 2003 OECD report for a new 100 tU/year project. Historical operating costs for the uranium recovery from phosphoric acid range from $48–$119/kg U3O8. In 2011, the average price paid for U3O8 in the United States was $122.66/kg. Worldwide, approximately 400 wet-process phosphoric acid plants were in operation. Assuming an average recoverable content of 100 ppm of uranium, and that uranium prices do not increase so that the main use of the phosphates are for fertilizers, this scenario would result in a maximum theoretical annual output of U3O8. Seawater Unconventional uranium resources include up to of uranium contained in sea water. Several technologies to extract uranium from sea water have been demonstrated at the laboratory scale. According to the OECD, uranium may be extracted from seawater for about US$300/kgU. In 2012, ORNL researchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed HiCap, which vastly outperforms previous best adsorbents, which perform surface retention of solid or gas molecules, atoms or ions. "We have shown that our adsorbents can extract five to seven times more uranium at uptake rates seven times faster than the world's best adsorbents", said Chris Janke, one of the inventors and a member of ORNL's Materials Science and Technology Division. HiCap also effectively removes toxic metals from water, according to results verified by researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Uraniferous coal ash According to a study by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the theoretical maximum energy potential (when used in breeder reactors) of trace uranium and thorium in coal actually exceeds the energy released by burning the coal itself. This is despite very low concentration of uranium in coal of only several parts per million average before combustion. From 1965 to 1967 Union Carbide operated a mill in North Dakota, United States, burning uraniferous lignite and extracting uranium from the ash. The plant produced about 150 metric tons of U3O8 before shutting down. An international consortium has set out to explore the commercial extraction of uranium from uraniferous coal ash from coal power stations located in Yunnan province, China. The first laboratory scale amount of yellowcake uranium recovered from uraniferous coal ash was announced in 2007. The three coal power stations at Xiaolongtang, Dalongtang and Kaiyuan have piled up their waste ash. Initial tests from the Xiaolongtang ash pile indicate that the material contains (160–180 parts per million uranium), suggesting a total of U3O8 could be recovered from that ash pile alone. Oil shales Some oil shales contain uranium, which may be recovered as a byproduct. Between 1946 and 1952, a marine type of Dictyonema shale was used for uranium production in Sillamäe, Estonia, and between 1950 and 1989 alum shale was used in Sweden for the same purpose. Breeding A breeder reactor produces more nuclear fuel than it consumes and thus can extend the uranium supply. It typically turns the dominant isotope in natural uranium, uranium-238, into fissile plutonium-239. This results in hundredfold increase in the amount of energy to be produced per mass unit of uranium, because uranium-238, which comprises 99.3% of natural uranium, is not used in conventional reactors, which instead use uranium-235 (comprising 0.7% of natural uranium). In 1983, physicist Bernard Cohen proposed that the world supply of uranium is effectively inexhaustible, and could therefore be considered a form of renewable energy. He claims that fast breeder reactors, fueled by naturally-replenished uranium-238 extracted from seawater, could supply energy at least as long as the sun's expected remaining lifespan of five billion years. There are two types of breeders: Fast breeders and thermal breeders. Efforts at commercializing breeder reactors have been largely unsuccessful, due to higher costs and complexity compared to LWR, as well as political opposition. A few commercial breeder reactors exists. In 2016, the Russian BN-800 fast-neutron breeder reactor started producing commercially at full power (800 MWe), joining the previous BN-600. , the Chinese CFR-600 is under construction after the success of the China Experimental Fast Reactor, based on the BN-800. These reactors are currently generating mostly electricity rather than new fuel because the abundance and low price of mined and reprocessed uranium oxide makes breeding uneconomical, but they can switch to breed new fuel and close the cycle as needed. The CANDU reactor, which was designed to be fueled with natural uranium, is capable of using spent fuel from Light Water Reactors as fuel, since it contains more fissile material than natural uranium. Research into "DUPIC" – direct use of PWR spent fuel in CANDU type reactors – is ongoing and could increase the usability of fuel without the need for reprocessing. Fast breeder A fast breeder, in addition to consuming uranium-235, converts fertile uranium-238 into plutonium-239, a fissile fuel. Fast breeder reactors are more expensive to build and operate, including the reprocessing, and could only be justified economically if uranium prices were to rise to pre-1980 values in real terms. In addition to considerably extending the exploitable fuel supply, these reactors have an advantage in that they produce less long-lived transuranic wastes, and can consume nuclear waste from current light water reactors, generating energy in the process. Uranium turned out to be far more plentiful than anticipated, and the price of uranium declined rapidly (with an upward blip in the 1970s). This is why the United States halted their use in 1977, and the UK abandoned the idea in 1994. Significant technical and materials problems were encountered with FBRs, and geological exploration showed that scarcity of uranium was not going to be a concern for some time. By the 1980s, due to both factors, it was clear that FBRs would not be commercially competitive with existing light water reactors. The economics of FBRs still depend on the value of the plutonium fuel which is bred, relative to the cost of fresh uranium. At higher uranium prices breeder reactors may be economically justified. Many nations have ongoing breeder research programs. China, India, and Japan plan large scale utilization of breeder reactors during the coming decades. 300 reactor-years experience has been gained in operating them. Thermal breeder Fissile uranium can be produced from thorium in thermal breeder reactors. Thorium is three times more plentiful than uranium. Thorium-232 is in itself not fissile, but it can be made into fissile uranium-233 in a breeder reactor. In turn, the uranium-233 can be fissioned, with the advantage that smaller amounts of transuranics are produced by neutron capture, compared to uranium-235 and especially compared to plutonium-239. Despite the thorium fuel cycle having a number of attractive features, development on a large scale can run into difficulties, mainly due to the complexity of fuel separation and reprocessing. Advocates for liquid core and molten salt reactors such as LFTR claim that these technologies negate the above-mentioned thorium's disadvantages present in solid-fueled reactors. The first successful commercial reactor at the Indian Point Energy Center in Buchanan, New York (Indian Point Unit 1) ran on thorium. The first core did not live up to expectations. Production The world's top uranium producers in 2017 were Kazakhstan (39% of world production), Canada (22%) and Australia (10%). Other major producers include Namibia (6.7%), Niger (6%), and Russia (5%). Uranium production in 2017 was 59,462 tonnes, 93% of the demand. The balance came from inventories held by utilities and other fuel cycle companies, inventories held by governments, used reactor fuel that has been reprocessed, recycled materials from military nuclear programs and uranium in depleted uranium stockpiles. Demand Uranium demand was in 2017. As some countries are not able to supply their own needs of uranium economically, countries have resorted to importing uranium ore from elsewhere. For example, owners of U.S. nuclear power reactors bought of natural uranium in 2006. Out of that 84%, or , were imported from foreign suppliers, according to the Energy Department. Because of the improvements in gas centrifuge technology in the 2000s, replacing former gaseous diffusion plants, cheaper separative work units have enabled the economic production of more enriched uranium from a given amount of natural uranium, by re-enriching tails ultimately leaving a depleted uranium tail of lower enrichment. This has somewhat lowered the demand for natural uranium. Demand forecasts According to Cameco Corporation, the demand for uranium is directly linked to the amount of electricity generated by nuclear power plants. Reactor capacity is growing slowly, reactors are being run more productively, with higher capacity factors, and reactor power levels. Improved reactor performance translates into greater uranium consumption. Nuclear power stations of 1000 megawatt electrical generation capacity require around of natural uranium per year. For example, the United States has 103 operating reactors with an average generation capacity of 950 MWe demanded over of natural uranium in 2005. As the number of nuclear power plants increase, so does the demand for uranium. As nuclear power plants take a long time to build and refuelling is undertaken at sporadic, predictable intervals, uranium demand is rather predictable in the short term. It is also less dependent on short-term economic boom-bust cycles as nuclear power has one of strongest fixed costs to variable costs ratios (i.e. The marginal costs of running, rather than leaving idle an already constructed power plant are very low, compared to the capital costs of construction) and it is thus nearly never advisable to leave a nuclear power plant idle for economic reasons. However, nuclear policy can lead to short term fluctuations in demand, as evidenced by the German nuclear phaseout, which was decided upon by the government of Gerhard Schröder (1998–2005) reversed during the second Merkel cabinet (2009–2013) only for a reversal of that reversal to occur as a consequence of the Fukushima nuclear accident, which also led to the temporary shutdown of several German nuclear power plants. Prices Generally speaking, in the case of nuclear energy the cost of fuel has the lowest share in total energy costs of all fuel consuming energy forms (i.e. Fossil fuels, biomass and nuclear). Furthermore, given the immense energy density of nuclear fuel (particularly in the form of enriched uranium or high grade plutonium), it is easy to stockpile amounts of fuel material to last several years at constant consumption. Power plants that do not have online refuelling capabilities, as is the case for the vast majority of commercial power plants in operation, will refuel as seldom as possible to avoid costly downtime and usually plan refuelling shutdowns long in advance so as to allow maintenance and inspection to use the scheduled downtime as well. As such power plant operators tend to have long-term contracts with fuel suppliers that are – if at all – only minorly affected by the fluctuations of uranium prices. The effect on electricity price for end consumers is negligible even in countries like France, which derive a majority of their electric energy from nuclear power. Nonetheless, short term price developments like the 2007 uranium bubble, can have drastic effects on mining companies, prospection and the economic calculations as to whether a certain deposit is worthwhile for commercial purposes. Since 1981 uranium prices and quantities in the US are reported by the Department of Energy. The import price dropped from 32.90 US$/lb-U3O8 in 1981 down to 12.55 in 1990 and to below 10 US$/lb-U3O8 in the year 2000. Prices paid for uranium during the 1970s were higher, 43 US$/lb-U3O8 is reported as the selling price for Australian uranium in 1978 by the Nuclear Information Centre. Uranium prices reached an all-time low in 2001, costing US$7/lb, but in April 2007 the price of Uranium on the spot market rose to US$113.00/lb, a high point of the uranium bubble of 2007. This was very close to the all time high (adjusted for inflation) in 1977. Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, the global uranium sector remained depressed with the uranium price falling more than 50%, declining share values, and reduced profitability of uranium producers since March 2011 and into 2014. As a result, uranium companies worldwide are reducing costs, and limiting operations. As an example, Westwater Resources (previously Uranium Resources), has had to cease all uranium operations due to unfavorable prices. Since then, Westwater has tried branching out into other markets, namely lithium and graphite. As of July 2014, the price of uranium concentrate remained near a five-year low, the uranium price having fallen more than 50% from the peak spot price in January 2011, reflecting the loss of Japanese demand following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster. As a result of continued low prices, in February 2014 mining company Cameco deferred plans to expand production from existing Canadian mines, although it continued work to open a new mine at Cigar Lake. Also in February 2014, Paladin energy suspended operations at its mine in Malawi, saying that the high-cost operation was losing money at current prices. Effect of price on mining and nuclear power plants In general short term fluctuations in the price of uranium are of more concern to operators and owners of mines and potentially lucrative deposits than to power plant operators. Due to its high energy density, uranium is easy to stockpile in the form of strategic reserves and thus a short term increase in prices can be compensated by accessing those reserves. Furthermore, many countries have de facto reserves in the form of reprocessed uranium or depleted uranium which still contain a share of fissile material that can make re-enrichment worthwhile if market conditions call for it. Nuclear reprocessing of spent fuel is – as of the 2020s – done commercially primarily to use the fissile material still contained in spent fuel. The commonly employed PUREX process recovers uranium and plutonium which can then be converted into MOX-fuel for use in the same light water reactors that produced the spent fuel. Whether reprocessing is economical is subject to much debate and depends in part on assumptions as to the price of uranium and the cost of disposal via deep geological repository or nuclear transmutation. Reactors that can run on natural uranium consume less mined uranium per unit of power produced but can have higher capital costs to build due to the need for heavy water as moderator. Furthermore they need to be capable of online refueling because the burnup achievable with natural uranium is lower than that achievable with enriched uranium – having to shut down the entire reactor for every refueling would quickly make such a reactor uneconomic. Breeder reactors also become more economical as uranium prices rise and it was among other things a decline in uranium prices in the 1970s that led to a decline in interest in breeder reactor technology. The thorium fuel cycle is a further alternative if and when uranium prices remain at a sustained high level and consequently interest in this alternative to current "mainstream" light water reactor technology is dependent in no small part on uranium prices. Politics In March 1951, the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) set a high price for uranium ore. The resultant uranium rush attracted many prospectors to the Southwest. Charles Steen made a significant discover near Moab, Utah, while Paddy Martinez made another near Grants, New Mexico. However, by the 1960s, the United States, USSR, France and China were reducing their acquisitions of uranium. The United States started enriching only uranium mined within its country, but by 1965, production had dropped by 40 percent. By 1971, in an attempt to stop further reductions in prices, mining executives from UCAN, Nufcor, Rio Tinto, and government representatives agreed to share the market with Canadians getting 33.5 percent, South Africa 23.75 percent, France 21.75 percent, Australia 17 percent, and Rio Tinto Zinc 4 percent. By 1974, this market share agreement ended as uranium prices rose in concert with energy prices due to OPEC boycotts, and the United States ending its trade ban of foreign uranium. In Europe a mixed situation exists. Considerable nuclear power capacities have been developed, notably in Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. In many countries development of nuclear power has been stopped and phased out by legal actions. In Italy the use of nuclear power was barred by a referendum in 1987; this is now under revision. Ireland in 2008 also had no plans to change its non-nuclear stance. The years 1976 and 1977 saw uranium mining become a major political issue in Australia, with the Ranger Inquiry (Fox) report opening up a public debate about uranium mining. The Movement Against Uranium Mining group was formed in 1976, and many protests and demonstrations against uranium mining were held. Concerns relate to the health risks and environmental damage from uranium mining. Notable Australian anti-uranium activists have included Kevin Buzzacott, Jacqui Katona, Yvonne Margarula, and Jillian Marsh. The World Uranium Hearing was held in Salzburg, Austria in September 1992. Anti-nuclear speakers from all continents, including indigenous speakers and scientists, testified to the health and environmental problems of uranium mining and processing, nuclear power, nuclear weapons, nuclear tests, and radioactive waste disposal. People who spoke at the 1992 Hearing include: Thomas Banyacya, Katsumi Furitsu, Manuel Pino and Floyd Red Crow Westerman. They highlighted the threat of radioactive contamination to all peoples, especially indigenous communities and said that their survival requires self-determination and emphasis on spiritual and cultural values. Increased renewable energy commercialization was advocated. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia with the help of China has built an extraction facility to obtain uranium yellowcake from uranium ore. According to Western officials with information regarding the extraction site, the process is conducted by the oil-rich kingdom to champion nuclear technology. However, Saudi Energy Minister denied having built a uranium ore facility and claimed that the extraction of minerals is a fundamental part of the kingdom's strategy to diversify its economy. Despite sanctions on Russia some countries still buy its uranium in 2022, and some argue the EU should stop. S&P Global say non-Russian miners await more certainty before deciding whether to invest in new mines. Health risks Uranium ore emits radon gas. The health effects of high exposure to radon are a particular problem in the mining of uranium; significant excess lung cancer deaths have been identified in epidemiological studies of uranium miners employed in the 1940s and 1950s. The first major studies with radon and health occurred in the context of uranium mining, first in the Joachimsthal region of Bohemia and then in the Southwestern United States during the early Cold War. Because radon is a product of the radioactive decay of uranium, underground uranium mines may have high concentrations of radon. Many uranium miners in the Four Corners region contracted lung cancer and other pathologies as a result of high levels of exposure to radon in the mid-1950s. The increased incidence of lung cancer was particularly pronounced among Navajo and Mormon (who generally have low rates of lung cancer) miners. This is in part due to the religious prohibition on smoking in Mormonism. Safety standards requiring expensive ventilation were not widely implemented or policed during this period. While radon exposure is the main source of lung cancer in non-smokers who aren't exposed to asbestos, there is evidence that the combination of smoking and radon exposure increases the risk above the combined risks of either harmful substance. In studies of uranium miners, workers exposed to radon levels of 50 to 150 picocuries of radon per liter of air (2000–6000 Bq/m3) for about 10 years have shown an increased frequency of lung cancer. Statistically significant excesses in lung cancer deaths were present after cumulative exposures of less than 50 WLM. There is unexplained heterogeneity in these results (whose confidence interval do not always overlap). The size of the radon-related increase in lung cancer risk varied by more than an order of magnitude between the different studies. Since that time, ventilation and other measures have been used to reduce radon levels in most affected mines that continue to operate. In recent years, the average annual exposure of uranium miners has fallen to levels similar to the concentrations inhaled in some homes. This has reduced the risk of occupationally induced cancer from radon, although it still remains an issue both for those who are currently employed in affected mines and for those who have been employed in the past. The power to detect any excess risks in miners nowadays is likely to be small, exposures being much smaller than in the early years of mining. Coal mining in addition to other health risks can also expose miners to radon as Uranium (and its decay product radon) are often found in and near coal deposits and can accumulate underground as radon is denser than air. In the USA, the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act provides compensation to sufferers of various health problems linked to radiation exposure, or to their surviving relatives. Uranium miners, uranium mill workers and uranium transport workers have been compensated under the scheme. United States clean-up efforts Despite efforts made in cleaning up uranium sites, significant problems stemming from the legacy of uranium development still exist today on the territory of the Navajo Nation and in the states of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. Hundreds of abandoned mines have not been cleaned up and present environmental and health risks in many communities. At the request of the U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform in October 2007, and in consultation with the Navajo Nation, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), along with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), the Department of Energy (DOE), and the Indian Health Service (IHS), developed a coordinated Five-Year Plan to address uranium contamination. Similar interagency coordination efforts are beginning in the State of New Mexico as well. In 1978, Congress passed the Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act (UMTRCA), a measure designed to assist in the cleanup of 22 inactive ore-processing sites throughout the southwest. This also included constructing 19 disposal sites for the tailings, which contain a total of 40 million cubic yards of low-level radioactive material. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that there are 4000 mines with documented uranium production, and another 15,000 locations with uranium occurrences in 14 western states, most found in the Four Corners area and Wyoming. The Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act is a United States environmental law that amended the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 and gave the Environmental Protection Agency the authority to establish health and environmental standards for the stabilization, restoration, and disposal of uranium mill tailings. Title 1 of the Act required the EPA to set environmental protection standards consistent with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, including groundwater protection limits; the Department of Energy to implement EPA standards and provide perpetual care for some sites; and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to review cleanups and license sites to states or the DOE for perpetual care. Title 1 established a uranium mill remedial action program jointly funded by the federal government and the state. Title 1 of the Act also designated 22 inactive uranium mill sites for remediation, resulting in the containment of 40 million cubic yards of low-level radioactive material in UMTRCA Title 1 holding cells. Peak uranium Peak uranium is the point in time that the maximum global uranium production rate is reached. Predictions of peak uranium differ greatly. Pessimistic predictions of future high-grade uranium production operate on the thesis that either the peak has already occurred in the 1980s or that a second peak may occur sometime around 2035. Optimistic predictions claim that the supply is far more than demand and do not predict peak uranium. , identified uranium reserves recoverable at US$130/kg were 6.14 million tons (compared to 5.72 million tons in 2015). At the rate of consumption in 2017, these reserves are sufficient for slightly over 130 years of supply. The identified reserves as of 2017 recoverable at US$260/kg are 7.99 million tons (compared to 7.64 million tons in 2015). The expected amount of usable uranium for nuclear power that is recoverable depends greatly on how it is used. The main factor is the nuclear technology: light-water reactors, which comprise the great majority of reactors today, only consume about 0.5% of their uranium fuel, leaving over 99% of it as spent fuel waste. Fast breeder reactors instead consume closer to 99% of uranium fuel. Another factor is the ability to extract uranium from seawater. About 4.5 billion tons of uranium are available from seawater at about 10 times the current price of uranium with current extraction technology, which is about a thousand times the known uranium reserves. The Earth's crust contains approximately 65 trillion tons of uranium, of which about 32 thousand tons flow into oceans per year via rivers, which are themselves fed via geological cycles of erosion, subduction and uplift. The ability to extract uranium from seawater economically would therefore make uranium a renewable resource in practice. Uranium can also be bred from thorium (which is itself 3–4 times as abundant as uranium) in certain breeder reactors, although there are currently no commercially practical thorium reactors in the world and their development would require substantial financial investment which is not justified given the current low prices of natural uranium. Thirteen countries have hit peak and exhausted their economically recoverable uranium resources at current prices according to the Energy Watch Group. In a similar manner to every other natural metal resource, for every tenfold increase in the cost per kilogram of uranium, there is a three-hundredfold increase in available lower quality ores that would then become economical. The theory could be observed in practice during the Uranium bubble of 2007 when an unprecedented price hike led to investments in the development of uranium mining of lower quality deposits which mostly became stranded assets after uranium prices returned to a lower level. Uranium supply There is around 40 trillion tons of uranium in Earth's crust, but most is distributed at low parts per million trace concentration over its mass. Estimates of the amount concentrated into ores affordable to extract for under $130 per kg can be less than a millionth of that total. One highly criticized life cycle study by Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen suggested that below 0.01–0.02% (100–200 ppm) in ore, the energy required to extract and process the ore to supply the fuel, operate reactors and dispose properly comes close to the energy gained by using the uranium as a fissible material in the reactor. Researchers at the Paul Scherrer Institute who analyzed the Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen paper however have detailed the number of incorrect assumptions of Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen that led them to this evaluation, including their assumption that all the energy used in the mining of Olympic Dam is energy used in the mining of uranium, when that mine is predominantly a copper mine and uranium is produced only as a co-product, along with gold and other metals. The report by Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen also assumes that all enrichment is done in the older and more energy intensive gaseous diffusion technology, however the less energy intensive gas centrifuge technology has produced the majority of the world's enriched uranium now for a number of decades. In the early days of the nuclear industry, uranium was thought to be very scarce, so a closed fuel cycle would be needed. Fast breeder reactors would be needed to create nuclear fuel for other power producing reactors. In the 1960s, new discoveries of reserves, and new uranium enrichment techniques allayed these concerns. An appraisal of nuclear power by a team at MIT in 2003, and updated in 2009, have stated that: Production According to Robert Vance of the OECD's Nuclear Energy Agency, the world production rate of uranium has already reached its peak in 1980, amounting to of U3O8 from 22 countries. However, this is not due to lack of production capacity. Historically, uranium mines and mills around the world have operated at about 76% of total production capacity, varying within a range of 57% and 89%. The low production rates have been largely attributable to excess capacity. Slower growth of nuclear power and competition from secondary supply significantly reduced demand for freshly mined uranium until very recently. Secondary supplies include military and commercial inventories, enriched uranium tails, reprocessed uranium and mixed oxide fuel. According to data from the International Atomic Energy Agency, world production of mined uranium has peaked twice in the past: once, circa 1960 in response to stockpiling for military use, and again in 1980, in response to stockpiling for use in commercial nuclear power. Up until about 1990, the mined uranium production was in excess of consumption by power plants. But since 1990, consumption by power plants has outstripped the uranium being mined; the deficit being made up by liquidation of the military (through decommissioning of nuclear weapons) and civilian stockpiles. Uranium mining has increased since the mid-1990s, but is still less than the consumption by power plants. Primary sources Various agencies have tried to estimate how long uranium primary resources will last, assuming a once-through cycle. The European Commission said in 2001 that at the current level of uranium consumption, known uranium resources would last 42 years. When added to military and secondary sources, the resources could be stretched to 72 years. Yet this rate of usage assumes that nuclear power continues to provide only a fraction of the world's energy supply. If electric capacity were increased six-fold, then the 72-year supply would last just 12 years. The world's present measured resources of uranium, economically recoverable at a price of US$130/kg according to the industry groups Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), are enough to last for "at least a century" at current consumption rates. According to the World Nuclear Association, yet another industry group, assuming the world's current rate of consumption at 66,500 tonnes of uranium per year and the world's present measured resources of uranium (4.7–5.5 Mt) are enough to last for some 70–80 years. Predictions There have been numerous predictions of peak uranium in the past. In 1943, Alvin M. Weinberg et al. believed that there were serious limitations on nuclear energy if only U-235 were used as a nuclear power plant fuel. They concluded that breeding was required to usher in the age of nearly endless energy. In 1956, M. King Hubbert declared world fissionable reserves adequate for at least the next few centuries, assuming breeding and reprocessing would be developed into economical processes. In 1975 the US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, distributed the press release "Known US Uranium Reserves Won't Meet Demand". It was recommended that the US not depend on foreign imports of uranium. Pessimistic predictions Many analysts predicted a uranium peak and exhaustion of uranium reserves in the past or the near future. Edward Steidle, Dean of the School of Mineral Industries at Pennsylvania State College, predicted in 1952 that supplies of fissionable elements were too small to support commercial-scale energy production. Michael Meacher, the former environment minister of the UK 1997–2003, and UK Member of Parliament, reports that peak uranium happened in 1981. He also predicts a major shortage of uranium sooner than 2013 accompanied with hoarding and its value pushed up to the levels of precious metals. M. C. Day projected that uranium reserves could run out as soon as 1989, but, more optimistically, would be exhausted by 2015. Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen, an independent analyst with Ceedata Consulting, contends that supplies of the high-grade uranium ore required to fuel nuclear power generation will, at current levels of consumption, last to about 2034. Afterwards, he expects the cost of energy to extract the uranium will exceed the price the electric power provided. The Energy Watch Group has calculated that, even with steep uranium prices, uranium production will have reached its peak by 2035 and that it will only be possible to satisfy the fuel demand of nuclear plants until then. Various agencies have tried to estimate how long these resources will last. The European Commission said in 2001 that at the current level of uranium consumption, known uranium resources would last 42 years. When added to military and secondary sources, the resources could be stretched to 72 years. Yet this rate of usage assumes that nuclear power continues to provide only a fraction of the world's energy supply. If electric capacity were increased six-fold, then the 72-year supply would last just 12 years. According to the industry groups OECD, NEA and IAEA, the world's present measured resources of uranium, economically recoverable at a price of US$130/kg, are enough to last for 100 years at current consumption. According to the Australian Uranium Association, another industry group, assuming the world's current rate of consumption at 66,500 tonnes of uranium per year and the world's present measured resources of uranium (4.7 Mt) are enough to last for 70 years. Optimistic predictions All the following references claim that the supply is far more than demand. Therefore, they do not predict peak uranium. In his 1956 paper, M. King Hubbert wrote that nuclear energy would last for the 'foreseeable future.'" Hubbert's study assumed that breeder reactors would replace light water reactors and that uranium would be bred into plutonium (and possibly thorium would be bred into uranium). He also assumed that economic means of reprocessing would be discovered. For political, economic and nuclear proliferation reasons, the plutonium economy never materialized. Without it, uranium is used up in a once-through process and will peak and run out much sooner. However, at present, it is generally found to be cheaper to mine new uranium out of the ground than to use reprocessed uranium, and therefore the use of reprocessed uranium is limited to only a few nations. The OECD estimates that with the world nuclear electricity generating rates of 2002, with LWR, once-through fuel cycle, there are enough conventional resources to last 85 years using known resources and 270 years using known and as yet undiscovered resources. With breeders, this is extended to 8,500 years. If one is willing to pay $300/kg for uranium, there is a vast quantity available in the ocean. It is worth noting that since fuel cost only amounts to a small fraction of nuclear energy total cost per kWh, and raw uranium price also constitutes a small fraction of total fuel costs, such an increase on uranium prices wouldn't involve a very significant increase in the total cost per kWh produced. In 1983, physicist Bernard Cohen proposed that uranium is effectively inexhaustible, and could therefore be considered a renewable source of energy. He claims that fast breeder reactors, fueled by naturally replenished uranium extracted from seawater, could supply energy at least as long as the sun's expected remaining lifespan of five billion years. While uranium is a finite mineral resource within the earth, the hydrogen in the sun is finite too – thus, if the resource of nuclear fuel can last over such time scales, as Cohen contends, then nuclear energy is every bit as sustainable as solar power or any other source of energy, in terms of sustainability over the time scale of life surviving on this planet. His paper assumes extraction of uranium from seawater at the rate of per year of uranium. The current demand for uranium is near per year; however, the use of breeder reactors means that uranium would be used at least 60 times more efficiently than today. James Hopf, a nuclear engineer writing for American Energy Independence in 2004, believes that there is several hundred years' supply of recoverable uranium even for standard reactors. For breeder reactors, "it is essentially infinite". The IAEA estimates that using only known reserves at the current rate of demand and assuming a once-through nuclear cycle that there is enough uranium for at least 100 years. However, if all primary known reserves, secondary reserves, undiscovered and unconventional sources of uranium are used, uranium will be depleted in 47,000 years. Kenneth S. Deffeyes estimates that if one can accept ore one tenth as rich then the supply of available uranium increased 300 times. His paper shows that uranium concentration in ores is log-normal distributed. There is relatively little high-grade uranium and a large supply of very low grade uranium. Ernest Moniz, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the former United States Secretary of Energy, testified in 2009 that an abundance of uranium had put into question plans to reprocess spent nuclear fuel. The reprocessing plans dated from decades previous, when uranium was thought to be scarce. But now, "roughly speaking, we've got uranium coming out of our ears, for a long, long time," Professor Moniz said. Possible effects and consequences As uranium production declines, uranium prices would be expected to increase. However, the price of uranium makes up only 9% of the cost of running a nuclear power plant, much lower than the cost of coal in a coal-fired power plant (77%), or the cost of natural gas in a gas-fired power plant (93%). Uranium is different from conventional energy resources, such as oil and coal, in several key aspects. Those differences limit the effects of short-term uranium shortages, but most have no bearing on the eventual depletion. Some key features are: The uranium market is diverse, and no country has a monopoly influence on its prices. Thanks to the extremely high energy density of uranium, stockpiling of several years' worth of fuel is feasible. Significant secondary supplies of already mined uranium exist, including decommissioned nuclear weapons, depleted uranium tails suitable for reenrichment, and existing stockpiles. Vast amounts of uranium, roughly 800 times the known reserves of mined uranium, are contained in extremely dilute concentrations in seawater. Introduction of fast neutron reactors would increase the uranium utilization efficiency by about 100 times. Substitutes An alternative to uranium is thorium which is three times more common than uranium. Fast breeder reactors are not needed. Compared to conventional uranium reactors, thorium reactors using the thorium fuel cycle may produce about 40 times the amount of energy per unit of mass. However, creating the technology, infrastructure and know-how needed for a thorium-fuel economy is uneconomical at current and predicted uranium prices. See also Botanical prospecting for uranium Energy development Energy security Isotopes of uranium List of uranium projects Nuclear fuel cycle Uranium metallurgy Uranium tile Uranium in the environment Uranium mining debate World energy supply and consumption References Further reading Books Herring, J.: Uranium and Thorium Resource Assessment, Encyclopedia of Energy, Boston University, Boston, 2004, . Articles External links Health Impacts for Uranium Mine and Mill Residents – Science Issues. Uranium mining left a legacy of death. World Uranium Mining (giving production statistics) , World Nuclear Association, July 2006 In Situ Leaching Method at Uranium SA Website (South Australian Chamber of Mines and Energy) Evaluation of Cost of Seawater Uranium Recovery and Technical Problems toward Implementation Watch Uranium, a 1990 documentary on the risks of uranium mining World Supply of Uranium — World Nuclear Association, March 2007 The Guardian (22 Jan. 2008): Awards shine spotlight on big business green record Extracting a disaster The Guardian, 2008 Uranium glows ever hotter (Investors Chronicle, UK) Nuclear energy Nuclear power
4913855	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronautical%20Division%2C%20U.S.%20Signal%20Corps	Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps	The Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps (1907–1914) was the first heavier-than-air military aviation organization in history and the progenitor of the United States Air Force. A component of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, the Aeronautical Division procured the first powered military aircraft in 1909, created schools to train its aviators, and initiated a rating system for pilot qualifications. It organized and deployed the first permanent American aviation unit, the 1st Aero Squadron, in 1913. The Aeronautical Division trained 51 officers and 2 enlisted men as pilots, and incurred 13 fatalities in air crashes. During this period, the Aeronautical Division had 29 factory-built aircraft in its inventory, built a 30th from spare parts, and leased a civilian airplane for a short period in 1911. Following statutory authorization of an Aviation Section in the Signal Corps by the United States Congress in 1914, the Aeronautical Division continued as the primary organizational component of the section until April 1918, when its inefficiency in mobilizing for World War I caused the War Department to replace it with an organization independent of the Signal Corps that eventually became the foundation of the Army's Air Service. Birth of an air arm The United States Army Signal Corps became associated with aeronautics during the American Civil War, when Thaddeus S. C. Lowe was named chief of the Union Army Balloon Corps. In 1892, Major General Adolphus Greely, Chief Signal officer of the Army, formulated plans for a War Balloon detachment for the Signal Corps and authorized the purchase of a balloon from France, dubbed the General Myer, based at Fort Riley in 1893 and Fort Logan in 1894. When the General Myer deteriorated, a second balloon, the Santiago, was manufactured by members of the Signal Corps in 1897 using the General Myer as a model, and served in combat in Cuba in 1898. In 1898–99, the War Department accepted the report of an aeronautically minded investigating committee that included Alexander Graham Bell and invested $50,000 for the rights to a heavier-than-air flying machine being developed by Samuel Pierpont Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Although Langley's "Aerodrome" failed embarrassingly, the Army later resumed its interest in aviation as a result of the success of the Wright Brothers and entered into protracted negotiations for an airplane. All balloon school activities of the U.S. Army Signal Corps were transferred to Fort Omaha, Nebraska, in 1905. In 1906, the commandant of the Signal School in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Major George O. Squier, studied aeronautical theory and lectured on the Wright flying machine. One of his instructors—Captain Billy Mitchell—was also a student of aviation and taught the use of reconnaissance balloons. Squier became executive officer to the Chief Signal Officer, Brigadier General James Allen, in July 1907, and immediately convinced Allen to create an aviation entity within the Signal Corps. The Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps, consisting at its inception of one officer and two enlisted men, began operation on August 1, 1907. Captain Charles deForest Chandler was named to head the new division, with Corporal Edward Ward and Private First Class Joseph E. Barrett as his assistants. 1st Lt. Frank P. Lahm, a cavalry officer, was also detailed to the division and joined it September 17, 1907. Both Chandler and Lahm were balloonists. Lahm had earned renown the year before when he won the inaugural Gordon Bennett Cup, an international balloon event, while Chandler was already a member of the Aero Club of America. He remained head of the division until 1908, then again from 1911 to 1913. During the interim, he was relieved by Lahm and from May 1910 to June 1911 (while Chandler attended the Signal School Course at Fort Leavenworth) by Capt. Arthur S. Cowan, a former infantry officer and non-aviator assigned to the Signal School. On December 23, 1907, the Signal Corps issued Specification No. 486 for a heavier-than-air flying machine and requested bids. A copy of the specification was sent to the Wrights on January 3, 1908. The following April 30 Lahm and 1st Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge reported to New York City along with civilian balloonist Leo Stevens to familiarize 25 members of the First Company, Signal Corps, a unit of the 71st New York Infantry, in the use of hydrogen-filled kite balloons. The company was organized to provide the New York National Guard with an "aeronautical corps" for balloon observation, commanded by Major Oscar Erlandean. Acquisition of aircraft In 1908, the Aeronautical Division, at the intercession of President Theodore Roosevelt in the acquisition process, purchased a nonrigid dirigible from Thomas Scott Baldwin for , and an airplane from the Wright Brothers for . Specification No. 486 required both types of aircraft be able to carry two persons. The dirigible had to be able to carry a load of and reach a speed of ; the airplane's requirements were a load of , a speed of , and a flying distance of at least . The dirigible was delivered first, in July 1908, after Baldwin submitted an extremely low bid to ensure receiving the contract. Baldwin and Glenn Curtiss flew the test trials over Fort Myer and met all specifications except speed, which was just under the requirement. It was designated Signal Corps Dirigible No. 1. During August, Baldwin trained three officer candidates to fly the dirigible: Lahm, Selfridge, and 1st Lt. Benjamin Foulois, Infantry. Foulois was trained as the first dirigible pilot and prepared to move the ship from Fort Omaha to St. Joseph, Missouri, for a state fair exhibition. However, the first solo ascent in the dirigible, and the first flight solely by army pilots, did not occur until May 26, 1909. The Wright Brothers, who had been asking for their airplane, then agreed to sell a Wright Model A satisfying the requirements for $25,000 (they also received a bonus for exceeding the speed requirement). The airplane was delivered to Fort Myer, Virginia, on September 1, 1908, for trials. The first acceptance flight of the airplane was made on September 3 at Fort Myer, with Orville at the controls. Selfridge and Lahm were named official observers of the trials of the Wright aeroplane for September 1908. Both Lahm and Squier made acceptance flights as observers, and on September 13, Wright kept the airplane aloft for an hour and ten minutes. On the afternoon of September 17, 1908, two officers of the United States Navy, Lieut. George C. Sweet and Naval Constructor (Lieut.) William McEntee, and another from the Marine Corps, 2nd Lt. Richard B. Creecy, were present at Fort Myer as official observers, accompanied by Secretary of the Navy Victor H. Metcalf. Under orders to travel to St. Joseph for the dirigible exhibition, Selfridge asked to take Sweet's place on a scheduled test flight, conducted in front of 2,500 onlookers. During the flight, flying at , a propeller split and shattered on the fourth lap, severing a guy wire to the rudder, and caused the airplane to crash. Wright was hospitalized, and Selfridge—the Army's only officer experienced in heavier-than-air flight—was killed in the first fatal crash of an airplane. Orville Wright, along with Wilbur this time, returned to Fort Myer in June 1909 with a new though smaller and faster airplane, powered by the engine from the wrecked 1908 Flyer. The brothers spent the better part of July fine tuning the airplane and warming up for the final tests while bad flying weather hampered much of the month. For 1909's acceptance trials both Lahm and Foulois were named as official observers. Lahm flew with Wright on July 27, and on July 30, with President William H. Taft as a spectator, Foulois and Wright in the final acceptance trial made a cross country flight of around Shuter's (or Shooters) Hill between Fort Myer and Alexandria, Virginia. This flight broke all of the existing records for speed, duration with a passenger, and altitude with a passenger. Pleased with the performance of this airplane the Army purchased it awarding the Wrights plus an added bonus of ($1,000 for each mile achieved over ). The plane's best speed had been , bringing the total sale price to . Airplane operations First solo flights The Army accepted the Wright A Military Flyer on August 2, 1909, designating it "Signal Corps (S.C.) No. 1". On August 25, the Army leased of land along the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad at College Park, Maryland, for use as a training field. The newly purchased airplane was delivered to College Park on October 7, assembled by Wilbur Wright, and flown for the first time the next day. Wright began instruction of Lahm and 2nd Lt Frederic E. Humphreys, detailed from the Corps of Engineers, flying constantly in front of often large crowds of curiosity seekers, newspaper reporters, and dignitaries. Both soloed on October 26, Humphreys going ahead of Lahm (the detachment commander) because it was his turn to fly. Although both flights were of less than 15 minutes in duration and of altitude, late in the day Lahm remained aloft for 40 minutes, telling Wright he landed only because it was suppertime. The Army's contract with the Wright Brothers ended with the completion of training of the two student pilots, and Wilbur Wright made his last public flight on November 2. Later that day, Lahm took Lieut. Sweet up as a passenger and he became the first naval officer to fly. On November 5, both pilots were aboard the airplane, with Lahm at the controls, when it crashed in a low altitude turn. Although neither pilot was injured, and the Wrights bore the expense of repairs, the crash ended flights until 1910. Both Lahm and Humphreys returned to duty with their respective branches. Foulois and Beck The dirigible service proved short-lived, as the corrosive effects of weather and the hydrogen gas used to lift the ship caused the gasbag to leak with increasing severity. The dirigible was condemned and sold at auction. Foulois had been a vocal critic of the dirigible, recommending that it be abandoned, and although one of the two candidates selected to be trained as an airplane pilot, he was sent to Nancy, France instead as a delegate to the International Congress of Aeronautics. Foulois arrived back from France on October 23 and was given some preliminary flight time with Wilbur Wright, even though Wright was not contractually obligated to do so, with the intent that Humphreys would complete Foulois' training. In November 1909, Foulois became the only officer detailed to the Aeronautical Division. He accrued three hours and two minutes total flying time at College Park but did not solo. Because of inclement winter weather at College Park, Foulois was assigned to move the flying program to Fort Sam Houston, an Army post near San Antonio, Texas. Foulois and eight enlisted men disassembled the still-damaged S.C. No. 1, shipped it to Texas in 17 crates, and reassembled it on February 23, 1910, after building a shed to house it on the Arthur MacArthur Field used for cavalry drill. On 2 March 1910, after training himself, Foulois logged his first solo from 9:30am to 9:37am and four flights in total, crashing the S.C. No. 1 on its final landing. He achieved a maximum altitude of and a speed of in logging 59 minutes and 30 seconds of flight time. He flew the repaired craft five times on March 12, and received written instruction by mail from the Wright Brothers. Until 1911, Foulois remained as the Army's sole aviator and innovator. He stated in annotating the aircraft's flight log that he installed a leather cinch strap from the Cavalry saddlery as a safety belt on the S.C. No. 1 on March 12, 1910, then on August 8 he and Oliver Simmons bolted wheels from a cultivator onto the landing skids to provide the first landing gear. S.C. No. 1 made its last flight, and the 66th on it by Foulois, on February 8, 1911. In early 1911, the United States gathered much of the Regular Army in south Texas as a show of force to Mexican revolutionaries, forming the "Maneuver Division". In March 1911 near Fort McIntosh at Laredo, Texas, Foulois and Wright instructor Philip Orin Parmelee demonstrated the use of airplanes in support of ground maneuvers for the first time. The S.C. No. 1 was not sufficiently airworthy for the reconnaissance and messaging missions it performed, and for a nominal fee of one dollar, Foulois rented the Wright B Flyer privately owned by Robert J. Collier, owner of Collier's Weekly, on February 21. Foulois and Parmalee landed the rented airplane in the Rio Grande during their second flight, on March 5. Squier, now Chief Signal Officer of the Maneuver Division, formed a provisional aero company on April 5, 1911, the first aviation unit in American history, in anticipation of training 18 additional pilots. Five new airplanes were authorized for purchase, and two were received at Fort Sam on April 20, a Curtiss 1911 "Type IV military aeroplane" (Curtiss Model D) designated Signal Corps No. 2, and a new Wright Model B that became S.C. No. 3. Both came equipped with wheels rather than skids, and the Curtiss aircraft was powered by an 8-cylinder, engine in sharp contrast to the 4-cylinder training engines the student pilots were accustomed to. Two civilian pilots, Frank Trenholm Coffyn of the Wright Company and Eugene Ely from Curtiss, arrived with the aircraft to assist in instruction. All three of the Army's aircraft took to the air at the same time on April 22, 1911, during a parade and review of troops of the Maneuver Division at Fort Sam Houston, captured in a panoramic photograph linked below. After Army acceptance of the aircraft on April 27, Foulois and Ely then undertook training a small group pilot candidates on the Curtiss machine, including three (Capt. Paul W. Beck, 2nd Lt. George E.M. Kelly, and 2nd Lt. John C. Walker, Jr.) who had been partially trained as prospective Curtiss instructors by Glen Curtiss at North Island, San Diego, California, before being ordered to Texas. Student pilots were divided into separate sections because the flight controls on the two types were markedly different and the single-seat Curtiss machines did not allow for dual instruction. S.C. No. 1, judged no longer airworthy due to many rebuilds, was retired from service on May 4 and sent to the Smithsonian Institution in October. The most proficient new pilot was Beck, who by seniority was made commander of the provisional aero company, causing a permanent rift between himself and Foulois, by far the more experienced pilot. The Curtiss machine, S.C. No.2, nearly crashed on May 2 with Walker at the controls, nose-diving when Walker attempted a turn. The plane cartwheeled and although Walker miraculously regained control, he was so badly shaken that he voluntarily withdrew from flying. The next day Beck crash-landed S.C. No. 2 when its engine failed while he was at , severely damaging it. On May 10, Kelly, the least experienced pilot, was killed flying the same airplane on his qualification flight when he crashed while landing in gusty wind conditions. The division commander, Major General William H. Carter, immediately withdrew permission to fly at Fort Sam. Foulois, who was a mustang officer and a combat veteran of the Spanish–American War, blamed the crash on improper repairs to the Curtiss D, and indirectly, on Beck. Foulois also refused to serve under Beck, who took over as instructor and moved the school back to College Park with S.C. No. 3 in June. Foulois remained behind with the Maneuver Division and was removed from aviation in July by assignment to the Militia Bureau in Washington, D.C. Beck served as the Curtiss instructor at College Park until May 1, 1912, when he was returned to the Infantry by enforcement of the so-called "Manchu Law". Arnold and Milling While stationed in the Philippines in 1908, 2nd Lieutenant Henry H. Arnold assisted Capt. Arthur S. Cowan (then in the Infantry) in a military mapping detail. Cowan returned to the United States, transferred to the Signal Corps, and was assigned to recruit two lieutenants to become pilots. Cowan contacted Arnold, who cabled his interest in also transferring to the Signal Corps but heard nothing in reply for two years. In 1911, relocated to Fort Jay, New York, Arnold sent a request to transfer to the Signal Corps, and on April 21, 1911, received orders detailing him and 2nd Lt. Thomas D. Milling to Dayton, Ohio, for flight instruction at the Wright brothers' aviation school. Beginning instruction on May 3, Milling had soloed on May 8 after two hours of flight time while Arnold made his first solo flight May 13 after three hours and forty-eight minutes of flying lessons. In June, he and Milling completed their instruction and were sent to College Park, Maryland, as the Army's first flight instructors, on June 14. Two Wright B airplanes were available for use in instruction when S.C. No. 4 was delivered five days later and joined S.C. No. 3, newly arrived from Texas. The school officially opened on July 3, 1911, and taught ten students, including two members of the National Guard and Chandler, who had been assigned to command the school and division again after graduation from the Signal School. S.C. No. 2, repaired and returned to service, was joined at the end of July by S.C. No. 6, a new Curtiss E "scout", and Milling became the only aviator able to master the significantly different flight controls of each type. A split developed between the "Wright pilots" and the "Curtiss pilots" that was not resolved until the Wright machines were phased out in 1914 for safety reasons. Milling won the Tri-State Biplane Race in a Wright B against a field of experienced fliers, flying a course from Boston, Massachusetts, to Nashua, New Hampshire, to Worcester, Massachusetts, to Providence, Rhode Island and back to Boston, a total of 175 miles, without the use of a compass. It was also his first night flight, with several large bonfires providing guidance to the landing field. Arnold set an altitude record of on July 7, 1911, and twice broke it. In August, he experienced his first crash, trying to take off from a farm field after getting lost. At the end of the November the school disassembled its four aircraft and moved to Augusta, Georgia, for the winter, flying from a leased farm. One of its students, Lt. Col. Charles B. Winder of Ohio, was the first National Guard officer to complete flying training and receive an F.A.I. certificate in the spring of 1912. Arnold accepted delivery of the Army's first tractor plane (with a propeller and engine mounted on the front) on June 26, 1912, but crashed into the bay at Plymouth, Massachusetts, during takeoff. Arnold began to develop a phobia about flying, intensified by the fatal crashes of the Wright Company instructor who taught him, Arthur L. Welsh on June 12, and an academy classmate of Arnold's, 2d Lt. Lewis Rockwell, on September 18, 1912, both in the new Wright C "speed scouts". In October 1912, Arnold and Milling were sent to Fort Riley, Kansas, to experiment with spotting for the field artillery. On November 5, Arnold's Wright C stalled, went into a spin, and he narrowly avoided a fatal crash. He immediately and voluntarily grounded himself, then returned to the Infantry in 1913 after closing down the school at College Park, which was discontinued in favor of one with favorable flying conditions year-round on North Island at San Diego, California, later named Rockwell Field in 1917 in memory of Arnold's classmate. Appropriations, growth, and "incipient mutiny" In 1911, the Aeronautical Division received its first direct appropriation from Congress for aviation ($125,000 for Fiscal Year 1912, half of what was proposed), and added five airplanes to its inventory. In addition to S.C.s 2, 3, 4, and 6, a Wright B was ordered to be built under license by Burgess Company and Curtis as its "Model F" (S.C. No. 5). A sixth aircraft, a Wright B Flyer designated S.C. No. 7, was assembled at Fort McKinley in the Philippines and used by Lahm to make the first flight of an American military airplane outside the continental United States on March 21, 1912. Rules of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) were adopted, including standards for the certification of pilots, and Arnold and Milling became the first two Army pilots to be FAI certified. On February 23, 1912, the U.S. Army established its own military aviator rating and issued the first five (of 24) to Arnold, Chandler, Milling, Beck, and Foulois in July 1912. In February 1912, recognizing a need for specialized aircraft in field service, the Aeronautical Division drew up its first new specifications for aircraft since 1907, creating a "Scout" classification for a two-man, slow speed, tactical reconnaissance airplane; and "Speed Scout", for a lighter, faster, one-man airplane for strategic (longer ranged) reconnaissance. In May 1912, the division purchased its first Speed Scout, a Wright C. The aircraft crashed during its acceptance trials on June 11 at College Park, killing 2nd Lt. Leighton W. Hazelhurst, who had been among the first class of student pilots, and Arthur L. Welsh, the Wright Company instructor who had taught Arnold to fly. Arnold himself was flying a Wright C (S.C. No. 10) in November 1912 at Fort Riley, Kansas, when he was nearly killed. In total the division purchased six Wright Cs (not including the one flown by Welsh and Hazelhurst) and a Burgess Model J (a Wright C made under license), six of which crashed. This led to the grounding on February 24, 1914, of all "pusher" aircraft, including the sole Wright C survivor and a Burgess model rebuilt to Wright C standard. In anticipation of a possible war with Mexico, Chandler, four pilots, 21 enlisted men and a detachment of Curtiss JN-3 airplanes were sent from the Aviation School's winter location at Augusta, Georgia, to Texas City, Texas, on February 28, 1913. Ultimately, eight pilots and nine airplanes trained with the 2nd Division on the Gulf Coast and San Antonio. Organized as a provisional unit on March 5, the 1st Aero Squadron became the first permanent unit of the air force on December 8, 1913. While at Texas City, the junior pilots complained directly about safety concerns to new Chief Signal Officer Brig. Gen. George P. Scriven, who had come to Texas on an inspection trip after reading adverse newspaper reports on the squadron, in effect delivering an ultimatum to Scriven that either Chandler be replaced or they would withdraw from aviation. Despite calling the incident an "incipient mutiny", Scriven relieved Chandler on April 1 and transferred him to Fort McKinley in the Philippines, replaced on an interim basis by Cowan, who was already in Texas City as the signal officer of the mobilizing 2d Division. In September, Lt. Col. Samuel Reber—a former balloonist and influential member of the Aero Club of America—became the new head of the Aeronautical Division. Both Cowan and Reber were non-aviators, causing further friction with the pilots and creating a permanent consensus among them that only an aviator was qualified to command flying units. When the 1st Aero Squadron joined the Curtiss airplanes at North Island in June, Reber made Cowan commandant of the Aviation School at North Island, deepening the divisions. The United States landed Marines and armed Bluejackets in the Mexican city of Veracruz on April 21, 1914. By April 24 they had completely occupied the city after severe fighting and were provided reconnaissance support by five Navy seaplanes assigned to the United States Atlantic Fleet. Two days later, to reinforce the Navy's aviation detachment, Foulois and four pilots of the 1st Aero Squadron, soon designated the squadron's 1st Company, crated their three Burgess H tractors and shipped them by rail to Fort Crockett at Galveston, leaving only two aircraft and five pilots in San Diego. 1st Company was itself reinforced by six new pilots but never uncrated their airplanes and left Texas on July 13, 1914. Expansion of the aviation service Beck was possibly the first advocate of an air service separate from the Army ground forces. In 1912 Beck authored an article for the Infantry Journal entitled, "Military Aviation in America: Its Needs", promoting the concept of an independent air force with its own missions. After he returned to the Infantry, he continued to lobby friends in Congress to return to aviation. In February 1913, Representative James Hay (Democrat-Virginia) introduced a bill intended to transfer aviation from the Signal Corps to the line of the Army as a semi-autonomous "Air Corps". The bill was considered too radical and died in committee, but when the 1913 appropriations bill included many of its provisions, Hay offered a revised bill in May, HR5304 "An Act to Increase the Efficiency in the Aviation Service". Hearings were held on the new bill in August 1913. Beck appeared to testify on behalf of the bill, the only officer to do so, and was opposed by Major Billy Mitchell, representing the General Staff, and Foulois, Arnold, and Milling representing the Signal Corps. That bill had its original language expunged and was written to become the enabling legislation for the Aviation Section, Signal Corps on 18 July 1914. Appropriations for aviation fell to $100,000, in part because the Signal Corps had spent only $40,000 of the Fiscal Year 1912 funding. However, as a result of the high number of fatalities, flight pay (35% increase above base pay) and accelerated promotion for pilots were approved by Congress on March 3, 1913, in the appropriations legislation and the Aeronautical Division grew from 14 to 18 pilots. The Army Air Forces Statistical Digest (World War II) listed the strength of the division at 51 officers and men on November 1, 1912, and 114 on September 30, 1913. Statistics compiled for the HR5304 hearings showed that United States ranked 14th in expenditures among the nations with air services. In the following year, Congress increased the size and prestige of Signal Corps aviation when it established the Aviation Section, with the Aeronautical Division continued as its headquarters component issuing orders in the name of the Chief Signal Officer. Reber became chief of the section and was promoted to lieutenant colonel, delegating the duties of head of the Aeronautical Division to another non-aviator, Major Edgar Russel, senior instructor and assistant commandant of the Signal School. In February 1917 the Aeronautical Division was one of three divisions in the Office of the Chief Signal Officer (OCSO) comprising the Aviation Section, the others being the Administrative Division and Engineering Division. On October 1, 1917, during World War I, the Aeronautical Division was renamed the Air Division and was abolished altogether by the War Department on April 24, 1918. Between August 1, 1908, and June 30, 1914, the Signal Corps spent $430,000 on aeronautics, funding the purchase of 30 aircraft and the building of a 31st (S.C. No. 23) from spare parts. By 1914, only nine of the surviving 23 remained in service, and two of those that were retired never flew operationally. Aircraft of the Aeronautical Division SOURCES: Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Chapters 2–6, pp. 28–102; Warnock, "From Infant Technology to Obsolescence: the Wright Brothers' Airplane in the U.S. Army Signal Corps, 1905–1915" Heads of the Aeronautical Division The executive head of the Aeronautical Division had no official title between 1907 and 1914 but was usually referred to as the officer in charge (OIC). The history of assignments of heads of the division in official orders is murky and confused between 1908 and 1916. The four recognized by the USAF as the OICs of the division during this period, and thus as "head" of its progenitor arm, are denoted by a bullet point. All others are on lists in official studies published by the Office of Air Force History or its successor AFHRA. After July 18, 1914, the division was a part of an aviation section authorized by statute, with a Chief of Division who as head of the headquarters component also exercised control of the section. August 1, 1907, to July 18, 1914: Captain Charles deForest Chandler (August 1, 1907 – May 13, 1908) 1st Lt. Frank P. Lahm (May 14, 1908 – December 1909)* Unknown (December 1909 – June 30, 1910) Capt. Arthur S. Cowan (July 1, 1910 – June 19, 1911) Capt. Charles deForest Chandler (June 20, 1911 – April 1, 1913)** 2nd Lt. Henry H. Arnold (September 18, 1912 – December 14, 1912) Maj. Edgar Russel (December 15, 1912 – September 9, 1913) Lt. Col. Samuel Reber (September 10, 1913 – July 17, 1914; Chief of Division July 18, 1914 – May 5, 1916) Acting Chief of Division Capt. George S. Gibbs (March 17, 1916 – April 2, 1916) Major Billy Mitchell (April 3, 1916– May 20, 1916) Chiefs of Division (and Aviation Section head), 1916–1918 Lt. Col. George O. Squier (May 20, 1916 – February 18, 1917) Lt. Col. John B. Bennet (February 19, 1917 – July 29, 1917) Maj. Benjamin D. Foulois (July 30, 1917 – November 5, 1917) Brig. Gen. Alexander L. Dade (November 5, 1917 – February 14, 1918) Col. Laurence Brown (February 28, 1918 – April 24, 1918) The Air Force does not acknowledge Lahm as OIC of the Aeronautical Division between 1908 and 1910. However, Chandler's biography and Hennessy's history (page 14) indicate that from May 1908 to July 1910 Chandler was commander of the Signal Corps Balloon Station at Fort Omaha, Nebraska. Also, Lahm was mandatorily returned to the Cavalry in late 1909, and no replacement is given, although if one was assigned, it was likely Foulois. *Chandler was also Chief of the Aviation School and commander of the 1st Provisional Aero Squadron when those organizations were active. He was relieved of duty on April 1, 1913, and transferred to the Philippines. Capt. Cowan replaced him in command of the 1st Aero Squadron and as acting OIC of the Aeronautical Division. Military aviation pioneers with the Aeronautical Division 1st Lt. Henry H. Arnold, 29th Infantry – second rated Military Aviator (July 5, 1912) Capt. Paul W. Beck, Signal Corps – first nominal head of an operational aviation unit in 1911–12, first advocate of a separate air service 2d Lt. Lewis H. Brereton, Coast Artillery Corps – only member to retire (1948) as part of USAF Cpl. Vernon L. Burge, Signal Corps – first FAI certified enlisted pilot (June 14, 1912) Capt. Charles deF. Chandler, Signal Corps – balloonist, twice head of the Aeronautical Division, and third rated pilot (July 5, 1912) 1st Lt. Benjamin D. Foulois, Signal Corps – third solo pilot, first Army instructor pilot 2d Lt Leighton W. Hazelhurst, 17th Infantry – second student pilot fatality (June 11, 1912) 2d Lt. Frederick E. Humphreys, Corps of Engineers – first to solo in a military aircraft (October 26, 1909) 2d Lt. George E. M. Kelly, 30th infantry – first student and pilot fatality (May 10, 1911) 1st Lt. Frank P. Lahm, 6th Cavalry – second solo pilot, first licensed military pilot, and first Army aviator overseas 2d Lt. Moss L. Love, Signal Corps – first pilot trained overseas (killed September 4, 1913) Sgt.Herbert L. Marcus, US Signal Corps, circa. 1911-1914 1st Lt. Thomas DeW. Milling, 15th Cavalry – first rated Military Aviator (July 5, 1912) 2d Lt. C. Perry Rich, Philippine Scouts – first overseas fatality (November 14, 1913) 2d Lt. Lewis C. Rockwell, 10th Infantry – first licensed pilot fatality (September 18, 1912) Corp. Frank S. Scott, Signal Corps – first enlisted and second passenger fatality (September 18, 1912) 1st Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge, Jr., 1st Field Artillery – first Army officer to learn to fly, first airplane fatality (September 17, 1908) See also Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps Lineage of the United States Air Force Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps August 1, 1907 – July 18, 1914 Aviation Section, Signal Corps July 18, 1914 – May 20, 1918 Division of Military Aeronautics May 20, 1918 – May 24, 1918 Air Service, United States Army May 24, 1918 – July 2, 1926 United States Army Air Corps July 2, 1926 – June 20, 1941 United States Army Air Forces June 20, 1941 – September 18, 1947 United States Air Force September 18, 1947 – present Notes Footnotes Citations References Bowman, Martin W., "Background to War", USAAF Handbook 1939–1945, Correll, John T. "The First of the Force", AIR FORCE Magazine, August 2007, Vol. 90, No. 8, Air Force Association, Arlington, Virginia Cragg, Dan, ed., Sgt.Maj. USA (Ret.) (1983). The guide to Military Installations, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg AFD-100928-011 (Air Force Historical Studies Office document) Greely, Gen. Adolphus W. (1900). "Balloons in War", Harper's Monthly Magazine, CI (DCI), pp. 33–50. Lienhard, John H., Inventing the Air Force, "The Engines of Our Ingenuity" Episode 1974. Maurer, Maurer (1983). Air Force Combat Units of World War II, Office of Air Force History, "Introduction" "2005 Almanac", Air Force Magazine, May 2005, Vol. 88, No. 5, the Air Force Association, Arlington, Virginia Paul W. Beck, The Early Birds of Aviation External links Provisional Aero Company in flight, Fort Sam Houston, Texas Parade of the Maneuver Division on April 22, 1911, with S.C. No. 2 (Curtiss D) at right, S.C. No. 3 (Wright B) at center, and S.C. No. 1 (Wright A) at left Aeronautical Division, Army Signal Corps Signal units and formations of the United States Army Aeronautical Division, Army Signal Corps Aeronautical Division, Army Signal Corps 20th-century history of the United States Air Force Aeronautical Division, Army Signal Corps Military units and formations established in 1907 Military units and formations disestablished in 1914 1907 establishments in the United States 1914 disestablishments in the United States Disbanded air forces
4913980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito%20Cereno	Benito Cereno	Benito Cereno is a novella by Herman Melville, a fictionalized account about the revolt on a Spanish slave ship captained by Don Benito Cereno, first published in three installments in Putnam's Monthly in 1855. The tale, slightly revised, was included in his short story collection The Piazza Tales that appeared in May 1856. According to scholar Merton M. Sealts Jr., the story is "an oblique comment on those prevailing attitudes toward blacks and slavery in the United States that would ultimately precipitate civil war between North and South". The famous question of what had cast such a shadow upon Cereno was used by American author Ralph Ellison as an epigraph to his 1952 novel Invisible Man, excluding Cereno's answer, "The negro." Over time, Melville's story has been "increasingly recognized as among his greatest achievements". In 1799 off the coast of Chile, captain Amasa Delano of the American sealer and merchant ship Bachelor's Delight visits the San Dominick, a Spanish slave ship apparently in distress. After learning from its captain Benito Cereno that a storm has taken many crewmembers and provisions, Delano offers to help out. He notices that Cereno acts awkwardly passive for a captain and the slaves display remarkably inappropriate behavior, and though this piques his suspicion he ultimately decides he is being paranoid. When he leaves the San Dominick and captain Cereno jumps after him, he finally discovers that the slaves have taken command of the ship, and forced the surviving crew to act as usual. Employing a third-person narrator who reports Delano's point of view without any correction, the story has become a famous example of unreliable narration. Much critical study has gone into the story's relation to the Toussaint Louverture-led slave rebellion of the 1790s in Saint-Domingue, as well as to Melville's use of one chapter from the historical Amasa Delano's Voyages of 1817, a source of such importance that "he must have written 'Benito Cereno' with Chapter 18 constantly open before him." The novella's "unreliable, even deceptive, narration" continues to cause misunderstanding. Many reviewers of The Piazza Tales cited the novella as one of the highlights in the collection. Melville biographer Hershel Parker calls it "an intensely controlled work, formally one of the most nearly perfect things Melville ever did." Plot summary Benito Cereno takes place in 1799. The captain of a sealing ship Bachelor’s Delight, Captain Amasa Delano, spots another ship drifting listlessly towards the bay of Santa Maria. Wondering if the ship may be in distress, Delano boards his whale-boat and sets sail towards the suspicious ship. He learns that the ship is called the San Dominick and meets its captain, Don Benito Cereno. Upon arrival, Delano is greeted by Spaniards and black men and women who beg him for water and supplies. Delano is troubled by the amount of black people on board since they greatly outnumber the Spaniards. This disparity is explained by the collective cries of those on-board, claiming that they had been hit by a fever that killed more of the Spaniard crew than of the slaves. Assuming the standard roles of the races, Delano ignores many troubling signs. The ship is actually filled with rebel slaves who killed their owner, Alexandro Aranda, and are in control of the Spaniards including Captain Benito. Captain Benito is constantly served by Babo, the leader of the rebellion, and Delano does not suspect anything despite the fact that Benito is never left alone. Under Babo's control, Cereno claims he headed toward the Bolivian coast in order to acquire more hands on deck. Due to all of the aforementioned conditions, the ship has doubled its path several times. At this point, Don Benito stops and states, "I have to thank those Negroes you see, who, though to your inexperienced eyes appearing unruly, have, indeed, conducted themselves with less of restlessness than even their owner could have thought possible under such circumstances." When Delano asks about the slaves' master, Alexandro Aranda, Benito states that he took fever aboard the ship and died. Delano sends his men back to bring more food and water and stays aboard in the company of Benito. Don Benito’s timidness and unwillingness to punish the wild behavior of the slaves confuses Delano, but he overlooks this strange behavior. Cereno is constantly attended to by his personal slave, Babo, whom he keeps in close company even when Delano suggests that Babo leave the two in private. Delano, however, does not bother Cereno to ask questions about the odd superficiality of their conversation. Delano doesn't see Babo's extreme care for his master as odd, but instead appreciates Babo’s faithful care of Cereno and offers to help out by sending three Americans to bring the ship to Concepción. Delano is disturbed by the incidents he observes among the hatchet polishers and oakum pickers, such as when a black boy slashes the head of a white boy with a knife. Surprisingly, Cereno does not acknowledge or even seem to care about this behavior. This is also evident with Atufal, a slave who even in chains appears regal and rebellious. The whispered conversations between Cereno and Babo make Delano feel uncomfortable. Gradually, his suspicions increase as he notes Cereno's sudden waves of dizziness and anxiety, the crew's awkward movements and hushed talks, and the unusual interaction of the slaves and the crew. Yet Delano answers Cereno’s questions about the crew, cargo, and arms aboard the Bachelor’s Delight without reserve, reasoning that the innocent are protected by the truth. When The Rover arrives with supplies, Delano sends the dinghy back for more water while he continues to observe curious incidents. Babo reminds Cereno that it’s time for his shave. "Most negroes are natural valets and hairdressers; taking to the comb and brush congenially as to the castinets, and flourishing them apparently with equal satisfaction," springing from "the docility arising from the unaspiring contentment of a limited mind." Babo suggests that Delano join them in the cuddy to continue his conversation with Cereno, and Delano witnesses the shaving with an appreciative eye for Babo’s graceful skill as a barber and a hairdresser. Their suspicious behavior continues when Babo first searches "for the sharpest" razor and Cereno "nervously shuddered" at the "sight of gleaming steel." Delano himself, for a brief moment, cannot resist "the vagary, that in the black he saw a headsman, and in the white, a man at the block." Cereno is nervously shaking, and just when Delano asks him how he spent over two months crossing a distance Delano himself would have sailed within a few days, "Just then the razor drew blood." Immediately, "the black barber drew back his steel." It is unclear whether the nick is caused by a sudden wave on the sea, or "a momentary unsteadiness of the servant’s hand." Delano precedes the two out of the cuddy and walks to the mainmast, where Babo joins him, complaining that Cereno cut his cheek in reproach for his carelessness even though Cereno’s own shaking caused the cut. Delano feels that slavery fosters ugly passions and invites Cereno for coffee aboard the Bachelor’s Delight. Cereno declines the offer, offending Delano, who is also increasingly irritated by the lack of opportunity to have a private conversation without Babo within hearing distance. When the American steps into The Rover and takes off, "Don Benito sprang over the bulwarks, falling at the feet of Captain Delano." Three Spanish sailors dive after him along with Babo, who is holding a dagger and accompanied by a dark avalanche of slaves. Delano fears Babo wants to attack him, but he loses the dagger when he falls into the boat. With a second dagger, Babo continues his attack. His purpose is now revealed: "[It was] not Captain Delano, but Don Benito, [whom] the black, leaping into the boat, had intended to stab." Delano’s men prevent him from achieving his purpose. Delano, "now with the scales dropped from his eyes," realizes that a slave revolt has been going on aboard the San Dominick. He sees the remaining sailors taking flight into the masts to escape the "flourishing hatchets and knives" of the blacks who are after them. The canvas falls off the ship's figurehead, revealing the strung-up skeleton of Alexandro Aranda. Delano secures Babo; Delano's men, under command of his chief mate, attack the Spanish ship to claim booty by defeating the revolting slaves. Eventually, legal depositions taken at Lima explain the matter. Instead of storm and epidemics, a bloody slave revolt under Babo’s command caused the mortalities among the crew, including Aranda. As Delano approaches, the revolting slaves set up the illusion that the surviving whites are still in charge. Delano asks the sad Benito: "’you are saved; what has cast such a shadow upon you?'" To which Cereno replies: "’The negro.’" Some months after the trial, Babo is executed never having said a word to defend himself: his body is burned but his head is "fixed on a pole in the Plaza, [meeting], unabashed, the gaze of the whites." Babo's head looks in the direction of St. Bartholomew’s church, where "the recovered bones of Aranda" lay, and further across the bridge "towards the monastery on Mount Agonia without: where, three months after being dismissed by the court, Benito Cereno, borne on the bier, did, indeed, follow his leader." Background In the 1850s, a revolt on a slave ship was not a far-fetched topic for a literary work. The historian Greg Grandin explores the historical background of the novel and relates it to the larger questions of slavery and empire in American history. In 1839, the Spanish schooner La Amistad with fifty slaves became the site of slave revolt between two Cuban ports, and two crew members were killed. An American naval vessel seized the Amistad when the ship had wandered off course near Long Island. Then followed a legal battle which went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, where John Quincy Adams succeeded in setting the slaves free in the 1841 U.S. Supreme Court ruling United States v. The Amistad. In 1841 the American Creole moved slaves from Virginia to New Orleans when nineteen slaves killed a white sailor and took command of the ship, which then set sail to the British Bahamas. In the Creole case, the slaves were set free under the 1833 British Act of Emancipation. Madison Washington, the leader of the revolt, became the hero of a novel a decade later, in March 1853, when Frederick Douglass published the short novel The Heroic Slave in his anti-slavery newspaper North Star. Composition Melville's main source for the novella was the 1817 memoir of Captain Amasa Delano, A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres: Comprising Three Voyages Round the World; Together with a Voyage of Survey and Discovery, in the Pacific Ocean and Oriental Islands. Through this memoir, Delano recounts what happens after his vessel, the Perseverance, encounters the Spanish slave ship, the Tryal, on February 20, 1805, in a deserted bay at the island of Santa Maria. Delano's account of this encounter follows his thoughts and actions before, during, and after he realizes that the Tryal has been overtaken by the slaves aboard, thus allowing Melville to build his narrative for Benito Cereno. Harold H. Scudder, who discovered the link between 'Benito Cereno' and Delano's A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, writes that Melville "found his story ready made. He merely rewrote this Chapter including a portion of the legal documents there appended, suppressing a few items, and making some small additions." Besides changing the date to 1799, Melville made three more notable additions: First, while Delano does not describe the Spanish ship, Melville provides a description of a "Spanish merchantman of the first class," that had seen better days: "The tops were large, and were railed about with what had once been octagonal net-work, all now in sad disrepair... Battered and mouldy, the castellated forecastle seemed some ancient turrot, long ago taken by assault, and then left to decay." Second, Melville replaces the names Perseverance and Tryal by names of his own literary invention, Bachelor's Delight and San Dominick, respectively. Third, while the real Delano was accompanied by his midshipman Luther, Melville's Delano visits the Spanish ship alone. Melville introduces incidents of his own invention, chief among them the shaving of Don Benito, the giant Atufal in chains, and the lunch aboard the Spanish ship. Though the names of the captains remain unchanged, Melville changes the name of the confidential servant from Muri to Babo. Other additions include the two slaves attacking the Spanish seaman, the glimpse of the jewel, and the sailor presenting the Gordian knot. Melville elaborates on Cereno's leap into Delano's boat after Babo's attempt to stab Cereno as well as the revelation of the skeleton-shaped figurehead. Final inventions are Cereno's deposition at the beginning and his death in a monastery. Scholar Rosalie Feltenstein finds it "far from accurate" to say that he found his story ready-made in his source, a statement not just contradicted by Scudder's own inventory of alterations, but instead of suppressing only "a few items," Melville in fact "omits the whole second half of the narrative." Melville meant to both elevate the Cereno character, making him "as heartless and savage as the slaves," and to turn Babo into "a manifestation of pure evil." For instance, in the source Cereno himself tries to stab one of the slaves with a hidden dirk: "Transferred entirely to Babo, this action provides the crisis of the story and adds a final touch to the portrait of the slave's malignity." Some of the "apparently trifling alterations" of his source can be explained by the artistic purpose of establishing a web of imagery pertaining to monks and monasteries. Andrew Delbanco points out Melville's elaboration of the episode in which Delano is struck by the scarcity of whites aboard when he first enters the San Dominick. The real Delano describes this in one phrase ("captain, mate, people and slaves, crowded around me to relate their stories"), but Melville expands the scene to one full paragraph. According to Melville scholar Harrison Hayford, "the island of Santa Maria is relocated from the coast of central Chile near Concepcion to 'down towards its southern extremity,'...the time span lengthened considerably, the legal deposition abridged and altered, the number of blacks multiplied, and names and roles are switched." One such switch is the replacement of Muri's name by his father's, Babo. Melville's Babo is a blend of the central roles that Babo and his father Muri play in the source. In their reproduction of Amasa Delano's chapter, the editors of the 1987 edition supply marginal page and line numbers indicating parallel passages in Melville's novella. (Compare quoteboxes to see one example of such parallels.) Biographer Parker concludes the legal documents section is roughly half Melville's own invention fused with slightly adapted documents copied from Delano. Melville's additions include cannibalism and the image of Columbus. Generally, his inventions are "not distinguishable without collation of the real depositions against Melville's deposition, for the Delano chapter provided dazzlingly evocative material to work from." Another important distinction between Melville's account and A Narrative of Voyages and Travels to note is the death of two central characters in Melville's story, Babo and Atufal. Historian Sterling Stuckey finds it unjust to restrict attention to chapter 18, because Melville used elements from other chapters as well. He also names sources for the presence of Ashantee culture in the novella. Writing style Point of view "Benito Cereno" is narrated from a third person point of view that is limited to the perspective of Captain Amasa Delano, an American sailor from Massachusetts. Delano’s experience aboard the San Dominick is depicted through his inaccurate perceptions of the racial dynamics on board the ship. He assumes that the blacks are under the dominion of Benito Cereno; in reality, they have revolted, forcing the Spanish sailors to perform for Delano as if the ship’s crew was culled by a pestilent sickness. Andrew Delbanco observes the subtlety of Melville's handling of perspective, writing that Melville "moves us so close to Delano's perspective that we witness the scene as if over his shoulder and hear the 'clamorous' crowd as if through his ears." Throughout the majority of the novella, the crucial information that the self-liberated blacks have murdered all of the Spanish officers on board, excepting Benito Cereno, is withheld from the reader. This disruption of the ship’s status quo is repeatedly foreshadowed by Delano’s misperceptions about Benito Cereno and Babo's unusual relationship. During his visit aboard the slave carrier, Hershel Parker observes that Delano "repeats a pattern of suspicions-followed-by-reassurance, with progressively shorter periods in which suspicions can be allayed." He describes Melville's Delano as "bluffly good-natured, practical, and resourceful but intellectually obtuse, naively optimistic, impervious to evil." With regard to Melville's choice to implement a third-person narration, John Bryant believes that no first-person narrator was used because it would have made the suspense hard to sustain, as first-person narrators "too easily announce their limitations." Melville "adopts the voice of an omniscient and supposedly objective speaker, but limits his reporting almost exclusively to Delano's skewed point of view." The narrator only reports what Delano sees and thinks, "[making] no judgments and [relating] Delano's fatally racist presumptions as fact." Melville's limited narrator deceives the white readership of Putnam's Monthly "into adopting Delano's erroneous thinking." At the time of publishing, the denouement most likely came as no less shocking to the reader than to Delano himself, and "the story's final effect is to force readers to retrace their own racism to discover how, as a condition of mind, it distorts our vision." Laurie Robertson-Lorant astutely verbalizes this parallel between Delano's viewpoint and the reader's position, writing, "Babo has woven an elaborate web of deception from the American's own prejudices," and "Melville has drawn readers who adopt Delano's view of the San Dominick into the same entangling web." Prose rhythm: tension vs. relief, narrative style versus legal documents Several critics have noticed the fundamental rhythm of the story, a rhythm of tension and relief characteristic of the sentences, Captain Delano's state of mind, and even of the structure of the novella as a whole. Every so often, Delbanco notices an unusual hissing whisper or silent hand signal "might cut through Delano's haze and awaken him to the true situation, but he always reverts to 'tranquillizing' thoughts" about the white man's power and the black man's "natural servility". Unconsciously, Delano lets himself be distracted from pursuing his apprehensions. Delbanco concludes his description of the shaving scene (see below) with an assessment of what he sees as the purpose of the rhythm: "This pattern of tension followed by release gives Benito Cereno its teasing rhythm of flow-and-ebb, which, since the release is never complete, has the incremental effect of building pressure toward the bursting point." The prolonged riddle of the main story is solved with the leap of Don Benito into Delano's boat—an ending of just a page and a half. This event is related a second time, now in "the cumbersome style of a judicial exposition" for which the documents in the source provided the model. For Berthoff, the presence of these documents represent "only the most abrupt of a series of shifts and starts in the presentation" that constitute the narrative rhythm of "tension increasing and diminishing" and of "the nervous succession of antithetical feelings and intuitions." Berthoff recognizes the sentences perform the double function of simultaneously showing and suspending, remarking, "They must communicate tension but also damp it down." Though the paragraphs are usually short, the longer ones contain what, for Berthoff, is the essential rhythm of the tale: As his foot pressed the half-damp, half-dry seamosses matting the place, and a chance phantom cats-paw--an islet of breeze, unheralded, unfollowed--as this ghostly cats-paw came fanning his cheek; as his glance fell upon the row of small, round dead-lights--all closed like coppered eyes of the coffined--and the state-cabin door, once connecting with the gallery, even as the dead-lights had once looked out upon it, but now calked fast like a sarcophagus lid; and to a purple-black, tarred-over panel, threshold, and post; and he bethought him of the time, when that state-cabin and this state-balcony had heard the voices of the Spanish king's officers, and the forms of the Lima viceroy's daughters had perhaps leaned where he stood--as these and other images flitted through his mind, as the cats-paw through the calm, gradually he felt rising a dreamy inquietude, like that of one who alone on the prairie feels unrest from the repose of the moon. Besides the role of Melville's descriptive powers in carrying the suspension in this sentence, "the rhythm of sensation and response it reproduces" is "in miniature" the rhythm of both the action and the telling. After the presentation of the legal documents, the novella concludes in a style of "spare, rapid, matter-of-fact statement into longer paragraphs and a more sustained and concentrated emphasis:" As for the black--whose brain, not body, had schemed and led the revolt, with the plot--his slight frame, inadequate to that which it held, had at once yielded to the superior muscular strength of his captor, in the boat. Seeing all was over, he uttered no sound, and could not be forced to. His aspect seemed to say, since I cannot do deeds, I will not speak words. Put in irons in the hold, he was carried to Lima. During the passage, Don Benito did not visit him. Nor then, nor at any time after, would he look at him. Before the tribunal he refused. When pressed by the judges, he fainted. On the testimony of the sailors alone rested the legal identity of Babo. Some months after, dragged to the gibbet at the tail of a mule, the black met his voiceless end. The body was burned to ashes; but for many days, the head, that hive of subtlety, fixed on a pole in the Plaza, met, unabashed, the gaze of the whites; and across the Plaza looked towards St. Bartholomew's church, in whose vaults slept then, as now, the recovered bones of Aranda: and across the Rimac bridge looked towards the monastery, on Mount Agonia without; where, three months after being dismissed by the court, Benito Cereno, borne on the bier, did, indeed, follow his leader. These last paragraphs introduce a new tone, after the "teasing oscillations of mood" in the first part and the "dry repetitions of the court documents," the novella's conclusion is "terse, rapid, taut with detail," and for Berthoff an admirable example of "Melville's ordinary boldness in fitting his performance to the whole developing occasion." Imagery As Rosalie Feltenstein first noticed, the Spanish ship and its crew are described continuously in "similes drawn from monastic life." At first sighting, the ship is likened to a "white-washed monastery after a thunderstorm." Delano first mistakes the crew for monks, "Black Friars pacing the cloisters." Ironically, the ragged Babo looked "something like a begging friar of Saint Francis." Even the name of the ship, San Dominick, is relevant here, the Dominicans being known as "the Black Friars." The name of the ship is not only appropriate for the African slaves, but also "hints of the blackness with which the story is filled." Themes and motifs Slavery and racism Because of its ambiguity, the novella has been read by some as racist and pro-slavery and by others as anti-racist and abolitionist. However, by the mid-20th century, at least some critics read Benito Cereno as a tale that primarily explores human depravity and does not reflect upon race at all. Feltenstein sees "a trace of nineteenth-century satanism in Babo," and asserts that "Slavery is not the issue here; the focus is upon evil in action in a certain situation." Since the 1940s, criticism has moved to reading Babo as the heroic leader of a slave rebellion whose tragic failure does not diminish the genius of the rebels. In an inversion of contemporary racial stereotypes, Babo is portrayed as a physically weak man of great intellect, his head (impaled on a spike at the end of the story) a "hive of subtlety". For Newton Arvin in 1950, Babo was "a monster out of Gothic fiction at its worst", for Frederick Busch in 1986 "Babo is the genius of the story", and it is "his brain the white men fear". Later critics, such as Valerie Bonita Gray, regard Delano's "racial perceptions" as the cause of his blindness: "Delano never suspects the truth aboard the San Dominick because he stereotypes the mentality of the slaves", and sees them as "musical, good-humored and cheerful". In reality, enough incidents occur to suspect a "mutinous activity on the part of the slaves", but Delano "does not see them as intelligent human beings". Other critics regard Melville's alteration of the year of events from 1799 to 1805, the Christopher Columbus motif, and the name of the San Dominick as allusions to the French colony then known as Saint-Domingue, called Santo Domingo in Spanish, one of the first landing places of Columbus. In the 1790s a slave revolt took place there under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, which led to the first free black republic in the Americas. According to scholar Hester Blum, the voyages of Columbus, "who initiated New World colonization and slavery," form the "negative inspiration" of Babo's revolt. Columbus's importance for the novella is signalled repeatedly, most dramatically by the "follow your leader"-sign under the figurehead: as revealed in the legal documents, Columbus's was the original figurehead who had been replaced by the skeleton. Robertson-Lorent finds that "Melville indicts slavery without sentimentalizing either the blacks or the whites." Any apparently kind behavior toward the slaves is deceptive by nature: not only does such conduct not change the fact that the captain considers the slaves his property, but it also rests on the motif that it is a "purely self-serving" financial interest of the captain to treat his peculiar "cargo" well. The Americans display no better moral sense when they board the ship at the end of the story: it is not kindness that restrains them from killing the Africans, but their plan to claim the "cargo" for themselves. In addition to this principal state of affairs, "freedom within the confines of a slave ship did not protect the women against rape and sexual abuse," and in fact allowing the women to walk on the deck "made them more accessible to the lustful crew." Delano's impression of the female slaves is part of his overall misperception: "After Aranda's death, the women, whom Delano imagines to be as docile and sweet as does with their fawns, shave Aranda's bones clean with their hatchets, then hang his skeleton over the carved figurehead of Cristobal Colón as a warning to the surviving Spaniards." The nature of perception Bryant observes an epistemological dimension to the story, as Delano admires the black race not for its humanity but for its perceived servility. This prejudiced view renders Delano unable to see the black people's ability to revolt and unable to understand the slave ship's state of affairs. The issue is "not his lack of intelligence, but the shape of his mind, which can process reality only through the sieve of a culturally conditioned benevolent racism," and Delano is eventually "conned by his most cherished stereotypes." Berthoff sees a contrast between Delano and Don Benito's "awareness," caused by the "harrowingly different circumstances" through which they come to meet each other. Seeing no essential difference between Delano's consciousness and the more or less blind way of life of every human being, he sees the story "as composing a paradigm of the secret ambiguity of appearances--an old theme with Melville--and, more particularly, a paradigm of the inward life of ordinary consciousness, with all its mysterious shifts, penetrations, and side-slippings, in a world in which this ambiguity of appearances is the baffling norm." Delbanco observes that Delano's psychology switches between tension and fear. Each time some anomaly occurs, such as the slave who stands unbowed before a white man trembling with fear, Delano contemplates the matter deeply and always thinks up a reason for feeling relieved. The shaving scene The scene of Babo's shaving of Don Benito is, in Delbanco's words, "a meditation on subjectivity itself." Captain Delano enjoys the sight of Babo performing the kind of personal service to his master Delano thinks blacks are especially well suited for, manicuring, hair-dressing, and barbering. Don Benito, on the other hand, shakes with fear. Apparently, Babo tests the blade across his palm, and for Delano the sound is that of a man humbling himself, while Cereno hears "the black man warning him: if you make one move toward candor, I will cut your throat." When Delano notices that the shaving cloth covering Don Benito is the Spanish flag, he finds this use an indignity that for a moment gives him occasion to see in Babo a "headsman" and in Don Benito "a man at the block", but quickly reassures himself that blacks are like children and therefore fond of bright colors, so that nothing is wrong with scene. In Delbanco's estimation, "Delano's capacity for self-deception is limitless." Babo then draws a spot of blood from Don Benito with a flick of his razor, an accident he calls "Babo's first blood" and blames on Don Benito's shaking. He then concludes Don Benito's toilette with a comb, as if to put on a show for Delano. Then, just when Delano has preceded the other two out of the cabin, Babo cuts himself in the cheek. On deck, he shows Delano the bleeding and explains that this is Don Benito's punishment for the accident. Delano is momentarily shocked by this Spanish cruelty, but when he sees Babo and Don Benito reconciled he is relieved to notice that the outrage has passed. Transatlantic contrasts One other strain in criticism is to read in the story an almost Jamesian moral with Delano as the American who, "confronted with evil in unescapable form, wanted only to turn over a new leaf, to deny and to forget the lesson he ought to have learned." Such an American survives "by being less than fully human," while Europeans are "broken by the weight of their knowledge of and complicity in human evil." Literary historian Richard Gray calls the novella an interrogation of "the American optimism of its narrator [sic] and the European pessimism of its protagonist, Cereno, under the shadow of slavery." Delano represents a version of New England innocence which has also been read as strategy to ensure colonial power over both Spain and Africans in the "New World". Publication history Melville probably wrote the novella in the winter of 1854–55. The first mentioning of it appears in a letter of 17 April 1855 from adviser George William Curtis to Joshua A. Dix, the publisher of Putnam's. Curtis expressed being "anxious" to read Melville's new story, which Dix then sent him. On 19 April Curtis wrote to Dix he found the story "very good", even though he regretted that Melville "did not work it up as a connected tale instead of putting in the dreary documents at the end." In a letter of 31 July Curtis still had reservations about "all the dreadful statistics at the end", but nevertheless proposed the serialization. The novella was first serialized anonymously in Putnam's Monthly Magazine in three installments: no. 34, October 1855; no. 35, November 1855; and no. 36, December 1855. around the same time that DeBow's Review, a "virulently pro-slavery" magazine, denounced Putnam's as "the leading review of the Black Republican party", because the periodical was becoming "increasingly belligerent on the slavery issue." The October Issue, the first installment also carried a piece on "the suicide of slavery", referring to the possible destruction of the republic. Thus, the novella appeared in a "partisan magazine committed to the anti-slavery cause." On October 9, 1855, Evening Post correspondent "Pictor" revealed the source for the story, and inferred how it would end. No record of payment for the novella survives, but apparently the magazine's new owners continued to pay Melville at the rate of $5.00 per page. Putnam's editorial advisor George William Curtis finished reading the novella as early as April, and recommended its acceptance to Joshua Dix, because it was "very striking & well done" on the whole, though he took "the dreary documents at the end" for a sign that Melville "does everything too hurriedly now." Despite Curtis's pressing to use it in the September issue—"You have paid for it", he wrote on 31 July—serializing began six months after he first voiced his approval. The novella was included in The Piazza Tales, published by Dix & Edwards in May 1856 in the United States; in June the British edition appeared. The working title of this collection when Melville prepared the magazine pages as printer's copy was "Benito Cereno & Other Sketches". Melville wrote a note to be appended to the title of "Benito Cereno", either as a footnote or a headnote, in which he acknowledged his source. Biographer Hershel Parker believes he did this because Pictor had revealed the source for the novella. Melville decided to drop the note after the change of title meant that the stories were no longer presented as sketches but as tales. In his letter of February 16, 1856, to Dix & Edwards, Melville directed that the note be dropped "as the book is now to be published as a collection of 'Tales' , that note is unsuitable & had better be omitted." The editors of the Northwestern-Newberry edition infer that the note, which does not survive, would have revealed the relation between the story and Amasa Delano's original account, and that Melville thought this relationship was better left unrevealed in a "tale". No other printing appeared during Melville's lifetime. Among those editors was Richard Henry Dana, an anti-slavery activist whose Boston-based Vigilance Committee outfitted a vessel in 1852 dubbed the Moby Dick to ferry fugitive slaves to safety. By the time Benito Cereno was being composed and edited, Putnam’s was owned by Joshua Dix, Arthur Edwards, and silent partner Frederick Law Olmsted. Olmsted, who copyedited and proofread "Benito Cereno", is responsible for some of the idiosyncratic spelling in the tale’s Putnam’s version.20 In 1855, Olmsted, who would go on to cofound The Nation, was working on a series of books about the slaveholding South. In 1926 the novella became the first separate edition of any of his short prose pieces when the Nonesuch Press published the 1856 text with illustrations by E. McKnight Kauffer. Reception Contemporary reviews According to scholar Johannes D. Bergmann, "Benito Cereno", "Bartleby", and "The Encantadas" were the most frequently praised by reviewers of the stories that make up The Piazza Tales. Most reviews were unsigned, and not all singled out either "Benito Cereno" or any other individual story, but described the collection as a whole. On 9 July 1856, the Springfield Republican compared the collection to Hawthorne's best work, "Marked by a delicate fancy, a bright and most fruitful imagination, a pure and translucent style and a certain weirdness of conceit." "The legends themselves," wrote the Athenaeum for 26 July, "have a certain wild and ghostly power; but the exaggeration of their teller's manner appears to be on the increase." Also taking the stories together, the United States Democratic Review for September 1856 wrote that "All of them exhibit that peculiar richness of language, descriptive vitality, and splendidly sombre imagination which are the author's characteristics." On 4 June 1856, the New Bedford Daily Mercury found that "Benito Cereno" was "told with due gravity." The New York Tribune on 23 June singled out "Benito Cereno" and "The Encantadas" as stories that were "fresh specimens of Mr. Melville's sea-romances, but cannot be regarded as improvements on his former popular productions in that kind." The New York Times for 27 June found "Benito Cereno" "melodramatic, not effective." As if describing a detective story, the Knickerbocker for September 1856 called the piece "most painfully interesting, and in reading it we become nervously anxious for the solution of the mystery it involves." Later critical history The Melville Revival of the early 1920s produced the first collected edition of his works, and the publication of the Constable edition of The Piazza Tales in 1922 marked a turning-point in the evaluation of the short fiction, with Michael Sadleir's remark in Excursions in Victorian Bibliography that Melville's genius is "more perfectly and skillfully revealed" in the short fiction than it is in Moby-Dick. "'Benito Cereno' and 'The Encantadas' hold in the small compass of their beauty the essence of their author's supreme artistry". Harold H. Scudder's 1928 study of Melville's major literary source for the story was the first scholarly article on the short fiction. In the 1950’s, American author Hisaye Yamamoto sympathized with Melville’s interpretation of character Babo, as noted in her exchange of letters with Stanford English Professor Yvor Winters. Winters declared the character as an “embodiment of evil”, protesting Yamamoto’s “root” for Babo. Academic study of the novella took off, with gradually increasing numbers of annual publications on the story through the decades. Some of the most influential critics had little regard for the novella; however, F.O. Matthiesen finds that after Moby-Dick Melville only succeeded twice in achieving the fusion of "the inner and the outer world", in 'Benito Cereno' and Billy Budd. He calls 'Benito Cereno' one of Melville's "most sensitively poised pieces of writing". The tension in the story depends on how, Matthiessen observes, "the captain's mind sidles round and round the facts, almost seeing them at one moment only to be ingenuously diverted at the next". Matthiessen assumes a clear distinction of moral values, "the embodiment of good in the pale Spanish captain and of evil in the mutinied African crew", and this interpretation leads him to object: "Although the Negroes were savagely vindictive and drove a terror of blackness into Cereno's heart, the fact remains that they were slaves and that evil had thus originally been done to them." Melville's perceived failure to reckon with this makes his story, "for all its prolonged suspense, comparatively superficial". Reviewing scholarship and criticism up to 1970, Nathalia Wright found that most essays were "divided between a moral - metaphysical interpretation (Babo being the embodiment of evil, Delano of unperceptive good will) and a socio-political one (the slaves corresponding chiefly to those in nineteenth-century America)." The second category can be further divided into three groups: critics who saw "sympathy for the slaves," a few who recognized "pro-slavery or ambivalent sentiments," and those who concentrated on "Delano as a naive American," one of whom identified "Cereno with Europe." In the years after the Second World War readers found the story "embarrassing for its presumed racist treatment of the Africans", while more recent readers, by contrast, "acknowledge Melville's naturalistic critique of racism." Adaptations Poet Robert Lowell wrote a stage adaptation of Benito Cereno for The Old Glory, his trilogy of plays, in 1964. The Old Glory was initially produced off-Broadway in 1964 for the American Place Theatre with Frank Langella and Roscoe Lee Browne as its stars and was later staged during the 1965-66 season of the television series NET Playhouse. It was later revived off-Broadway in 1976. In 2011, Benito Cereno was performed in another off-Broadway production without the other two plays of the trilogy. In 1969, produced by the French company Les Films Niepce, Serge Roullet directed a film adaptation of Benito Cereno, also titled by the titular character. Yusef Komunyakaa wrote a poem, "Captain Amasa Delano's Dilemma," based on Benito Cereno. The poem was first published in American Poetry Review in 1996. Gary J. Whitehead's poem "Babo Speaks from Lima," based on Benito Cereno, was first published in Leviathan: A Journal of Melville Studies in 2003. It was reprinted in A Glossary of Chickens (Princeton University Press, 2013). Benito Cereno was adapted by Stephen Douglas Burton as one of three one-act operas in his 1975 trilogy, An American Triptych. Notes References Works cited Abrams, M.H. (1999). A Glossary of Literary Terms. Seventh Edition, Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Bergmann, Johannes D. (1986). "Melville's Tales." A Companion to Melville Studies. Edited by John Bryant. New York, Westport, Connecticut, London: Greenwood Press. Berthoff, Warner (1962). The Example of Melville. Reprinted 1972, New York: W.W. Norton. Blum, Hester (2006). "Atlantic Trade." A Companion to Herman Melville. Edited by Wyn Kelley. Wiley/Blackwell. Branch, Watson G. (ed.). (1974). Melville: The Critical Heritage. Edited by -. First edition 1974. Papaerback edition, London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985. Bryant, John (2001). "Herman Melville: A Writer in Process" and "Notes." Herman Melville, Tales, Poems, and Other Writings. Edited, with an Introduction and Notes, by John Bryant. New York: The Modern Library. Busch, Frederick (1986). "Introduction." Herman Melville, Billy Budd, Sailor And Other Stories. With An Introduction By -. New York, London, Toronto: Penguin Books. Delano, Amasa (1817). A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres: Comprising Three Voyages Round the World; Together with a Voyage of Survey and Discovery, in the Pacific Ocean and Oriental Islands. Chapter 18. Boston: Printed by E.G. House, for the author. Reprinted in Melville 1987. Delbanco, Andrew (2005). Melville: His World and Work. New York: Knopf. Feltenstein, Rosalie (1947). "Melville's 'Benito Cereno.'" American Literature: A Journal of Literary History, Criticism, and Bibliography 19.3, 245-55. Gray, Valerie Bonita (1978). Invisible Man's Literary Heritage: Benito Cereno and Moby-Dick. Costerus Essays in English and American Language and Literature. New Series, Volume XII. Amsterdam: Rodopi N.V. Gray, Richard (2004). A History of American Literature. Malden MA, Oxford UK, and Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing. Hayford, Harrison (1984). "Notes." Herman Melville, Pierre. Israel Potter. The Piazza Tales. The Confidence-Man. Billy Budd, Sailor. Edited by G. Thomas Tanselle. New York: The Library of America. Hayford, Harrison, Alma A. MacDougall, and G. Thomas Tanselle (1987). "Notes on Individual Prose Pieces." In Melville 1987. Lynn, Kenneth S.. (1988). Lemuel Shaw and Herman Melville.. University of Minnesota Law School. Retrieved from the University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy, http://hdl.handle.net/11299/165043. Matthiessen, F.O. (1941). American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman. Tenth Printing, 1966, New York, London and Toronto: Oxford University Press. McCall, Dan (ed.) (2002). Melville's Short Novels: Authoritative Texts, Contexts, Criticism. New York, NY: Norton, 2002. Melville, Herman (1987). The Piazza Tales and Other Prose Pieces 1839-1860. Edited by Harrison Hayford, Alma A. MacDougall, and G. Thomas Tanselle. The Writings of Herman Melville Volume Nine. Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press and The Newberry Library 1987. Newman, Lea Bertani Vozar (1986). "Benito Cereno." A Reader's Guide to the Short Stories of Herman Melville. A Reference Publication in Literature. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. Parker, Hershel (2002). Herman Melville: A Biography. Volume 2, 1851-1891. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Robertson-Lorant, Laurie (1996). Melville: A Biography. New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers. Scudder, Harold H. (1928). "Melville's Benito Cereno and Captain Delano's Voyages." PMLA 43, June 1928, 502-32. Sealts, Merton M. Jr. (1987). "Historical Note." In Melville 1987. --- (1988). Melville's Reading. Revised and Enlarged Edition. University of South Carolina Press. Stuckey, Sterling (1998). "The Tambourine in Glory: African Culture and Melville's Art." The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville. Ed. Robert S. Levine. Cambridge Companions to Literature. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. --- (2009). African Culture and Melville's Art. The Creative Process in Benito Cereno and Moby-Dick. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. Sundquist, Eric J. (1993) To Wake the Nations: Race in the Making of American Literature. Cambridge, MA.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Wright, Nathalia (1972). "Herman Melville." Eight American Authors: A Review of Research and Criticism. Edited by James Woodress. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc. Greg Buzwell,Women writers, anonymity and pseudonyms \| The British Library (bl.uk) External links ':Benito Cereno':. The full text of the version published in The Piazza Tales (1856), which is the version that is usually anthologized. Putnam's Monthly at the "Making of America" site of Cornell University, a site that has digital images of many significant nineteenth century books and periodicals. Benito Cereno was serialized in the October, November and December issues of 1855. Perspectives in American Literature, Chapter 3: Early Nineteenth Century: Herman Melville (1819–1891), Benito Cereno. Additional references for Benito Cereno.The site also contains other useful links relating to Herman Melville and American literature. Compares the situations presented in the novella to reactions to the presidency of Barack Obama. 1855 short stories American novellas Short stories by Herman Melville Works originally published in Putnam's Magazine
4914238	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threnody%20%28comics%29	Threnody (comics)	Threnody is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character has appeared in the X-Men series. Fictional character biography Melody Jacobs was born in Manhattan, New York City. She led a relatively normal life until her mutant powers manifested in adolescence. She found herself feeding off of the energies released by the dead and the dying, energies so dark and primal she found herself lost in them. Some of the residual slivers of the dead's souls lingered in her mind as she absorbed this energy, leaving her psyche in a state of chaos. Melody became a runaway, living on the streets alone for a week before she was found by Emil Blonsky, the gamma-mutated Abomination. The Abomination had established himself as the lord of a clan of homeless and runaways known as the Forgotten, who took refuge in the sewers under the city. Melody spent weeks lying in a fugue-like state in Blonsky's Last Lair, cared for by the sewer dwellers he championed. One older couple looked after Melody most of the time and called her "Threnody" after the mournful cries she made in-between her brief periods of lucidity. A second stage of Threnody's mutation occurred; she had built up massive power which was violently released as a "death-purge" which instantly killed her kindly caretakers. Horrified by what she had done and rejected by the Abomination, Threnody fled to the West Coast and lived on the streets of Los Angeles. She was in constant agony and often delusional. She met Gordon Lefferts, a geneticist occasionally in the employ of Mister Sinister who was the first mutant exposed to the Legacy Virus. Lefferts identified the virus within him and began studying it for a possible cause and cure. Threnody and a number of other homeless were squatting in the private lab space where Lefferts worked; he may have performed some experiments on them while they stayed with him. Whether it was because of this or something else, Threnody's powers were altered, and she became uniquely sensitive to the Legacy Virus. She could feel mutants around the world, empathically accumulating a death charge from each one that was infected with the virus. Threnody was present at Lefferts' lab when both Mister Sinister and the X-Men came searching for the geneticist's work on the virus. Sinister was intrigued by Threnody, seeing her as a potential bloodhound to hunt for infected mutants for him in his efforts to stop the spread of the virus. He offered to try to help Melody, suggesting that at the very least her powers could help locate those in need of assistance due to the virus. Threnody tentatively agreed. Beast and Rogue were reluctant to allow Threnody to go with Sinister instead of returning with them to the X-Mansion, but Beast realized that Sinister might be better equipped to fight the virus, as Sinister had no conscience to restrict him in his search for a cure. Threnody quickly improved under Sinister's care. His treatments stabilized her mind and restored her lucidity, although the death cries of others still rang in her ears. Sinister also crafted a solution to her death-purge ability: small neuro-locks that adhered to her brow and prevented her stored plasma energy from being releasing unintentionally. In return, Threnody acted as a living data processor in tandem with Sinister's remote viewing equipment. Within one of his primary tesseract labs, Threnody was connected to Sinister's systems which directed her empathic powers to locate and track mutants around the world who were afflicted with the Legacy Virus. She also monitored other data his equipment was collecting and catalogued this information for his use. Threnody used this opportunity for self-improvement, assimilating vast amounts of knowledge and learning. When the Beast and the X-Men infiltrated Sinister's lab, Threnody aided them in sabotaging his stores of genetic samples and shared what she had learned about his machinations. Despite the Beast's offer to leave with them, Threnody decided to remain as Sinister's servant, feeling she could do more good from within and continue to learn from his databases. Over time, Threnody learned a great deal more and began plotting how to get out from under Sinister's thumb. Her constant monitoring led to her discovery of Nate Grey (X-Man), fresh from the Age of Apocalypse, and she saw in him a chance to free herself from Sinister. She concealed Nate's arrival from Sinister and eventually fled to Paris to seek him. Almost immediately, Sinister unleashed the Marauders to find and return her to him. Luckily for Threnody, Nate heard her psychic cries for help and was more than willing to stand against Sinister's forces on any world. Grey fought off the Marauders on Threnody's behalf and killed nearly all of them. He implanted a false memory of Threnody's death in the mind of Riptide, the sole surviving Marauder, in the hope that Sinister would abandon his search for her. Threnody asked if she could accompany X-Man's search for the mysterious Madelyne Pryor; they became traveling companions. Their search led them to the area of Switzerland where Nate first crash-materialized in our universe. There they encountered Cable and Exodus and the conflict that followed was chaotic, thanks to the vast psionic energies unleashed by the three. Following the battle, Threnody and Nate were taken to Red Cross emergency center set up to help those displaced and injured by the superhuman battle that had devastated the region. Nate woke to Threnody's kiss and began to question his initial trust in her. He dove into her psyche to find out if Sinister was using her to get at him, consciously or otherwise. While Sinister's presence was indeed quite strong in her mind, Nate did not detect any signs of deceit in Threnody. Nate went too far when he interfered with the neuro-locks on her brow, releasing Threnody's death-charge in a massive explosion that would've destroyed the lodge if he hadn't telekinetically controlled the blast. The two of them were thrown clear by the explosion and when she awoke, Threnody considered abandoning Nate as more trouble than he was worth. After further reflection, Threnody realized she may have found a kindred spirit in X-Man and tended to him as he recovered from exhausting his psionic energies. Following this, Threnody and Nate traveled to Greece for some rest and recuperation. Their vacation was interrupted by Holocaust who had been drafted into the service of Onslaught and sent after Nate. Holocaust killed and maimed a number of civilians caught in the firefight, setting off Threnody's empathic senses. She tried to get the innocents to safety while Nate engaged Apocalypse's butcher son, but being in such close proximity with the dying for the first time revealed new aspects of Threnody's power. She discovered that when someone was this close to death, she could deliberately prod them the rest of the way and absorb their full death agonies. Worse, she discovered she liked it. The man she killed was already crushed under some rubble and on the brink of death. Threnody rationalized to herself that she was ending his suffering, but still... she liked it. Together, Nate and Threnody managed to drive off Holocaust and help many of those injured when he attacked. Afterward, Threnody suggested Nate seek help against the threat of Onslaught. Since Nate had bad encounters with the X-Men in the past, she suggested that the Avengers would make a good second choice. Once they arrived in New York, however, Threnody split without even saying good-bye. It is not exactly clear why she did this. Perhaps she was uncomfortable with how her feelings for Nate had grown in such a short time or realized there was some truth to Nate's theory that Sinister was using her to get at him. Whatever the reason, she soon found herself back in hot water, tracked down and captured by Mister Sinister and his Marauders. Sinister also captured Nate having gained access to his mind the moment he psychically hacked into the neuro-locks Sinister designed for Threnody. His time with Sinister was brief though as he was soon snatched away by Onslaught. Meanwhile, Threnody managed to escape from Arclight and Scalphunter who were holding her in the tunnels under Manhattan. They quickly caught up with her but she was saved by the Abomination, who found her again just as he had years earlier. Threnody's reunion with the Forgotten proved bittersweet. The Abomination blamed Threnody for the deaths she caused when her powers flared up during her prior stay at his lair. Nate tracked her down and battled the Abomination who revealed Threnody's deadly acts in the past. Nate experienced Blonsky's memories of the incident and Threnody admitted that she killed the couple caring for her but explained that it was an accident. Nate now knew about her past and accepted her in spite of it all. This proved a turning point in their relationship. They left the tunnels and Threnody finally put her past with the Forgotten behind her. In the aftermath of the Onslaught, Threnody and Nate tried to create a new life for themselves. They began to play house, squatting in a hard-to-rent SoHo loft. Nate developed a following as a street psychic in Washington Square Park, earning them some spending money. Life was good for a few weeks and their friendship soon blossomed into something much more. They each struggled with the morality of their mutant powers and the temptation to use them for their own satisfaction and gain. Despite their growing love for and dependence on each other, the specter of Sinister hung over their relationship like a cloud. No matter how deep his psi-probes went, Nate was unable to shake the suspicion that Mister Sinister was still using Threnody against him somehow. He now knew that she wasn't consciously betraying him to Sinister but wondered if they were both pawns in Sinister's latest plan to play with the Summers family genetics. Threnody's powers continued to cause trouble as well. She became more and more addicted to the death charge released by others and began actively feeding off of those near death. Her rationalizations became weaker as her needs grew stronger. She argued that a stroll through a terminal cancer ward was an act of mercy as she only sped them toward their inevitable end. But she soon began feeding off of the addicts and homeless living on the streets as well. What's more, her body was changing and she no longer needed food or sustenance, surviving solely on the death energy she craved. Eventually, Nate pushed her away and Threnody did what she always did when things got tough: she ran away. Threnody returned to life on the streets and her depression led her to feed off the homeless with greater abandon. While searching for answers at her mother's graveside, Threnody was visited by Morbius the Living Vampire. Having just fed off of Nate, Morbius learned of Threnody's cravings. He sensed a kindred spirit and reached out to her. For the first time in her life, Threnody had found someone who understood the hunger and temptation she had to live with every day. Threnody felt an instant attraction to the darkness within Morbius. However, Nate and Spider-Man arrived and tried to drive off the vampire but Threnody helped to defend him. After Morbius fled, Nate finally confronted Threnody about how she preyed on the dying. He condemned her for it, gently but firmly, and told her to return home only when she wanted his help in fighting her addiction. Threnody didn't get the chance to make up her mind. The unstable Madelyne Pryor arrived at the graveyard in search of Nate Grey. Threnody knew Madelyne from Nate's talk of her but also from Sinister's files and knew she was programmed to breed with the Summers line. Lashing out with jealousy and contempt, Threnody reveals to Maddie that despite walking around she was in fact still dead. Enraged, Madelyne attacked Threnody and unleashed the neuro-locks restraining Threnody's power, sucking her dry of her energy. Threnody was left for dead in St. Raymond's Cemetery and was picked up as a Jane Doe and taken to the morgue. Her power would not let her die; Threnody fed off of her own death charge before consuming the energies within the morgue. This restored her to a semblance of life and she walked away from the morgue. However her power had developed a second mutation, causing the dead to rise and follow her. Threnody's very presence now influenced the death energy in her environment, bringing nearby corpses back as undead "zomboids" who followed her wherever she went. Seeking to feed, Threnody stumbled into the Last Lair after the psychotic Jackknife massacred the entire gang and drank deep off of the lingering death energies there. She remained in the Morlock Tunnels until she discovered the Dark Beast's labs nearby. Threnody wisely chose to relocate before he discovered her presence. She and her loyal, benign undead entourage haunted the SoHo loft apartment where she and Nate Grey had lived until Nate unexpectedly dropped in again after several months away. Threnody kept to the shadows and was angered to see Nate was travelling with Madelyne Pryor, the woman who killed her. Her powers were not all that had changed since she rose from the dead. Threnody's stomach was now noticeably distended making it appear as if she was several months pregnant. She tracked Nate via his unique death energy for a time, first to Alaska and then to Seattle where he collapsed in an alley after a battle. She took him to her refuge under the Seattle piers. While he lay unconscious for a week, she was sustained by her zomboids who had grown addicted to Threnody. Nate woke to see the zomboids hungrily clawing at Threnody, who seemed to be in a delusional state or intense pain. When Nate pulled her free, she was as svelte and slim as the day they met. All signs of her apparent pregnancy were gone. Threnody's tolerance for the ever-present zomboids that followed her around had turned to fear and she hoped that reconnecting with Nate would help her rid herself of them. She managed to escape the zomboids for a while with Nate's telekinetic help and the former couple finally had a chance to catch up. Threnody told Nate that she never "abandoned" him all those months ago as he believed and told him how she had been killed by Madelyne. She also confessed to Nate about her feedings at the cancer ward and among the homeless. Both Threnody and Nate finally acknowledged that she was addicted to death. The zomboids soon located their unwitting mistress and Threnody and Nate fled to an anchored yacht far from the zomboids and anyone near death that Threnody could feed off. Nate hoped that this would allow her to beat her addiction "cold turkey". Her withdrawal was a difficult one, particularly because of Nate's own unique death energy. Because his power was killing him and would cut his life short before he reached 21, Nate Grey was a constant source of ripe death energy for Threnody. She had been feeding on Nate's death energies since they met. In her newly enhanced state, Threnody was actively weakening Nate every minute they were together. He provided an everlasting high for her death addiction. For both their sakes, Threnody insisted on cutting ties with Nate and going her own way. When he told her he loved her and would stay by her regardless, Threnody pushed Nate away by claiming that she never loved him, only the "taste" of his death energies. To save the man she loved, Threnody broke his heart, leaving a shattered Nate Grey behind as she disappeared once more into the night. After parting ways with Nate this final time, Threnody retrieved a bundle from her refuge which appeared to be a newborn child. The secrets of this child and its parentage along with the true nature of Threnody's pregnancy have not yet been revealed. Threnody has not been seen following M-Day but rumors have spread that she is still active but has yet to reveal herself as well as the full details of Threnody's post-mortem condition have yet to be fully explained. Threnody along with the Harkspur Brood and Blackout, were later revealed to be promising recruits to the Assassins Guild, and were requested by Belladona Boudreaux, the Leader of the Assassins Guild, to deal with Deadpool, however Deadpool easily kills the Harkspur Brood and Threnody eventually betrays Blackout and prevented him from killing Deadpool, revealing in the process that she had been under Blackout's care for an uncertain time and for that same reason she let him live. Threnody then asked Deadpool if she could tag along in him which she used to feed off all the death that surrounds him. After Weasel was killed by Assassins Guild mercenaries, Threnody kidnapped Clarice and reveals that she only joined with the Assassins Guild and later with Deadpool so she could collect the death energy she needed to feed her newborn child, and while at first it appeared to be working, she would discover that the energy wasn't nearly enough as the child was still hungry. As it turns out the child had been affected by Thenody's powers, resulting in the baby born already an undead demonic creature which required to be regularly nourished with the necroplasmic energies Threnody was capable of absorbing. Now she hoped to absorb Clarice's unborn baby's energy to cure her baby's affliction. Deadpool eventually tracked down Threnody and tried to make her come to her senses to no avail, so he impaled Threnody's baby to stop her. Threnody initially retaliated against Deadpool until he made Melody realize he wanted to spare her from the guilt of murdering a child. She then left him with the warning to stay away from her. Powers and abilities Threnody has a unique link to death, as is hinted at with her name. She is capable of sensing the certain necroplasmic energies that surround a person when they are near death or dying. She then absorbs this energy and uses it to generate concussive blasts of energy. When Threnody was murdered, she fed off her own death energy, which resurrected her. This experience of being so close to death enhanced her powers, allowing Threnody to now also be able to bring back the dead as mindless zombies who follow her every command. The zombies that Threnody creates are completely loyal to her and appear to have super strength and can still fight for their "queen" even when their limbs are torn from their bodies. Threnody has often been depicted as being enraptured by the scent of death and the "taste" of the energy, sometimes to the point of it being an addiction. Because of this, Threnody's powers have caused much sadness in her life. References External links Threnody at World of Black Heroes Profile of Threnody at UncannyXmen.net Marveldatabase:Character Gallery Threnody Marvel Comics characters with superhuman senses Marvel Comics female supervillains Fictional African-American people Marvel Comics mutants Fictional empaths Characters created by Fabian Nicieza Comics characters introduced in 1993
4914360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation%20Section%2C%20U.S.%20Signal%20Corps	Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps	The Aviation Section, Signal Corps, was the aerial warfare service of the United States from 1914 to 1918, and a direct statutory ancestor of the United States Air Force. It absorbed and replaced the Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps, and conducted the activities of Army aviation until its statutory responsibilities were suspended by President Woodrow Wilson in 1918. The Aviation Section organized the first squadrons of the aviation arm and conducted the first military operations by United States aviation on foreign soil. The Aviation Section, Signal Corps was created by the 63rd Congress (Public Law 143) on 18 July 1914 after earlier legislation to make the aviation service independent from the Signal Corps died in committee. From July 1914 until May 1918 the aviation section of the Signal Corps was familiarly known by the title of its administrative headquarters component at the time, seen variously as the Aeronautical Division, Air Division, Division of Military Aeronautics, and others. For historic convenience, however, the air arm is most commonly referred to by its official designation, the Aviation Section, Signal Corps (ASSC), and is the designation recognized by the United States Air Force as its predecessor for this period. The Aviation Section began in turbulence, first as an alternative to making aviation in the Army a corps independent of the Signal Corps, then with friction between its pilots, who were all young and on temporary detail from other branches, and its leadership, who were more established Signal Corps officers and non-pilots. Despite the assignment of Lieutenant Colonel George O. Squier as chief to bring stability to Army aviation, the Signal Corps found itself wholly inadequate to the task of supporting the Army in combat after the United States entered World War I on 6 April 1917. It attempted to expand and organize a competent arm but its efforts were largely chaotic and in the spring of 1918 aviation was removed, first from the jurisdiction of the Office of the Chief of Signal where it had resided since its inception, and then from the Signal Corps altogether. The duties of the section were not resumed following World War I and it was formally disestablished by the creation of the Air Service in 1920. Establishment 1914 The Aviation Section, Signal Corps was created by the Act of 18 July 1914, Chapter 186 (Public Law 143, 63rd Congress), 38 Stat. 514, to supersede the Aeronautical Division, an administrative creation of the Signal Corps within the Office of the Chief Signal Officer (OCSO), as the primary agency for military aviation. Earlier legislation to make the aviation service independent from the Signal Corps died in committee after all officers connected with aviation save one, Captain Paul W. Beck, testified against it. Later provisions of the National Defense Act (39 Stat. 174), 3 June 1916, and the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), 24 July 1917, permitted aviation support functions to be gradually transferred from the Aeronautical Division to newly established aviation section organizations. The new law established the purpose and duties of the section, authorized a significant increase in size of U.S. military aviation to 60 officers and 260 enlisted men, increased the size of the Signal Corps by an equal number of personnel to provide them, stipulated that pilots be volunteers from branches of the line of the Army, and detailed them for four years. The Aeronautical Division then became the administrative component of the Aviation Section until its abolition in 1918. The first funding appropriation for the Aviation Section was $250,000 for fiscal year 1915. The new law also decreed restrictions that only unmarried lieutenants of the line under the age of 30 could be detailed to the section, provisions which encouraged a lack of discipline and professional maturity among the aviators that handicapped the growth of the service, hampered retention of pilots, and prevented flying officers from commanding flying units. Officers on aviation duty who were promoted to permanent captain in their branch arm were automatically returned to the line. Aggravating the situation, the 11 remaining pilots of the 24 previously rated as Military Aviators all had their ratings automatically reduced to Junior Military Aviator (and therefore incurred a 25% reduction in flight pay) when requirements were changed to include three years experience as a JMA before qualifying for the higher rating. This placed them on the same level as newly graduated pilots, and none of those so reduced regained their ratings before 1917. At its creation, the Aviation Section had 19 officers and 101 enlisted men. The Aeronautical Division, a quasi-headquarters (Lt. Col. Samuel Reber, Washington, D.C.) with three officers and 11 enlisted men, issued orders in the name of the Chief Signal Officer (CSO). All other personnel of the aviation section were organized on 5 August 1914, by Signal Corps Aviation School General Order No. 10 into the: Signal Corps Aviation School (Capt. Arthur S. Cowan, San Diego), 1st Aero Squadron (Capt. Benjamin D. Foulois), 1st Company, 1st Aero Squadron (Capt. Harold C. Geiger) 2nd Company, 1st Aero Squadron (Capt. Lewis E. Goodier, Jr.), totaling 16 officers, 90 enlisted men, seven civilians, and seven aircraft. Most of the air service had just returned to San Diego from detached service in Texas for the second time in as many years to support Army ground forces in a possible war with Mexico over the Tampico Affair. The impending war was defused by the resignation of Victoriano Huerta on 15 July. By December 1914, the Aviation Section consisted of 44 officers, 224 enlisted men, and 23 aircraft. 1915–1916 Chief Signal Officer Brigadier General George P. Scriven announced on 9 April 1915 that following the establishment of an aero company at San Antonio, three additional companies would be sent overseas, to the Philippine Department for station on Corregidor, to Fort Kamehameha in the Hawaiian Department, and to the Panama Canal Zone. The 1st Company, 2nd Aero Squadron was activated on 12 May 1915 at San Diego but not manned until December. A small detachment with S.C. 31, a Martin T tractor airplane, returned from San Diego to Texas for the fourth time in five years in April 1915, led by 1st Lt. Thomas D. Milling and 2d Lt. Byron Q. Jones, as the Army massed around Brownsville in response to civil war between the forces of Pancho Villa and the Carranza government. On 20 April, Milling and Jones became the first American military airmen to come under fire from a hostile force. Beginning in August 1915, the 1st Aero Squadron spent four months at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, training at the Field Artillery School with eight newly delivered Curtiss JN-2s. After a fatal crash on 12 August, the pilots of the squadron met with squadron commander Foulois and declared the JN-2 unsafe because of low power, shoddy construction, lack of stability, and overly sensitive rudders. Foulois and Milling, now also a captain, disagreed and the JN-2 remained operational until a second crashed on 5 September. The aircraft were grounded until 14 October, when conversions of the JN-2s to the newer JN-3 began, two copies of which the squadron received in early September. Between 19 and 26 November 1915, the six JN-3s of the 1st Aero Squadron at Fort Sill (the other two were on detached duty at Brownsville) made the first cross-country squadron flight, to a new airfield built near Fort Sam Houston, Texas. The Texas base became the "first permanent aeronautical station" on 6 January 1916, designated as the San Antonio Air Center. Ironically, the first "permanent" base was abandoned after several months and its remaining funding allocated to the establishment of a new training school on Long Island, New York. Signal Corps Aviation Station, Mineola (later Hazelhurst Field) opened on 22 July 1916. On 12 January 1916, the strength of the Aviation Section stood at 60 officers (23 JMA-rated pilots, 27 student pilots) and 243 enlisted men (eight of whom were pilots), which figures were 100% and 93% respectively of its authorized totals. It was now organized into four subordinate organizations: the Aeronautical Division (Washington D.C.), the Signal Corps Aviation School (San Diego); the 1st Aero Squadron (San Antonio Air Center), and the 1st Company, 2nd Aero Squadron (Manila). It had 23 aircraft: four seaplanes based overseas at Manila, two seaplanes and nine trainers at San Diego, and eight JN-3s in Texas. Thirty-two other aircraft had been destroyed or written off since 1909, one was in the Smithsonian Institution, and three were too damaged to repair economically. On 1 November 1915, the first aviation organization in the National Guard was created, the "Aviation Detachment, 1st Battalion Signal Corps, New York National Guard", later called simply the "1st Aero Company". Consisting of four officers (including its founder, Captain Raynal Bolling) and 40 enlisted men, it used two leased aircraft to train until five aircraft were purchased for its equipment in 1916. Punitive expedition Following Villa's raid on Columbus, New Mexico, on 9 March 1916, the 1st Aero Squadron was attached to Major General John J. Pershing's Punitive Expedition. It consisted of 11 pilots, 84 enlisted men (including two medics), a civilian mechanic, and was supported by an engineer officer and 14 men. Eight Curtiss JN-3s were disassembled at Fort Sam Houston on 12 March and shipped the next day by rail to Columbus, along with half of the squadron's motorized transportation: ten Jeffrey trucks, one automobile, and six motorcycles. Two other trucks were received in Columbus and all of the trucks assigned to the expedition's quartermaster. The JN-3s were reassembled as they were off-loaded on 15 March, the date the first column marched into Mexico. The first observation mission flown by the squadron, and the first American military reconnaissance flight over foreign territory, was flown the next day and lasted 51 minutes with Dodd at the controls and Foulois observing. On 19 March, Pershing telegraphed Foulois and ordered the squadron forward to his advanced base at Colonia Dublán, 230 miles from Columbus, to observe for the 7th and 10th Cavalry Regiments. Half of the ground echelon moved forward by truck, while the remaining half and the entire squadron engineering section remained in Columbus to assist the quartermaster in the assembly of new trucks. Because of coordination difficulties, the eight JN-3s were unable to take off until 17:10. One aircraft developed engine problems immediately and turned back. Four, led by Capt. Townsend F. Dodd and Foulois in No. 44, flew more or less in formation at a lower altitude for better navigation. Three flew at a higher altitude and soon lost sight of the others. None of the eight aircraft made Dublán that evening, all forced down by darkness: in addition to the aircraft that turned back, one crash-landed and was destroyed by scavengers after a forced landing near Pearson, Mexico (south of its intended landing ground) and six others landed intact. Four that landed together at Ascensión (about halfway to Dublán) flew on to the advanced base in the morning, where they arrived an hour after the plane that had been forced to return to Columbus with engine trouble, and after another that had waited out the night on a road at Janos. The squadron returned to Columbus on 22 April for new aircraft, where it expanded to a roster of 16 pilots and 122 enlisted men. It flew liaison missions for Pershing's force using detachments in Mexico until 15 August 1916. The 1st Aero Squadron flew a total of 540 liaison and aerial reconnaissance missions, traveling with a flight time of 345 hours 43 minutes. No observations were made of hostile troops but the squadron performed invaluable services maintaining communications between Pershing's headquarters and ground units deep inside Mexico. During this expedition, a solid red star on the rudder became the first national insignia for United States military aircraft. Their airplanes did not have sufficient power to fly over the Sierra Madre Mountains nor did they perform well in the turbulence of its passes, and missions averaged only distance from their landing fields. The planes were nearly impossible to maintain because of a lack of parts and environmental conditions (laminated wooden propellers had to be dismounted after each flight and placed in humidors to keep their glue from disintegrating), and after just 30 days service only two were left. Both were no longer flight worthy and were condemned on 22 April. Congress in a deficiency bill voted the Aviation Section an emergency appropriation of $500,000 (twice its previous budget), and although four new Curtiss N-8s were shipped to Columbus, they were rejected by Foulois after six days of flight testing. Foulois recommended condemnation of the N-8s but they were instead shipped to San Diego, modified, and ultimately used as training aircraft. A new agency was also created within the Aviation Section, the Technical Advisory and Inspection Board, headed by Milling, and staffed by pilots who had completed aeronautical engineering courses at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and civilian engineers, including Donald Douglas. The Board recommended the squadron be equipped with new Curtiss R-2s, which used a engine. The first two were delivered on 1 May 1916, and the remaining 10 by 25 May. They were assigned Signal Corps numbers 64 to 75. The R-2s were equipped with Lewis machine guns, wireless sets, and standard compasses, but their performance proved little better than that of their predecessors. Pilots were quoted by name in both The New York Times and New York Herald Tribune as condemning their equipment, but Pershing did not pursue the issue, noting they had "already too often risked their lives in old and often useless machines they have patched up and worked over in an effort to do their share of the duty this expedition has been called upon to perform." The Goodier court-martial Charges and countercharges In August 1914, soon after the passage of the act creating the Aviation Section, World War I began. The European powers showed an immediate interest in promoting military aviation but the Army's General Staff remained apathetic regarding development of aerial capabilities, as Captain Beck had charged the year before. The Chief Signal Officer continued restrictions on development and acquisition of aircraft that were perceived by the young aviators as detrimental to flying safety and likely to prevent the Aviation Section from providing aviation support to the Army comparable to that of the European powers in the event that the United States was drawn into the war. Officers who had testified against separation of aviation from the Signal Corps in August 1913 now were for it, marking the beginning of the movement that ultimately culminated in the creation of the United States Air Force 33 years later. Considerable friction developed between the young pilots from the line of the Army and their non-flying superiors in the Signal Corps, primarily over safety concerns the pilots felt were being disregarded in the interest of efficiency. (see Appropriations, growth, and "incipient mutiny" under Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps.) The commanding officer of the 1st Aero Squadron's 2nd Company at San Diego, Captain Lewis Edward Goodier, Jr., was seriously injured in a demonstration accident on 5 November 1914. Flying with Glenn L. Martin in a new aircraft undergoing a required competitive slow speed test, the aircraft stalled, and when Martin overcorrected with too much throttle, went into what was described as the first tailspin. Goodier suffered a nearly severed nose, two broken legs, a re-opened skull fracture, and a severe puncture of his knee from the drive shaft. The accident occurred amidst a series of fatal training crashes, all involving the Wright C pusher airplane, that resulted in six deaths between July 1913 and February 1914, and culminated in pilots refusing to fly pusher airplanes. After a cursory review of the crashes, school commandant Captain Arthur S. Cowan refused to discontinue use of the aircraft, dismissing the pilots as "nothing but amateurs". While recuperating, Goodier assisted Captain Townsend F. Dodd and 1st Lt. Walter Taliaferro in an attempt to prefer charges against Cowan for fraudulently collecting flight pay when he was neither certified to fly nor on flying duty. They were aided by Goodier's father, Lt. Col. Lewis Edward Goodier, Sr., Judge Advocate General of the Western Department in San Francisco, who also preferred charges against former squadron commander Captain William Lay Patterson for similar offenses, charging that he had been awarded a rating of Junior Military Aviator, and was drawing pay based on it, without being qualified to fly or being on flying duty. The charges were routed to the Chief Signal Officer at a time when Cowan's superior, Chief of the Aviation Section Lt. Col. Samuel Reber, himself an integral part of the accusations and also a non-flyer, was temporarily in command. Reber had the charges against Cowan and Patterson dismissed, then he and Cowan charged the elder Goodier with "conduct to the prejudice of good order and discipline" for assisting in drawing up of charges against Cowan, specifying that he did so out of malice. Goodier court-martialed The resulting court martial proceedings, which began 18 October 1915, resulted in the conviction of Lt. Col. Goodier and a sentence of reprimand. Brig. Gen. E. H. Crowder, the Army's Judge Advocate General, ruled (after the preferring of charges against Lt. Col. Goodier but before his trial) that neither Cowan nor Patterson was criminally culpable of fraud because of legal technicalities. Although legally correct, the ruling put the Army in a bad public light for not only condoning misfeasance but failing to correct it. Evidence also showed that at the same time Reber and Cowan had used Capt. Goodier's injuries as a pretext to have him dismissed from the Aviation Section while he was recuperating. However the charge of malice allowed defense counsel wide latitude in its introduction of evidence, and documents including official correspondence describing numerous incidents that confirmed Capt. Goodier's original charges against Cowan became part of the court record, including support by the CSO of a pattern of retribution against officers on flying duty who fell in disfavor of Cowan. Senator Joseph T. Robinson immediately brought the matter before the United States Senate, introducing S.J. Resolution 65 in January 1916, calling for an investigation of malfeasance in the Aviation Section involving serious mismanagement, disregard for flying safety, favoritism, fraud, and concealment of wrongdoing in the Aviation Section's chain of command. Robinson conducted hearings and released to the public all of the documents held in evidence at the court martial. S.J. Resolution 65 passed on 16 March 1916, without opposition. An acting head of section was immediately appointed pending the outcome of the investigation. The second of these acting heads of division was Major William "Billy" Mitchell, a General Staff officer who had testified before Congress in 1913 against transfer of aviation from the Signal Corps. As a result of negative publicity regarding its airplanes in Mexico, Mitchell and the Aviation Section came under severe criticism during this period. Mitchell defended the department, insisting that the U.S. firms did not produce better aircraft, but the outcry produced several long-term results, including instructing Mitchell in political tactics, participation in which ultimately resulted in his court-martial at the end of his career. Report of the Garlington Board While the Senate hearings were in progress and the 1st Aero Squadron encountered difficulties with its airplanes in Mexico, Scriven issued a statement accusing the young aviators of "unmilitary insubordination and disloyal acts" in an attempt to form an air service separate from the Signal Corps. He also recommended that the age and marital status restrictions for pilots be removed to encourage older and therefore more experienced officers to volunteer for aviation duty. Brig. Gen. Ernest Albert Garlington, the Inspector general, was appointed by Army Chief of Staff Gen. Hugh L. Scott to head a board of investigation into the Aviation Section. The Garlington Board confirmed Goodier's allegations and also cited Scriven and Reber for failing to supervise the section adequately, holding them responsible for acquiring substandard aircraft. The Garlington Board's report, together with the Senate resolution and public criticism of the equipment used in Mexico, prompted Secretary of War Newton Baker to issue letters of reprimand to Scriven, Reber and Cowan. Reber was formally relieved as Chief of the Aviation Section on 5 May, and Cowan of his duties in July. Both were assigned non-aviation duties in the Signal Corps after extensive leaves of absence. Lt. Col. George O. Squier was recalled from duty as military attaché in London and appointed Chief of the Aviation Section on 20 May, with orders to reform it literally from the ground up. On 24 April 1916, the General Staff appointed a committee chaired by Col. Charles W. Kennedy to make recommendations for reform and reorganization of the Aviation Section. Milling was named the representative from the section, over the objections of Foulois, who believed him to be too close to the previous Signal Corps leadership. The committee took statements from all 23 officers then on flying duty with the Aviation Section and found that 21 favored separation of aviation from the Signal Corps. Only Milling and Captain Patterson were opposed to separation—and Patterson was the non-flyer who had acquired his flying certificate through the censured actions of Cowan. The Kennedy Committee recommended in July 1916 that aviation be expanded and developed, and that it be removed from the Signal Corps and placed under a central agency, in effect endorsing for the first time a call for a separate air arm. The recommendation was quickly attacked by Assistant Army Chief of Staff Gen. Tasker Bliss, who branded the air officers supporting separation as having "a spirit of insubordination" and acting out of "self-aggrandizement". The Kennedy Committee's findings were rejected by the agency that created it, but the issue of a separate Air Force had been born and would not die until separation was finally achieved in 1947. Response to World War I Aviation Section legislation and appropriations On 3 June 1916, in anticipation of possible U.S. entry in the war in Europe, Congress adopted the National Defense Act of 3 June 1916 (39 Stat. 166, 174, 175), provisions of which authorized an increase in the size of the Aviation Section to 148 officers, allowed the President to determine the size of the enlisted complement, and established the first reserve components for aviation, the Signal Officers Reserve Corps (297 officers) and the Signal Enlisted Reserve Corps (2,000 men). However, anticipating the presidential election of 1916, the normally aviation-friendly Wilson Administration still refused to put forth a budget appropriation request greater than that of the preceding year. Following Scriven's recommendations, the law rescinded the eligibility restrictions for detailing officers to be pilots in the 1914 act and allowed rated captains to also draw the temporary rank, pay and allowances of the next higher grade. On 29 August, however, Congress followed with an appropriations bill that allocated $13,000,000 (more than 17 times the previous combined allocation) to the military aeronautics in both the Signal Corps and National Guard. By 7 December, the force still consisted of a total of only 503 personnel. Squier also created a Field Officers course for aviation at North Island similar to that for the Service Schools in Fort Leavenworth to train field grade officers in the staff administration of aviation. Of the four officers assigned to the course in November 1916, two actually headed the section or its successor. The poor showing in Mexico of the Aviation Section's JN3s also showed that the U.S. aviation industry was not competitive in any respect with European aircraft manufacturers. No American-manufactured airplane had a vital function, none were mounted with weapons, and all were markedly inferior in speed and other performance characteristics. Further, U.S. companies were distracted by protracted legal battles and in-fighting over licenses and royalties while their European counterparts had been energized by the needs of the battlefield. The United States entered World War I in April 1917. In addition to appropriating $640,000,000 for expansion of the military air arm, the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed 24 July 1917, transferred aviation support functions from the Aeronautical Division to the following newly established organizations in the Office of the Chief Signal Officer: Engineering Division, 6 April 1917: Procurement and distribution of aviation supplies; later designated Finance and Supply Division; and Engineering Division again on 2 August 1917. Construction Division, 21 May 1917: Air field construction and maintenance; redesignated Supply Division, 1 October 1917, with added responsibility for procurement and distribution of aviation supplies transferred from Engineering Division and vested in subordinate Materiel Section, organized 24 January 1918. Aircraft Engineering Division, 24 May 1917: Research and design; redesignated Science and Research Division, 22 October 1917. Wood Section, August 1917: Airplane lumber contracts; expanded and redesignated Spruce Production Division, 15 November 1917. The Aeronautical Division was renamed the Air Division (also called the Air Service Division), with functions limited to operation, training, and personnel on 1 October 1917. The Air Division was abolished by order of Secretary of War on 24 April 1918, and OCSO aviation functions realigned to create the Division of Military Aeronautics, with responsibility for general oversight of military aviation; and the Bureau of Aircraft Production, which had charge of design and production of aircraft and equipment. Failures of expansion In its final year as a component of the Signal Corps, from the declaration of war on Germany by the United States in April 1917 to May 1918, the Aviation Section developed into parallel air forces, a training force in the United States and a combat force in Europe. After February 1917, the section consisted of three divisions in the OCSO: Administrative, Engineering, and Aeronautical. At the onset of war the Aviation Section consisted of only 65 regular officers, 66 reserve officers, 1,087 enlisted men, and 280 airplanes (all trainers), with more on order. The service had 36 pilots and 51 student pilots. By comparison, the United States Navy's air service had 48 officers, 230 enlisted men, and 54 powered aircraft. In the United States, the Aviation Section was nearly overwhelmed with the problems of rapid expansion to fight a modern war—the recruitment and training of pilots and mechanics, the production of airplanes, the formation and equipping of combat units, and the acquisition of air bases—while overseas a second force developed as part of the American Expeditionary Force, absorbing most of the experienced leadership of military aviation and taking over much of the expansion responsibilities except aircraft production. This second force, the Air Service of the AEF, used European-built aircraft and training facilities and forced the separation of aviation from the Signal Corps. Part of this separation occurred when the Aviation Section failed in its most pressing need, the production of new airplanes. Under pressure from the French, the Wilson administration set up a production plan to develop a force of 6,000 pursuit planes; 3,000 observation craft; and 2,000 bombers, a ratio established by Pershing, now commanding general of the AEF. Despite pronounced resistance from the Army general staff, $640,000,000 was funded by Congress to meet this goal (45 times the budget of the preceding year) when Squier, now a brigadier general and advanced to CSO, appealed directly to the Secretary of War. An Aircraft Production Board was set up under the chairmanship of an automobile manufacturer, Howard E. Coffin of the Hudson Motor Car Company, but the airplane of World War I was not suitable to the mass-production methods of automobile manufacturing and Coffin neglected the priority of mass-producing spare parts. Though individual areas within the industry responded well—particularly in engine production, with the development of the Liberty engine, of which 13,500 were produced—the industry as a whole failed. Attempts to mass-produce European models under license in the U.S. were largely failures. Among pursuit planes, the SPAD S.VII could not be engineered to accept an American engine and the Bristol F.2 became dangerous to fly using one. Because of this failure, President Wilson determined that the OCSO was too overburdened by tasks to supervise effectively the Aviation Section and created a new subordinate organization, the Division of Military Aeronautics, on 24 April 1918, to assume all the functions and responsibilities for aviation. The DMA was removed from the Signal Corps altogether by executive order, under war powers granted to the president under the newly passed Overman Act, on 20 May 1918, reporting directly to the Secretary of War and effectively suspending the statutory duties of the Aviation Section. Four days later, on 24 May, both the DMA and the civilian-headed Bureau of Aircraft Production came under the aegis of a new organization, the Air Service, United States Army. The Aviation Section had been created by an act of Congress and was not formally disestablished until the passage of the National Defense Act of 1920, statutorily creating the Air Service. Aero squadrons In January 1917 the CSO advised the House Committee on Military Affairs that during 1917 the Aviation Section would increase in size to 13 aero squadrons: four land plane squadrons based in the United States, three seaplane squadrons to be based in U.S. possessions overseas, and six reserve squadrons for coast defense. By the time of the United States entry into World War I in April, three squadrons (1st and 3rd in the U.S., 2nd in the Philippines) were in service, two (6th for Hawaii and 7th for the Panama Canal Zone) were organizing, and two (4th and 5th, to be based in the continental U.S.) had yet to receive personnel. In March, for planning purposes, the Army Chief of Staff proposed new tables of organization and authorized a total of 20 squadrons, including an additional squadron in the U.S. and six additional for coast defense. However the plan was never implemented because of the war and only 131 of the required 440 officers had been assigned. During the following year, until the statutory responsibilities of the Aviation Section were suspended for the duration of the war plus six months by Wilson's executive order, the Aviation Section rapidly mobilized "aero squadrons" for a multiplicity of needs, including combat operations. This resulted in a conglomeration of several classifications by function, as flying squadrons were only a portion of the units required by the Aviation Section and by its successor, the Air Service: Service squadron: Flying units equipped with planes and flying personnel. Enlisted personnel assigned to the squadron consisted of mechanics, radio operators, machine gun armorers and chauffeurs. Service squadrons were eventually classified as "pursuit", "observation" or "bombardment" according to their combat role. School squadron: Support units consisting primarily of aircraft mechanics, performing their work in the hangars and shops at training bases for pilots and observers. Construction squadron: Units which built new airfields, smoothing and grading a field for aircraft landings and takeoffs. They also erected hangars, barracks, shops, and all the other infrastructure (roads, electricity, water, sewer) needed to establish a new airfield. In the Zone of the Advance in France, new airfields were established quickly as the front line changed. Park squadron (also known as "air park"): Logistical units whose mission was to supply the equipment and supplies necessary for the other squadrons to operate. In the Air Service of the AEF, one squadron historian estimated that for each flying ("service") squadron, there were at least five support squadrons to maintain its aircraft, airfields and stations, beginning with the park squadrons. Behind them were: Depot squadrons to provide a supply base and a reception point for new aircraft being delivered to the flying squadrons, Repair squadrons at major repair facilities where new aircraft were assembled and parts from old aircraft salvaged, and Replacement squadrons for processing and assigning incoming personnel for the flying squadrons. Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force see Organization of the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force and List of Training Section Air Service airfields When the United States entered World War I on 6 April 1917, the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps was not ready for the deployment of aviation forces to Europe, and it became necessary to prepare after President Woodrow Wilson's declaration of war. As part of the buildup of forces, aviation units were formed into aero squadrons primarily at Kelly Field, San Antonio, Texas, with additional units being formed at Rockwell Field, San Diego California. Once formed, and prior to their deployment to Europe, Camp Taliaferro, north of Fort Worth, Texas, and several airfields near Toronto, Ontario, Canada were used by the British Royal Flying Corps (RFC) to perform flight training for the new aero squadrons. Camp Hancock, near Augusta, Georgia, was used for training service squadrons of aircraft mechanics as well as flight training. When ordered to deploy to Europe, most units reported to the Aviation Concentration Center at Garden City, New York, which was the primary port of embankment. Units there were loaded onto transport ships for the transatlantic crossing. Liverpool, England and Brest, France were the primary ports of disembarkation, although other ports were used. Some aero squadrons arriving in England received additional training from the Royal Flying Corps (later Royal Air Force (RAF)), then were attached to RAF squadrons and deployed with them to France. Others received training and were sent to Winchester, Hampshire where they awaited their cross-channel transfer to France, using the port of Southampton. Upon their arrival in France, the St. Maixent Replacement Barracks was the primary reception center for new aero squadrons assigned to the Air Service American Expeditionary Force. There, units were classified as pursuit, bombardment or as observation units. If necessary, units were assigned to one of several Air Instructional Centers (AIC) for additional combat and gunnery training provided by the French. Once prepared fully for combat, units were sent to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome for equipping. Initially equipped with British or French aircraft, later in 1918 American-built Dayton-Wright DH-4 aircraft equipped with American Liberty Engines began to arrive in France. The units were then assigned to one of the combat groups of the First or Second Army Air Service and transfer to their initial combat Aerodrome for combat duty. Operating from primarily French Air Force ( (ALA) airfields, the squadrons engaged in combat operations against enemy aircraft along the American Sector of the Western Front. Chiefs of the Aviation Section Source: Lt. Col. Samuel Reber (18 July 1914 – 5 May 1916) Lt. Col. George O. Squier (20 May 1916 – 19 February 1917) Lt. Col. John B. Bennet (20 February 1917 – 30 June 1917) Brig. Gen. Benjamin D. Foulois (30 June 1917 – 12 November 1917) Brig. Gen. Alexander L. Dade (12 November 1917 – 27 February 1918) Col. Laurence C. Brown (28 February 1918 – 24 April 1918) Lineage of the United States Air Force Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps 1 August 1907 – 18 July 1914 Aviation Section, Signal Corps 18 July 1914 – 20 May 1918 Division of Military Aeronautics 20 May 1918 – 24 May 1918 Air Service, United States Army 24 May 1918 – 2 July 1926 United States Army Air Corps 2 July 1926 – 20 June 1941 United States Army Air Forces 20 June 1941 – 18 September 1947 United States Air Force 18 September 1947 – present See also Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps Division of Military Aeronautics United States Army Air Service List of American Aero Squadrons List of American Balloon Squadrons List of World War I flying aces from the United States Notes Footnotes Citations References Bowman, Martin W., "Background to War", USAAF Handbook 1939–1945, Heimdahl, William C., and Hurley, Alfred F., "The Roots of U.S. Military Aviation," Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force Vol. I (1997), Hennessy, Juliette A. (1958). The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Air Force Historical Study No. 98. Air Force History Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama. Johnson, Herbert Alan (2001). Wingless Eagle: U.S. Army Aviation Through World War I, University of North Carolina Press. . Maurer Maurer (ed.) (1978). The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Volume I: The Final Report and A Tactical History Mortenson, Daniel R., "The Air Service in the Great War," Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force Vol. I (1997), Raines, Rebecca Robbins (1996). Getting the Message Through: A Branch History of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, United States Army Center of Military History "2011 Almanac," Air Force Magazine, May 2011, Vol. 94, No. 5, the Air Force Association, Arlington, Virginia Army Air Forces Statistical Digest (World War II) (Table 3, "AAF Military personnel – number and percent of US Army strength") External links Side views of Curtiss R-2 and JN-3, 1st Aero Squadron in Mexico Report of the Operations of the First Aero Squadron, Signal Corps, with the Mexican Punitive Expedition, for period March 15 to August 15, 1916. By Capt. Benjamin D. Foulois, Signal Corps, U.S. Army The New York Times Feb. 20, 1916: "Army Itself Makes An Aviation Inquiry", regarding Garlington Board Aviation Section, Army Signal Corps Signal units and formations of the United States Army Aviation Section, Army Signal Corps Aviation Section, Army Signal Corps Aviation Section, Army Signal Corps Aviation Section, Army Signal Corps Aviation Section, Army Signal Corps Military units and formations established in 1914 Military units and formations disestablished in 1918 1914 establishments in the United States 1918 disestablishments in the United States Disbanded air forces
4914598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Transformers%20%28TV%20series%29	The Transformers (TV series)	The Transformers is an American animated television series that originally aired from September 17, 1984, to November 11, 1987, in syndication based upon Hasbro's Transformers toy line. The first television series in the Transformers franchise, it depicts a war among giant robots that can transform into vehicles and other objects. The series was produced by Marvel Productions and Sunbow Productions in association with Japanese studio Toei Animation for first-run syndication. Toei co-produced the show and was the main animation studio for the first two seasons. In the third season, Toei's involvement with the production team was reduced and the animation services were shared with the South Korean studio AKOM. The show's supervising producer (Nelson Shin) was also AKOM's founder. The fourth season was entirely animated by AKOM. The series was supplemented by a feature film, The Transformers: The Movie (1986), taking place between the second and third seasons. This series is also popularly known as "Generation One", a term originally coined by fans in response to the re-branding of the franchise as Transformers: Generation 2 in 1992, which eventually made its way into official use. The series was later shown in reruns on Sci-Fi Channel and The Hub / Discovery Family. Production background The Transformers toyline and animated series were inspired by the Japanese toyline, Microman (an Eastern descendant of the 12-inch G.I. Joe action figure series) by Takara. In 1980, the Microman spin-off, Diaclone, was released, featuring inch-tall humanoid figures able to sit in the drivers' seats of scale model vehicles, which could transform into humanoid robot bodies the drivers piloted. Later still, in 1983, a Microman sub-line, MicroChange was introduced, featuring "actual size" items that transformed into robots, such as microcassettes, guns and toy cars. Diaclone and MicroChange toys were subsequently discovered at the 1983 Tokyo Toy Fair by Hasbro toy company product developer Henry Orenstein, who presented the concept to Hasbro's head of R&D, George Dunsay. Enthusiastic about the product, it was decided to release toys from both Diaclone and MicroChange as one toyline for their markets, although there were eventual changes to the color schemes from the original toys to match the new series. By 1984, U.S. regulators had removed many of the restrictions regarding the placement of promotional content within children's television programming. The way was cleared for the new product-based television program. Hasbro had previously worked with Marvel Comics to develop G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero for a three-pronged marketing scheme – the toyline, a tie-in comic book by Marvel, and an animated mini-series co-produced by Marvel's media arm, Marvel Productions, and the Griffin-Bacal Advertising Agency's Sunbow Productions production house. Given the success of that strategy, the process was repeated in 1984 when Hasbro marketing vice president Bob Prupis approached Marvel to develop their new robot series, which Jay Bacal dubbed "Transformers." Marvel's Editor-in-Chief at the time, Jim Shooter, produced a rough story concept for the series, creating the idea of the two warring factions of alien robots – the heroic Autobots and the evil Decepticons. To flesh out his concept, Shooter called upon veteran editor Dennis O'Neil to create character names and profiles for the cast, but O'Neill's work did not meet with Hasbro's expectations, and they requested heavy revisions. O'Neill declined to make said revisions, and the project was turned down by several writers and editors approached by Shooter until editor Bob Budiansky accepted the task. Hastily performing the revisions over a weekend, Budiansky's new names and profiles were a hit with Hasbro, and production began on a bi-monthly four-issue comic book miniseries, and three-part television pilot. Both comic and cartoon would wind up continuing for years beyond these short-term beginnings, using Budiansky's original development work as a springboard to tell the story of the Transformers in very different ways from one another, forming two separate, unrelated continuities for the brand out of the gate. Japanese designer Shōhei Kohara was responsible for creating the earliest character models for the Transformers cast, greatly humanising the toy designs to create more approachable robot characters for the comic and cartoon. His designs were subsequently simplified by Floro Dery, who went on to become the lead designer for the series, creating many more concepts and designs in the future. Plot This series focuses on the Transformers, split into two warring factions: the heroic Autobots and the evil Decepticons as they crash land on Earth and continue their eons long conflict there. Characters Broadcast history Pilot miniseries The three-part pilot miniseries (retroactively titled "More than Meets the Eye") first aired in the United States in September 1984. The story follows Optimus Prime's heroic Autobots and Megatron's evil Decepticons as they leave their metallic homeworld of Cybertron to search for new sources of energy to revitalize their war efforts, only to crash-land on Earth, where they remain entombed and offline for 4 million years. Awakening in the year of 1984, the Decepticons set about pillaging the energy sources of Earth, while the Autobots—aided by human father and son duo Sparkplug and Spike Witwicky—attempt to protect the new world on which they find themselves. The miniseries concludes with the Decepticons believed dead after their space cruiser is sent plunging into the ocean depths, while the Autobots prepare to return to Cybertron. Season 1 The 13-episode first season, commissioned and produced before the pilot miniseries aired, was broadcast between October and December on Saturday mornings. Story-edited at Marvel Productions by Bryce Malek and Dick Robbins, the season begins with the revelation that the Decepticons have survived the events of the pilot and follows them as they set about constructing a "space bridge" to teleport resources back to Cybertron. A loose story arc centered on this technology spans the season, culminating in "The Ultimate Doom", a three-part episode in which the Decepticons teleport Cybertron itself into Earth's orbit. The paraplegic computer expert Chip Chase joins Spike and Sparkplug as a new human ally for the Autobots. The season also introduced several new characters from the upcoming 1985 product line in advance of their toys' release including Skyfire, the Dinobots, the Insecticons and the first "combiner" team, the Constructicons, who are able to merge into a giant robot, Devastator, whose introduction was set alongside a climactic one-on-one duel between Optimus Prime and Megatron that served as a part of the season finale. Season 2 Forty-nine further episodes were commissioned for the show's second season in 1985, bringing the total up to the "magic number" of 65 required to move the series into weekday broadcast syndication. Compared to the first season, Season 2's stories are more episodic, with many of them able to air in whatever order networks chose. Episodes would often spotlight individual characters or groups of characters as a means of promoting their toys and later in the season, the lore of the series would be expanded on as the history of Cybertron and origin of Optimus Prime were discovered and significant cartoon-original characters like Alpha Trion and the first female Transformer characters were introduced. A new recurring human cast member was also added in the form of Spike's girlfriend Carly. Partway into the season, the remainder of the 1985 product line was introduced, mostly through the two-part episode "Dinobot Island." These new characters, like the first year cast, were largely derived from Takara's Diaclone and Micro Change lines, including new Autobot car and mini-vehicles and Decepticon jets and the giant Autobot sentinel Omega Supreme and Decepticon "Triple-Changers" Astrotrain and Blitzwing. To expand the line, however, Hasbro also licensed several toys from other companies, including Takara's Japanese competitor, Bandai. Legal complications that arose from incorporating the first of these, Skyfire, into the first season resulted in the character quickly being phased out early in Season 2 and meant that none of the other Bandai-derived characters featured in the series. Toward the end of the season, the first 1986 product was introduced into the series: the Aerialbots, Stunticons, Protectobots and Combaticons, four combiner teams based on an unmade Diaclone line that was aborted in Japan in favor of importing the Transformers toy line itself. To promote these new toys even further in Japanese markets, a single Japanese-exclusive episode, Transformers: Scramble City, was released direct-to-video in spring of 1986. The Movie The gap between seasons two and three was bridged by The Transformers: The Movie, which was released to theaters in the summer of 1986. Set 20 years after the second season, in the year 2005, the film featured the deaths of many characters, including Optimus Prime himself, clearing away all the discontinued products from the 1984 and 1985 toy lines and introducing a new cast of the characters designed for the film, who were then made into toys for the 1986 range. Young Autobot Hot Rod used the power of the Autobot talisman known as the Matrix of Leadership to become the new Autobot leader Rodimus Prime and defeated the world-eating robot planet Unicron who recreates Megatron into Galvatron while Skywarp, Thundercracker, Shrapnel, Kickback and Bombshell are reformed as Cyclonus, Scourge and the Sweeps. Season 3 Season 3 picks up where the movie leaves off, with the Autobots now in control of Cybertron once more, working to restore their homeworld and serving as peacemakers for worlds all across the galaxy. The Decepticons, meanwhile, are in exile on the ruined world of Chaar, led now by Galvatron. Interconnected episodes, running plot threads and small story arcs became more common in the series, including the return of Starscream (following his death in the movie) as a ghost, frequent battles between the giant Autobot and Decepticon cities of Metroplex and Trypticon and the threat to both sides posed by the alien Quintessons, introduced in the movie and revealed in the season's premiere miniseries "Five Faces of Darkness" to be the true creators of the Transformers. This season also saw the debut of three new combiners: the Predacons, the Terrorcons, and the Technobots. This season saw story-editing duties transfer from Marvel Productions to Sunbow, overseen by Flint Dille, Marv Wolfman and Steve Gerber. Animation for around half the season was provided by producer Nelson Shin's animation studio AKOM, creating a different "look" for the show that encompassed its opening sequence and commercial bumpers. The death of Optimus Prime proved a controversial move and did not sit well with the viewing audience, resulting in a letter-writing campaign that ultimately compelled Hasbro to resurrect the Autobot leader in a two-part season finale called "The Return of Optimus Prime", which aired in March 1987. Optimus Prime was revived with help from a Quintesson during the threat of the Hate Plague. Season 4 The fourth season, consisting of a three-part finale miniseries named "The Rebirth", was broadcast in November 1987. Written by regular series writer David Wise, the Autobots and Decepticons encounter the alien world of Nebulos, where they bond with the native Nebulans to become Headmasters and Targetmasters. The Nebulons led by the evil Lord Zarak were able to transform the animal Decepticons with Scourge and Cyclonus into Headmasters while some of their weapons were transformed into Targetmasters. While Lord Zarak was able to become the Headmaster to his creation Scorponok, Spike Witwicky was able to operate the Headmaster unit so that he can control Fortress Maximus to fight Scorponok. The miniseries concludes with the successful restoration of Cybertron, but the Decepticon threat not yet quashed as Galvatron and Lord Zarak argue over who will rule the galaxy upon their victory over the Autobots. Later developments The Transformers did not disappear from American airwaves, as a fifth season aired in 1988. It consisted of reruns of 15 episodes from the original series, along with The Transformers: The Movie edited into five episodes. This season featured a new title sequence using footage from previous episodes, the movie, and toy commercials as well as all new framing scenes featuring a human boy named Tommy Kennedy (portrayed by actor Jason Jansen) and a stop-motion/machine prop Optimus Prime puppet (operated by Sesame Street veteran, Martin P. Robinson.). From 1993 to 1995, select episodes of the series were rebroadcast under the title Transformers: Generation 2. The stories were presented as though they were historical recordings displayed by the "Cybernet Space Cube", which added computer-generated borders and scene-transitions to the original animation. The story was later continued in Transformers: Generation 2: Redux, a Botcon magazine that is set 22 years after the events of the final episode where the first generation of the Autobots led by Optimus Prime pursue Galvatron and Zarak into deep space and a new generation of Autobots and Decepticons are introduced. Supplemental sequences Each of the first three seasons of the series featured its own tailored opening sequence, featuring completely original animation and a unique arrangement of the theme tune. Additionally, the third-season premiere "Five Faces of Darkness" had its own specialized opening, depicting events that occurred in the mini-series. The fourth season, however, did not feature any new animation in its opening sequence, instead combining footage from the third season opening and various clips of animation from 1987 toy commercials; likewise, the fifth season featured commercial animation mixed in with footage from The Transformers: The Movie. Both used the season three musical arrangement. The series featured a distinctive scene transition that saw the Autobot and Decepticon symbols "flipping" from one to the other, accompanied by a distinctive five-note refrain. This transition technique became a hallmark of the series, and was used throughout the entire four-year run. Commercial breaks were segued into and out of using commercial bumpers featuring brief eyecatch-styled original animation with a voice over by series narrator Victor Caroli. A set of five proposed public service announcements were created to be tagged onto the end of episodes from the second season of the series, re-using the scripts from similar PSAs created for sister series G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero, complete with the catchphrase "...and knowing is half the battle!" These were never actually aired on television, but eventually appeared as bonus features on various DVDs and video games. For the third season, episodes were tagged with "The Secret Files of Teletraan II", a series of short featurettes that used clips from the show and new narration from Caroli to provide histories for the Autobots, the Decepticons, the Quintessons, and other subjects. Japanese release In Japan, the first two seasons of the show were collectively released as , then rebranded as for Season 3, with all seasons aired on Nippon TV. Following the conclusion of the third season, the Japanese opted not to import "The Rebirth", but instead created a series of new animated shows to continue the story, beginning with Transformers: The Headmasters in 1987, and continuing into Transformers: Super-God Masterforce in 1988, Transformers: Victory in 1989, and the single-episode direct-to-video OVA Transformers: Zone in 1990. Supplementary manga written by Masami Kaneda and illustrated by Ban Magami ran alongside each series in Kodansha's TV Magazine. VHS, Betamax, and DVD releases In the 1980s, episodes from the first and second seasons as well as the third season's "Five Faces of Darkness" and "Return of Optimus Prime" were released on VHS and Betamax by Family Home Entertainment. Between 1995 - 1999, Canadian home entertainment company Malofilm (later renamed as Behaviour Distribution) released several episodes of the series on VHS, and some under the Transformers: Generation 2 name. None of the Malofilm VHS cover art was specifically related to the contents of the episodes either, as they were all various segments of promotional art related to the 1986 animated feature The Transformers: The Movie. Region 1 Seasons 1–4 were released on DVD in the U.S. by Rhino Entertainment Company/Kid Rhino Entertainment (under its Rhinomation classic animation entertainment brand) (a subsidiary of AOL Time Warner) (a division of Warner Music Group) between April 23, 2002, and March 9, 2004. Due to missing 35mm film stock, some sections of the Rhino Entertainment release use earlier incomplete animation, often introducing errors, such as mis-colored Decepticon jets, Skyfire colored like Skywarp, missing laser blasts, or a confusing sequence where Megatron, equipped with Skywarp's teleportation power, teleports but does not actually disappear. This version also added extra sound effects that were presented in the remixed 5.1 surround soundtrack and later remixed 2.0 stereo soundtrack, but not present in the original broadcast version. In 2005, Rhino lost the rights to distribute Transformers on DVD. The license was subsequently acquired by Sony Wonder (a division of Sony BMG). Sony Wonder announced in October 2006 that they would re-release the first season of the series in 2007, with the other seasons presumably following. In June 2007, Sony BMG dissolved Sony Wonder and moved the label to Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, without releasing any DVD sets. In May 2008, Hasbro re-acquired the rights to the Sunbow library of shows, including Transformers. In March 2009, Shout! Factory announced that they had acquired the license from Hasbro to release Transformers on DVD in Region 1 with Vivendi Entertainment. They subsequently released The Complete First Season on June 16, 2009. Season Two Volume One was released on September 15, 2009. Season Two Volume Two was released on January 12, 2010. Seasons Three and Four were released together in one set on April 20, 2010. These releases corrected most of the newly introduced Rhino animation errors, but this was necessarily accomplished by using lower quality sources taken from the original broadcast master tapes. Rhino's added sound effects were discarded in favor of a sound mix more faithful to the original mono audio. On October 20, 2009, Shout! Factory released the complete series in a box set for the first time in Region 1. This set, dubbed Transformers: The Complete Series - The Matrix of Leadership Collector's Set, features all 98 remastered episodes along with all new bonus features. Region 2 Maverick released Season 1 in the U.K. in 2001. Three individual volumes were released (though the episodes are in the wrong order), a box set of the three disks, which included a fourth disk containing bonus features, and one volume of Transformers: Generation 2 with five episodes that had the Cybernetic Space Cube graphics added. They also released a volume of Transformers: Takara, which included the first six episodes of the Asian English dub of Transformers: The Headmasters. Metrodome Distribution released Seasons 1–4 in the U.K. between November 17, 2003, and October 11, 2004. Their first release was a budget-range DVD of the Transformers movie, released through Prism Leisure. The seasons were released in four box sets: Season 1, Season 2 Part 1, Season 2 Part 2 and Seasons 3–4. Notably, Season 2 was released first by Metrodome because Season 1 had been released by Maverick. Metrodome's releases use the remastered production masters, which originated with the Rhino release of the series (and contain all the inherent errors). Additionally, they include Magno Sound & Video's 5.1 audio (with added sound effects), but use a modified version of their 2.0 track. Region 4 Madman Entertainment released the four seasons in six box sets in Australia and New Zealand (Region 4): Season 1, Season 2.1, Season 2.2, Season 3.1, Season 3.2 and Season 4. They later released the remastered Shout! Factory version of Transformers in the same volume arrangement as the American release. In 2007, Madman Entertainment released a 17-disc complete collection box set. Other releases A collector's tin box set was released in Asia by Guangdong Qianhe Audio & Video Communication Co., Ltd. under license by Pexlan International (Picture) Limited. The set includes the entire series, The Transformers: The Movie, a set of full color postcards, a rubber keychain, and a full color book (graphic novel style) that serves as an episode guide. While the book is almost entirely in Mandarin, the chapter menus contain English translations for each episode. The set is coded as Region 1. In July 2009, Transformers G1 Season 1 (25th Anniversary Edition) was made available for digital download via the PlayStation Network's video store in the United States for $1.99 per episode. On October 10, 2010, The Hub (formerly Discovery Kids, later Discovery Family on October 13, 2014) started airing the original episodes of the Transformers G1 series on the network (alongside Beast Wars: Transformers and Beast Machines: Transformers). References External links Metrodome's Transformers DVD homepage 1984 American television series debuts 1987 American television series endings 1986 manga 1987 manga American children's animated action television series 1980s American animated television series Television series by Marvel Productions Television series by Hasbro Studios First-run syndicated television programs in the United States Television shows set in the United States Television shows set in Japan Television shows set in the United Kingdom 1980s American science fiction television series Anime-influenced Western animated television series Television series set in the future Television series set in 2005 Television series set in 2006 Animated television series about robots TV series English-language television shows Television series set in the 1980s Children's manga Manga series Television shows based on Takara Tomy toys American children's animated space adventure television series American children's animated science fantasy television series American children's animated superhero television series Television series by Sunbow Entertainment Transformers (franchise) animated television series Television series by Claster Television Television series set on fictional planets Toei Animation television
4914914	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan%20Ibragimov	Sultan Ibragimov	Sultan-Ahmed Magomedsalihovich Ibragimov (, ; born 8 March 1975) is a Russian former professional boxer of Dagestani descent. He competed from 2002 to 2008, and held the WBO world heavyweight title from 2007 to 2008. He was ranked by BoxRec as the world's seventh best active heavyweight in 2005 and 2006, and sixth in 2007 and 2008. As an amateur he won silver medals at the 2000 Olympics and 2000 European Championships, and bronze at the 2001 World Championships, all in the heavyweight division. Ibragimov is one of six southpaws to become world heavyweight champion: the others being Michael Moorer, Corrie Sanders, Chris Byrd, Ruslan Chagaev, and Charles Martin. He remains one of only five former world heavyweight champions, alongside Gene Tunney, Rocky Marciano, Riddick Bowe and Nikolai Valuev to have never suffered a stoppage defeat. He also holds the second least career losses among former world heavyweight champions, having only lost to Wladimir Klitschko in his final fight. As of November 2020, BoxRec ranks Ibragimov as the 12th greatest Russian fighter of all time, pound-for-pound. Amateur career Ibragimov took up boxing at the age of 17, when he came to Rostov-on-Don and joined a local college, training under a tutelage of Anatoly Chernyayev. Soon after he was spotted by the AIBA Vice President and Russia's top boxing official Ramazan Abacharayev, his compatriot from Dagestan, who became his trainer and mentor for a long time. Ibragimov had over 130 fights as an amateur, competing in heavyweight, claiming 135 victories, and having at least 6 known losses (no stoppages.) Highlights Feliks Stamm Memorial (91 kg), Warsaw, Poland, September 1998: 1/4: Defeated Adam Roguszka (Poland) RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Vladimir Ganstatiuc (Moldova) on points, 7–2 (4 rds) Finals: Lost to Wojciech Bartnik (Poland) on points, 5–6 (4 rds) USA–Russia Duals (91 kg), Marquette, Michigan, November 1998: Lost to Malik Scott (United States) on points, 6–11 USA–Russia Duals (91 kg), Mashantucket, Connecticut, November 1998: Defeated DaVarryl Williamson (United States) on points, 21–16 Trofeo Italia (91 kg), Naples, Italy, March 1999: 1/4: Lost to Giacobbe Fragomeni (Italy) on points, 4–8 (4 rds) USA–Russia Duals (91 kg), Mashantucket, Connecticut, April 1999: Defeated DaVarryl Williamson (United States) RSC 3 Russian National Championships (91 kg), Chelyabinsk, Russia, June 1999 1/8: Defeated Vasiliy Kalinichenko by unanimous decision, 5–0 1/4: Defeated Yevgeniy Arkhipov by unanimous decision, 5–0 1/2: Defeated Sergey Lopatinskiy by unanimous decision, 5–0 Finals: Defeated Igor Kshinin by unanimous decision, 5–0 Black Sea Cup (91 kg), Sevastopol, Ukraine, October 1999: 1/4: Defeated Oleksandr Yatsenko (Ukraine) by split decision, 3–2 1/2: Defeated Stephen Reynolds (Ireland) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Vladimir Chanturia (Georgia) by walkover Summer Olympics (91 kg), Sydney, Australia, September 2000: 1/8: Defeated Pauga Laulau (Samoa) RSCO 4 1/4: Defeated Jackson Chanet (France) on points, 18–13 (4 rds) 1/2: Defeated Vladimir Chanturia (Georgia) on points, 19–14 (4 rds) Finals: Lost to Félix Savón (Cuba) on points, 13–21 (4 rds) European Championships (91 kg), Tampere, Finland, May 2000: 1/8: Defeated Primislav Dimovski (Macedonia) on points, 8–3 (4 rds) 1/4: Defeated Oleksandr Yatsenko (Ukraine) RET 3 1/2: Defeated Andreas Gustavsson (Sweden) on points, 10–3 (4 rds) Finals: Lost to Jackson Chanet (France) DQ 4 Four Nations International Tournament (91 kg), Moscow, Russia, July 2000: 1/2: Defeated Oleksandr Yatsenko (Ukraine) Finals: Defeated Timur Ibragimov (Uzbekistan) on points, 12–5 Strandzha Cup (91 kg), Plovdiv, Bulgaria, February 2001: 1/4: Defeated Nasser al-Shami (Syria) on points, 12–1 1/2: Defeated Roberto Cammarelle (Italy) RSCI 2 Finals: Defeated Felix Blazquez Barbero (Spain) by walkover World Championships (91 kg), Belfast, Northern Ireland, June 2001: 1/16: Defeated Stephen Reynolds (Ireland) on points, RSCH 2 1/8: Defeated Edson Claas (Brazil) KO 2 1/4: Defeated Kubrat Pulev (Bulgaria) on points, 15–12 (4 rds) 1/2: Lost to Odlanier Solís (Cuba) on points, 13–23 (4 rds) Professional career Early fights After turning professional, Ibragimov agreed to be managed by Boris Grinberg. He was also supported by the Russian billionaire Suleyman Kerimov. Ibragimov made his professional boxing debut on 25 May 2002, defeating Tracy Williams by first-round knockout. He won his first four fights by KO/TKO in the first round each. Just two weeks after his fourth bout, Ibragimov defeated Lincoln Luke by second-round TKO in what would be his last fight in 2002. In his sixth bout, Ibragimov, with a perfect record of 5 bouts, 5 wins, 5 KOs, faced Chad Butler, who had a 4–0–0 record with 4 KOs coming into the fight. Ibragimov knocked Butler down three times but could not finish him, ultimately winning the fight by unanimous decision (UD) with scores 59–52 (twice) and 58–53. Ibragimov later described the fight as the toughest and the most interesting of his career: "[Coming into the fight] I had five bouts and [scored] five knockouts, he had four fights and [scored] four knockouts. He was being knocked down but kept moving forward. If he hadn't ended up in prison, he would've accomplished a lot because of his assertivity." During the fight, legendary boxing trainer Angelo Dundee was spotted in Ibragimov's corner. In the post-fight interview, Dundee confirmed his return to professional boxing and that it was Ibragimov who convinced him to come out of retirement. He praised Ibragimov for his talent and boxing IQ, and predicted Ibragimov to become a future world heavyweight champion. Ibragimov had his next fight less than a month later against Brazilian journeyman Carlos Barcelete. It was Ibragimov's first professional fight that took place in his native Russia. Ibragimov made a quick work of Barcelete, sending him to the canvas in the 2nd and knocking him out in the following round with a left hook. Barcelete was reportedly unconscious for an extended period of time, and had to be woken up by the ringside doctors. After the fight, Dundee once again praised Ibragimov for his performance: "America might finally see a great white heavyweight champion for the first time in 50 years." Ibragimov stayed in Russia for his next fight against Marcus McGee. It was Ibragimov's first 8-round fight of his professional career. Ibragimov defeated McGee by eighth-round TKO. After scoring two more first-round stoppages, Ibragimov then faced his former teammate Alexey Osokin, defeating him by a wide unanimous decision. Ibragimov then returned to the United States, defeating Onebo Maxime by fifth-round TKO. Less than two months later, Ibragimov faced Najee Shaheed in a 12-round bout for the WBO Asia Pacific heavyweight title as part of the double-header which also featured Timur Ibragimov (who was referred to as Sultan's cousin, despite the fact that Sultan and Timur are not related) against Shawn Robinson. Sultan knocked out Shaheed in the third round. WBO president Luis Perez, who attended the fight, praised Sultan for his performance and said that Ibragimov would be eligible to become the mandatory challenger for the WBO world heavyweight championship after two or three successful defenses of the regional title. By November 2004, Ibragimov was ranked WBO's No. 14 heavyweight contender. In his fifth and final fight of 2004, Ibragimov faced James Walton in his first defense of the Asia Pacific title. In the second round, Ibragimov sent Walton through the ropes with a series of body shots, however the referee concluded that the punches were below the belt and deducted two points from Ibragimov. Walton did not come out of his corner for the seventh round, prompting the referee to stop the fight and declare Ibragimov the winner by sixth-round TKO. At the conclusion of 2004, Ibragimov had a perfect record of 14–0 with 12 KOs and was ranked No. 11 heavyweight contender by WBO. Ibragimov vs. Cole, Lawrence, Ahunanya Ibragimov then took a big step up in competition when he agreed to face former IBF world cruiserweight champion Al Cole on 3 March 2005. The fight took place at the Madison Square Garden Theater and headlined the card that also featured Timur Ibragimov, former world super-featherweight champion Kevin Kelley and heavyweight contender Shannon Briggs. Cole was 3–3–1 in his last seven fights which included unanimous decision (UD) wins over undefeated prospect Vinny Maddalone and hard-hitting David Izon and a draw against former world heavyweight title challenger Jeremy Williams, with all his losses coming by way of decision. Cole was coming off of a close UD loss to Hasim Rahman, and had only been stopped by Corrie Sanders and long-time cruiserweight champion Juan Carlos Gomez up to that date. Standing at a height of 193 cm (6 ft 4 in) and having a 203 cm (80 in) reach, Cole had a 5 cm (2 in) height and 10 cm (4 in) reach advantage over Ibragimov, while also weighing in at 233.75 lbs, 17.75 pounds heavier than Sultan. During pre-fight press-conference, boxing promoter Sal Musumeci compared Sultan Ibragimov to Rocky Marciano, noting that they have a similar fighting style and training process. He then claimed that both Sultan and Timur would fight for championship belts by the end of the year. The fight only lasted three rounds. In the third round, Ibragimov dropped Cole with a left hook-uppercut combination. Cole got up, but Ibragimov immediately followed up with a barrage of unanswered shots, prompting the referee to stop the fight. Ibragimov had his next fight scheduled just one and a half month later against one of the more recognized American journeymen Zuri Lawrence. It was the fourth card in a row co-headlined by the Ibragimov boxers. Coming into the fight, Lawrence was 3–2–1 in his last six fights, which included an upset unanimous decision (UD) victory over undefeated Italian prospect Paolo Vidoz and a draw against Ray Austin. Lawrence had also never been knocked out in his career, with his previous stoppage losses being declared technical knockouts. Ibragimov dominated Lawrence throughout the entire fight. He knocked him down once in the fourth and twice more in the ninth. After the ninth round, Lawrence had a deep cut above his left eye and a broken nose. After Ibragimov knocked Lawrence down for the fourth time in the eleventh, the referee stopped the contest, preventing battered Lawrence from absorbing more punishment. Ibragimov defended his WBO Asia Pacific title for the fourth time on 24 June 2005, defeating Andy Sample by first-round TKO in the main event of the card co-headlined by the Ibragimov boxers for the fifth time in a row. By July 2005, Sultan Ibragimov was ranked No. 8 heavyweight contender by the WBO. On 16 September 2005 Ibragimov faced his former sparring partner and once-highly regarded prospect Friday Ahunanya at the Infinite Energy Arena in Duluth, Georgia. Friday was coming off of a draw against another prospect Dominick Guinn, and was only stopped by Lance Whitaker. In the build-up to the fight, Ahunanya stated that he was going to beat both Sultan and Timur, to which Sultan reacted by promising to "make him a hurricane" in the ring: "I know his weaknesses. I'll slowly break him down with left hooks and then finish him with the right hand to the head or body. Four months ago Friday was my sparring partner, back then I finished the sparring with a liver shot. In boxing, that's a knockout." The fight was described by some observers as "more competitive than expected", with Ibragimov going for an early knockout but seemingly struggling with the movement of Ahunanya who had his right elbow covering the liver throughout the entire fight. In the third round, Ibragimov stumbled and, after a push from Ahunanya, touched the canvas with a glove. The referee called it a knockdown. In attempt to narrow the round's score from 8–10 to 9-10, Ibragimov staggered Friday with a series of shots to the head and body, almost finishing Ahunanya who was saved by the bell. Ibragimov changed the strategy in the later rounds, working mostly Ahunanya's body. In the ninth round, Ibragimov staggered Friday with a left hook, as a result Ahunanya lost his balance and both fighters accidentally clashed their heads as Ibragimov was coming forward. The headbutt opened a cut under Ahunanya's left eye, prompting the referee to prematurely stop the fight and go to the judges' scorecards. The judges scored the bout 88–84, 88–83 and 87–83, all in favor of Ibragimov, declaring him the winner by technical decision. In the post-fight interview, Ibragimov was critical of his own performance: "I knew about Friday's signature right hand and that it helped him score most of his knockouts, but for whatever reason I was constantly going under his right hand in the early rounds. I hoped to catch him off guard where he would expect it the least. It didn't really work because he mostly threw short, quick punches. I accepted my corner's advice to change the strategy, and everything immediately went much easier. If the fight had not been stopped, I would've finished him because I saw that after the seventh round he was less and less competitive." According to CompuBox stats, Ibragimov landed 123 punches (30.4% accuracy) to Ahunanya's 66 (28.1%). Ibragimov soundly outlanded Ahunanya in every round but seventh (both landed 11 punches), and he also connected on more power punches in each round. By November 2005, Ibragimov was ranked No. 5 contender by the WBO and No. 11 contender by the WBA. Ibragimov vs. Whitaker Ibragimov had his next fight scheduled two months later against 6 ft 8 in Lance Whitaker (31–3–1, 26 KOs) at the Hard Rock Live in Hollywood, Florida. Some observers viewed the fight as a big step up in competition for Ibragimov, describing Whitaker as the first true heavyweight contender Ibragimov had faced in his career up to that date. Coming into the fight, Whitaker was ranked No. 8 heavyweight contender by the WBO and No. 10 by the IBF. The build-up to the fight was surrounded with a lot of tension. A face-off at the pre-fight press-conference ended in a brawl when Whitaker pressed his first against Ibragimov's face and Ibragimov returned the favor, which prompted Whitaker to push Ibragimov away. Members of each boxer's team immediately came in to help their fighter. Both fighters were separated a couple of times, only to resume brawling. Ibragimov's manager Sampson Lewkowicz appeared to have got the worst of it, as he was accidentally punched by both fighters at the same time and had to be taken to the hospital. There were rumours that Whitaker injured his hand during the brawl which would put the fight in jeopardy, however Whitaker denied these rumours. For the fight, Ibragimov weighed in at and was outweighed by Whitaker by . The fight was aired on ESPN2 and headlined the card that also featured another heavyweight contender Samuel Peter taking on Robert Hawkins. The fight started with Ibragimov aggressively coming at Whitaker, throwing combinations to the head and body. Ibragimov knocked Whitaker down in the first round with a counter left hook, and then sent him to the canvas again in the second, this time with a flurry of shots. Whitaker seemed unable to withstand Ibragimov's hand speed and punching power. Ibragimov continued fighting aggressively, hurting Whitaker several times in the opening rounds. In round four and five, Ibragimov appeared to have taken his foot off the gas, fighting mostly in a counterpunching manner. He picked up his pace in the sixth round, sending Whitaker to the canvas for the third time with another flurry of shots. In the seventh round, referee called for a time out so that the ringside doctor could check the cut above Whitaker's right eye. The judge allowed him to resume fighting, however Whitaker did not wish to continue, prompting the referee to stop the fight, declaring Ibragimov the winner by seventh-round technical knockout. "I promised my friends that I would finish the fight in the fourth or fifth round. That is why I started the fight so aggressively. I trained really hard for this fight. My friend Mike Tyson told me that if I am a real man, I simply have no right to lose", said Ibragimov in a post-fight interview. After the fight, Mike Tyson came out to the ring and praised Ibragimov for his performance, stating that he considers the Russian boxer to be one of the best heavyweights in the world. Ibragimov's dominant performance was widely praised. At the conclusion of 2005, Ibragimov had a record of 19–0 with 16 KOs and was ranked No. 5 heavyweight contender by the WBO, No. 9 contender by the WBA and No. 12 contender by the IBF. Ibragimov vs. Austin In early 2006, Sultan Ibragimov's team began negotiations with former WBA world heavyweight champion John Ruiz for a potential IBF world heavyweight title eliminator fight, however the fight did not materialize after Ruiz opted to face Nikolai Valuev in a rematch for the WBA world title. Ibragimow was also unable to reach agreements with Monte Barrett and Samuel Peter. Ultimately, IBF ordered its No. 2 ranked heavyweight contender Ray Austin to face Ibragimov in a 12-round IBF heavyweight title eliminator. Austin, who had fought at a professional level for eight years, was 36 years old coming into the bout, with ESPN commentators believing this was Austin's last chance to earn a shot at the heavyweight title. Coming into the fight, Austin was on a 12-fight unbeaten streak which included draws against Lance Whitaker, Zuri Lawrence and Larry Donald and an upset TKO win over then-highly regarded prospest Jo-el Scott. Ibragimov weighed in at , his all time heaviest and 11.25 lbs heavier than in his previous bout, while Austin weighed in at which was 9.5 lbs lighter than in his last fight. Shortly before the fight, IBF had switched all three ringside judges. The fight was aired live on ESPN2 as part of the Friday Night Fights series. The fight started with Ibragimov aggressively coming forward, while Austin tried to work behind the jab. In the first round, Ibragimov staggered Austin with a counter left hand, forcing Austin to clinch. Rounds two and three were met with a relative lack of action. In the fourth round, with thirty seconds left, Ibragimov went for the attack and missed with a left hand but immediately followed up with a swinging right hook, catching Austin off guard and knocking him down. Rounds five and six were relatively tentative, with Ibragimov occasionally hurting Austin with fast combinations, while Austin continued to work behind the jab. The judges gave those rounds to Austin. In the seventh round, Austin grabbed Ibragimov on the neck and made him lose balance which resulted in Ibragimov falling to the canvas. Despite the demands from Austin's corner, the referee did not rule it a knockdown. Ibragimov was more active in round nine but was sent to the canvas in the tenth with a left hook, however Ibragimov unhurt. In the eleventh and twelfth, Ibragimov hurt Austin a few times with a left hook but was unable to finish him, although he won those rounds on the judges' scorecards. Though Ibragimov appeared to have outboxed Austin for the majority of the fight, the judges ruled the bout a split draw, with the scorecards being 115–111 for Ibragimov, 114–112 for Austin and 113–113 even. According to CompuBox, Ibragimov landed 107 shots out of 347 (30.8%) while Austin landed 112 punches out of 463 thrown (24.2%). Ibragimov outlanded Austin in five rounds out of twelve, with two rounds being even in terms of landed shots (including the fourth round in which Ibragimov knocked Austin down). He also landed more power punches in rounds 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11 and 12, with 2nd round being even. Neither Ibragimov nor Austin were able to go past five landed jabs per round. In an interview after the fight, Ibragimov expressed his disagreement with the decision: "I thought I won that fight, I don't understand how could one judge have Austin winning. Don King did his job: he changed the judges before the fight. I think you all understand who is Don King. And Ray Austin is his fighter." Ibragimov's manager Boris Grinberg expressed his disgust with the final decision: "We were robbed, plain and simple! That explains why the entire judging team had been switched before the fight. Moreover, one of those [new] judges is from Cleveland, Ray Austin's hometown. [...] If you look at the stats, the fighters exchanged knockdowns, but through the course of twelve rounds Ibragimov staggered Austin at least six or seven times, while Austin couldn't do it once." He also accused Don King of attempting to rob Sultan because Ibragimov didn't want to sign a contract with him. Both fighters were praised for their performance, with general belief that the bout elevated their stocks; the fight was named Friday Night Fights Fight of the Year by ESPN. The debate over IBF's mantadory challenger spot ended when Ibragimov agreed to face Shannon Briggs for the WBO world heavyweight title. WBO world heavyweight champion Ibragimov vs. Briggs By October 2006, Ibragimov was ranked No. 1 heavyweight contender by the WBO. He was scheduled to challenge Shannon Briggs for the WBO world heavyweight title on 10 March 2007 at Madison Square Garden in New York, however the fight was postponed after Briggs fell ill with pneumonia. Ibragimov claimed that one of his American trainers had warned him two months before the scheduled date that Briggs was going to pull out as he didn't want to fight against a southpaw. After news of Briggs' withdrawal broke into public, DaVarryl Williamson expressed interest in taking the fight on short notice for the interim world title; however, because Williamson was unranked by the organization, the fight never materialized. Ibragimov instead opted to face Javier Mora (21–3–1, 17 KOs) in a stay-busy fight. Mora was mostly known for his seventh-round TKO win over heavyweight contender Kirk Johnson which was later changed into a No Contest. Ibragimov knocked out Mora 46 seconds into the first round. This win broke the record for the quickest knockout in a main event bout in Madison Square Garden, which was previously held by Lee Savold who defeated Buddy Walker in 1948. Prior to facing Briggs, Ibragimov changed his training camp, joining Jeff Mayweather. Under Mayweather, Ibragimov moved away from his aggressive volume-punching fighting style that he was accustomed to, instead trying to adapt a more defensively-oriented style known as Philly Shell. Ibragimov eventually agreed to face Shannon Briggs for the WBO world heavyweight title in Atlantic City, New Jersey on 2 June 2007. In the build up to the fight, there were rumours that Briggs was going to pull out of the fight again, which Ibragimov described as a tactic from Briggs' team to disrupt Ibragimov's training process: "I heard some rumours about Briggs pulling out of the fight again, but I was suspicious that the whole thing was rigged by Briggs' people to unsettle me, make me relax and disrupt my training process. These suspicions were basically confirmed when my former coach Panama Lewis, who was close with some people from Briggs' camp, told us that Briggs' people spread those rumours on purpose." Ibragimov was 52 pounds lighter than his opponent coming into the bout. The entire bout remained a tentative affair. Briggs hurt Ibragimov and generally had more success in the opening round but was unable to keep up with Ibragimov starting from the second round, as Ibragimov used his mobility and handspeed to outmaneuver Briggs and stay out of potential harm. Some observers noted that Ibragimov fought more defensively this time than he used to, avoiding exchanges and staying on the outside and behind the jab. Nevertheless accumulated damage seemed to overwhelm Briggs in the sixth round, but Ibragimov's corner urged their fighter not to go for the finish and keep fighting in a defensive manner and scoring one round after another. Eventually Ibragimov won the fight by unanimous decision, with the judges scoring the bout 119–109, 115–113 and 117–111. Some observers considered the 117–111 and especially 115–113 score undeservedly generous towards Briggs. According to CompuBox, Ibragimov connected on 94 punches out of 245 (38.37%) while Briggs landed only 39 shots out of 228 (17.11%). Ibragimov sondly outstruck Briggs in every round but first (even) and landed at least thrice Briggs' power punches in each of the twelve rounds but seventh and eleventh (7 to 4 and 5 to 2, respectively, in favor of Ibragimov). Briggs failed to land anything in round nine. Ibragimov vs. Holyfield Shortly after winning the title, Sultan Ibragimov signed the contract to face then-WBA world heavyweight champion Ruslan Chagaev in a unification showdown that would take place in Moscow on 13 October 2007. When talking about negotiations, president of Seminole Warriors Boxing promotion company Leon Margules described them as "the easiest negotiations of his career", praising both Ibragimov and Chagaev for being straightforward during the negotiation process. He also predicted the winner of this fight to eventually become the undisputed heavyweight champion. It was going to be the first heavyweight unification fight since 1999 and the third boxing event considered major for Moscow since WBC world heavyweight champion Oleg Maskaev defended his title against Okello Peter and heavyweight contender Alexander Povetkin faced fringe contender Larry Donald. On 31 July 2007, it was officially announced that the unification showdown was cancelled due to Chagaev suffering from an aggravation of gastric problems. It was later reported that Chagaev had been diagnosed with hepatitis B. Instead, former undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield agreed to step in as a last-minute replacement. In the build up, Ibragimov praised Holyfield for his legendary career but also criticized him for his tactics, such as headbutting and using elbows during fights. For the fight, Holyfield weighed in at 211.5 pounds, his lightest since 1996. The fight headlined the card that also featured another Russian boxer Dimitri Kirilov defending his IBF world super flyweight title against Jose Navarro. The fight began tentatively, with Ibragimov mostly staying at range and avoiding exchanges, keeping Holyfield at bay with fast combinations. By the third round, Ibragimov began to take control of the fight. Ibragimov visibly hurt Holyfield with body punches in the third. In the fifth round, Ibragimov's in-ring dominance became more visible after again hurting Holyfield with combinations to the head and body, and by the seventh the fight took on a one-sided manner as Holyfield appeared to be unable to keep up with his younger opponent. Holyfield had some success in the eighth, hurting Ibragimov with a counter body shot and a straight right hand. Ibragimov hurt Holyfield again with a flurry of shots in the tenth but didn't go for the finish. The championship rounds saw Holyfield unsuccessfully going for the knockout, as Ibragimov was able to effectively neutralize Holyfield's offense and hurt Holyfield with precise body shots. Ultimately, the fight went full twelve rounds, with Ibragimov being declared the winner by unanimous decision, successfully defending his WBO world heavyweight title. The judges scored the bout 117–111 (twice) and 118–110. "My strategy was to be careful. Holyfield did a good job moving away from punches, he used his head a lot, so in the course of the fight, I decided to change my approach", Ibragimov said in a post-fight interview, "This is a championship fight, and it doesn't really matter how the winner earned his victory". "At one point we thought we would get Evander out of there. Once Sultan was trying to knock him out and he put himself in harm's way. He was trying to get the knockout for the people of Russia. Instead of trying to knock him out we wanted to get in and get out, and win one round at a time. In my mind he won 11 out of 12 rounds and never gave Evander any chances. We did what we wanted. We got a chance to fight a marquee name. We didn't just beat him, we dominated him and we made a statement. Evander knows he lost that fight", Jeff Mayweather said about the fight. Ibragimov also expressed his doubt whether he wanted to resume his boxing career. The bout was watched by 7.5 million viewers in Russia, becoming the most popular non-football and non-ice hockey sporting event of 2007. At the conclusion of 2007, Ibragimov was ranked as the world's sixth best heavyweight by The Ring. Unification bout against Wladimir Klitschko By the end of October 2007, Ibragimov started negotiations with then-IBF world heavyweight champion Wladimir Klitschko about the unification showdown in the near future. This would be the first heavyweight unification fight since 13 November 1999 when WBC champion Lennox Lewis defeated Evander Holyfield who was WBA and IBF champion at the time. On 20 November, Klitschko and Ibragimov officially signed the contract for their unification clash to take place on 23 February 2008 at Madison Square Garden. Two days later in Moscow, a first pre-fight press-conference was held. Klitschko began his preparations for the fight on 18 December. His training camp was located between Santa Monica, Los Angeles and Palm Beach, Florida. Ibragimov began his preparations for the bout on 25 December. Among Ibragimov's sparring partners were Klitschko's former opponent Jameel McCline and Swedish heavyweight prospect Attila Levin. In the pre-fight prediction, a vast majority of Ukrainian, Russian and American observers expected Ibragimov to lose by either stoppage or unanimous decision. Out of six journalists of the Ukrainian magazine Ring, five predicted Klitschko to stop Ibragimov, with only one expecting Klitschko to win by decision. Only two of 26 members of boxingscene.com expected Ibragimov to win by decision. Two of the 12 members of ringsidereport.com picked Ibragimov to win by stoppage, with one of them saying that Ibragimov was more resilient psychologically and could withstand Klitschko's power. In the build-up to the fight, Klitschko's trainer Emmanuel Steward said that Ibragimov was going to be Wladimir's toughest opponent to date, praising Ibragimov for his hand speed and mobility, while Klitschko complimented Ibragimov on his accomplishments: "Sultan Ibragimov is a boxer that hasn't lost in any of his 23 fights, with the sole draw being against Ray Austin. His amateur career can be described as fantastic, and the fact that he's the heavyweight champion of the world speaks volumes about his professional career as well. I think he's a strong and dangerous opponent that should not be underestimated. His last two fights against Shannon Briggs and Evander Holyfield proved that." Ibragimov's trainer Jeff Mayweather was confident that Ibragimov would be able to establish his rhythm and "press Klitschko to the corner". The pre-fight build-up was marked with controversy after Ibragimov's manager Boris Grinberg insulted Klitschko during one of the interviews: "Sultan Ibragimov knocks out this Ukraine gay, motherf***er!". Grinberg later apologized to Klitschko. The day before the bout, Ibragimov weighed in at , his lightest since 2005, while Klitschko's weight was , the lightest since 1999. From the opening bell, both fighters fought tentatively, avoiding risks. Klitschko retreated onto the outside, fighting at a distance and remaining unattainable for Ibragimov who tried to establish his right jab but had his right hand constantly pushed down by Klitschko. By the end of the opening round, Klitschko became more active with his jab, while Ibragimov unsuccessfully tried to catch Wladimir with a series of right and left hooks. By the third round, Klitschko took control of the center of the ring, keeping Ibragimov at the end of his left jab and occasionally throwing right jabs as well. In the fifth round, Ibragimov was caught with a straight right hand, but was not hurt. Most of Ibragimov's attempts to close the distance ended with him being tied up by Klitschko. In the second half of the fight, the situation did not change, with Ibragimov being kept at the distance with straight shots, while being only able to occasionally catch Klitschko with single shots to the body. Ibragimov's corner was almost silent from the sixth round onwards, unable to give their man any meaningful advice. Klitschko's dominance became even more visible after he caught Ibragimov with a straight right in round nine, almost knocking him down. Ibragimov was caught again with a counter left hook at the end of the eleventh. The twelfth round saw Ibragimov unsuccessfully trying to catch Klitschko with overhand shots. Ultimately, the fight went the distance, with Ibragimov losing by unanimous decision. The judges scored the bout 119–110, 117–111 and 118–110. Years later when talking about the fight, Ibragimov admitted that in the middle rounds he had realized that he was going to lose: "We were very well prepared for the fight, our game plan was built around counterpunching, and I was patiently waiting for Klitschko to throw a straight right hand. But credit to him and his trainer Emmanuel Steward, for the first seven rounds Klitschko did not throw a single right hand. Basically, Klitschko's team prepared Wladimir to keep the fight away from tight quarters. And when the opponent doesn't want to fight aggressively and has a big advantage in height and reach, his job is a lot easier. In the middle of the fight I realized that I had already lost." Retirement In February 2009 there were rumors about Ibragimov's retirement from boxing following his loss to Wladimir Klitschko, which were later confirmed in July 2009. In 2016, Ibragimov stated that his decision to retire was caused by chronic problems with his left hand, including multiple fractures. Personal life Ibragimov is of Avar Dagestani descent, and is Muslim by faith. Professional boxing record Television viewership United States Russia References External links Sultan Ibragimov profile at About.com Holyfield to face Ibragimov for WBO title at Yahoo! Sports Boxers at the 2000 Summer Olympics Olympic boxers for Russia Olympic silver medalists for Russia Russian Muslims 1975 births Living people Southpaw boxers World Boxing Organization champions Avar people People from Tlyaratinsky District Olympic medalists in boxing Russian male boxers World heavyweight boxing champions AIBA World Boxing Championships medalists Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics Sportspeople from Dagestan
4914941	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur%20assimilation	Sulfur assimilation	Sulfur assimilation is the process by which living organisms incorporate sulfur into their biological molecules. In plants, sulfate is absorbed by the roots and then be transported to the chloroplasts by the transipration stream where the sulfur are reduced to sulfide with the help of a series of enzymatic reactions. Furthermore, the reduced sulfur is incorporated into cysteine, an amino acid that is a precursor to many other sulfur-containing compounds. In animals, sulfur assimilation occurs primarily through the diet, as animals cannot produce sulfur-containing compounds directly. Sulfur is incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine and methionine, which are used to build proteins and other important molecules. Besides, With the rapid development of economy, the increase emission of sulfur results in environmental issues, such as acid rain and hydrogen sulfilde. Sulfate uptake by plants Sulfate is taken up by the roots that have high affinity. The maximal sulfate uptake rate is generally already reached at sulfate levels of 0.1 mM and lower. The uptake of sulfate by the roots and its transport to the shoot is strictly controlled and it appears to be one of the primary regulatory sites of sulfur assimilation. Sulfate is actively taken up across the plasma membrane of the root cells, subsequently loaded into the xylem vessels and transported to the shoot by the transpiration stream. The uptake and transport of sulfate is energy dependent (driven by a proton gradient generated by ATPases) through a proton/sulfate co-transport. In the shoot the sulfate is unloaded and transported to the chloroplasts where it is reduced. The remaining sulfate in plant tissue is predominantly present in the vacuole, since the concentration of sulfate in the cytoplasm is kept rather constant. Distinct sulfate transporter proteins mediate the uptake, transport and subcellular distribution of sulfate. According to their cellular and subcellular gene expression, and possible functioning the sulfate transporters gene family has been classified in up to 5 different groups. Some groups are expressed exclusively in the roots or shoots or expressed both in the roots and shoots. Group 1 are 'high affinity sulfate transporters', which are involved in the uptake of sulfate by the roots. Group 2 are vascular transporters and are 'low affinity sulfate transporters'. Group 3 is the so-called 'leaf group', however, still little is known about the characteristics of this group. Group 4 transporters are involved in the efflux of sulfate from the vacuoles, whereas the function of Group 5 sulfate transporters is not known yet, and likely function only as molybdate transporters. Regulation and expression of the majority of sulfate transporters are controlled by the sulfur nutritional status of the plants. Upon sulfate deprivation, the rapid decrease in root sulfate is regularly accompanied by a strongly enhanced expression of most sulfate transporter genes (up to 100-fold), accompanied by a substantially enhanced sulfate uptake capacity. The nature of these transporters is not yet fully solved, whether sulfate itself or metabolic products of the sulfur assimilation (O-acetylserine, cysteine, glutathione) act as signals in the regulation of sulfate uptake by the root and its transport to the shoot, and in the expression of the sulfate transporters involved. Sulfate reduction in plants Even though root plastids contain all sulfate reduction enzymes, sulfate reduction predominantly takes place in the leaf chloroplasts. The reduction of sulfate to sulfide occurs in three steps. Sulfate needs to be activated to adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (APS) prior to its reduction to sulfite. The activation of sulfate is catalyzed by ATP sulfurylase, which affinity for sulfate is rather low (Km approximately 1 mM) and the in situ sulfate concentration in the chloroplast is most likely one of the limiting/regulatory steps in sulfur reduction. Subsequently, APS is reduced to sulfite, catalyzed by APS reductase with likely glutathione as reductant. The latter reaction is assumed to be one of the primary regulation points in the sulfate reduction, since the activity of APS reductase is the lowest of the enzymes of the sulfate reduction pathway and it has a fast turnover rate. Sulfite is with high affinity reduced by sulfite reductase to sulfide with ferredoxin as a reductant. The remaining sulfate in plant tissue is transferred into the vacuole. The remobilization and redistribution of the vacuolar sulfate reserves appear to be rather slow and sulfur-deficient plants may still contain detectable levels of sulfate. Synthesis and function of sulfur compounds in plants Cysteine Sulfide is incorporated into cysteine, catalyzed by O-acetylserine (thiol)lyase, with O-acetylserine as substrate. The synthesis of O-acetylserine is catalyzed by serine acetyltransferase and together with O-acetylserine (thiol)lyase it is associated as enzyme complex named cysteine synthase. The formation of cysteine is the direct coupling step between sulfur (sulfur metabolism) and nitrogen assimilation in plants. This differs from the process in yeast, where sulfide must be incorporated first in homocysteine then converted in two steps to cysteine. Cysteine is sulfur donor for the synthesis of methionine, the major other sulfur-containing amino acid present in plants. This happens through the transsulfuration pathway and the methylation of homocysteine. Both cysteine and methionine are sulfur-containing amino acids and are of great significance in the structure, conformation and function of proteins and enzymes, but high levels of these amino acids may also be present in seed storage proteins. The thiol groups of the cysteine residues in proteins can be oxidized resulting in disulfide bridges with other cysteine side chains (and form cystine) and/or linkage of polypeptides. Disulfide bridges (disulfide bonds) make an important contribution to the structure of proteins. The thiol groups are also of great importance in substrate binding of enzymes, in metal-sulfur clusters in proteins (e.g. ferredoxins) and in regulatory proteins (e.g. thioredoxins). Glutathione Glutathione or its homologues, e.g. homoglutathione in Fabaceae; hydroxymethylglutathione in Poaceae are the major water-soluble non-protein thiol compounds present in plant tissue and account for 1-2% of the total sulfur. The content of glutathione in plant tissue ranges from 0.1 - 3 mM. Cysteine is the direct precursor for the synthesis of glutathione (and its homologues). First, γ-glutamylcysteine is synthesized from cysteine and glutamate catalyzed by gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase. Second, glutathione is synthesized from γ-glutamylcysteine and glycine (in glutathione homologues, β-alanine or serine) catalyzed by glutathione synthetase. Both steps of the synthesis of glutathione are ATP dependent reactions. Glutathione is maintained in the reduced form by an NADPH-dependent glutathione reductase and the ratio of reduced glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione (GSSG) generally exceeds a value of 7. Glutathione fulfils various roles in plant functioning. In sulfur metabolism it functions as reductant in the reduction of APS to sulfite. It is also the major transport form of reduced sulfur in plants. Roots likely largely depend for their reduced sulfur supply on shoot/root transfer of glutathione via the phloem, since the reduction of sulfur occurs predominantly in the chloroplast. Glutathione is directly involved in the reduction and assimilation of selenite into selenocysteine. Furthermore, glutathione is of great significance in the protection of plants against oxidative and environmental stress and it depresses/scavenges the formation of toxic reactive oxygen species, e.g. superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and lipid hydroperoxides. Glutathione functions as reductant in the enzymatic detoxification of reactive oxygen species in the glutathione-ascorbate cycle and as thiol buffer in the protection of proteins via direct reaction with reactive oxygen species or by the formation of mixed disulfides. The potential of glutathione as protectant is related to the pool size of glutathione, its redox state (GSH/GSSG ratio) and the activity of glutathione reductase. Glutathione is the precursor for the synthesis of phytochelatins, which are synthesized enzymatically by a constitutive phytochelatin synthase. The number of γ-glutamyl-cysteine residues in the phytochelatins may range from 2 - 5, sometimes up to 11. Despite the fact that the phytochelatins form complexes which a few heavy metals, viz. cadmium, it is assumed that these compounds play a role in heavy metal homeostasis and detoxification by buffering of the cytoplasmatic concentration of essential heavy metals. Glutathione is also involved in the detoxification of xenobiotics, compounds without direct nutritional value or significance in metabolism, which at too high levels may negatively affect plant functioning. Xenobiotics may be detoxified in conjugation reactions with glutathione catalyzed by glutathione S-transferase, which activity is constitutive; different xenobiotics may induce distinct isoforms of the enzyme. Glutathione S-transferases have great significance in herbicide detoxification and tolerance in agriculture and their induction by herbicide antidotes ('safeners') is the decisive step for the induction of herbicide tolerance in many crop plants. Under natural conditions glutathione S-transferases are assumed to have significance in the detoxification of lipid hydroperoxides, in the conjugation of endogenous metabolites, hormones and DNA degradation products, and in the transport of flavonoids. Sulfolipids Sulfolipids are sulfur containing lipids. Sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerols are the predominant sulfolipids present in plants. In leaves its content comprises up to 3 - 6% of the total sulfur present. This sulfolipid is present in plastid membranes and likely is involved in chloroplast functioning. The route of biosynthesis and physiological function of sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol is still under investigation. From recent studies it is evident that sulfite it the likely sulfur precursor for the formation of the sulfoquinovose group of this lipid. Secondary sulfur compounds Brassica species contain glucosinolates, which are sulfur-containing secondary compounds. Glucosinolates are composed of a β-thioglucose moiety, a sulfonated oxime and a side chain. The synthesis of glucosinolates starts with the oxidation of the parent amino acid to an aldoxime, followed by the addition of a thiol group (through conjugation with glutathione) to produce thiohydroximate. The transfer of a glucose and a sulfate moiety completes the formation of the glucosinolates. The physiological significance of glucosinolates is still ambiguous, though they are considered to function as sink compounds in situations of sulfur excess. Upon tissue disruption glucosinolates are enzymatically degraded by myrosinase and may yield a variety of biologically active products such as isothiocyanates, thiocyanates, nitriles and oxazolidine-2-thiones. The glucosinolate-myrosinase system is assumed to play a role in plant-herbivore and plant-pathogen interactions. Furthermore, glucosinolates are responsible for the flavor properties of Brassicaceae and recently have received attention in view of their potential anti-carcinogenic properties. Allium species contain γ-glutamylpeptides and alliins (S-alk(en)yl cysteine sulfoxides). The content of these sulfur-containing secondary compounds strongly depends on stage of development of the plant, temperature, water availability and the level of nitrogen and sulfur nutrition. In onion bulbs their content may account for up to 80% of the organic sulfur fraction. Less is known about the content of secondary sulfur compounds in the seedling stage of the plant. It is assumed that alliins are predominantly synthesized in the leaves, from where they are subsequently transferred to the attached bulb scale. The biosynthetic pathways of synthesis of γ-glutamylpeptides and alliins are still ambiguous. γ-Glutamylpeptides can be formed from cysteine (via γ-glutamylcysteine or glutathione) and can be metabolized into the corresponding alliins via oxidation and subsequent hydrolyzation by γ-glutamyl transpeptidases. However, other possible routes of the synthesis of γ-glutamylpeptides and alliins may not be excluded. Alliins and γ-glutamylpeptides are known to have therapeutic utility and might have potential value as phytopharmaceutics. The alliins and their breakdown products (e.g. allicin) are the flavor precursors for the odor and taste of species. Flavor is only released when plant cells are disrupted and the enzyme alliinase from the vacuole is able to degrade the alliins, yielding a wide variety of volatile and non-volatile sulfur-containing compounds. The physiological function of γ-glutamylpeptides and alliins is rather unclear. Sulfur assimilation in animal Unlike in plants, animals do not have a pathway for the direct assimilation of inorganic sulfate into organic compounds. In animals, the primary source of sulfur is dietary methionine, an essential amino acid that contains a sulfur atom. Methionine is first converted to S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), a compound that is involved in many important biological processes, including DNA methylation and neurotransmitter synthesis. SAM can then be used to synthesize other important sulfur-containing compounds such as cysteine, taurine, and glutathione. Cysteine is a precursor for the synthesis of several important proteins and peptides, as well as glutathione, a powerful antioxidant that protects cells from oxidative stress. Taurine is involved in a variety of physiological processes, including osmoregulation, modulation of calcium signaling, and regulation of mitochondrial function. Sulfur assimiation in microorganisms In bacteria and fungi, the sulfur assimilation pathway is similar to that in plants, where inorganic sulfate is reduced to sulfide, and then incorporated into cysteine and other sulfur-containing compounds. Bacteria and fungi can absorb inorganic sulfate from the environment through a sulfate transporter, which is regulated by the presence of sulfate in the medium. Once inside the cell, sulfate is activated by ATP sulfurylase to form adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (APS), which is then reduced to sulfite by APS reductase. Sulfite is further reduced to sulfide by sulfite reductase, which is then incorporated into cysteine by enzyme. Cysteine, once synthesized, can be used for the biosynthesis of methionine and other important biomolecules. In addition, microorganisms also use sulfur-containing compounds for various other purposes, such as the synthesis of antibiotics. Sulfur assimilation in microorganisms is regulated by a variety of environmental factors, including the availability of sulfur in the medium and the presence of other nutrients. The activity of key enzymes in the sulfur assimilation pathway is also regulated by feedback inhibition from downstream products, similar to the regulation seen in plants. Sulfur metabolism in plants and air pollution The rapid economic growth, industrialization and urbanization are associated with a strong increase in energy demand and emissions of air pollutants including sulfur dioxide (see also acid rain) and hydrogen sulfide, which may affect plant metabolism. Sulfur gases are potentially phytotoxic, however, they may also be metabolized and used as sulfur source and even be beneficial if the sulfur fertilization of the roots is not sufficient. Plant shoots form a sink for atmospheric sulfur gases, which can directly be taken up by the foliage (dry deposition). The foliar uptake of sulfur dioxide is generally directly dependent on the degree of opening of the stomates, since the internal resistance to this gas is low. Sulfite is highly soluble in the apoplastic water of the mesophyll, where it dissociates under formation of bisulfite and sulfite. Sulfite may directly enter the sulfur reduction pathway and be reduced to sulfide, incorporated into cysteine, and subsequently into other sulfur compounds. Sulfite may also be oxidized to sulfate, extra- and intracellularly by peroxidases or non-enzymatically catalyzed by metal ions or superoxide radicals and subsequently reduced and assimilated again. Excessive sulfate is transferred into the vacuole; enhanced foliar sulfate levels are characteristic for exposed plants. The foliar uptake of hydrogen sulfide appears to be directly dependent on the rate of its metabolism into cysteine and subsequently into other sulfur compounds. There is strong evidence that O-acetyl-serine (thiol)lyase is directly responsible for the active fixation of atmospheric hydrogen sulfide by plants. Plants are able to transfer from sulfate to foliar absorbed atmospheric sulfur as sulfur source and levels of 60 ppb or higher appear to be sufficient to cover the sulfur requirement of plants. There is an interaction between atmospheric and pedospheric sulfur utilization. For instance, hydrogen sulfide exposure may result in a decreased activity of APS reductase and a depressed sulfate uptake. See also Plant nutrition Sulfonucleotide reductase Sulfur metabolism References Schnug, E. (1998) Sulfur in Agroecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 221 pp, . Grill, D., Tausz, M. and De Kok, L.J. (2001) Significance of Glutathione to Plant Adaptation to the Environment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, . Abrol Y.P. and Ahmad A. (2003) Sulphur in Plants. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, . Saito, K., De Kok, L.J., Stulen, I., Hawkesford, M.J., Schnug, E., Sirko, A. and Rennenberg, H. (2005) Sulfur Transport and Assimilation in Plants in the Post Genomic Era. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, . Hawkesford, M.J. and De Kok, L.J. (2006) Managing sulfur metabolism in plants. Plant Cell and Environment 29: 382-395. Agronomy Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements Metabolism Molecular biology Physiology Plant physiology Sulfur Sulfur metabolism
4915083	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby%20union%20in%20Italy	Rugby union in Italy	Rugby union in Italy is governed by the Italian Rugby Federation. Rugby was introduced into Italy in the early 1900s. It is also known as pallovale or palla ovale ("oval ball") within Italy. Two Italian professional teams (Treviso and Zebre) compete in United Rugby Championship, a league that also includes sides from Ireland, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. One of the teams is guaranteed a place in the European Rugby Champions Cup; the other normally plays in the European Rugby Challenge Cup. The Top12 is the main national club competition. Four Italian clubs from the national championship compete in a qualifying tournament that awards two places in the Challenge Cup. Italy competes in the Six Nations Championship and Rugby World Cup, and is classified as a tier one nation by World Rugby (formerly the International Rugby Board). Governing body The governing body of Italian rugby union is the Federazione Italiana Rugby (FIR). An original organisational committee was established in 1911, although it was in 1928 when the body became the FIR, and in 1987, it joined the International Rugby Board. In 1934 the FIR became a founding member of the Federation Internationale de Rugby Amateur. Popularity There are 1,024 rugby clubs within Italy. These clubs support 153,173 registered male players, as well as 8,118 registered female players. Many teams are either from Veneto or Lombardy in the north of Italy as this area has the most Rugby popularity however the sport has achieved national presence as it is played and followed throughout the country. Rugby is now estimated to be the third most popular sport in Italy behind Football and Basketball. Italian players also play for other European rugby clubs, such as those in the Aviva Premiership. History Prehistory The remote ancestry of rugby has been linked to a Roman game known as harpastum, which spread throughout their Empire, include the province of Britannia. Athenaeus writes: "Harpastum, which used to be called Phaininda, is the game I like most of all. Great are the exertion and fatigue attendant upon contests of ball-playing, and violent twisting and turning of the neck. Hence Antiphanes, "Damn it, what a pain in the neck I've got." He describes the game thus: "He seized the ball and passed it to a team-mate while dodging another and laughing. He pushed it out of the way of another. Another fellow player he raised to his feet. All the while the crowd resounded with shouts of Out of bounds, Too far, Right beside him, Over his head, On the ground, Up in the air, Too short, Pass it back in the scrum." Galen, in On Exercise with the Small Ball, describes Harpastum as: "better than wrestling or running because it exercises every part of the body, takes up little time, and costs nothing."; it was "profitable training in strategy", and could be "played with varying degrees of strenuousness." Galen adds, "When, for example, people face each other, vigorously attempting to prevent each other from taking the space between, this exercise is a very heavy, vigorous one, involving much use of the hold by the neck, and many wrestling holds." This game was apparently a Romanized version of a Greek game called phaininda. The general impression from ancient descriptions is of a game quite similar to rugby. Additional descriptions suggest a line was drawn in the dirt, and that the teams would endeavor to keep the ball behind their side of the line and prevent the opponents from reaching it. This seems rather like an 'inverted' form of football. If the opponents had the ball on their side of the line, the objective would seem to be to get in and "pass" it to another player, or somehow get it back over the line. Another remote Roman ancestor of rugby may be a game called trigon, which involved three players passing a ball to one another by hand. The ball was usually small and hard, but occasionally it was a follis or large bladder-ball. Italy is home to a number of forms of traditional football, some of which have features which are more similar to rugby, than to association football, such as handling the ball. A prime example of this is calcio fiorentino played in Florence. The Piazza Santa Croce of Florence is the cradle of this sport, that became known as giuoco del calcio fiorentino ("Florentine kick game") or simply calcio ("kick"). The first official rules of calcio fiorentino were recorded in 1580, although the game had been developing around Florence for some time before that date. The game involved teams of 27 kicking and carrying a ball in a giant sandpit set up in the Piazza Santa Croce in the centre of Florence, both teams aiming for their designated point on the perimeter of the sandpit. Early history British communities brought rugby to Genoa between 1890 and 1895, with other games in Italy around 1909. The society that organised the first games dissolved soon after them. Italian rugby's traditional heartland consists of the small country towns in the Po Valley and other parts of Northern Italy. Some believe that Italian workers returning from France, particularly the south, introduced the game and gave it a significant rural/working class base, which still exists in towns such as Treviso and Rovigo. A demonstration game was also played in 1910 in Turin between SCUF and Servette of Geneva. French students also introduced the game to Milan University c. 1911. While each of these events has been hailed as the "origin of Italian rugby", it seems that they probably happened more or less simultaneously and independent of one another, and that the introduction of rugby to Italy was a series of events, rather than a single starting point. Whatever the ultimate origins of the game in northern Italy, the region's proximity to the French rugby heartland helped as well. The first match played by a representative Italian XV was in 1911, between US Milanese and Voiron of France. On 25 July of the same year the "Propaganda Committee" was formed which in 1928 became the Federazione Italiana Rugby (FIR). An original organisational committee was established in 1911, although it was in 1928 when the body became the FIR. 1920s and Fascist period The national team played their first game in May 1929 in Barcelona where they lost 0-9 against Spain. A week later, a rematch was held in Milan, where Italy beat Spain 3-0. There was a further game in 1928 when Ambrosiana Milano beat R.C.T. Bucharest 15-3. The first Italian championship, won by Ambrosiana Milano, took place in 1929, with 6 of the 16 teams that existed in Italy. In 1934 the FIR became founding members of FIRA (Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur) along with the national teams of Italy, France, Spain, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Germany. In 1936 Italy took part in the Fira European Tournament, in Berlin, along with France, Germany and Romania and in 1937, in Paris, along with France, Germany, Romania, Belgium and the Netherlands. Rugby union spread to other parts of Italy, especially the cities of Rome, Bologna, Padua, Naples, Brescia, Torino and Parma. France was the first of the Championship countries to play Italy at senior level and the inaugural match took place in 1937, France winning 43-5. The Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini rebranded rugby union as palla ovale ("oval ball"), deciding it was an evolution of the Roman game harpastum. The game was used as a vehicle for Fascist unity, and by 1927 rugby union had its own propaganda committee. However, Mussolini found rugby union inconveniently resistant to authority and dropped the sport, and for Fascist purposes turned to volata, a malleable kind of handball. Volata never caught on and in 1933 the effort was officially abandoned, however the invention of the game proved damaging to rugby union's popularity and place in Italian sporting culture. After the decline of the volata project, his supporters turned back to rugby in the years leading up to the Second World War as an alternative to soccer, which they saw as an effete English influence. However, despite this far right involvement, Italian rugby managed to escape too much of an association with the regime. Post-war period The Second World War interrupted Italian rugby union, as it did in other rugby-playing nations. Post-war, there was a desire to return to normality and Italian rugby union entered a new dimension thanks to the help of Allied troops in Italy. Very soon the Veneto (Rovigo, Padua and Treviso) came to assume a prominent position in the Italian rugby union scene earning the name "Republic of the Italian rugby union". Parma and L'Aquila also became main centres for rugby union. In the 1960s the Italian Rugby Union had their rival sport, rugby league, hampered by threatening to ban rugby league players from playing rugby union for life. 1980s and 1990s In the 1980s, a peculiar set of economic circumstances arose, which helped bolster the game further. In an effort to promote the game, sinking money into rugby became virtually tax-free, and large amounts of sponsorship money went into the game, from companies as large as Benetton which set up their own club sides. Benetton Treviso for example was able to use this money to produce a dramatic rise in standards. Players of Italian ancestry from Australia and Argentina were brought in, and the likes of Frano Botica, David Campese, John Kirwan and Michael Lynagh plied their trade in Italy's top flight. Although the rise in standards was not immediate, the influx of money helped buy in some top foreign coaches such as Mark Ella and Bernard Fourcarde, which allowed them to develop their own stars such as Massimo Giovanelli. This change for the better was reflected in their scorelines - for example, when the Italians played the All Blacks in 1987, they were humiliated 70-6, but when the All Blacks played them in 1991, they found themselves winning only 31-21 in a highly competitive match. Italy narrowly lost to the Australians 23-20 in 1994(who at time were world champions) The next week Italy were again competitive and Australia struggled to a 20-7 victory. In 1987, the Federazione Italiana Rugby joined the International Rugby Board (IRB), now known as World Rugby. That same year, the national side were invited to compete in the first Rugby World Cup in 1987. Italy had to wait until 1988 to play their first Test against a Home Nation. In 1995, the national side finally got their first victory over a home nation, against Ireland in Treviso, in a Rugby World Cup warm up. In 1999, the domestic competition ran its 100th tournament, with Benetton Treviso winning the championship that year. Present day In 2000, Italy joined the Five Nations Championships, turning the competition into the Six Nations Championship. In both the 2007 Six Nations and the 2013 Six Nations, Italy finished fourth, their best placing yet. National team The Italian national rugby union side have been playing international rugby since the late 1920s, and are categorized, by the International Rugby Board, as a tier one nation. They have competed in the Six Nations Championship since 2000 and at all the Rugby World Cups. Italy's best result at a Rugby World Cup was at the 2007 tournament in France, where they won two of their four pool matches and lost by two points to Scotland, narrowly missing the quarter-finals. On St. Valentine's Day 2010, Italy lost narrowly to England in Rome (12-17), further consolidating Italy's rise in international rugby, and this rise continued with a 22-21 victory over France on 12 March 2011. Notable former Italian international players include: Mauro Bergamasco Mirco Bergamasco Carlo Checchinato Massimo Cuttitta Diego Domínguez Ivan Francescato Massimo Giovanelli Andrea Lo Cicero Martín Castrogiovanni Sergio Parisse Salvatore Perugini Alessandro Troncon Paolo Vaccari Italy also has a national rugby sevens team. Other tournaments The World Rugby Nations Cup in Romania and World Rugby Tbilisi Cup in Georgia are tournaments involving the host teams and usually Tier One teams like Argentina XV and Emerging Italy and Tier Two teams like Portugal and Russia. Nations Cup was first held in 2006. Competitions Domestic Apart from the two Italian teams competing in the Pro14, European Rugby Champions Cup and European Rugby Challenge Cup, the Top12 is the main competition for rugby union clubs in Italy. The competition was first contested in 1929, with six clubs. It was altered in 2002 to include just the top 10 sides of Italy, and was extended to twelve teams in 2012/13. The competition runs from September to May. After a home-and-away season, the top four teams play a knock-out competition to decide the championship. The winners are awarded the Albo d'Oro trophy. The current teams are: L'Aquila Calvisano Fiamme Oro Lazio Mogliano Petrarca Lyons Piacenza Rovigo Delta San Donà Viadana Below the Top12, domestic Italian rugby is played in the Campionati Nazionali which consists of: Serie A: divided into 4 pools of 6 teams who play each other home and away Serie B: divided into 4 leagues of 12 teams who play each other home and away. Serie C1. Serie C2. An Under 19 Championship and a female competition also exist. The Coppa Italia is a knock-out competition for domestic clubs. The competition has been contested annually since 1967, though it was not held from 1974 to 1980, and 1983 to 1994, and again in 1996, 1999 and 2002. From 2010 it's renamed in Excellence Trophy. European tournaments Pro12 Two Italian sides, Treviso and Aironi were admitted to the Pro12 on 8 March 2009, and started playing in the league from the 2010/11 season. The announcement by Celtic rugby followed a long period of negotiations and planning, starting with a tentative agreement in 2008 to admit two Italian sides. During 2009 the FIR organised a competition to choose which two sides would win the two places. This resulted in a team based in Rome winning one of the two places, despite the Italian rugby heartland being in the north. This decision was overturned after questions about the viability of the new franchise, with Treviso taking its place. Only after repeated assurances by the FIR of the ability of the two new sides to contribute financially to the league did Celtic rugby finally admit the two teams. For the 2012/13 season, Aironi left the Pro12, and was replaced by Zebre, a team based in Parma. Heineken Cup and European Rugby Champions Cup Italy fielded teams in the European knock-out competition, the Heineken Cup, from its inception in 1995–96 through its final season of 2013–14. The Heineken Cup was an annual rugby union competition involving leading clubs, regional and provincial teams from the rest of the Six Nations: England, France, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. Through the 2009–10 season, Italy usually had two to three clubs in the Heineken Cup. Starting with the 2010–11 season, Italy's two Pro12 sides automatically entered the Heineken Cup. Starting in 2014–15, the Heineken Cup has been replaced by the European Rugby Champions Cup. Italy is guaranteed one place in the Champions Cup; the Italian Pro12 team that finishes higher on the previous season's Pro12 table automatically qualifies. The second Italian Pro12 club can earn a Champions Cup place if it is one of the three highest-placed teams apart from the top team of each Pro12 country (Italy, Ireland, Scotland, Wales). Beginning with the 2014–15 season, the second Italian club has another path to the following season's Champions Cup—if it is one of the top two Pro12 teams that does not qualify for the Champions Cup, it will enter a play-off for a Champions Cup place that also involves the seventh-place sides from the English Premiership and Top 14. European Challenge Cup and European Rugby Challenge Cup The European Challenge Cup in rugby union, known as the Parker Pen Shield from 2001 to 2003, Parker Pen Challenge Cup from 2003 to 2005, and the Amlin Challenge Cup from 2009 to 2014, was the sister competition to the Heineken Cup. It was competed for by teams from England, France, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, Italy, and Romania (plus, in some years, Portugal and Spain) on a knock-out basis. Italy entered 4 clubs: those finishing 1st to 4th in the Eccellenza. Clubs had previously competed in the European Shield, though that particular competition was restructured in 2005. Starting in the 2014–15 season, the original Challenge Cup was replaced by the European Rugby Challenge Cup. Any Italian Pro12 team that does not qualify for the Champions Cup plays in the current Challenge Cup. European Rugby Qualifying Competition The introduction of the new European club competition structure for 2014–15 will see the creation of a completely new third-tier competition, the Qualifying Competition. The structure has not yet been announced, but it will involve the top four teams from the Eccellenza plus club sides from second-tier European rugby nations. These sides will compete for two places in the Challenge Cup. See also Italian Rugby Federation Italy national rugby union team United Rugby Championship References Bath, Richard (ed.) The Complete Book of Rugby (Seven Oaks Ltd, 1997 ) Richards, Huw A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union (Mainstream Publishing, Edinburgh, 2007, ) External links Federugby.it Statistics on Rugbydata.com La Gazzetta dello Sport (English) Rugby on Corriere dello Sport (Italian) La Repubblica sports pages (Italian) RAI rugby pages
4915103	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainforth%20and%20Keadby%20Canal	Stainforth and Keadby Canal	The Stainforth and Keadby Canal is a navigable canal in South Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, England. It connects the River Don Navigation at Bramwith to the River Trent at Keadby, by way of Stainforth, Thorne and Ealand, near Crowle. It opened in 1802, passed into the control of the River Don Navigation in 1849, and within a year was controlled by the first of several railway companies. It became part of the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation, an attempt to remove several canals from railway control, in 1895. There were plans to upgrade it to take larger barges and to improve the port facilities at Keadby, but the completion of the New Junction Canal in 1905 made this unnecessary, as Goole could easily be reached and was already a thriving port. The canal was a centre for boatbuilding between 1858, when Richard Dunston moved his yard to Thorne from Torksey, and 1984 when the yard closed. Dunston's company were pioneers in the use of welded construction and innovative tug propulsion systems. The operation was always restricted by the size of Keadby Lock, although vessels longer than the lock could pass through when the river was level with the canal and both sets of gates could be opened. The largest ship to be built required Dunston's to build a dam across the canal, as the canal company feared that it might get stuck in the lock, resulting in flooding and draining of the canal. The canal passes through a region which is largely rural, much of which is drained artificially. For most of its length, it is flanked by the North Soak Drain and the South Soak Drain, because it disrupted the established drainage scheme. Thorne Moors lie to the north and Hatfield Chase lies to the south. Until its demise in 1966, the canal was crossed by the Axholme Joint Railway at Ealand. The swing bridge was retained for several years after closure, so that stators from the nearby Keadby Power Station could be taken away for repairs, as there were no road bridges which could support the weight. History The River Don, which flows through Sheffield and Doncaster, had originally split into two channels below Stainforth, one of which emptied into the River Trent near Adlingfleet, close to its junction with the River Ouse, while the other headed north to join the River Aire near Rawcliffe. Following the work of the Dutch drainage engineer Cornelius Vermuyden to drain Hatfield Chase, the Adlingfleet outlet was closed off, and the channel to the River Aire, passing through Newbridge, was improved to take all of the flow. The scheme was not entirely successful, and after severe flooding near Sykehouse, Fishlake and Snaith, accompanied by riots, a new channel was cut between Newbridge and the River Ouse near what became Goole. The old course of the Don gradually silted up. Navigation on the Don was improved by the construction of cuts and locks, with the lowest lock situated at Stainforth. From there to the Ouse, boats used the Dutch River, Vermuyden's artificial drain, which was hazardous due to its fast flows, its tides and its shallowness at times. The idea of reconnecting the Don to the Trent was first raised in 1763, when James Brindley assisted the manager of the River Don Navigation to survey a route for a canal to do this. In 1772 a second survey was made, this time by John Thompson, the Don Navigation's engineer, for a canal from Stainforth to Althorpe, some above Keadby on the River Trent. An agreement to build the canal, which would have had three locks and cost £14,614, was reached, but no further action occurred. The plan was revived in 1792, by which time the cost had risen to £24,200, and an Act of Parliament to authorise the work was obtained in 1793. This allowed the Stainforth and Keadby Canal Navigation Company to raise £24,200 by issuing shares, and a further £12,000 if necessary. Work began at the Keadby end in late 1793. A second Act, obtained in 1798, allowed the company to raise an additional £20,000 from shareholders, instead of the original £12,000, and to raise £10,000 by mortgage. The canal opened without ceremony in early 1802. The canal had a lock at Thorne and another where it joined the River Trent at Keadby. This lock had four sets of gates, so that it could be used whether the level of the river was higher or lower than that of the canal. It could take keels up to , which could carry up to 200 tons. Development In 1828, there was a proposal to build a canal from West Stockwith on the River Trent to the River Don at Doncaster, which would have bypassed the Stainforth and Keadby. There was also a plan for a lower Don bypass, to connect direct to the Goole Canal, avoiding the difficult Dutch River. Neither scheme progressed any further, but the Keadby end of the canal was improved, and a new deep water jetty was constructed on the Trent in 1833. Traffic improved, with boats using the canal as an easier way to reach the Don than the Dutch River. The Don Navigation Company then proposed a new canal from Stainforth to the River Ouse at Swinefleet in 1836. They needed to buy of the Stainforth and Keadby from the Don towards Stainforth, and started to negotiate, while applying for an Act of Parliament. The Stainforth and Keadby opposed the bill, and an agreement was reached in May 1836 that the Don would buy the whole canal for £48,000. A bill to authorise the sale was opposed by some of the Stainforth and Keadby shareholders and was rejected by the House of Lords. After several more abortive plans at amalgamation, where the Stainforth and Keadby pulled out at the last minute, agreement was finally reached, and the Don Navigation took control of the canal on 1 January 1849. A year later, it became part of the South Yorkshire Railway and River Dun Company, after the Don Navigation and the Doncaster and Goole Railway companies merged. Under an Act of Parliament of 1874, the South Yorkshire company was absorbed into the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway. Despite the railway competition, traffic levels remained healthy, with the waterways carrying a total of 982,000 tons in 1878, but there was a growing dissatisfaction with the situation, particularly the high tolls compared to the railways, and the refusal to allow steam haulage, which had been in use on the neighbouring Aire and Calder Navigation for over 50 years. In an attempt to improve the situation, the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Canal Company Ltd was formed in 1888, with the intention of buying back the canals from the railway company, and upgrading them to offer effective competition to the railways. As a result of their efforts, the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Co was created by an Act of Parliament dated 26 August 1889, with powers to raise £1.5 million to purchase and improve four canals. These were the Sheffield Canal, the River Don Navigation, the Dearne and Dove Canal and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal. The intention was to upgrade the Don and the Stainforth and Keadby to take 300 or 400 ton barges, to investigate the use of compartment boats, and to build a new port facility at Keadby, where coal could be trans-shipped to seagoing vessels. Negotiations with the railway company were long and bitter, and the Navigation company only managed to raise £625,000 of the £1.14 million purchase price, with the result that although ownership of the waterways was transferred to them, the railway company still nominated five of the ten directors, and thus retained significant control. During the protracted negotiations, the company had also been talking to the Aire and Calder about compartment boats, which resulted in a proposal to jointly fund and build a canal from Bramwith to the Aire and Calder. The New Junction Canal was authorised in 1891, and finally opened in 1905. This removed the need to build a new port at Keadby, and the planned upgrade to take larger vessels was also shelved, because the company were unable to raise significant working capital. Despite the lack of investment and the difficulties of the First World War, the waterways were still quite busy, with traffic recovering from 381,727 tons in 1926, the year of the general strike, to over 800,000 tons in 1937. Bramwith lock, the first on the Stainforth and Keadby, was lengthened in 1932, and a new colliery layby was constructed to enable compartment boats to reach Hatfield Main Colliery. Stainforth lock, which connected the canal to the River Don, was closed in 1939. The winter of 1947 was particularly severe, and the Stainforth and Keadby was closed for a period due to ice. After the Second World War, the canals of the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation were nationalised on 1 January 1948, together with most other operational canals in Britain. They were initially managed by the British Transport Commission, but control passed to British Waterways with the passing of the Transport Act 1962, which also disbanded the Transport Commission. The Transport Acts of 1968 and 1983 divided British canals into Commercial waterways, which were still carrying commercial traffic, cruising waterways, which had potential for leisure use, and remainder waterways, for which no economic use could be seen at the time. The Stainforth and Keadby was designated as a commercial waterway, and traffic was restricted to working boats carrying freight. With the steady demise of freight traffic, British Waterways encouraged the use of the canals for leisure cruising, walking and fishing, and later recognised their environmental value. Following the cessation of coal carrying from Hatfield Main colliery, and the closure of Dunston's boatyard at Thorne, all use of the canal is now by leisure boaters. A further change of ownership took place in 2012 with the creation of the Canal & River Trust, which took over all of the assets of British Waterways. Boatbuilding Large numbers of boats were built beside the Stainforth and Keadby Canal. Richard Dunston set up a boatyard at Thorne, on the north bank just below the lock, in 1858, after selling his previous boatyard at Torksey. He initially constructed clinker-built sailing barges, capable of carrying up to 80 tons. The boatyard was fairly self-contained, using timber which was grown locally and was sawn by hand at the yard. It included a ropewalk, which made ropes for many industries in the locality, as well as for rigging of the boats, and supplied sails, masts and chandlery to much of the Humber region. Gradually, carvel-built barges with their smoother hulls replaced clinker-built ones, and boat sizes became more standard, with Sheffield-sized keels and larger sloops. Shortly after Richard's grandson took over the yard in 1910, it was remodelled to build iron and steel ships, and only one wooden boat was built subsequently. One of the issues with the yard was that the size of boats that could be built was restricted by the locks at either side of the site. Sheffield-sized boats were around , and could leave the yard either by passing through Thorne Lock and on to the Don Navigation, or by travelling to Keadby and entering the Trent. Sloops were restricted to the Keadby route, because of their larger size, and the largest boats built at Thorne before the 1940s were tugs, 300-ton coasters and 300-ton lighters. From 1933, the yard began experimenting with welded rather than riveted construction, and their first all-welded steam tugs were constructed for the Admiralty in 1942. They continued to lead the field with developments in tug propulsion in the 1960s, and by the late 1970s had built seventeen tugs with Kort nozzle or Kort rudder steering and twenty tugs with Voith-Schneider propulsion systems at Thorne. With the yard at Hessle on the Humber, bought from Henry Scarr in 1932, they were one of the largest un-nationalised shipbuilders in Britain. The Empire Laird, a self-trimming diesel collier measuring with a draught of , was one of the largest vessels ever constructed at Thorne. It was built for the Admiralty in 1943 for use in the Bristol area, delivering coal to power stations. It was fitted with a Crossley engine and a single propeller. Keadby Lock is much shorter than the ship, and so it had to sail through when the river made a level with the canal, and both sets of gates could be opened at the same time. However, the canal company were worried that because of its width, it might jam in the lock, which would cause flooding of the hinterland at high tide, and draining of the canal at low tide. Dunston's had to build a dam across the canal beyond the lock, to prevent both consequences. Once built, the ship successfully passed through the lock, and the dam was removed. During the Second World War, Dunston's designed and built TID (Tugs in Dock) tugs. They were constructed from eight pre-fabricated sections, manufactured by companies who were not normally involved in shipbuilding. The sections weighted less than 6 tons, with a maximum size of by by , and were delivered by lorry to the yard. There they were joined together by welders, many of whom were women, and fitted with steam engines. The first TID tug was completed in February 1943, and for more than a year, one left the yard every five days. In the early 1980s, there were still 80 workers involved in construction work at Thorne, and 15 other staff. A total of 1,358 vessels were built there between 1932 and the end of shipbuilding in 1984. The yard closed completely in 1987, and had been cleared by 1993. Subsequently, it has become a housing estate, where a number of the roads reflect the former use of the site, including Capstan Rope Way and Dunstan Drive, although the spelling of "Dunston" is not quite the same. Route The Stainforth and Keadby follows a fairly direct course from west to east, running for from Bramwith Junction, where it meets the New Junction Canal and the River Don Navigation, to Keadby Lock, where it joins the River Trent. There is a lock at both ends and one part way along at Thorne, which is smaller than the other two. Maximum boat sizes over the entire canal are long by wide. Boats can draw and headroom is restricted to . The New Junction Canal and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal leave the end of the River Don Navigation, and both head broadly north east, but whereas the New Junction Canal continues in a straight line for its entire length, the Stainforth and Keadby gradually turns to the east. Shortly after the junction, Bramwith Lock lowers the level of the canal. The River Don, after flowing under the New Junction Canal, joins the canal and continues close to the north bank for several miles. Bramwith Swing Bridge is the first of several swing bridges, most of which are operated by boaters. The tiny village of Kirk Bramwith is just to the north of the canal and river. Its notable buildings include the church of St Mary, much of which dates from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, with a twelfth-century southern doorway. The building is a grade II* listed structure. The hamlet of South Bramwith lies to the south, with Bramwith Hall, a grade II listed 3-storey, 5-bay eighteenth-century country house, which was rebuilt in the early nineteenth century, situated close to the canal. The canal passes to the north of Stainforth, where there is a fixed bridge. A basin, with its former connection to the Don, is now used as moorings by Thorne Cruising Club. This first section is now generally considered to be part of the Stainforth and Keadby Canal, although it was originally part of the Don Navigation as far as Stainforth Lock. After a large pipe bridge, the canal widens to form a loading bay where coal from Hatfield Main Colliery was transferred to barges. A railway, which has now been dismantled, connected the site to the mine. About from Stainforth, the Don turns towards the north, while the canal continues to the east, passing under the M18 motorway. As it approaches Thorne, it passes under the Sheffield to Hull Railway near Thorne North railway station. Immediately beyond the bridge is Stanilands Marina, followed by Thorne Lock, with a swing bridge crossing its head. The canal turns briefly to the south, to pass under the A614 road and the to railway near Thorne South railway station. The railway remains close to the northern bank for most of the way to Keadby. There is another marina near Wykewell Lift Bridge, and after Moor's Swing Bridge, the canal crosses open countryside. The land besides the canal is low lying, and there is evidence of strip farming, with a series of farms each with a long thin strip of land behind it. In this case the strips were strips, approximately in size. The land is crossed by drainage ditches. To the north are those of Thorne Moors, while to the south, the drains include Boating Dyke, which was used for the export of peat during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The network of peat canals were largely destroyed by the cutting of the canal in 1802, and Boating Dyke now feeds into the North Engine Drain, which crosses Hatfield Chase and discharges into the River Trent at Keadby. After Maud's Swing Bridge is a long straight stretch, with the railway on the north bank. The North Soak Drain and South Soak Drain flank the canal on both sides, and were built because the canal disrupted the natural drainage of the area. Near to Crook o'Moor Swing Bridge was Medge Hall peat works, which exported peat from the moors by railway until it was closed in 1966. Just before Godnow Swing Bridge, the northern soak drain crosses to the north side of the railway. As the canal approaches Ealand there are some large lakes to the north, which are now used for sailing. Crowle Bridge carries the A161 road over the railway and the canal, and Crowle railway station is sandwiched between the canal and the North Soak Drain. A little further east are the remains of Crowle railway bridge. It carried the Axholme Joint Railway over the canal, and consisted of four arches built from bricks, with a central swinging section, to allow keels to sail along the canal. The bridge was retained after the railway was closed in 1966, because stators from Keadby Power Station were too heavy to be transported over the A161 road bridge. The stators were carried by road to Ealand, loaded onto the railway, and crossed the bridge to Belton, where they were transferred back to a road vehicle. The process became unnecessary when Lindsey County Council rebuilt the A161 bridge in 1970, and the railway bridge was demolished in 1972. On the outskirts of Keadby, there are two more bridges. Vazon Swing Bridge is a conventional swing bridge, but the railway crosses to the south side of the canal on a sliding bridge. The bridge deck is only around above the level of the water. When boats need to pass, the deck is winched sideways, and clears the waterway because it crosses it at an angle. The bridge was built in 1925–26 and rebuilt in 2004, and is controlled from a signal box nearby. Beyond the bridge, Keadby gas-fired power station is located on the north bank. The final bridge is Keadby Swing Bridge, situated at the head of Keadby Lock. The lock controls passage to the River Trent, which is tidal at this point, and it therefore has four sets of gates. The main structure of the lock dates from the opening of the canal, and is grade II listed. The gates and sills were replaced in 1932. There are wharves on the river for larger ships, and Keadby pumping station is situated just to the south. It was built in the 1930s, and pumps water from Hatfield Chase into the Trent. Since 1945 it has also dealt with water from the North and South Soak Drains. When the South Yorkshire Railway opened their line along the banks of the canal in 1859, it terminated beside the lock, but was diverted to the south to cross the Trent on Keadby Bridge in 1864. Points of interest See also Canals of Great Britain History of the British canal system References Bibliography External links Canals in England Canals in Lincolnshire Canals linked to the River Trent Canals in Doncaster Canals opened in 1802
4915182	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random%20permutation%20statistics	Random permutation statistics	The statistics of random permutations, such as the cycle structure of a random permutation are of fundamental importance in the analysis of algorithms, especially of sorting algorithms, which operate on random permutations. Suppose, for example, that we are using quickselect (a cousin of quicksort) to select a random element of a random permutation. Quickselect will perform a partial sort on the array, as it partitions the array according to the pivot. Hence a permutation will be less disordered after quickselect has been performed. The amount of disorder that remains may be analysed with generating functions. These generating functions depend in a fundamental way on the generating functions of random permutation statistics. Hence it is of vital importance to compute these generating functions. The article on random permutations contains an introduction to random permutations. The fundamental relation Permutations are sets of labelled cycles. Using the labelled case of the Flajolet–Sedgewick fundamental theorem and writing for the set of permutations and for the singleton set, we have Translating into exponential generating functions (EGFs), we have where we have used the fact that the EGF of the combinatorial species of permutations (there are n! permutations of n elements) is This one equation allows one to derive a large number of permutation statistics. Firstly, by dropping terms from , i.e. exp, we may constrain the number of cycles that a permutation contains, e.g. by restricting the EGF to we obtain permutations containing two cycles. Secondly, note that the EGF of labelled cycles, i.e. of , is because there are k! / k labelled cycles. This means that by dropping terms from this generating function, we may constrain the size of the cycles that occur in a permutation and obtain an EGF of the permutations containing only cycles of a given size. Instead of removing and selecting cycles, one can also put different weights on different size cycles. If is a weight function that depends only on the size k of the cycle and for brevity we write defining the value of b for a permutation to be the sum of its values on the cycles, then we may mark cycles of length k with ub(k) and obtain a two-variable generating function This is a "mixed" generating function: it is an exponential generating function in z and an ordinary generating function in the secondary parameter u. Differentiating and evaluating at u = 1, we have This is the probability generating function of the expectation of b. In other words, the coefficient of in this power series is the expected value of b on permutations in , given that each permutation is chosen with the same probability . This article uses the coefficient extraction operator [zn], documented on the page for formal power series. Number of permutations that are involutions An involution is a permutation σ so that σ2 = 1 under permutation composition. It follows that σ may only contain cycles of length one or two, i.e. the exponential generating function g(z) of these permutations is This gives the explicit formula for the total number of involutions among the permutations σ ∈ Sn: Dividing by n! yields the probability that a random permutation is an involution. These numbers are known as telephone numbers. Number of permutations that are mth roots of unity This generalizes the concept of an involution. An mth root of unity is a permutation σ so that σm = 1 under permutation composition. Now every time we apply σ we move one step in parallel along all of its cycles. A cycle of length d applied d times produces the identity permutation on d elements (d fixed points) and d is the smallest value to do so. Hence m must be a multiple of all cycle sizes d, i.e. the only possible cycles are those whose length d is a divisor of m. It follows that the EGF g(x) of these permutations is When m = p, where p is prime, this simplifies to Number of permutations of order exactly k This one can be done by Möbius inversion. Working with the same concept as in the previous entry we note that the combinatorial species of permutations whose order divides k is given by Translation to exponential generating functions we obtain the EGF of permutations whose order divides k, which is Now we can use this generating function to count permutations of order exactly k. Let be the number of permutations on n whose order is exactly d and the number of permutations on n the permutation count whose order divides k. Then we have It follows by Möbius inversion that Therefore, we have the EGF The desired count is then given by This formula produces e.g. for k = 6 the EGF with the sequence of values starting at n = 5 For k = 8 we get the EGF with the sequence of values starting at n = 8 Finally for k = 12 we get the EGF with the sequence of values starting at n = 7 Number of permutations that are derangements Suppose there are n people at a party, each of whom brought an umbrella. At the end of the party everyone picks an umbrella out of the stack of umbrellas and leaves. What is the probability that no one left with his/her own umbrella? This problem is equivalent to counting permutations with no fixed points (called derangements), and hence the EGF, where we subtract out fixed points (cycles of length 1) by removing the term z from the fundamental relation is Multiplication by sums the coefficients of , so , the total number of derangements, is given by: Hence there are about derangements and the probability that a random permutation is a derangement is This result may also be proved by inclusion–exclusion. Using the sets where to denote the set of permutations that fix p, we have This formula counts the number of permutations that have at least one fixed point. The cardinalities are as follows: Hence the number of permutations with no fixed point is or and we have the claim. There is a generalization of these numbers, which is known as rencontres numbers, i.e. the number of permutations of containing m fixed points. The corresponding EGF is obtained by marking cycles of size one with the variable u, i.e. choosing b(k) equal to one for and zero otherwise, which yields the generating function of the set of permutations by the number of fixed points: It follows that and hence This immediately implies that for n large, m fixed. Order of a random permutation If P is a permutation, the order of P is the smallest positive integer n for which is the identity permutation. This is the least common multiple of the lengths of the cycles of P. A theorem of Goh and Schmutz states that if is the expected order of a random permutation of size n, then where the constant c is Derangements containing an even and an odd number of cycles We can use the same construction as in the previous section to compute the number of derangements containing an even number of cycles and the number containing an odd number of cycles. To do this we need to mark all cycles and subtract fixed points, giving Now some very basic reasoning shows that the EGF of is given by We thus have which is Subtracting from , we find The difference of these two ( and ) is One hundred prisoners A prison warden wants to make room in his prison and is considering liberating one hundred prisoners, thereby freeing one hundred cells. He therefore assembles one hundred prisoners and asks them to play the following game: he lines up one hundred urns in a row, each containing the name of one prisoner, where every prisoner's name occurs exactly once. The game is played as follows: every prisoner is allowed to look inside fifty urns. If he or she does not find his or her name in one of the fifty urns, all prisoners will immediately be executed, otherwise the game continues. The prisoners have a few moments to decide on a strategy, knowing that once the game has begun, they will not be able to communicate with each other, mark the urns in any way or move the urns or the names inside them. Choosing urns at random, their chances of survival are almost zero, but there is a strategy giving them a 30% chance of survival, assuming that the names are assigned to urns randomly – what is it? First of all, the survival probability using random choices is so this is definitely not a practical strategy. The 30% survival strategy is to consider the contents of the urns to be a permutation of the prisoners, and traverse cycles. To keep the notation simple, assign a number to each prisoner, for example by sorting their names alphabetically. The urns may thereafter be considered to contain numbers rather than names. Now clearly the contents of the urns define a permutation. The first prisoner opens the first urn. If he finds his name, he has finished and survives. Otherwise he opens the urn with the number he found in the first urn. The process repeats: the prisoner opens an urn and survives if he finds his name, otherwise he opens the urn with the number just retrieved, up to a limit of fifty urns. The second prisoner starts with urn number two, the third with urn number three, and so on. This strategy is precisely equivalent to a traversal of the cycles of the permutation represented by the urns. Every prisoner starts with the urn bearing his number and keeps on traversing his cycle up to a limit of fifty urns. The number of the urn that contains his number is the pre-image of that number under the permutation. Hence the prisoners survive if all cycles of the permutation contain at most fifty elements. We have to show that this probability is at least 30%. Note that this assumes that the warden chooses the permutation randomly; if the warden anticipates this strategy, he can simply choose a permutation with a cycle of length 51. To overcome this, the prisoners may agree in advance on a random permutation of their names. We consider the general case of prisoners and urns being opened. We first calculate the complementary probability, i.e. that there is a cycle of more than elements. With this in mind, we introduce or so that the desired probability is because the cycle of more than elements will necessarily be unique. Using the fact that , we find that which yields Finally, using an integral estimate such as Euler–Maclaurin summation, or the asymptotic expansion of the nth harmonic number, we obtain so that or at least 30%, as claimed. A related result is that asymptotically, the expected length of the longest cycle is λn, where λ is the Golomb–Dickman constant, approximately 0.62. This example is due to Anna Gál and Peter Bro Miltersen; consult the paper by Peter Winkler for more information, and see the discussion on Les-Mathematiques.net. Consult the references on 100 prisoners for links to these references. The above computation may be performed in a more simple and direct way, as follows: first note that a permutation of elements contains at most one cycle of length strictly greater than . Thus, if we denote then For , the number of permutations that contain a cycle of length exactly is Explanation: is the number of ways of choosing the elements that comprise the cycle; is the number of ways of arranging items in a cycle; and is the number of ways to permute the remaining elements. There is no double counting here because there is at most one cycle of length when . Thus, We conclude that A variation on the 100 prisoners problem (keys and boxes) There is a closely related problem that fits the method presented here quite nicely. Say you have n ordered boxes. Every box contains a key to some other box or possibly itself giving a permutation of the keys. You are allowed to select k of these n boxes all at once and break them open simultaneously, gaining access to k keys. What is the probability that using these keys you can open all n boxes, where you use a found key to open the box it belongs to and repeat. The mathematical statement of this problem is as follows: pick a random permutation on n elements and k values from the range 1 to n, also at random, call these marks. What is the probability that there is at least one mark on every cycle of the permutation? The claim is this probability is k/n. The species of permutations by cycles with some non-empty subset of every cycle being marked has the specification The index in the inner sum starts at one because we must have at least one mark on every cycle. Translating the specification to generating functions we obtain the bivariate generating function This simplifies to or In order to extract coefficients from this re-write like so It now follows that and hence Divide by to obtain We do not need to divide by n! because is exponential in z. Number of permutations containing m cycles Applying the Flajolet–Sedgewick fundamental theorem, i.e. the labelled enumeration theorem with , to the set we obtain the generating function The term yields the signed Stirling numbers of the first kind, and is the EGF of the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind, i.e. We can compute the OGF of the signed Stirling numbers for n fixed, i.e. Start with which yields Summing this, we obtain Using the formula involving the logarithm for on the left, the definition of on the right, and the binomial theorem, we obtain Comparing the coefficients of , and using the definition of the binomial coefficient, we finally have a falling factorial. The computation of the OGF of the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind works in a similar way. Expected number of cycles of a given size m In this problem we use a bivariate generating function g(z, u) as described in the introduction. The value of b for a cycle not of size m is zero, and one for a cycle of size m. We have or This means that the expected number of cycles of size m in a permutation of length n less than m is zero (obviously). A random permutation of length at least m contains on average 1/m cycles of length m. In particular, a random permutation contains about one fixed point. The OGF of the expected number of cycles of length less than or equal to m is therefore where Hm is the mth harmonic number. Hence the expected number of cycles of length at most m in a random permutation is about ln m. Moments of fixed points The mixed GF of the set of permutations by the number of fixed points is Let the random variable X be the number of fixed points of a random permutation. Using Stirling numbers of the second kind, we have the following formula for the mth moment of X: where is a falling factorial. Using , we have which is zero when , and one otherwise. Hence only terms with contribute to the sum. This yields Expected number of fixed points in random permutation raised to some power k Suppose you pick a random permutation and raise it to some power , with a positive integer and ask about the expected number of fixed points in the result. Denote this value by . For every divisor of a cycle of length splits into fixed points when raised to the power Hence we need to mark these cycles with To illustrate this consider We get which is Once more continuing as described in the introduction, we find which is The conclusion is that for and there are four fixed points on average. The general procedure is Once more continuing as before, we find We have shown that the value of is equal to (the number of divisors of ) as soon as It starts out at for and increases by one every time hits a divisor of up to and including itself. Expected number of cycles of any length of a random permutation We construct the bivariate generating function using , where is one for all cycles (every cycle contributes one to the total number of cycles). Note that has the closed form and generates the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind. We have Hence the expected number of cycles is the harmonic number , or about . Number of permutations with a cycle of length larger than n/2 (Note that Section One hundred prisoners contains exactly the same problem with a very similar calculation, plus also a simpler elementary proof.) Once more, start with the exponential generating function , this time of the class of permutations according to size where cycles of length more than are marked with the variable : There can only be one cycle of length more than , hence the answer to the question is given by or which is The exponent of in the term being raised to the power is larger than and hence no value for can possibly contribute to It follows that the answer is The sum has an alternate representation that one encounters e.g. in the OEIS . finally giving Expected number of transpositions of a random permutation We can use the disjoint cycle decomposition of a permutation to factorize it as a product of transpositions by replacing a cycle of length k by k − 1 transpositions. E.g. the cycle factors as . The function for cycles is equal to and we obtain and Hence the expected number of transpositions is where is the Harmonic number. We could also have obtained this formula by noting that the number of transpositions is obtained by adding the lengths of all cycles (which gives n) and subtracting one for every cycle (which gives by the previous section). Note that again generates the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind, but in reverse order. More precisely, we have To see this, note that the above is equivalent to and that which we saw to be the EGF of the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind in the section on permutations consisting of precisely m cycles. Expected cycle size of a random element We select a random element q of a random permutation and ask about the expected size of the cycle that contains q. Here the function is equal to , because a cycle of length k contributes k elements that are on cycles of length k. Note that unlike the previous computations, we need to average out this parameter after we extract it from the generating function (divide by n). We have Hence the expected length of the cycle that contains q is Probability that a random element lies on a cycle of size m This average parameter represents the probability that if we again select a random element of of a random permutation, the element lies on a cycle of size m. The function is equal to for and zero otherwise, because only cycles of length m contribute, namely m elements that lie on a cycle of length m. We have It follows that the probability that a random element lies on a cycle of length m is Probability that a random subset of [n] lies on the same cycle Select a random subset Q of [n] containing m elements and a random permutation, and ask about the probability that all elements of Q lie on the same cycle. This is another average parameter. The function b(k) is equal to , because a cycle of length k contributes subsets of size m, where for . This yields Averaging out we obtain that the probability of the elements of Q being on the same cycle is or In particular, the probability that two elements are on the same cycle is 1/2. Number of permutations containing an even number of even cycles We may use the Flajolet–Sedgewick fundamental theorem directly and compute more advanced permutation statistics. (Check that page for an explanation of how the operators we will use are computed.) For example, the set of permutations containing an even number of even cycles is given by Translating to exponential generating functions (EGFs), we obtain or This simplifies to or This says that there is one permutation of size zero containing an even number of even cycles (the empty permutation, which contains zero cycles of even length), one such permutation of size one (the fixed point, which also contains zero cycles of even length), and that for , there are such permutations. Permutations that are squares Consider what happens when we square a permutation. Fixed points are mapped to fixed points. Odd cycles are mapped to odd cycles in a one-to-one correspondence, e.g. turns into . Even cycles split in two and produce a pair of cycles of half the size of the original cycle, e.g. turns into . Hence permutations that are squares may contain any number of odd cycles, and an even number of cycles of size two, an even number of cycles of size four etc., and are given by which yields the EGF Odd cycle invariants The types of permutations presented in the preceding two sections, i.e. permutations containing an even number of even cycles and permutations that are squares, are examples of so-called odd cycle invariants, studied by Sung and Zhang (see external links). The term odd cycle invariant simply means that membership in the respective combinatorial class is independent of the size and number of odd cycles occurring in the permutation. In fact we can prove that all odd cycle invariants obey a simple recurrence, which we will derive. First, here are some more examples of odd cycle invariants. Permutations where the sum of the lengths of the even cycles is six This class has the specification and the generating function The first few values are Permutations where all even cycles have the same length This class has the specification and the generating function There is a semantic nuance here. We could consider permutations containing no even cycles as belonging to this class, since zero is even. The first few values are Permutations where the maximum length of an even cycle is four This class has the specification and the generating function The first few values are The recurrence Observe carefully how the specifications of the even cycle component are constructed. It is best to think of them in terms of parse trees. These trees have three levels. The nodes at the lowest level represent sums of products of even-length cycles of the singleton . The nodes at the middle level represent restrictions of the set operator. Finally the node at the top level sums products of contributions from the middle level. Note that restrictions of the set operator, when applied to a generating function that is even, will preserve this feature, i.e. produce another even generating function. But all the inputs to the set operators are even since they arise from even-length cycles. The result is that all generating functions involved have the form where is an even function. This means that is even, too, and hence Letting and extracting coefficients, we find that which yields the recurrence A problem from the 2005 Putnam competition A link to the Putnam competition website appears in the section External links. The problem asks for a proof that where the sum is over all permutations of , is the sign of , i.e. if is even and if is odd, and is the number of fixed points of . Now the sign of is given by where the product is over all cycles c of , as explained e.g. on the page on even and odd permutations. Hence we consider the combinatorial class where marks one minus the length of a contributing cycle, and marks fixed points. Translating to generating functions, we obtain or Now we have and hence the desired quantity is given by Doing the computation, we obtain or Extracting coefficients, we find that the coefficient of is zero. The constant is one, which does not agree with the formula (should be zero). For positive, however, we obtain or which is the desired result. As an interesting aside, we observe that may be used to evaluate the following determinant of an matrix: where . Recall the formula for the determinant: Now the value of the product on the right for a permutation is , where f is the number of fixed points of . Hence which yields and finally The difference between the number of cycles in even and odd permutations Here we seek to show that this difference is given by Recall that the sign of a permutation is given by where the product ranges over the cycles c from the disjoint cycle composition of . It follows that the combinatorial species that reflects the signs and the cycle count of the set of permutations is given by where we have used to mark signs and for the cycle count. Translating to generating functions we have This simplifies to which is Now the two generating functions and of even and odd permutations by cycle count are given by and We require the quantity which is Finally, extracting coefficients from this generating function, we obtain which is which is in turn This concludes the proof. Generalizations Similar statistics are available for random endomorphisms on a finite set. See also Golomb–Dickman constant References External links Marko Riedel et al., The difference of number of cycles of even and odd permutations Marko Riedel et al., Keys inside closed boxes, a question on probability 100 prisoners Various authors, Permutations with a cycle > n/2 Various authors, A property of derangements Various authors, Expected number of fixed points Peter Winkler, Seven puzzles you think you must not have heard correctly Various authors, Les-Mathematiques.net. Cent prisonniers Combinatorics
4915222	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameen%20Rihani	Ameen Rihani	Ameen Rihani (Amīn Fāris Anṭūn ar-Rīḥānī) ( / ALA-LC: Amīn ar-Rīḥānī; Freike, Lebanon, November 24, 1876 – September 13, 1940), was a Lebanese American writer, intellectual and political activist. He was also a major figure in the mahjar literary movement developed by Arab emigrants in North America, and an early theorist of Arab nationalism. He became an American citizen in 1901. Early days Ameen Rihani was born on November 24, 1876, in Freike, in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, Rihani was one of six children and the oldest son of a Lebanese Maronite raw silk manufacturer, Fares Rihani. In 1888, his father sent his brother and Ameen to New York City; he followed them a year later. Ameen, then eleven years old, was placed in a school where he learned the rudiments of the English language. His father and uncle, having established themselves as merchants in a small cellar in lower Manhattan, soon felt the need for an assistant who could read and write in English. Therefore, the boy was taken away from school to become the chief clerk, interpreter and bookkeeper of the business. During this time, Ameen made the acquaintance of American and European writers. He eventually became familiar with the writings of Shakespeare, Hugo, Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Whitman, Tolstoy, Voltaire, Thoreau, Emerson and Byron, to name a few. Ameen had a natural talent in eloquent speaking, and in 1895, the teenager got carried away by stage fever and joined a touring stock company headed by Henry Jewet (who later had his theatre in Boston). During the summer of the same year, the troupe became stranded in Kansas City, Missouri and so the prodigal son returned to his father. However, he returned not to rejoin the business, but to insist that his father give him a regular education for a professional career. They agreed that he should study law. To that end, he attended night school for a year, passed the Regents Exam, and in 1897 entered the New York Law School. A lung infection interrupted his studies, and at the end of his first year, his father had to send him back to Lebanon to recover. Once back in his homeland, he began teaching English in a clerical school in return for being taught formal Classical Arabic. Rihani had first become familiar with Arab poets in 1897. Among these poets were Abul-Ala Al-Ma’arri, whom Ameen discovered to be the forerunner of Omar Khayyam. In 1899 he returned to New York, having decided to translate some of the quatrains of Al-Ma’arri into English. The first version of the translation was published in 1903. He began writing in English, becoming, according to Lebanese historian Samir Kassir, "the first Arab to publish in English without at the same time renouncing his own language." During this period, he joined several literary and artistic societies in New York, such as the Poetry Society of America and the Pleiades Club, and also became a regular contributor to an Arabic daily newspaper, Al-Huda, published in New York. He wrote about social traditions, religion, national politics and philosophy. Thus, he began his extensive literary career, bridging two worlds. He published his first two books in Arabic in 1902 and 1903. In 1905 he returned to his native mountains. During an ensuing six-year period of solitude, he published, in Arabic, two volumes of essays, a book of allegories and a few short stories and plays. Rihani, who was influenced by the American poet Walt Whitman, introduced prose poetry to Arab literature. His new style of poetry was published as early as 1905. This new concept flourished in the Arab world and continued to lead modern Arab poetry after Rihani's death in 1940 and throughout the second half of the 20th century. Additionally, he lectured at the Syrian Protestant College (later The American University of Beirut) and in a few other institutions in Lebanon and the Arab World, as well as in the cities of Aleppo, Cairo, Damascus, Jerusalem, and others. He also worked, along with other national leaders, for the liberation of his country from Turkish rule. In 1910 he published Ar-Rihaniyyaat, the book that established him as a forward thinker and a visionary. As a result of Ar-Rihaniyyaat, the Egyptian media hailed him as "The Philosopher of Freike". During this same period of mountain solitude The Book of Khalid was written and was later published in 1911 after he returned to New York. The illustrations for this book, which was the first English novel ever written by a Lebanese/Arab, were provided by Khalil Gibran. A reception was held in honor of Rihani for the release of The Book of Khalid and the president of the New York Pleiades Club crowned him with a laurel garland. Established writer in Arabic and English During the period between 1910 and 1922 Rihani became remarkably involved in the literary life while continuing to pursue productive political engagements. On the literary level, he continued writing and publishing in English and Arabic. Among the books that he published during that period were: The Lily of A-Ghor, a novel in English, and (rewritten) in Arabic, describing the oppression of the woman (represented by Mariam) during the Ottoman Empire, Jihan, a novel in English about the role of Levantine women during World War I, The Luzumiyat, translation of the Arabic poetry of Al-Ma’arri into English with Rihani's introduction highlighting the significance of this poet to the Western mind, The Path of Vision, essays in English on East and West, A Chant of Mystics, poetry in English, The Descent of Bolchevism, political analysis in English on the Arab origins of the socialist movements, New Volumes of Ar-Rihaniyyaat, philosophic and social essays in Arabic. In 1916 Ameen married Bertha Case, an American artist, who was part of the Matisse, Picasso, Cézanne and Derain group in Paris, and the Midi, and joined them in exhibiting her work at the Salon de Mai. Bertha visited Lebanon in 1953 (thirteen years after Ameen's death), staying with the family of Rihani's brother, Albert, in Freike. On July 29, 1970, Bertha died in New York at the age of 91. She had requested that her body be cremated and that her ashes be sent to Freike to be buried next to her husband's. Bertha's niece, Sally Storch also became a professional artist. Ameen and his wife Bertha visited Pope Benedict XV in 1917. The Pope was heartedly interested in ending World War I and in establishing an equitable peace between the fighting armies. During that same year, Ameen met with Theodore Roosevelt, former President of the United States concerning the Palestinian case. In 1919 Rihani was asked to represent Arab interests at the Hague Peace Conference. In 1921 he served as the only Near Eastern member of the Reduction of Armaments Conference in Washington, D.C. During those years he joined another number of literary circles in New York, among which are the Authors’ Club, and the New York Pen League. On the political front, he advocated several causes and worked tirelessly towards these goals: the rapprochement between East and West as a major step towards global cultural dialogue, the liberation of Lebanon from the rule of the Ottoman Empire, and the advocating for Arab nationalism and promoting what he called “The United States of Arabia”. Political and intellectual activist In 1922 Rihani traveled throughout Arabia, meeting and getting better acquainted with its rulers. He was the only traveler at that time, European or Arab, to have covered that whole territory in one trip. He acquired an invaluable and first-hand account of the character, vision and belief of each of these rulers. He developed a friendship with Ibn Saud, ruler of the desert kingdom that would soon become the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Between 1924 and 1932 he wrote and published six books in English and Arabic related to the three trips he made to Arabia. These accounts were a considerable critical and public success. London publishers released a circular on Rihani's travel books as having been best sellers. He is considered by some scholars as a major figure in the intellectual development of Arab nationalism. In his writings on national issues, he emphasized the importance of a secular state and a secular education pointing that there must be no minorities or majorities, but only equal citizens. Rihani placed the greatest priority on the spread of nationalist and pro-unity feeling among the masses, and argued that rulers would have to follow. During that time, he also published another four books in Arabic, and delivered numerous speeches in Lebanon, the Arab world, the East and West Coasts of the United States, and in Canada ranging in topics from social reform to politics, Pan-Arabism, East and West cohesion, poetry and philosophy. Rihani also participated in the Arab American movement championing the Arab Palestinian cause. Much of this activity focused on countering the rising influence of the American Zionist lobby, which supported a separate Jewish state in Palestine. He met with various U.S. officials in this regard and, during the 1920s and 1930s, was active on behalf of the Arab American, Palestine Anti-Zionism Society (later renamed the Arab National League). Rihani publicly debated leading figures in the American Zionist movement and published numerous articles critical of political Zionism. During the last eight years of his life, Ameen Rihani wrote the remainder of his books, continued to be active in his political, literary and philosophical endeavors, and maintained close contacts with several political leaders, poets, writers, scholars and artists. Samir Kassir points to Rihani's role in bringing Beirut into intellectual contact with its "cultural environment as well as the wider world". Ameen Rihani died at age 64 on September 13, 1940, at 1:00 pm, in his hometown of Freike, Lebanon. The cause of his death was a bicycle accident which resulted in infectious injuries from multiple fractures of the skull. The news of his death was broadcast to many parts of the world. It caused great emotion not only in Lebanon but throughout the Arab world. Representatives of Arab kings and rulers and of foreign diplomatic missions, together with leading poets, writers, and other intellectuals from Lebanon and the Arab World, attended the funeral ceremony. He was laid to rest in the Rihani Family Mausoleum in Freike. Thirteen years after his death, in 1953, his brother Albert established the Ameen Rihani Museum in Freike to honor his legacy. Overview Rihani is the founding father of Arab American literature. His early English writings mark the beginning of a school of literature that is Arab in its concern, culture and characteristic, English in language, and American in spirit and platform. He is the first Arab to write English essays, poetry, novels, short stories, art critiques, and travel chronicles. He published his works in the U. S. during the first four decades of the twentieth century. In this sense, he is the forerunner of American literature written by well known Middle Eastern writers. Rihani is also considered to be the founder of "Adab Al-Mahjar" (Immigrant Literature). He is the first Arab who wrote complete literary works, either in Arabic or in English, and published in the U. S. (New York). His writings pioneered the movement of modern Arabic literature that played a leading role in the Arab Renaissance and contemporary Arab thought. Rihani's Arabic book of essays entitled Ar-Rihaniyyaat (1910), endorsed his major philosophic and social beliefs and values that were reflected in his future works. These beliefs were addressed in the essays of this work such as: Who Am I, Religious Tolerance, From Brooklyn Bridge, The Great City, The Spirit of Our Time, The Spirit of Language, In the Spring of Despair, The Valley of Freike, On Solitude, Ethics, The Value of Life, Conducts of Life, Optimism, The Scattered Truth, Trilateral Wisdom, The Most Exalted Prophet, The State of the Future ... This book consecrate Rihani as a controversial writer paving the way for modernity in Arabic literature and contemporary Arab thought. Rihani's first major novel (in English), The Book of Khalid (1911), was considered a pioneering literary work that paved the way for Arab-American literature. It combined reality and fiction, East and West, spiritualism and materialism, the Arabs and the Americans, philosophy and literature, in a style of language where Arabic metaphors and English language structures go together in an attempt to create an abstract line where both languages can almost touch. Khalid, the hero of the novel, descends from Baalbek, from the roots of the Cedars in Lebanon and immigrates all the way to New York where he faces all the contradictions of his Oriental soft background and the harshness of the Occidental severe reality. He dreams of the virtual Great City, thinks of the ideal Empire, and looks for the Superman who combines within himself the spirituality of the East, the art of Europe, and the Science of America. According to several scholars, The Book of Khalid is the foundation of a new literary trend towards wisdom and prophecy that seeks to reconcile matter and soul, reason and faith, together with the Orient and the Occident in an attempt to explicate the unity of religions and represent the unity of the universe. His books on Arabia, written originally in Arabic and in English, represent an alternative perspective to the Orientalist movement by giving the world, for the first time, an objective and analytical description of Arabia from an Arab point of view. These are Maker of Modern Arabia (1928), Around the Coasts of Arabia (1930), and Arabian Peak and Desert (1931). This Arab Trilogy was considered by the publishers in the United States and Europe as best sellers at the time. The author wrote accounts of his travels to Arabia, in Arabic first, and were published under the titles of Muluk-ul Arab (Kings of the Arabs), Tareekh Najd Al-Hadeeth (History of Modern Najd), Qalb-ul Iraq (The Heart of Iraq) and other works on Arabia that were considered to be a remarkably critical and public success. Scholars, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, recognize the role of Rihani in the discourse of civilizations: Nathan C. Funk argues that “Rihani’s approach to intercultural reconciliation emerged gradually, reflecting the maturation of his personal identity. Though he was quick to develop an intellectually critical attitude toward all forms of intolerance rooted in traditional cultures, Rihani did not stop with the celebration of free thinking and the espousal of forms of national unity that renounce religious confessionalism”. Terri DeYoung compares Rihani with Walt Whitman and highlights the fact that: “Walt Whitman attempted to expose the contradictions within a philosophy ... that called for individual liberty and freedom while at the same time permitting slavery ... So too do Rihani’s writings on the questions of whether democratic principles are evenly projected onto both societies – American and Middle Eastern – where he lived and worked, continue to challenge our most cherished assumptions about ourselves”. Geoffrey P. Nash, on the other hand, emphasizes the spirit of modernity in the works of Rihani where his writings: “prompt a diachronic shift to the early twentieth century, the epoch in which Rihani, who has also been designated a prophet, was composing his first essays on cross-cultural literary and political subjects". Works References Citations Sources The Ameen Rihani Organization and website. Bravo-Villasante, Carmen Ruiz (1993). Un Testigo Árabe Del Siglo XX: Amin Al-Rihani en Marruecos y en España (1939), Madrid: Editorial Cantarabia, Universidad Autónoma De Madrid. Dunnavent, Walter Edward, III (1991). Ameen Rihani In America: Transcendentalism in an Arab-American Writer. Indiana: Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University. Funk, C. Nathan and Betty J. Sitka, eds. (2004). Ameen Rihani: Bridging East and West – A Pioneering Call for Arab-American Understanding. New York, Toronto, Oxford: University Press of America. . Hajjar, Nijmeh (2010). The Politics and Poetics of Ameen Rihani: The Humanist Ideology of an Arab-American Intellectual and Activist. London: Tauris Academic Studies. . Hassan, Wail S. (2011) Immigrant Narratives: Orientalism and Cultural Translation in Arab American and Arab British Literature. New York: Oxford University Press. Karam Haydar, Savo (2008). Ameen Rihani the Multifold Critic. Beirut: Ph.D. dissertation, The Lebanese University. Mhiri, Mootacem Bellah (2005). The Transcultural and Transnational Poetics of Ameen Rihani and Paul Smail. Pennsylvania: Ph.D. dissertation in Comparative Literature, Pennsylvania State University. Oueijan, Naji, Assaad Eid, Carol Kfoury, Doumit Salameh (1999).Kahlil Gibran & Ameen Rihani, Prophets of Lebanese-American literature. Beirut: Notre Dame University Press. . Oueijan, Naji. (2012). Ameen Rihani's Arab-American Legacy: From Romanticism to Postmodernism. Louaize: Notre Dame University Press.. Poeti arabi a New York. Il circolo di Gibran, introduzione e traduzione di F. Medici, prefazione di A. Salem, Palomar, Bari 2009. . Rihani, Albert (1979). Where to Find Ameen Rihani. Beirut: The Arab Institute for Research and Publications. ASIN: B000Q9MCWE. Tkhinvaleli, Maria (1991). Travel in Modern Arabic literature, The Example of Ameen Rihani. Tbilisi: Ph.D. dissertation, Tbilisi University, The Republic of Georgia. Zeitouni, Latif (1980). Simiologie du Recit de Voyage: Etude de Qalb Lubnan, Aix-en-Provence: Ph.D. dissertation, Université Aix-en-Provence. Beirut: (1997). The Lebanese University Press. External links 1876 births 1940 deaths 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American poets American Arabic-language poets American male novelists American male poets American poets American writers of Lebanese descent Arabic-language novelists Eastern Catholic poets Lebanese Arab nationalists Lebanese Maronites Lebanese writers Mahjar Arab nationalists Emigrants from the Ottoman Empire to the United States
4915709	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Desmond	Richard Desmond	Richard Clive Desmond (born 8 December 1951) is a British publisher, businessman and former pornographer. According to the 2021 Sunday Times Rich List, Desmond was the 107th richest person in the United Kingdom. He is the founder of Northern & Shell, a publisher known for running The Health Lottery and for having owned a variety of pornographic titles and of celebrity magazines (including OK! and New!), Britain's Channel 5, pornographic television network Portland, and Express Newspapers. In 2020, Desmond was involved in controversy after pressuring the Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government Robert Jenrick to overrule the Planning Inspectorate and approve a housing development for Desmond's company. The timing of the decision saved the company £40 million but was later overturned. Early life Desmond was born in Hampstead, London, into a Jewish family, the youngest of three children, and was raised in Edgware, in north west London. His father was descended from Latvian Jews, and his mother was of Ukrainian-Jewish descent. His father, Cyril, was at one time managing director of cinema advertising company Pearl & Dean. An ear infection caused the sudden loss of Cyril's hearing and, according to Richard, he used to take him along, when he was no more than three years old, to act as "his ears" in business meetings, where he ostensibly acquired his "first taste of business dealings". After Cyril lost a significant amount of family money to gambling, his parents divorced and 11-year-old Desmond moved with his mother, Millie, into a flat above a garage; he has described his impoverished early adolescence as a time when he was "very fat and very lonely". Desmond was educated at Edgware Junior School and Christ's College, Finchley. Early publishing career Desmond left school at 15 and started working in the classified advertisements section of the Thomson Group, while playing the drums at gigs after a day's work. After moving to another company, he became the advertising manager for the music magazine company Beat Publications, the publisher of Beat Instrumental. Desmond owned two record shops by the time he was 21. In the mid-1970s, Desmond combined his interest in music and advertising to found, with Ray Hammond, International Musician and Recording World, a monthly magazine for musicians which expanded to have editions in the UK, US, Australia, Japan and Germany. This was followed by the publication of Home Organist, whose editor contributed the old-school motto ('Nothing is difficult for the strong' – it was Benjamin Disraeli's motto), still used by the Northern & Shell publishing group. Desmond eventually bought out Hammond. Northern & Shell began publication of the celebrity OK! magazine as a monthly in 1993, later becoming a weekly in March 1996. It is the largest weekly magazine in the world, with 23 separate editions from the US to Australia to Azerbaijan and with a readership in excess of 31 million. It was originally an imitation of Hello! magazine but now outsells its rival. Pornography In 1982, Northern & Shell began to publish the UK edition of Penthouse, although the licensing deal ended in the 1990s. The company soon began to publish a range of pornographic magazines itself including Asian Babes, Readers Wives and Barely Legal, numbering 45 such titles in all when they were eventually sold. During the 1980s, Desmond ran a premium rate phone sex company until 1988 when he sold the business after British Telecom raised concerns about the content. Desmond's Northern & Shell launched The Fantasy Channel in 1995. It was one of the first pornographic channels available on satellite television in the UK, competing against other channels available on cable. The channel was later rebranded as Television X. By 2003, Desmond's company had expanded to broadcasting seven channels, with plans to launch six more and the business was described as "extremely lucrative", generating £17m of the £60m operating profits of Northern & Shell. A website, fantasy121.com, was also launched. Desmond put the magazines up for sale in 2001 in an attempt to distance himself from pornography and employed a spin doctor to try and rebrand himself. He said in 2003 in a television programme, The Real Richard Desmond (Channel 4): "Would it be better to be a former pornographer rather than a pornographer? I'm probably being more honest by keeping them. They serve a need." In February 2004, in a move that some media outlets interpreted as an attempt to improve his image in view of his bid for The Daily Telegraph. Desmond sold the pornographic magazine business to Remnant Media for approximately £10 million. Desmond was apparently "wounded" by references to himself as a pornographer. Desmond has emphasised that his material has been available through WHSmith and Freeview, saying that: "If it was pornography you would end up in prison because pornography is illegal". A headline in the Evening Standard in 2000 said "Porn Publisher to Buy Express" in reference to Desmond. In a 2002 interview for BBC Newsnight with Jeremy Paxman, Tony Blair was asked if it were appropriate to accept a controversial £100,000 donation from Desmond due to Desmond's links with the pornography industry, to which Blair replied "if someone is fit and proper to own one of the major national newspaper groups in the country then there is no reason why we would not accept donations from them". Northern & Shell's business interests in pornography ended in April 2016 when Portland Television, established in 1995, the broadcaster of Television X and the Red Hot channels, was sold for under £1 million in a management buyout. Desmond has often been referred to as "Richard 'Dirty' Desmond" or "Dirty Des" in Private Eye magazine due to Northern & Shell formerly owning pornographic magazines and television channels. In November 2021, The Guardian reported that Desmond was upset at his Wikipedia entry using the word "pornographer" and had instructed lawyers to get the term removed because, in his opinion, the phrase "only refers to publishers of illegal or obscene material". Alleged involvement with New York mafia According to The Guardian, Desmond had made a deal in 1991 with Norman Chanes for running advertisements in his pornographic magazines for telephone sex lines run by Chanes' mafia associate, Richard Martino of the Gambino crime family. According to the BBC, Martino was "widely reported" to be linked to the mafia, but Desmond did not know. The deal reportedly left the Americans out of pocket and after Desmond refused to pay compensation, his employee was kidnapped and assaulted in New York. Desmond called this account "a fantasy", but encouraged his employee to report the incident to the police and hire a bodyguard to protect himself. In February 2005, The Guardian reported that the claim Desmond had received death threats from the New York Gambino mafia family was contained in affidavits from FBI agents released during Martino's trial relating to the fraudulent use of the telephone lines. Desmond has denied the whole episode; he asserted there was no evidence he knew about the fraud perpetrated by Martino. Express Newspapers In November 2000, Northern & Shell acquired Express Newspapers from United News & Media for £125 million, enlarging the group to include the Daily and Sunday Express titles, the Daily Star and Daily Star Sunday (which Desmond started), and the Irish Daily Star (owned jointly with the Irish Independent News & Media group). The Daily and Sunday Express each sell around 700,000 copies per issue. The Daily Star was the only national paper to increase sales year on year with an 18% increase from September 2008 to September 2009 and circulation figures of around 850,000, largely due to aggressive pricing policies which significantly undercut competitors such as The Sun. After buying Express Newspapers, Desmond became embroiled in a feud with Viscount Rothermere, publisher of the Daily Mail, the rival to the Daily Express, largely derived from stories relating to Rothermere's private life. The Evening Herald reported in 2003 that Desmond was using the Express as a vehicle for his racist views. Once, when asked if he was racist, he commented "No. I just don't trust darkies or poofs". In 2014 the Financial Times referred to the Desmond-owned Express running "apparently repetitive coverage of immigration, freak weather events and theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales." Commenting at the Leveson Inquiry in January 2012, Desmond said: "There has been speculation that Diana was killed by the royal family [...] The speculation has gone on and on. I don’t know the answer." The Times reported his newspapers had repeatedly published such claims. For its defamatory articles covering the disappearance of Madeleine McCann, which numbered a hundred, the Express paid damages of £550,000 to the toddler's parents in 2008. However, in his appearance at the Leveson Inquiry, Desmond said the Express had been "scapegoated" by the Press Complaints Commission (PCC), who had "failed to provide us with any guidance" and were thus implicitly responsible for the defamatory articles. According to Desmond, the PCC was a "useless organisation run by people who wanted tea and biscuits and by phone hackers; it was run by people who wanted to destroy us." In 2015, when asked in a BBC interview if he regretted the Expresss coverage of McCann's disappearance, he said: "No, I think we reported it very fairly." In April 2004, the Daily Express reverted to supporting the Conservatives, after a period backing Labour. On the same day, Desmond attacked The Daily Telegraph (with which he was a joint venture partner in the West Ferry newspaper printing plant), then considering accepting a takeover by the German Axel Springer group, and asked if they were keen on being run by Nazis. According to Desmond, in an exchange at the meeting, all Germans are Nazis. Desmond reportedly harangued The Daily Telegraph chief executive and associates in faux German at a business meeting and imitated Adolf Hitler. The Telegraph executives walked out of the meeting. This incident was described as a form of institutionalised racism prevalent among newspaper proprietors. Previously, in August 2001, the National Union of Journalists' chapel at the Express & Star also condemned Desmond for the newspaper's "hysterical and racist" campaign against asylum seekers; this campaign was also criticised by Yasmin Alibhai-Brown, writing for The Independent in June 2002. In August 2005, the former executive editor of the Daily Express, Ted Young, made an out-of-court settlement with Desmond's company ahead of an industrial tribunal. This related to an incident with Desmond in the newsroom in September 2004, during which Desmond was said to have hit the journalist. Desmond has repeatedly denied the claims. In 2008, Northern & Shell reported a turnover of £483.9 million. Libel case Litigation began at the High Court on 6 July 2009 over claims in journalist Tom Bower's joint biography of Conrad Black and Barbara Amiel, Conrad and Lady Black: Dancing on the Edge, that Desmond had made a "humiliating climbdown" over an Express story at the end of 2002 on the state of Lord Black's finances, which it was alleged Desmond had ordered to be written. This claim of a weakening of Desmond's "super-tough" reputation as a businessman was viewed as defamation by Desmond. Bower denied libel on the grounds of the story being "substantially true". The following day, the presiding judge The Hon. Mr Justice Eady, discharged the jury as "fundamental" evidence and legal submissions had emerged. The new jury later found in favour of Bower. A biography of Desmond, Rough Trader, was written by Bower and printed in 2006, but still awaits publication. Developments since 2010 In July 2010, Desmond bought the UK terrestrial-television channel Channel 5, which was losing money, from RTL Group, for £103.5 million. "Never before", wrote Tom Bower in The Guardian at the time, "has a government regulator (Ofcom) lowered the threshold for the suitability of the prospective owner of a TV channel enough for someone like Desmond to control a potentially lucrative franchise". In the year before Desmond acquired Channel 5, it had made a total loss of €41m (£37m), or a €9m loss at an operating level. The new owner immediately proceeded to cut costs, starting with the dismissal of seven of Channel 5's nine directors, beginning a drive to eliminate "£20m of yearly expenses". The stated plan included the dismissal of up to 80 of the network's 300 employees. Desmond also significantly increased the programming budget. In the first full year of Desmond's ownership, the broadcaster saw a 28% surge in revenue - the biggest TV advertising haul in its 14-year history - "thanks to factors including the arrival of Big Brother and the return of a major media buying contract with Aegis". He sold Channel 5 to Viacom for £463m in May 2014. By December 2010, his privately owned publishing venture employed more than 2,000 people internationally, according to Desmond. In 2010, Desmond was ranked the equal-57th richest man in Britain by The Sunday Times Rich List, with a net worth of £950 million. In 2014, he was ranked 78th and worth £1.2 billion. In 2016, Forbes estimated his fortune at close to $1.49 billion, while the 2016 Sunday Times Rich List reported his net worth at £2.25 billion. According to the Sunday Times Rich List in 2019, Desmond has a net worth of £2.6 billion falling to £2bn in 2020. Express Newspapers was sold to Reach plc (formerly Trinity Mirror) in 2018 for £200m, of which £74m was invested in the Express newspapers pension scheme until 2027. In 2020, Robert Jenrick, Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government, accepted that his approval of a £1 billion luxury housing development on Westferry Road, Isle of Dogs, proposed by Desmond, had been unlawful. Desmond sent Jenrick a text message after meeting him at a fundraising dinner stating "We don’t want to give Marxists loads of doe [sic] for nothing!" referring to money which would be owed to Tower Hamlets Council to pay for infrastructure improvements. Jenrick's approval, which was against the advice of the planning inspector, met a deadline which would have saved Desmond £40m. Additionally, the scheme proposed by Desmond only provided 21% affordable housing compared to the minimum target of 35%, which Tower Hamlets Council estimate would have saved Desmond up to £106m. Desmond, whose company had donated to the Conservative Party in 2017, made a further personal donation to the party shortly after the approval was given. The Conservative Party Chairman subsequently apologised to members of the 1922 Committee for having allowed Desmond to sit next to Jenrick and allowing Desmond to lobby him. Charity work In 2003, Desmond and Roger Daltrey formed the RD Crusaders, a rock group featuring Desmond on drums, to raise money for charitable causes. Desmond became president of the UK Jewish charity Norwood in 2006. He also donated £2.5m to the £15m children's centre at Moorfields Eye Hospital and his name was attached to it. Political activity In December 2014, during the run-up to the 2015 general election, Desmond was reported to have agreed to donate £300,000 to the UK Independence Party. There was speculation at the time that a further donation could follow, and in April 2015 it was announced that he had given an additional £1 million to the party. The Health Lottery In October 2011, Desmond's company Northern and Shell launched the Health Lottery, of which around 20% of turnover goes to charity. The grants, distributed by the People's Health Trust (PHT), help many good causes and the elderly in local communities across the UK. It supports local health causes throughout England, Scotland and Wales. The Health Lottery was to return 20.34p per £1 lottery ticket to good causes, which was compared unfavourably with the National Lottery donating 28p per £1 ticket. Sir Stephen Bubb, then chief executive of the Association of Chief Executives of Voluntary Organisations, accused Desmond of "profiteering on the back of charities". In July 2020 it was announced that the proceeds given to charity was to increase to 25%. In November 2019, Desmond announced his intention to bid for the National Lottery licence when it came up for renewal at the end of the year. Personal life Desmond and Janet Robertson were married for 27 years; the couple have a son, Robert. In October 2010, Janet divorced him and Desmond subsequently married Joy Canfield, a former manager for British Airways, in 2012. Joy was pregnant with Desmond's child when Janet divorced him. The couple have two children; daughter Angel Millie (born 2011) and a son, Valentine (born 2015). The tycoon's autobiography, The Real Deal: The Autobiography of Britain's Most Controversial Media Mogul, was published in June 2015 by Random House. It was ghost-written by Sunday Express editor Martin Townsend. He also provided his voice for the audiobook version. The autobiography received a five-star review in the Desmond-owned Daily Express. References External links Northern & Shell company website 1951 births Living people 20th-century British newspaper publishers (people) Adult magazine publishers (people) British mass media owners Businesspeople from London Channel 5 (British TV channel) Conservative Party (UK) donors English autobiographers English billionaires English people of Latvian-Jewish descent English people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent English pornographers English Jews Northern & Shell Penthouse (magazine) people People educated at Christ's College, Finchley People from Hampstead UK Independence Party donors

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